Full text of "The Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information"

THE 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771. 

SECOND ten 17771784. 

THIRD eighteen 17881797. 

FOURTH twenty 1801 1810. 

FIFTH twenty 18151817. 

SIXTH twenty 1823 1824. 

SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842. 

EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860. 

NINTH twenty-five 18751889. 

TENTH ninth edition and eleven 

supplementary volumes, 1902 1903. 

ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911 = 



COPYRIGHT 

in all countries subscribing to the 
Bern Convention 

by 
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS 

of the f 



UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE < 



All rights reserved 



THE 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 



. 

ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XXI 

PAYN to POLKA 




Cambridge, England: 

at the University Press 

New York, 35 West 32nd Street 
191 1 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, 

by 
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. B. R. 
A. F. P. 

A. G. 
A. G. T. 
A. H.* 



A. H. C. 
A. H. H. 

A. H.-S. 

A. H. S. 
A. J. G. 

A. J. H. 

A. J. L. 
A. Ma. 

A. N. 



ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. 

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classi- ' 
fication of Flowering Plants ; &c. 

ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. 

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' 
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-" 
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of 
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. 

MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). J 

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;] Police. 
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. 



Plants: Classification. 





"erne, Andrew. 



ARTHUR GEORGE TANSLEY, M.A., F.L.S. 

Lecturer in Botany in the University of Cambridge. 
of Botany, University College, London. 



Formerly Assistant Professor 1 Plants: Anatomy. 



ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn. 

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum 

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of the Kingdom of Saxony. , 

Member of the Royal Saxon Academy ot Sciences and Corresponding Member of ") Pilgrimage. 

the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; 

&c. Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische 

Theologie und Kirche. 

SIR ARTHUR HERBERT CHURCH, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A. f 

Professor of Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts, London. Author of Chemistry \ Pigments. 
of Paints and Painting ; English Earthenware ; English Porcelain ; &c. 



Photography: Pictorial. 

|" Persia: Geography and 
\ Statistics. 

\ Persepolis (in part). 



ARTHUR HORSLEY HINTON (1863-1008). 

Editor of The Amateur Photographer, 1897-1908, and the Photographic Trades 
Gazette, 1904-1908. Author of Practical Pictorial Photography; &c. 

SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. 

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. 

REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D. 
See the biographical article : SAYCE, A. H. 

REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r 

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J , / \ 

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] p 'y moutn Brethren (in part). 

Mysore Educational Service. 
ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). r 

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music, Pianoforte (in part)' 

' Pitch, Musical. 



London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; 
of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of 
Musical Instruments; &c. 



ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. 

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. 
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. 



Editor of the Rio News ] Peru: Geography and Statistics. 



ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Phrenology; 

Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's ~{ Phveino-nnmv 
College. Author of Text Book of Human Anatomy; &c. 



Peacock; Pelican; 
Penguin; Petrel; 
Pheasant; Pigeon; 
Pipit; Pitta; 
Plover; Pochard. 
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. 



ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. 

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. 



1990 



VI 

A. Se.* 

A. SI. 
A. S. P.-P. 

A. S. Wo. 

A. T. I. 

B. R. 



C. Bi. 

C. E.* 
C. E. A. 

C. E. M. 
C. G. K. 

C. L. K. 
C. M. 
C. Pf. 
C. P. J. 

C. R. M. 
C. S. P. 

C.T.* 

C. W. R. 

D. G. H. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

.ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. 

Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. 
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 
in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. 

ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. 

Member of Council of Epidemiplogical Society. Author of The London Water- 
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. 

ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. 

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford 
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. 

ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. 

Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, 
the Geological Society of London. 




ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D. 

Scotch Advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in 
Scottish History ; &c. 

SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E., 

M.lNST.M.E. 

Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of 
London, and Port of London Authorty. President of the Society of Chemical 
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of 
Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum 
and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. 

REV. CHARLES BIGG, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908). 

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford, and Canon 
of Christ Church, 1901-1908. Formerly Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Church. 
Headmaster of Brighton College. Author of The Christian Platonists of Alexandria; 
&c. 

CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. 
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. 



Secretary of-j Plesiosaurus. 

Pilate, Pontius. 



Petroleum. 



Philo (in part). 



-; Phosphates. 



CHARLES EDWARD AKERS. r 

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of South J Peru: History (in part) 
America, 1854-1904. ^ 



CHARLES EDWARD Moss, D.Sc. 
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. 



Curator of the University Herbarium. 



Plants: Ecology. 



Photometry. 



CARGILL GILSTON KNOTT, D.Sc. 

Lecturer on Applied Mathematics, Edinburgh University. Professor of Physics, 
Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, 18831891. Author of Electricity and' 
Magnetism ; Physics ; &c. [ 

CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A. [~ 

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor J Payne, Peter, 
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. 



CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. 

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik- 
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. 



Pius IX.; 

Poissy, Colloquy of. 



CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES. L. r 

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of \ Pippin I.-III. 
Etudes sur le rkgne de Robert le Pieux. 

CHARLES PIERPOINT JOHNSON (1791-1880). r 

Lecturer on Botany, Guy's Hospital, London, 1830-1873. Editor of J. A. Sowerby's ^ Pine. 
English Botany ; &c. Author of Ferns of Great Britain ; &c. 



SIR CLEMENT? ROBERT MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S. 

See the biographical article: MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT. 



J Peru: History (in part). 



THE RT. HON. CHARLES STUART PARKER, LL.D., D.C.L. (1829-1910). 

M.P. for Perthshire, 1868-1874; M.P. for Perth City, 1878-1892. Honorary Fellow, i D 

formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Life of Sir Robert Peel;^ * Bel & '" 

&c. 

REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). 

Master of St John's College, Cambridge, 1881-1908. Vice-Chancellor, 1887-1888. J Pirke Aboth. 
Author of Geometrical Conies ; &c. 1 

MAJOR-GENERAL CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. r 

Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.- Ponincniir War 
Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-1898. Author of 1 

Strategy of the Peninsular War ; &c. 

DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r 

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Perga; 
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899^ Pergamunr 
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at 
Athens. 1897-1000. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



vn 



D. H. 

E. A. J. 

E. A. So. 

E. Br. 

E. G. 
E. Gr. 
E. J. D. 

Ed. M. 

E. M. H. 
E.G.* 

E. O'N. 
E. Pr. 

E. R. B. 
E. S.* 

E. Tn. 

F. A. P. 
F. G. P. 

F. J. G. 
F. LI. G. 

F.N. 
F. W. Ga. 



DAVID HANNAY. 

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. 

Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. : 



Author of Short History of the Royal 



E. ALFRED JONES. 

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver 
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Cata- < 
Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the 



Penn, Admiral; Pepys; 
Pescara, Marquis of; 
Peter I.-IV. of Aragon; 
Peter of Castile; 
Pirate and Piracy: History; 
Poe, Edgar Allan; 
Poland: History (in part). 

Plate (in part). 



I 



Plautus. 



logue of . 

Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c. 

EDWARD ADOLF SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Lrrr.D. 

Professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Birmingham. Hon. Secretary J j 
of the Classical Association. Professor of Greek and Latin in Mason College, 
Birmingham, 1883-1900. Editor of several of the plays of Plautus. 

ERNEST BARKER, M.A. J 

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly "\ "6ter the Hermit. 
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. 

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. 

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. 

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. 

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. 

EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. 

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 



Pindarics. 
| Phigalia. 



- Pergolesi. 



{PerSz; 
Persia* Ancient History- 
D ; ' n . " 

rersis, rnarnaoazus, 
Phraates; Phraortes. 



EDWARD MORELL HOLMES. 

Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London. 



f Pharmacopoeia; 
1 Pharmacy. 



EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Ppritnni -,. 

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J L:* 1 
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner 1 rnaryngltis; 
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Phlebitis. 

Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. 

ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. 0. O'NEILL). /Peckham, John. 

Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of Manchester University. \ 

EDGAR PRESTAGE. r 

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- 
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- J Pma, Ruy de; 
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon j Pinto, Fernao Mendes. 
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters 
of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ; &c. 



EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. 

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the- 
High Priests. 

EMIL SCHURER, D.PH. (1844-1910). 

Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the Universities of Giessen, 
Kiel and Gottingen. Author of Geschichte des jiidischen' Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu ' 
Chris ti; &c. 

REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). 

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. 



Perdiceas; 
Philip I., II., and V. of Mace- 
donia. 

Philo (in part). 



Pole, Cardinal. 



J Plutarch (in part). 



FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. 

See the biographical article, PALEY, F. A. 
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. 

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Pharynx; 

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, H Placenta. 

London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. 



MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERIC JOHN GOLDSMID. 
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). 

FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. 

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford' University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Pelusium; 

and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial J Pharaoh; 

German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Assistant Professor of Egyptology ~\ p n jlae' 
in University College, London. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; 

I "itiioni. 



J Persia: History, 1405-1884 (in 
\ part). 



&c. 

FRIDTJOF NANSEN. 

See the biographical article: NANSEN, FRIDTJOF. 



Polar Regions (in part). 



FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.S. r ,__.._,.,-.,.. 

Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Formerly Assistant Director of the J "* 
Zoological Laboratories, and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. 1 Platyelmia. 
Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. I 



Vlll 

F. W. R.* 

G. A. C.* 
G. A. Gr. 

X 

G. Ch. 
G. C. W. 

G.E. 

G. E.* 

G. E. C. 
G. G. P.* 
G. H. Bo. 

G. H. Fo. 

G. W. R. 
H. Bi. 

H. Cl. 

H. De. 
H.E. 

H. F. G. 

H. G. de W. 
H. H. T. 

H. L. H. 

H. M. W. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Peridot; Phosphates: 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum f Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. H Mineral Phosphates (in part). 
President of the Geologists Association, 1887-1889. 

REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D. 

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of I Petra; 
Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,] Phoenicia. 
Edinburgh. Author of Text Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. 

GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, . 
Indian Civil Service, 1873-190 
1902. Gold Medallist, Ro 
Asiatic Society. Formerly 
of India ; &c. 

GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D. f 

Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University. -( Perpetual Motion. 
Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. L 

,, f Petitot, Jean; Petitot, J. Louis; 

GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. Pinwpll rpnnra Inhn- 

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard \ eii, ueo e jonn, 
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition! rumer, Andrew; 
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. Plimer, Nathaniel; 

I Plumbago Drawings. 



-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- 

>yal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal 4 Pisaca Languages 

Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages 



Ford's Lecturer, 1909. 
Member, Netherlands 



Pensionary; 

Peru: History (in part). 



Joint-editor of English \ Peerage. 



I 



Plata, Rio de la. 



Phylactery (in part). 



f Petersburg Campaign: 

I (1864-1865). 



REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. 

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. 
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign 
Association of Literature. 

ROBERT GEOFFREY ELLIS. 

Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. 
Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. 

GEORGE EARL CHURCH. 

See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. 

GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Pilot (in hart) 

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ r 

REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. 

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' 
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908- ' 
1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c. 

GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., PH.D. 

Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant j Plankton. 
Professor of Zoology at University College, London. 

GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. 

Author of The War oj Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. 

HIRAM BINGHAM, A.M., PH.D. r 

Assistant Professor of Latin-American History, Yale University. Albert Shaw J pv,jij DD j np 
Lecturer on Diplomatic History, Johns Hopkins University. Author of Journal'] 
of an Expedition across Venezuela and Colombia ; &c. 

SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. 

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly 
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author-^ Penang. 
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary 
of the Malay Language. 

HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, SJ. 

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana -< Pelagia, St. 
and A eta Sanctorum. ( 

KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. f 

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of I p ers j a . 
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, ] 
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. L 

HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. [ 

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J Phororhacos. 
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. 

HERMANN G. DE WATTEVILLE. 

Instructor, Staff College, Camberley, Surrey. 

HERBERT HALL TURNER, M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford and Fellow of New J Photography, Celestial; 
College. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author ofl Photometry, Celestial. 
Modern Astronomy; &c. t 

r Pharmacology: Terminology; 



/Plymouth (England). 



. TT , r , T , TTT , r , CT 
HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. 



plague 



HARRY MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1905). f 

Formerly Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Sidney 
Sussex College. President of the British Mycological Society. Author of Timber J Plants: Pathology. 
and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants; 
Diseases in Plants ; &c. 



J. Ga. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix 

H. R. H. HARRY REGINALD HOLLAND HALL, M.A. f 

Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. ~{ Plate (in part). 
Author of The Oldest Civilization of Greece ; &c. I 

H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. f 

Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year"] Pneumatic Despatch. 

Book ; &c. I 

H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. i 

Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of British Rainfall. President 
of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1907-1908. Hon. Member of Vienna Gep- J p Iar Regions 
graphical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, 
Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of The Realm of Nature; 
The International Geography; &c. 

H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f p er j 0( jj ca i s 

Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ 

H. Sc. HENRY SCHERREN, F.Z.S. f 

Assistant Natural History Editor of The Field. Author of Popular History of\ Platypus (in part). 
Animals for Young People; Pond, and Rock Pools; &c. 

H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. f 

University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Academies J pj, nnp f,,c 
of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English 1 
Sounds since the Earliest Period ; A Primer of Phonetics ; &c. 

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. /Pistol 

M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ 

H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f 

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J p , t ,. . ,\ 
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 a e ^ n P an >- 
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. I 

H. W.* HAROLD W. T. WAGER, F.R.S. f 

H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools, Board of Education, London. President, J Plants: Cytology. 
Botanical Section, British Association, 1905. Author of Memoirs on the Structure j 
of the Fungi ; &c. 

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f _ 

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 Peter des R ch es. 
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. 

I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. 

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Perles Joseph. 
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short j 
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. 

I. G. ISRAEL GOLLANCZ, M.A., Lrrr.D. 

Professor of English Language and Literature, King's College, London, and Dean J p pa ,i rr,u 
of the Faculty of Arts, University of London. Fellow and Secretary of the British 1 ' 

Academy. Editor of The Pearl ; The " Temple " Shakespeare ; &c. I 

J. A. H. JOHN ALLAN HOWE, B.Sc. I" Permian; 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of 1 Pleistocene; 
The Geology of Building Stones. [ Pliocene. 

J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D., D.C.L. J Petrarch; Poggio; 

See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. j Politian. 

J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. r 

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's] pi.-for u/nrt 
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior I rlasMr ~ worK - 
Engineers. Author of Quantities. 

3. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. r 

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J phjlinnj 
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of ] 
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. t. 

J. E. S.* JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A. , Lrrr.D., LL.D. f Pliny the Elder; 

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College. 4 niinu *i,. 
Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholarship; &c. 

J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. r , 

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Pereda, Jose Maria de; 
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 4 Perez Galdos, Benito; 
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Picaresque Novel The. 
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. 

J. F. P. JOSEPH FRANK PAYNE, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1840-1910). r 

Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. Hon. Fellow of J _, ,. , 

Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of University of London. Author of Lectures 1 Plague (in part), 
on Anglo-Saxon Medicine; &c. 



JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. Jr>.,, . /.;., (; i, n .f\ 

See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. \ *"* / om/ ? P ari > 



J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Po . c -_.. c 

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln 1 
College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. 



X 

J. G. FT. 

J. H. A. H. 
J. H. M. 

J. H. R. 
J. H. V. C. 

J. L. M. 

J. L. W. 

J. Mt. 

J. M. M. 
J. P. P. 

J. R. C. 
J. R. Gr. 

J. S. F. 

J. T. Be. 
J. T. C. 

J. W. 
J.Wa. 

J. Wai.* 
J. W. D. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D. 

Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University, and Fellow of Trinity - 
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden 
Bough; &c. 

JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. 

Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. 



Penates (in part). 



Pharisees. 



JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). r 

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director phi<ralia c; y,/, 
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South \ L. f . . fa " 
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. ^Author of The^ Engraved Gems of Classical rintunccnio. 
'--'"' , .,. , m- ^ 



Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 

JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. 

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family 
History ; Peerage and Pedigree. 

JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. 

Lieut. -Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of 
Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History 
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the 
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c. 

JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S 



Percy: family (in part); 
Plantagenet. 



f 




in University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. 
A History of Rome ; &c. 

JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. 

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. 

JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. 

Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. 
ment; &c. 



Author "of 



Author of Historical New Testa- 



Plevna. 



Pelasgians. 



Perceval. 



J Philemon; 

"j Philippians, Epistle to the. 

Peisistratus; 

Peloponnesian War; 

Persia: History (Transition 

Period) ; 
Plutarch (in part). 



JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. 

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London 
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 

JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. 

Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, 
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. ' 
Editor-in-chiet of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. |_ 

JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. r 

Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, < Phosphorescence. 
Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. 

JOSEPH REYNOLDS GREEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. r 

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Downing College, Cambridge. Formerly Hartley J pi an tc. 
Lecturer on Plant Physiology, University of Liverpool. Author of History of 1 
Botany; &c. 



JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. 

Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer 
on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. 



f Pegmatite; Peridotite; 
Perlite; Petrology; Phonolite; 
Phosphates: Mineral Phos- 
phates (in part); Phylllte; 
Picrite; Pitchstone; 
Pneumatolysls. 



JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. rPerm (in part); 

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical I Podolla (in part) ; 
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c: I Poland, Russian (in part). 

JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f 

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I P ear '> 
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Pilchard. 
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L 

JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 

All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln { Personal Property. 
College. Barrister of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Wills and Succession; &c. 

JAMES WATERHOUSE. 

Major-General, Indian Army (retired). Assistant Surveyor-General of India in 

charge of Photographic and Lithographic Branch, Calcutta, 1866-1897. President -! Photography: Apparatus. 

of the Royal Photographic Society, 19051906. Author of The Preparation of I 

Drawings for Photographic Purposes ; &c. I 

JAMES WALKER, M.A. f 

Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Polarization of Light 

Vice-President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; } 

&c. 



J. WHTT'LY DIXON. M 

Captain, R.N. Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. 



/Pilot dn part). 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



x i 



K. G. 

K. L. 

K. S. 



Persia: Language. 






L. C. 

L. F. V.-H. 

L. J. S. 

M. 

M. Be. 
M. D. 
M. N. T. 

M. 0. B. C. 
M. V. 

N. D. M. 
N. M. 

N. V. 

N. W. T. 
0. A. 

0. Ba. 
0. C. W. 
O.K. 

P. A. K. 



KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER, PH.D. 

Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg. 
Author of Vedische Studien ; &c. 

REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. 

Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Peter, Saint; 
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- I Peter, Epistles Of 
ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c. 

Pedal Clarinet; 

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. 



Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the 
Orchestra. 



COUNT LtJTzow, Lnr.D., PH.D., F.R.G.S. 

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member 
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author 
of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, 
Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. 

REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D. 

See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS. 

LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830-1907). 

Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author 
of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks ; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- ' 
struction; &c. 

LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. 

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of 
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Miner- 
alogical Magazine. 

LORD MACAULAY. 

See the biographical article: MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON. 

MALCOLM BELL. 

Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. 

REV. MARCUS DODS, D.D. 

See the biographical article : DODS, MARCUS. 

MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. 

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. 
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 



Philomel; Physharmonica; 
Pianoforte (in part); 
Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor; 
Platerspiel. 



Podebrad, George Of. 



Plato. 



pj er 

r Perovskite; Petalite; 

PharmaeosidpritP- 
f," 8 
1 Pnenaeite; PhllllpSlte; 

\ Phlogopite; Phosgenite; 
' Pitchblende; Plagioclase. 



/ 
\ 



Pewter. 



Pela _ ius 

\ 

r 
4 Perioeci. 



Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham 



Pelopidas; Periander; 

Pericles; Phocion; 

Phocis; Plataea. 
MAX VERWORN, D.Sc., M.D., PH.D. 

Professor of Physiology and Director of the Physiological Institute in the University -< Physiology. 
of Bonn. Author of Allgemeine Physiologie; &c. 



MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. 

Reader in Ancient History at London University. 
University, 1905-1908. ' 



f Philippine Islands: 

\ Geography and Statistics - 



NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. 
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. 

NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. 

Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's - Philoxenus. 
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. 

JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. f 

Member of Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist 
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de J Pisa, Council of. 
France and the Soci6t6 de 1'Ecole des Chartes. Author of La France et le grand I 
schisme d' Occident ; &c. 

NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. 

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the _, 

Soci6t6 d'Anthropolpgie of Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] Physical Phenomena. 

Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. 

OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. r 

H.M. Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J p finn William 
Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles'] ' 

II. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. [ 

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f . 

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the < rote family). 
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. [ 

REV. OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D. f 

Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. -J Pentecost. 
Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, 1895-1905. [_ 

OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. [ 

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the I Perspective 
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent 1 
Figures; &c. 



PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. 

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. 



I 

[ Perm (*n 

Podolia (in part); 
[ Poland, Russian (in part). 



xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

P. A. T. P. A. TIELE. f 

Formerly Librarian, Utrecht University. Author of Biographical and Historical i Plantin. 
Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators ; &c. L 

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f 

Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Phosphorescence: in Zoology. 
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. 

P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LITT. / Pheidicis. 

See the biographical article : GARDNER, PERCY. I 

P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f 

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Philology (in part) 

Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological i 

Society. 

P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. I" 

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J p ers j a - Ceoloev 

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian ] 
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. L 

P. Sm. PRESERVED SMITH, Pn.D. f p ius j an( j jj 

Rufus B. Kellogg University Fellow, Amherst College, U S.A. \ 

P. V. PASQUALE VILLARI. f p isa 

See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. \ 

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D D.C.L. f pj d ({ A 

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. \ rl 

R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. / Peacock, Thomas Love. 

See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ 

i 

R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f p- d i na i ni . p pr ,tastnmida 

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Pedlpalpl, atastomida. 

R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r 

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed 
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular J Peking. 
Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China; 
Europe and the Far East ; &c. I 

Peccary; Pecora; 

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. Pere David's Deer; 

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Perissodactyla* 
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The} ,. ..*, 

Deer of all Lands ;&c. ^ halal ^ e , r> enacodus, 

[ Pica; Polecat. 



R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f *>*ny; Pecl jlin; 

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia; the e ' e ! ant * *" ' Russia; 
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J Petofl, Alexander Philaret; 
1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from pjper, Carl; 
1460 to 1706; &c. I Poland: History (in part). 

R. Po. RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L. Cm.-!' *. i> 

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque I B010; 

Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil\ Philip the Good. 
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. 

R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. 

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past 

President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Pier (in architecture). 

London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's | 

History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. [ 

R. S.* RALPH STOCKMAN, M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.C.P.(Edin.). /Pharmacology. 

Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the University of Glasgow. 1 

R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. r 

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J pj cenum (in Part). 
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1 
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ 

R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S.(Edin.), F.L.S. 

Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton I 

Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., ,. .. 

Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-\ PI S U fo.rt). 

culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of 

Cape Colony; &c. 

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. 

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Philistines. 
Aramaic, London University, 19041908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- 
scriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old 
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. 

S. F. H. SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. 

Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Department, British Museum. Fellow, I phorinidea 
formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The j 
Cambridge Natural History. I 






INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii 

S. H. V.* SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Sherardian Professor of Botany, University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen 

College. Fellow of the University of London. President of the Linnean Society, , 

1900-1904. Formerly Reader in Botany in the University of Cambridge and ] Plants: Morphology. 

Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Author of A Student's Textbook of Botany; 

&c. 

S. N. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. /Planet; 

See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. \ Planets, Minor. 

T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. f 

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Perugia; 
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of 4 Pjeenum (in part)' 
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- pirnTnn 
graphy of the Roman Campagna. 

T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f p eace - 

Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J D ' r . 

Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for! 

Blackburn, 1910. [Pirate and Piracy: Law. 

T. F. C. THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. J" D . IIT . . 

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. I rlllS 1U ' 1V * an V> 

T. G. Br. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. 

Professor Superintendent, Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, University of 

London. Professor of Physiology, Royal Veterinary College, London. Lecturer-^ Phagocytosis. 

on Physiology, London School of Medicine for Women. Fellow of King's College, 

London. Author of Essentials of Experimental Physiology. 

T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. f 

Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J Plymouth Brethren (in part) 
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of j 
History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther; &c. L 

Th. N. THEODOR NOLDEKE, PH.D. /Persepolis (in part). 

See the biographical article : NOLDEKE, THEODOR. I 

T. S.* SIR THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1838-1908). f 

Formerly Senior Scientific Analyst to the Home Office. Lecturer on Chemistry -J Poison, 
and Forensic Medicine at Guy's Hospital, London. 

T. W.-D. WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. f Ponfrv 

See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. \ 

T. W. H. THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON, A.M., LL.D. f Vh , n{ .. 

Author of Atlantic Essays; Cheerful Yesterdays; History of the United States; &c. \ P ' 

T. \V. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. f 

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the 
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of -j Piprawa. 
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the 
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. 

W. C. Su. WALTER COVENTRY SUMMERS, M.A. r 

Professor of Latin in the University of Sheffield. Formerly Fellow of St John's J Persius; 

College, Cambridge. Craven Scholar, 1890. Chancellor's Medallist, 1892. Author 1 PetronillS (in part). 

of A Study of Valerius Flaccus ; &c. 

W. D. C. V.'ILLIAM DOUGLAS CAROE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. 

Trinity College, Cambridge. Architect to the Ecclesiastical Commission and the -| Pearson, John Loughborough. 
Charity Commission, London 

W. D. W. WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY. / _ . . , 

See the biographical article: WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT. -^Philology (in part). 

W. de W. A. SIR WILLIAM DE WIVELESLIE ABNEY, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Adviser in Science to the Board of Education for England. Member of the 

Advisory Council for Education to the War Office. Formerly President of Royal -j Photography. 

Astronomical Society, Physical Society and Royal Photographic Society. Author 

of Instruction in Photography ; Colour Vision ; &c. L 

W. E. G. F. WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. 



LLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. f 

Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. \ Phylloxera. 

W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f 

Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and -< Pig (in part). 
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. 

W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f 

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, -s Pleading. 
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yd edition). 

W. Ga. WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.Sc. 

Professor of Zoology in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln 

College, Oxford. Scientific Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council "j Pisciculture. 

for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Author of The Impoverishment of the 

Sea; &c. 

W. Hi. WHEELTON HIND, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. f 

Surgeon, North Staffs Infirmary. Lyell Medallist, Geological Society, 1902. Author 4 Pendleside Series, 
of British Carboniferous Lambellibranchiata; &c. I 

W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. f Platypus (in part). 

See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. 1 



XIV 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. 

See the biographical article : ROSSETTI, DANTE G. 

W. M. Ra. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L., D.Lrrr. 
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. M. 

W. P. C. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. 

See the article: COURTNEY, Baron. 

W. R. M. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). 

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University 
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; 
Slavonic Literature; &c. 

W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. 

W. R. S.* WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D. 

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of 
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c. 

W. S. R. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. 

Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the 
Present Period ; and other works on the history of music. 

W. T. T.-D. SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D., 

PH.D., F.L.S. 

Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906. 
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. 

W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, D.Pn. 

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. 

W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. 

See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y. 



/Perino del Vaga; 
\ Perugino, Pietro. 

-} Phrygia; Pisidla. 

/Peterborough and Monmouth, 
1 Earl of. 



Literature. 



\ Poland: Lit, 

| Phylactery (in part). 
Polk, James Knox. 



Plain Song. 



Plants: Distribution. 



Pius VI., VII., and VIII. 



J Petronius (in part). 



Pea. 


Pepper. 


Peach. 


Peppermint. 


Pear. 


Perfumery. 


Peat. 


Perier. 


Peeblesshire. 


Perigueux. 


Pembroke, Earls of. 


Peripatetics. 


Pembroke. 


Perjury. 


Pembrokeshire. 


Pernambueo. 


Pen. 


Perrault. 


Pencil. 


Perrot. 


Penitential. 


Personality. 


Pennine Chain. 


Perth (N.B.). 


Pennsylvania. 


Perthshire. 


Pennsylvania, University of. 


Pessimism. 


Pensacola. 


Peterborough. 


Pension. 


Petition. 


Penzance. 


Philadelphia. 


Peoria. 


Philately. 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES, 

Philostratus. 

Phonograph. 

Phormium. 

Phosphorus. 

Photius. 

Photochemistry. 

Physiocratic School. 

Physiologus. 

Piacenza. 

Picardy. 

Piceolomini. 

Pichegru. 

Pietism. 

Pigeon-flying. 

Pilgrim. 

Pin. 

Pink. 

Pipe. 



Piquet. 

Pistoia. 

Pitcher Plants. 

Pittsburg. 

Plantation. 

Platinum. 

Pleurisy. 

Pleuro-Pneumonia. 

Plock. 

Plough and Ploughing. 

Plum. 

Plymouth (U.S.A.). 

Pneumatic Gun. 

Pneumonia. 

Pnom-Penh. 

Poitiers. 

Poker. 

Pola. 



ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XXI 



PAYN, JAMES (1830-1898), English novelist, was born at 
Cheltenham, on the 28th of February 1830, his father being 
clerk to the Thames Commissioners and treasurer to the county 
of Berkshire. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards 
entered the Military Academy at Woolwich ; but his health was 
not equal to the demands of a military career, and he proceeded 
in 1847 to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was among the 
most popular men of his time, and served as president of the 
Union. Before going to Cambridge he had published some 
verses in Leigh Hunt's Journal, and while still an undergraduate 
put forth a volume of Stories from Boccaccio in 1852, and in 
1853 a volume of Poems. In the same year he left Cambridge, 
and shortly afterwards married Miss Louisa Adelaide Edlin, 
sister of Sir Peter Edlin. He then settled down in the Lake 
district to a literary career and contributed regularly to Household 
Words and Chambers' s Journal. In 1858 he removed to Edin- 
burgh to act as joint-editor of the latter periodical. He became 
sole editor in 1859, and conducted the magazine with much 
success for fifteen years. He removed to London in 1861. In 
the pages of the Journal he published in 1864 his most popular 
story, Lost Sir Massingberd. From this time he was always 
engaged in novel-writing, among the most popular of his 
productions being Married Beneath Him (1865), Carlyon's Year 
(1868), By Proxy (1878), and The Talk of the Town (1885). In 
1883 he succeeded Leslie Stephen as editor of the Cornhill 
Magazine and continued in the post until the breakdown of his 
health in 1896. He was also literary adviser to Messrs Smith, 
Elder & Company. His publications included a Handbook 
to the English Lakes (1859), and various volumes of occasional 
essays, Maxims by a Man of the World (1869), Some Private 
Views (1881), Some Literary Recollections (1884). A posthumous 
work, The Backwater of Life (1899), revealed much of his own 
personality in a mood of kindly, sensible reflection upon familiar 
topics. He died in London, on the 25th of March 1898. 

A biographical introduction to The Backwater of Life was furnished 
by Sir Leslie Stephen. 

PAYNE, PETER (c. 1380-1455), English Lollard and Taborite, 
the son of a Frenchman by an English wife, was born at Hough- 
on-the-Hill near Grantham, about 1380. He was educated at 
Oxford, where he adopted Lollard opinions, and had graduated 
as a master of arts before the 6th of October 1406, when he was 
concerned in the irregular proceedings through which a letter 
declaring the sympathy of the university was addressed to the 
Bohemian reformers. From 1410 to 1414 Payne was principal 
of St Edmund Hall, and during these years was engaged in 
controversy with Thomas Netter of Walden, the Carmelite 
defender of Catholic doctrine. In 1414 he was compelled to 
leave Oxford and taught for a time in London. Ultimately 

XXI. I 



he had to flee from England, and took refuge in Bohemia, where 
he was received by the university of Prague on the i3th of 
February 1417, and soon became a leader of the reformers. 
He joined the sect of the " Orphans," and had a prominent part 
in the discussions and conferences of the ten years from 1420 
to 1430. When the Bohemians agreed to send representatives 
to the Council of Basel, Payne was naturally chosen to be one 
of their delegates. He arrived at Basel, on the 4th of January 
1433, and his unyielding temper and bitter words probably 
did much to prevent a settlement. The Bohemians left Basel 
in April. The party of the nobles, who had been ready to make 
terms, were attacked in the Diet at Prague, by the Orphans 
and Taborites. Next year the dispute led to open war. The 
nobles were victorious at Lipau on the 29th of May 1434, and 
it was reported in England that Payne was killed. When soon 
afterwards the majority of the Orphans joined the moderate 
party, Payne allied himself with the more extreme Taborites. 
Nevertheless his reputation was so great that he was accepted 
as an arbitrator in doctrinal disputes amongst the reformers. 
In February 1437 the pope desired the emperor Sigismund 
to send Payne to be tried for heresy at Basel. Payne had to 
leave his pastorate at Saas, and took refuge with Peter Chelcicky, 
the Bohemian author. Two years later he was captured and 
imprisoned at Gutenstein, but was ransomed by his Taborite 
friends. Payne took part in the conferences of the Bohemian 
parties in 1443-1444, and again in 1452. He died at Prague in 
1455. He was a learned and eloquent controversialist, and a 
faithful adherent to Wycliffe's doctrine. Payne was also known 
as Clerk at Oxford, as Peter English in Bohemia, and as Freyng, 
after his French father, and Hough from his birth place. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief facts of Payne's English career are 
given in the Loci e libra veritatum of T. Gascoigne (ed. Thorold 
Rogers, Oxford, 1881). For his later life the principal sources are 
contained in the Monumenta conciliorum generalium saeculi ., 
Saeculi xv., or saeculi quintodecimi, vols. i. iii. (Vienna, 18571894). 
For modern authorities consult Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, 
vii.-ix., and Creighton's History of the Papacy. The biography 
by James Baker, A Forgotten Great Englishman (London, 1894) 
is too partial. (C. L. K.) 

PAYNTER (or PAINTER), WILLIAM (c. 1540-1594), English 
author, was a native of Kent. He matriculated at St John's 
College, Cambridge, in 1554. In 1561 he became clerk of the 
ordnance in the Tower of London, a position in which he 
appears to have amassed a fortune out of the public funds. In 
1586 he confessed that he owed the government a thousand 
pounds, and in the next year further charges of peculation were 
brought against him. In 1591 his son Anthony owned that 
he and his father had abused their trust, but Paynter retained 
his office until his death. This event probably followed 



PAYSANDU PEA 



immediately upon his will, which was nuncupative and was 
dated the i4th of February 1594. The first volume of his Palace 
of Pleasure appeared in 1566, and was dedicated to the earl of 
Warwick. It included sixty tales, and was followed in the next 
year by a second volume containing thirty-four new ones. A 
second improved edition in 1575 contained seven new stories. 
Paynter borrows from Herodotus, Plutarch, Aulus Gcllius, 
Aelian, Livy, Tacitus, Quintus Curtius; from Giraldi Cinthio, 
Matteo Bandello, Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Straparola, Queen 
Margaret of Navarre and others. To the vogue of this and 
similar collections we owe the Italian setting of so large a pro- 
portion of the Elizabethan drama. The early tragedies of 
A p plus and Virginia, and Tancred and Gismund were taken 
from The Palace of Pleasure; and among better-known plays 
derived from the book are the Shakespearian Timon of Athens, 
All's Well that Ends Well (from Giletta of Narbonne), Beaumont 
and Fletcher's Triumph of Death and Shirley's Love's Cruelty. 

The Palace of Pleasure was edited by Joseph Haslewood in 1813. 
This edition was collated (1890) with the British Museum copy of 
!575 by M r Joseph Jacobs, who added further prefatory matter, 
including an introduction dealing with the importance of Italian 
novelle in Elizabethan drama. 

PAYSANDtJ, or PAISANDU, a town and river port of Uruguay 
and capital of a department of the same name, on the left bank 
of the Uruguay River about 214 m. N.W. of Montevideo, with 
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1908 estimate), 15,000. It 
has railway connexion with Rio Negro and Montevideo to the 
south-east, and with Salto and Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian 
frontier, on the north; it is at the head of low water navigation 
on the Uruguay River, and is in regular steamer communication 
with Montevideo and Buenos Aires. 

There are some good public buildings, including two churches, 
a hospital, a theatre and the government offices. Paysandii 
exports cattle and sheep and salted meats, hides, ox 
tongues, wool and other animal products. There is a meat- 
curing establishment (saladero) at Guaviyu, in the vicinity. 
The town was named in honour of Pay, or Pai (Father) Sandu, 
a priest who settled there in 1772. It has suffered severely 
from revolutionary outbreaks, was bombarded by Rivera 
in 1846, and was partly destroyed in 1865 by a Brazilian 
bombardment, after which its gallant defenders, Leandro 
Gomez and his companions, were butchered in cold blood. 

The department of Paysandu area 5117 sq. m.; pop. (1907, 
estimate), 54,097 is one of the richest stock-raising regions 
of the republic. 

PAYSON, EDWARD (1783-1827), American Congregational 
preacher, was born on the 25th of July 1783 at Rindge, New 
Hampshire, where his father, Seth Payson (1758-1820), was 
pastor of the Congregational Church. His uncle, Phillips Payson 
(1736-1801), pastor of a church in Chelsea, Massachusetts, 
was a physicist and astronomer. Edward Payson graduated 
at Harvard in 1803, was then principal of a school at Portland, 
Maine, and in 1807 became junior pastor of the Congregational 
Church at Portland, where he remained, after 1811, as senior 
pastor, until his death on the 22nd of October 1827. 

The most complete collection of his sermons, with a memoir by 
Asa Cummings originally published in 1828, is the Memoir, Select 
Thoughts and Sermons of the late Rev. Edward Payson (3 vols., Port- 
land, 1846; Philadelphia, 1859). "Based on this is the volume, 
Mementos of Edward Payson (New York, 1873), by the Rev. E. L. 
Janes of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

PAZMANY, PESTER (1570-1637), Hungarian cardinal and 
statesman, was born at Nagyvarad on the 4th of October 1570, 
and educated at Nagyvarad and Kolozsvar, at which latter 
place he quitted the Calvinist confession for the Roman com- 
munion (1583). In 1587 he entered the Jesuit order. Pazmany 
went through his probation at Cracow, took his degree at 
Vienna, and studied theology at Rome, and finally completed his 
academic course at the Jesuit college at Graz. In 1601 he was 
sent to the order's establishment at Sellye, where his eloquence 
and dialectic won back hundreds to Rome, including many 
of the noblest families. Prince Nicholas Esterhazy and Paul 
Rakoczy were among his converts. In 1607 he was attached 



to the archbishop of Esztergom, and in the following year 
attracted attention by his denunciation, in the Diet, of the 8th 
point of the peace of Vienna, which prohibited the Jesuits from 
acquiring landed property in Hungary. At about the same 
time the pope, on the petition of the emperor Matthias II., 
released Pazmany from his monkish vows. On the 25th of 
April 1616 he was made dean of Turocz, and on the 28th of 
September became primate of Hungary. He received the red 
hat from Urban VIII. in 1629. Pazmany was the soul of the 
Roman Catholic reaction in Hungary. Particularly remarkable 
is his Igazsdgra vezeto Kalauz (Guide to Truth), which appeared 
in 1613. This manual united all the advantages of scientific 
depth, methodical arrangement and popular style. As the chief 
pastor of the Hungarian church Pazmany used every means 
in his power, short of absolute contravention of the laws, to 
obstruct and weaken Protestantism, which had risen during 
the i6th century. In 1619 he founded a seminary for theological 
candidates at Nagyszombat, and in 1623 laid the foundations 
of a similar institution at Vienna, the still famous Pazmanaeum, 
at a cost of 200,000 florins. In 1635 he contributed 100,000 
florins towards the foundation of a Hungarian university. 
He also built Jesuit colleges and schools at Pressburg, and 
Franciscan monasteries at Ersekujvar and Kormoczbanya. 
In politics he played a considerable part. It was chiefly due 
to him that the diet of 1618 elected the archduke Ferdinand 
to succeed the childless Matthias II. He also repeatedly 
thwarted the martial ambitions of Gabriel Bethlen, and prevented 
George Rakoczy I., over whom he had a great influence, from 
combining with the Turks and the Protestants. But Pazmany's 
most unforgetable service to his country was his creation of the 
Hungarian literary language. As an orator he well deserved 
the epithet of " the Hungarian purple Cicero." Of his numerous 
works the chief are: The Four Books of Thomas d Kempis 
on the imitation of Christ (Hung., 1603), of which there are 
many editions; Diatribe theologica de msibili Christi in terris 
ecclesia (Graz, 1615); Vindiciae ecclesiasticae (Vienna, 1620); 
Sermons for every Sunday in the Year (Hung., Pressburg, 1636); 
The Triumph of Truth (Hung., Pressburg, 1614). 

See Vilmos Fraknoi, Peter Pdzmdny and his Times (Hung. Pest, 
1868-1872); Correspondence of Pazmany (Hung.and Latin), published 
by the Hungarian Academy (Pest, 1873). (R. N. B.) 

PAZ SOLDAN, MARIANO FELIPE (1821-1886), Peruvian 
historian and geographer, was born at Arequipa, on the 22nd 
of August 1821. He studied law, and after holding some minor 
judicial offices, was minister to New Granada in 1853. After his 
return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment 
of a model penitentiary at Lima, which he was enabled to 
accomplish through the support of General Castilla. In 1860 
Castilla made him director of public works, in which capacity 
he superintended the erection of the Lima statue of Bolivar. 
He was also concerned in the reform of the currency by the 
withdrawal of the debased Bolivian coins. In 1861 he published 
his great atlas of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the first 
volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her inde- 
pendence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing 
the history down to 1839, was published after his death by his 
son. In 1870 he was minister of justice and worship under 
President Balta, but shortly afterwards retired from public 
life to devote himself to his great geographical dictionary of 
Peru, which was published in 1877. During the disastrous 
war with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was 
made professor in the National College, and where he wrote 
and published a history of the war (1884). He died on the 
3ist of December 1886. 

PEA (Pisum), a genus of the order Leguminosae, consisting 
of herbs with compound pinnate leaves ending in tendrils, by 
means of which the weak stems are enabled to support themselves, 
and with large leafy stipules at the base. The flowers (fig. i) 
are typically " papilionaceous," with a " standard " or large 
petal above, two side petals or wings, and two front petals 
below forming the keel. The stamens are ten nine united, 
the tenth usually free or only slightly joined to the others. 



PEABODY, A. P. 



St. 




'-car 



FIG. i. Flower of Pea. 
c, Calyx. 
st, Standard, 
a, Alae, or wings. 
car, Carina, or Keel. 



This separation allows approach to the honey which is secreted 
at the base of the staminal tube. The ovary is prolonged 
into a long, thick, bent style, com- 
pressed from side to side at the tip 
and fringed with hairs. The fruit is 
a characteristic " legume " or pod 
(fig. 2), bursting when ripe into halves, 
which bear the large globular seeds 
(peas) on their edges. These seeds 
are on short stalks, the upper ex- 
tremity of which is dilated into a 
shallow cup (aril); the two seed-leaves 
(cotyledons) are thick and fleshy, with 
a radicle bent along their edges on 
one side. The genus is exceedingly close to Lalhyrus, being 
only distinguished technically by the style, which in the latter 
genus is compressed from above downwards and not thick. 
It is not surprising, therefore, that under 
the general name " pea " species both of 
Pisum and of Lalhyrus are included. The 
common field pea with tan-coloured or 
compressed mottled seeds and two to four 
leaflets is Pisum arvense, which is culti- 
vated in all temperate parts of the globe, 
but which, according to the Italian 
botanists, is truly a native of central and 
southern' Italy: it has purple flowers. 
The garden pea, P. sativum, which has 
white flowers, is more tender than the 
preceding, and its origin is not known. 
It has not been found in a wild state 
anywhere, and it is considered that it 
may be a form of P. arvense, having, 
however, from four to six leaflets to 
From vine's student each leaf and globular seeds of uniform 

Text-book of Botany, by colour. 
permission of Swan, Son- 
nenschein & Co. 




p IG- 2 _ _ The 



r, The dorsal suture. 
6, The ventral. 
c, Calyx. 
s, Seeds. 



P. sativum was known to Theophrastus ; 
and De Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, 

(legume) of the Pea. P- 3.29) points out that the word " pison " 
or its equivalent occurs in the Albanian 
tongue as well as in Latin, whence he con- 
cludes that the pea was known to the Aryans, 
and was perhaps brought by them into 
Greece and Italy. Peas have been found 
in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the bronze period. The garden 
peas differ considerably in size, shape of pod, degree of productive- 
ness, form and colour of seed, &c. The sugar peas are those in which 
the inner lining of the pod is very thin instead of being somewhat 
horny, so that the whole pod can be eaten. Unlike most papilion- 
aceous plants, peaflowers are perfectly fertile without the aid of 
insects, and thus do not intercross so freely as most similar plants do. 
On the other hand, a case is known wherein the pollen from a purple- 
podded pea applied to the stigma of one of the green-podded sugar 
peas produced a purple pod, showing that not only the ovule but even 
the ovary was affected by the cross. The numerous varieties of 
peas in cultivation have been obtained by cross-fertilization, but 
chiefly by selection. Peas constitute a highly nutritious article of 
diet from the large quantity of nitrogenous materials they contain 
in addition to starchy and saccharine matters. 

The sweet pea, cultivated for the beauty and fragrance of its 
flowers, is a species of the allied genus Lathyrus (L. odoratus), a 
native of southern Europe. The chick pea (q.v.) (Cicer arieti- 
num), not cultivated in England, is still farther removed from 
the true peas. The everlasting pea of gardens is a species of 
Lathyrus (L. latifolius) with very deep fleshy roots, bold foliage, 
and beautiful but scentless flowers; the field pea (Pisum arvense) 
is better adapted than the bean to light soils, and is best culti- 
vated in rows of such a width as to admit of horse-hoeing. 
The early stage at which the plants fall over, and forbid further 
culture, renders it even more needful than in the case of beans 
to sow them only on land already clean. If annual weeds can 
be kept in check until the peas once get a close cover, they then 
occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can live 
under them; and the ground, after their removal, is found in 
the choicest condition. A thin crop of peas should never be 
allowed to stand, as the land is sure to get perfectly wild. The 



difficulty of getting this crop well harvested renders it peculiarly 
advisable to sow only the early varieties. 

The pea prefers a friable calcareous loam, deeply worked, and well 
enriched with good hotbed or farm-yard manure. The early crops 
require a warm sheltered situation, but the later are better grown 
6 or 8 ft. apart, or more, in the open quarters, dwarf crops being in- 
troduced between the rows. The dwarf or early sorts may be sown 
3 or 4 ft. apart. The deep working of the soil is of importance, 
lest the plants should suffer in hot dry weather from mildew or 
arrest of growth. The first sowing may be made about the beginning 
or middle of November, in front of a south wall, the plants being 
defended by spruce fir branches or other spray throughout the winter. 
In February sowings are sometimes made in private gardens, in flower- 
pots or boxes, and the young plants afterwards planted out. The 
main crop should be sown towards the end of February, and moder- 
ate sowings should be made twice a month afterwards, up to the 
beginning of July for the north, and about the third week in July 
for warmer districts. During dry hot weather late peas derive 
great benefit from mulching and watering. The latest sowings, 
at the middle or end of August, should consist of the best early sorts, 
as they are not so long in producing pods as the larger and finer 
sorts, and by this means the supply may be prolonged till October 
or November. As they grow the earth is drawn up to the stems, 
which are also supported by stakes, a practice which in a well-kept 
garden is always advisable, although it is said that the early varieties 
arrive sooner at maturity when recumbent. 

Peas grown late in autumn are subject to mildew, to obviate 
which it has been proposed to dig over the ground in the usual way, 
and to soak the spaces to be occupied by the rows of peas thoroughly 
with water the earth on each side to be then collected so as to 
form ridges 7 or 8 in. high, these ridges being well watered, and the 
seed sown on them in single rows. If dry weather at any time S'.-t 
in, water should be supplied profusely once a week. 

To produce very early crops the French market-gardeners used to 
sow early in November, in frames, on a border having a good aspect, 
the seeds being covered very slightly. The young plants are trans- 
planted into other frames in December, the ground inside being 
dug out so as to be 18 or 20 in. below the sashes, and the earth thus 
removed placed against the outside of the frames. The young 
plants, when 3 or 4 in. high, are planted in patches of three or 
four, 8 in. asunder, in four longitudinal rows. The sashes are covered 
at night with straw mats, and opened whenever the weather is 
sufficiently mild. When 8 or 10 in. high the stems are inclined 
towards the back of the frame, a little earth being drawn to their 
base, and when the plants come into blossom the tops are pinched out 
above the third or fourth flower to force them into bearing. As 
soon as they begin to pod, the soil may have a gentle watering, 
whenever sufficiently warmed by the sun, but a too vigorous growth 
at an earlier period would be detrimental. Thus treated the plants 
bear pods fit for gathering in the first fortnight in April. 

A very convenient means of obtaining an early crop is to sow in 
5-in. pots, a few seeds in each, the plants to be ultimately planted 
out on a warm border. Peas may also be obtained early if gently 
forced in frames, in the same way as kidney beans, the dwarfest 
varieties being preferable. 

For the very early peas the rows should range east and west, 
but for the main crops north and south. The average depth of the 
drills should be about 2 in. for small sorts, and a trifle more for 
the larger kinds. The drills should be made wide and flat at bottom 
so that the seeds may be better separated in sowing. The large 
sorts are the better for being sown 3 in. apart. Chopped furze 
may be advantageously scattered in the drill before covering in, 
to check the depredations of mice, and before levelling the surface 
the soil should be gently trodden down over the seeds. 

A good selection of sorts may be made from the following : 

Early. William Hurst; Chelsea Gem; Sutton's Bountiful and 
Excelsior; Gradus. 

Second Early. Stratagem ; Telephone ; Telegraph ; Carter's Daisy ; 
Duke of York; Veitch's Autocrat. 

Late. Veitch's Perfection; Ne Plus Ultra, the finest of all late 
peas, but a little delicate in cold wet soils and seasons ; British Queen ; 
Champion of England ; Duke of Albany. 

PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811-1893), American 
clergyman and author, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts, 
on the i Qth of March 1811, and was descended from Lieut. 
Francis Peabody of St Albans, who emigrated to Massachusetts 
in 1635. He learned to read before he was three years old, 
entered Harvard College at the age of twelve, and graduated 
in 1826, with the single exception of Paul Dudley (class of 1690) 
the youngest graduate of Harvard. In 1833 he became assistant 
pastor of the South Parish (Unitarian) of Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire; the senior pastor died before Peabody had been 
preaching a month, and he succeeded to the charge of the church, 
which he held until 1860. In 1852-1860 he was proprietor and 
editor of the North American Review. He was preacher to 



PEABODY, E. P. PEACE 



Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals 
from 1860 to 1 88 1, and was professor emeritus from 1881 until 
his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the loth of March 1893. 
On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.S.A., is a bronze 
tablet to his memory. 

Besides many brief memoirs and articles, he wrote: Christianity 
the Religion of Nature (2 id ed., 1864), Lowell Institute Lectures; 
Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral 
Philosophy (1873); Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard 
Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by 
Edward J. Young. 

PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-1894), American 
educationist, was born at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the i6th 
of May 1804. Early in life she was assistant in A. Bronson 
Alcott's school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is 
probably her Record of Mr Alcott's School (1835). She had been 
instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was 
eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational 
methods of Froebel, and in 1860 opened in Boston a small school 
resembling a kindergarten. In 1867 she visited Germany for 
the purpose of studying Froebel's methods. It was largely 
through her efforts that the first public kindergarten in the 
United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at 
Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of January 1894. She was 
the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann. 

Among her publications are: Kindergarten in Italy (1872); 
Reminiscences of William Ellery Channing (1880); Lectures in the 
Training Schools for Kinder gar tners (1888); and Last Evening with 
Allslon, and other Papers (1886). 

PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869), American philanthropist, 
was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire, 
England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was born in the part 
of Danvers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the i8th of February 
1795. When eleven years old he became apprentice at a 
grocery store. At the end of four years he became assistant to 
his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a 
business in Georgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a 
volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of 1812, he 
became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at George- 
town, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager. 
Through his energy and skill the business increased with astound- 
ing rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody 
found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile con- 
cerns in the world. About 1837 he established himself in London 
as merchant and money-broker at Wanford Court, in the city, 
and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The 
number of his benefactions to public objects was very large. 
He gave 50,000 for educational purposes at Danvers; 200,000 
to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various 
sums to Harvard University; 700,000 to the trustees of the 
Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the 
southern states; and 500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses 
for the working-classes in London. He received from Queen 
Victoria the offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the 
United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks. 
He died in London on the 4th of November 1869; his body 
was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried 
in his native town. 

See the Life (Boston, 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford. 

PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, 2 m. N.W. of Salem. 
Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) 15,721. It is served by the Boston & 
Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its 
principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the 
Peabody institute (1852), a gift of George Peabody ; in 1909 the 
institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is 
the Eben Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols. 
in 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Queen Victoria given 
by her to Mr Peabody. Among the places of interest in the 
township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of 
Rufus Choate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old 
burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Indepen- 
dence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument, 



dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers' monument, dedicated in 1881. 
Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the 
principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves, 
glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in 
1905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47-4% over that for 1900, 
and of the total the leather product represented 77-3%. 

Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In 
1752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district 
was made a separate township. In 1855 the township was divided 
into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South 
Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody. 

See Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H. 
Nevins. 

PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky 
Mountains near 55 N., and breaking through the mountains, 
flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district 
between 56 40' and 60 N., and between 112 W. and the Rocky 
Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district. 

PEACE (Lat. pax; FT. paix; Ger. Friede), the contrary of 
war, conflict or turmoil, and the condition which follows their 
cessation. Its sense in international law is the condition of 
not being at war. The word is also used as an abridgment for 
a treaty of peace, in such cases as the Peace of Utrecht (1713) 
and the Peace of Amiens (1802). 

Introduction. Peace until quite recently was merely the 
political condition which prevailed in the intervals between 
wars. It was a purely negative condition. Even Grotius, who 
reduced the tendencies existing in his time to a sort of orderly 
expression, addressed himself to the law of war as the positive 
part of international jurisprudence and dealt only with peace 
as its negative alternative. The very name of his historic 
treatise, De jure belli ac pads (1625), shows the subordination 
of peace to the main subject of war. In our own time peace has 
attained a higher status. It is now customary among writers 
on international law to give peace at any rate a volume to itself. 
Peace in fact has become a separate branch of the subject. The 
rise of arbitration as a method of settling international difficulties 
has carried it a step further, and now the Hague Peace Con- 
ventions have given pacific methods a standing apart from war. 
and the preservation of peace has become an object of direct 
political effort. The methods for ensuring such preservation 
are now almost as precise as the methods of war. However 
reluctant some states may be to bind themselves to any rules 
excluding recourse to brute force when diplomatic negotiations 
have failed, they have nevertheless unanimously at the Hague 
Conference of 1907 declared their " firm determination to co- 
operate in the maintenance of general peace " (la ferme volontt 
de concourir au mainlien de la paix gfnfrale) 1 , and their resolution 
" to favour with all their efforts the amicable settlement of 
international conflicts " (preamble to Peace Convention). The 
offer of mediation by independent powers is provided for (Peace 
Convention: art. 3), and it is specifically agreed that in matters 
of a " legal character " such as " questions of interpretation and 
application " of international conventions, arbitration is the 
" most efficacious and at the same time most equitable method " 
of settling differences which have not been solved by diplomacy 
(Peace Convention: art. 38). In the final act, the conference 
went farther in agreeing to the " principle of compulsory arbi- 
tration," declaring that " certain disputes, in particular those 
relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions 
of international agreements, are suitable (susceptible) to be 
submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction." 

These declarations were obviously a concession to the wide- 
spread feeling, among civilized nations, that peace is an object 
in itself, an international political condition requiring its code of 
methods and laws just as much as the domestic political conditions 
of nations require their codes of methods and laws. In other 
words peace among nations has now become, or is fast becoming, 
a positive subject of international regulation, while war is 

1 This has been incorrectly rendered in the English official trans- 
lation as " the sincere desire to work for the maintenance of general 
peace." 



PEACE 



coming, among progressive peoples, to be regarded merely as an 
accidental disturbance of that harmony and concord among 
mankind which nations require for the fostering of their 
domestic welfare. 

Though the idea of preserving peace by general international 
regulation has had several exponents in the course of ages, no 
deliberate plan has ever yet been carried into effect. Indirectly, 
however, there have been many agencies which have operated 
towards this end. The earliest, known to history, is the Amphi- 
ctyonic Council (q.v.) which grew out of the common worship 
of the Hellenes. It was not so much a political as a religious 
body. " If it had any claim," says Freeman, 1 " to the title of a 
general council of Greece, it was wholly in the sense in which we 
speak of general councils in modern Europe. The Amphictyonic 
Council represented Greece as an ecclesiastical synod repre- 
sented western Christendom. Its primary business was to 
regulate the concerns of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The 
Amphictyonic Council which met at Delphi was only the most 
famous of several bodies of the same kind." " It is easy, 
however," adds Freeman, " to understand how the religious 
functions of such a body might assume a political character. 
Thus the old Amphictyonic oath forbade certain extreme 
measures of hostility against any city sharing in the common 
Amphictyonic worship, and it was forbidden to raze any Amphi- 
ctyonic city or to cut off its water. As the only deliberative 
body in which most Greek communities were represented, its 
decisions were those of the bulk of the Hellenic people. It sank 
eventually into a mere political tool in the hands first of Thebes, 
and then under Philip of Macedonia." 

The so-called pax romana was merely peace within an 
empire governed from a central authority, the constituent 
parts of which were held together by a network of centralized 
authority. 

The feudal system again was a system of offence and defence, 
and its object was efficiency for war, not the organized regulation 
of peace. Yet it had elements of federation within the bonds of 
its hierarchy. 

The spiritual influence of the Church again was exerted to 
preserve relative peace among feudal princes. The " Truce of 
God " was established by the clergy (originally in Guyenne in 
1031) to take advantage of holy days and festivals for the purpose 
of restricting the time available for bloodshed. 

The " grand design " of Henry IV. (France), which some 
historians regard merely as the fantastic idea of a visionary, was 
probably a scheme of his great minister Sully to avert by a 
federation the conflict which he probably foresaw would break 
out sooner or later between Catholic and Protestant Europe, 
and which, in fact, broke out some fifteen years later in the 
Thirty Years' War. 

The Holy Roman Empire itself was in some respects an agent 
for the preservation of peace among its constituent states. In 
the same way the federation of Swiss cantons, of the states of the 
North American Union and of the present German Empire have 
served as means of reducing the number of possible parties to war, 
and consequently that of its possible occasions. 

Not only the number of possible war-making states but also 
the territorial area over which war can be made has been 
reduced in recent times by the creation of neutralized states such 
as Switzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg and Norway, and areas 
such as the Congo basin, the American lakes and the Suez Canal. 

The " balance of power," which has played in the history of 
modern Europe such an important part, is inherent in the 
notion of the independence and stability of states. Just as in 
Italy the common weal of the different republics which were 
crowded within the limited area of the peninsula required that 
no one of them should become so powerful as to threaten the 
independence of the others, so western Europe had a similar 
danger to counteract. France, Spain and the Empire were 
competing with each other in power to the detriment of smaller 
states. Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia, 

1 History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy (2nd ed., 
London, 1893), p. 97. 



had interests in the preservation of the status quo, and wars were 
waged and treaties concluded to adjust the strength of states in 
the common interest of preventing any one of them from obtain- 
ing undue predominance. Then came the break up of what 
remained of feudal Europe and a readjustment under Napoleon, 
which left the western world with five fairly balanced homo- 
geneous nations. These now took the place of the old hetero- 
geneous areas, governed by their respective sovereigns without 
reference to any idea of nationality or of national representation. 
The leading nations assumed the hegemony of the west, and in 
more recent times this combination has become known as the 
" concert of Europe." This concert of the great powers, as 
its name implies, in contradistinction to the " balance of 
power," was essentially a factor for the preservation of peace. 
For a century back it has played the part of an upper council in 
the management of Europe. In all matters affecting the Near 
East, it considers itself supreme. In matters of general interest 
it has frequently called conferences to which the minor states 
have been invited, such as the West African Conference in Berlin 
in 1885, and the Anti-Slavery Conference at Brussels in 1889- 
1890, and the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. Meanwhile the 
concert has admitted among its members first in 1856 Turkey, 
later in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin the United States, and 
now undoubtedly Japan will expect to be included as a great 
power in this controlling body. The essential feature of the 
concert has been recognition of the advantage to all the great 
powers of common action in reference to territorial changes in 
the Near East, of meeting together as a council, in preference 
to unconcerted negotiation by the powers acting severally. 

A departure of more recent origin has been the calling together 
of the smaller powers for the settlement of matters of general 
administrative interest, conferences such as those which led to 
the conclusion of the conventions creating the Postal Union, 
the Copyright and Industrial Property Unions, &c. 

These conferences of all the powers serve in practice as a sort 
of common council in the community of states, just as the 
concert of the great powers acts as a kind of senate. We have 
thus the nucleus of that international parliament which idealist 
peacemakers have dreamt of since the time of Henry IV. 's 
" grand design." 

This brings us down to the greatest deliberate effort ever made 
to secure the peace of the world by a general convention. It 
was due to the initiative of the young tsar Nicolas II., who, 
in his famous rescript of the 24th of August 1898, stated that 
he thought that the then moment was " very favourable for 
seeking, by means of international discussion, the most effectual 
means of assuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and durable 
peace." " In the course of the last twenty years," added the 
rescript, " the preservation of peace had become an object of 
international policy." Economic crises, due in great part to the 
existing system of excessive armaments, were transforming 
armed peace into a crushing burden, which peoples had more and 
more difficulty in bearing. He therefore proposed that there 
should be an international conference for the purpose of focusing 
the efforts of all states which were " sincerely seeking to make 
the great idea of universal peace triumph over the elements 
of trouble and discord." The first conference was held in 1899, 
and another followed it in 1907: at the earlier one twenty-six 
powers were represented; at that of 1907 there were forty-four, 
this time practically the whole world. The conventions drawn 
up at the second conference were a deliberate codification of 
many branches of international law. By them a written law 
has been substituted for that unwritten law which nations had 
been wont to construe with a latitude more or less corre- 
sponding to their power. At the conference of 1899, moreover, 
a court of arbitration was instituted for the purpose of dealing 
judicially with such matters in dispute as the powers agreed to 
submit to it. 

In the interval between the two Hague Conferences, Great 
Britain and France concluded the first treaty applicable to 
future difficulties, as distinguished from the treaties which had 
preceded it, treaties which related in all cases to difficulties already 



PEACE 



existing and confined to them. This treaty made arbitration 
applicable to all matters not affecting " national honour or vital 
interests." Since then a network of similar treaties, adopted 
by different nations with each other and based on the Anglo- 
French model, has made reference to the Hague Court of Arbitra- 
tion practically compulsory for all matters which can be settled by 
an award of damages or do not affect any vital national interest. 

The third Hague Conference is timed to be held in 1917. 
Meanwhile a conference of the maritime powers was held in 
London in 1908-1909 for the elaboration of a code of international 
maritime law in time of war, to be applied in the international 
Court of Prize, which had been proposed in a convention signed 
ad referendum at the Hague Conference of 1907. 

A further development in the common efforts which have 
been made by different powers to assure the reign of justice 
and judicial methods among the states of the world was the pro- 
posal of Secretary Knox of the United States to insert in the 
instrument of ratification of the International Prize Court 
Convention (adopted at the Hague in 1897) a clause stating 
that the International Prize Court shall be invested with the 
duties and functions of a court of arbitral justice, such as 
recommended by the first Voeu of the Final Act of the con- 
ference. The object of this proposal was to give effect to the 
idea that the existing " permanent " court lacked the essential 
characteristics of national courts of justice in not being ready 
at all times to hear cases, and in needing to be specially con- 
stituted for every case submitted to it. The new court would 
be permanently in session at the Hague, the full panel of 
judges to assemble in ordinary or extraordinary session once 
a year. 

Thus, while armaments are increasing, and wars are being 
fought out in the press and in public discussion, the great 
powers are steadily working out a system of written law and 
establishing a judiciary to adjust their differences in accordance 
with it. 1 

The Current Grouping of Mankiitd and Nation-making. 
In the consolidation of peace one of the most important 
factors is unquestionably the grouping of mankind in accordance 
with the final territorial and racial limitations of their apparent 
destiny. Language has played a vital part in the formation 
of Germany and Italy. The language question still disturbs 
the tranquillity of the Near East. The Hungarian government 
is regarded by the Slav, Ruman and German inhabitants 
of the monarchy as an oppressor for endeavouring to force every- 
body within the realm to learn the Magyar language. The 
" Young Turkish " government has problems to face which will 
be equally difficult, if it insists on endeavouring to institute 
centralized government in Turkey on the French model. 

Whereas during the igth century states were being cut out 
to suit the existing distribution of language, in the 2oth the 
tendency seems to be to avoid further rearrangement of boun- 
daries, and to complete the homogeneity, thus far attained, by 
the artificial method of forcing reluctant populations to adopt 
the language of the predominant or governing race. In the 
United States this artificial method has become a necessity, to 
prevent the upgrowth of alien communities, which might at some 
later date cause domestic trouble of a perilous character. For 
example, when a community of French Canadians, discontented 
with British rule, many years ago migrated and settled in 
Massachusetts, they found none of the tolerance they had 
been enjoying in Canada for their French schools and the 
French language they wished to preserve. In Alsace-Lorraine 
German-speaking immigrants are gradually displacing, under 

1 Schemes of thinkers, like William Penn's European Parliament 
(1693); the Abb6 St Pierre's elaboration (c. 1700) of Henry IV.'s 
"grand design" (see supra); Jeremy Bentham's International 
Tribunal (1786-1789); Kant's Permanent Congress of Nations and 
Perpetual Peace (1796); John Stuart Mill's Federal Supreme Court; 
Seeley's, Bluntschli's, David Dudley Field's, Professor Leone Levi's, 
Sir Edmund Hornby's co-operative schemes for promoting law and 
order among nations, have all contributed to popularizing in 
different countries the idea of a federation of mankind for the 
preservation of peace. 



government encouragement, the French-speaking population. 
Poland is another case of the difficulty of managing a population 
which speaks a language not that of the governing majority, and 
Russia, in trying to solve one problem by absorbing Finland 
into the national system, is burdening herself with another 
which may work out in centuries of unrest, if not in domestic 
violence. Not very long ago Pan-Germans were paying much 
attention to the German settlers in the Brazilian province of 
Rio Grande do Sul, where large villages spoke nothing but German, 
and German, as the only language known on the spot, had become 
the tongue in which municipal business was transacted. The 
Brazilian government, in view of the danger to which such a 
state of things might give rise, followed the example of the 
United States in dealing with the language question. 

Thus while in the one case homogeneity of language within 
state boundaries seems to be one of the conditions making for 
peace, the avoidance of interference with a well-marked homo- 
geneous area like Finland would seem to contribute equally to 
the 'same end. 

Meanwhile the difficulties in the way of contemporary nation- 
making are fostered by many extraneous influences, as well as 
by dogged resistance of the races in question. Not the least 
important of these influences is the sentimental sympathy felt 
for those who are supposed to be deprived of the use of their 
mother-tongue, and who are subjected to the hardship of learning 
an alien one. The hardship inflicted on those who have to 
learn a second language is very easily exaggerated, though it 
is to be regretted that in the case of Hungary the second language 
is not .one more useful for international purposes. 

Contemporary Statecraft. Nation-making has hitherto been 
more or less unconscious the outcome of necessity, a natural 
growth due to the play of circumstance and events. But in 
our own age conscious statecraft is also at work, as in Canada, 
where the genius of statesmen is gradually endowing that 
dominion with all the attributes of independence and power. 
Australia has not learnt the lesson of Canada in vain. Whatever 
value may attach to the consolidation of the British Empire 
itself as a factor in spreading the peace which reigns within it, 
it is also a great contribution to the peace of the world that the 
British race should have founded practically independent states 
like the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, 
the South African Union and the Dominion of New Zealand. 
These self-governing colonies with their spheres of influence, 
with vast areas still unpeopled, have a future before them 
which is dissociated from the methods of an over-peopled 
Europe, and among them the preservation of peace is 
the direct object and condition of their progressive develop- 
ment. Like the United States, they have or will have their 
Monroe doctrine. Colonized by the steady industrial peoples 
of northern Europe, there is no danger of the turbulence 
of the industrially indolent but more passionate peoples of 
Central and South America. As in Europe, these northern 
peoples will hold the power which intelligent democracies are 
consciously absorbing, and the British faculty for statecraft is 
gradually welding new nations on the British model, without the 
obsolete traditions and without that human sediment which too 
frequently chokes the currents of national vitality in the older 
communities of Europe. 

Militarism. It is often stated, as if it were incontrovertible, 
that conscription and large standing armies are a menace to 
peace, and yet, although throughout the civilized world, except 
in the British Empire and the United States, conscription is 
the system employed for the recruiting of the national forces 
of both defence and offence, few of these countries show any 
particular disposition to make war. The exceptional position 
of the United States, with a population about equal to that of 
the rest of the American continent, and of Great Britain, an 
island state but little exposed to military invasion, places both 
beyond absolute need of large standing armies, and renders an 
enlisting system feasible which would be quite inadequate for 
the recruitment of armies on the French or German scale. Demo- 
cratic progress on the Continent has, however, absorbed 



PEACE 



7 



conscription as a feature in the equalization of the citizen's rights 
and liabilities. Just as in Anglo-Saxon lands a national ideal 
is gradually materializing in the principle of the equalization of 
chances for all citizens, so in continental Europe, along with 
this equalization of chances, has still more rapidly developed 
the ideal of an equalization of obligations, which in turn leads to 
the claim for an enlargement of political rights co-extensive 
with the obligations. Thus universal conscription and universal 
suffrage tend to become in continental political development 
complementary conditions of the citizen's political being. In 
Germany, moreover, the military service is designed not only to 
make the recruit a good soldier, but also to give him a healthy 
physical, moral and mental training. German statesmen, under 
the powerful stimulus of the emperor William II., have, in the 
eyes of some cntics, carried this secondary object of conscript 
training to such excess as to be detrimental to military efficiency. 
To put it shortly, the Germans have taught their soldiers to 
think, and not merely to obey. The French, who naturally 
looked to German methods for inspiration, have come to apply 
them more particularly in the development of their cavalry and 
artillery, especially in that of the former, which has taken in the 
French army an ever higher place as its observing and thinking 
organ. 

Militarism on the Continent has thus become allied with the 
very factors which made for the reign of reason. No agitation 
for the development of national defences, no beating of drums 
to awaken the military spirit, no anti-foreign clamour or 
invasion panic, no parading of uniforms and futile clash of 
arms, are necessary to entice the groundling and the bumpkin 
into the service. In Germany patriotic waving of the flag, as a 
political method, is directed more especially to the strengthen- 
ing of imperial, as distinguished from local, patriotism. Where 
conscription has existed for any appreciable time it has sunk 
into the national economy, and men do their military service 
with as little concern as if it were a civil apprenticeship. 

As implied above, military training under conscription does 
not by any means necessarily tend to the promotion of the 
military spirit. In France, so far from taking this direction, 
it has resulted, under democratic government and universal 
suffrage, in a widespread abhorrence of war, and, in fact, has 
converted the French people from being the most militant 
into being the most pacific nation in Europe. The fact that 
every family throughout the land is a contributory to the 
military forces of the country has made peace a family, and 
hence a national, ideal. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is the 
logical conclusion of such comparisons that militarism only 
exists in countries where there are no citizen armies, and that, 
where there are citizen armies, they are one of the elements 
which make for permanent peace. 

Normal Nature of Peace. America has been the pioneer of 
the view that peace is the normal condition of mankind, and 
that, when the causes of war arc eliminated, war ceases to have 
a raison d'etre. The objects and causes of war are of many kinds. 
War for fighting's sake, although in the popular mind there may 
be, during most wars, only the excitement and the emotion of 
a great gamble, has no conscious place among the motives of 
those who determine the destinies of peoples. Apart, however, 
from self-defence, the main causes of war are four: (i) The 
desire for territorial expansion, due to the overgrowth of 
population, and insufficiency of the available food-supply; if 
the necessary territory cannot be obtained by negotiation, 
conquest becomes the only alternative to emigration to foreign 
lands. (2) The prompting of national ambition or a desire to 
wipe out the record of a humiliating defeat. (3) Ambitious 
potentates again may seek to deflect popular tendencies into 
channels more satisfactory for their dynasty. (4) Nations, on 
the other hand, may grow jealous of each other's commercial 
success or material power. In many cases the apparent cause 
may be of a nobler character, but historians have seldom been 
content to accept the allegations of those who have claimed to 
carry on war from disinterested motives. 

On the American continent South and Central American 



states have had many wars, and the disastrous effects of them 
not only in retarding their own development, but in impair- 
ing their national credit, have led to earnest endeavours on 
the part of their leading statesmen to arrive at such an under- 
standing as will banish from their international polity all 
excuses for resorting to armed conflicts. In 1881 Mr Elaine, 
then U.S. secretary of state, addressed an instruction to the 
ministers of the United States of America accredited to 
the various Central and South American nations, directing 
them to invite the governments of these countries to par- 
ticipate in a congress, to be held at Washington in 1882, 
" for the purpose of considering and discussing the methods 
of preventing war between the nations of America." Owing 
to different circumstances the conference was delayed till the 
autumn of 1889. At this conference a plan of arbitration 
was drawn up, under which arbitration was made obligatory 
in all controversies whatever their origin, with the single 
exception that it should not apply where, in the judgment of 
any one of the nations involved in the controversy, its national 
independence was imperilled, and even in this case arbitration, 
though optional for the nation so judging, was to be obligatory 
for the adversary power. At the second International Confer- 
ence of American States, which sat in the city of Mexico from 
the 22nd of October 1901 to the 3ist of January 1902, the same 
subject was again discussed, and a scheme was finally adopted as 
a compromise which conferred authority on the government of 
Mexico to ascertain the views of the different governments 
represented in the conference, regarding the most advanced 
form in which a general arbitration convention could be drawn 
up that would meet with the approval and secure ratification 
by all the countries represented, and afterwards to prepare a 
plan for such a general treaty. The third Pan-American 
Conference was held in the months of July and August 1906, 
and was attended by the United States, Argentina, Bolivia, 
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican 
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, 
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay. Only 
Haiti and Venezuela were absent. The conference, being held 
only a year before the time fixed for the second Hague Conference, 
applied itself mainly to the question of the extent to which 
force might be used for the collection of pecuniary claims against 
defaulting governments, and the forwarding of the principle 
of arbitration under the Hague Conventions. The possible 
causes of war on the American continent had meanwhile been 
considerably reduced. Different states had adjusted their 
frontiers, Great Britain in British Guiana had settled an out- 
standing question with Venezuela, France in French Guiana 
another with Brazil, Great Britain in Newfoundland had re- 
moved time-honoured grievances with France, Great Britain in 
Canada others with the United States of America, and now the 
most difficult kind of international questions which can arise, 
so far as the American continent is concerned, have been removed 
from among existing dangers to peace. Among the Southern 
Republics Argentina and Chile concluded in 1902 a treaty of 
arbitration, for the settlement of all difficulties without dis- 
tinction, combined with a disarmament agreement of the 
same date, to which more ample reference will be made 
hereafter. Thus in America progress is being rapidly made 
towards the realization of the idea that war can be super- 
annuated by elimination of its causes and the development of 
positive methods for the preservation of peace (see PAN- 
AMERICAN CONFERENCES). 

With the American precedent to inspire him, the emperor 
Nicolas II. of Russia in 1898 issued his invitation to the powers 
to hold a similar conference of European states, with a more or 
less similar object. In 1899 twenty-six states met at the Hague 
and began the work, which was continued at the second con- 
ference in 1907, and furthered by the Maritime Conference 
of London of 1908-1909. The creation of the Hague Court and 
of a code of law to be applied by it have further eliminated 
causes of difference. 

These efforts in the two hemispheres are based on the idea 



8 



PEACE 



that international differences can be adjusted without war, 
where the parties are honestly aggrieved. With this adjust- 
ment of existing cases the number of possible pretexts for the 
employment of force is being rapidly diminished. 

Peace Procedure under the Hague Conventions. The Hague 
Peace Convention of 1907, which re-enacts the essential parts of 
the earlier one of 1899, sets out five ways of adjusting inter- 
national conflicts without recourse to war. Firstly, the signatory 
powers have undertaken to use their best efforts to ensure the 
pacific settlement of international difficulties. This is a general 
declaration of intention to lend themselves to the peaceable 
adjustment of difficulties and employ their diplomacy to this 
end. Secondly, in case of serious disagreement, diplomacy 
having failed, they agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances 
allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly 
powers. Thirdly, the signatory powers agree that it shall not 
be regarded as an unfriendly act if one or more powers, strangers 
to the dispute, on their own initiative offer their good offices or 
mediation to the states in disagreement, or even during hostili- 
ties, if war has already broken out. Fourthly, the convention 
recommends that in disputes of an international nature, involving 
neither national honour nor vital interests, and arising from a 
difference of opinion on points of fact, the parties who have not 
been able to come to an agreement by means of diplomacy 
should institute an international commission of inquiry to 
facilitate a solution of these disputes by an investigation of the 
facts. Lastly, the high contracting parties have agreed that 
in questions of a legal nature, and especially in interpretation 
or application of international conventions, arbitration is recog- 
nized as the most effective, and at the same time the most 
equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed 
to adjust. 

Down to 1910 no suggestion of mediation had actually been 
carried out, but a number of cases of arbitration had been tried 
by the Hague Court, created by the Hague Peace Convention 
(see ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL), and one case, viz. that of the 
Dogger Bank incident, was submitted to a commission of inquiry, 
which sat in January 1905. ' 

If Secretary Knox's proposal (see supra) to convert the 
International Prize Court into a permanently sitting court of 
arbitration is adopted, a detailed procedure and jurisprudence 
will no doubt grow out of a continuity which is lacking in the 
present system, under which the court is recruited from a large 
panel for each special case. Secretary Knox's idea, as expressed 
in the identical circular note addressed by him on the i8th of 
October 1909 to the powers, was to invest the International Prize 
Court, proposed to be established by the convention of the i8th 
of October 1907, with the functions of a " court of arbitral 
justice." The court contemplated by the convention was a 
court of appeal for reviewing prize decisions of national courts 
both as to facts and as to the law applied, and, in the exercise 
of its judicial discretion, not only to confirm in whole or in part the 
national decision or the contrary, but also to certify its judgment 
to the national court for enforcement thereof. The adoption of 
this jurisdiction would have involved a revision of the judicial 
systems of probably every country accepting it. The United 
States government therefore proposed that the signatories should 
insert in the act of ratification a reservation to the effect that 
resort to the International Prize Court, in respect of decisions of 
their national tribunals, should take the form of a direct claim 
for compensation. This in any case would remove the United 
States' constitutional objection to the establishment of the 
proposed court. In connexion with this enabling clause Mr 

'The procedure adopted by the commission was afterwards 
incorporated in the convention of 1907. Under the rules adopted, 
the examination of witnesses is conducted by the president in 
accordance with the system prevailing in most continental countries ; 
members of the commission may only put questions to witnesses for 
the eliciting of further information; and they may not interrupt 
the witness when he is in course of making his statement, but they 
may ask the president to put any additional questions. This 
seems likely to become the procedure also in cases before the Hague 
Court, where witnesses are examined. 



Secretary Knox also proposed that a further enabling clause be 
inserted providing that the International Court of Prize be 
competent to accept jurisdiction in all matters, arising between 
signatories, submitted to it, the Court to sit at fixed periods 
every year and to be composed according to the panel which 
was drawn up at the Hague. This court, which the American 
government proposed to call a " Court of Arbitral Justice," 
would take the place of that which it was proposed to institute 
under Vau No. i of the Final Act of the conference of 1907. 
The intention of the Hague draft annexed to the Vceu was to 
create a permanent court as distinguished from that established 
in 1899, which, though called permanent, was not so, having to 
be put together ad hoc as the occasion arose. The new court, if 
adopted, would hold regular and continuous sessions, consist of 
the same judges, and pay due heed to the precedents created by 
its prior decisions. The two courts would have separate spheres 
of activity, and litigants would practically have the option of 
submitting their differences to a judicial court which would regard 
itself as being bound by the letter of the law and by judicial 
methods or to a special court created ad hoc with a purely 
arbitrative character. 

The Place of Diplomacy. The utility of the diplomatic service 
has been considerably diminished through the increasing 
efficiency of the public press as a medium of information. It is 
not too much to say that at the present day an experienced 
journalist, in a place like Vienna or Berlin, can give more 
information to an ambassador than the ambassador can give to 
him. It is even true to say that an ambassador is practically 
debarred from coming into actual touch with currents of public 
feeling and the passing influences which, in this age of democracy, 
determine the course of events in the political life of peoples. 
The diplomatist has therefore lost one of his chief functions as 
an informant of the accrediting government. The other chief 
function of diplomacy is to be the courteous medium of conveying 
messages from one government to another. Even this function 
is losing its significance. The ciphered telegram leaves little 
discretion to the envoy, and written notes are exchanged which 
are practically a mere transcription of the deciphered telegram 
or draft prepared at the instructing foreign office. Neverthe- 
less, the personality of an ambassador can play a great part, if he 
possesses charm, breadth of understanding and interest in the 
social, intellectual and industrial life of the country to which he 
is accredited. There are several instances of such men in Europe 
and America, but they are so rare that some reformers consider 
them as hardly justifying the large expenditure necessary to 
maintain the existing system. On the other hand, the utility 
of the consular service has concurrently increased. Adminis- 
trative indifference to the eminently useful officials forming the 
service has led, in many cases, to diminishing instead of increas- 
ing their number and their salaries, but it is obvious that the 
extension of their duties and a corresponding raising of their 
status would be much more in accordance with the national 
interest. The French, with that practical sense which distin- 
guishes so much of their recent administrative work, have 
connected the two services. A consul-general can be promoted 
to a diplomatic post, and take with him to his higher office the 
practical experience a consul gains of the material interests of 
the country to which he belongs. 

There is thus still good work for diplomacy to do, and if, in the 
selection of diplomatic representatives, states followed on the 
one hand the above-mentioned French example, and on the 
other hand the American example of selecting for the heads of 
diplomatic missions men who are not necessarily de la carriere, 
diplomacy might obtain a new lease of activity, and become once 
more an extremely useful part of the administrative machinery 
by which states maintain good business relations as well as 
friendly political intercourse with one another. 

International Regulation by Treaty. It seems a truism to say 
that among the agencies which most effectively tend to the 
preservation of peace are treaties which regulate the relations 
of states in their intercourse with other states. Such treaties, 
however, are of quite recent origin. The first of a comprehensive 



PEACE 



character was the general act adopted at the South African 
Conference at Berlin in 1885, which laid down the principle, 
which has since become of still wider application, that " any 
Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on 
the coast of the African continent outside of its present pos- 
sessions or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall 
acquire them . . . shall accompany the act relating to it with a 
notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers 
of the present act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make 
good any claims of their own," and, furthermore, that " the 
Signatory Powers of the present act recognize the obligation 
to ensure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied 
by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to 
protect existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade 
and transit under the conditions agreed upon." Under these 
articles occupation of unoccupied territory to be legal had to be 
effective. This led to the creation and determination of spheres 
of influence. By fixing the areas of these spheres of influence 
rival states in western and central Africa avoided conflicts and 
preserved their rights until they were able to take a more 
effective part in their development. The idea of " spheres of 
influence " has in turn been applied even to more settled and 
civilized countries, such as China and Persia. 

Other cases of regulation by treaty are certain contractual 
engagements which have been entered into by states for the 
preservation of the status quo of other states and territories. 

The Anglo- Japanese Treaty of the i2th of August 1905 sets 
out its objects as follows: 

a. " The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace 
in the regions of Eastern Asia and India; 

6. " The preservation of the common interests of the Powers in 
China, of insuring the independence and the integrity of the Chinese 
empire, and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce 
ana industry of all nations in China ; 

c. " The maintenance of the territorial rights of the high con- 
tracting parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and 
the defence of their special interests in such regions." 

It is a treaty for the maintenance of the status quo in certain 
parts of Asia in which the parties to it have dominant interests. 
The same principle underlies different other self-denying arrange- 
ments and declarations made by the powers with reference to 
Chinese integrity. 

The Treaty of Algeciras is essentially a generalization of the 
Franco-German agreement of the 28th of September 1905. By it 
all the powers represented agree to respect the territorial integrity 
of Morocco, subject to a possible intervention limited to the 
purpose of preserving order within it. 

Differing from these general acts in not being contractual is 
the Monroe doctrine, which is a policy of ensuring the mainte- 
nance of the territorial status quo as regards non-American 
powers throughout the American continent. If necessary, the 
leading republics of South and Central America would no doubt, 
however, further ensure respect for it by treaty. 

With these precedents and current instances of tendency to 
place the territorial relations of the powers on a permanent 
footing of respect for the existing status quo, it seems possible 
to go beyond the mere enunciation of principles, and to take 
a step towards their practical realization, by agreeing to respect 
the territorial status quo throughout still larger tracts of the world, 
neutralize them, and thus place them outside the area of possible 
wars. 

A third contractual method of avoiding conflicts of interest 
has been the signing of agreements for the maintenance of the 
" open-door." The discussion on the question of the " open- 
door " in connexion with the Morocco difficulty was useful 
in calling general public attention once more to the undesir- 
ability of allowing any single power to exclude other nations 
from trading on territory over which it may be called to exercise 
a protectorate, especially if equality of treatment of foreign 
trade had been practised by the authority ruling over the 
territory in question before its practical annexation under the 
name of protectorate. The habitable parts of the world are a 
limited area, exclusion from any of which is a diminution of 



the available markets of the nations excluded. Every power, 
is, therefore, rightfully interested in the prevention of such 
exclusion. 

The United States government in 1899 called attention to 
the subject as regards China, without, however, going into any 
question of principle. It thought that danger of international 
irritation might be removed by each power making a declaration 
respecting the " sphere of interest " in China to which it laid 
claim. Lord Salisbury informed Mr Choate that H.M. govern- 
ment were prepared to make a declaration in the sense desired. 
All the powers concerned eventually subscribed to the declara- 
tion proposed by the United States government. 

The principle of the " open-door " in fact has already been 
consistently applied in connexion with certain non-European 
areas. As these areas are practically the only areas which of 
late years have come within the scope of European regulation, 
the time seems to be approaching when the principle may be 
declared to be of general application. From the point of view 
of diminishing the possible causes of conflict among nations, 
the adoption of this principle as one of international contractual 
obligation would be of great utility. While putting an end 
to the injustice of exclusion, it would obviously reduce the danger 
of nations seeking colonial aggrandizement with a view to im- 
posing exclusion, and thus one of the chief temptations to 
colonial adventure would be eliminated. 

In the fourth place, there is the self-denying ordinance against 
employment of arms for the enforcement of contractual obliga- 
tions adopted at the Hague Conference of 1907. Under it the 
high contracting powers have agreed not to have recourse to 
armed force for the recovery of contractual debts claimed from 
the government of one country by the government of another 
country as due to its subjects. The only qualification admitted 
under the new convention is that it shall not apply when the 
debtor-state refuses or leaves unanswered an offer of arbitration, 
or in case of acceptance renders the settlement of the terms of 
arbitration impossible, or, after arbitration, fails to comply with 
the award. The theory on which this convention is based is 
known as the Drago theory, having taken a practical form during 
the administration of Dr L. M. Drago, when he filled the post 
of Argentine minister of foreign affairs. The doctrine, however, 
is not new, having already been enunciated a century before 
by Alexander Hamilton and reiterated since then by several 
American statesmen, such as Albert Gallatin, William L. Marcy 
and F. T. Frelinghuysen, as the view prevailing at Washington 
during their respective periods of office. 

Limitations of Disarmament. Disarmament, or to speak 
more correctly, the contractual limitation of armaments, has 
become, of late years, as much an economic as a humanitarian 
peace-securing object. 

" The maintenance of universal peace and a possible reduction 
of the excessive armaments which weigh upon all nations, 
represent, in the present condition of affairs all over the world, 
the ideal towards which the efforts of all governments should 
be directed," were the opening words of the Note which the 
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Mouraviev, handed 
to the diplomatic representatives of the different powers 
suggesting the first Hague Conference. 

" The ever-increasing financial burdens," the Note went on, 
" strike at the root of public prosperity. The physical and 
intellectual forces of the people, labour and capital, are diverted 
for the greater part from their natural application and wasted 
unproductively. Hundreds of millions are spent in acquiring 
terrible engines of destruction, which are regarded to-day as 
the latest inventions of science, but are destined to-morrow to 
be rendered obsolete by some new discovery. National culture, 
economic progress and the production of wealth are either 
paralysed or developed in a wrong direction. Therefore the 
more the armaments of each power increase the less they answer 
to the objects aimed at by the governments. Economic dis- 
turbances are caused in great measure by this system of excessive 
armaments; and the constant danger involved in this accumula- 
tion of war material renders the armed peace of to-day a crushing 



IO 



PEACE 



burden more and more difficult for nations to bear. It conse- 
quently seems evident that if this situation be prolonged it will 
inevitably result in the very disaster it is sought to avoid, and 
the thought of the horrors of which makes every humane mind 
shudder. It is the supreme duty, therefore, of all states to place 
some limit on these increasing armaments, and find some means 
of averting the calamities which threaten the whole world." 

A further Note submitting the programme proposed gave 
more precision to this item, which thereupon took the following 
form: " An understanding not to increase for a fixed period 
the present effectives of the armed military and naval forces, 
and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining 
thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which 
even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and 
budgets above mentioned." 

When the subject came on for discussion at the conference 
the German military delegate stated his view that the question 
of effectives could not be discussed by itself, as there were many 
others to which it was in some measure subordinated, such, 
for instance, as the length of service, the number of cadres 
whether existing in peace or made ready for war, the amount 
of training received by reserves, the situation of the country 
itself, its railway system, and the number and position of its 
fortresses. In a modern army all these questions went together, 
and national defence included them all. In Germany, moreover, 
the military system " did not provide for fixed numbers annually, 
but increased the numbers each year." 

After many expressions of regret at finding no method of 
giving effect to the. proposal, the commission confined itself to 
recording its opinion that " a further examination of the question 
by the Powers would prove a great benefit to humanity." 

The Conference, however, were unanimous in the adoption 
of the following resolution: 

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military 
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is 
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral 
welfare of mankind;" 

and it passed also the following vceu : 

" That governments, taking into account the proposals made at 
the Conference, should examine the possibility of an understanding 
concerning the limitation of military and naval armaments, and 
of war budgets." 

The general public, more particularly in Great Britain and 
France, shows an ever-increasing distrust of the rapid growth 
of armaments as a possible cause of grave economic troubles. 
A high state of military preparedness of any one state obliges 
all the others to endeavour to be prepared on the same level. 
This process of emulation, very appropriately called by the late 
Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman " a policy of huge armaments," 
unfortunately is a policy from which it is impossible for any 
country to extricate itself without the co-operation, direct or 
indirect, of other nations. 

The subject was brought forward in view of the second Hague 
Conference in both the French and Italian parliaments. 

The declaration of the French government stated that: 

" France hoped that other nations would grow, as she had done, 
more and more attached to solutions of international difficulties 
based upon the respect of justice, and she trusted that the progress 
of universal opinion in this direction would enable nations to 
regard the lessening of the present military budgets, declared by 
the states represented at the Hague to be greatly desirable for the 
benefit of the material and moral state of humanity, as a practical 
possibility." (Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1906.) 

In the Italian Chamber of Deputies, an interpellation was 
addressed to the minister of foreign affairs about the same time 
asking " whether the Government had knowledge of the motion 
approved by the British House of Commons, and of the under- 
taking of the British government that, in the programme of the 
coming Hague Conference, the question of the reduction of 
armaments should be inserted, and in what spirit the Italian 
government had taken or proposed to take the propositions of 
the British government, and what instructions it would give to 
the Italian representatives at the conference." 



The minister of foreign affairs, M Tittoni, in reply expressed 
the adhesion of the Italian government to the humanitarian 
ideas which had met with such enthusiasm in the historic 
House of Parliament at Westminster. " I have always believed," 
he said, " that, as far as we are concerned, it would be a national 
crime to weaken our own armaments while we are surrounded 
by strongly armed European nations who look upon the improve- 
ment of armaments as a guarantee of peace. Nevertheless, I 
should consider it a crime against humanity not to sincerely 
co-operate in an initiative having for object a simultaneous 
reduction of armaments of the great powers. Italian practice 
has always aimed at the maintenance of peace; therefore, I am 
happy to be able to say that our delegates at the coming 
Hague Conference will be instructed to further the English 
initiative." 

The only existing case of contractual reduction of armaments 
is that of the Disarmament Agreement of the 28th of May igoa 
between the Chilian and Argentine republics, adopted " owing 
to the initiative and good offices of His Britannic Majesty," 
which is as follows: 

Art. I. In order to remove all cause of fear and distrust between 
the two countries, the governments of Chile and of the Argentine 
Republic agree not to take possession of the warships which they 
are having built, or for the present to make any other acquisitions. 
The two governments furthermore agree to reduce their respective 
fleets, according to an arrangement establishing a reasonable 
proportion between the two fleets. This reduction to be made 
within one year from the date at which the present agreement shall 
be ratified. 

Art. II. The two governments respectively promise not to 
increase their maritime armaments during five years, unless the 
one who shall wish to increase them shall give the other eighteen 
months' notice in advance. This agreement does not include any 
armaments for the purpose of protecting the shore and ports, and 
each party will be at liberty to acquire any vessels (maquina flotante) 
intended for the protection thereof, such as submarines, &c. 

Art. III. The reductions (i.e. ships disposed of) resulting from 
this agreement will not be parted with to countries having any 
dispute with either of the two contracting parties. 

Art. IV. In order to facilitate the transfer of the pending orders 
the two governments agree to increase by two months the time 
stipulated for the beginning of the construction of the respective 
ships. They will give instructions accordingly. 

An agreement of this kind is obviously more feasible as among 
states whose navies are small and of comparatively recent 
origin than among states whose navies are composed of vessels 
of many and widely different ages. It may be difficult to agree in 
the latter case on a principle for assessment of the proportionate 
fighting value of the respective fleets. The break-up or 
sale of obsolete warships is a diminution of the paper effective 
of a navy, and their purchase by another state a paper increase 
of theirs. Even comparatively slight differences in the ages of 
ships may make great differences in their fighting value. It 
would be a hard, though probably not insurmountable, task to 
establish " a reasonable proportion," such as provided for in 
Art. II. of the Chile-Argentina Agreement, as between large 
and old-standing navies like those of Europe. 

On the other hand, as regards military power, it seems some- 
times forgotten in the discussion of the question of armaments, 
that the conditions of the present age differ entirely from those of 
the time of the Napoleonic wars. With conscription a national 
army corresponds more or less numerically to the proportion of 
males in the national population. Great Britain, without con- 
scription, has no means of raising troops in any such proportion. 
Thus, so long as she refrains from adopting conscription, she 
can only carry on defensive warfare. The object of her navy is 
therefore necessarily defensive, unless it act in co-operation 
with a foreign conscript army. As there are practically only 
three great armies available for the purpose of a war of aggression, 
the negotiation of contingent arrangements does not seem too 
remote for achievement by skilful and really well-meaning 
negotiation. The Hague Conference of 1907, owing to difficulties 
which occurred in the course of the preliminary negotiations 
for the conference, did not deal with the subject. 

Principle and Capabilities of Neutralization. Among the 
different methods which have grown up practically in our own 



PEACE 



1 1 



time for the exclusion of war is neutralization. We have been 
dealing hitherto with the elimination of the causes of war; 
neutralization is a curtailment of the areas of war and of the 
factors in warfare, of territory on the one hand and states on the 
other. The neutralization of territory belonging to states 
which are not otherwise neutralized includes the neutralization 
of waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals. 

Under the General Act of Berlin of the 26th of February 1885, 
" in case a power exercising rights of sovereignty or protec- 
torate " in any of the regions forming the basin of the Congo 
and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, and extending away 
to the Indian Ocean, should be involved in a war, the parties 
to the General Act bound themselves to lend their good offices 
in order that the territories belonging to this power be placed 
during the war " under the rule of neutrality and considered 
as belonging to a neutral state, the belligerents thenceforth 
abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus 
neutralized, and from using them as a basis for warlike 
operations " (art. 2). 

Neutralization is not necessarily of general application. 
Thus two states can agree to neutralize specific territory as 
between them. For example between Costa Rica and Nicaragua 
by a treaty of the i5th of April 1858 the parties agreed that " on 
no account whatever, not even in case of war," should " any 
act of hostility be allowed between them in the port of San 
Juan del Norte nor on the river of that name nor on Lake 
Nicaragua " (art. 2). 1 

Again, the Straits of Magellan are neutralized as between 
Argentina and Chile under a treaty of the 23rd of July 1881. 
Article 5 provides that they are " neutralized for ever and their 
free navigation is guaranteed to the flags of all nations. To 
ensure this neutrality and freedom it is agreed that no fortifica- 
tions or military defences which might interfere therewith shall 
be erected." 

Luxemburg was declared by the Treaty of London of the nth 
of May 1867 (art. i) to be a perpetually neutral state under the 
guarantee of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Swit- 
zerland, by a declaration confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna, of 
1815 (art. 84), likewise enjoys perpetual neutrality. And now 
Norway has placed herself under a neutral regime of a similar 
character. 

A neutralized state does not mean a state which is forbidden 
to have fortifications or an army; in this it differs from neu- 
tralized territory of a state not otherwise neutralized. Thus 
Belgium, which is a neutralized state, not only has an army but 
has fortifications, although by the treaties of 1831 and 1839 
she was recognized as a " perpetually neutral state, bound to 
observe the same neutrality with reference to other states." 

Of waterways, international rivers have been the chief subject 
of neutralization. It has long been an established principle 
in the intercourse of nations, that where the navigable parts of 
a river pass through different countries their navigation is free 
to all. The rivers Scheldt and Meuse were opened up in this 
way to riparian states by a decree of the French Convention of 
the i6th of November 1792. By the treaty of Vienna of the gth of 
June 1815, the powers whose territories were separated or traversed 
by the same navigable river, undertook to regulate by common 
consent all that regarded its navigation, and for this purpose to 
name commissioners who should adopt as the bases of their 
proceedings the principle that the navigation of such rivers 
along their whole course " from the point where each of them 
becomes navigable to its mouth, shall be entirely free, and shall 
not in respect of commerce be prohibited to anyone." The only 
case in Europe in which this internationalization of rivers has 
been maintained is that of the Danube. On the other hand 
neutralization has made progress in respect of waterways, 

1 Under the treaty of the 2gth of March 1864, the courts of 
Great Britain, France and Russia in their character of guaranteeing 
powers of Greece declared with the assent of the courts of Austria 
and Prussia that the islands of Corfu and Paxo as well as their 
dependencies should, after their union to the Hellenic kingdom, enjoy 
the advantages of perpetual neutrality, and the king of the Hellenes 
undertook on his part to maintain such neutrality. (Art. 2). 



natural as well as artificial. Thus the Bosporus and Dardanelles 
under the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and by the Treaty of London 
1871 were and remain closed to the passage of foreign armed 
vessels in time of war, though the Porte may permit their passage 
in time of peace in certain cases. The Suez and the Panama 
canals have been permanently neutralized, the former by a 
convention among the great powers, and the latter by a treaty 
between Great Britain and the United States. 

Alongside this neutralization has grown up a collateral 
institution, the purpose of which is in some respects similar. 
We refer to "buffer" zones. "Buffer" zones are of quite 
recent origin as a political creation, 2 i.e. where their object is 
to establish upon the territory of two contiguous states a strip 
or zone on either side of the frontier which the respective states 
agree to regard as neutral, on which the parties undertake to 
erect no fortifications, and maintain no armed forces but those 
necessary to enforce the ordinary respect of government. The 
word " neutral " does not correctly describe the character of the 
zone. It is not neutral in the sense of being recognized as such 
by any third state, and it necessarily ceases to be neutral in 
case of war between the states concerned. The word " buffer " 
comes nearest to the object, but even this term implies more than 
is meant. Between Spain and Morocco a treaty of the 5th of March 
1894 established between the Camp of Melilla and Moroccan 
territory a zone within which no new roads were to be made, 
no herds to be allowed to graze, no land to be cultivated, no 
troops of either party, or even private persons carrying arms, 
to set foot, no inhabitants to dwell, and all habitations to be 
razed. The zone between Burma and Siam, established by an 
agreement between Great Britain and France dated the I5th of 
January 1896, declared " the portion of Siam which is comprised 
within the drainage basin of the Menam, and of the coast streams . 
of a corresponding longitude," neutral as between them. Within 
this area the two powers undertook not to " operate by their 
military or naval forces, except in so far as they might do so in 
concert for any purpose requisite for maintaining the indepen- 
dence of Siam." They also undertook not to acquire within 
that area any privileges or commercial facilities not extended 
to both of them. 

" Buffer " zones might fulfil a useful purpose even in Europe. 
They would obviously react against the feeling known as 
" esprit de frontiere," and diminish the danger of incidents 
arising out of this feeling, and might attenuate the rivalry of 
neighbouring counter-armaments. 

These considerations no doubt led the Swedish and Norwegian 
governments, in their settlement of September 1905, to establish 
a " buffer " zone of 15 kilometres on either side of the frontier 
between the two states in question. Within these 30 kilometres 
all existing fortresses are dismantled, 3 no new ones are to be 
erected, and no armed troops to be maintained; any question 
between the two states relative to the provisions respecting 
the " buffer " zone to be decided by arbitration. 

A rather special case of neutralization of a territorial area 

2 The institution of " buffer " zones in a more strictly correct 
sense of the term is of very ancient origin. One is mentioned in the 
annals of China two centuries before our era, between the terri- 
tories of the Huns in the west and those of the Tunguses in the 
east a vast area of some 300. to 400 m., on the opposite margin 
of which the two peoples kept watch. In Europe, bands of territory 
from time to time have been made desert to better establish sepa- 
ration. The Romans and Germans protected themselves in this 
way. In the middle ages the Teutonic Order established a frontier 
belt on the side of Lithuania. Later, Austria dealt in the same 
way in her policy in regard to Turkey in the organization of a 
" military frontier." See Nys, Droit International (Brussels, 1904), 
i. 418. 

3 It was stipulated that the dismantling should be controlled 
by a technical commission of three officers of foreign nationality, 
to be chosen, one by each of the contracting powers and the third 
by the two officers thus appointed, or, in default of an agreement 
on their part, by the president of the Swiss Confederation. The 
dismantling of the forts in question has now been carried out. The 
Commission was composed on the part of Sweden of an engineer 
on the staff of the Austrian afrmy, and on the part of Norway of 
a colonel in the German army, and, by agreement of these, of a 
colonel in the Dutch army. 



12 



PEACE 



is that of the practical neutralization of the Great Lakes in 
America. In 1817, at the instance of John Quincy Adams, the 
United States and Great Britain entered into a compact wherebj 
the Great Lakes, and the waterways from them to the ocean by 
the St Lawrence river, which divide the United States from th< 
Dominion of Canada, were practically excluded from any 
possible hostilities. Through a simple agreement, " conditions 
which make for peace and prosperity, and the absence of those 
which so often lead to disastrous war, have for nearly a century 
reigned over these great inland waters, whose commerce, con- 
ducted for the benefit of the states and nations of Europe anc 
America, rivals that which passes through the Suez Canal or 
over the Mediterranean Sea, and with a result foreshadowed 
in these words of President Monroe in his communication to the 
Senate commending the proposed agreement: ' In order to 
avoid collision and save expense.' Forts which had been erected 
at salient points on either side of the lakes and rivers dividing 
the United States from Canada, which but for this agreement 
would, in the natural course of events, have been enlarged, 
increasingly garrisoned, and provided with modern implements 
of destruction, at large expense, have remained substantially 
as when the agreement was made, or now constitute but inter- 
esting or picturesque ruins; and the great cost of constructing 
and maintaining, through a long series of years, naval armaments 
of ever-increasing power has been avoided." 1 

As we have already said, the Monroe doctrine is a means of 
excluding European warfare from the American continent and 
therefore is in the nature of a form of neutralization. A sort of 
Monroe doctrine is growing into popular favour also throughout 
the Australian Commonwealth, where it is felt that a continent 
so far removed from European rivalries ought not to be exposed 
to complications on account of them. 

From time to time questions of adding to existing neutralized 
areas are raised. When it was announced in 1905 that a British 
fleet was about to manoeuvre in the Baltic Sea, several German 
newspapers suggested that Germany should combine with other 
Baltic powers to assure its neutralization. 2 No official observa- 
tion on the subject, however, was made on the part of any 
Baltic power. The Baltic is still an open sea for the whole 
world, without restriction of any kind; and even hostilities 
between any two non-Baltic powers could be carried on in the 
Baltic, as elsewhere on the high sea, under the existing practice. 
When the Dogger Bank incident occurred, the possibility 
of operations of war being carried on within a few miles of 
British home ports, and amid the busy traffic of the North Sea, 
was brought vividly home to British minds. 

A movement set on foot at the instance of Edward Atkinson, 
the well-known Boston economist, and warmly supported by 
the Massachusetts State Board of Trade, seeks to establish by 
treaty neutral zones from the ports of North America to the 
ports of Great Britain and Ireland and the continent of Europe, 
within which zones steamship and sailing vessels in the conduct 
of lawful commerce should be free to pass without seizure or 
interruption in time of war. There is however no precedent of 
neutralization of any such area of the high sea, and international 
rivers, ocean canals and neutralized states are obviously no 
criterion in discussing a proposal to neutralize a strip of the 
ocean, which may be defined accurately enough on the map 
and which skilful navigators could approximately determine, 
but which might be violated without any practical means of 
detection by a belligerent commander whenever he misread, 
or it suited him to misread, his bearings. 

Connected with the principle of neutralization is that of 
guaranteeing the integrity of states. Several such guarantees 
have been given in quite recent times. In November 1907 a 
treaty was concluded between France, Germany, Great Britain 
and Russia on the one part and Norway on the other, for the 
maintenance of the integrity of Norway. This treaty differed 

1 Memoir of Massachusetts State Board of Trade (Feb. 13, 1905). 

This was merely reviving an idea which had come and gone 
many times before. See Barclay, Problems of International Practice 
and Diplomacy (1907). 



from the older one of 1855 in which France and Great Britain 
guaranteed the integrity of Norway and Sweden, in the fact that 
whereas the older treaty was for the protection of these two 
states against Russia, the new treaty is intended, if it is to serve 
at all as a protection against invasion, to protect Norway against 
Sweden. 

Another such guarantee of a vaguer character is that which 
the North Sea powers recently entered into for the maintenance 
of the status quo of their respective North Sea territories; and 
the similar one entered into by the Mediterranean powers for 
the same objects in the Mediterranean. Lastly in the same 
order of ideas Austria-Hungary and Russia are said to have 
concluded an arrangement between them for the maintenance 
of the status quo in the Balkans. 

The future has no doubt still other extensions of the principle 
of neutralization in store for us. Not the least interesting of 
existing possibilities is the limitation of the area of visit and search 
in time of war itself, as a restriction of belligerent right. It seems 
contrary to common sense that neutral ships should be exposed 
to being detained, taken out of their course, and overhauled 
on mere suspicion of carrying contraband, when they are so far 
from the seat of war that there can be no presumption as to their 
destination. Neutrals have a right to carry on their ordinary 
business unmolested in so far as they do nothing to assist either 
belligerent. When they are beyond a certain distance from the 
seat of war it seems reasonable that the presumption that they 
are merely carrying on their legitimate business should be 
considered absolute. Such a limitation of the area of hostilities 
is not only feasible, but it was actually put in practice by the 
British government during the Boer War. 3 

In the course of the Russo-Japanese War the question came 
up again, being raised this time by Great Britain. Lord Lans- 
downe called the attention of the Russian foreign office to the 
extreme inconvenience to neutral commerce of the Russian 
search for contraband not only in the proximity of the scene of war, 
but over all the world, and especially at places at which neutral 
commerce could be most effectually intercepted. H.M. Govern- 
ment had become aware that a large addition was likely to be 
made to the number of Russian cruisers employed in this manner, 
and they had, therefore, to contemplate the possibility that 
such vessels would shortly be found patrolling the narrow seas 
which lie on the route from Great Britain to Japan in such a 
manner as to render it virtually impossible for any neutral 
vessel to escape their attention. The effect of such interference 
with neutral trade, he said, would be disastrous to legitimate 
commerce passing from a British port in the United Kingdom 
:o a British port in the Far East. The British government 
lad no desire to place obstacles in the way of a belligerent 
desiring to take reasonable precautions in order to prevent the 
enemy from receiving supplies, but they insisted that the right 
of taking such precautions did not imply a " consequential right 
o intercept at any distance from the scene of operations and 
without proof that the supplies in question were really destined 
or use of the enemy's forces, any articles which that belligerent 
might determine to regard as contraband of war." 

1 In January 1900 it was reported that the British government 
lad issued instructions to British naval commanders not to stop 
>r search German merchant vessels at any places not in the vicinity 
if the seat of war. There is no proper statement of the British 
xjsition on this subject, the only official information having been 
;iven by the German chancellor in a speech to the Reichstag. 

According to this information, the area was ultimately limited as 
lorth of Aden, and afterwards it was agreed that the immunity 
rom search should be extended to all places beyond a distance 
rom the seat of war equal to the distance from it of Aden. This 

was substantially correct, though the telegrams sent by the Admiralty 
an hardly be said to have fixed any precise area. As a fact, the 
ommanders-in-chief on the East Indies and Cape of Good Hope 
tations were instructed that in consequence of the great practical 
lifficulty of proving at ports so remote from the scene of war 
perations as Aden and Perim the real destination of contraband 
if war carried by vessels visiting those parts, directions were to be 
[iven to the officers concerned to cease to search such vessels, and 
o merely report to the commander-in-chief at the Cape the names 
)f ships suspected of carrying contraband, and the date of clearance. 



PEACE 



The position thus assumed is not clear. On the one hand 
the British claim did not, it is seen, go the length of the 
restriction Great Britain consented to place on her own 
right of search during the Boer War, seeming to apply only 
to the case of ships carrying conditional contraband. On the 
other, the complaint is based on the " interference " with 
neutral trade, which means the stoppage and search of vessels 
to ascertain whether they have contraband of any kind on 
board or not. 

It must not be forgotten in this connexion that restriction 
of the rights of the belligerent necessarily entails extension of 
the duties of the neutral. The belligerent has an unquestioned 
right to " interfere " with all neutral vessels navigating in 
the direction of the seat of war, for the purpose of ascertaining 
whether they are carrying any kind of contraband or not. 
Under the Declaration of London of the 26th of February 1909 
it is provided under arts. 32 and 35 that a ship's papers are 
conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged 
unless she is clearly out of the course indicated by her papers 
and is unable to give adequate reasons to justify her deviation. 
Thus the interference, if the declaration is ratified, will be 
confined to an examination of the ship's papers where the ship 
is not bound for a belligerent port (cf. art. 30 of the same 
convention). 

Standing Peace Agreements. Foremost among standing peace 
agreements are, of course, the International Hague Conventions 
relating directly to peace, agreements which have not only created 
a special peace jurisdiction for the settlement of international 
difficulties by judicial methods but also a written law to apply 
within the scope of this jurisdiction. 

Alongside the Hague Peace Conventions and more or less 
connected with them are standing treaties of arbitration which 
have been entered into by different nations for terms of years 
separately. The first of what may be called a new series was 
that between Great Britain and France. It has now been followed 
by over a hundred others forming a network of international 
relationships which shows that, at any rate, the wish for peace 
is universal among mankind. 1 

1 The following list of standing arbitration treaties concluded 
after the signing of the Anglo-French treaty of October I4th 1903 
is as complete as possible down to June 1910: 

Argentina-Brazil, September 7, 1905. 
Portugal, August 27, 1909. 
Austria-Hungary-Switzerland, December 3, 1904. 
Belgium-Denmark, April 26, 1905. 
Greece, May 2, 1905. 
Norway and Sweden, November 30, 1904. 
Rumania, May 27, 1905. 
Russia, October 30, 1904. 
Spain, January 23, 1905. 
Switzerland, November 15, 1904. 
Brazil-Portugal, March 25, 1909. 

Spain, April 8, 1909. 

Mexico, April II, 1909. 

,, Honduras, April 26, 1909. 

,, Venezuela, April 30, 1909. 

,, Panama, May I, 1909. 

Ecuador, May 13, 1909. 

Costa Rica, May 18, 1909. 

,, Cuba, June 19, 1909. 

Bolivia, June 25, 1909. 

Nicaragua, June 28, 1909. 

,, Norway, July 13, 1909. 

,, China, August 3, 1909. 

Salvador, September 3, 1909. 

Peru, December 7, 1909. 

,, Sweden, December 14, 1909. 
Colombia-Peru, September 12, 1905. 

,, France, December 16, 1908. 

Denmark France, September 15, 1905. 

Italy, December 16, 1905. 

Netherlands, February 12, 1904. 

Russia, March I, 1905. 

,, Spain, December I, 1905. 

Norway, October 8, 1908. 

France-Italy, December 26, 1903. 

,, Netherlands, April 6, 1904. 

,, Norway and Sweden, July 9, 1904. 

,, Spain, February 26, 1904. 



There are, however, a large number of conventions which, 
although not concluded with the direct object of assuring peace 
where difficulties have arisen, tend in a very practical manner 
to contract the area of possible difficulties. These are conventions 
for the regulation of intercourse between the subjects and citizens 
of different states. Such conventions obviously remove occasions 
for friction and are therefore among the most effective agencies 
contributing to the preservation of peace among civilized 
peoples. In most cases such conventions have created inter- 
national unions of states for all matters which lend themselves 
to international co-operation. The first in order of date was 
the postal union. The system it inaugurated has now extended 
its scope to telegraphs, copyright, industrial property, railway 
traffic, the publication of customs tariffs, metric measures, 
monetary systems and agriculture. Berne, being the capital 
of the most central of the neutral European states, is the adminis- 
trative centre of most of these unions. Customs tariffs and 
the monetary unions, however, are centralized at Brussels, 

France Sweden and Norway, July 9, 1904. 
Switzerland, December 14, 1904. 
Brazil, April 7, 1909. 
Great Britain France, October 14, 1903. 
Germany, July 12, 1904. 
Italy, February i, 1907. 
Austria-Hungary, January II, 1905. 
Netherlands, February 15, 1905. 
Colombia, December 30, 1908. 
Sweden and Norway, August n, 1904. 
Denmark, October 25, 1904. 
Portugal, November 16, 1904. 
Spain, February 27, 1904. 
Switzerland, November 16, 1904. 
United States, April 4, 1908. 
Brazil, June 18, 1909. 
Honduras-Spain, May 13, 1905. 
Italy Argentine, September 18, 1907. 
Mexico, October i, 1907. 
Peru, April 18, 1907. 
Portugal, May II, 1905. 
Switzerland, November 23, 1904. 
Netherlands, November 21, 1909. 
Netherlands-Portugal, October 26, 1905. 
Norway Sweden, October 26, 1905. 
Norway and Sweden-Russia, December 9, 1904. 
Spain, January 23, 1905. 

,, Switzerland, December 17, 1904. 

Portugal-Spain, May 31, 1904. 

Austria-Hungary, February 13, 1906. 

Denmark, March 20, 1907. 

France, June 29, 1906. 

Italy, May n, 1905. 

Netherlands, October I, 1904. 

Norway and Sweden, May 6, 1905. (Suspended for 

Norway by a new one dated December 8, 1908.) 
Spain, May 31, 1904. 
Switzerland, August 18, 1905. 
Nicaragua, July 17, 1909. 

Russia Norway and Sweden, November 26, 1904. 
Spain-Greece, December 3-16, 1909. 

Switzerland, May 14, 1907. 
United States-Spain, April 20, 1908. 

Denmark, May 18, 1908. 
Italy, March 28, 1908. 
Japan, May 5, 1908. 
Netherlands, May 2, 1908. 
Portugal, April 6, 1908. 
Sweden, May 2, 1908. 
Switzerland, February 29, 1908. 
Argentina, December 23, 1908. 
Peru, December 3, 1908. 
Salvador, December 21, 1908. 
Norway, April 4, 1908. 
Mexico, March 24, 1908. 
France, February 2, 1908. 
Ecuador, January 7, 1909. 
Bolivia, January 7, 1909. 
Haiti, January 7, 1909. 
Uruguay, January 9, 1909. 
Chile, January 13, 1909. 
Costa Rica, January 13, 1909. 
Austria-Hungary, January 15, 1909. 
Brazil, January 23, 1909. 
Paraguay, March 13, 1909. 
China, October 8, 1908. 



PEACE 



the weights and measures union in Paris and the agricultural 
institute at Rome. 

The general postal union was c-eated by a convention signed 
at Berne in 1874. A convention for a similar union for telegraphs 
was signed in Paris in 1875 (revised at St Petersburg and replaced 
by another the same year). Both unions issue monthly bulletins 
and other publications giving useful information about these 
two services. 1 

The international bureau of weights and measures at Paris 
was created by a convention signed there in 1875, for the purpose 
of comparing and verifying weights and measures on the metric 
system, and preserving their identity for the contracting states. 

The double-standard Latin union monetary system was 
founded by a convention of 1865, between Belgium, France, 
Italy and Switzerland. In 1868 it was joined by Greece. A 
single standard union exists between Sweden, Norway and 
Denmark under a convention of 1873. 

The copyright union was created by an international con- 
vention signed in 1874. The official bureau of the union is 
at Berne. It issues a periodical publication called Le Droit 
d'auteur giving information respecting the laws of different 
states relating to published matter of all kinds. 

The term " industrial property " covers patents, trade marks, 
merchandise marks, trade names, designs and models. The 
convention dealing with them signed in 1883 created a union 
with its central office at Berne. It, too, issues a bulletin and 
other publications which help to prevent misunderstandings. 

The railway traffic union was formed by a convention of 
1890. The central bureau at Berne issues a monthly bulletin. 
A subsequent convention was signed at Berne in 1886 relating 
to matters of technical unification. 

1 A subsidiary convention not quite falling within the scope of 
the above convention is the submarine telegraphs convention, 
which was signed in 1884. It applies outside territorial waters 
to all legally established submarine cables landed on the territories, 
colonies or possessions of one or more of the high contracting 
parties. Under its provisions it is a punishable offence " to break 
or injure a submarine cable wilfully or by culpable negligence in 
such manner as might interrupt or obstruct telegraphic communi- 
cation either wholly or partially, such punishment being without 
prejudice to any civil action for damages. It also provides that: 

" Vessels engaged in laying or repairing submarine cables shall 
conform to the regulations as to signals which have been, or may 
be, adopted by mutual agreement among the high contracting 
parties with the view of preventing collisions at sea. When a 
ship engaged in repairing a cable exhibits the said signals, other 
vessels which see them or are able to see them shall withdraw to 
or keep beyond a distance of one nautical mile at least from the 
ship in question so as not to interfere with her operations " (art. 5). 
" Owners of ships or vessels who can prove that they have sacrificed 
an anchor, a net or other fishing-gear in order to avoid injuring a 
submarine cable shall receive compensation from the owner of the 
cable," and " in order to establish a claim to such compensation 
a statement supported by the evidence of the crew should whenever 
possible be drawn up immediately after the occurrence and the 
master must within twenty-four hours after his return to or next 
putting into port make a declaration to the proper authorities " 
(art. 7). " The tribunals competent to take cognizance of infractions 
of the present convention are those of the country -to which the 
vessel on board of which the offence was committed belongs " 
(art. 8). By art. 15 it is provided that the stipulations of the con- 
vention do not in any way restrict the action of belligerents. It 
may be remarked that the British representative at the time of 
signing the convention declared that his government understood 
that in the time of war a belligerent would be free to act in regard 
to submarine cables as though the convention did not exist. The 
act to carry into effect the above convention is the Submarine 
Telegraph Act 1885 (48 & 49 Viet. c. 49) which was slightly 
modified by 50 Viet. c. 3. Section 3 of the earlier act provides that 
a person who injures the cable either wilfully or by culpable negli- 
gence is " guilty of a misdemeanour and on conviction: (a) if he 
acted wilfully, shall be liable to penal servitude for a term not 
exceeding five years, or to imprisonment with or without hard 
abour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine either in 
lieu of or in addition to such penal servitude or imprisonment; 
and (ft) if he acted by culpable negligence shall be liable to im- 
prisonment for a term not exceeding three months without hard 
labour, and to a fine not exceeding 100 either in lieu of or in addition 
to such imprisonment." 

See Board of Trade Correspondence on Protection of Submarine 
Cables, printed on the 24th of July 1882; and Parliamentary Paper 
C. 5910: 1890. 



Under the convention creating the customs tariffs union, 
signed in 1890, thirty states, including Great Britain and 
most British colonies, are associated for the purpose of prompt 
publication of custom tariffs and their modifications. 

The agricultural institute, created by a convention of 1905 
w ; th its seat at Rome, as the ktest in date is perhaps the most 
interesting of the series. It shows how deep and widespread 
the sense of the utility of international state co-operation has 
become. The convention sets out the scope and objects of the 
institute, which a recent British official publication states has 
been joined by 38 states, including Great Britain and all other 
great powers, as follows:- 

Whilst limiting its action to international questions, it shall be 
the duty of the institute: (a) To collect, elaborate and publish, 
with as little delay as possible, statistical, technical, or economic 
information regarding the cultivation of the soil, its productions, 
whether animal or vegetable, the trade in agricultural products, 
and the prices obtained on the various markets. (6) To communi- 
cate to interested parties, also without delay, full information of 
the nature above mentioned, (c) To indicate the wages of rural 
labour, (d) To notify all new diseases of plants which may appear 
in any part of the world, indicating the districts affected, the spread 
of the disease, and, if possible, the efficacious means of resistance. 
(e) To consider questions relating to agricultural co-operation, 
insurance and credit, in all their forms, collecting and publishing 
information which may be useful in the various countries for the 
organization of undertakings relating to agricultural co-operation, 
insurance and credit, (f) To present, if expedient, to the govern- 
ments, for their approval, measures for the protection of the common 
interests of agriculturists and for the improvement of their con- 
dition, after having previously taken every means of obtaining 
the necessary information, e.g. resolutions passed by international 
congresses or other congresses relating to agriculture or to sciences 
applied to agriculture, agricultural societies, academies, learned 
societies, &c. 

All questions relating to the economic interests, the legislation 
and administration of any particular state, must be excluded from 
the sphere of the institute. (Art. 9). 

Lastly, there is a class of difficulties which might arise from 
preferential treatment of trade from different countries. To 
obviate them statesmen have been led to adopt the principle 
of the " most-favoured-nation-clause " that is to say, a clause 
providing that if any reductions of tariff or other advantages are 
granted by either contracting state to any third state, the others 
shall have the benefit of it. In Europe this clause has been 
uniformly treated as applying to all reductions of tariff without 
distinction. The United States interpretation, on the other 
hand, distinguishes between reductions of a general character 
and reductions made specifically in return for reductions by 
some other state. The latter do not come within the operation 
of the clause, and a co-contracting state is only entitled to 
obtain extension of them to itself on granting similar concessions. 
In other words, concessions to any co-contracting state are 
only allowed gratuitously to a third co-contracting state when 
nothing has been given for them, the clause not covering advan- 
tages granted in return for advantages. It is to be hoped that 
this special view of the meaning of the clause will be met in the 
future, as in some recent treaties, by specifically dealing with the 
exceptions. 2 

The Utility of Popular Effort. Until quite recently'it had been 
a distinctive mark of practical wisdom to treat private efforts for 
the improvement of international relations for the preservation 
of peace, with the patronizing tolerance courteous people of the 
world extend to half-crazy idealists. Since the opening of the 
century, an immense change has taken place in the attitude of 
the leaders of popular opinion towards the advocacy of peace. 
This new attitude has been contemporary with the greater 
interest displayed by the mercantile classes of England and the 
United States in the improvement of their political relations with 
their neighbours. It may be said to have begun with the visit 
of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce to Paris 
in 1900, at a time when France was still smarting from the 
humiliation of the Fashoda affair, and the Boer War was exciting 
hostile demonstrations against Great Britain throughout the conti- 
nent of Europe. That some four hundred British manufacturers 

J See Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy 
(1907), p. 137 seq. 



PEACE 



and merchants, representing about eighty chambers of commerce 
of the United Kingdom, should have swept aside all political 
objections and have boldly trusted to the efficacy of friendly 
advances as between man and man, appealed to the French 
people. It seems to have been the first great popular effort 
ever made deliberately by a representative body of the middle 
class of a nation for the promotion of international friendship 
without the aid of diplomacy and without official assistance or 
even countenance of any kind. 

Otherwise, private agencies of a standing character which 
contribute towards the promotion of peace may be divided into 
four classes, viz. (i) those which, without having peace for their 
direct object, promote friendship among men of different races 
and nationalities; (2) those which directly address themselves 
to the promoting of friendship and goodwill among peoples; 
(3) those which regarding peace as the immediate object of their 
efforts, endeavour to educate democracy in this sense 5(4) those 
which endeavour to remove the causes of international friction 
by the codification of International law and the promotion of the 
international regulation of common interests. Lastly, there are 
two agencies which cannot be classed among the foregoing; 
one is the International Parliamentary Union and the other the 
Nobel Prize Committee. 

1. Agencies which are indirectly making for peace are of 
many kinds. Science and medicine now bring men of all nations 
together in periodical congresses. Technology, electricity, 
mining, railways, navigation and many other subjects are now 
dealt with in international congresses. International exhibitions 
are always used as an occasion for holding many such meetings. 

2. One of the most notable efforts directed to the deliberate 
cementing of friendship has been the interchange of official 
visits by municipal bodies. In the course of the Anglo-French 
agitation which culminated in March 1903 with the visit of King 
Edward to Paris, the French municipal councils passed many 
resolutions in favour of the entente. After the conclusion of the 
Anglo-French standing treaty of arbitration (Oct. 14, 1903) 
and the arrangements for the general settlement of outstanding 
difficulties with France (April 8, 1904), the municipal bodies in 
France were prepared to go a step farther, and in 1906 the Muni- 
cipal Council of Paris was invited by the London County Council 
to pay an official visit to England. This visit was followed by 
a return visit to Paris and a similar exchange of visits between 
the London City Corporation and the Paris Municipal Council, 
exchange visits of the city corporations of Manchester, Glasgow 
and Edinbuigh and Lyons, and a visit of the Manchester Corpora- 
tion to Dusseldorf, Barmen and Cologne. A society, numbering 
many thousands of working men among its members, which has 
set itself the more special task of promoting the interchange of 
visits between working men of different nations, is called the 
" International Brotherhood Alliance," or, after the initials of its 
motto, Fraternitas inter gentes, the F.I.G. Another agency, 
called the " American Association for International Concili- 
ation," seeks by the publication of essays on the different aspects 
of international friendship to promote the same cause. 

3. The " peace societies," which are scattered over the whole 
world, number several hundreds. 1 Their first International 
Congress was held in London at the suggestion of Joseph Sturge 
in 1843. In J 848 a second congress was held at Brussels. The 
third in 1849 took place in Paris, and was presided over by Victor 
Hugo. Other congresses were held at Frankfurt, again in London, 
and in 1853 at Manchester, where Richard Cobden and John 
Bright took part in the discussions. Then followed an interval 
of wars during which the Pacifists were unable to raise their 
voices. At length in 1878 a congress was held at the Paris 
International Exhibition of that year, but it was not till the next 
Paris International Exhibition of 1889 that these international 
peace congresses became periodical. Since then numerous con- 
gresses have been held, the seventeenth having sat in London 
in 1908, and the eighteenth at Stockholm in 1910. These 
congresses have been supplemented by national congresses in 

1 See Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste pour Vannee iQio, published 
by the Bureau International de la Paix, at Bern. 



both Great Britain and France. Such congresses are doing 
admirable work in the popularizing of thought upon the 
numerous questions which are discussed at the meetings, 
such as compulsory arbitration, the restriction of armaments, 
private property at sea in time of war, the position of subject 
races, airships in war, &c. 2 

4. First among the bodies which try to remove the causes 
of international friction is the Institute of International Law. 
This is a body of international lawyers, consisting of sixty mem- 
bers and sixty associates recruited by election the members from 
those who " have rendered services to international law in the 
domain of theory or practice," and associates from those " whose 
knowledge may be useful to the Institute." It was formed 
in 1873, chiefly through the efforts of M. Rolin-Jaequemyns. 
The official language of the Institute is French, and its annual 
meetings are held wherever the members at the previous meeting 
decide to assemble. Its mode of operation is to work out tht 
matters it deals with during the intervals between the sessions, 
in permanent commissions, among which the whole domain of 
international law is divided up. The commissions, under the 
direction of their rapporteurs or conveners, prepare reports 
and proposals, which are printed and distributed among the 
members some time before the plenary sittings at which they 
are to be discussed. If the members are not agreed, the subject 
is adjourned to another session, and still another, until they do 
agree. Thus the resolutions of the Institute have the authority 
attaching to a mature expression of the views of the leading 
international jurists of Europe. Another body having a more or 
less similar purpose is the International Law Association, which 
was founded in 1873 as the " Association for the Reform and 
Codification of the Law of Nations," with practically the same 
objects as those which led to the constitution of the Institute 
of International Law. It also meets in different countries, but 
it differs from the Institute in the number of its members being 
unlimited and in all respectable persons being eligible for mem- 
berchip. A report is published after each meeting. There are now 
numerous volumes of such reports, many of them containing most 
valuable materials for international jurists. In 1895 the name 
was changed to International Law Association. 

A new society was recently (1906) formed in America called the 
American Society of International Law, " to foster the study of 
international law and piomote the establishment of international 
relations on the basis of law and justice." " Membership in the 
society is not restricted to lawyers, and any man of good moral 
character interested in the objects of the society may be admitted 
to membership." The publications of this society have already 
taken an important place among the literature of international 
law. 

Still more recently yet another society came into being in 
Switzerland with objects which seem to be similar to those of the 
Institute of International Law. 

The Inter-Parliamentary Union, which dates back to 1887, 
owes its origin to the initiative of the late Sir W. R. Cremer. 
It is composed of groups of the different parliaments of the 
world, who meet periodically to " bring about the acceptance 
in their respective countries, by votes in parliament and by means 
of arbitration treaties, of the principle that differences between 
nations should be submitted to arbitration and to consider 
other questions of international importance." 3 The sixteenth 
conference was held at Brussels in August-September, 1910. 

2 At the third congress of the new series, held at Rome in 1891, 
was created the Bureau International de la Paix. This most useful 
institution, which has its office at Bern, serves as a means of bringing 
and keeping together all the known peace societies. Its Corre- 
spondance bimensuelle and Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste are well 
known, and its obliging hon. secretary, Dr A. Gobat, is always ready 
to supply information from the now considerable archives of the 
Bureau. In this connexion we may mention that the secretary 
of the London Peace Society, Dr Evans Darby, has edited an 
exhaustive collection of materials called International Tribunals. 
His statements every two years on the progress of arbitration at 
the International Law Association meetings also form an excellent' 
source of materials for reference. 

3 Art. I of Statutes revised Sept. 1908. 



1 6 PEACE, BREACH OF THE-PEACE CONFERENCES 



The Nobel Committee owes its existence to the will of the 
late Alfred B. Nobel (1833-1896), the inventor of dynamite, who 
left a considerable fortune for the encouragement of men who 
work for the benefit of humanity. The interest of this money 
was to be divided into five equal parts, to be distributed every 
year as rewards to the persons who had deserved best of mankind 
in five departments of human activity. The clauses of the will 
governing the distribution of these prizes are as follows:- 

" The entire sum shall be divided into five equal parts, one to 
go to the man who shall have made the most important discovery 
or invention in the domain of physical science; another to the man 
who shall have made the most important discovery or introduced 
the greatest improvement in chemistry; the third to the author 
of the most important discovery in the domain of physiology or 
medicine; the fourth to the man who shall have produced the 
most remarkable work of an idealistic nature; and, finally, t 
fifth to the man who shall have done the most or best work for the 
fraternity of nations, the suppression or reduction of standing 
armies, and the formation and propagation of peace congresses. 
The prizes shall be awarded as follows: For physical science and 
chemistry, by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; for physiological 
or medical work, by the Caroline Institutional Stockholm; for litera- 
ture, by the Stockholm Academy, and for peace work, by a com- 
mittee of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. It 
is my express desire that, in awarding the prizes, no account shall 
be taken of nationality, in order that the prize may fall to the lot 
of the most deserving, whether he be Scandinavian or not. 

Peace v. War. Peace is the ultimate object of all statecraft 
peace in the development of the domestic activities of the 
nation administered, and peace in the relations of states with 
one another. For the purpose of ensuring peace an expensive 
diplomacy is maintained by all states, and to perpetuate it 
treaties are entered into by states with one another. Even war 
has no other avowed purpose than that of placing specific 
international relations on a definite footing. Ultimate peace 
is uniformly proclaimed by every dictator at home, by every 
conqueror abroad, as the goal to which he is directing his efforts. 
And yet dissentient voices are sometimes heard defending war 
as if it were an end in itself. Without going back to the well- 
known reply of Count Moltke to Professor Bluntschli respecting 
the Manual of the Laws of War drawn up by the Institute of 
International Law in iSSo, 1 we need only quote that highly 
up-to-date philosopher, Nietzsche : " It is mere illusion and pretty 
sentiment," he observes, " to expect much (even anything at 
all) from mankind if it forgets how to make war. As yet no 
means are known which call so much into action as a great war, 
that rough energy born of the camp, that deep impersonality 
born of hatred, that conscience born of murder and cold-blooded- 
ness, that fervour born of effort in the annihilation of the enemy, 
that proud indifference to loss, to one's own existence, to that 
of one's fellows, to that earthquake-like soul-shaking which a 
people needs when it is losing its vitality." 2 

It is pleasant to contrast this neurotic joy of one onlooker 
with the matter-of-fact reflexions of another, the late W. E. H. 
Lecky. " War " he says " is not, and never can be a mere 
passionless discharge of a painful duty. It is in its essence, 
and it is a main condition of its success, to kindle into fierce 
exercise among great masses of men the destructive and com- 
bative passions passions as fierce and as malevolent as that 
with which the hound hunts the fox to its death or the tiger 
springs upon its prey. Destruction is one of its chief ends. 
Deception is one of its chief means, and one -of the great arts 
of skilful generalship is to deceive in order to destroy. Whatever 
other elements may mingle with and dignify war, this at least 
is never absent; and however reluctantly men may enter into 
war, however conscientiously they may endeavour to avoid it, 
they must know that when the scene of carnage has once opened, 
these things must be not only accepted and condoned, but 
stimulated, encouraged and applauded. It would be difficult 
to conceive a disposition more remote from the morals of 
ordinary life, not to speak of Christian ideals, than that with 
" Perpetual peace," he said, " is a dream, and it is not even 
a beautiful dream. War is an element in the order of the world 
ordained by God . . . Without war the world would stagnate 
and lose itself in materialism." 

2 Menschliches, AttzumensMiches, No. 477. 



which the soldiers most animated with the fire and passion that 
lead to victory rush forward to bayonet the foe. ... It is allow- 
able to deceive an enemy by fabricated despatches purporting 
;o come from his own side; by tampering with telegraph mes- 
sages; by spreading false intelligence in newspapers; by sending 
pretended spies and deserters to give him untrue reports of the 
lumbers or movements of the troops; by employing false signals 
.o lure him into an ambuscade. On the use of the flag and 
uniform of an enemy for purposes of deception there has been 
some controversy, but it is supported by high military authority. 
Hardly any one will be so confident of the virtue of his 
rulers as to believe that every war which his country wages in 
very part of its dominions with uncivilized as well as civilized 
Deputations, is just and necessary, and it is certainly prima 
acie not in accordance with an ideal morality that men should 
jind themselves absolutely for life or for a term of years to kill 
without question, at the command of their superiors, those who 
lave personally done them no -wrong." 3 

Surely with all the existing activity in the removal of causes 
of war, in the reduction to precise expression of the rules of law 
governing the relations of states with one another, in the creation 
of international judicatures for the application of these rules, in 
the concluding of treaties specifically framed to facilitate the 
Dacific settlement of difficulties diplomacy may have failed to 
adjust, in the promotion of democratic civilian armies with 
everything to lose by war, and all the other agencies which have 
seen described above, the hope seems warranted that, in 
no distant future, life among nations will become still more 
closely assimilated to life among citizens of the same nation, 
with legislation, administration, reform all tending to the one 
real object of law, order and peace among men. (T. BA.) 

PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically all criminal offences 
cognizable by English law involve a breach of the king's peace, 
and all indictments whether for offences against the common 
law or by statute conclude " against the peace of our lord the 
king, his crown and dignity." Historically this phrase, now 
legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by 
which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and 
gradually extruded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords 
of manors and franchises, making crime a matter of national 
concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the 
rights of local magnates, or of the rights of the tribal chiefs of 
the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. The peace of the king was 
sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of 
his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually 
asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the 
institution of the office of justice of the peace. 

In modern times the expression "breach of the peace" is usually 
limited to offences involving actual tumult, disturbances or dis- 
order. As regards such offences, although they do not fall into 
the class of grave crimes described as felonies, officers of police 
and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as to 
immediate arrest without waiting for judicial warrant, than they 
possess as to other minor offences (see ARREST). Justices of the 
peace have under early statutes and the commission of the 
peace power to take sureties of the peace from persons who are 
threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within 
the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanour 
and of many felonies to require the offender to enter into a 
recognizance (q.t>.) to keep the peace. 

PEACE CONFERENCES, the official title of the two inter- 
national conferences held at the Hague in 1899 and 1907. Both 
were organized at the instance of the emperor Nicholas II. of 
Russia. The chief object of the first conference, as set out in the 
note of Count Mouraviev, the Russian minister of foreign affairs 
(Jan. n, 1899), was to arrive at an "understanding not 
to increase for a fixed period the present effectives of the 
armed military and naval forces, and at the same time not to 
increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary 
examination of the means by which even a reduction 
might be effected in future in the forces and budgets above 
3 The Map of Life, 1902, pp. 92-97. 



PEACH, C. W. 



mentioned." 1 The conference, which was attended by repre- 
sentatives of 26 states, sat from the i8th of May to the 2pth 
of July 1899. 

When the subject of excessive armaments came up for dis- 
cussion, the objections of the German military delegate led to 
its abandonment. Other very important matters, however, were 
dealt with, and three momentous conventions were adopted, viz. 

I. A convention for the pacific settlement of international 
disputes. 

II. A convention relating to the laws and customs of war by land. 

III. A convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the 
principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd of August 1864. 

Three declarations on the following matters were also adopted : 

a. Prohibition of the launching of projectiles and explosives from 

balloons or by other similar new methods. 2 

b. Prohibition of the use of projectiles the only object of which 

is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. 

c. Prohibition of the use of bullets which expand or flatten easily 

in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope, of 
which the envelope does not entirely cover the corej or is 
pierced with incisions. 

The conference furthermore passed the following resolutions: 

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military 
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is 
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral welfare 
of mankind." 

" The Conference, taking into consideration the preliminary 
steps taken by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision of 
the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be shortly 
taken for the assembling of a special Conference, having for its 
object the revision of that Convention." 

The following vasux were adopted, but not unanimously: 

" I. The Conference expresses the wish that the question of the 
rights and duties of neutrals may be inserted in the programme of a 
conference in the near future. 

" 2. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with 
regard to rifles and naval guns, as considered by it, may be studied 
by the Governments with the object of coming to an agreement 
respecting the employment of new types and calibres. 

3. The Conference expresses the wish that the Governments, 
taking into consideration the proposals made at the Conference, 
may examine the possibility of an agreement as to the limitation of 
armed forces by land and sea, and of war budgets. 

" 4. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposals which 
contemplate the declaration of the inviolability of private property 
in naval warfare may be referred to a subsequent conference for 
consideration. 

" 5. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal to settle 
the question of the bombardment of ports, towns and villages by 
naval forces may be referred to a subsequent conference for 
consideration." 

Great Britain signed and became a party to the three 
Conventions, but not to all the declarations, &c. 

The Conference of 1907, which was attended by representatives 
of forty-four states, sat from the isth of June to the i8th of 
October. Again, in spite of the resolution and vceu on arma- 
ments handed down from the Conference of 1899 this subject 
was waived, but still more important conventions than in 1899 
were adopted on other matters. These were as follows: 

I. Convention for the pacific settlement of international 
disputes. 3 

II. Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of 
force for the recovery of contract debts. 

III. Convention relative to the commencement of hostilities. 

IV. Conventions concerning the laws and customs of war on 
land.' 

V. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers 
and persons in war on land. 

VI. Convention relative to the status of enemy merchant-ships 
at the outbreak of hostilities. 



1 At the Conference the Russian government, further developing 
the proposal, submitted the following details: 

" I. Establishment of an international understanding for a term 
of five years, stipulating non-increase of the present figures of the 
peace effective of the troops kept up for home use. 

" 2. Fixation, in case of this understanding being arrived at, 
and, if possible, of the figures of the peace effective of all the powers 
excepting colonial troops. 

" 3. Maintenance for a like term of five years of the amount of 
the military budgets at present in force." 

3 This Conference was held at Geneva in June-July 1906. The 
revised Convention, composed of 33 articles, is dated July 6, 1906. 

3 This is an amended edition of that of 1899. 



VII. Convention relative to the conversion of merchant-ships 
into war-ships. 

VIII. Convention relative to the laying of automatic submarine 
contact mines. 

IX. Convention respecting bombardment by naval forces in 
time of war. 

X. Conventions for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva 
Convention to maritime war. 4 

XI. Convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise 
of the right of capture in maritime war. 4 

XII. Convention relative to the establishment of an international 
prize court. 

XIII. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral 
powers in maritime war. 

XIV. Declaration prohibiting discharge of projectiles, &c., from 
balloons. 6 

A draft Convention relative to the creation of a judicial 
arbitration court was also drawn up in connexion with the first 
of the four following vosux: 

I. The Conference calls the attention of the signatory powers 
to the advisability of adopting the annexed draft convention for 
the creation of a judicial arbitration court, and of bringing it into 
force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selec- 
tion of the judges and the constitution of the court. 

2. The Conference expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the 
responsible authorities, civil as well as military, should make it 
their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of pacific 
relations, more especially of the commercial and industrial relations 
between the inhabitants of the belligerent states and neutral 
countries. 

3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the powers should 
regulate, by special treaties, the position, as regards military charges, 
of foreigners residing within their territories. 

4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation 
of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should 
figure in the programme of the next conference, 6 and that in any 
case the powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the 
principles of the Convention relative to the laws and customs of 
war on land. 

Finally, the Conference recommended to the powers the 
assembly of a Third Peace Conference, and it called their atten- 
tion to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third 
Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations 
being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition. 

In order to attain this object the Conference considered that it 
" would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable 
date of the meeting, a preparatory committee should be charged 
by the governments with the task of collecting the various 
proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what 
subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international regulation, 
and of preparing a programme which the governments should 
decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined 
by the countries interested," and that this committee should 
further be entrusted with the task of proposing a system of 
organization and procedure for the Conference itself. (T. BA.) 

PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886), British naturalist 
and geologist, was born on the 3oth of September 1800 at Wans- 
ford in Northamptonshire; his father at the time was a saddler 
and harness-maker, and afterwards became an innkeeper 
farming about 80 acres of land. He received an elementary 
education at Wansford and at Folkingham in Lincolnshire; and 
assisted for several years in the inn and farm. In 1824 he was 
appointed riding officer in the Revenue Coast-guard at Weybourn 
in Norfolk. Sea-weeds and other marine organisms now 
attracted his attention, and these he zealously collected. His 
duties during the next few years led him to remove successively 
to Sheringharrf, Hasboro (Happisburgh), Cromer and Cley, all in 
Norfolk. In the course of his rambles he met the Rev. James 
Layton, curate at Catfield, who lent him books and assisted in 
laying the foundations of accurate knowledge About the year 
1830 he was transferred to Charmouth in Dorset, thence to Beer, 
and Paignton in Devon, and to Gorran Haven near Mevagissey 
in Cornwall. Here he continued to pursue his zoological studies 

4 This is an amended edition of that of 1899. 

6 This was practically a re-enactment of that of 1899. 

6 This has since been done to a large extent by the Conference of 
London (1908-1909). See BLOCKADE, CONTRABAND, INTERNATIONAL 
LAW PEACE. 



i8 



PEACH 



and supplied many specimens to G. Johnston, who was then 
preparing his History of the British Zoophytes (1838). It was 
here too that he first found fossils in some of the older rocks 
previously regarded as unfossiliferous the discovery of which 
proved the presence of Bala Beds (Ordovician or Lower Silurian) 
in the neighbourhood of Gorran Haven. In 1841 he read a paper 
before the British Association at Plymouth " On the Fossil 
Organic Remains found on the south-east coast of Cornwall," 
and in 1843 he brought before the Royal Geological Society of 
Cornwall an account of his discovery of fish remains in the Devo- 
nian slates near Polperro. Peach was transferred for a time 
to Fowey; and in 1849 to Scotland, first to Peterhead and then to 
Wick (1853), where he made acquaintance with Robert Dick of 
Thurso. He collected the old red Sandstone fishes; and during 
a sojourn at Durness he first found fossils in the Cambrian 
limestone (1854). Peach retired from the government service in 
1 86 1, and died at Edinburgh on the a8th of February 1886. 

Biographical notice, with portrait, in S. Smiles's Robert Dick, 
Baker, of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist (1878). 

PEACH, the name of a fruit tree which is included by Bentham 
and Hooker (Genera plantarum, i. 610) under the genus Prunus 
(Prunus persica); its resemblance to the plum is indeed obvious. 
Others have classed it with the almond as a distinct genus, 
Amygdalus; while others again have considered it sufficiently 
distinct to constitute a separate genus, Persica. 

In general terms the peach may be said to be a medium-sized 
tree, with lanceolate, stipulate leaves, borne on long, slender, 
relatively unbranched shoots, and with 
the flowers arranged singly, or in groups 
of two or more, at intervals along the 
shoots of the previous year's growth. 
The flowers have a hollow tube at the 
base bearing at its free edge five sepals, 
an equal number of petals, usually con- 
cave or spoon-shaped, pink or white, 
and a great number of stamens. The 
pistil consists of a single carpel with its 

ovary, style, stigma and solitary ovule 
Qr twin ^^ Thfi fmit j g & drupe 

(fig. i) having a thin outer skin (epi- 
carp) enclosing the flesh of the peach 

Stone or endpcarp, (mesocarp) , the inner layers of the carpel 
within which is the becoming woody to form the stone, 
while the ovule ripens into the kernel 
or seed. This is exactly the structure of 
the plum or apricot, and differs from that of the almond, which is 
identical in the first instance, only in the circumstance that the 
fleshy part of the latter eventually becomes dry and leathery and 
cracks open along a line called the suture. 

The nectarine is a variation from the peach, mainly charac- 
terized by the circumstance that, while the skin of the ripe 
fruit is downy in the peach, it is shining and destitute of hairs in 
the nectarine. That there is no essential difference between the 
two is, however, shown by the facts that the seeds of the peach 
will produce nectarines, and vice versa, and that it is not very 
uncommon, though still exceptional, to see peaches and 
nectarines on the same branch, and fruits which combine in them- 
selves the characteristics of both nectarines and peaches. The 
blossoms of the peach are formed the autumn previous to their 
expansion, and this fact, together with the peculiarities of their 
form and position, requires to be borne in mind by the gardener 
i n his pruning and training operations. The only point of practical 
interest requiring mention here is the very singular fact attested 
by all peach-growers, that, while certain peaches are liable to the 
attacks of mildew, others are not. In the case of the peach this 
peculiarity is in some way connected with the presence of small 
glandular outgrowths on the stalk, or at the base of the leaf. 
Some peaches have globular, others reniform glands, others none 
at all, and these latter trees are much more subject to mildew 
than are those provided with glands. 

The history of the peach, almond and nectarine is interesting 
and important as regards the question of the origin of species and 




FIG. I. Fruit (drupe) 
of Peach cut lengthwise. 
e, Skin or cpicarp. 
wz.Flesh or mesocarp. 



seed or kernel, 
(f nat. size.) 



the production and perpetuation of varieties. As to the origin of 
the peach two views are held, that of Alphonse de Candolle, who 
attributes all cultivated varieties to a distinct species, probably of 
Chinese origin, and that adopted by many naturalists, but more 
especially by Darwin, who looks upon the peach as a modification 
of the almond. 

In the first place, the peach as we now know it has been nowhere 
recognized in the wild state. In the few instances where it is said 
to have been found wild the probabilities are that the tree was an 
escape from cultivation. Aitchison, however, gathered in the 
Hazardarakht ravine in Afghanistan a form with different-shaped 
fruit from that of ^he almond, being larger and flatter. " The 
surface of the fruit," he observes, " resembles that of the peach in 
texture and colour; and the nut is quite distinct from that of the 
wild almond. The whole shrub resembles more 'what one might 
consider a wild form of the peach than that of the almond." It is 
admitted, however, by all competent botanists that the almond 
is wild in the hotter and drier parts of the Mediterranean and Levan- 
tine regions. Aitchison also mentions the almond as wild in some 
parts of Afghanistan, where it is known to the natives as " bedam," 
the same word that they apply to the cultivated almond. The 
branches of the tree are carried by the priests in religious ceremonies. 
It is not known as a wild plant in China or Japan. As to the necta- 
rine, of its origin as a variation from the peach there is abundant 
evidence, as has already been mentioned ; it is only requisite to add 
the very important fact that the seeds of the nectarine, even when 
that nectarine has been produced by bud-variation from a peach, 
will generally produce nectarines, or, as gardeners say, " come 
true. Darwin brings together the records ofseveral cases, not only 
of gradations between peaches and nectarines, but also of inter- 
mediate forms between the peach and the almond. So far as we 
know, however, no case has yet been recorded of a peach or a necta- 
rine producing an almond, or vice versa, although if all have had a 
common origin such an event might be expected. Thus the botanical 
evidence seems to indicate that the wild almond is the source of 
cultivated almonds, peaches and nectarines, and consequently that 
the peach was introduced from Asia Minor or Persia, whence the 
name Persica given to the peach; and Aitchison's discovery in 
Afghanistan of a form which reminded him of a wild peach lends 
additional force to this view. 

On the other hand, Alphonse de Candolle, from philological and 
other considerations, considers the peach to be of Chinese origin. 
The peach has not, it is true, been found wild in China, but it has 
been cultivated there from time immemorial ; it has entered into 
the literature and folk-lore of the people; and it is designated by 
a distinct name, " to " or " tao," a word found in the writings of 
Confucius five centuries before Christ, and even in other writings 
dating from the loth century before the Christian era. Though now 
cultivated in India, and almost wild in some parts of the north- 
west, and, as we have seen, probably also in Afghanistan, it has no 
Sanskrit name; it is not mentioned in the Hebrew text of the 
Scriptures, nor in the earliest Greek times. Xenophon makes no 
mention of the peach, though the Ten Thousand must have traversed 
the country where, according to some, the peach is native; but 
Theophrastus, a hundred years later, does speak of it as a Persian 
fruit, and De Candolle suggests that it might have been introduced 
into Greece by Alexander. According to his view, the seeds of the 
peach, cultivated for ages in China, might have been carried by the 
Chinese into Kashmir, Bokhara, and Persia between the period of 
the Sanskrit emigration and the Graeco-Persian period. Once 
established, its cultivation would readily extend westward, or, on 
the other hand, by Cabul to north-western India, where its cultiva- 
tion is not ancient. While the peach has been cultivated in China 
for thousands of years, the almond does not grow wild in that country 
and its introduction is supposed not to go back farther than the 
Christian era. 

On the whole, greater weight is due to the evidence from botanical 
sources than to that derived from philology, particularly since the 
discovery both of the wild almond and of a form like a wild peach 
in Afghanistan. It may, however, well be that both peach and 
almond are derived from some pre-existing and now extinct form 
whose descendants have spread over the whole geographic area 
mentioned ; but this is a mere speculation, though indirect evidence 
in its support might be obtained from the nectarine, of which no 
mention is made in ancient literature, and which, as we have 
seen, originates from the peach and reproduces itself by seed, thus 
offering the characteristics of a species in the act of developing 
itself. 

The treatment in horticulture of the peach and nectarine is the 
same in every respect. To perpetuate and multiply the choicer 
varieties, peaches and nectarines are budded upon plum or 
almond stocks. For dry situations almond stocks are preferable, 
but they are not long-lived, while for damp or clayey loams it is 
better to use certain kinds of plums. Double-working is some- 
times beneficial ; thus an almond budded on a plum stock may be 
rebudded with a tender peach, greatly to the advantage of the 
latter. The peach border should be composed of turfy mellow 



PEACH 




loam, such as is suitable for the vine and the fig; this should be 
used in as rough a state as possible, or not broken small and fine. 
The bottom should slope towards the outer edge, where a drain 
should be cut, with an outlet, and on this sloping bottom should 
be laid a thickness of from 9 in. to 12 in. of rough materials, 
such as broken bricks or mortar rubbish, over which should be 
placed a layer of rough turf with the grassy side downwards, and 
then the good loamy soil to form the border, which should have a 
depth of about 2 ft. 6 in. The peach-tree is most productive 
when the roots are kept near the surface, and the borders, which 
should be from 8 ft. to 12 ft. wide, should not be cropped heavily 
with culinary vegetables, as deep trenching is very injurious. 
Sickly and unfruitful trees may often be revived by bringing up 
their roots within 5 or 6 in. of the surface. It is questionable 
whether it is not better, in cold soils and bleak situations, to 
abandon outdoor peach culture, and to cover the walls with a 
casing of glass, so that the trees may be under shelter during the 
uncongenial spring weather. 

The fruit of the peach is produced on the ripened shoots of the 
preceding year. If these be too luxuriant, they yield nothing but 
leaves; and if too weak, they are incapable of developing flower 
buds. To furnish young shoots in sufficient abundance, and of 
requisite strength, is the great object of peach training and pruning. 
Trees of slender-growing, twiggy habit naturally fall most readily 
into the fan form of training, and accordingly this has generally been 

adopted in the culture of 
peaches and nectarines (fig. 
2). The young tree is, in 
many cases, procured when 
it has been trained for 
two or three years in the 
nursery; but it is gener- 
ally better to begin with a 
maiden plant that is, a 
plant of the first year after 
it has been budded. It is 

FIG. 2. Montreuil Fan Training. he " j. n rdinar y practice 

headed down to five or 

six buds, and in the following summer from two to four shoots, 
according to the vigour of the plant, are trained in, the laterals 
from which, if any, are thinned out and nailed to the wall. If there 
are four branches, the two central ones are shortened back at the 
subsequent winter pruning so as to produce others, the two lower 
ones being laid in nearly at full length. In the following season 
additional shoots are sent forth ; and the process is repeated till 
eight or ten principal limbs or mother branches are obtained, forming, 
as it were, the frame-work of the future tree. The branches may be 
depressed or elevated, so as to check or encourage them, as occasion 
may arise; and it is highly advantageous to keep them thin, without 
their becoming in any part deficient of young shoots. Sometimes 
a more rapid mode of formation is now adopted, the main shoots 
being from the first laid in nearly at full length, instead of being 
shortened. The pruning for fruit consists in shortening back the 
laterals which had been nailed in at the disbudding, or summer 
pruning, their length depending on their individual vigour and the 
luxuriance of the tree. In well-developed shoots the buds are 
generally double, or rather triple, a wood bud growing between two 
fruit buds; the shoot must be cut back to one of these, or else 
to a wood bud alone, so that a young shoot may be produced to 
draw up the sap beyond the fruit, this being generally desirable 
to secure its proper swelling. The point of this leading shoot 
is subsequently pinched off, that it may not draw away too 
much of the sap. If the fruit sets too abundantly, it must be 
thinned, first when as large as peas, reducing the clusters, and then 
when as large as nuts to distribute the crop equally; the ex- 
tent of the thinning must depend on the vigour of the tree, 
but one or two fruits ultimately left to each square foot of wall 
is a full average crop. The final thinning should take place after 
stoning. 

The best-placed healthy young shoot produced from the wood 
buds at the base of the bearing branch is to be carefully preserved and 
in due time nailed to the wall. In the following winter this will 
take the place of the branch which has just borne, and which is to 
be cut put. If there be no young shoot below, and the bearing 
branch is short, the shoot at the point of the latter may sometimes 
be preserved as a fruit bearer, though if the bearing branch be long 
it is better to cut it back for young wood. It is the neglect of this 
which constitutes the principal fault in carrying out the English 
fan system, as it is usually practised. Several times during summer 
the trees ought to be regularly examined, and the young shoots 
respectively topped or thinned out; those that remain are to be 
nailed to the wall, or braced in with pieces of slender twigs, and the 
trees ought occasionally to be washed with the garden engine or 
thoroughly syringed, especially during very hot summers. After 
gathering the fruit all the wood not needed for extending the tree 



or for fruit bearing next season should be cut out so as to give the 
shoots left full exposure to air and light. 

The Montreuil form of training is represented by fig. 2. The 
principal feature is the suppression of the direct channel of the sap, 
and the substitution of four, or more commonly two, mother branches, 
so laid to the wall that the central angle contains about 90. The 
other branches are all treated as subordinate members. This form 
is open to the objection that, if the under branch should die, the 
upper one cannot be brought down into its place. 

The form a la Dumoutier (fig. 3), so called from its inventor, is 
merely a refinement on the Montreuil method. The formation 




FlG. 3. Dumoutier's Fan Training. 

of the tree begins with the inferior limbs and proceeds towards 
the centre, the branches being lowered from time to time as the 
tree acquires strength. What is most worthy of notice in. this 
method is the management of the 
subordinates in the pruning for 
fruit. When a shoot promises 
blossom, it is generally at some 
distance from the point of insertion 
into the old wood, and the inter- 
mediate space is covered with wood 
buds. All the latter, therefore, 
which are between the old wood a 
and the blossoms c in fig. 4, except 
the lowest b, are carefully removed 
by rubbing them off with the 
finger. This never fails to produce 
a shoot d, the growth of which is 
favoured by destroying the useless spray e above the blossoms, and 
pinching off the points of those which are necessary to perfect the 
fruit. A replacing shoot is thus obtained, to which the whole is 
invariably shortened at the end of the year. 

Seymour's form (fig. 5) approaches more nearly to the French 
method than any other practised in England ; but the direct channel 




FIG. 4. Pruning a la 
Dumoutier. 




FIG. 5. Seymour's Fan Training. 

of the sap is not suppressed, and this results in the production of 
branches of unequal vigour, which is very undesirable. 

For cold and late situations, Thomas Andrew Knight recommended 
the encouragement of spurs on the young wood, as such spurs, when 
close to the wall, generate the best organized and most vigorous 
blossoms, and generally ensure a crop of fruit. They may be pro- 
duced, by taking care, during the summer pruning or disbudding, 
to preserve a number of the little shoots emitted by the yearly 
wood, only pinching off the minute succulent points. On the spurs 
thus formed blossom buds will be developed early in the following 
season. This practice is well adapted to cold situations. Peach- 
trees require protection, especially at the period of blossoming, 
particularly in the north of England and in Scotland. Canvas or 
bunting screens are most effectual. By applying these early in the 
season, great benefit may be derived from retarding the blossom 
till the frosty nights of spring have passed. Wooden and glass 
copings are also very useful in warding off frosts. Care must be 
taken that the roots always have a sufficient supply of moisture 
and that the soil is moist wherever the roots run. 

Forcing. The pruning and training of the trees in the peach 
house do not differ materially from the methods practised out of 
doors. It may also be stated here that when occasion arises peach- 
trees well furnished with buds may be transplanted and forced 
immediately without risking the crop of fruit, a matter of some 
importance when, as sometimes happens, a tree may accidentally 
fail. In the forcing of peaches fire heat is commonly applied about 
December or January ; but it may, where there is a demand, begin 
a month sooner. The trees must be got to start growth very 



.20 

gradually, and at first the house should be merely kept closed at a 
temperature of about 4 5- but the heat should gradually increase , to 
10 at night by the time the trees are in flower, and to 60 when the 
fruit is set, after which the house should be kept moist by sprinkling 
the walls and paths, or by placing water troughs on the return pipes, 
and the temperature should range from 65 'by day to 70 or more 
with sun heat. After the fruit has set, the foliage should be refreshed 
and cleansed by the daily use of the syringe or garden engine. 
When the fruit has stoned that is, as soon as the kernels have b 
formed the temperature should be raised to about 65 as a minimum, 
and to 70, with 75 by sun heat, as a maximum. Water must now 
be copiously supplied to the border, and air admitted in abundance, 
but cold draughts which favour the attack of mildew must be 
avoided. After the end of April little fire heat is required. When 
the fruit begins to ripen, syringing must be discontinued till the 
crop is gathered, after which the syringe must be again occasionally 
used If the leaves should happen to shade the fruit, not only 
during the ripening process but at any time after the stoning 
period, they should be gently turned aside, for, in order that the 
fruit may acquire good colour and flavour, it should be freely 
exposed to light and air when ripening; it will bear the direct rays 
of the sun, even if they should rise to 100, but nectarines are much 
more liable to damage than peaches. The trees often suffer from 
mildew, which is best prevented by keeping the borders of the 
peach house clear and sufficiently moist and the house well ventilated, 
and if it should appear the trees should be sprayed with I oz. potas- 
sium sulphide dissolved in 3 gallons of water. Care must be taken in 
using this fungicide not to wet the painted wood, as it is sure to 
become discoloured. . 

Peaches and nectarines are frequently cultivated in well-drained 
pots, and are then usually trained as pyramids, and in some cases 
as half-standards. The potting must be done very firmly, using 
turfy loam with which a little mortar rubble has been mixed. 
The trees are to be top-dressed from time to time with well-decayed 
manure and turfy loam, and considerable space must be left in the 
pots for this and the watering. 

The following are some of the best_ peaches and nectarines, 
arranged in the order of the times of their ripening: 



PEACHAM PEACOCK, G. 





Peaches. 




Early Beatrice . . m 
Early Louise . . e. 


K 


Royal George . . j 


b. Sept. 


Hales's Early . . b. 


Aug. 


Bellegarde . . . 


b.m.Sept. 


Rivers's Early York b. 


m.Aug. 


Belle Bauce 


m. Sept. 


A'bec . . . . m 


Aug. 


Dymond. 


m. Sept. 


Crimson Galande . e. 


Aug. 


Late Admirable 


m.e. Sept. 


Crawford's Early . 


b. 


Aug. 
Sept. 


Sea Eagle 
Walburton Admirable \ 


e. Sept. 


Grosse Mignonne . 


b. 


Aug. 
Sept. 


( 

Salwey . j 


e.' OcV. 


Noblesse . . . | 


Aug. 
Sept. 


Princess of Wales . 


e. Oct. 




Nectarines. 




Cardinal (under glass) c. 
Lord Napier . . b 


July 
Aug. 


Pitmaston Orange . j 


b. Sept. 


Darwin m. Aug. 
Early Rivers . . m. Aug. 


Violette Hative . . j 


e. Aug. 


Balgowan 


e. 

b 


Aug. 
Sept. 


Victoria (under glass) 
Pineapple 


Sept. 
b. Sept. 


Elruge .... 


1; 


Aug. 
Sept. 


Stanwick Elruge 
Humbolt 


b. Sept. 
m. Sept. 



Stanwick (under glass) m.e. Sept. 

PEACHAM, HENRY (c. i576-c. 1643), English writer, was 
the son of Henry Peacham, curate of North Mimms, Hertford- 
shire, and author of a book on rhetoric called the Garden of 
Rhetoric (1577)- The elder Peacham became in 1597 rector of 
Leverton, Lincolnshire. The son was educated at Trinity 
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1594-1595 and 
M. A. in 1 598. He was for some time a schoolmaster at Wymond- 
ham, Norfolk, but settled in London in 1612, earning his living 
as tutor to young men preparing for the universities. His first 
book was Graphice (1606), a treatise on pen and water-colour 
drawing, which, as The Gentleman's Exercise, passed through 
three editions. The years 1613-1614 he spent abroad, part of 
the time as tutor to the three young sons of Thomas Howard 
(1585-1646), earl of Arundel, and partly on his own account. He 
travelled in Italy, France, Westphalia and the Netherlands. 
The table of Sir John Ogle, English governor of Utrecht, was, he 
says, a " little academy," where he met soldiers and scholars of all 
nationalities. When he returned to London he was accused of 
libel on the king. Incriminating papers had been discovered in 
the house of Edmond Peacham, rector of Hinton Saint George, 
who, on being charged with an attack on the king denied the 



authorship, stating that they were written by a namesake, " a 
divine, a scholar and a traveller." The change was, however, 
easily rebutted. Peacham had many friends in London, among 
them Thomas Dowland the musician, Inigo Jones, and Edward 
Wright the mathematician. In 1622 appeared Peacham's 
magnum opus, the Compleat Gentleman. Enlarged editions 
appeared in 1626 and 1627. The 1627 edition was reprinted in 
1634, and a third, with additional notes on blazonry by Thomas 
Blount (1617-1679), appeared in 1661. The book is a text-book 
of manners and polite learning; it includes chapters on cosmo- 
graphy, geometry, poetry, music, antiquities, painting, the lives 
of the painters, the " art of limming " (Peacham himself was a 
proficient engraver), and the military art, including the order of 
" a maine battaile or pitched field in eight severall wayes." 
The book differs from the Courtier of Castiglione, which had been 
the guide of an earlier generation. Peacham was a Cavalier, 
even an ardent polemist in the royal cause, but the central point 
of his book is a more or less Puritan sentiment of duty. In his 
later years Peacham was reduced to extreme poverty, and is said 
to have written children's books at a penny each. His last book 
was published in 1642, and it may be concluded that he died soon 
afterwards. 

His other works include: Minerva Britanna (1612), dedicated to 
Henry, prince of Wales; The Period of Mourning (1613), in honour 
of the same prince; Thalia's Banquet (1620), a book of epigrams; 
The Art of Living in London (1642), and The Worth of a Peny 
(1641), &c. There is a nearly complete collection of Peacham's 
works in the Bodleian, Oxford. Harleian MS. 6855 contains a 
translation by Peacham of James I.'s Basilicon doron into Latin 
verse, written in his own hand and ornamented with pen and ink 
drawings. His Compleat Gentleman was edited by G. S. Gordon 
in 1906 for the Clarendon Press; the Art of Living is reprinted 
in the Harleian Misc. ix. ; The Worth of a Peny in E. Arber's English 
Garner (vol. vi. 1883). 

PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-1890), English judge, was born 
in 1810, the son of Lewis Peacock, a solicitor. After practising 
as a special pleader, he was called to the bar in 1836, and in 
1844 obtained great reputation by pointing out the flaw which 
invalidated the conviction of Daniel O'Connell and his fellow 
defendants. In 1852 he went to India as legal member of the 
governor-general's council. He here displayed great activity as a 
law reformer, but sometimes manifested too little consideration 
for native susceptibilities. The legislative council was established 
soon after his arrival, and although no orator, he was so frequent 
a speaker that legislation enjoining councillors to deliver their 
speeches sitting was said to have been devised with the sole 
object of restraining him. As a member of Lord Dalhousie's 
council he supported the annexation of Oudh, and he stood by 
Lord Canning all through the Mutiny. In 1859 he became chief 
justice of the Supreme Court. He returned to England in 1870, 
and in 1872 was placed upon the judicial committee of the privy 
council, where his Indian experience rendered him invaluable. 
He died on the 3rd of December 1890. 

PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791-1858), English mathematician, 
was born at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, on the 
9th of April 1791. He was educated at Richmond, Yorkshire, 
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1809. He was second 
wrangler in 1812 (Sir J. F. W. Herschel being senior), was elected 
fellow of his college in 1814, became assistant tutor in 1815 and 
full tutor in 1823. While still an undergraduate he formed a 
league with John Herschel and Charles Babbage, to conduct the 
famous struggle of " d-ism versus dot-age," which ended in the 
introduction into Cambridge of the continental notation in the 
infinitesimal calculus to the exclusion of the fluxional notation 
o'f Sir Isaac Newton. This was an important reform, not so 
much on account of the mere change of notation (for mathe- 
maticians follow J. L. Lagrange in using both these notations), 
but because it signified the opening to the mathematicians of 
Cambridge of the vast storehouse of continental discoveries. 
The analytical society thus formed in 1813 published various 
memoirs, and translated S. F. Lacroix's Differential Calculus in 
1816. Peacock powerfully aided the movement by publishing in 
1820 A Collection of Examples of the Application of the Differential 
and Integral Calculus. In 1841 he published a pamphlet on the 



PEACOCK, T. L. 



21 



university statutes, in which he indicated the necessity for 
reform; and in 1850 and 1855 he was a member of the commission 
of inquiry relative to the university of Cambridge. In 1837 he 
was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy. In 1839 he 
took the degree of D.D., and the same year was appointed by 
Lord Melbourne to the deanery of Ely. Peacock threw himself 
with characteristic ardour into the duties of this new position. 
He improved the sanitation of Ely, published in 1840 Observations 
on Plans for Cathedral Reform, and carried out extensive works 
of restoration in his own cathedral. He was twice prolocutor of 
the lower house of convocation for the province of Canterbury. 
He was also a prime mover in the establishment of the Cambridge 
Astronomical Observatory, and in the founding of the Cambridge 
Philosophical Society. He was a fellow of the Royal, Royal 
Astronomical, Geological and other scientific societies. In 1838, 
and again in 1843, he was one of the commissioners for standards 
of weights and measures; and he also furnished valuable infor- 
mation to the commissioners on decimal coinage. He died on 
the 8th of November 1858. 

Peacock's original contributions to mathematical science were 
concerned chiefly with the philosophy of its first principles. He 
did good service in systematizing the operational laws of 
algebra, and in throwing light upon the nature and use of 
imaginaries. He published, first in 1830, and then in an enlarged 
form in 1842, a Treatise on Algebra, in which he applied his 
philosophical ideas concerning algebraical analysis to the eluci- 
dation of its elements. A second great service was the publica- 
tion in the British Association Reports for 1833 of his " Report 
on the Recent Progress and Present State of certain branches of 
Analysis." Modern mathematicians may find on reading this 
brilliant summary a good many dicta which they will call in 
question, but, whatever its defects may be, Peacock's report 
remains a work of permanent value. In 1855 he published a 
memoir of Thomas Young, and about the same time there 
appeared Young's collected works in three volumes, for the first 
two of which Peacock was responsible. 

PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866), English novelist and 
poet, was born at Weymouth on the i8th of October 1785. He 
was the only son of a London glass merchant, who died soon after 
the child's birth. Young Peacock was educated at a private 
school at Englefield Green, and after a brief experience of business 
determined to devote himself to literature, while living with his 
mother (daughter of Thomas Love, a naval man) on their private 
means. His first books were poetical, The Monks of St Mark 
(1804), Palmyra (1806), The Genius of the Thames (1810), The 
Philosophy of Melancholy (1812) works of no great merit. He 
also made several dramatic attempts, which were never acted. 
He served for a short time as secretary to Sir Home Popham at 
Flushing, and paid several visits to Wales. In 1812 he became 
acquainted with Shelley. In 1815 he evinced his peculiar power 
by writing his novel Headlong Hall. It was published in 1816, 
and Melincourt followed in the ensuing year. During 1817 he 
lived at Great Marlow, enjoying the almost daily society of 
Shelley, and writing Nightmare Abbey and Rhododaphne, by far 
the best of his long poems. In 1819 he was appointed assistant 
examiner at the India House. Peacock's nomination appears to 
have been due to the influence of his old schoolfellow Peter 
Auber, secretary to the East India Company, and the papers he 
prepared as tests of his ability were returned with the comment, 
" Nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." This was char- 
acteristic of the whole of his intellectual work; and equally 
characteristic of the man was his marriage about this time to 
Jane Griffith, to whom he proposed by letter, not having seen 
her for eight years. They had four children, only one of whom, 
a son, survived his father; one daughter was the first wife of 
George Meredith. His novel Maid Marian appeared in 1822, 
The Misfortunes of Elphin in 1829, and Crotchet Castle in 1831; 
and he would probably have written more but for the death in 
1833 of his mother. He also contributed to the Westminster 
Review and the Examiner. His services to the East India Com- 
pany, outside the usual official routine, were considerable. He 
defended it successfully against the attacks of James Silk 



Buckingham and the Liverpool salt interest, and made the subject 
of steam navigation to India peculiarly his own. He represented 
the company before the various parliamentary committees on 
this question; and in 1839 and 1840 superintended the con- 
struction of iron steamers, which not only made the voyage round 
the Cape successfully, but proved very useful in the Chinese War. 
He also drew up the instructions for the Euphrates expedition 
of 1835, subsequently pronounced by its commander, General 
F. R. Chesney, to be models of sagacity. In 1836 he succeeded 
James Mill as chief examiner, and in 1856 he retired upon a 
pension. During his later years he contributed several papers to 
Fraser's Magazine, including reminiscences of Shelley, whose 
executor he was. He also wrote in the same magazine his last 
novel, Gryll Grange (1860), inferior to his earlier writings in 
humour and vigour, but still a surprising effort for a man of his 
age. He died on the 23rd of January 1866 at Lower Halliford, 
near Chertsey, where, so far as his London occupations would 
allow him, he had resided for more than forty years. 

Peacock's position in English literature is unique. There was 
nothing like his type of novel before his time; though there 
might have been if it had occurred to Swift to invent a story as a 
vehicle for the dialogue of his Polite Conversation. Peacock speaks 
as well in his own person as through his puppets; and his pithy 
wit and sense, combined with remarkable grace and accuracy 
of natural description, atone for the primitive simplicity of plot 
and character. Of his seven fictions, Nightmare Abbey and 
Crotchet Castle are perhaps on the whole the best, the former 
displaying the most vis comica of situation, the latter the fullest 
maturity of intellectual power and the most skilful grouping of 
the motley crowd of " perfectibilians, deteriorationists, statu- 
quo-ites, phrenologists, transcendentalists, political economists, 
theorists in all sciences, projectors in all arts, morbid visionaries, 
romantic enthusiasts, lovers of music, lovers of the picturesque 
and lovers of good dinners," who constitute the dramatis personae 
of the Peacockian novel. Maid Marian and The Misfortunes of 
Elpkin are hardly less entertaining. Both contain descriptive 
passages of extraordinary beauty. Melincourt is a comparative 
failure, the excellent idea of an orang-outang mimicking humanity 
being insufficient as the sole groundwork of a novel. Headlong 
Hall, though more than foreshadowing the author's subsequent 
excellence, is marred by a certain bookish awkwardness char- 
acteristic of the recluse student, which reappears in Gryll Grange 
as the pedantry of an old-fashioned scholar, whose likes and 
dislikes have become inveterate and whose sceptical liberalism, 
always rather inspired by hatred of cant than enthusiasm for 
progress, has petrified into only too earnest conservatism. The 
book's quaint resolute paganism, however, is very refreshing in 
an age eaten up with introspection ; it is the kindliest of Peacock's 
writings, and contains the most beautiful of his poems, " Years 
Ago," the reminiscence of an early attachment. In general the 
ballads and songs interspersed through his tales are models of 
exact and melodious diction, and instinct with true feeling. His 
more ambitious poems are worth little, except Rhododaphne, 
attractive as a story and perfect as a composition, but destitute 
of genuine poetical inspiration. His critical and miscellaneous 
writings are always interesting, especially the restorations of 
lost classical plays in the Horae dramaticae, but the only one of 
great mark is the witty and crushing exposure in the Westminster 
Review of Thomas Moore's ignorance of the manners and belief 
he has ventured to portray in his Epicurean. Peacock resented 
the misrepresentation of his favourite sect, the good and ill of 
whose tenets were fairly represented in his own person. Some- 
what sluggish and self-indulgent, incapable of enthusiasm or self- 
sacrifice, he yet possessed a deep undemonstrative kindliness of 
nature; he could not bear to see anyone near him unhappy 
or uncomfortable; and his sympathy, no less than his genial 
humour, gained him the attachment of children, dependants, 
and friends. In official life he was upright and conscientious; his 
judgment was shrewd and robust. What Shelley justly termed 
" the lightness, strength and chastity " of his diction secures him 
an honourable rank among those English writers whose claims to 
remembrance depend not only upon matter but upon style. 



22 

Peacock's works were collected, though not completely, and pub- 
lished in three volumes in 1875, at the expense of his friend and 
former protege, Sir Henry Cole, with an excellent memoir by his 
granddaughter Mrs Clarke, and a critical essay by Lord Hougnton. 
His prose works were collected by Richard Garnett in ten volumes 
(1891) Separate novels are included in " Macmillan s Illustrated 
Standard Novels," with introductions by Mr Saintsbury. For an 
interesting personal notice, see A Poet's Sketch Book, by K, W. 
Buchanan (1884). 

PEACOCK (Lat. Paw, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuiv, Ger. Pfau, 
Fr. Paon), the bird so well known from the splendid plumage of 
the male, and as the proverbial personification of pride. It is a 
native of the Indian peninsula, and Ceylon, in some parts of which 
it is very abundant. Setting aside its importation to Palestine 
by Solomon (i Kings x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21), its assignment in 
classical mythology as the favourite bird of Hera testifies to the 
early acquaintance the Greeks must have had with it; but, 
though it is mentioned by Aristophanes and other older writers, 
their knowledge of it was probably very slight until after the 
conquests of Alexander. Throughout all succeeding time, 
however, it has never very freely rendered itself to domestication, 
and, though in earlier days highly esteemed for the table, 1 it is no 
longer considered the delicacy it was once thought; the young of 
the wild birds are, however, still esteemed in the East. 



PEACOCK PEALE, C. W. 




Japan or " black-shouldered " Peafowls. 

As in most cases of domestic animals, pied or white varieties 
of the ordinary peacock, Pavo crislatus, are not infrequently to 
be seen, and they are valued as curiosities. Greater interest, 
however, attends what is known as the Japanese or Japan 
peacock, a form which has received the name of P. nigripennis, 
as though it were a distinct species. In this form the cock, 
besides other less conspicuous differences, has all the upper 
wing-coverts of a deep lustrous blue instead of being mottled 
with brown and white, while the hen is of a more or less grizzled- 
white. It " breeds true "; but occasionally a presumably pure 
stock of birds of the usual coloration throws out one or more 
having the Japan plumage. It is to be observed that the male 
has in the coloration of the parts mentioned no little resemblance 
to that of the second indubitably good species, the P. muticus 
(or P. spicifer of some writers) of Burma and Java, though the 
character of the latter's crest the feathers of which are barbed 
along their whole length instead of at the tip only and its 

1 Classical authors contain many allusions to its high appreciation 
at the most sumptuous banquets; and medieval bills of fare on state 
occasions nearly always include it. In the days of chivalry one of 
the most solemn oaths was taken "on the peacock," which seems to 
have been served up garnished with its gaudy plumage. 



golden-green neck and breast furnish a ready means of distinction. 
Sir R. Heron was confident that the Japan breed had arisen in 
England within his memory, 2 and C. Darwin (Animals and 
Plants under Domestication, i. 290-292) was inclined to believe it 
only a variety; but its abrupt appearance, which rests on indis- 
putable evidence, is most suggestive in the light that it may one 
day throw on the question of evolution as exhibited in the origin 
of " species." It should be stated that the Japan bird is not 
known to exist anywhere as a wild race, though apparently kept 
in Japan. The accompanying illustration is copied from a plate 
drawn by J. Wolf, given in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the 
Phasianidae. 

The peafowls belong to the group Gallinae, from the normal mem- 
bers of which they do not materially differ in structure; and, though 
by some systematists they are raised to the rank of a family, 
Pavonidae, most are content to regard them as a sub-family of 
Phasianidae (PHEASANT, q.v.). Akin to the genus Pavo is Poly- 
plectrum, of which the males are armed with "two or more spurs on 
each leg, and near them is generally placed the genus Argusianus, 
containing the argus-pheasants, remarkable for their wonderfully 
ocellated plumage, and the extraordinary length of the secondary 
quills of their wings, as well as of the tail-feathers. It must always 
be remembered that the so-called " tail " of the peacock is formed 
not by the rectrices or true tail-feathers, but by the singular develop- 
ment of the tail-coverts. (A. N.) 

PEAK, THE, a high table-land in the north of Derbyshire, 
England, included in the Pennine range of hills. The name, 
however, is extended, without definite limits, to cover the whole 
of the hilly district north of Buxton. The table-land reaches an 
elevation of 2088 ft. in Kinder Scout. The geological formation 
is millstone-grit, and the underlying beds are not domed, but 
cup-shaped, dipping inward from the flanks of the mass. The 
summit is a peaty moorland, through which masses of rock 
project at intervals. The name of this high plateau has from the 
1 7th century been identified with " peak," the pointed or conical 
top of a mountain, but the very early references to the district 
and certain places in it show clearly, as the New English 
Dictionary points out, that this connexion is unwarranted. The 
name appears in the Old English Chronicle (924) as Peaclond, of 
the district governed from the castle of Peveril of the Peak (sec 
DERBYSHIRE), and also in the name of the cavern under the hill 
at Castleton, Peac's Arse. Peac, it has been suggested, is the 
name of a local deity or demon, and possibly may be indentified 
with Puck. For the etymology of " peak," point, &c., and its 
variants or related words, " pick " and " pike," see PIKE. 

PEALE, CHARLES WILLSON (1741-1826), American portrait 
painter, celebrated especially for his portraits of Washington, 
was born in Queen Anne county, Maryland, on the i6th of April 
1741. During his infancy the family removed to Chestertown, 
Kent county, Maryland, and after the death of his father 
(a country schoolmaster) in 1750 they removed to Annapolis. 
Here, at the age of 13, he was apprenticed to a saddler. About 
1764 he began seriously to study art. He got some assistance 
from Gustavus Hesselius, a Swedish portrait painter then living 
near Annapolis, and from John Singleton Copley in Boston; 
and in 1767-1770 he studied under Benjamin West in London. 
In 1770 he opened a studio in Philadelphia, and met with 
immediate success. In 1772, at Mount Vernon, Peale painted 
a three-quarters-length study of Washington (the earliest known 
portrait of him), in the uniform of a colonel of Virginia militia. 
This canvas is now in the Lee Memorial Chapel of Washington 
and Lee University. He painted various other portraits of 
Washington; probably the best known in a full-length, which 
was made in 1778, and of which Peale made many copies. This 
portrait had been ordered by the Continental Congress, which, 
however, made no appropriation for it, and eventually it was 
bought for a private collection in Philadelphia. Peale painted 
two miniatures of Mrs Washington (1772 and 1777), and portraits 
of many of the famous men of the time, a number of which 
are in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His portraits of 
Washington do not appeal so strongly to Americans as do those 
of Gilbert Stuart, but his admitted skill as a draughtsman gives to 
all of his work considerable historical value. Peale removed to 
1 A. Newton himself regarded this as probably incorrect. 



PEALE, R. PEAR 



Philadelphia in 1777, and served as a member of the committee 
of public safety; he aided in raising a militia company, became a 
lieutenant and afterwards a captain, and took part in the battles 
of Trenton, Princeton and Germantown. In 1770-1 780 he was 
a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, where he voted for 
the abolition of slavery he freed his own slaves whom he had 
brought from Maryland. In 1801 he undertook, largely at his 
own expense, the excavation of the skeletons of two mastodons 
in Uls'ter and Orange counties, New York, and in 1802 he estab- 
lished at Philadelphia Peale's Museum. He was one of the 
founders, in 1805, of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts 
at Philadelphia. At the age of eighty-one Peale painted a large 
canvas, " Christ Healing the Sick at Bethesda," and at eighty- 
three a full-length portrait of himself, now in the Academy of the 
Fine Arts. He died at his country home, near Germantown, 
Pennsylvania, on the 2 2nd of February 1826. 

His brother, JAMES PEALE (1749-1831), also an artist, painted 
two portraits of Washington (one now the property of the New 
York Historical Society, and the other in Independence Hall, 
Philadelphia), besides landscapes and historical compositions. 

PEALE, REMBRANDT (1778-1860), American artist, was born 
in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of February 1778, 
the son of Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). He studied under his 
father, under Benjamin West in London (1802-1803), and in 
Paris in 1807 and 1809. As early as 1795 he had begun from life 
a portrait of Washington. Of this he made many replicas, the 
latest in 1823, purchased by the United States government 
in 1832, and now in the Capitol of Washington. Peale was one 
of the first of American lithographers. He was an excellent 
draughtsman, but in colour his work cannot rank with hisfather's. 
In 1843 he devised for the Philadelphia public schools a system 
of teaching drawing and penmanship. His portraits include 
those of President Jefferson, Mrs Madison, Commodores Perry, 
Decatur, and Bainbridge, Houdon, the sculptor, General Arm- 
strong, and an equestrian portrait of General Washington, now 
in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His " Court of Death " 
(1820) is in the Detroit Art Gallery. In 1825 Peale succeeded 
John Trumbull as president of the American Academy of Fine 
Arts (founded in 1802 as the New York Academy of Fine Arts), 
and he was one of the original members of the National 
Academy of Design. He wrote several books, among them 
Notes on Italy (1831), Reminiscences of Art and Artists (1845). 
He died in Philadelphia on the 3rd of October 1860. 

A brother, RAPHAELLE PEALE (1774-1825), was one of the 
earliest of American still-life painters; and another brother, 
TITIAN RAMSEY PEALE (1800-1885), made numerous drawings, 
some of them in water-colour, in illustration of animal life. 

See " Rembrandt Pcalc," partly autobiographical, in C.E.Lester's 
The Artists of America (New York, 1846). 

PEAR (Pyrus communis), a member of the natural order 
Rosaceae, belonging to the same genus as the apple (P. mains), 
which it resembles in floral structure. In both cases the so- 
called fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the 
flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated, and en- 
closing within its cellular flesh the five cartilaginous carpels which 
constitute the " core " and are really the true fruit. From the 
upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five 
petals, and the very numerous stamens. The form of the pear 
and of the apple respectively, although usually characteristic 
enough, is not by itself sufficient to distinguish them, for there 
are pears which cannot by form alone be distinguished from 
apples, and apples which cannot by superficial appearance be 
recognized from pears. The main distinction is the occurrence 
in the tissue of the fruit, or beneath the rind, of clusters of cells 
filled with hard woody deposit in the case of the pear, constituting 
the " grit," while in the apple no such formation of woody cells 
takes place. The appearance of the tree the bark, the foliage, 
the flowers is, however, usually quite characteristic in the 
two species. Cultivated pears, whose number is enormous, are 
without doubt derived from one or two wild species widely 
distributed throughout Europe and western Asia, and sometimes 
forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England, 



where the pear is sometimes considered wild, there is always 
the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some 
seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which 
has degenerated into the wild spine-bearing tree known as 
Pyrus communis. 

The cultivation of the pear extends to the remotest antiquity. 
Traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings; it is 
mentioned in the oldest Greek writings, and was cultivated by 
the Romans. The word " pear " or its equivalent occurs in all 
the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects different 
appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found a 
diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse 
de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from 
the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic. A certain 
race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their 
leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their 
fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of Perry (see 
CIDER). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their 
precocity and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordaia, a 
species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire and 
Cornwall. 

Karl Koch considered that cultivated pears were the descendants 
of three species P. persica (from which the bergamots have 
descended), P. elaeagrifolia and P. sinensis. J. Decaisnc, who made 
the subject one of critical study for a number of years, and not only 
investigated the wild forms, but carefully studied the peculiarities 
of the numerous varieties cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at 
Paris, refers all cultivated pears to one species, the individuals of 
which have in course of time diverged in various directions, so as 
to form now six races: (l) the Celtic, including P. cordata; (2) the 
Germanic, including P. communis, P. achras, and P. piraster; (3) 
the Hellenic, including P. parviflora, P. sinaica and others; (4) 
the Pontic, including P. elaeagrifolia; (5) the Indian, comprising 
P . Paschae; and (6) the Mongolic, represented by P. sinensis. With 
reference to the Celtic race, P. cordata, it is interesting to note its 
connexion with Arthurian legend and the Isle of Avalon or Isle of 
Apples. An island in Loch Awe has a Celtic legend containing the 
principal features of Arthurian story; but in this case the word is 
" berries " instead of " apples." Dr Phen6 visited Armorica 
(Brittany) with a view of investigating these matters, and brought 
thence fruits of a small berry-like pear, which were identified 
with the Pyrus cordata of western France. 

Cultivation. The pear may be readily raised by sowing the 
pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming 
what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer 
varieties are grafted for increase. For new varieties the flowers 
should be fertilized with a view to combine, in the seedlings 
which result from the union, the desirable qualities of the parents. 
The dwarf and pyramid trees, more usually planted in gardens, 
are obtained by grafting on the quince stock, the Portugal quince 
being the best; but this stock, from its surface-rooting habit, 
is most suitable for soils of a cold damp nature. The pear-stock, 
having an inclination to send its roots down deeper into the soil, 
is the best for light dry soils, as the plants are not then so likely 
to suffer in dry seasons. Some of the finer pears do not unite 
readily with the quince, and in this case double working is 
resorted to; that is to say, a vigorous-growing pear is first 
grafted on the quince, and then the choicer pear is grafted on 
the pear introduced as its foster parent. 

In selecting young pear trees for walls or espaliers, some 
persons prefer plants one year old from the graft, but trees two 
or three years trained are equally good. The trees should be 
planted immediately before or after the fall of the leaf. The wall 
trees require to be planted from 25 to 30 ft. apart when on free 
stocks, and from 15 to 20 ft. when dwarfed. Where the trees 
are trained as pyramids or columns they may stand 8 or 10 ft. 
apart, but standards in orchards should be allowed at least 30 ft., 
and dwarf bush trees half that distance. 

In the formation of the trees the same plan may be adopted as 
in the case of the apple. For the pear orchard a warm situation 
is very desirable, with a soil deep, substantial, and thoroughly 
drained. Any good free loam is suitable, but a calcareous loam 
is the best. Pear trees worked on the quince should have the 
stock covered up to its junction with the graft. This is effected 
by raising up a small mound of rich compost around it. a contriv- 
ance which induces the graft to emit roots into the surface soil, 



PEARCE PEARL 



and also keeps the stock from becoming hard or bark-bound. 
The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots 
more than one year old. The mode most commonly adopted 
of training wall pear-trees is the horizontal. For the slender 
twiggy sorts the fan form is to be preferred, while for strong 
growers the half-fan or the horizontal is more suitable. In the 
latter form old trees, the summer pruning of which has been 
neglected, are apt to acquire an undue projection from the wall 
and become scraggy, to avoid which a portion of the old spurs 
should be cut out annually. 

The summer pruning of established wall or espalier-rail trees 
consists chiefly in the timely displacing, shortening back, or 
rubbing off of the superfluous shoots, so that the winter pruning, 
in horizontal training, is little more than adjusting the leading 
shoots and thinning out the spurs, which should be kept close to 
the wall and allowed to retain but two or at most three buds. 
In fan-training the subordinate branches must be regulated, the 
spurs thinned out, and the young laterals finally established in 
their places. When horizontal trees have fallen into disorder, the 
branches may be cut back to within 9 in. of the vertical stem 
and branch, and trained in afresh, or they may be grafted with 
other sorts, if a variety of kinds is wanted. 

Summer and autumn pears should be gathered before they are 
fully ripe, otherwise they will not in general keep more than a 
few days. The Jargonelle should be allowed to remain on the 
tree and be pulled daily as wanted, the fruit from standard trees 
thus succeeding the produce of the wall trees. In the case of 
the Crassane the crop should be gathered at three different 
times, the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second 
a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe. 
The first gathering will come into eating latest, and thus the 
season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged. It is 
evident that the same method may be followed with other 
sorts which continue only a short time in a mature state. 

Diseases. The pear is subject to several diseases caused by fungi. 
Gymnosporangium sabinae, one of the rusts (Uredineae) passes one 
stage of its life-history on living pear leaves, forming large raised 
spots or patches which are at first yellow but soon become red and 
are visible on both faces; on the lower face of each patch is a group 
of cluster-cups or aecidia containing spores which escape when ripe. 
This stage in the life-history was formerly regarded as a distinct 
fungus with the name Roestelia cancellata; it is now known, however, 
that the spores germinate on young juniper leaves, in which they give 
rise to this other stage in the plant's history known as Gymnospor- 
angium. The gelatinous, generally reddish-brown masses of spores 
the teleutospores formed on the juniper in the spring germinate 
and form minute spores sporidia which give rise to the aecidium 
stage on the pear. Diseased pear leaves should be picked off and 
destroyed before the spores are scattered and the various species of 
juniper on which the alternate stage is developed should not be 
allowed near the pear trees. 

Pear scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, Fusidadium pyrinum, 
very closely allied and perhaps merely a form of the apple scab 

fungus, F. dendriticum. As in 
the case of the apple disease it 
forms large irregular blackish 
blotches on the fruit and 
leaves, the injury being often 
very severe especially in a cool, 
damp season. The fungus 
mycelium grows between the 
cuticle and the epidermis, 
the former being ultimately 
ruptured by numerous short 
branches bearing spores (con- 
idia) by means of which the 
disease is spread. As a pre- 
ventive repeated spraying 
with dilute Bordeaux mixture 
is recommended, during the 
flowering season and early 
development of the fruit. 
Similar spraying is recom- 
(From a specimen in the British Museum.) mended for pear-leaf blister 
Pear Scab (Fusidadium pyrinum). caused by Taphrina buttata, 

1 . Leaf showing diseased areas. !? * forms s ^ ollen areas on 

2, Section of leaf surface showing the ^, SQ fae attackdb 
spores or conidia, c, borne on long var ; etv of : t ^^ 
stalks (conidiophores) X25O. the y O u n g er bran 

injured by the pearl oyster scale (Aspidiotus ostreaeformisi^Uch 




may be removed by washing in winter with soft soap and hot 
water. A number of larvae of Lepidoptera feed on the leaves 
the remedy is to capture the mature insects when possible. The 
winter moth (Cheimatobia brumata) must be kept in check by putting 
greasy bands round the trunks from October till December or 
January, to catch the wingless females that crawl up and deposit 
their eggs in the cracks and crevices in the bark. The caterpillars 
of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina) and of the goat moth (Cossus 
ligniperda) sometimes bore their way into the trunks and destroy 
the sap channels. If badly bored, the trees are useless; but in 




Pear-leaf Cluster-cups (Gymnosporangium sabinae). 

I. Leaf showing groups of cups or aecidia. 2, Early stage of 

disease. 3, Cups enlarged X 5. 

the early stages if the entrance of the caterpillars has been detected, 
a wire should be pushed into the hole. One of the worst pests 
of pear trees is the pear midge, known as Diplosis pyrivora or 
Cecidomyia nigra, the females of which lay their eggs in the flower- 
buds before they open. The yellow maggots devour the seeds and 
thus ruin the crop. When deformed fruits are noticed they should 
be picked off and burned immediately. Species of aphides may be 
removed by tobacco infusion, soapsuds or other solutions. A gall 
mite (Phytoptus pyri) sometimes severely injures the leaves, on 
which it forms blisters the best remedy is to cut off and burn 
the diseased leaves. 

The Alligator or Avocado Pear is Persea gratissima, a member 
of the natural order Lauraceae, and a native of the West Indies 
and other parts of tropical America. It is a tree of 25 to 30 ft. 
high and bears large pear-shaped fruits, green or deep purple in 
colour, with a firm yellowish-green marrow-like pulp surrounding 
a large seed. The pulp is much esteemed in the West Indies and 
is eaten as a salad, usually with the addition of pepper, salt and 
vinegar. The pulp contains much oil, which is used for lighting 
and soap-making, and the seeds yield a deep indelible black 
stain which is used for marking linen. 

Prickly pear is the popular name for species of Opunlia (see 
CACTUS). 

The name wooden pear is applied to the fruits of Xylotnelum 
(nat. ord. Proteaceae), an Australian genus of trees with very 
thick, woody, inversely pear-shaped fruits which split into two 
parts when ripe. 

PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851- ), American artist, 
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I3th of October 1851. 
In 1873 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris, and after 
1885 he lived in Paris and at Auvers-sur-Oise. He painted 
Egyptian and Algerian scenes, French peasants, and portraits, 
and also decorative work, notably for the Congressional Library 
at Washington. He received medals at the Paris Salon and 
elsewhere, and was decorated with the Legion of Honour, the 
order of Leopold, Belgium, the order of the Red Eagle, Prussia, 
and the order of Dannebrog, Denmark. Among his best known 
paintings are " The Decapitation of St John the Baptist " 
(i88i),in the Art Institute of Chicago; " Prayer " (1884), owned 
by the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association; " The 
Return of the Flock," in the Bohemian Club, San Frana'sco; 
and " Meditation," in the New York Metropolitan Museum. 

PEARL. Pearls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre, 
produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal 
ornament. The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those 
shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or 



PEARL 



which bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by boring parasites, 
are those most likely to yield pearls. 

The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which 
lines the interior of many shells and is known as " mother-of- 
pearl." Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this 
substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of 
rays of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface 
an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit- 
able medium. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous 
shell is digested in acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away, 
leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown 
by Dr Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is 
undisturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched. 

It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form 
it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or 
other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl 
becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attach- 
ment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may 
receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a 
pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it 
may be flat on one side and convex on the other, forming what 
jewelers know as a " perle bouton." In the course of growth 
the pearl may become involved in the general deposit of mother- 
of-pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell. 
It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been 
unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in 
the workshop. 

When a pearl oyster is attacked by a boring parasite the 
mollusc protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point 
of invasion, thus forming a hollow body of irregular shape known 
as a " blister pearl." Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed 
in trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often 
produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments 
of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are 
termed " perles baroques," or " barrok pearls." It appears that 
the Romans in the period of the Decline restricted the name unio 
to the globular pearl, and termed the baroque margaritum. It 
was fashionable in the i6th and I7th centuries to mount curiously 
shaped baroques in gold and enamel so as to form ornamental 
objects of grotesque character. A valuable collection of such 
mounted pearls by Dinglinger is preserved in the Green vaults at 
Dresden. 

A pearl of the first water should possess, in jewelers' language, 
a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be 
of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost 
translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It 
should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical 
pear-shape. On removing the outer layer of a pearl the sub- 
jacent surface is generally dull, like a dead fish-eye, but it 
occasionally happens that a poor pearl encloses a "lively kernel," 
and may therefore be improved by careful peeling. The most 
perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pelle- 
grina," in the museum of Zosima in Moscow; it is a perfectly 
globular Indian pearl of singular beauty, weighing 28 carats. 
The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the Beresford 
Hope collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This 
magnificent pearl weighs 3 oz., has a circumference of 4.5 in., and 
is surmounted by an enamelled and jewelled gold crown, forming 
a pendant of great value. 

Pearl Fisheries. The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly 
from India and the Persian Gulf, but at the present time they are 
also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores 
of Central America and some of the South Pacific Islands. The 
ancient fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf 
of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8 m. off the western 
shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar. The Tinnevelly 
fishery is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These 
Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of government 
inspectors, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the 
best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally com- 
mences in the second week in March, and lasts for from four to six 
weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets 



of from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to 
reach the oyster-banks at sunrise. Each boat generally carries 
ten divers. On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving 
commences. A stone weighing about 40 Ib is attached to 
the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in 
pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord, 
drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of 
oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the 
divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though 
exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as 
long as six minutes. After resting for a minute or two at the 
surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted, 
when he comes on board and watches the rope, while his comrade 
relieves him as diver. The native descends naked, carrying only 
a girdle for the support of the basket in which he places the pearl 
oysters. In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his 
toes. To arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other 
fishes which infest the Indian waters he carries spikes of iron- 
wood; and the genuine Indian cliver never descends without the 
incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the 
boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short- 
lived man. 

The diving continues from sunrise to about noon, when a gun 
is fired. On the arrival of the fleet at shore the divers carry their 
oysters to a shed, where they are made up into four heaps, one 
of which is taken by the diver. The oysters are then sold by 
auction in lots' of 1000 each. The pearls, after removal from the 
dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of 
small brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the 
successive vessels being smaller and smaller. Having been sized 
in this way, they are sorted as to colour, weighed and valued. 

Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishing has been 
carried on in the Persian Gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds 
extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most 
important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chief 
centre of the trade is the port of Lingah. Most of the products 
of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that 
many of the best are sold there. The shells usually present a 
dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearl." The 
yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, while the whitest 
go to Bagdad. Very small pearls, much below a pea in size, 
are generally known as " seed-pearls," and these are valued in 
India and China as constituents of certain electuaries, while 
occasionally they are calcined for chunam, or lime, used with betel 
as a masticatory. There is a small pearl-fishery near Karachi 
on the coast of Bombay. 

From the time of the Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been 
prosecuted along the coast of the Red Sea, especially in the 
neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir. This fishery is now 
insignificant, but the Arabs still obtain from this district a 
quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from 
Alexandria, and come into the market as " Egyptians." 

Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago, on 
the north-east of Borneo. The mother-of-pearl shells from the 
Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and 
back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes. Pearl 
oysters are also abundant in the seas around the Aru Islands to 
the south-west of New Guinea. From Labuan a good many 
pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore. They are also 
obtained from the neighbourhood of Timor, and from New 
Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific, 
mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though 
fine shells are also found in deep water outside the coral reefs. 
The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the women 
are said to be more skilful than the men. They anoint their 
bodies with oil before diving. Fine pearl-shells are obtained 
from Navigators' Islands, the Society Islands, the Low Archi- 
pelago or Paumota Isles and the Gambier Islands. Many of 
the Gambier pearls present a bronzy tint. 

Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of 
Central America, especially in the Gulf of California, and to a less 
extent around the Pearl Islands in the Bay of Panama. The 



26 



PEARL 



fishing-grounds are in water about 40 ft. deep, and the season 
lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to 
obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that 
one shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped 
in barrels from San Francisco and Panama. Some pearls of rare 
beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los 
Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats, 
the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz 
in California. The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls. 
Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in 
the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Carib- 
bean Sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from 
St Thomas and from the island of Margarita, off the coast of 
Venezuela. From Margarita Philip II. of Spain is said to have 
obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats. 

Of late years good pearls have been found in Shark's Bay, on 
the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless 
Harbour. Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other 
points along the western coast, between the i5th and 25th 
parallels of south latitude. An important pearl-fishery is also 
established in Torres Strait and on the coast of Queensland. 
The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the 
divers are generally Malays and Papuans, though sometimes 
native Australians. On the western coast of Australia the 
pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving. 
Pearl-shells have also been found at Port Darwin and in 
Oakley Creek, New Zealand. 

River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anodonta, 
especially by Unio margaritiferus. These species belong to the family 
Unionidae, order Eulamellebranchia. They inhabit the mountain- 
streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere^ 
especially in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, 
Lapland and Canada. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by 
Tacitus and by Pliny, and a breastplate studded with British pearls 
was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as 
1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of 
Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was 
sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The 
Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived 
in 1860 by a German named Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland 
and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasan- 
try, thus leading to an eager search for more pearls the following 
season. It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the seaso.i's 
fishing in the Scotch rivers was worth at least 12,000. This 
yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only 
a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional 
fisherman. 

The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are 
the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon, 
the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other 
streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated 
for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain 
to the queen of Charles II., presented her with a Conway pearl 
which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland 
the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls. 
It is said that Sir John Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent 
for pearl-fishing in the Irt in Cumberland. Although the pearl- 
fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of 
Germany. The most important of these are in the forest-streams of 
Bavaria, between Ratisbon and Passau. The Saxon fisheries are 
chiefly confined to the basin of the White Elster, and those of 
Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa. For more than 
two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated 
by inspectors, who examine the streams every spring, and determine 
where fishing is to be permitted. After a tract has been fished over, 
it is left to rest for ten or fifteen years. The fisher-folk open the 
valves of the mussels with an iron instrument, and if they find no 
ptarl restore the mussel to the water. 

River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and 
have been systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren 
county, Ohio, and also on the Mississippi, especially about Musca- 
tine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan 
produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anodonta 
japonica. But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel 
is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine 
pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative 
purposes. More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls 
are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned 
as products of the western part of the empire in the Rh'ya,_ a 
dictionary compiled earlier than 1000 B.C. A process for promoting 
the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was 
discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the I3th 
century ; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city 



of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages, 
and is said to give employment to about 5000 people. Large num- 
bers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves 
of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction 
of various foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked 
bamboo stick. These " matrices " are generally pellets of prepared 
mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood. After a num- 
ber of these objects have been placed in convenient positions on one 
valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is 
repeated on the other valve. The mussels are then placed in shallow 
ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of night- 
soil being thrown in from time to time. After several months, in 
some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the 
pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells, 
while the molluscs themselves serve as food. The matrix is generally 
extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white wax, the 
aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the appearance of the 
pearl as perfect as possible. Millions of such pearls are annually 
sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those 
which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The 
figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted 
as previously describe.d. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the 
British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicala. It 
should be mentioned that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what 
had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of 
producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden. 

Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain 
shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L. ; but these, though much 
prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade. They are also 
produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L. 1 Yellowish- 
brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa, 
and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta? ' 
Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly 
from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine 
mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of 
little value. 

According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation 
is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite 
within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is 
secreted. The parasite is a stage in the life history of a Trema- 
tode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form 
resembling the common liver-fluke of the sheep, or of a tape- 
worm. As long ago as 1852 Filippi of Turin showed that the 
species of Trematode Distomum duplicalum was the cause of a 
pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta. Kuchen- 
meister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in 
Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the 
central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of 
water mite which is a very common parasite of A nodonta. Filippi 
however states that the mite is only rarely found within a 
pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases. 
R. Dubois and Dr H. Lyster Jameson have made special investi- 
gations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis. 
The latter states that the pearl is produced in a sac which is 
situated beneath the epidermis of the mantle and is lined by an 
epithelium. This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the 
epidermis but from the internal connective-tissue cells. This 
statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for 
calcareous matter is usually secreted by the external epidermis 
only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of 
Trematode belonging to the genus Leucilhodendrium, a species 
closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriac, 
which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers, 
Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another 
species of duck, namely the common Scoter, Oedemia nigra, which 
is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trema- 
todes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under 
consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which 
they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first 
host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but 
at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the 
parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode 
enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and 

1 Strombus gigas, L., is a Gastropod belonging to the family 
Strombidae, of the order Pectinibranchia. Turbinella scolymus, 
Lam., is a Gastropod of the same order. 

2 Placuna placenta, L., belongs to the family Anomiidae; it is 
found on the shores of North Australia. Pinna squamosa, Gmelin, 
belongs to the Ostreacea; it occurs in the Mediterranean. Both 
are Lamellibranchs. 



PEARL, THE 



27 



leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is really an immature 
condition of the adult. The Cercaria makes its way into the 
tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst 
previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the 
duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the 
liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being 
devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and 
become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl. 
Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus 
are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and 
that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts 
are plentiful. 

The first suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained 
from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites 
was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in 
1857-1859. Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl 
fishery has been organized by Professor Herdman. Herdman and 
Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera 
vulgaris, -Schum, the nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens 
examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm. This larva is of 
globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus. As in 
the case of the mussel the larva dies in its cyst and its remains are 
enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a French writer has 
said, the ornament associated in all ages with beauty and riches 
is nothing but the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm. 

The cysticercus described by Herdman and Hornell has on the 
surface a muscular zone within which is a depression containing 
a papilla which can be protruded. It was at first identified as 
the larva of a tapeworm called Tetrarhynchus, and Professor 
Herdman concluded that the life-history of the pearl parasite 
consisted of four stages, the first being exhibited by free larvae 
which were taken at the surface of the sea, the second that in the 
pearl oyster, the third a form found in the bodies of file-fishes 
which feed on the oysters, and the fourth or adult stage living in 
some species of large ray. It has not however been proved that 
the pearl parasite is a Tetrarhynchus, nor that it is connected 
with the free larva or the form found in the file-fish, Balistes; nor 
has the adult form been identified. All that is certain is that 
the pearls are due to the presence of a parasite which is the larva 
of a Cestode; all the rest is probability or possibility. A French 
naturalist, M. Seurat, studying the pearl oyster of the Gambier 
Archipelago in the Pacific, found that pearl formation was due 
to a parasite quite similar to that described by Herdman and 
Hornell. This parasite was described by Professor Giard as 
characterized by a rostrum armed with a single terminal sucker 
and he did not identify it with TetrarHynchus. 

Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl 
are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Meleagrina 
of Lamarck, for which Dr Jameson in his recent revision of the species 
prefers the name Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical 
regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae, 
which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the 
hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot 
has a very stout byssus. Meleagrina is distinguished by the small 
size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are 
as follows. The type species is Meleagrina margaritifera, which has 
no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by 
different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago 
have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as 
black-edged Banda shell ; those from Australia and New Guinea 
and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called 
Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in 
Tahiti, Gambier Islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding 
both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman 
Islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Mada- 
gascar, and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and 
Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in 
the Persian Gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red Sea variety 
is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west 
coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies 
Panama shell and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot in 
diameter and a weight of 10 Ib per pair of shells, is considered as a 
distinct species by Dr Jameson and named Margaritifera maxima. 
It is found along the north coast of Australia and New Guinea and 
the Malay Archipelago. The nacreous surface of this shell is white, 
without the black or dark margin of the common species; it is 
known in the trade as the silver-lip, gold-lip and by other names. 
It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster. 



Dr Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above thirty-two 
species of Margaritifera or- Meleagrina; all these have rudimentary 
teeth on the hinge. The most important species is Meleagrina 
vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern 
India, the lingah shell of the Persian Gulf and the pearl oyster of 
the Red Sea. Since the opening of the Suez Canal the latter form 
has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at 
Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate 
it on the French coast. The species occurs also on the coasts of the 
Malay Peninsula, Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both 
for its shells (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur 
on the coasts of South Africa but have no market value. Melea- 
grina carchariarum is the Shark's Bay shell of the London market. 
It is taken in large quantities at Shark's Bay, Western Australia, 
and is of rather small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality. 
The pearl oyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a 
variety of Meleagrina vulgaris. Meleagrina radiata is the West 
Indian pearl oyster. 

The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in 
the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for handles 
of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket-knives, &c. It is also 
used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, European 
lacquered papier-mache work, trays, &c., and as an ornamental 
inlay generally. The carving of pilgrim shells and the elaboration of 
crucifixes and ornamental work in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive 
industry of the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. Among 
the South Sea Islands the shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks. 
Among shells other than those of Meleagrina margaritifera used as 
mother-of-pearl may be mentioned the Green Ear or Ormer shell 
(Haliotis tuberculata) and several other species of Haliotis, besides 
various species of Turbo. 

Artificial pearls were first made in western Europe in 1 680 by 
Jacquin, a rosary-maker in Paris, and the trade is now largely carried 
on in France, Germany and Italy. Spheres of thin glass are filled 
with a preparation known as " essence d'orient," made from the 
silvery scales of the bleak or " ablette," which is caused to adhere 
to the inner wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with 
white wax. Many imitation pearls are now formed of an opaline 
glass of nacreous lustre, and the soft appearance of the pearl obtained 
by the judicious use of hydrofluoric acid. An excellent substitute 
for black pearl is found in the so-called " ironstone jewelry," and 
consists of close-grained haematite, not too highly polished ; but the 
great density of the haematite immediately destroys the illusion. 
Pink pearls are imitated by turning small spheres out of the rosy 
part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral. 

See Clements R. Markham, " The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery," 
in Journ. Soc. Arts (1867), xv., 256; D. T. Macgowan, " Pearls and 
Pearl-making in China," ibid. (1854), ii. 72; F. Hague, "On the 
Natural and Artificial Production of Pearls in China," in Journ. Roy. 
Asiatic Soc. (1856), vol. xvi.; H. J. Le Beck, " Pearl Fishery in the 
Gulf of Manar," in Asiatic Researches (1798), v. 393; K. Mobius, 
Dieechten Perlen (Hamburg, 1857); H. Lyster Jameson, " Formation 
of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), pi. I ; idem, " On the Identity and 
Distribution of Mother-of- Pearl Oysters," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901), 
pi. i, pp. 372-394; Herdman and Hornell, Rep. Ceylon Pearl Fisheries 
(London, Royal Soc., 1903) ; and Kunz and Stevenson, Book of the 
Pearl (New York, 1908), with bibliography. (J. T. C.) 

PEARL, THE. The Middle-English poem known as Pearl, or 
The Pearl, is preserved in the unique manuscript Cotton Nero 
Ax at the British Museum ; in this volume are contained also the 
poems Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight. 
All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal 
evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now 
generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author. 
The MS., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of 
the I4th or the beginning of the isth century, and appears to 
be but little later than the date of composition ; no line of Pearl 
or of the other poems is elsewhere to be found. 

Pearl is a poet's lament for the loss of a girl-child, " who 
lived not upon earth two years " the poet is evidently the 
child's father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in 
a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of 
heaven he sees her beneath " a crystal rock," beyond a stream ; 
the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the 
opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs 
him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the 
mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the 
New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious 
maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all 
of them clad in white, pearl-bedecked robes as Pearl herself. 
And there he sees, too, " his little queen." A great- love- 
longing possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge 



PEARSALL PEARSON, C. H. 



into the stream that keeps him from her. In the very effort 
the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the little 
mound where his Pearl had " strayed below ": 

" I roused me, and fell in great dismay, 
And, sighing, to myself I said: 

Now all be to that Prince's pleasure." 

The poem consists of one hundred and one stanzas, each oi 
twelve lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, be, be; 
the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic 
effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines. 
Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute 
a section, of which accordingly there are twenty in all, the whole 
sequence being linked together by the device of making the 
first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous 
verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The 
author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to 
use it. The extant pieces in the metre are short religious poems, 
some of the later (e.g. God's Complaint, falsely attributed to 
Scottish authorship) revealing the influence of Pearl. 

The dialect is West Midland, or rather North- West Midland, 
and the vocabulary is remarkable for the blending of native 
speech with Scandinavian and Romance elements, the latter 
partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the 
author's knowledge of French literature. 

" While the main part of the poem," according to Gollancz, 
" is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and 
the parable of the Vineyard, the poet's debt to the Romaunt of 
the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of 
the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it 
can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of 
Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of 
dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and 
reference. ' The river from the throne,' in the Apocalypse, 
here meets ' the waters of the wells ' devised by Sir Mirth for 
the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of 
Revelation, with its almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of 
the Rose, with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of 
the wealth and brilliancy of the poem. The poet's fancy revels 
in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but 
his fancy is subordinated to his earnestness and intensity." 

The leading motifs of Pearl are to be found in the Gospel 
in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one 
pearl of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for 
the child-bereft, " for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven." 
Naturally arising from the theme, and from these motifs, some 
theological problems of the time are touched upon, or treated 
somewhat too elaborately perhaps, and an attempt has been made 
to demonstrate that Pearl is merely allegorical and theological, 
and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely ignore 
or fail to recognize the subtle personal touches whereby the 
poem transcends all its theological interests, and makes its 
simple and direct appeal to the human heart. Herein, too, lies 
its abiding charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love 
of nature, colour and the picturesque, the technical skill, and 
the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to the 
unknown poet. 

Various theories have been advanced as to the authorship of 
Pearl and the other poems in the manuscript. The claims of 
Huchown " of the Awle Ryale " have been vigorously (but 
unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode 
(Chaucer's " philosophical Strode ") the most attractive of all 
the theories is still, unfortunately, " not proven." By piecing 
together the personal indications to be found in the poems 
an imaginary biography of the poet may be constructed. It 
may safely be inferred that he was born about 1330, somewhere 
in Lancashire, or a little to the north ; that he delighted in open- 
air life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed 
amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in medieval hall 
and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study, 
theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and 
had a child named Margery or Marguerite the Daisy, or the 



Pearl at whose death his happiness drooped and life's joy 
ended. 

The four poems are closely linked and belong to one period 
of the poet's career. In Gawayne, probably the first of the four, 
the poet is still the minstrel rejoicing in the glamour of the 
Arthurian tale, but using it, in almost Spenserian spirit, to point 
a moral. In Pearl the minstrel has become the elegiac poet, 
harmonizing the old Teutonic form with the newer Romance 
rhyme. In Cleanness he has discarded all attractions of form, 
and writes, in direct alliterative metre, a stern homily on chastity. 
In Patience a homiletic paraphrase of ^onah he appears to 
be autobiographical, reminding himself, while teaching others, 
that " Poverty and Patience are needs playfellows." He had 
evidently fallen on evil days. 

It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote his 
Latin eclogue Olympia in memory of his young daughter 
Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of 
interest; the direct influence of the Latin on the English poem 
is not so clear as has been maintained. Pearl cannot be placed 
earlier than 1360; it is most probably later than Olympia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Texts and Translations: Early Alliterative 
Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the fourteenth Century (edited 
by Richard Morris, Early English Text Society I. 1864; revised, 
1869, 1885, 1896, 1901); Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth 
Century, edited, with a Modern Rendering, by Israel Gollancz (with 
frontispiece by Holman Hunt, and prefatory lines, sent to the 
editor by Tennyson) ; revised edition of the text, privately printed, 
1897; new edition of text and translation, " King's Classics, 1910- 
1911; Facsimile of MS. Cotton Nero Ax, 1910-1911; The Pearl, 
(edited by C. G. Osgood; Boston, 1906). Translations by Gollancz 
(as above) ; G. G. Coulton (1906) ; Osgood (1907) ; Miss Mead (1908) ; 
Miss Jewett (1908); part of the poem, by S. Weir Mitchell (1906). 

Literary History: Tenbrink, History of English Literature (trans- 
lated by H. M. Kennedy, 1889, i. 336-351); G. Nelson, Huchown 
of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1902) ; Carletpn Brown, The Author 
of the Pearl, considered in the Light of his Theological Opinions 
(publications of the Modern Languages Association of America, 
xix. 115-153; 1904); W. G. Schofield, The Nature and Fabric of the 
Pearl (ibid. pp. 154-215; 1904); also Symbolism, Allegory and 
Autobiography (ibid. xxiv. 585-675; 1909); I. Gollancz, Cambridge 
History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv. 

Works connected with Pearl: Sir Gawayne, a Collection of Ancient 
Romance Poems (edited by Sir F. Madden; London, 1839); Sir 
Gawayne (re-edited by Richard Morris, E.E.T.S., 1864, 1869; text 
revised by I. Gollancz, 1893); The Parlement of the Thre Ages, and 
Wynnere and Wastoure (edited by I. Gollancz: London, 1897); 
Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., 
1867) ; Political, Religious and Love Poems (edited by F. J. Furnivall, 
E.E.T.S., 1866, 1903). 

Metre. Clark S. Northup, Study of the Metrical Structure of the 
Pearl (publications of the Modern Languages Association, xii. 
326-340). 

Phonology. W. Fick, Zum mittelenglischen Gedicht von der Perle 
(Kiel, 1885). (I. G.) 

PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795-1856), English 
composer, was born on the i4th of March 17951 at Clifton. 
Educated for the bar, he practised till 1825, when he left England 
for Germany and studied composition under Panny of Mainz; 
with the exception of three comparatively short visits to 
England, during one of which he made the acquaintance of 
the English school of madrigals, he lived abroad, selling his 
family property of Willsbridge and settling in the castle of 
Wartensee, on the lake of Constance. He produced many works 
of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices in combination: 
from his part songs, such as " Oh, who will o'er the downs ? " to 
bis elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable 
eight-part compositions, " Great God of Love " and " Lay a 
Garland," or the beautiful " Light of my Soul." His reception 
into the Roman Church in his later years may have suggested 
the composition of some beautiful sacred music, among other 
things a fine " Salve Regina." He wrote many valuable 
treatises on music, and edited a Roman Catholic hymn-book. 
He died on the 5th of August 1856. 

PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894), British historian 
and colonial statesman, was born in London on the 7th of 
September 1830. After receiving his early education at Rugby 
and King's College, London, he went up to Oxford, where he 



PEARSON, J. PEARSON, J. L. 



was generally regarded as the most brilliant of an exceptionally 
able set, and in 1854 obtained a fellowship at Oriel College. 
His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to 
abandon medicine, which he had adopted as a career, and in 
1855 he returned to King's College as lecturer in English language 
and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted 
for the professorship of modern history. He made numerous 
journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia 
in 1858, his account of which was published anonymously in 
1859 under the title of Russia, by a Recent Traveller; an adven- 
turous journey through Poland during the insurrection of 1863, 
of which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in 
the Spectator; and a visit to the United States in 1868, where 
he gathered materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro 
problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime, 
besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and 
then to the Spectator, and editing the National Review, he wrote 
the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of England (1861). 
The work was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whose " extrava- 
gant Saxonism " Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared 
in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of England 
during the Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second 
volume which met with general recognition. Still better was 
the reception of his admirable Maps of England in the First 
Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these labours he 
was threatened with total blindness; and, disappointed of 
receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 1871 he emigrated to 
Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a 
sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly 
improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the 
university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the 
Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically 
organized the whole system of higher education for women in 
Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly 
he definitely adopted politics as his career. His views on the 
land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility 
of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility 
of character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one 
of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister 
without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as 
minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890 
he was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of 
his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in 
Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return 
to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his 
works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show 
that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones, 
that the yellow and black races must increase out of all propor- 
tion to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization. 
He died in London on the 29th of May 1894. 

A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in 
1896, and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of 
great interest. 

PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686), English divine and scholar, 
was born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February 
1612. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and 
was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in 
1634. On taking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury 
prebend of Nether-Avon. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to 
the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living 
of Thorington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain 
to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made 
weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastcheap, in London. With 
Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the 
subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in 
Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title 
Scisme Unmask't (1658). Pearson also argued against the 
Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's 
polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated 
Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St 
Clement's, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of the work had 
been preached several years before. In the same year he 



29 

published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John 
Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the 
Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to 
the rectory of St Christopher-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was 
created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal 
chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master 
of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady 
Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the 
ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for 
the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy. 
There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from 
Richard Baxter. On the i4th of April 1662 he was made master 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a 
fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge 
Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean 
Daille. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius 
has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfoot and other recent scholars. 
Upon the death of John \yilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed 
to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annales cyprianici were 
published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's 
works. He died at Chester on the i6th of July 1686. His last 
work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the 
First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annales Paulini the 
principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell 
in 1688. 

See the memoir in Biographia Britannica, and another by Edward 
Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological 
Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the 
whole of the theological writings. 

PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897), English 
architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born 
in Brussels on the 5th of July 1817. He was articled at the age 
of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon 
removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke. 
He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired 
in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however, 
by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance 
and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the 
erection of his first church of EUerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843, 
to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are 
Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to pre- 
cedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift 
them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity, 
Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are 
notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864), 
his first groined church, was also the first of a series of buildings 
which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contempor- 
aries. In these he applied the Early English style to modern 
needs and modern economy with unrivalled success. St Augus- 
tine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London 
(1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon 
(1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth 
(1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), are characteristic examples 
of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral 
(1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation 
of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative 
spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among 
cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his 
care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and 
Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster 
Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which 
last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches, 
the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster 
Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his hand- 
ling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra 
anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough 
Cathedral in 1896), but he generally proved the soundness 
of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was 
not confined to church building. Treberfydd House (1850), 
Quar Wood (1858), Lechlade Manor, an Elizabethan house 
(1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance 
style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria 



PEARY 



Embankment, London, the remodelling of the interiors of 
Clieveden House (1893) and No. 18 Carlton House Terrace (1894), 
with many parsonages, show his aptitude for domestic architec- 
ture. In general design he first aimed at form, embracing both 
proportion and contour; and his work may be recognized by 
accurate scholarship coupled with harmonious detail. Its key- 
notes are cautiousness and refinement rather than boldness. 
He died on the nth of December 1897, and was buried in the 
nave of Westminster Abbey, where his grave is marked by the 
appropriate motto Sustinuit et abstinuit. He was elected A.R.A. 
in 1874, R.A. in 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, 
and a fellow and member of the Council of the Royal Institute 
of British Architects. 

The following are some of Pearson's more important works, 
not already named: Ferriby church (1846); Stow, Lincolnshire 
(restoration, 1850) ; Weybridge, St James's (1853) ; Freeland church, 
parsonage and schools (1866) ; Kilbuin, St Peter's Home (1868) ; 
Wentworth church (1872); Horsforth church (1874); Cullercoats, 
St George's (1882) ; Chiswick, St Michaells (restoration, 1882) ; Great 
Yarmouth church (restoration, 1883); Liverpool, St Agnes' (1883); 
Woking Convalescent Home (1884); Headingley church (1884); 
Torquay, All Saints (1884); Maidstone, All Saints (restoration, 
1885); Shrewsbury Abbey (1886); Ayr, Holy Trinity (1886); Hythe 
church (restoration, 1887); Oxford, New College, reredos (com- 
pletion, 1889); Cambridge University Library (additions, 1889); 
Friern Barnet, St John's (1890); Cambridge, Sidney Sussex College 
(additions, 1890); Middlesex Hospital chapel (1890); Bishopsgate, 
St Helen's (restoration, 1891); Maida Hill (Irvingite) church (1891); 
Barking, All Hallows (restoration, 1893) ; Cambridge, Emmanuel 
College (additions, 1893); Ledbury, St Michael's (restoration, 
1894); Malta, Memorial church (1894); Port Talbot church (1895). 

(W. D. C.) 

PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856- ), American Arctic 
explorer, was born at Cresson, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of May 
1856. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1877, and in 1881 
became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy with the rank of lieuten- 
ant. In 1884 he was appointed assistant-engineer in connexion 
with the surveys for the Nicaragua Ship Canal, and in 1887-1888 
he was in charge of these surveys. In 1886 he obtained leave of 
absence for a summer excursion to Disco Bay on the west coast 
of Greenland. From this point he made a journey of nearly a 
hundred miles into the interior, and the experience impressed 
him with the practicability of using this so-called inland ice-cap 
as a highway for exploration. In 1891 he organized an expedi- 
tion under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's 
wife, the first white woman to accompany an Arctic ex- 
pedition. After wintering in Inglefield Gulf on the north- 
west coast of Greenland, in the following spring Lieut. Peary, 
with a young Norwegian, Eivind Astrup, crossed the inland 
ice-cap along its northern limit to the north-east of Greenland 
and back. The practical geographical result of this journey 
was to establish the insularity of Greenland. Valuable 
work was also performed by the expedition in the close 
study which was made of the isolated tribe of the Cape 
York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in 
the world. 1 Lieut. Peary was able to fit out another Arctic 
expedition in 1893, and was again accompanied by Mrs Peary, 
who gave birth to a daughter at the winter quarters in Inglefield 
Gulf. The expedition returned in the season of 1894, leaving 
Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hugh G. Lee 
to renew the attempt to cross the inland ice in the next year. 
This they succeeded in doing, but without being able to carry 
the work of exploration any farther on the opposite side of 
Greenland. During a summer excursion to Melville Bay in 
1894, Peary discovered three large meteorites, which supplied 
the Eskimos with the material for their iron implements, as 
reported by Sir John Ross in 1818, and on his return in 1895 
he brought the two smaller ones with him. The remaining 
meteorite was brought to New York in 1897. In 1898 Lieut. 
Peary published Northward over the Great Ice, a record of all his 
expeditions up to that time, and in the same year he started 

* A narrative of the expedition written by Mrs Peary, and con- 
taining an account of the " Great White Journey across Greenland," 
by her husband, was published under the title of My Arctic Journal. 



on another expedition to the Arctic regions. In this and sub- 
sequent expeditions he received financial aid from Mr Morris 
Jesup and the Peary Arctic Club. The greatest forethought 
was bestowed upon the organization of the expedition, a four- 
years' programme being laid down at the outset and a system 
of relief expeditions provided for. A distinctive feature was 
the utilization of a company of Eskimos. Although unsuccessful 
as regards the North Pole, the expedition achieved the accurate 
survey (1900) of the northern limit of the Greenland continent 
and the demanstration that beyond it lay a Polar ocean. 
In 1902 Peary with Henson and an Eskimo advanced as 
far north as lat. 84 17' 27", the highest point then reached 
in the western hemisphere. Lieut. Peary had now been 
promoted to the rank of Commander, and on his return he 
was elected president of the American Geographical Society. 
In November 1903 he went to England on a naval commission 
to inquire into the system of naval barracks in Great 
Britain, and was presented with the Livingstone Gold Medal 
of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Peary 
then began preparations for another expedition by the con- 
struction of a special ship, named the " Roosevelt," the first 
ever built in the United States for the purpose of Arctic 
exploration. He sailed from New York on the i6th of July 
1905, having two years' supplies on board. The " Roosevelt " 
wintered on the north coast of Grant Land, and on the 2ist of 
February a start was made with sledges. The party experienced 
serious delay owing to open water between 84 and 85, and 
farther north the ice was opened up during a six days' gale, 
which cut off communications and destroyed the depots which 
had been established. A steady easterly drift was experienced. 
But on the 2ist of April, 1906, 876' was reached the"farthest 
north " attained by man by which time Peary and his com- 
panions were suffering severe privations, and had to make the 
return journey in the face of great difficulties. They reached 
the north coast of Greenland and subsequently rejoined the ship, 
from which, after a week's rest, Peary made a sledge journey 
along the north coast of Grant Land. Returning home, the 
expedition reached Hebron, Labrador, on the i3th of October, 
the " Roosevelt " having been nearly wrecked en route. In 1907 
the narrative of this journey, Nearest the Pole, was published. 

In 1908 Peary started in the " Roosevelt " on the journey 
which was to bring him his final success. He left Etah on the 
i8th of August, wintered in Grant Land, and set forward over the 
ice from Cape Columbia on the ist of March 1909. A party of 
six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of 
another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished. 
At the end of the month Captain Bartlett was the only white 
man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87 48' N., the highest 
latitude then ever reached. Peary, with his negro servant and 
four Eskimos, pushed on, and on the 6th of April 1909 reached 
the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took obser- 
vations, and on sounding, a few miles from the pole, found no 
bottom at 1500 fathoms. The party, with the exception of one 
drowned, returned safely to the " Roosevelt," which left her 
winter quarters on the i8th of July and reached Indian Harbour 
on the sth of September. Peary's The North Pole: Its Discovery 
in igog was published in 1910. 

Just before the news came of Peary's success another 
American explorer, Dr F. A. Cook (b. 1865), returning from 
Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he 
had reached the North Pole on the 2ist of April 1908. He had 
accompanied an expedition northward in 1907, prepared to 
attempt to reach the Pole if opportunity offered, and according 
to his own story had done so, leaving his party and taking only 
some Eskimos, early in 1908. Nothing had been heard of him 
since March of that year, and it was supposed that he had 
perished. Cook's claim to have forestalled Peary was at first 
credited in various circles, and he was given a rapturous 
reception at Copenhagen; but scientific opinion in England and 
America was more reserved, and eventually, after a prolonged 
dispute, a special committee of the university of Copenhagen, 
to whom his documents were submitted, declared that they 



PEASANT PECAUT 



contained no proof that he had reached the Pole. By that time 
most other people had come to an adverse conclusion and the 
sensation was over. 

PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, 
belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan"), a countryman 
or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning 
or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground. 
Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently 
used of the rural population of such countries as France, where 
the land is chiefly held by small holders, " peasant proprietors." 
(See ALLOTMENTS and METAYAGE). 

PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous 
industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at 
Darlington on the 315! of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease 
(1737-1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having 
retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance 
of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in 
constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington. 
He died at Darlington on the 3ist of July 1858. His second 
son, Joseph Pease (1799-1872), who assisted his father in his 
railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to 
1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was 
interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham 
and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manu- 
factures; and he was active in educational and philanthropic 
work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807-1881), was M.P. for 
South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of 
his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its 
interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before 
the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the 
French, Napoleon III. / 

Joseph Pease's eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (1828- 
1903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South 
Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division 
of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward 
.Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous 
as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to 
1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to 
1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. 1860), entered 
parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip, 
being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster in 1910. 

Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837-1898), 
member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895 
to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for 
Darlington 1898-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips. 

The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Alfred Pease in 
1907. 

PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. pelia, pecia, piece, 
ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt, pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, 
portion), a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of 
bogs in many parts of the world. The continent of Europe is 
estimated to contain 212,700 sq. m. of bog; Ireland has 2,858,150 
acres, Canada 30,000,000 acres, and the United States 20,000,000 
acres. The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly 
aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum 
is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanugino- 
sum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the 
vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxida- 
tion and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi, 
in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water, 
which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata. 
As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged 
and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the 
deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers, 
under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later 
deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most 
favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a 
mean annual temperature of about 45 F. ; no bogs are found 
between latitudes 45 N. and 45 S. 

Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance, 
resembling turf or compressed hay, containing conspicuous plant 



remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling black 
clay when wet, and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two 
typical forms may be noticed: " Hill peat " (the mountain or 
brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and 
consisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and " Bottom 
peat " (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes, 
rivers, and brooks, and containing Hypnum. It always contains 
much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before 
the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most 
other purposes. A specimen dried at 100 C. had the composi- 
tion: carbon = 60-48%, hydrogen = 6- 10%, oxygen = 32-55%, 
nitrogen = 0-88%, ash = 3~3O%; the ash is very variable from 
i to 65 % and consists principally of clay and sand, with lesser 
amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, &c. The specific gravity 
has been variously given, owing to the variable water content 
and air spaces; when dried and compressed, however, it is denser 
than water. 

Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general 
practice is to cut a trench about a foot deep with a peculiarly 
shaped spade, termed in Ireland a " slane," and remove sods 
from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the 
next is attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid step- 
working may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse 
may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to 
drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally 
turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six 
weeks. The dried sods are known as " dug peat." Excavators 
and dredges are now extensively used, and the drying is effected 
in heated chambers, both fixed and revolving. 

The low value of ordinary dug peat as a fuel has led to processes 
for obtaining a more useful product. In M. Ekenberg's process 
the wet peat is pulped and milled so as to make it of uniform 
composition, and the pulp passed into an oven maintained at 
l8o-2OO F., where it is carbonized by superheated water. The 
pressed product, which resembles lignite, still contains 8 to 14% of 
water; this is driven off by heat, and the residue briquetted. The 
final product is nearly equal to coal in calorific value, and has the 
additional advantage of a lower sulphur content 0-2 to 0-4 % 
against about 2 % in ordinary coal. M. Zeigler's method leads to 
the production of a useful coke. Both these processes permit the 
recovery of valuable by-products, especially ammonium sulphate. 
Experiments for obtaining a gas suitable for consumption in gas- 
engines have been followed by commercial processes devised by the 
Mond Gas Corporation, London, and Crossley Bros, of Manchester, 
and by Caro and Frank in Germany. The processes essentially 
consist in destructively distilling peat in special retorts and under 
specified conditions, and, in addition to the gas, there is recovered 
a useful coke and also the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate. 

The conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia has been the subject 
of much work, and is commercially pursued at a works at Carn- 
lough, Co. Antrim, under patents held by H. C. Woltereck. The 
peat is treated with a mixture of air and water vapour in special 
furnaces, and the gaseous products, including paraffin tar, acetic 
acid and ammonia, are led through a special scrubber to remove 
the tar, then through a tower containing milk of lime to absorb 
the acid (the calcium acetate formed being employed for the manu- 
facture of acetone, &c.), and finally through a sulphuric acid tower, 
where the ammonia is converted into ammonium sulphate which 
is recovered by crystallization. 

Peat has also been exploited as a source of commercial alcohol, 
to be employed in motors. In the process founded on the experi- 
ments of R. W. Wallace and Sir W. Ramsay, which gives 25 to 26 
gallons of spirit from a ton of peat, the peat is boiled with water 
containing a little sulphuric acid, the product neutralized with 
lime and then distilled; the ammonia is also recovered. In another 
process a yield of 40 gallons of spirit and 66 Ib of ammonium 
sulphate per ton of peat is claimed. 

Of other applications we may notice C. E. Nelson's process for 
making a paper, said to be better than ordinary wrapping; the first 
factory to exploit this idea was opened at Capac, Michigan, in 1906. 
Peat has been employed as a manure for many years, and recently 
attempts have been made to convert artificially its nitrogen into 
assimilable nitrates; such a process was patented by A. Miintz 
and A. G. Girard of Paris, in 1907. 

See P. R. Bjorling and F. T. Gissing, Peat and its Manufacture 
(1907); F. T. Gissing, Commercial Peat (1909); E. Nystrom, Peat 
and Lignite (1908), published by Department of Mines of Canada. 

PECAUT, FELIX (1828-1898), French educationalist, a 
member of an old Huguenot family, was born at Salies de Beam, 
in 1828. He was for some months evangelical pastor at Salies, 
but he had no pretence of sympathy with ecclesiastical authority 



PECCARY PECK 



He was consequently compelled to resign his pastorate, and for 
some years occupied himself by urging the claims of a liberal 
Christianity. In 1879 he conducted a general inspection of 
primary education for the French government, and several 
similar missions followed. His fame chiefly rests in his successful 
organization of the training school for women teachers at 
Fontenoy-aux-Roses, to which he devoted fifteen years of 
ceaseless toil. He died on the 3ist of July 1898. 

A summary of his educational views is given in his Public Educa- 
tion and National Life (1897). 

PECCARY, the name of the New World representatives of 
the swine (Suidae) of the E. hemisphere, of which they constitute 
the sub-family Dicotylinae (or Tagassuinae). (See ARTIODACTYLA 
and SWINE.) 

The teeth of the peccaries differ from those of the typical Old 
World pigs (Sus), numerically, in wanting the upper outer incisor 
and the anterior premolar on each side of each jaw, the dental 
formula being: i. f , c. {, p. f , m. , total 38. From those of all 
Old World swine or Suinae, the upper canines, or tusks, differ 
in having their points directed downwards, not outwards or 




The Collared Peccary (Dicotyles tajacu). 

upwards; these being very sharp, with cutting hinder edges, 
and completely covered with enamel until worn. The lower 
canines are large and directed upwards and outwards, and 
slightly curved backwards. The cheek-teeth form a continuous 
series, gradually increasing in size from the first to the last: the 
molars having square four-cusped crowns. The stomach is 
much more complex than in the true pigs, almost approaching 
that of a ruminant. In the feet the two middle (third and 
fourth) metacarpal and metatarsal bones, which are completely 
separate in the pigs, are united at their upper ends. On the 
fore-foot the two (second and fifth) outer toes are equally 
developed as in pigs, but on the hind-foot, although the inner 
(or second) is present, the outer or fifth toe is entirely wanting. 
As in all Suidae the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are 
situated in its flat, expanded, disk-like termination. The ears 
are rather small, ovate and erect; and there is no external 
appearance of a tail. 

Peccaries, which range fromNewMexico andTexas to Patagonia, 
are represented by two main types, of which the first is the 
collared peccary, Dicotyles (or Tagassu) tajacu, which has an 
extensive range in South America. Generally it is found singly 
or in pairs, or at most in small herds of from eight to ten, and is 
not inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its 
colour is dark grey, with a white or whitish band passing across 
the chest from shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head 
and body is about 36 in. The second form is typified by the 
white-lipped peccary or warri, D. (or T.) labiatus, or pecari, 
representing the sub-genus Olidosus. Typically it is rather 
larger than the collared species, being about 40 in. in length, 
of a blackish colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. It is 



not found farther north than Guatemala, or south of Paraguay. 
Generally met with in large droves of from fifty to a hundred, it 
is of a more pugnacious disposition than the former species, 
and a hunter who encounters a herd in a forest has often to climb 
a tree as his only chance of safety. Peccaries are omnivorous, 
living on roots, fallen fruits, worms and carrion, and often inflict 
great devastation upon crops. Both types are so nearly allied 
that they will breed together freely in captivity. Unlike pigs, 
they never appear to produce more than two young ones at a 
birth. 

Remains of extinct peccaries referable to the modern genus 
occur in the caverns and superficial deposits of South America, 
but not in the earlier, formations. This, coupled with the 
occurrence of earlier types in North America, indicates that the 
group is a northern one. Of the extinct North American 
peccaries, the typical Dicotyles occur in the Pliocene while the 
Miocene Botkriolabis, which has tusks of the peccary type, 
approximates in the structure of its cheek-teeth to the European 
Miocene genus among the Suinae. From this it may be inferred 
that the ancestral peccaries entered America in the Upper 
Oligocene. Platygonus is an aberrant type which died out in 
the Pleistocene. (R.L.*) 

PECHLIN, KARL FREDRIK (1720-1796), Swedish politician 
and demagogue, son of the Holstein minister at Stockholm, was 
educated in Sweden, and entered the Swedish army. He rose 
to the rank of major-general, but became famous by being the 
type par excellence of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parlia- 
mentarian of the final period of the Frihetstiden (see SWEDEN : 
History); he received for many years the sobriquet of " General 
of the Riksdag." Pechlin first appears prominently in Swedish 
politics in 1760, when by suddenly changing sides he contrived 
to save the " Hats " from impeachment. Enraged at being 
thus excluded from power by their former friend, the " Caps " 
procured Pechlin's expulsion from the two following Riksdags - 
In 1769 Pechlin sold the " Hats " as he had formerly sold the 
" Caps, " and was largely instrumental in preventing the pro- 
jected indispensable reform of the Swedish constitution. During 
the revolution of 1772 he escaped from Stockholm and kept 
quietly in the background. In 1786, when the opposition 
against Gustavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared 
in the Riksdag as one of the leaders of the malcontents, and is 
said to have been at the same time in the pay of the Russian 
court. In 1789 he was one of the deputies whom Gustavus III. 
kept under lock and key till he had changed the government 
into a semi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin 
was at the bottom of the plot for murdering Gustavus in 1792. 
On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal 
conspirators met at his house to make their final preparations 
and discuss the form of government which should be adopted 
after the king's death. Pechlin undertook to crowd the fatal 
masquerade with accomplices, but took care not to be there 
personally. He was arrested on the i7th of March, but nothing 
definite could ever be proved against him. Nevertheless he 
was condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Varberg, 
where he died four years later. 

See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 
1905). (R. N. B.) 

PECHORA, a river of N. Russia, rising in the Urals, almost 
on 62 N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short 
distance, then turns N. and maintains that direction up to 
about 66 20' N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and 
to S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying 
into the Gulf of Pechora, situated between the White Sea and 
the Kara Sea. Its total length is 970 m. At its mouth it forms 
an elongated delta. Although frozen in its upper reaches for 
190 days in the year and for 138 days in its lower reaches, it 
is navigable throughout the greater part of its course. Its 
drainage basin covers an area of 127,200 sq. m. The principal 
tributaries are, on the right, the Ilych and the Usa, and on the 
.eft the Izhma, the Tsylma and the Sula. 

PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain. 
It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is J of a bushel. The 



PECKHAM PECORA 



33 



imperial peck contains 554-548 cub. in., in the United States 
of America 537-6 cub. in. The word is in M.E. pek, and 
is found latinized as pecctim or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found 
picotinus, " mensura frumentaria," and picotus, " mensura 
liquidorum " (Du Cange, Gloss, s.vv.) These words seem to be 
connected with the Fr. picoter, to peck, of a bird, and this would 
identify the word with " peck," a variant of " pick," a tap or 
stroke of the beak, especially used of the action of a bird in 
picking up grain or other food. The sense-development in this 
case is very obscure, and the name of the measure is found much 
earlier than " peck " as a variant form of " pick." 

PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292), archbishop of Canterbury, was 
probably a native of Sussex, and received his early education 
from the Cluniac monks of Lewes. About 1250 he joined the 
Franciscan order and studied in their Oxford convent. Shortly 
afterwards he proceeded to the university of Paris, where he 
took his degree under St Bonaventure and became regent in 
theology. For many years Peckham taught at Paris, coming 
into contact with the greatest scholars of the day, among others 
St Thomas Aquinas. About 1270 he returned to Oxford and 
taught there, being elected in 1275 provincial minister of the 
Franciscans in England, but he was soon afterwards called 
to Rome as lector sacri palalii, or theological lecturer in the 
schools of the papal palace. In 1279 he returned to England as 
archbishop of Canterbury, being appointed by the pope on the 
rejection of Robert Burnell, Edward I.'s candidate. Peckham 
was always a strenuous advocate of the papal power, especially 
as shown in the council of Lyons in 1274. His enthronement 
in October 1279 marks the beginning of an important epoch 
in the history of the English primacy. Its characteristic note 
was an insistence on discipline which offended contemporaries. 
Peckham's zeal was not tempered by discernment, and he 
had little gift of sympathy or imagination. His first act on 
arrival in England was to call a council at Reading, which met in 
July 1 279. Its main object was ecclesiastical reform, but the pro- 
vision that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral 
and collegiate churches seemed to the king a political action, 
and parliament declared void any action of this council 
touching on the royal power. Nevertheless Peckham's relations 
with the king were often cordial, and Edward called on him for 
help in bringing order into conquered Wales. The chief note 
of his activity was, however, certainly ecclesiastical. The 
crime of " plurality," the holding by one cleric of two or more 
benefices, was especially attacked, as also clerical absenteeism 
and ignorance, and laxity in the monastic life. Peckham's 
main instrument was a minute system of " visitation," which he 
used with a frequency hitherto unknown. Disputes resulted, 
and on some points Peckham gave way, but his powers as papal 
legate complicated matters, and he did much to strengthen 
the court of Canterbury at the expense of the lower courts. 
The famous quarrel with St Thomas of Cantilupe, bishop of 
Hereford, arose out of similar causes. A more attractive side 
of Peckham's career is his activity as a writer. The numerous 
manuscripts of his works to be found in the libraries of Italy, 
England and France, testify to his industry as a philosopher 
and commentator. In philosophy he represents the Franciscan 
school which attacked the teaching of St Thomas Aquinas 
on the " Unity of Form." He wrote in a quaint and elaborate 
style on scientific, scriptural and moral subjects and engaged 
in much controversy in defence of the Franciscan rule and 
practice. He was " an excellent maker of songs," and his 
hymns are characterized by a lyrical tenderness which seems 
typically Franciscan. Printed examples of his work as com- 
mentator and hymn writer respectively may be found in the 
Firamentum Irium ordinum (Paris, 1512), and his office for 
Trinity Sunday in the " unreformed " breviary. 

The chief authority on Peckham as archbishop of Canterbury, 
is the Registrum fratris Johannis Peckham, edited by C. Trice 
Martin for the Rolls Series (London, 1882-1885). A sympathetic 
account of his life as a Franciscan is to be found in L. Wadding, 
Annales minorum (Lyons, 1625, 1654). See also the article by 
C. L. Kingsford in Did. Nat. Biog., and Wilkin's Concilia magnae 
Britanniae (London, 1737). (E. O'N.) 

XXI. 2 



PECOCK (or PEACOCK), REGINALD (c. i39S-c. 1460), English 
prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was edu- 
cated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having been ordained priest 
in 1421, he secured a mastership in London in 1431, and soon 
became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position 
of the Lollards. In 1444 he became bishop of St Asaph, and 
six years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of 
the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy 
council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious 
views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures 
were not the only standard of right and wrong; he questioned 
some of the articles of the creed and the infallibility of the 
Church; he wished " bi cleer witte drawe men into consente of 
trewe feith otherwise than bi fire and swerd or hangement " and 
in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these 
views the archbishop of Canterbury ,Thomas Bourchier, ordered 
his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found 
guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and 
he only saved himself from a painful death by privately, 
and then publicly (at St Paul's Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renounc- 
ing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called " the only 
great English theologian of the isth century," was then 
forced to resign his bishopric, and was removed to Thorney 
Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless remained until his 
death. The bishop's chief work is the famous Represser of 
over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie, which was issued 
about 1455. In addition to its great importance in the history 
of the Lollard movement the Represser has an exceptional 
interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being 
one of the first writers to use the vernacular. In thought and 
style alike it is the work of a man of learning and ability. 

A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Represser 
published by C. Babingtor. for the Rolls Series in 1860. Pecock' s 
other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the 
Donet, " an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith 
in the form of a dialogue between father and son " ; and the Folewer 
to the Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript. His 
Book of Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library 
of Trinity College, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909). 
See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820). 

PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle), a term employed in a 
more restricted sense in place of the older title Ruminantia, 
to designate the group of ruminating artiodactyle ungulates 
represented by oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes, &c. 

The leading characteristics of the Pecora are given in some 
detail in the article ARTIODACTYLA (q.v.); but it is necessary to 
allude to a few of these here. Pecora, or true ruminants as 
they may be conveniently called, have complex stomachs and 
chew the cud; they have no upper incisor teeth; and the lower 
canines are approximated to the outer incisors in such a manner 
that the three incisors and the one canine of the two sides 
collectively form a continuous semicircle of four pairs of nearly 
similar teeth. In the cheek-teeth the component columns are 
crescent-shaped, constituting the selenodont type. In the fore- 
limbs the bones corresponding to the third and fourth metacar- 
pals of the pig's foot are fused into a cannon-bone; and a similar 
condition obtains in the case of the corresponding metatarsals 
in the hind-limbs. There is generally no sagittal crest to the 
skull; and the condyle of the lower jaw is transversely elongated. 
Another general, although not universal, characteristic of the 
Pecora is the presence of simple or complex appendages on the 
forehead commonly known as horns. In a few existing species, 
such as the musk-deer and the water-deer, these appendages 
are absent, and they are likewise lacking in a large number 
of extinct members of the group, in fact in all the earlier ones. 
They are, therefore, a specialized feature, which has only recently 
attained its full development. 

These horns present several distinct structural types, which may 
be classified as follows : 

I. The simplest type is that of the giraffe, in which three bony 
prominences a single one in front and a pair behind quite 
separate from the underlying bones and covered during life with 
skin, occupy the front surface of the skull. The summits of the 
hind pair are surmounted by bristly hairs. In the extinct 

5 



34 



PECORA 



Sivatherium there are two pairs of such appendages, of which the 
hinder are large and were probably covered during life either with 
skin or thin horn. In the giraffes the separation of the horns from 
the skull may be a degenerate character. 

II. In the Asiatic muntjac deer we find a pair of skin-covered 
horns, or "pedicles," corresponding to the paired horns of the 
giraffe, although welded to the skull. From the summits of these 




FIG. i. Head of Siamese Deer (Cervus schomburgkii), showing 
antlers. 

pedicles arise secondary outgrowths, at first covered with skin, 
which (owing to the growth of a ring of bone at the base arresting 
the flow of blood) eventually dries up and leaves bare bone incapable 
of further growth. In the muntjac the bare bony part, or " antler," 
is small in proportion to the skin-covered pedicle, and simple in 
structure; but in the majority of deer the antler increases in size 
at the expense of the pedicle which dwindles and in some species, 
like the Siamese deer (fig. i), the sambar and the red deer, becomes 
very large and more or less branched. Owing to liability to necrosis, 
the permanent retention of such a mass of dead bone would be 
dangerous; and the antlers are consequently shed annually (or 
every few years), to be renewed the following year, when, till the 
animal becomes past its prime, they are larger than their predeces- 
sors. The periodical shedding is also necessary in order to allow of 
this increase in size. With the exception of the reindeer, antlers 
are confined to the males. 

III. The third type of horn is presented by the American 
prongbuck, or pronghorn, in which bony processes, or " core's," corre- 
sponding to the horns of the giraffe, have acquired a horny sheath, 
in place of skin ; the sheath being in this instance forked, and annually 
shed and renewed, although the core is simple. The sheaths are 
akin to hair in structure, thus suggesting affinity with the hairs 
surmounting the giraffe's horns. Female prongbuck may or may 
not have horns. 

IV. In the great majority of " Hollow-horned Ruminants," 
such as oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes (fig. 2), the horny sheath 
(or true " horn ") forms a simple unbranched cone, which may be 
compressed, spirally twisted, or curved in one or more directions, 
but is permanently retained and continues to grow throughout 
life from the base, while it becomes worn away at the tip. Rarely, 
as in the four-horned antelope, there are two pairs of horns. In 
many cases these horns are present in both sexes. 

Dr H. Gadow is of opinion that the antlers of the deer, the horn- 
like protuberances on the skull of the giraffe, and the true horns 
of the prongbuck and other hollow-horned ruminants (Bovidae) 
are all different stages of evolution from a single common type: 
the antlers of the deer being the most primitive, and the horns of 
the Bovidae the most specialized. From the fact that the bony 
horn-core of the hollow-horned ruminants first develops as a separate 
ossification, as do the horns of the giraffe, while the pedicle of the 
antlers of the deer grow direct from the frontal bone, it has been 
proposed to place the hollow-horned ruminants (inclusive of the 
prongbuck) and the giraffes in one group and the deer in another. 
This arrangement has the disadvantage of separating the deer from 



the giraffes, to which they are evidently nearly related ; but_ Dr 
Gadow's work brings them more into line. Whether he is right 
in regarding the hollow-horned ruminants as derived from the 
primitive deer may, however, be a matter of opinion. One very 
important fact recorded by Dr Gadow is that calves and lambs 
shed their horns at an early age. The Bovidae are thus brought 
into nearer relationship with the American prongbuck (the only 
living ruminant which sheds its horn-cover in the adult condition) 
than has generally been supposed. 

The above-mentioned four types of skull appendages are gener- 
ally regarded as severally characteristic of as many family groups, 
namely the Giraffidae, Cervidae, Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The 
two last are, however, much more closely connected than are either 
of the others, and should perhaps be united. 

Giraffidae. In the Giraffidae, which include not only giraffes 
(Giraffa) but also the okapi (Ocapia) and a number of extinct 
species from the Lower Pliocene Tertiary deposits of southern 
Europe, Asia and North Africa, the appendages on the skull are of 
type No. I., and may well be designated " antler-horns." Another 
important feature is that the lower canine has a cleft or twp-lobed 
crown, so that it is unlike the incisors to which it is approximated. 
There are no upper canines; and the cheek-teeth are short -crowned 
(brachyodont) with a peculiar grained enamel, resembling the 
skin of a slug in character. The feet have only two hoofs, all traces 
of the small lateral pair found in many other ruminants having 
disappeared. 

The giraffes (Giraffa) are now an exclusively African genus, and 
have long legs and neck, and three horns a single one in front 
and a pair behind supplemented in some instances with a rudi- 
mentary pair on the occiput. 

The okapi (Ocapia), which is also African but restricted to the 
tropical forest-region, in place of being an inhabitant of more or 
less open country, represents a second genus, characterized by the 
shorter neck and limbs, the totally different type of colouring, and 
the restriction of the horns to the male sex, in which they form 
a pair on the forehead; these horns being more compressed than 




FIG. 2. Head of Grant's Gazelle (Gazella granti), showing horns. 

the paired horns of the giraffe, and penetrating the skin at their 
summits (see GIRAFFE and OKAPI). Remains of extinct species 
of giraffe occur in the Lower Pliocene formations of Greece, Hungary, 
Persia, Northern India and China. From deposits of the same 
age in Greece, Samos and elsewhere have been obtained skulls 
and other remains of Palaeolragus or Samotherium, a ruminant 
closely allied to Ocapia, the males of which were armed with a very 
similar pair of dagger-shaped horns. Helladotherium was a much 
larger animal, known by a single hornless skull from the Pliocene 
of Greece, which may be that of a female. In the equally large 



PECORA 



35 



Bramatherium and Hydaspitherium of India the horns of the males 
were complex, those of the former including an occipital pair, 
while those of the latter arise from a common base. In both 
genera, as in the okapi, there is a vacuity in front of the orbit. 
Largest of all is Sivatherium, typically from the Lower Pliocene of 
Northern India, but also recorded from Adrianople, in which the 
skull of the male is short and wide, with a pair of simple conical 
horns above the eye, and a huge branching pair at the vertex. 
Libytherium is an allied form from North Africa. Whether the 
Giraffidae were originally an African or a Euro-Asiatic group there 
is not yet sufficient evidence to decide. The family is unrepre- 
sented in the western hemisphere. 

Cervidae. In the deer-tribe, or Cervidae, the lower canine, as in 
the two following families, is simple and similar to the incisors. 
The frontal appendages, when present, are confined (except in the 
case of the reindeer) to the males, and take the form of antlers, that 
is to say of type No. II. in the foregoing description. As a general 
rule, the molars, and more especially the first, are partially brachy- 
odont (short-crowned) ; although they are taller in the chital (Cervus 
axis). In the skull there are two orifices to the lachrymal duct, 
situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. A preorbital vacuity of 
such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone from articulation 
with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in both sexes, and 
sometimes attaining a very great size in the male (see fig. 3). 




FIG. 3. Skull of Chinese Water-Deer, Hydrelaphus inermis (adult 
male), a Deer without Antlers, but with largely developed upper 
canine teeth. (Xj.) 

Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet almost always present, 
and frequently the lower ends of the metacarpals and the meta- 
tarsals as well. Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder 
absent (except in the musk-deer, Moschus). This family contains 
numerous species, having a wide geographical distribution, ranging 
in the New World from the Arctic circle as far south as Patagonia, 
and in the Old World throughout the whole of Europe and Asia, 
but absent in Africa south of the Sahara, and, of course, Australasia. 
Evidently the family originated in the northern continent of the 
Old World, from which an entrance was effected by way of Bering 
Strait into America. Some of the more northern American deer, 
such as the wapiti, reindeer and elk (moose), are cjosely allied to 
Old World species; but there is also a group of exclusively American 
deer (Mazama) the only one found in Central and South America 
the members of which are unlike any living Old World deer; 
and these must be regarded as having reached the western hemi- 
sphere at an earlier date than the wapiti, reindeer and elk (see 
DEER, ELK, FALLOW-DEER, MUNTJAC, MUSK-DEER, PfeRE DAVID'S 
DEER, REINDEER, ROEBUCK, WATER-DEER, &c.). 

Remains of deer more or less nearly allied to species inhabiting 
the same districts are found over the greater part of the present 
habitat of the family. It is noteworthy, however, that certain 
Pliocene European deer (Anoglochis) appear to be closely allied to 
the modern American deer (Mazama). As we descend in the geo- 
logical series the deer have simpler antlers, as in the European 
Miocene Dicrocerus; while in the Oligocene Amphitragulus, Dremo- 
therium and Palaeomeryx, constituting the family Palaeomerycidae, 
antlers were absent, and the crowns of the molars so low that the 
whole depth of the hollows between the crescentic cojumns is com- 
pletely visible. Most of these animals were of small size, and many 
had long upper canines, like those of the existing Hydrelaphus; 
while in all there was no depression for a gland in front of the eye. 

From North America have been obtained remains of certain 
ruminants which seem in some degree intermediate between deer 
and the prongbuck. Of one of these a complete skeleton was 
obtained in 1901 from the Middle Miocene deposits of north-eastern 
Colorado, and as mounted stands 19 in. in height at the withers. 
With the exception that the right antler is malformed and partially 
aborted, and that the bones of the lateral toes have been lost, 
the skeleton is practically complete. The one complete antler has 
a well-marked burr and a long undivided beam, which eventually 
forks. After this there is a bifurcation of the hinder branch, thus 
producing three tines. From the presence of these well-marked 
antlers the skeleton would at first sight be set down as that of a 
small and primitive deer, conforming in regard to the structure of 
these appendages to the American type of the group. Mr W. D. 



Matthew shows, however, that the skeleton of Merycodus, as the 
extinct ruminant is called, differs markedly from that of all deer. 
The most noteworthy point of distinction is in the skull, in which 
the facial portion is sharply bent down on the posterior basal axis 
in the fashion characteristic of the hollow-horned ruminants (oxen, 
antelopes, &c.), and the American prongbuck, instead of running 
more or less nearly parallel to the same, as in deer. Again, the 
cheek-teeth have the tall crowns characteristic of a large number 
of representatives of the first group and of the prongbuck, thereby 
showing that Merycodus can scarcely be regarded as a primitive 
type. As regards the general structure of the rest of the skeleton, 
it must suffice to say that this agrees closely with that of the ante- 
lopes and the prongbuck', and differs markedly from the cervine 
type. In the absence of any trace of the lower extremities of the 
metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the lateral toes the skeleton 
differs from the American deer, and resembles those hollow-horned 
ruminants in which these toes persist. 

As a whole Merycodus presents a curious mixture of cervine 
and antilopine character. To explain these, two alternatives are 
offered by the describer. Either we must regard Merycodus as 
a deer which parallels the antelopes and the prongbuck in every 
detail of skeletal structure, or else, like the prongbuck, an antelope 
separated from the main stock at a date sufficiently early to have 
permitted the development of a distinct type of cranial appendages, 
namely, antlers in place of true horns. The former alternative, 
it is urged, involves a parallelism too close and too uniform between 
unrelated types to have been probable. On the latter view Mery- 
codus, the prongbuck (Antilocapra) and the antelopes must be 
regarded as representing three branches from an original common 
stock, divergent as regards the structure of their cranial appendages, 
but parallel in other respects. If, therefore, Antilocapra deserves 
to be separated as a family from the Bovidae, the same can scarcely 
be refused for Merycodus. But American extinct types appear to 
indicate signs of intimate relationship between antelopes, prong- 
buck and deer, and it may be necessary eventually to amend the 
current classification. As a temporary measure it seems prefer- 
able to regard Merycodus either as representing a distinct sub- 
family of Antilocapridae or a family by itself, the latter course 
being adopted by Mr Matthew. 

Whatever be the ultimate verdict, the association of antlers 
and these, be it noticed, conforming almost exactly with the forked 
type characteristic of American deer with an antilopine type of 
skull, skeleton and teeth in Merycodus is a most interesting and 
unexpected feature. Merycodus was named many years ago by 
Professor J. Leidy on the evidence of imperfect materials, and other 
remains now known to belong to the same type were subsequently 
described as Cosoryx, to which Blastomeryx seems to be allied. 
Not till the discovery of the skeleton of the' species described by 
Mr Matthew was it possible to arrive at an adequate conception of 
the affinities of this remarkable ruminant. 

Antilocapridae. By many modern writers the American prong- 
buck, pronghorn or " antelope," alone forming the genus Antilo- 
capra, is regarded as representing merely a sub-family of the Bovidae, 
to which latter group the animal is structurally akin. In view of 
what has been stated in the preceding paragraph with regard to 
the extinct American genus Merycodus, it seems, however, at least 
provisionally advisable to allow the prongbuck to remain as the 
type of a family Antilocapridae. The characteristic of this family 
as represented by the prongbuck is that the sheath of the horns 
is forked, and shed annually, or every few years. The cheek- 
teeth are tall-crowned (hypsodont), and lateral hoofs are wanting 
(see PRONGBUCK). 

Bovidae. Lastly, we have the great family of hollow-horned 
ruminants or Bovidae, in which the horns (present in the males at 
least of all the existing species) take the form of simple non-deciduous 
hollow sheaths growing upon bony cores. As a rule the molars 
are tall-crowned (hypsodont). Usually only one orifice to the 
lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal 
bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent 
in both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but 
more often are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes 
by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular nodules 
of bone. Lower ends of the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals 
never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. Placenta 
with many cotyledons. 

The Bovidae form a most extensive family, with members widely 
distributed throughout the Old World, with the exception of the 
Australian region; but in America they are less numerous, and 
confined to the Arctic and northern temperate regions, no species 
being indigenous either to South or Central America. The home 
of the family was evidently the Old World, whence a small number 
of forms made their way into North America by way of what is 
now Bering Strait. It has already been pointed out that the 
Cervidae originated in the northern continent of the Old World; 
and it has been suggested that the Bovidae were developed in 
Africa. Unfortunately, we know at present practically nothing 
as to the past history of the group, all the fossil species at present 
discovered approximating more or less closely to existing types. 
While admitting, therefore, that there are several facts in favour 
of the theory of an African origin of the Bovidae, final judgment 



PECS PEDANT 



must for the present be suspended. For the various generic 
types see BOVIDAE, and the special articles referred to under that 
heading. (R. L.*) 



(Ger. FUnfkirchen), a town of Hungary, capital of 
the country of Baranya, 160 m. S.S.W. of Budapest by rail. 
Pop. (1900), 42, 252. It lies on the outskirts of the Mecsek Hills, 
and is composed of the inner old town, which is laid out in an 
almost regular square, and four suburbs. Pecs is the see of a 
Roman Catholic bishop, and its cathedral, reputed one of the 
oldest churches in Hungary, is also ont of the finest medieval 
buildings in the country. It was built in the nth century in 
the Romanesque style with four towers, and completely restored 
in 1881-1891. In the Cathedral Square is situated the Sacellum, 
a subterranean brick structure, probably a burial-chapel, dating 
from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the sth century. 
Other noteworthy buildings are the parish church, formerly a 
mosque of the Turkish period; the hospital church, also a former 
mosque, with a minaret 88 ft. high, and another mosque, the 
bishop's palace, and the town and county hall. Pecs has 
manufactories of woollens, porcelain, leather and paper, and 
carries on a considerable trade in tobacco, gall-nuts and wine. 
The hills around the town are covered with vineyards, which 
produce one of the best wines in Hungary. In the vicinity are 
valuable coal-mines, which since 1858 are worked by the Danube 
Steamship Company. 

According to tradition Pecs existed in the time of the Romans 
under the name of Sompiana, and several remains of the Roman 
and early Christian period have been found here. In the 
Prankish-German period it was known under the name of 
Quinque ecclesiae; its bishopric was founded in 1009. King 
Ludwig I. founded here in 1367 a university, which existed 
until the battle of Mohacs. In 1543 it was taken by the Turks, 
who retained possession of it till 1686. 

PECTORAL, a word applied to various objects worn on the 
breast (Lat. pectus) ; thus it is the name of the ornamental plate 
of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman 
Church during the celebration of mass, the breastplate of the 
Jewish high priest, and the metal plate placed on the breast of 
the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The " pectoral cross," 
a small cross of precious metal, is worn by bishops and abbots 
of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion. 
The term has also been used for the more general " poitrel " or 
" peitrel " (the French and Norman French forms respectively), 
the piece of armour which protected the breast of the war-horse 
of the middle ages. 

PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that 
which solely or exclusively belongs to,or is particularly character- 
istic of, an individual; hence strange, odd, queer. The Lat. 
peculiaris meant primarily " belonging to private property," 
and is formed from peculium, private property, particularly 
the property given by a paterfamilias to his children, or by a 
master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecclesias- 
tical law " peculiar " is applied to those ecclesiastical districts, 
parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which 
were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in 
which they were situated, and were subject to a jurisdiction 
" peculiar " to themselves. They were introduced originally, 
in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers 
of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, e^. 
the Chapel Royal St James's, or St George's Windsor, peculiars 
of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars 
exercised jurisdiction (see ARCHES, COURT OF), and peculiars 
of bishops and deans (see DEAN). The jurisdiction and privi- 
leges of the " peculiars " were abolished by statutory powers 
given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical 
Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838, 
the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes. 

PECULIAR PEOPLE, a small sect of Christian faith-healers 
founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider 
themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James v. 14, 
and in cases of sickness seek no medical aid but rely on oil, 
prayer and nursing. The community is in the main composed 



of simple working people, who, apart from their peculiarity, 
have a good reputation; but their avoidance of professional 
medical attendance has led to severe criticism at inquests on 
children who have died for want of it. 

PEDAGOGUE, a teacher or schoolmaster, a term usually now 
applied with a certain amount of contempt, implying pedantry, 
dogmatism or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. Traidayuyos (ircus, 
boy, ayuybs, leader, 8.ytu>, to lead), from which the English 
word is derived, was not strictly an instructor. He was a 
slave in an Athenian household who looked after the personal 
safety of the sons of the master of the house, kept them from 
bad company, and took them to and from school and the 
gymnasium. He probably sat with his charges in school. The 
boys were put in his charge at the age of six. The 7rai5a7&yy6s, 
being a slave, was necessarily a foreigner, usually a Thracian or 
Asiatic. The Romans adopted the paedagogus or pedagogus 
towards the end of the republic. He probably took some part 
in the instruction of the boys (see SCHOOLS). Under the empire, 
the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves, 
who were being trained and educated in the household of the 
emperor and of the rich nobles and other persons; these boys 
lived together in a paedagogium, and were known as pueri 
paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into 
" page " (?..). 

PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in 
1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as 
the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the 
oboe family; it is constructed on practically the same principles 
as the clarinet, and consists of a tube 10 ft. long, in which cylin- 
drical and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the 
acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up 
twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands 
out like the head of a viper, while at the lower a metal tube, in the 
shape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the 
wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the ' 
other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single 
or beating reed. There are 13 keys and 2 rings on the tube, and 
the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the 
eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet is 
as follows: 



Notation 



Real Sounds 



gj t to 



from 



from 



8va bassa 



The instrument is in B flat two octaves below the B flat 
clarinet, and, like it, it is a transposing instrument, the music 
being written in a key a tone higher than that of the 
composition, and in order to avoid ledger lines a whole octave 
higher besides. The tone is rich and full except for the lowest 
notes, which are unavoidably a little rough in quality, but much 
more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double 
bassoon. The upper register resembles the chalumeau register 
of the B flat clarinet, being reedy and sweet. The instrument 
is used as a fundamental bass for the wood wind at Kneller 
Hall, and it has also been used at Covent Garden to accompany 
the music of Fafner and Hunding in the Nibelungen Ring. 

Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the 
I9th century to construct contra clarinets, but all possessed inherent 
faults and have been discarded (see BATYPHONE). A contrabass 
clarinet in F, an octave below the basset horn, constructed by 
Albert of Brussels in 1890, was, we believe, considered successful, 
but it differed in design from the pedal clarinet. (K. S.) 

PEDANT, one who exaggerates the value of detailed erudition 
for its own sake; also a person who delights in a display of the 
exact niceties of learning, in an excessive obedience to theory 
without regard to practical uses. The word came into English 
in the latter part of the i6th century in the sense of schoolmaster, 
the original meaning of Ital. pedanle, from which it is derived. 
The word is usually taken to be an adaptation of Gr. iraidfvtiv, 



PEDEN PEDIPALPI 



37 



to teach. Others connect with an O. Ital. pedare, to tramp about 
(Lat. pes, foot), of an usher tramping about with his pupils. 

PEDEN, ALEXANDER (c. 1626-1686), Scottish divine, one of 
the leading forces in the Covenant movement, was born at 
Auchincloich, Ayrshire, about 1626, and was educated at 
Glasgow University. He was ordained minister of New Luce 
in Galloway in 1660, but had to leave his parish under Middleton's 
Ejectment Act in 1663. For 23 years he wandered far and wide, 
bringing comfort and succour to his co-religionists, and often 
very narrowly escaping capture. He was indeed taken in June 
1673 while holding a conventicle at Knockdow, and condemned 
by the privy council to 4 years and 3 months' imprisonment on 
the Bass Rock and a further 15 months in the Tolbooth at 
Edinburgh. In December 1678 he was, with sixty others, 
sentenced to banishment to the American plantations, but the 
party was liberated in London, and Peden made his way north 
again to divide the remaining years of his life between his own 
country and the north of Ireland. His last days were spent in 
a cave in the parish of Sorn, near his birthplace, and there he 
died in 1686, worn out by hardship and privation. 

See A. Smelhe, Men of the Covenant, ch. xxxiv. 

PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480-1554), Danish writer, 
known as the " father of Danish literature, " was a canon of the 
cathedral of Lund, and in 1510 went to Paris, where he took his 
master's degree in 1515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder 
Laale and (1514) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus. 
He showed signs of the spirit of reform, asserting that the 
gospels should be translated into the vernacular so that the 
common people might understand. He worked at a continuation 
of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to 
Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. In Holland 
he translated the New Testament (1529) and the Psalms (1531) 
from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed 
opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts. After his return to 
Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmo. He 
published a Danish version (Kronike om Holger Danske) of 
the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the 
Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately 
from the Norwegian Katiamagnus saga. His greatest work, the 
Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally 
as " Christian III.'s Bible, " is an important landmark in 
Danish literature. It was founded on Luther's version, and 
was edited by Peder Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others. 

See C. Pedersen's Danske Skrifter, edited by C. J. Brandt and 
B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-1856). 

PEDESTAL (Fr. picdestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall), a 
term generally applied to a support, square, octagonal or 
circular on plan, provided to carry a statue or a vase. Although 
in Syria, Asia Minor and Tunisia the Romans occasionally 
raised the columns of their temples or propylaea on square 
pedestals, in Rome itself they were employed only to give 
greater importance to isolated columns, such as those of Trajan 
and Antoninus, or as a podium to the columns employed decor- 
atively in the Roman triumphal arches. The architects of the 
Italian revival, however, conceived the idea that no order was 
complete without a pedestal, and as the orders were by them 
employed to divide up and decorate a building in several storeys, 
the cornice of the pedestal was carried through and formed the 
sills of their windows, or, in open arcades, round a court, the 
balustrade of the arcade. They also would seem to have 
considered that the height of the pedestal should correspond in 
its proportion with that of the column of pilaster it supported; 
thus in the church of St John Lateran, where the applied order 
is of considerable dimensions, the pedestal is 13 ft. high instead 
of the ordinary height of 3 to 5 ft. 

PEDICULOSIS, or PHTHIRIASIS, the medical term for the 
pathological symptoms in man due to the presence of lice 
(pediculi), either on the head (pediculus capitis), body (pediculus 
corporis, or vestimentorum) , or pubes (pediculus pubis). 

PEDIGREE, a genealogical tree, a tabular statement of descent 
(see GENEALOGY). The word first appears at the beginning of 
the isth century and takes an extraordinary variety of forms, 



e.g. pedicree, pe de gre, petiegrew, petygru, &c. It is generally 
accepted that these point to a corruption of Fr. pied de grue, foot 
of a crane, and that the probable reference is to the marks 
resembling the claw of a bird found in old genealogies showing 
the lines of descent. Such etymologies as Minshea's par degris, 
by degrees, or pfre degrts, descent by the father, are mere 
guesses. 

PEDIMENT (equivalents, Gr. derfe, Lat. fasligium, Fr. 
ponton), in classic architecture the triangular-shaped portion of 
the wali above the cornice which formed the termination of the 
roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which 
surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated 
with sculpture. The pediment in classic architecture corre- 
sponds to the gable in Gothic architecture, where the roof is of 
loftier pitch. It was employed by the Greeks only as the front 
of the roof which covered the main building; the Romans, how- 
ever, adopted it as a decorative termination to a doorway, niche 
or window, and occasionally, in a row of windows or niches, 
alternated the triangular with a segmental pediment. It was 
reserved for the Italian architects of the decadence to break the 
pediment in the centre, thus destroying its original purpose. 
The earliest English form of the word is periment or peremint, 
probably a workman's corruption of " pyramid. " 

PEDIPALPI, Arachnida (q.v.) related to the spiders, and 
serving in a measure to bridge over the structural interval 
between the latter and the scorpions. The appendages of the 
second pair are large and prehensile, as in scorpions, but are 
armed with spines, to impale and hold prey. The appendages of 
the third pair, representing the first pair of walking legs in spiders 
and scorpions, are, on the contrary, long, attenuated and many- 
jointed at the end. Like the antennae of insects, they act as 
feelers. It is from this structural feature that the term " pedi- 
palpi " has been derived. In the tailless division of the Pedipalpi, 




SrnUl 



Jlncta 



Mexican tailed Pedipalp (Mastigoproetus giganteus). 

namely the Amblypygi of which Phrynus is a commonly cited 
type, these tactile appendages are exceedingly long and lash- 
like, whereas in the tailed division, the Uropygi, of which Thely- 
phonus is best known, the limb is much shorter andless modified. 
Thelyphonus and its allies, however, have a long tactile caudal 
flagellum, the homologue of the scorpion's sting; but its exact 
use is unknown. A third division, the Tartarides, a subordinate 
group of the Uropygi, contains minute Arachnida differing 
principally from the typical Uropygi in having the caudal process 
un jointed and short. Apart from the Tartarides, the Pedipalpi 



PEDOMETER PEEBLESSHIRE 



are large or medium-sized Arachnida, nocturnal in habits and 
spending the day under stones, logs of wood or loosened bark. 
Some species of the Uropygi (Thelyphonidae) dig burrows; and 
in the east there is a family of Amblypygi, the Charontidae, of 
which many of the species live in the recesses of deep caves. 
Specimens of another species have been found under stones 
between tide marks in the Andaman Islands. The Pedipalpi 
feed upon insects, and Like spiders, are oviparous. The eggs 
after being laid are carried about by the mother, adhering in a 
glutinous mass to the underside of the abdomen. 

Pedipalpi date back to the Carboniferous Period, occurring in 
deposits of that age both in Europe and North America. More- 
over, the two main divisions of the order, which were as sharply 
differentiated then as they are now, have existed practically 
unchanged from that remote epoch. 

In spite of the untold ages they have been in existence, the 
Pedipalpi are more restricted in range than the scorpions. The 
Uropygi are found only in Central and South America and in 
south and eastern Asia, from India and south China to the Solo- 
mon Islands.' The absence of the entire order from Africa is an 
interesting fact. The distribution of the Amblypygi practically 
covers that of the Uropygi, but in addition they extend from India 
through Arabia into tropical and southern Africa. Both groups 
are unknown in Madagascar, in Australia, with the exception 
possibly of the extreme north, and in New Zealand. Very little 
can be said with certainty about the distribution of the Tartar- 
ides. They have been recorded from the Indian Region, West 
Africa and sub-tropical America. (R- 1. P-) 

PEDOMETER (Lat. pes, foot, and Gr. utrpov, measure), an 
apparatus in the form of a watch, which, carried on the person 
of a walker, counts the number of paces he makes, and thus 
indicates approximately the distance travelled. The ordinary 
form has a dial-plate marked for yards and miles. The regis- 
tration is effected by the fall of a heavy pendulum, caused by the 
percussion of each step. The pendulum is forced back to a 
horizontal position by a delicate spring, and with each stroke a 
fine-toothed ratchet-wheel connected with it is moved round a 
certain length. The ratchet communicates with a train of wheels 
which work the dial-hands. In using the apparatus a measured 
mile or other known distance is walked and the indication 
thereby made on the dial-plate observed. According as it is too 
great or too small, the stroke of the pendulum is shortened or 
lengthened by a screw. Obviously the pedometer is little better 
than an ingenious toy, depending even for rough measurements 
on the uniformity of pace maintained throughout the journey 
measured. 

PEDRO II. (1825-1891), emperor of Brazil, came to the throne 
in childhood, having been born on the 2nd of December 1825, 
and proclaimed emperor in April 1831, upon the abdication of 
his father. He was declared of full age in 1840. For a long 
period few thrones appeared more secure, and his prosperous 
and beneficent rule might have endured throughout his life 
but for his want of energy and inattention to the signs of the 
times. The rising generation had become honeycombed with 
republicanism, the prospects of the imperial succession were 
justly regarded as unsatisfactory, the higher classes had been 
estranged by the emancipation of the slaves, and all these causes 
of discontent found expression in a military revolt, which in 
November 1889 overthrew the seemingly solid edifice of the 
Brazilian Empire in a few hours. Dom Pedro retired to Europe, 
and died in Paris on the 5th of December 1891. The chief 
events of his reign had been the emancipation of the slaves, 
and the war with Paraguay in 1864-70. Dom Pedro was a 
model constitutional sovereign, and a munificent patron of 
science and letters. He travelled in the United States (1876), 
and thrice visited Europe (1871-1872, 1876-1877, 1886-1889). 

PEEBLES, a royal and police burgh and county town of 
Peeblesshire, Scotland, situated at the junction of Eddleston 
Water with the Tweed. Pop. (1901), 5266. It is 27 m. south of 
Edinburgh by the North British Railway (22 m. by road), and 
is also the terminus of a branch line of the Caledonian system 
from Carstairs in Lanarkshire. The burgh consists of the new 



town, the principal quarter, on the south of the Eddleston, and 
the old on the north; the Tweed is crossed by a handsome five- 
arched bridge. Peebles is a noted haunt of anglers, and the 
Royal Company of Archers shoot here periodically for the silver 
arrow given by the burgh. The chief public buildings are the 
town and county halls, the corn exchange, the hospital and 
Chambers Institution. The last was once the town house of the 
earls of March, but was presented to Peebles byWilliam Chambers, 
the publisher, in 1859. The site of the castle, which stood till 
the beginning of the i8th century, is now occupied by the parish 
church, built in 1887. Of St Andrew's Church, founded in 1195, 
nothing remains but the tower, restored by William Chambers, 
who was buried beside it in 1883. The church of the Holy 
Rood was erected by Alexander III. in 1261, to contain a 
supposed remnant of the true cross discovered here. The 
building remained till 1784, when it was nearly demolished to 
provide stones for a new parish church. Portions of the town 
walls still exist, and there are also vaulted cellars constructed 
in the i6th and i7th centuries as hiding-places against Border 
freebooters. The old cross, which had stood for several years in 
the quadrangle of Chambers Institution, was restored and 
erected in High Street in 1895. The industries consist of the 
manufactures of woollens and tweeds, and of meal and flour 
mills. The town is also an important agricultural centre. 

The name of Peebles is said to be derived from the pebylls, or 
tents, which the Gadeni pitched here in the days of the Romans. 
The place was early a favourite residence of the Scots kings when 
they came to hunt in Ettrick forest. It probably received its 
charter from Alexander III., was created a royal burgh in 1367 
and was the scene of the poem of Peblis to the Play, ascribed to 
James I. In 1544 the town sustained heavy damage in the 
expedition led by the ist earl of Hertford, afterwards the 
protector Somerset, and in 1604 a large portion of it was 
destroyed by fire. Though James VI. extended its charter, 
Peebles lost its importance after the union of the Crowns. 

On the north bank of the Tweed, one mile west of Peebles, stands 
Neidpath Castle. The ancient peel tower dates probably from the 
1 3th century. Its first owners were Tweeddale Frasers or Frisels, 
from whom it passed, by marriage, to the Hays of Yester in Had- 
dingtonshire, earls of Tweeddale. It was besieged and taken by 
Cromwell in 1650. The third earl of Tweeddale (1645-1713) sold 
it to the duke of Queensberry in 1686. The earl of Wemyss suc- 
ceeded to the Neidpath property in 1810. 

PEEBLESSHIRE, or TWEEDDALE, a southern inland county of 
Scotland, bounded N. and N.E. by Edinburghshire, E. and S.E. 
by Selkirkshire, S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire. 
Its area is 222,599 acres or 547-8 sq. m. The surface consists 
of a succession of hills, which are highest in the south, broken 
by the vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous 
tributaries. South of the Tweed the highest points are Broad 
Law and Cramalt Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each 
2723 ft.), while north of the river are, in the west centre, Brough- 
ton Heights (1872), Trahenna Hill (1792), Penvalla (1764) and 
Ladyurd Hill (1724), and in the north-west the Pentland emin- 
ences of Mount Maw (1753), Byrehope Mount (1752) and King 
Seat (1521). The lowest point above sea-level is on the banks of 
the Tweed, where it passes into Selkirkshire (about 450 ft.). 
The principal river is the Tweed, and from the fact that for the 
first 36 m. of its course of 97 m. it flows through the south of 
the shire, the county derives its alternative name of Tweeddale. 
Its affluents on the right are the Stanhope, Drummelzier, Manor 
andQuair;on the left, the Biggar, Lyne, Eddlestone and Leithen. 
The North Esk, rising in Cairnmuir, forms the boundary line 
between Midlothian and Peeblesshire for about four miles, 
during which it presents some very charming pictures, especially 
at Habbie's Howe, where Allan Ramsay laid the scene of the 
Gentle Shepherd. For 4 m. of its course the South Medwin 
divides the south-western part of the parish of Linton from 
Lanarkshire. Portmore Loch, a small sheet of water 2 m. north- 
east of Eddlestone church, lies at a height of 1000 ft. above the 
sea, and is the only lake in the county. The shire is in favour with 
anglers, its streams being well stocked and unpolluted, and few 
restrictions being placed on the fishing. 



PEEKSKILL PEEL, VISCOUNT 



39 



Geology. The southern elevated portion of the county is occupied 
by Silurian rocks, mainly by shales and grits or greywackes of 
Llandovery age. Owing to the repeated folding and crumpling of 
the rocks in this region there are numerous elliptical exposures 
of Ordovician strata within the Silurian tract; but the principal 
area of Ordovician rocks lies north of a line running south-west 
from the Moorfoot Hills through Lyne and Stobo. Here these 
rocks form a belt some four to five miles in breadth ; they are com- 
posed of radiolarian cherts and mudstones with associated con- 
temporaneous volcanic rocks of Arenig age, and of shales, grits 
and limestones of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. The general direction 
of strike of all these formations is south-west-north-east, but the 
dips are sometimes misleading through occasional inversion of the 
strata. Patches of higher Silurian, with Wenlock and Ludlow 
fossils, are found in the north of the country in the Pentland Hills, 
and resting conformably upon the Silurian in the same district is 
the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The Old Red Sandstone here 
consists of a lower division, red and chocolate marls and sandstones ; 
a middle division, volcanic rocks, porphyrites, tuffs, &c., which are 
unconformable on the lower marls in this area; and an upper 
division, sandstones and conglomerates. The south-west extremity 
of the Edinburgh coalfield just enters this county over the north- 
west border where a slice of Carboniferous strata is found let down 
between Silurian and Old Red rocks by two important faults. 
Both Calciferous sandstone and Carboniferous limestone occur, 
with useful beds of coal, limestone, ironstone, fireclay and alum 
shale. An outlier of Carboniferous limestone, surrounded by 
Lower Old Red Sandstone, lies south of Linton. Much glacial 
boulder clay with gravel and sand rests upon the higher ground, 
while morainic deposits are found in the valleys. 

Climate and Industries. The annual rainfall averages from 
33 to 41 in.; the mean temperature for the year is 47-5 F., 
for January 38 F., and for July 59 F. The character of the 
soil varies considerably, peat, gravel and clay being all repre- 
sented. The low-lying lands consist generally of rich loam, 
composed of sand and clay. The farming is pastoral rather than 
arable. The average holding is about 200 acres of arable land, 
with pasturage for from 600 to 800 sheep. Roughly speaking, 
one-fifth of the total area is under cultivation. Oats are the 
chief grain and turnips the chief root crop. The hill pastures are 
better suited to sheep than to cattle, but both flocks and herds are 
comparatively large. Cheviots and half-breds are preferred for 
the grass lands, the heathery ranges being stocked with black- 
faced sheep. Crosses of Cheviots, black-faced and half-bred 
ewes with Leicestershire rams are common. The favourite 
breed of cattle is a cross between Ayrshires and shorthorns, the 
cows being Ayrshire. Many of the horses are Clydesdales bred 
in the county. Pig-keeping is on the decline. A few acres have 
been laid down as nurseries and market gardens, and about 
10,000 acres are under wood, especially at Dalwick, where larch 
and horse-chestnut were first grown in Scotland. Apart from 
agriculture, the only industries are the woollen factories and flour 
mills at Peebles and Innerleithen. 

The North British railway crosses the county in the north from 
Leadburn to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddlestone valley 
from Leadburn to Peebles and Thornielee, while in the south the 
Caledonian railway connects the county town with Biggar in 
Lanarkshire. 

Population and Administration. In 1001 the population 
numbered 13,066 or 43 persons to the sq. m. In igoi one person 
spoke Gaelic only, 72 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are 
Peebles (pop. 5266) and Innerleithen (2181). West Linton, on 
Lyne Water, is a holiday resort. The shire combines with 
Selkirkshire to return one member to parliament, the electors 
of Peebles town voting with the county. Peeblesshire forms a 
sheriff dom with the Lothians and a sheriff -substitute sits in 
the county town. There is a high school in Peebles, and one 
or more schools in the county usually earn grants for secondary 
education. 

History. The country was originally occupied by the Gadeni, 
a British tribe, of whom there are many remains in the shape of 
camps and sepulchral mounds (in which stone coffins, axes and 
hammers have been found), while several place-names (such as 
Peebles, Dalwick and Stobo) also attest their presence. The 
standing stones near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are 
supposed to commemorate a Cymric chief. The natives were 
reduced by the Romans, who have left traces of their military 
rule in the fine camp at Lyne, locally known as Randal's Walls. 



The hill-side terraces at Romanno are conjectured, somewhat 
fancifully, to be remains of a Roman method of cultivation. On 
the retreat of the Romans the Gadeni came into their own again, 
and although they are said to have been defeated by King Arthur 
at Cademuir in 530, they held the district until the consolidation 
of the kingdom after Malcolm II. 's victory at Carham in 1018, 
before which the land, constantly harried by Danes, was nomi- 
nally included in the territory of Northumbria. This tract of 
Scotland is closely associated with the legend of Merlin. David I. 
made the district a deanery in the archdeaconry of Peebles, 
and it afterwards formed part of the diocese of Glasgow. 
Towards the middle of the i2th century it was placed under 
the jurisdiction of two sheriffs, one of whom was settled at 
Traquair and the other at Peebles. At Happrew, in the valley 
of the Lyne, the English defeated Wallace in 1304. The Scottish 
sovereigns had a lodge at Polmood, and often hunted in the 
uplands and the adjoining forests. English armies occasionally 
invaded the county, but more frequently the people were harried 
by Border raiders. Many castles and peels were erected in the 
valley of the Tweed from the Bield to Berwick. Several were 
renowned in their day, among them Oliver Castle (built by Sir 
Oliver Fraser in the reign of David I.), Drumeizier, Tinnis or 
Thane's Castle, and Neidpath. Three miles south of Romanno 
stand the ruins of Drochil Castle, designed for the Regent 
Morton, who was beheaded at Edinburgh in 1581, and the 
building was never completed. Memories of the Covenanters 
cluster around Tweedhopefoot, Tweedshaws, Corehead, Tweeds- 
muir, Talla Linns and other spots. In the churchyard of 
Tweedsmuir is the tombstone of John Hunter, the martyr, 
which was relettered by " Old Mortality." The " men of the 
moss hags " did little fighting in Peeblesshire, but Montrose first 
drew rein at Traquair House after he was defeated at Philip- 
haugh on the Yarrow in 1645. The plain of Sheriffmuir near 
Lyne is the place where the Tweeddale wapinschaws used to be 
held in the i7th century. The Jacobite risings left the county 
untouched, and since the beginning of the ipth century the shire 
has been more conspicuous in literature than in politics. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pennecuick, Description of Tweeddale (1715); 
William Chambers, History of Peeblesshire (Edinburgh, 1864); 
Dr C. B. Gunn, Innerleithen and Traquair (Innerleithen, 1867); 
Sir George Reid, The River Tweed from its Source to the Sea (Text 
by Professor Veitch) (Edinburgh, 1884); Professor Veitch, History 
and Poetry of the Scottish Border (Edinburgh, 1893); Border Essays 
(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (Edin- 
burgh, 1902). 

PEEKSKILL, a village of Westchester county, New York, 
U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Hudson river, about 41 m. N. 
of New York City. Pop. (1910, census), 15,245. It is served 
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, and by 
passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Hudson river. 
The village is the home of many New York business men. 
At Peekskill are the Peekskill military academy (1833, non- 
sectarian); St Mary's school, Mount St Gabriel (Protestant 
Episcopal), a school for girls established by the sisterhood of 
St Mary; the Field memorial library; St Joseph's home (Roman 
Catholic); the Peekskill hospital, and several sanatoria. 
Near the village is the state military camp, where the national 
guard of the state meets in annual encampment. Peekskill has 
many manufactures, and the factory products were valued in 
1905 at $7,251,897, an increase of 306-7 % since 1900. The site 
was settled early in the i8th century, but the village itself dates 
from about 1 760, when it took its present name from the adjacent 
creek or " kill," on which a Dutch trader, Jans Peek, of New 
York City, had established a trading post. During the latter 
part of the War of Independence Peekskill was an important 
outpost of the Continental Army, and in the neighbourhood 
several small engagements were fought between American and 
British scouting parties. The village was incorporated in 1816. 
Peekskill was the country home of Henry Ward Beecher. 

PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, IST VISCOUNT 
(1829- ), English statesman, youngest son of the great 
Sir Robert Peel, was born on the 3rd of August 1829, and was 
educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He unsuccessfully 



PEEL, SIR ROBERT 



contested Coventry in 1863; in 1865 he was elected in the 
liberal interest for Warwick, for which he sat until his elevation 
to the peerage. In December 1 868 he was appointed parliamentary 
secretary to the poor law board. This office he filled until 1871, 
when he became secretary to the board of trade, an appointment 
which he held for two years. In 1873-1874 he was patronage 
secretary to the treasury, and in 1880 he became under- 
secretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr 
Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden)in 1884, Peel was elected 
Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and 
again in 1892.. Throughout his career as Speaker he exhibited 
conspicuous impartiality, combined with a perfect knowledge of 
the traditions, usages and forms of the house, soundness of judg- 
ment, and readiness of decision upon all occasions; and he will 
always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important 
office. On the 8th of April 1895 he announced that for reasons 
of health he was compelled to retire. The farewell ceremony 
was of a most impressive character, and warm tributes were paid 
from all parts of the house. He was created a viscount and 
granted a pension of 4000 for life. He was presented with the 
freedom of the City of London in July 1895. The public 
interest in the ex-Speaker's later life centred entirely in his some- 
what controversial connexion with the drink traffic. A royal 
commission was appointed in April 1896 to inquire into the 
operation and administration of the licensing laws, and Viscount 
Peel was appointed chairman. In July 1898 Lord Peel drew up 
a draft report for discussion, in five parts. Some differences of 
opinion arose in connexion with the report, and at a meeting of 
the commissioners on the i2th of April 1899, when part 5 of the 
draft report was to be considered, a proposal was made to 
substitute an alternative draft for Lord Peel's, and also a series 
of alternative drafts for the four sections already discussed. 
Lord Peel declined to put these proposals, and left the room. 
Sir Algernon West was elected to the chair, and ultimately two 
main reports were presented, one section agreeing with Lord 
Peel, and the other including the majority of the commis- 
sioners presenting a report which differed from his in several 
important respects. The Peel report recommended that a 
large reduction in the number of licensed houses should be 
immediately effected, and that no compensation should be paid 
from the public rates or taxes, the money for this purpose 
being raised by an annual licence-rental levied on the rateable 
value of the licensed premises; it at once became a valuable 
weapon in the hands of advanced reformers. 

Lord Peel married in 1862, and had four sons and two daughters 
(married to Mr J. Rochfort Maguire and to Mr C. S. Goldman). 
His eldest son, William Robert Wellesley Peel (b. 1866), married 
the daughter of Lord Ashton; he was Unionist M.P. for South 
Manchester from 1900 to 1905, and later for Taunton, and also 
acted as Municipal Reform leader on the London County 
Council. 

PEEL, SIR ROBERT, BART. (1788-1850), English statesman, 
was born on the sth of February 1788 at Chamber Hall, in the 
neighbourhood of Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a 
cottage near the Hall. He was a scion of that new aristocracy 
of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical 
discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the i8th 
century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district 
of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire. 
His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peeltcld, and afterwards of 
Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appre- 
ciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to 
cotton-spinning with the spinning-jenny and grew a wealthy man. 
His father, Robert Peel (1750-1830), third son of the last-named, 
carried on the same business at Bury with still greater success, 
in partnership with his uncle, Mr Haworth, and Mr Yates, whose 
daughter, Ellen, he married. He made a princely fortune, 
became the owner of Drayton Manor and member of parlia- 
ment for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth, was a trusted 
and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Pitt, contributed 
munificently towards the support of that leader's war policy, 
and was rewarded with a baronetcy ( 1 800) . 



At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries, 
Peel was a steady industrious boy, the best scholar in the school, 
fonder of country walks with a friend than of school games, 
but reputed one of the best football players. At Christ Church, 
where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he was the first who, 
under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in 
classics and in mathematics. His examination for his B .A. degree 
in 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous 
audience, who came to hear the first man of the day. From 
his classical studies Robert Peel derived not only the classical, 
though somewhat pompous, character of his speeches and the 
Latin quotations with which they were of ten happily interspersed 
but something of his lofty ideal of political ambition. To his 
mathematical training, which was then not common among 
public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness, 
his great power of grasping steadily and working out difficult 
and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition 
to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English 
literature, in history, and in the principles of law, in order to study 
which he entered at Lincoln's Inn. But while reading hard he 
did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and, though 
he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a 
good shot and an untiring walker after game. His Oxford 
education confirmed his atachment to the Church of England. 
His practical mind remained satisfied with the doctrines of his 
youth, and he never showed that he had studied the great 
religious controversies of his day. 

In 1 809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was brought 
into parliament for the close borough of Cashel, which he after- 
wards exchanged for Chippenham, and commenced his parlia- 
mentary career under the eye of his father, then member for 
Tamworth, who fondly saw in him the future leader of the Tory 
party. In that House of Commons sat Wilberforce, Windham, 
Tierney, Grattan, Perceval, Castlereagh, Plunkett, Romilly, 
Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Parnell, 
Huskisson, and, above all, George Canning. Lord Palmerston 
entered the house two years earlier, and Lord John Russell 
three years later. Among these men young Peel had to rise. 
And he rose, not by splendid eloquence, by profound political 
philosophy or by great originality of thought, but by the closest 
attention to all his parliamentary duties, by a study of all the 
business of parliament, and by a style of speaking which owed 
its force not to high flights of oratory, but to knowledge of the 
subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact 
in dealing with a parliamentary audience. With the close of 
the struggle against revolutionary France, political progress in 
England was soon to resume the march which that struggle had 
arrested. Young Peel's lot, however, was cast, through his 
father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 1810, 
seconding the address, he defended the Walcheren expedition, 
which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of 
Lord Porchester's committee. It is said that even then his father 
had discerned in him a tendency to think for himself, and told 
Lord Liverpool that to make sure of his support it would be well 
to place him early in harness. At all events he began official 
life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool's under-secretary for war and the 
colonies under the administration of Perceval. In 1812 he was 
transferred by Lord Liverpool to the more important but 
unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged 
till 1818 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country 
heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever ready 
to burst into rebellion. A middle course between Irish parties 
was impossible, and Peel plied the established engines of coercion 
and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, it was 
his frequent duty to combat Grattan, Plunkett, Canning and 
the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation 
in the House of Commons. He, however, always spoke on this 
question with a command of temper wonderful in hot youth, 
with the utmost courtesy towards his opponents, and with warm 
expressions of sympathy and even of admiration for the Irish 
people. He also, thus early, did his best to advocate and 
promote joint education in Ireland as a means of reconciling 



PEEL, SIR ROBERT 



sects and raising the character of the people. But his greatest 
service to Ireland as secretary was the institution of the regular 
Irish constabulary, nicknamed after him " Peelers," for the 
protection of life and property in a country where both were 
insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the 
violent abuse of O'Connell, whom he was ill advised enough to 
challenge an affair which covered them both with ridicule. 
In 1817 he obtained the highest parliamentary distinction of the 
Tory party by being elected member for the university of Oxford 
an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on 
account of his hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation, 
Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following 
year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long 
been very weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he 
still supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen 
Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by 
the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and 
when Canning retired on account of this affair Peel declined 
Lord Liverpool's invitation to take the vacant place in the 
cabinet. During this break in his tenure of office he had some 
time for reflection, which there was enough in the aspect of the 
political world to move. But early office had done its work. 
It had given him excellent habits of business, great knowledge 
and a high position; but it had left him somewhat stiff and 
punctilious, too cold and reserved and over anxious for formal 
justifications when he might well have left his conduct to the 
judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. At the 
same time he was no pedant in business; in corresponding on 
political subjects he loved to throw off official forms and com- 
municate his views with the freedom of private correspondence; 
and where his confidence was given, it was given without 
reserve. 

At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee 
on the death of Horner. He was chosen for this important 
office by Huskisson, Ricardo and their fellow-economists, who 
saw in him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary 
allegiance to Pitt's financial policy, and had actually voted with 
his Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool's government 
asserting that Bank of England notes were equivalent to legal 
coin. The choice proved judicious. Peel was converted to the 
currency doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his con- 
version in a great speech on the 24th of May 1819, in which he 
moved and carried four resolutions embodying the recommen- 
dations of the bullion committee in favour of a return to cash 
payments. This laid the foundation of his financial reputation, 
and his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal 
turn to his commercial principles. In the course he took he 
somewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from his 
father, who remained faithful to Pitt's depreciated paper, and 
between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching 
passage occurred in the debate. The author of the Cash Pay- 
ments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with 
vigour. The act is sometimes said to have been hard on debtors, 
including the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be 
paid in cash which had been contracted in depreciated paper; 
and Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with 
being biased by his personal interests. But it is answered that 
the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper 
had circulated, themselves contained a provision for a return to 
cash payments six months after peace. 

In 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John 
Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. The writers 
who have most severely censured Sir Robert Peel as a public 
man have dwelt on the virtues and happiness of his private 
and domestic life. He was not only a most loving husband and 
father but a true and warm-hearted friend. In Whitehall 
Gardens or at Drayton Manor he gathered some of the most 
distinguished intellects of the day. He indulged in free and 
cheerful talk, and sought the conversation of men of science; he 
took delight in art, and was a great collector of pictures; he was 
fond of farming and agricultural improvements; he actively 
oromoted useful works and the advancement of knowledge; he 



loved making his friends, dependants, tenants and neighbours 
happy. And, cold as he was in public, few men could be more 
bright and genial in private than Sir Robert Peel. 

In 1821 Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled ministry 
of Lord Liverpool by becoming home secretary; and in that 
capacity he had again to undertake the office of coercing the 
growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real 
administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons 
the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emancipa- 
tion. In 1825, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question 
in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord 
Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the 
government. He found a congenial task in reforming and 
humanizing the criminal law, especially those parts of it which 
related to offences against property and offences punishable by 
death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great 
work, as well as the great speech of the gth of March 1826, in 
which he opened the subject to the house, will form one of the 
most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law 
reform was the reform of Romilly and Mackintosh, from the 
hands of the latter of whom Peel received it. But the masterly 
bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Peel not himself 
a creative genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound 
appreciator of other men's creations, and unrivalled in the power 
of giving them practical and complete effect. 

In 1827 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal 
illness of its chief, and under the new premier, George Canning, 
Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members 
of Lord Liverpool's cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Peel 
were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry 
that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference ol 
connexion and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was 
supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and 
it is difficult to see how their position in Canning's cabinet could 
have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public 
coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in 
debate. But there seems no ground for exaggerated complaints 
against Peel's conduct. Canning himself said to a friend that 
" Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards 
him." Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to 
the end; and Canning's son afterwards entered public life under 
the auspices of Peel. The charge of having urged Roman 
Catholic emancipation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed 
Canning for being a friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert 
Peel in the fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn 
by those who made it. 

In January 1828, after Canning's death, the duke of Welling- 
ton formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary 
and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it. 
was, did not include the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did 
include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its 
policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for 
organic change by administrative reform, and by lightening 
the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an 
unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than 
it had been since the Revolutionary war, and the import of corn 
was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also intro- 
duced into London the improved system of police which he had 
previously established with so much success in Ireland. But 
the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government 
were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to 
acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel 
bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could. 
Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emanci- 
pation was brought to a crisis by the election of O'Connell for 
the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of 
Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled. 
He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement 
but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than 
his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1829, owing to 
the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of 
the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the 



42 

conclusion that without Peel's aid in office there was no prospect 
of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and 
all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could 
scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was 
extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours), 
and again extorted; and on the 5th of March 1829 Peel proposed 
Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four 
hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having 
been elected for the university of Oxford as a leading opponent 
of the Roman Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his 
seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put him 
again in nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. H. Inglis. 
He took refuge in the close borough of Westbury, whence he 
afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sat till his death. 
Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by circumstances; 
but it was mainly owing to him that the measure was complete, 
and based upon equality of civil rights. This great concession, 
however, did not save the Tory government. The French 
Revolution of July 1830 gave fresh strength to the movement 
against them, though, schooled by the past, they promptly 
recognized King Louis Philippe. The parliamentary reform 
movement was joined by some of their offended Protestant 
supporters. The duke of Wellington committed them fatally 
against all reform, and the elections went against them on the 
demise of the Crown; they were beaten on Sir H. Parnell's 
motion for a committee on the civil list, and Wellington took the 
opportunity to resign rather than deal with reform. 

While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Dray ton 
Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 3, 
1830). The old man had lived to see his fondest hopes fulfilled in 
the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see that a father 
must not expect to fix his son's opinions above all, the opinions 
of such a son as Sir Robert Peel, and in such an age as that which 
followed the French Revolution. 

Sir Robert Peel's resistance to the Reform Bill won back for 
him the allegiance of his party. His opposition was resolute but 
it was temperate, and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire 
of his temper, in the historical debate of the 22nd of April 1831, 
when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to 
dissolve the parliament which had thrown out reform. He refused 
to join the duke of Wellington in the desperate enterprise of 
forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the 
Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise 
them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured 
for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt 
knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the 
passing of the Reform Bill, left him with barely 150 followers in 
the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly swelled under 
his management into the great Conservative party. He frankly 
accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to 
register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the 
middle classes, whose new-born power he appreciated, steadily 
supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and O'Connell, 
and gained every moral advantage which the most dignified 
and constitutional tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the 
great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that, 
in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in 
the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unre- 
formed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader, 
though the skill of a pilot who steered for many years over such 
waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of 
Wellington's emphatic eulogy on him was, "Of all the men I 
ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth." The duke 
might have added that his own question, "How is the king's 
government to be carried on in a reformed parliament ? " was 
mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Sir 
Robert Peel, and by his personal influence on the debates and 
proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which 
followed the Reform Act. 

In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power 
came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or desired it. He 
hurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose 



PEEL, SIR ROBERT 



sagacious modesty yielded him the first place, and became prime 
minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to include in his 
cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and 
Sir James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of 
strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted on 
the election of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835, 
and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on the 
question of appropriating part of the revenues of the Church in 
Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but 
the capacity, energy and resource he displayed in this short 
tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation of the 
house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of 
practical reforms which he brought forward, the plan for the 
commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the 
plan for settling the question of dissenters' marriages bore fruit. 

From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and 
far-sighted opposition. In 1837 the Conservative members of 
the House of Commons gave their leader a grand banquet at 
Merchant Taylors' Hall, where he proclaimed in a great speech 
the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the Whigs having 
resigned on the Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a govern- 
ment, and submitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the 
commission owing to the young queen's persistent refusal to part 
with any Whig ladies of her bedchamber (see VICTORIA, QUEEN). 
In 1840 he was hurried into a premature motion of want of con- 
fidence. But in the following year a similar motion was carried 
by a majority of one, and the Whigs ventured to appeal to the 
country. The result was a majority of ninety-one against them 
on a motion of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841, upon 
which they resigned, and Sir Robert Peel became first lord of 
the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses 
of Parliament. 

The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were in 
disorder. For some years there had been a growing deficit, 
estimated for 1842 at more than two millions, and attempts to 
supply this by additions to assessed taxes and customs duties 
had failed. The great financier took till the spring of 1842 to 
mature his plans. He then boldly supplied the deficit by im- 
posing an income-tax on all incomes above 150 a year. He 
accompanied this tax with a reform of the tariff, by which pro- 
hibitory duties were removed and other duties abated on a vast 
number of articles of import, especially the raw materials of manu- 
factures and prime articles of food. The increased consumption, 
as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty. 
The income-tax was renewed and the reform of the tariff carried 
still farther on the same principle in 1845. The result was, in 
place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, a surplus of five 
millions in 1845, and the removal of seven millions and a half of 
taxes up to 1847, not on ^Y without loss, but with gain to the 
ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state of the 
finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the 
interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yearly saving 
at once of 625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter to 
the public. In 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank 
Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and 
thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated 
the currency of the country. In Ireland O'ConnelPs agitation 
for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening pro- 
portions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was 
prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition; 
and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal 
was quelled in its chief. At the same time a healing hand was 
extended to Ireland. The Charitable Bequests Act gave Roman 
Catholics a share in the administration of charities and legal 
power to endow their own religion. The allowance to Maynooth 
was largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant 
opposition. Three queen's colleges, for the higher education of 
all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of religion, were 
founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Protestant and 
Roman Catholic. The principle of toleration once accepted, was 
thoroughly carried out. The last remnants of the penal laws 



PEEL, SIR ROBERT 



43 



were swept from the statute-book, and justice was extended to 
the Roman Catholic Church in Canada and Malta. In the same 
spirit acts were passed for clearing from doubt Irish Presbyterian 
marriages, for settling the titles of a large number of dissenters' 
chapels in England, and removing the municipal disabilities of 
the Jews. The grant for national education was trebled, and 
an attempt was made, though in vain, to introduce effective 
education clauses into the factory bills. To the alienation of any 
part of the revenues of the Established Church Sir Robert Peel 
never would consent; but he had issued the ecclesiastical com- 
mission, and he now made better provision for a number of 
populous parishes by a redistribution of part of the revenues of 
the Church. The weakest part of the conduct of this great 
government, perhaps, was its failure to control the railway 
mania by promptly laying down the lines on a government plan. 
It passed an act in 1844 which gave the government a right of 
purchase, and it had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but 
was compelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures, 
to the repeal of the corn laws. It failed also, though not without 
an effort, to avert the great schism in the Church of Scotland. 
Abroad it was as prosperous as at home. It had found disaster 
and disgrace in Afghanistan. It speedily ended the war there, 
and in India the invading Sikhs were destroyed upon the Sutlej. 
The sore and dangerous questions with France, touching the 
right of search, the war in Morocco, and the Tahiti affair, and 
with the United States touching the Maine boundary and the 
Oregon territory, were settled by negotiation. 

Yet there were malcontents in Sir Robert Peel's party. The 
Young Englanders disliked him because he had hoisted the flag 
of Conservatism instead of Toryism on the morrow of the Reform 
Bill. The strong philanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked 
him because he was a strict economist and an upholder of the 
new poor law. But the fatal question was protection. That 
question was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion and 
the Anti-Corn-Law League. Sir Robert Peel had been recognized 
in 1841 by Cobden as a Free Trader, and after experience in 
office he had become in principle more and more so. Since his 
accession to power he had lowered the duties of the sliding scale, 
and thereby caused the secession from the cabinet of the duke of 
Buckingham. He had alarmed the farmers by admitting foreign 
cattle and meat under his new tariff, and by admitting Canadian 
corn. He had done his best in his speeches to put the mainte- 
nance of the corn laws on low ground, and to wean the landed 
interest from their reliance on protection. The approach of 
the Irish famine in 1845 turned decisively the wavering balance. 
When at first Sir Robert proposed to his cabinet the revision of 
the corn laws, Lord Stanley and the duke of Buccleuch dis- 
sented, and Sir Robert resigned. But Lord John Russell failed 
to form a new government. Sir Robert again came into office; 
and now, with the consent of all the cabinet but Lord Stanley, 
who retired, he, in a great speech on the 27th of January 1846, 
brought the repeal of the corn laws before the House of Commons. 
In the long and fierce debate that ensued he was assailed, both 
by political and personal enemies, with the most virulent 
invective, which he bore with his wonted calmness, and to which 
he made no retorts. His measure was carried; but immediately 
afterwards the offended protectionists, led by Lord George 
Bentinck and Benjamin Disraeli, coalesced with the Whigs, 
and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He went home 
from his defeat, escorted by a great crowd, who uncovered as 
he passed, and he immediately resigned. So fell a Conservative 
government which would otherwise have probably ended only 
with the life of its chief. 

Though out of office he was not out of power. He had " lost 
a party, but won a nation." The Whig ministry which succeeded 
him leant much on his support, with which he never taxed them. 
He joined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the 
repeal of the navigation laws. He helped them to promote the 
principle of religious liberty by the bill for the emancipation of 
the Jews. One important measure was his own. While in 
office he had probed, by the Devon commission of inquiry, the 
sores of Ireland connected with the ownership and occupation of 



land. In 1849, in a speech on the Irish Poor Laws, he first 
suggested, and in the next year he aided in establishing, a corn- 
mission to facilitate the sale of estates in a hopeless state of 
encumbrance. The Encumbered Estates Act made no attempt, 
like later legislation, to secure by law the uncertain customary 
rights of Irish tenants, but it transferred the land from ruined 
landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of 
property towards the people. On the aSth of June 1850 Sir 
Robert Peel made a great speech on the Greek question against 
Lord Palmerston's foreign policy of interference. This speech 
was thought to show that if necessary he would return to office. 
It was his last. On the following day he was thrown from his 
horse on Constitution Hill, and mortally injured by the fall. 
Three days he lingered and on the fourth (July 2, 1850) he 
died. All the tributes which respect and gratitude could pay 
were paid to him by the sovereign, by parliament, by public men 
of all parties, by the country, by the press, and, above all, by 
the great towns and the masses of the people to whom he had 
given " bread unleavened with injustice." He would have been 
buried among the great men of England in Westminster Abbey, 
but his will desired that he might be laid in Drayton church. It 
also renounced a peerage for his family, as he had before declined 
the garter for himself when it was offered him by the queen 
through Lord Aberdeen. 

Those who judge Sir Robert Peel will remember that he was 
bred a Tory in days when party was a religion; that he entered 
parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four and secretary 
for Ireland at twenty-five; that his public life extended over a 
long period rife with change; and that his own changes were all 
forward and with the advancing intellect of the time. They will 
enumerate the great practical improvements and the great acts 
of legislative justice of those days, and note how large a share 
Sir Robert Peel had, if not in originating, in giving thorough 
practical effect to all. They will reflect that as a parliamentary 
statesman he could not govern without a party, and that it is 
difficult to govern at once for a party and for the whole people. 
They will think of his ardent love of his country, of his abstinence 
from intrigue, violence and faction, of his boundless labour 
through a long life devoted to the public service. Whether he 
was a model of statesmanship may be doubted. Models of 
statesmanship are rare, if by a model of statesmanship is meant 
a great administrator and party leader, a great political philo- 
sopher and a great independent orator, all in one. But if the 
question is whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by the 
English people there is no arguing against the tears of a nation. 

Those who wish to know more of him will consult his own post- 
humous Memoirs (1856), edited by his literary executors Earl 
Stanhope and Viscount Cardwell; his private correspondence, 
edited by C. S. Parker (1891-1899) ; the four volumes of his speeches; 
a sketch of his life and character by Sir Lawrence Peel (1860); an 
historical sketch by Lord Dalling (1874); Guizot's Sir Robert Peel 
( 1 .857); Kunzel's Leben und Reden Sir Robert Peel's (1851); Disraeli's 
Life of Lord George Bentinck (1858); Morley's Life of Cobden; mono- 
graphs by F. C. Montague (1888), J. R. Thursfeld (1891), and the 
earl of Rosebery (1899); Peel and O'Connett, by Lord Eversley; 
the Life of Sir J. Graham (1907), by C. S. Parker; Lord Stanmore's 
Life of Lord Aberdeen (1893); and the general histories of the 
time. (C. S. P.) 

Four of Sir Robert's five sons attained distinction. The 
eldest, SIR ROBERT PEEL (1822-1895), who became the 3rd 
baronet on his father's death, was educated at Harrow and at 
Christ Church, Oxford. He was in the diplomatic service from 
1844 to 1850, when he succeeded his father as member of parlia- 
ment for Tamworth, and he was chief secretary to the lord- 
lieutenant of Ireland from 1861 to 1865. He represented Tam- 
worth until the general election of 1880; in 1884 he became 
member for Huntingdon and in 1885 for Blackburn, but after 
1886 he ceased to sit in the. House of Commons. Sir Robert 
described himself as a Liberal-Conservative, but in his later years 
he opposed the policy of Gladstone, although after 1886 he 
championed the cause of home rule for Ireland. In 1871 he sold 
his father's collection of pictures to the National Gallery for 
75,000, and in his later life he was troubled by financial difficul- 
ties. Sir Robert was interested in racing, and was known on the 



44 



PEEL PEELE 



turf as Mr F. Robinson. He died in London on the pth of May 
1895, and was succeeded as 4th baronet by his son, Sir Robert 
Peel (b. 1867). 

SIR FREDERICK PEEL (1823-1906), the prime minister's second 
son, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
becoming a barrister in 1849. He entered parliament in that 
year, and with the exception of the period between 1857 and 1859 
he remained in the House of Commons until 1865. In 1851-1852 
and again in 1853-1855 he was under-secretary for the colonies; 
from 1855 to 1857 he was under-secretary for war; and from 
1859 to 1865 he was secretary to the treasury. He became 
a privy councillor in 1857 and was knighted in 1869. Sir 
Frederick Peel's chief service to the state was in connexion with 
the railway and canal commission. He was appointed a com- 
missioner on the inception of this body in 1873, and was its 
president until its reconstruction in 1888, remaining a member 
of the commission until his death on the 6th of June 1906. 

The third son was SIR WILLIAM PEEL (1824-1858), and the 
youngest VISCOUNT PEEL (q.v.). Sir William was a sailor, who 
distinguished himself in the Crimea, where he gained the Victoria 
Cross, and also during the Indian Mutiny, being wounded at the 
relief of Lucknow. He died on the 27th of April 1858. Sir 
William wrote A Ride through the Nubian Desert (1852), giving 
an account of his travels in 1851. 

Two of Sir Robert Peel's brothers were also politicians of 
note. WILLIAM YATES PEEL (1789-1858), educated at Harrow and 
at St John's College, Cambridge, was a member of parliament 
from 1817 to 1837, and again from 1847 to 1852; he was under- 
secretary for home affairs in 1828, and was a lord of the treasury 
in 1830 and again in 1834-1835. JONATHAN PEEL (1799-1879) was 
first a soldier and then a member of parliament during the long 
period between 1826 and 1868, first representing Norwich and then 
Huntingdon. From 1841 to 1846 he was surveyor-general of the 
ordnance, and in 1858-1859 and again in 1866-1867 he was a very 
competent and successful secretary of state for war. General 
Peel was also an owner of racehorses, and in 1844 his horse Orlando 
won the Derby, after another horse, Running Rein, had been 
disqualified. 

For the history of the Peel family see Jane Ha worth, A Memoir 
of the Family of Peel from the year 1000 (1836). 

PEEL, a seaport and watering-place of the Isle of Man, on 
the W. coast, n m. W.N.W. of Douglas by the Isle of Man 
railway. Pop. (1901), 3304. It lies on Peel Bay, at the mouth 
of the small river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old 
town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modern resi- 
dential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the 
river-mouth St Patrick's Isle is connected with the mainland 
by a causeway. It is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of 
Peel castle. St Patrick is said to have founded here the first 
church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears 
to date from the 8th or loth century. There is a round tower, 
also of very early date, resembling in certain particulars the 
round towers of Ireland. The ruined cathedral of St German 
has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath, 
a nave with an early English triplet at the west end, transepts, 
and a low and massive central tower still standing. There 
are remains of the bishops' palace, of the so-called Fenella's 
tower, famous through Scott's Peveril of the Peak, of the palace 
of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the 
entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while 
the whole is surrounded by battlements. There are also a large 
artificial mound supposed to be a defensive earthwork of higher 
antiquity than the castle, and another mound known as the 
Giant's Grave. The guardroom is associated with the ghostly 
apparition of the Moddey Dhoo (black dog), to which reference 
is made in Peveril of the Peak. In 1397 Richard II. condemned 
the earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel Castle for con- 
spiracy, and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received 
a like sentence on the ground of having compassed the death 
of Henry VI. by magic. Peel has a long-established fishing 
industry, which, however, has declined in modern times. In 
the town the most notable building is the church of St German, 
with a fine tower and spire. Peel was called by the Northmen 
Holen (island, i.e. St Patrick's Isle) ; the existing name is Celtic, 



meaning " fort " (cf. the peel towers of the borderland of England 
and Scotland). 

PEEL, (i) The skin or rind of a fruit; thus " to peel " is 
to remove the outer covering of anything. The etymology 
of the word is closely connected with that of " pill," to plunder, 
surviving in " pillage." Both words are to be referred to 
French and thence to Latin. In French peler and piller, though 
now distinguished in meaning (the first used of stripping bark 
or rind, the second meaning to rob), were somewhat confused 
in application, and a similar confusion occurs in English till 
comparatively late. The Latin words from which they are 
derived are pellis, skin, and pilare, to strip of hair (pilus). 
(2) The name of a class of small fortified dwelling-houses built 
during the i6th century on the borders between Scotland and 
England. They are also known as " bastel-houses," i.e. 
" bastille-houses," and consist of a square massive tower with 
high pitched roof, the lower part being vaulted, the upper 
part containing a few living rooms. The entrance is on the 
upper floor, access being gained by a movable ladder. The 
vaulted ground-floor chamber served for the cattle when there 
was danger of attack. The word appears in various forms, 
e.g. pele, peil, and Latinized as pelum, &c. ; " pile " is also found 
used synonymously, but the New English Dictionary (s.ii. pile) 
considers the two words distinct. It seems more probable 
that the word is to be identified with " pale," a stake (Lat. 
palus). The earlier meaning of " peel " is a palisaded enclosure 
used as an additional defence for a fortified post or as an 
independent stronghold. 

PEELE, GEORGE (1558-0. 1598), English dramatist, was 
born in London in 1558. His father, who appears to have 
belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ's Hospital, 
and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Peele was 
educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall 
(Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571. In 1574 he removed 
to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and 
proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ's 
Hospital requested their clerk to " discharge his house of his 
son, George Peele." It is not necessary to read into this 
anything more than that the governors insisted on his beginning 
to earn a livelihood. He went up to London about 1580, but 
in 1583 when Albertus Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobleman, 
was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Peele was entrusted 
with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager 
(fl. 1580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also compli- 
mented by Dr Gager for an English verse translation of one 
of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed 
to write the Device of the Pageant borne before Woolslon Dixie, 
and in 1591 he devised the pageant in honour of another lord 
mayor, Sir William Webbe. This was the Descensus Astraeae 
(printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen 
Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Peele had married as early 
as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which he 
speedily dissipated. Robert Greene, at the end of his Groats- 
worth of Wit, exhorts Peele to repentance, saying that he has, 
like himself, " been driven to extreme shifts for a living." The 
sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use 
of his name in connexion with the apocryphal Merrie conceited 
Jests of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories 
had done service before, but there are personal touches that 
may be biographical. He died before 1598, for Francis Meres, 
writing in that year, speaks of his death in his Palladis Tamia. 

His pastoral comedy of The Araygnemenl of Paris, presented 
by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth 
perhaps as early as 1581, was printed anonymously in 1584. 
Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this 
piece of Peek's, said that if it had been less uneven in execution 
Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess " had been but a second name 
in this sort of writing." Peele shows considerable art in his 
flattery. Paris is arraigned before Jupiter for having assigned 
the apple to Venus. Diana, with whom the final decision 
rests, gives the apple to none of the competitors but to a 
nymph called Eliza, whose identity is confirmed by the further 



PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS PEERAGE 



45 



explanation, " whom some Zabeta call." The Famous Chronicle 
of King Edward the first, sirnamed Edward Longshankes, with his 
reiurne from the holy land. Also the life of Llcucllen, rebell 
in Wales. Lastly, the sinking of Queen Elinor, who suncke 
at Charingcrosse, and rose again at Potters-kith, now named 
Queenehith (printed 1593). This " chronicle history," formless 
enough, as the rambling title shows, is nevertheless an advance 
on the old chronicle plays, and marks a step towards the Shake- 
spearian historical drama. The Battell of Alcazar with the death 
of Captaine Stukeley (acted 1588-1589, printed 1594), published 
anonymously, is attributed with much probability to Peele. 
The Old Wives Tale, registered in Stationers' Hall, perhaps 
more correctly, as "The Owlde wiies tale" (printed 1595), 
was followed by The Love of King David and fair Bethsabe 
(written c. 1588, printed 1599), which is notable as an example 
of Elizabethan drama drawn entirely from scriptural sources. 
Mr Fleay sees in it a political satire, and identifies Elizabeth 
and Leicester as David and Bathsheba, Mary Queen of Scots 
as Absalom. Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes (printed 1599) 
has been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds. 
Among his occasional poems are " The Honour of the Garter," 
which has a prologue containing Peele's judgments on his 
contemporaries, and " Polyhymnia " (1590), a blank- verse 
description of the ceremonies attending the retirement of the 
queen's champion, Sir Henry Lee. This is concluded by the 
" Sonnet," " His golden locks time hath to silver turn'd," 
quoted by Thackeray in the 76th chapter of The Newcomes. 
To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributed "The Praise of 
Chastity." Mr F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits 
Peele with The Wisdom of Doctor Doddipoll (printed 1600), 
Wily Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life and Death of Jack 
Straw, a notable rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second 
Parts of Henry VI., and on the authority of Wood and 
Winstanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany. 

Peele belonged to the group of university scholars who, in 
Greene's phrase, " spent their wits in making playes." Greene 
went on to say that he was " in some things rarer, in nothing 
inferior," to Marlowe. Nashe in his preface to Greene's Mena- 
phon called him " the chief supporter of pleasance now living, 
the Atlas of Poetrie and primus iierborum artifex, whose first 
encrease, the Arraignement of Paris, might plead to your 
opinions his pregnant dexteritie of wit and manifold varietie 
of invention, wherein (me judice) hee goeth a step beyond all 
that write." This praise was not unfounded. The credit 
given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of 
English dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused 
into blank verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Professor 
F. B. Gummere, in a critical essay prefixed to his edition of The 
Old Wives Tale, puts in another claim for Peele. In the contrast 
between the romantic story and the realistic dialogue he sees 
the first instance of humour quite foreign to the comic " business " 
of earlier comedy. The Old Wives Tale is a play within a play, 
slight enough to be perhaps better described as an interlude. 
Its background of rustic folk-lore gives it additional interest, 
and there is much fun poked at Gabriel Harvey and Stany hurst. 
Perhaps Huanebango, 1 who parodies Harvey's hexameters, 
and actually quotes him on one occasion, may be regarded as 
representing that arch-enemy of Greene and his friends. 

Peele's Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1829-1839 
and 1861); by A. H. Bullen (2 vols., 1888). An examination of 
the metrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R. 
Lammerhirt's Georg Peele, Unlersuchungen liber sein Leben und 
seine Werke (Rostock, 1882). See also Professor F. B. Gummere, in 
Representative English Comedies (1903); and an edition of The 
Battell of Alcazar, printed for the Malone Society in 1907. 

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, an Irish Protestant secret society, 
formed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant 
peasantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics. 
The " Boys " gained their name from the hour of dawn which 

1 Mr Fleay goes so far as to see in the preposterous names of 
Huanebango's kith and kin puns on Harvey's father's trade. 
" Polymachaeroplacidus " he interprets as " Polly-make-a-rope- 
lass " ! 



they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages. 
The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of " The 
Defenders." 

PEEPUL, or PIPUL (Ficus religiosa), the " sacred fig " tree 
of India, also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan, 
and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the 
Vaishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its 
shade. It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds 
in caoutchouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects 
who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a 
walnut and is not much eaten. 

PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere, 
O. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. paris, " equal "). Although 
in England the terms " peerage," " nobility," " House of Lords " 
are in common parlance frequently regarded as synonymous, 
in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be 
a peer and yet not a member of the House of Lords, a member 
of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all 
peers (as the term is now understood) are members of the 
House of Lords either in esse or in posse. In the United 
Kingdom the rights, duties and privileges of peerage are 
centred in an individual; to the monarchial nations of the 
Continent nobility conveys the idea of family, as opposed to 
personal, privilege. 

Etymologically " peers " are " equals " (pares), and in Anglo- 
Norman days the word was invariably so understood. The 
feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all the 
peers of each other, whether lords of one manor or 
of a hundred; so too a bishop had his ecclesiastical 
peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their 
peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the 
reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is 
clear from Magna Carta, for the term " judicium parium " 
therein must be understood to mean that every man had a right 
to be tried by his equals. This very right was asserted by the 
barons as a body in 1233 on behalf of Richard, earl marshal, 
who had been declared a traitor by the king's command, and 
whose lands were forfeited without proper trial. In 1233 the 
French bishop Peter des Roches, Henry III.'s minister, denied 
the barons' right to the claim set up on the ground that the 
king might judge all his subjects alike, there being, he said, no 
peers in England (Math. Paris. 389). The English barons 
undoubtedly were using the word in the sense it held in Magna 
Carta, while the bishop probably had in his mind the French peers 
(pairs de France) , a small and select body of feudatories possessed 
of exceptional privileges. In England the term was general, 
in France technical. The change in England was gradual, 
and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater 
barons and the lesser widened, until in course of time, for judicial 
purposes, there came to be only two classes, the greater barons 
and the rest of the people. The barons remained triable by 
their own order (i.e. by their peers), whilst the rest of the people 
rapidly became subject to the general practice and procedure 
of the king's justices. The first use of the word " peers " as 
denoting those members of the baronage who were accustomed 
to receive regularly a writ of summons to parliament is found 
in the record of the proceedings against the Despensers in 1321 
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 347), and from that time this restricted 
use of the word has remained its ordinary sense. 

Properly to understand the growth and constitution of the 
peerage it is necessary to trace the changes which occurred in 
the position of the Anglo-Norman baronage, first Anglo- 
through the gradual strengthening of royal supre- Normaa 
macy with the consequent decay of baronial power Baronage. 
locally, and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary 
institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards. 

Before the conquest the national assembly of England (see 
PARLIAMENT) was the Witan, a gathering of notables owing 
their presence only to personal influence and standing. The Saxon 
The imposition of a modified feudal system resulted WHena- 
in a radical alteration. Membership of the Great i* 1 " '- 
Councils of the Norman kings was primarily an incident of 



4 6 



PEERAGE 



tenure, one of the obligations the tenants-in-chief were bound 
to perform, although this membership gradually became restricted 
by the operation of the Royal prerogative to a small section 
of the Baronial class and eventually hereditary by custom. The 
Norman Councils may have arisen from the ashes of a Saxon 
Witenagemot, but there is little evidence of any historical 
continuity between the two. The Church in England, as 
in Christendom generally, occupied a position of paramount 
importance and far-reaching influence; its leaders, not alone 
from their special sanctity as ecclesiastics, but as practically 
the only educated men of the period, of necessity were among 
the chief advisers of every ruler in Western Europe. In 
England churchmen formed a large proportion of the Witan, 
the more influential of the great landowners making up the 
rest of its membership. 

In place of the scattered individual and absolute ownership 
of Saxon days the Conqueror became practically the sole 
Norman owner of the soil. The change, though not imme- 
Feudai diately complete, followed rapidly as the country 
Tenure. settled down and the power of the Crown extended 
to its outlying frontiers. As Saxon land gradually passed 
into Norman hands the new owners became direct tenants 
of the king. Provided their loyal and military obligations 
were duly performed they had fixity of tenure for themselves 
and their heirs. In addition fixed money payments were exacted 
on the succession of the heir, when the king's eldest son was 
knighted, his eldest daughter married, or his person ransomed 
from captivity. In like manner and under similar conditions 
the king's tenants, or as they were termed tenants-in-chief, 
sub-granted the greater portion of their holdings to their own 
immediate followers. Under Norman methods the manor was 
the unit of local government and jurisdiction, and when 
land was given away by the king the gift invariably took the 
form of a grant of one or more manors. 

When he brought England into subjection the Conqueror's 
main idea was to exalt the central power of the Crown at the 
expense of its feudatories, and the first two centuries following 
the conquest tell one long tale of opposition by the great tenants- 
in-chief to a steadily growing and unifying royal pressure. With 
this idea of royal supremacy firmly fixed in his mind, William's 
grants, excepting outlying territory such as the marches of 
Wales or the debateable ground of the Scottish border, which 
needed special consideration, were seldom in bulk, but took the 
form of manors scattered over many counties. Under such 
conditions it was practically impossible for a great tenant to 
set up a powerful imperium in imperio (such as the fiefs of 
Normandy, Brittany and Burgundy), as his forces were dis- 
tributed over the country, and could be reached by the long 
arm of royal power, acting through the sheriff of every county, 
long before they could effectively come together for fighting 
purposes. The tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons 
(see BARON) and may be regarded historically as the parents 
of the peers of later days. The pages of Domesday (1086), 
the early Norman fiscal record of England, show how unevenly 
the land was distributed; of the fifteen hundred odd tenants 
mentioned the majority held but two or three manors, while 
a favoured few possessed more than a hundred each. Land 
was then the only source of wealth, and the number of a 
baron's manors might well be regarded as a correct index of his 
importance. 

The king's tenants owed yet another duty, the service of 
attending the King's Court (curia regis), and out of this custom 
The King's grew tlle P ar l iaments of later days. In theory all 
Cou,^ the king's tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a 
right to be present as incident to their tenure. 
It has therefore been argued by some authorities that as the 
Conqueror's system of tenure constituted him the sole owner 
of the land, attendance at his courts was solely an incident of 
tenure, the Church having been compelled to accept the same 
conditions as those imposed on laymen. But, as already pointed 
out, the change in tenure had not been immediate, and there 
had been no general forfeiture suffered by ecclesiastical bodies; 



consequently throughout the early years of William's reign 
some of the English bishops and abbots attended his courts 
as much by virtue of their personal and ecclesiastical importance 
as by right of tenure. The King's Court was held regularly 
at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other 
times as were deemed advisable. The assembly for several 
generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative 
powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and 
grew out of the custom of the Estates granting supplies only 
on condition that their grievances were first redressed. The 
great bulk of the tenants were present for the purpose of assenting 
to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal 
dues. When necessary a general summons to attend was sent 
through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system 
of local government which enabled him to reach every tenant. 
In course of time to a certain number of barons and high 
ecclesiastics, either from the great extent of their possessions, 
their official duties about the king or their personal importance, 
it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus 
distinguishing them from the general mass summoned through 
the sheriff. That this custom was in being within a century 
of the Conquest is clear from an incident in the bitter fight for 
supremacy between Archbishop Becket and Henry II. in 1164 
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), it being recorded that the king 
withheld the Archbishop's personal summons to parliament, 
and put upon him the indignity of a summons through the sheriff. 
During the succeeding fifty years the line becomes even more 
definite, though it is evident that the Crown sometimes dis- 
regarded the custom, as the barons are found complaining that 
many of their number deemed entitled to a personal summons 
had frequently been overlooked. 

The sequel to these complaints is found in Magna Carta, 
wherein it is provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots, 
earls and greater barons are to be called up to the Magaa Carta 
council by writ directed to each severally; and all and Personal 
who hold of the king in chief, below the rank of Summons 
greater barons, are to be summoned by a general ^afores 
writ addressed to the sheriff of their shire. 1 Magna Bar-ones. 
Carta thus indicates the existence of two definite 
sections of the king's tenants, a division which had evidently 
persisted for some time. The " greater barons " are the 
immediate parents of the peerages of later days, every member 
of which for more than four centuries had a seat in the House 
of Lords. As for the rest of the tenants-in-chief, poorer in 
estate and therefore of less consequence, it is sufficient here to 
note that they fell back into the general mass of country families, 
and that their representatives, the knights of the shire, after 
some hesitation, at length joined forces with the city and burgher 
representatives to form the House of Commons. 

In 1254, instead of the general summons through the sheriff 
to all the lesser tenants-in-chief, the king requires them to elect 
two knights for each shire to attend the council as 
the accredited representative of their fellows. In 
the closing days of 1264 Simon de Montfort sum- 
moned to meet him early in 1 265 the first parliament worthy of 
the name, a council in which prelates, earls and greater barons, 
knights of the shire, citizens and burghers were present, thus 
constituting a representation of all classes of people. It has been 
argued that this assembly cannot be regarded as a full parlia- 
ment, inasmuch as Simon de Montfort summoned personally 
only such members of the baronage as were favourable to his 
cause, and issued writs generally only to those counties and 
cities upon which he could rely to return representatives in 
support of his policy. Stubbs holds the view that the first 
assembly we ought to regard as a full parliament was the Model 
Parliament which met at Westminster in 1295. This Model 
parliament, unlike Simon's partisan assembly of Parliament 
1 265, was free and representative. To every spiritual Oil29s - 

1 Et ab habendum commune consilium regni . . . summoneri 
faciemus archiepiscopos, episcopos, abbates, comites et majores 
barones sigillatim per litteras nostras et praeterea faciemus summoneri 
in general! per vicecomes et ballivos nostros omnes illos qui de 
nobis tenent in capite (cited in Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 547 n.). 



Parliament 
of!2S4. 



PEERAGE 



47 



and temporal baron accustomed to receive an individual 
writ, one was issued. Every county elected its knights and 
every city or borough of any importance was instructed 
by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number of 
representatives. Stubbs's view (Const. Hist. ii. 223) may prob- 
ably be regarded as authoritative, inasmuch as it was adopted 
by Lord Ashbourne in the Norfolk peerage case of 1906 (Law 
Reports [rgoy], A.C. at p. 15). Edward I. held frequent parlia- 
ments throughout his reign, and although many must be 
regarded as merely baronial councils, nevertheless year after 
year, on all important occasions, the knights of the shire and 
the citizens appear in their places. The parliament of Shrews- 
bury in 1283, for instance, has been claimed as a full parliament 
in several peerage cases, but no clear decision on the point 
has ever been given by the Committee for Privileges. It may 
be taken for granted, however, that any assembly held 
since 1295, which did not conform substantially to the model 
of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally as a full 
parliament. The point is even of modern importance, as in 
order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must 
be proved that the claimant's ancestor was summoned by 
individual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself 
or one of his direct descendants was present in parliament. 
It is now convenient to consider the various grades into 
which the members of the peerage are grouped, and their 
relative positions. An examination of the early writs 
issued to individuals shows that the baronage con- 
sisted of archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, earls 
and barons. In course of time every member of these classes 
came to hold his land by feudal tenure from the Crown, and 
eventually in every instance the writs issued as an incident 
of tenure. It is therefore necessary to discover, if possible, 
what combination of attributes clothed the greater baron with 
a right to receive the king's personal writ of summons. While 
the archbishops and bishops received their writs with regularity, 
the summonses to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater 
barons were intermittent. The prelate held an office which 
lived on regardless of the fate of its temporary holder, and if 
by reason of death, absence or translation the office became 
vacant, a writ still issued to the " Guardian of the Spiritualities." 
The abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of 
the English Church, and owing allegiance to a foreign order, 
was but the personal representative of a land-holding community. 
It has already been pointed out that the amount of land held 
direct from the king by individuals varied greatly, and that 
the extent of his holding must have had something to do with 
a man's importance. A landless noble in those days was 
inconceivable. The conclusion, then, may be drawn that in 
theory the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and 
that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates 
was office and personal importance, and in the case of abbots 
and barons probably, in the main, extent of possession. There 
is nothing however to show that in the early years of the custom 
any person had a right to claim a writ if it were the king's 
pleasure or caprice to withhold it and to treat everyone not 
summoned individually as being duly summoned under the 
general writs issued to the sheriff of the county. 

The next point for consideration is when did the peerage, 
as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into 
a body definitely hereditary ? Here again growth 
was gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout 
the reigns of the Edwards summonses were not 
always issued to the same individual for successive parliaments; 
and it is quite certain that the king never considered the issue 
of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition 
for the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity. 
Again we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom 
of primogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family 
succession, an'd if extent of possession had originally extracted 
the acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown 
it is more than probable that as successive heirs came into their 
inheritance they too would similarly be acknowledged. In 



early days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity, 
an unpleasant incident of tenure, in itself undesirable, and 
probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at 
least the two centuries following the Conquest. The age of the 
Edwards was in the main a rule of settled law, of increase in 
population generally, of growing power in the large landowners 
and of opportunities for those about the person of the king. 
The times were changing, and in place of the idea of the writ 
being a burden, its receipt gradually came to be looked upon 
as a mark of royal favour, a recognition of position and an 
opportunity leading on to fortune. Once such a view was 
established it is easy to understand how desirous any individual 
would be to preserve so valuable a privilege for his posterity; 
and primogeniture with its strict settlement of estates pointed 
out an easy way. The Crown was itself an hereditary dignity; 
and what more natural than that it should be surrounded by an 
hereditary peerage ? Thus the free and indiscriminate choice 
of the Crown became fettered by the custom that once a 
summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament 
and he had obeyed that summons he thereby acquired a right 
of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years when 
the doctrine of nobility of blood became established his 
descendants were held to have acquired the same privilege by 
hereditary right. 

The earl's position in the baronage needs some explanation. 
Various suggestions have been made as to Saxon or Norman 
origin of a high official nature, but historical opinion 
seems generally to incline towards the theory that 
the term was a name of dignity conferred by royal prerogative 
on a person already classed among the greater barons. At first 
the dignity was official and certainly not hereditary, and the name 
of a county of which he is said to have been an officer in the king's 
name was not essential to his dignity as an earl. There were 
also men who, though Scottish and Norman earls, and commonly 
so addressed and summoned to parliament, were rated in 
England as barons (Lords Reports, ii. 116, 120; Earldom of 
Norfolk Peerage Case, Law Reports [1907], A.C. p. 18). Earls 
received individual summonses to parliament by the name of 
Earl (q.v.) ; but there is reason to believe, as already mentioned, 
that in early days at any rate they sat not in right of their 
earldoms but by tenure as members of the baronage. 

If we review the political situation at the beginning of the 
I4th century a great change is evident. The line between 
those members of the baronage in parliament and writ 
the rest of the people is firmly and clearly drawn. Supersedes 
Tenure as the sole qualification for presence in the Teaure - 
national assembly has disappeared, and in its place there 
appears for the baronage a system of royal selection and for 
the rest of the people one of representation. The rules and 
customs of law relating to the baronage slowly crystallized so 
as to provide the House of Lords, the history of which for 
generations is the history of the peerage of England, whilst 
the representative part of parliament, after shedding the lower 
clergy, ultimately became the House of Commons. 

Until the reign of Richard II. there is no trace of any use 
of the term baron (q.v.) as importing a personal dignity existing 
apart from the tenure of land, barons owing their seats in parlia- 
ment to tenure and writ combined. This is borne out by the 
fact that a husband was often summoned to parliament in his 
wife's right and name, and while she lived fulfilled those feudal, 
military and parliamentary obligations attached to her lands 
which the physical disabilities of sex prevented her from carrying 
out in her own person (Pike, House of Lords, p. 103). 

Primogeniture, a custom somewhat uncertain in early Anglo- 
Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law. 
As feudal dignities were in their origin inseparable pe erage 
from the tenure of land it is not surprising that they becomes a 
too followed a similar course of descent, although Personal 
as the idea of a dignity being exclusively personal Dl * nlty - 
gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of 
law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the 
eleventh year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent 



4 8 



PEERAGE 



John Beauchamp " Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kydder- 
mynster, to hold to him and the heirs of his body." These letters 
patent were not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed 
by Beauchamp, for the king makes him " for his good services and 
in respect of the place which he had holden at the coronation (i.e. 
steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king's 
councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his 
abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the king- 
dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male 
of his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should 
be called by the name of Lord de Beauchamp and Baron of 
Kyddermynster." The grant rested wholly on the grace and 
favour of the Crown and was a personal reward for services 
rendered. Here then is a barony entirely a personal dignity 
and quite unconnected with land. From Richard's reign to 
the present day baronies (and indeed all other peerage honours) 
have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of 
summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent 
operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolu- 
tion. Summons alone still continued side by side for many 
generations with summons founded on patent; but after the 
reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and 
during the last two hundred and fifty years there have been 
no new creations by writ of summons alone. 1 So from the 
reign of Richard II. barons were of two classes, the older, and 
more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours 
descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters 
patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons 
and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in the line almost 
invariably of the direct male descendants of the person 
first ennobled. The principle of hereditary succession so clearly 
recognized in the Beauchamp creation is good evidence to show 
that a prescriptive right of hereditary summons probably existed 
in those families whose members had long been accustomed to 
receive individual writs. By the time the House of Lancaster 
was firmly seated on the throne it may be taken that the peerage 
had become a body of men possessing well-defined personal 
privileges and holding personal dignities capable of descending 
to their heirs. 

The early origin of peerages was so closely connected with 
the tenure of land that the idea long prevailed that there were 
Ptera s b or '8 inall y peerages by tenure only, i.e. dignities 
Tenure. * or titl es annexed to the possession (and so following 
it on alienation) of certain lands held in chief of the 
king. The older writers, Glanville (bk. ix. cc. 4, 6) and Bracton 
(bk. ii. c. 16), lend some colour to the view. They are followed, 
but not very definitely, by Coke, Selden and Madox. Black- 
stone, who discusses the question in his Commentaries (bk. i. 
c. xii.), seems to believe that such dignities existed in pre- 
parliamentary days but says further: " When alienations grew 
to be frequent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage 
of the party ennobled, and instead of territorial became per- 
sonal." The Earldom of Arundel case, in 1433, a t first sight seems 
to confirm the theory, but it may be noted that when in later 
years this descent came to be discussed the high authority of 
an act of parliament was found necessary to confirm the succes- 
sion to the dignity. The case is discussed at some length in the 
Lords Reports (ii. 115), the committee regarding it as an anomaly 
from which no useful precedent can be drawn. Other cases 
discussed in the same Report are those of De Lisle, Abergavenny, 
Fitzwalter and Berkeley. The Berkeley case of 1858-1861 (better 
reported 8 H.L.C. 21) is essential for the student who wishes 
to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as 
finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure as an existing 
means of establishing a peerage right (see also Cruise on Dignities, 
2nd ed. pp. 60 et seq.). 

The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalien- 
1 Not intentional at any rate. In some cases where it was in- 
tended to call a son up in his father's barony, a mistake in the name 
has been made with the result that a new peerage by writ of sum- 
mons has been created. The barony of Buller, of Moore Park 
(cr. 1663), now in abeyance, is said to be an instance of such a 
mistake. 



able quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and his 
heirs, or, as a great judge put it in 1625 in the Earldom of 
Oxford case, " he cannot alien or give away this in- 
heritance because it is a personal dignity annexed toafleniWe. 
to the posterity and fixed in the blood " (Dodridge, 
J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones's Reports). Were the theory of barony 
by tenure accepted it would be possible for the temporary 
holder of such a barony to sell it or even to will it away to a 
stranger possessing none of the holder's blood, with the effect 
that, in the words of Lord Chancellor Campbell (Berkeley case, 
8 H.L.C. 77), " there might be various individuals and various 
lines of peers successively ennobled and created peers of parlia- 
ment by a subject," an impossible condition of affairs in a 
country where the sovereign has always been the' fountain of 
honour. Moreover, while no peerage honour can be extinguished 
or surrendered, the owner of lands can freely dispose of such 
rights as he possesses by sale or transfer. Finally we may accept 
the verdict in the Fitzwalter case of 1669 (Cruise, ibid. p. 66), 
which was adopted by the House of Lords in the Berkeley case: 
" and the nature of a barony by tenure being discussed, it 
was found to have been discontinued for many ages, and not in 
being, and so not fit to be revived or to admit any pretence or 
right of succession thereupon." 

Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of 
high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were barons 
with their special name of dignity added, and their Dukes 
names always appear on the rolls before those of the 
barons. In 1337 King Edward created his son, the Black 
Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest 
of the peerage. The letters patent (under which the present 
heir to the throne now holds the dukedom) limited the dignity 
in perpetuity to the first-born son of the king of England. 2 
Subsequently several members of the royal family were created 
dukes, but no subject received such an honour until fifty years 
later, when Richard II. created his favourite Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life). The original intention 
may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, as with 
the exception of de Vere it was some years before a dukedom 
was again conferred on a subject. 

In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of 
Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title into 
the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life, Marquesses 
and was in fact resumed by the Crown in 1387, when 
its recipient was created duke of Ireland. It was not until 1397 
that another creation was made, this time in favour of one of 
the blood royal, John de Beaufort, eldest legitimated son of 
John of Gaunt, who became marquess of Dorset. His title was 
shortly afterwards taken away by Henry IV 's first parliament. 
Subsequently creations were made only at long intervals, that 
of Winchester (1551) being the only one (of old date) under 
which an English marquess at present sits in the House of Lords 
(see MARQUESS). 

Under the name of viscount (q.v.) Henry VI. added yet another 
order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in 
1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont Vlscouatti 
and giving him precedence next above the barons. 
The name of this dignity was also borrowed from the Continent, 
having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king's 
French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned 
ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred 
originally as additional honours on men who were already 
members of the peerage. 

The application of the hereditary principle to temporal 
peerages early differentiated their holders from the spiritual 
peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were 
equally lords of parliament, but hereditary preten- 
sions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness 
on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the two 
orders. Gradually the temporal peers, strong in* their doctrine 
of " ennobled " blood, came to consider that theirs was an order 

* .... principi ct ipsius et haeredum suorum Regum Angliae 
filiis primogenitis (The Prince's Case, 8 Co. Rep. 273; 77 E.R. 513). 



PEERAGE 



49 



above and beyond all other lords of parliament, and before long, 
arrogated to themselves the exclusive right to be called peers, 
and as such the only persons entitled to the privileges of peerage. 

In early parliamentary days it had been the custom to summon 
regularly to attend the Lords for deliberative purposes another 
body of men the judges. Less important than the prelates, 
they also owed their summons to official position, and like them 
were eventually overshadowed by the hereditary principle. 
The force of hereditary right gave to ennobled blood a position 
never possessed by either judge or prelate. It is true the prelate, 
in point of antiquity, was senior to both earl and baron, and in 
many cases superior in extent of possessions; but these attributes 
belonged to his office, the resignation or deprivation of which 
would at any time have caused him to lose his writ of summons. 
The writ issued really to the office. The judge's position was 
even worse. His judicial office evoked the writ, but at any 
moment he might be deprived of that office at the arbitrary 
pleasure of the Crown. It is doubtful whether the judges ever 
had voice and vote in the same sense as the other lords of 
parliament, and even if they had they soon came to be regarded 
merely as counsellors and assessors. 

The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted without 
a struggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mistake 
of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their 
own order while endeavouring to retain every right possessed 
by their lay brethren. They fell between two stools, lost their 
position as peers, and were beaten back in their fight for eccle- 
siastical privilege. In the reign of Richard II. the prelates are 
found clearly defining their position. Neville, archbishop of 
York, de Vere, duke of Ireland and others, were " appealed " 
for treason, and the archbishop of Canterbury took the oppor- 
tunity in parliament of making clear the rights of his order. 
He said " of right and by the custom of the realm of England 
it belongeth to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being 
as well as others his suffragans, brethren and fellow bishops, 
abbots and priors and other prelates whatsoever, holding of 
our lord'the king by barony, to be present in person in all the 
king's parliaments whatsoever as Peers of the Realm aforesaid, 
and there with the other Peers of the Realm, and with other 
persons having the right to be there present, to advise, treat, 
ordain, establish and determine as to the affairs of the realm 
and other matters there wont to be treated and to do all else 
which there presses to be done." After this he went on to say 
that as to the particular matters in question they intended to 
be present and to take their part in all matters brought before 
parliament " save our estate and order and that of each of the 
prelates in all things. But because in the present parliament 
there is question of certain matters, in which it is not lawful 
for us or anyone of the prelates according to the institute of the 
Holy Canons in any manner, to take part personally " we intend 
to retire " saving always the rights of our peerage " (Rot. Parl. 
ii Rich. II. No. 6 printed iii. 236-237). At the desire of the 
prelates this statement of their rights was duly enrolled in parlia- 
ment, but their claim to be peers was neither denied nor admitted, 
and the proceedings went on without them. For themselves 
Churchmen never claimed the privilege of trial by peers. 
Whenever they were arraigned they claimed to be altogether 
outside secular jurisdiction, and it was therefore a matter of 
small concern to them whether they were in the hands of peers 
or peasants. Such was the attitude of Becket towards Henry II. 
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), of Archbishop Stratford towards 
Edward III. (Pike, pp. 188 seq.), and it was probably with 
the history of these two cases in his mind that the archbishop 
of Richard II. 's reign speaks of the saving rights of his order. 
These rights were never willingly admitted in England, and as 
the pope's power for interference waned so the prelates were 
forced under the ordinary law of the land. Henry VIII. cer- 
tainly never regarded ecclesiastics as peers, as may be gathered 
from a grant early in his reign to the then abbot of Tavistock 
for himself and each succeeding abbot the right to be " one of 
the spiritual and religious lords of parliament." As to abbots, 
the subsequent dissolution of the monasteries put an end to the 



discussion. In this reign also Cranmer and Fisher, though the 
former was archbishop of Canterbury, were tried by a common 
jury, and they certainly claimed no privilege of peerage. The 
Standing Orders of the House of Lords for 1625 contain the 
statement that " Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not 
Peers " (Lords Journals, iii. 349). In 1640 the " Lords Spiritual " 
were altogether excluded from the House of Lords by act of 
parliament, and were not brought back until the second year 
of the Restoration. From that period there has been no ques- 
tion as to their position. Peers and holders by barony when 
parliaments first met, by the end of the isth century they had put 
themselves outside the pale of the peerage. To-day their ancient 
lands are vested in trustees (Ecclesiastical Commissioners), 
and office alone constitutes a bishop's qualification, and 
that only if he occupies one of the five great sees of Canterbury, 
York, London, Durham and Winchester, or is of sufficient 
seniority in appointment to fill one of the remaining twenty-one 
places on the bench of bishops in the house for there are now 
only twenty-six seats for thirty-six prelates. 

The reign of Henry VIII. brought about far-reaching changes 
in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended the 
throne the hereditary element was in a decided Henry vm. 
minority, but the balance was gradually redressed and the 
until at length a bare hereditary majority was Peerage. 
secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made 
possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands, 
at once began to consolidate their position; precedents were 
eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began 
to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers 
declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage 
must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act Blood * 
of parliament, failure of heirs, or upon corruption 
of blood by attainder. Stubbs writes with some contempt of 
the doctrine (Const. Hist. iii. 458 n.), apparently on the ground 
that it is absurd to speak of ennobled blood so long as the children 
of a peer still remain commoners. The doctrine is neither 
unreasonable nor illogical. By it is meant blood in which 
there always exists a capacity to inherit a particular peerage, 
and every person in whose veins the ennobled blood runs is 
competent to occupy the peerage if the chances of nature should 
remove those who are senior to him in the line of descent. A 
good illustration is the popular use of the term " blood royal," 
which of course does not mean that an individual of the blood 
royal necessarily occupies a throne but that he or she is in the 
line of succession to it. Similarly, persons of " ennobled blood " 
are not necessarily peers but in the line of descent to peerages, 
to which they may or may not succeed. (See NOBILITY.) 

The English peer is not like the continental noble the member 
of a caste, but the holder for life of an office clothed with high 
and exceptional legislative and judicial attributes entirely 
dependent on his office and exercisable only in conjunction 
with his fellow peers in parliament assembled. Such privileges 
as he possesses are due primarily to his office rather than to his 
blood. His children are commoners, who though accorded 
courtesy titles by the usage of society have no legal privileges 
not shared with the humblest of British subjects. It is this 
peculiar official quality of an English peerage which saved 
England from the curse of a privileged noble caste such as that 
which so long barred all progress in France and Germany. As 
a result there are hundreds of families in the United Kingdom 
who, commoners there, would yet, from their purity of blood, 
position and influence, be accounted noble in any continental 
country. 

From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule 
of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage is under Scots Law) 
can be surrendered, extinguished, or in any way got 
rid of unless the blood be corrupted. The rule is 
well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case 
(Law Reports [1007], A. C. 10) in which its development was 
traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. In 1302 
the hereditary earldom of Norfolk (created in 1135) was in the 
possession of Hugh Bygod, one of the most powerful nobles of 



PEERAGE 



Plantagenet days. The earl got into difficulties, and as some 
say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and 
debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto 
belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently 
received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the 
heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practi- 
cally a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the 
nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeded. 
Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of 
Edward II. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brotherton 
in 1312. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas, 
recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906 
the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground 
that in law Bygod's surrender was invalid, and that therefore 
Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom 
to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support 
such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is 
of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and 
lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that 
such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made, 
but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line 
of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can, 
if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a 
fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as 
1663 we find the Crown, naturally with the concurrence of its 
legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that, 
on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be 
suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view 
of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected 
to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days 
even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626, 
in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord 
great chamberlainship and the baronies of Bolebec, Badlesmere 
and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by 
the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away 
or alien his inheritance, because it was " a personal dignity 
annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood." Fourteen 
years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly 
resolved, " That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish 
his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither 
by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king." 
In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in 
view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the 
Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in 1660 taken into its hands, 
by surrender of Robert Villiers, 2nd viscount, the viscounty 
of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied 
for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William Jones, 
the attorney-general, who reported that " this (surrender) was 
a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of," 
the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords 
were very explicit, being " unanimously of the opinion, and do 
resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time hereafter to be 
levied by the king, can bar such title of honour (i.e. of a peer 
of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that 
levied, or shall levy such fine." On these resolutions passed in 
the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender 
of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical 
from the legal point of view. It was urged that in 1302 no 
real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years, 
was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on 
parliamentary principles should not apply. To this answer 
was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice 
of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape 
of even a hundred years later, the " Model Parliament " was 
summoned seven years before Bygod's surrender, and it is neces- 
sary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a 
legal beginning a point of law with which an historian can have 
little sympathy. 

Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case it may be 
permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days the 
Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal 
with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered 



because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becom- 
ing stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges 
and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition 
of their rights, and their resolutions in Stuart days were only 
declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been 
systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so, 
resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down 
must, when in point, always be followed. 

The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to 
peerages arises out of their close connexion with the tenure 
of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded Attalaaer 
as personal until well on into the I4th century. an d cor- 
Conviction for any kind of felony and treason ruptloa of 
originally was a form of felony was always followed B/0 * 
by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of 
the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was 
lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could 
be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of 
forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1285 
of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone's Commen- 
taries, ii. 1 1 6) which made possible the creation of estates tail, 
and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only 
to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied 
by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g. dignities 
conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected 
baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature 
of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the 
reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought 
estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only. 
The position then became that peerages of any kind were for- 
feitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies 
by writ remained as before forfeitable for attainder following 
on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an 
act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three 
years after Queen Anne's death the effects of corruption of blood 
consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished, 
and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. "7 Anne, 
c. 21, 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act 
was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his 
sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every 
crime other than high and petty treason and murder was re- 
stricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo. 
III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry, 
was altogether abolished and it was provided that " no judgment 
of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or 
corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat." The necessity 
for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to 
attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary 
history will be realized when it is remembered that there still 
exist dormant and abeyant peerages dating from 1295 onwards 
which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House 
of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages 
the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists 
to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The 
dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the 
effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does 
not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 1725 
leaving two sons James and George. George the younger was 
attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John. 
James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his 
father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then 
claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that 
his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom 
his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason 
of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise 
had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have 
succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder. 

In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary 
acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate 
apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and 
forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the 
common law or from special or general acts of parliament can 



PEERAGE 



only be reversed by act of parliament. The procedure in 
reversing an attainder and recovering a dignity is as follows. 
The Crown signifies its pleasure that a bill of restoration shall 
be prepared and signs it. The bill is then brought in to the 
House of Lords, passed there, and sent to the Commons for 
assent. The last bills of the kind became law in 1876, when 
Earl Cowper procured the removal of the attainder on one of his 
Ormond ancestors and so by purging the blood of corruption 
became entitled to, and was allowed, the barony of Butler of 
Moore Park (created in 1663). There should also be noted the 
Earldom of Mar Restitution Act 1885, which, while mainly con- 
firmatory of a disputed succession, at the same time reversed 
any attainders that existed. 

The House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor 
period, and during the reign of the first two Stuarts underwent 
a still greater increase. In the Great Rebellion the majority of 
the peers were the king's stoutest supporters and thus inevitably 
involved themselves in the ruin of the royal cause. Immediately 
after the execution of Charles I. the Republicans proceeded 
Common- to sweep away everything which savoured of mon- 
weaith archy and aristocracy. The House of Commons 
Abolition of vo t ec } t ne Lords " useless and dangerous," got rid of 

e *" them as a part of parliament by the simple expedient 
of a resolution (Comms. Journs. 1648-1649, vi. in) and placed 
the sole executive power in Cromwell's hands, but there was 
no direct abolition of the peerage as such. Evidently it took 
Cromwell but little time to realize the fallacy, in practice, of 
CromweiFs single-chamber government, as he is found ten 
House of years after the " useless and dangerous " resolu- 
Lords. jj on jj usv establishing a second chamber. 1 What 
to call it aroused much discussion, and eventually the unruly 
Commons consented to speak of and deal with " the other 
house." It is very difficult to realize what was the constitution 
of this body, so short was its life and so contemptuous its treat- 
ment by the Commons. The members of " the other house " 
were summoned by writs under the Great Seal, similar in form 
to those used to summon peers of past days. Some sixty writs 
were issued, and presumably their recipients were entitled 
thereby to sit for the duration of the parliament to which they 
were summoned; but it may be considered as certain that 
Cromwell's lords were never regarded as hereditary peers. 
They were entitled to the courtesy appellation " Lord " and 
appear to have been in the main substantial men existing 
peers, judges, distinguished lawyers and members of well-known 
county families. Judging from Cromwell's speech at the 
opening of parliament, and subsequent entries in Whitelock's 
diaries, the new house appears to have had revising functions 
both of a legislative and judicial nature and also the duty of 
taking cognizance of foreign affairs. Cromwell certainly issued 
two patents of hereditary peerage the barony of Burnell 
and the barony of Gilsland (with which went the viscounty of 
Howard of Morpeth), but neither title was recognized on the 
Restoration, and it does not appear that the possession of these 
titles ever conferred on their holders any hereditary right to a 
writ of summons to sit in "the other house." Whitelock 
himself was promised a viscounty by Cromwell, but no patent 
ever appears to have passed the Great Seal. Eventually business 
between the two houses grew impossible, and Cromwell was 
compelled to dissolve parliament. Richard's first parliament 
also contained Lords as well as Commons, the latter considerately 
voting " to transact business with the persons sitting in the 
other house as an House of Parliament, saving the right of the 
peers who had been faithful to the parliament," the saving 
clause evidently a loophole for the future. The dissolution 
of this parliament and the retirement of the protector Richard 
into private life preceded by only a few months the restoration 
to the throne of Charles II. With the king the peers returned 
to their ancient places. 

From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been 
freshened by a steady stream of men who as a rule have served 

1 Whitelock's Memorials of English Affairs (in the reign of 
Charles I. and up to the Restoration) (1853 ed. iv. 313). 



their country as statesmen, lawyers and soldiers. Little of 
note occurred in the history of the peerage until the reign of 
Anne. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) Scottish 
the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the Repnseata- 
Scottish peerage were given the privilege of " vePeers - 
electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, sixteen of 
their number to represent them in the House of Lords. 
Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be 
made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority 
of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, as only sixteen 
of their number were to become lords of parliament. Close 
upon a hundred years later Ireland was united with Great 
Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the Irish Repre- 
parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain sentative 
and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be Peers ~ 
elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of 
Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in 
turn to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but 
when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual 
lords lost their seats. The merger of the three kingdoms had 
an important effect on their peerages. Every peer in his 
own country had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right. 
The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the 
peer of Great Britain and the peer of the United Kingdom) 
continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. The 
Scottish and Irish peers lost this right though by the two Acts 
of Union they retained every other privilege of peerage. Hence- 
forth they were lords of parliament only as and when their 
fellow peers elected them. Thus though not all were lords of 
parliament in esse, every one was always so in posse, and in any 
case it was the hereditary quality of the peerage which either 
actually seated its holder in the House of Lords or made it 
possible for him to get there by the votes of his fellows. 

It now becomes possible to arrive at the modern meaning of 
the term " a peerage," and we may define it as a dignity of 
England, Scotland or Ireland, which, by its heredi- Modem 
tary quality, confers on its holder for the time Meaniagot 
being the right to be or not to be elected a lord of "Peer"**-" 
parliament. The term " peerage " is also used in a collective 
sense. 

The reign of Anne is remarkable for an attempt made by the 
House of Lords to limit its numbers by law. The queen, 
in order to secure a majority for the court party, Queen Anne 
had created a batch of twelve peers at one time, a aadPeerage 
considerable number in relation to existing peerages; Limitation. 
and it was feared this expedient might be used as a 
precedent. A peerage limitation bill was introduced into the 
House of Lords in 1719. Six new creations were to be allowed, 
but after these the Crown, except in the case of royal princes, 
was to create a new peerage only when an old one became 
extinct. Twenty-five hereditary peerages in Scotland were 
to take the place of the sixteen representative peers for all time. 
The bill passed the Lords, but was eventually thrown out in the 
House of Commons, though not by an overwhelming majority. 

In 1856 it was desired to strengthen the judicial element 
in the House of Lords, and the Crown issued letters patent 
creating Sir James Parke, one of the barons of the 
exchequer, Baron Wensleydale and a peer " for 
and during the term of his natural life." The 
burden of an hereditary peerage is heavy, and many men 
thoroughly well qualified in legal attainments have been known 
to refuse it on the ground of expense alone. This life-peerage 
was thought to be a way out of the difficulty, and it was on 
Lord Chancellor Cranworth's advice that the Crown issued the 
Wensleydale patent. The House of Lords at once realized 
that the creation of life-peers, at the will of the ministry of the 
day, might put the hereditary section into an absolute minority, 
and possibly in time, by form of law, get rid of it altogether. 
Eventually it was decided by the house that " neither the said 
letters patent nor the said letters patent with the usual writ of 
summons enable the grantee to sit and vote in parliament," 
a formal resolution which closed the door in the face of every 



ey * 



PEERAGE 



Judicial 
Peers. 



person whom the Crown might endeavour to make a life-peer. 
The government of the day accepted the situation, and soon 
afterwards a new patent was made out which followed the usual 
limitation to heirs-male. The precedents in favour of the 
Crown's action were not strong. The essential and outstanding 
attribute of the house was its hereditary character. The whole 
balance of the constitution worked on the pivot of the indepen- 
dence of the peers. They existed as a moderating force in the 
counsels of parliament, and the alteration of the hereditary 
character of the House of Lords might easily have rendered 
it amenable to whatever pressure the government of the day 
might see fit to exercise. In such circumstances its position 
as arbiter between people and government would tend to dis- 
appear. A change fraught with so many serious possibilities 
ought not, it was said, to be made by the simple prerogative 
of the Crown. If so far-reaching an alteration in the law were 
justifiable it was for parliament to make it. Further, it was 
pointed out, there had been no life-creations for centuries, and 
those that are recorded to have been conferred since the crys- 
tallization of our parliamentary system were of such a nature 
that the grantees never sat in the house by virtue of their life- 
honours, inasmuch as they were existing peers or women. Soon 
after the Wensleydale debates the government 
introduced a bill into the House of Lords to authorize 
the creation of two life-peers, who were to be persons 
of at least five years' standing as judges. They were to sit as 
lords of appeal but to be peers for life. Eventually the bill 
disappeared in the House of Commons. In 1869 Earl Russell 
introduced another life-peerage bill of far wider scope. Twenty- 
eight life-peerages might be in existence at any one time, but 
not more than four were to be created in any one year. The 
life peers would be lords of parliament for life. They were to be 
selected by the Crown from the peerages of Scotland and Ireland, 
persons who had sat for ten years in the Commons, distinguished 
soldiers, sailors, civil servants and judges or persons distinguished 
in science, literature or art. The bill received a rough handling 
in committee of the Lords, and the time was evidently not ripe 
for change, as the bill failed to pass its third reading. 

In 1870 attempts were made in the House of Lords to alter 
the position of the Scottish and Irish representative peers. In 
Suggested 1876 the need of further judicial strength in the 
Reforms and Lords was tardily admitted, and an act was passed 
Alterations, authorizing the creation of two lords of appeal in 
ordinary, and power was reserved to appoint two more 
as certain judicial vacancies occurred. They were to be 
entitled to the rank of baron during their lives but were to sit 
and vote in parliament only so long as they held their judicial 
office. Their dignities lasted for life only. Eleven years later 
another act enabled all retired lords of appeal to sit and vote as 
members of the House of Lords for life. To those interested 
in House of Lords reform the pages of Hansard's Parliamen- 
tary Debates are the best authority. In 1888 reform bills were 
introduced by Lords Dunraven and Salisbury, and in 1907 by 
Lord Newton. In December 1908 the publication of a long 
report with sweeping recommendations for reform ended the 
labours of a House of Lords committee which had been appointed 
to consider the question in detail. In the session of 1910, 
following the general election, long discussions took place in 
both houses of parliament. Opinion generally was freely 
expressed that the time had arrived for diminishing the number 
of lords of parliament and for putting into practice the principle 
that hereditary right alone should no longer confer lordship of 
parliament. (See PARLIAMENT.) 

The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin 

to feudalism. In Anglo-Norman days Scotland was a small 

country, and for some generations after England 

Peerage was sett l e d tne Scottish king's writ ran little beyond 

the foot of the Highlands, and even the Lord of the 

Isles reckoned himself an independent sovereign until the 

beginning of the isth century. The weak and usually ineffective 

control of the Crown resulted in opportunities for acquiring 

personal power which the nobles were not slow to take advantage 



of. Seldom accustomed to act in concert, they soon developed 
particularist tendencies which steadily increased the strength 
of their territorial position. These conditions of existence 
were entirely unfavourable to the establishment of any system 
of parliamentary government such as centralization had made 
possible in England, therefore it is not surprising to find that the 
lesser barons were not relieved of their attendance at the national 
assemblies until well on in the isth century (Burton's Scotland, 
iii. in). Again, when the Scottish earls and barons came to 
parliament, they did not withdraw themselves from the rest 
of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland 
to deliberate together, and this custom persisted until the 
abolition of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The 
territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to regard the 
honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and 
until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere 
any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached 
to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by 
Richard II. This explains the frequent surrenders and altered 
grants which are so common in Scottish peerage history, and 
which, in sharp distinction to the English rule of law, are there 
regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish 
dukedom (except the royal dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate 
or viscounty created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland 
(and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages sixty- 
three were created in the period between James's accession to 
the English throne and the Act of Union. There are now only 
eighty-seven in all. Unlike one of the English peerages owing its 
origin exclusively to a writ of summons, ancient Scottish 
peerages do not fall into abeyance, and when there are only 
heirs-general, the eldest heir of line succeeds. 

Whenever a new parliament is summoned, proclamation is 
made in Scotland summoning the peers to meet at Holyrood 
to elect sixteen of their number to represent them in such 
parliament. The Scottish peerages are recorded on a roll, 
and this is called over by the lord clerk register before the 
assembled peers seated at a long table. Each peer answers to 
the name of the peerage (it may be one or more) he possesses. 
The roll is then read again and each peer in turn (but only once) 
rises and reads out the list of those sixteen peers for whom he 
votes. Proxies are allowed for absent peers and are handed in 
after the second roll-call. The votes are counted and the lord 
clerk register reads out the names of those elected, makes a 
return, and signs and seals it in the presence of the peers 
assembled. The return eventually finds its way to the House of 
Lords. The Scottish representative peer so elected receives no 
writ of summons to parliament, but attends the House of Lords 
to take the oath, his right to sit being evidenced by the return 
made. It might be thought that the rules of election in so 
important a matter would be more stringent, but the fact 
remains that it is quite possible for an entirely unqualified person 
to attend and vote at Holyrood. No evidence of identity or 
of a man's right to be present is required and the lord clerk 
register is compelled to receive any vote tendered except in 
respect of peerages for which no vote has been given since 1800, 
these being struck off the roll (10 & n Viet. c. 52). Any 
person claiming to represent such a peerage must prove his 
right before the House of Lords, as was done in the case of the 
barony of Fairfax in 1908. It is true that by the act last cited 
any two peers may protest against a vote at Holyrood, and the 
lord clerk register thereupon reports the proceedings to the 
House of Lords, who will consider the question if application 
be made for an inquiry, but nothing is done unless an application 
is made. The right to vote certainly needs better proof than 
that now accepted. For many years the House of Lords main- 
tained that the Crown could not confer a new peerage of Great 
Britain on a Scottish peer, the ground being that the Scottish 
peerage was only entitled to the sixteen representative peers 
given it by the Act of Union, but eventually in 1782 in the case 
of the duke of Hamilton this contention was given up. 

The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with them 
the laws and the system of tenure to which they were accustomed 



PEERAGE 



53 



Irish 
Peerage. 



in England, and consequently the growth of the baronage 
and the establishment of parliamentary government in Ireland 
proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which 
occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII. 
the Irish were without representation in par- 
liament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the 
creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were 
enabled to elect representatives. In 1613 the whole country 
shared in representation (Ball's Legislative Systems of Ireland). 
Just as James I. had added many members to the Scottish 
peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers. 

In 1800 the Union of Great Britain and Ireland abolished 
the parliament of Ireland. By the Act of Union the Irish peers 
became entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to repre- 
sent them in the House of Lords. The election is for life, and 
only those peers are entitled to vote at elections of representative 
peers who have proved their right of succession to the satisfaction 
of the lord chancellor, who issues his notice to that effect after 
each individual proof. The names of such peers are added to 
the voting-roll of the peerage, and when voting papers are 
distributed the Irish peers do not meet for election purposes 
as do those of Scotland they are sent only to those peers who 
have proved their right to vote. If any claim to the right to 
vote is rejected by the lord chancellor the claimant must prove 
his case before the Committee for Privileges (barony of Graves, 
1907). When an Irish peer has been elected a representative 
peer he receives, as a matter of course, a writ of summons at 
the beginning of each parliament. The great bulk of the Irish 
peerage owes its existence to creations during the last two 
centuries, only seven of the existing peerages dating back 
beyond the xyth century; of the rest twenty-two were created 
during the year of Union, and thirty-three have been added 
since that date. Some hundred or more years ago ministers 
found the Irish peerage a useful means of political reward, in 
that it was possible to bestow a title of honour, with all 
its social prestige, and yet not to increase the numbers of the 
House of Lords. 

On the death of a representative peer of Scotland or Ireland 
a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accor- 
dance with modern practice promotion to a United Kingdom 
peerage does not vacate the holder's representative position 
(May's Parliamentary Practice, p. n n.). Scottish and Irish 
peers, if representative, possess all the privileges of peerage 
and parliament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if 
non-representative all privileges of peerage, except the right to 
a writ of summons to attend parliament and to be present at and 
vote in the trial of peers. A Scottish peer, if non-representa- 
tive, is in the anomalous position of being disabled from serving 
his country in either house of parliament, but an Irish peer 
may sit for any House of Commons constituency out of Ireland, 
though while a member of the Commons his peerage privileges 
abate. 

Though many peers possess more than one peerage, and 
frequently of more than one country, only that title is publicly 
used which is first in poirft of precedence. It was once argued 
that whenever a barony by writ came into the possession of a 
person already a peer of higher rank, the higher peerage " at- 
tracted" or overshadowed the lower, which thenceforth followed 
the course of descent of the dignity which had attracted it. 
This doctrine is now exploded and cannot be regarded as apply- 
ing to any case except that of the Crown (Baronies of Fitzwalter, 
1660, and De Ros, 1666; Collins's Claims, 168, 261). Every 
peerage descends according to the limitations prescribed in its 
patent of creation or its charter, and where these are non- 
existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general. 
(See ABEYANCE.) 

In dealing with English dignities it is essential to realize 
the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage. 
The Crown as the fountain of honour is capable of conferring 
upon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but 
may even invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted 
an order of hereditary knights which he termed baronets, 



and Edward VII. created the duchess of Fife " Princess 
Royal " a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales, 
earl marshal and lord great chamberlain have been creation* 
for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and must be 
social precedence, of themselves confer no right to according 
a. seat in the House of Lords they are not peerages. 
The grant of a peerage is a very different matter; its holder 
becomes thereby a member of the Upper House of Parlia- 
ment, and therefore the prerogative of the Crown in creat- 
ing such an office of honour must be exercised strictly in 
accordance with the law of the land. The Crown's prerogative 
is limited in several directions. The course of descent must be 
known to the law; and so, in the first place, it follows that a peer 
cannot be created for life with a denial of succession to his 
descendants (unless it be as one of the lords of appeal in ordinary 
under the acts of 1876 and 1887). The courses of descent of 
modern patents are invariably so marked out as ultimately 
to fix the peerage in some male line according to the custom of 
primogeniture, though the immediate successor of the first holder 
may be a woman or even a stranger in blood. The following 
instances may be cited; Amabell, Baroness Lucas, was in 1816 
created Countess de Grey with a limitation to the heirs-male of 
her sister; a nephew afterwards succeeded her and the earldom 
is now held by the marquess of Ripon. Other courses of descent 
known to the law are as follows: Fee simple, which probably 
operates as if to heirs-general, earldoms of Oxford (1155) and 
Norfolk (1135), both probably now in abeyance; and Bedford 
(1367), extinct; to a second son, the eldest being alive, dukedom 
of Dover (1708), extinct, and earldom of Cromartie (1861) called 
out of abeyance in 1895; a son-in-law and his heirs-male by the 
daughter of the first grantee, earldom of Northumberland (1747) ; 
to an elder daughter and her heirs-male, earldom of Roberts 
(1901); to an elder or younger brother and his heirs-male, 
viscounty of Kitchener (1902) and barony of Grimthorpe (1886). 
It is, however, not lawful for the Crown to make what is called 
a shifting limitation to a peerage, i.e. one which might vest a 
peerage in an individual, and then on a certain event happening 
(e.g. his succession to a peerage of higher rank) shift it from him 
to the representative of some other line. Such a limitation 
was held illegal in the Buckhurst case (1864). A peerage may 
not be limited to the grantee and " his heirs-male for ever." 
Such a grant was that of the earldom of Wiltes in 1398. The 
original grantee died without issue, but left a male heir-at-law, 
whose descendants in 1869 claimed the earldom, but the original 
limitation was held invalid. 

There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the 
number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created. 
As to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to 
prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and 
consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the 
result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually 
approaching extinction. The Irish peerage is supposed always 
to consist of one hundred exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown 
has power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the 
limit is reached no more peerages may be granted until existing 
ones become extinct or their holders succeed to United Kingdom 
peerages. Only four lords of appeal in ordinary may hold 
office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops 
capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various 
statutes at twenty-six, but, as pointed out previously, the 
spiritual lords are not now regarded as peers. 

Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have 
usually been created on the recommendation of the prime 
minister of the day, though the Crown, especially 
in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed /v>in*ers? 
in some instances to take its own course; and 
constitutionally such action is entirely legal. By far the 
greater number of peerage honours granted during the last 
two centuries have been rewards for political services. Usually 
these services are well known, but there exists several instances 
in which_ the reasons for conferring the honour have not been 
quite clear. Until the reign of George III. the peerage was 



54 



PEERAGE 



comparatively small, but that monarch issued no fewer than 
388 patents of peerage. Many of these have become extinct 
or obscured by higher titles, but the general tendency is in the 
direction of a steady increase, and where the peers of Tudor times 
might be counted by tens their successors of 1910 were numbered 
in hundreds. The full body would be 546 English peers. 
There are also 12 ladies holding English peerages. The Irish 
peerage has 175 members, but 82 of these are also peers of the 
United Kingdom, leaving 28 representative and 65 without 
seats in the House of Lords. Of 87 Scottish peers 51 hold United 
Kingdom peerages, the remainder consisting of 16 representative 
and 20 without seats. 

As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many 
privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of 

use or been forgotten. The most important now 
at Peerage m being are a seat in the House of Lords and the 

right to trial by peers. The right to a seat in 
parliament is one sanctioned by centuries of constitutional 
usage. The right of a peer in England to a seat in parliament 
was not, as pointed out in the early part of this article, entirely 
admitted by the Crown until late in the Plantagenet period, 
the king's pleasure as to whom he should summon always 
having been a very material factor in the question. Charles I. 
made a deliberate attempt to recover the ancient discretion 
of the Crown in the issue of writs of summons. The earl of 
Bristol was the subject of certain treasonable charges, and 
though he was never put on his trial the king directed that 
his writ of summons should not issue. The excluded peer 
petitioned the Lords, as for a breach of privilege, and a com- 
mittee to whom the matter was referred reported that there 
was no instance on record in which a peer capable of sitting in 
parliament had been refused his writ. There was a little delay, 
but the king eventually gave in, and the earl had his writ 
(Lords Journals, iii. 544). 

At the beginning of a new parliament every peer entitled 
receives a writ of summons issued under the authority of the 
Great Seal; he presents his writ at the table of the House of 
Lords on his first attendance, and before taking the oath. If 
the peer be newly created he presents his letters-patent creating 
the peerage to the lord chancellor on the woolsack, together 
with the writ of summons which the patent has evoked. A 
peer on succession presents his writ in 'the ordinary way, the 
Journals recording, e.g. that Thomas Walter, Viscount Hampden, 
sat first in Parliament after the death of his father (Lords 
Journals, cxxxix. 4). The form of writ now issued (at the 
beginning of a parliament: for the variation when parliament 
is sitting see Lords Journals, cxxxix. 185) corresponds closely 
to that in use so long ago as the i4th century. It runs as 
follows: 

George the Fifth by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond 
the seas King Defender of the Faith to our right trusty and well- 
beloved Greeting Whereas by the advice and consent of our Council 
for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning us the state and 
the defence of our said United Kingdom and the Church we have 
ordered a certain Parliament to be holden at our City of Westminster 
on the . . . day of ... next ensuing and there to treat and 
have conference with the prelates great men and peers of our realm 
We strictly enjoining command you upon the faith and allegiance 
by which you are bound to us that the weightiness of the said 
affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be. 
at the said day and place personally present with us and with the 
said prelates great men and peers to treat and give your counsel 
upon the affairs aforesaid. And this as you regard us and our 
honour and the safety and defence of the said United Kingdom 
and_Church and despatch of the said affairs in no wise do you omit. 

Formerly all peers were required to attend parliament, and 
there are numerous recorded instances of special grants of leave 
of absence, but nowadays there is no compulsion. 

After the right to a summons the principal privilege possessed 
n. TW j by a peer is his right to be tried by his peers on a 

rcers l rteu ... , . . 

by Peer*. charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin 

of this right, and some writers date it back to 

Saxon times (Trial of Lord Morley, 1678, State Trials vii. 



145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its con- 
firmatory authority. The important words are: 

" nullus liber homo capiatur imprisonetur aut disseisiatur de libero 
tenemento suo vel libertatibus seu liberis consuetudinibus suis, 
aut utlagetur aut exuletur nee aliquo modo distruatur nee dominus 
rex super ipsum ibit nee super eum mittet nisi per legale judicium 
parium suorum vel per legem terrae." 

The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege 
of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those 
wrongly condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the 
ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P., 
v. 24). In 1442 the privilege received parliamentary con- 
firmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c. 9). If parliament is sitting 
the trial takes place before the House of Lords in full session, 
i.e. the court of our lord the king in parliament, if not then 
before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lord 
high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not been so for 
centuries and is now only granted pro hoc vice. When necessity 
arises the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer 
(usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hoc vice 
(Blackstone's Comm. iv. 258). When a trial takes place in 
full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his 
powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all 
the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact. Should 
the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parliament 
he summons a number of peers to attend as a jury, but rules 
alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being 
judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress it 
is the invariable practice to summon all the judges to attend 
and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two 
tribunals was fully discussed and recognized in 1760 (Trial of 
Earl Ferrers, Foster's Criminal Cases, 139) . The most recent trial 
was that of Earl Russell for bigamy (reported 1901, A.C. 446). 
Among others are the Kilmarnock, Cromarty and Balmerino 
treason trials in parliament in 1746 (State Trials xviii. 441), and 
in the court of the lord high steward, Lord Morley (treason, 1666, 
State Trials vi. 777), Lord Cornwallis (murder, 1678 State 
Trials vii. 145), Lord Delamere (1686, treason, State Trials xi. 
510). Recently some doubt has been expressed as to the 
origin of the court of the lord high steward. It is said that 
the historical document upon which the practice is founded 
is a forgery. The conflicting views are set forth in Vernon 
Harcourt's His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers, p. 429, 
and in Pike's Constitutional History of the House of Lords, p. 213. 
In any case, whatever its historical origin, the court for 
centuries as a matter of fact has received full legal recognition 
as part of the constitution. The right to trial By peers 
extends only to cases of treason and felony, and not to those 
of misdemeanour; nor can it be waived by any peer (Co. 3 
Inst. 29; Kelyng's Rep. 56). In the case of R. v. Lord Graves 
(1887), discussed in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series, 
vol. cccx. p. 246, Lord Halsbury points out that the question 
of trial by peers is one of jurisdiction established by law rather 
than a claim of privilege in the discretion of the accused. 
Scottish and Irish peers, whether possessing seats in the House 
of Lords or not, are entitled to trial by peers, the same procedure 
being followed as in the case of members of the House of Lords. 

Peers with a seat in the House of Lords possess practically 
the same parliamentary privileges as do members of the House 
of Commons. Among other privileges peculiar to themselves 
they have the right of personal access to the sovereign (Anson's 
Law of the Constitution, i. 227). In the House of Lords, 
when a resolution is passed contrary to his sentiments, any peer, 
by leave of the house, may " protest," that is, enter his dissent 
on the journals of the house (Blackstone, Comm. i. 162). 
Formerly a peer might vote by proxy (Blackstone, ibid.), but 
since 1868 there has been a standing order discontinuing this 
right. In accordance with resolutions passed by the two 
houses, neither house has power by any vote or declaration 
to clothe itself with new privileges unknown to the law and 
customs of parliament (Commons Journal, xiv. 555). Peeresses 
and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have, 



PEERLKAMP PEESEMSKY 



55 



with the exception of the right to sit in the House of Lords and 
its attendant parliamentary privileges, every peerage privilege: 
a widowed peeress retains her privilege of peerage while un- 
married, but loses it if she marries a commoner (Co. Litt. 166; 
Cowley v. Cowley [1901] A.C. 450). Dissolution of marriage 
probably deprives a peeress of all peerage privileges which she 
acquired by marriage. 

The children of peers are commoners. The eldest son of a peer 
of the rank of earl (and above) is usually known socially by the 
Position of name f n ' s father's next peerage, but the courtesy 
Families of nature f such title is clearly indicated in every public 
Peers or ' e S a ' document, the phraseology employed being 

" John Smith, Esq., commonly known as Viscount 
Blackacre." Several cases are on record in which peers' eldest 
sons have actually borne courtesy titles not possessed as peerage 
honours by their fathers, but inasmuch as such are only accorded 
by courtesy, no question of peerage privilege arises. The yoifnger 
sons of dukes and marquesses are entitled to the prefix Lord " 
before their Christian names, and all the daughters of earls as well 
as of dukes and marquesses are entitled similarly to style them- 
selves " Lady," on the principle that all the daughters are equal 
in rank and precedence. The younger sons of earls and all the 
younger children of viscounts and barons are entitled to the prefix 

Honourable." Usually when the direct heir of a peer dies his 
children are given, by the Crown, on the death of the peer, the 
courtesy titles and precedence they would have enjoyed had their 
father actually succeeded to the peerage. 

An alien may be created a peer, but while remaining an alien 
cannot sit in the House of Lords, nor, if a Scottish or Irish peer, 
can he vote at elections for representative peers. Peer- 
01 ages may be created (l) by writ of summons, (2) by 
Peerages, patent. The writ of summons method is not now used 
except in the case of calling up an eldest son in the barony of his 
father. This does not create a new peerage but only accelerates 
the heir's appearance in the House of Lords. On the father's 
death the peerage remains vested in the son. Should the son die 
without heir the peerage revests in the father. The invariable 
method of creation in all ordinary cases is by patent. The letters 
patent describe the name of the dignity, the person upon whom it 
is conferred, and specify its course of descent. 

Claims to peerages are of two kinds: (l) of right, (2) of grace. 
In theory the Crown, as the fountain of honour, might settle any 
claim without reference to the House of Lords and 
* issue a writ of summons to its petitioner. This would 
Peerages. not m any wa y prevent the House of Lords from 
examining the patent and writ of summons when the favoured 
petitioner or any heir claiming through him came to take his 
seat. If of opinion that the patent was illegal the house might 
refuse admittance, as it did in the Wensleydale case. In the case 
of a petitioner who has persuaded the Crown to terminate in his 
favour as a co-heir the abeyance of an ancient barony and who 
has received his writ of summons, the matter is more difficult. 
The house cannot refuse to admit any person properly summoned 
by the Crown, as the prerogative is unlimited in point of numbers; 
but it can take into account the precedence of the newcomer. If 
he has an old barony he naturally expects its proper place on the 
bench of barons; but if the house thought fit they might compel 
him to prove his pedigree before according any precedence. If 
he refused to do this they would still be bound to admit him, but 
it would be as the junior baron of the house with a peerage dating, 
for parliamentary purposes, from the day of his summons. The 
general result is that the Crown, unless there can be no question 
as to pedigree, seldom terminates an abeyance without referring 
the matter to the House of Lords, and invariably so refers all 
claims which are disputed or which involve any question of law. 1 
The procedure is as follows: The claimant petitions the Crown 
through the home secretary, setting forth his pedigree and stating 
the nature of his claim. The Crown then refers the petition to its 
legal adviser, the attorney-general. The petitioner then in course 
of time appears before the attorney-general with his proofs. Finally 
the attorney-general reports that a prima facie case is, or is not, made 
out. If a case be made out, the Crown, if it does not take immediate 
action, refers the whole matter to the House of Lords, who pass it on 
to their Committee for Privileges for examination and report. 

The Committee for Privileges, which for peerage claims is usually 
constituted of the law lords and one or two other lords interested 
Committee m peerage history, sits as an ordinary court of justice 
forPrlvl- an follows all the rules of law and evidence. The 
leges. attorney-general attends as adviser to the committee 

and to watch the interests of the Crown. According to 
the nature of the case the Committee reports to the house, and 
the house to the Crown, that the petitioner (if successful) (l) has 
made out his claim and is entitled to a writ of summons, or (2) 

1 This was not done in the case of the earldom of Cromartie 
called out of abeyance in 1895. The holder of the title being a 
lady the house has had, as yet, no opportunity of considering the 
validity of the Crown's action. 



has proved his co-heirship to an existing peerage, and has also 
proved the descent of all existing co-heirs. In the first case the 
writ of summons is issued forthwith, but the second, being one of 
abeyance, is a matter for the pleasure of the Crown, which need 
not be exercised at all, but, if exercised, may terminate the abeyance 
in favour of any one of the co-heirs. The seniority of a co-heir 
(though this alone is of little moment), his power to support the 
dignity, and the number of existing co-heirs, are all factors which 
count in the chances of success. 

Reference has already been made in the earlier part of this article 
to the reply of Bishop Peter de Roches to the English barons 
who claimed trial by their peers, and, as was suggested Peers ol 
the bishop probably had in his mind the peers of France. France 
Possibly the word pares, as eventually used in England, 
was borrowed from this source, but this is uncertain. The great 
men known originally as the twelve pairs de France, were the feudal 
holders of large territories under the nominal sway of the king of 
France. They were the (archbishop) duke of Rheims, the (bishop) 
dukes of Langres and Laon, the (bishop) counts of Beauvais, Noyon 
and Chalons, the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy and Aquitaine, 
and the counts of Flanders, Toulouse and Champagne. These 
magnates, nominally feudatories, were practically independent 
rulers, and their position can in no way be compared to that of 
the English baronage. It is said that this body of peers was in- 
stituted in the reign of Philip Augustus, though some writers even 
ascribe its origin to Charlemagne. Some of the peers were present 
at Philip's coronation in 1179, and later again at the alleged trial 
of John of England when his fief of Normandy, was adjudged 
forfeit to the French Crown. 

As the central power of the French kings grew, the various fiefs 
lost their independence and became united to the Crown, with the 
exception of Flanders which passed into the hands of the emperor 
Charles V. In the I4th century the custom arose for the sovereign 
to honour his more important nobles by granting them the title 
of Peer of France. At first the grant was confined to the royal 
dukes, but later it was conferred on others, amongst whom late 
in the 1 7th century appears the archbishop of Paris. To several 
counties and baronies the honour of a peerage was added, but 
most of these eventually became reunited with the Crown. As a 
legislative body a chamber of peers in France was first founded 
by Louis XVIII. in 1814; it was hereditary anrt modelled on the 
English House of Lords. The revolution of 1830 reduced its 
hereditary quality to life tenure, and in the troubles of 1848 the 
chamber itself finally disappeared. 

Austria, Hungary and Portugal are other countries possessing 
peerages which to some extent follow the English model , In 
Austria there is a large hereditary nobility and those other 
members of it in whose families the legislative dignity Peerages 
is hereditary by nomination of the emperor sit in the 
Herrenhaus or Austrian Upper Chamber, together with certain pre- 
lates and a large number of nominated life-members. In Hungary 
all those nobles who possess the right of hereditary peerage (as 
admitted by the act of 1885 and subsequent acts) and who pay 
a land tax of certain value, are members of the House of Magnates, 
of which they form a large majority, the remainder of the mem- 
bers being Roman Catholic prelates, representatives of Protestant 
churches and life peers. In Portugal until recent years the House 
of Peers was an hereditary body,, but it is now practically a 
chamber of life-peers. (G. E.) 

PEERLKAMP, PETRUS HOFMAN (1786-1865), Dutch 
classical scholar and critic, descended from a family of French 
refugees named Perlechamp, was born at Groningen on the 
and of February 1786. He was professor of ancient literature 
and universal history at Leiden from 1822 to 1849, when 
he resigned his post and retired to Hilversum near Utrecht, 
where he died on the 27th of March 1865. He was the founder 
of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted 
in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to 
the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to 
have written. His ingenuity in this direction, in which he went 
much farther than Bentley, was chiefly exercised on the Odes 
of Horace (the greater part of which he declared spurious), 
and the Aeneid of Virgil. He also edited the Ars poetica and 
Satires of Horace, the Agricola of Tacitus, the romance of 
Xenophon of Ephesus, and was the author of a history of the 
Latin poets of the Netherlands (De vita, doctrina, et facilitate 
N ederlandorum qui carmina latino, composuerunt, 1838). 

See L. M tiller, Gesch. der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden 
(1869), and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 276. 

PEESEMSKY, ALEXEY FEOFILACTOVICH (1820-1881), 
Russian novelist, was born on his father's estate, in the province 
of Kostroma, on the ioth/22nd of March 1820. In his auto- 
biography he describes his family as belonging to the ancient 



PEGASUS PEGMATITE 



Russian nobility, but his more immediate progenitors were all 
very poor, and unable to read or write. His grandfather 
ploughed the fields as a simple peasant, and his father, as 
Peesemsky himself said, was washed and clothed by a rich 
relative, and placed as a soldier in the army, from which he retired 
as a major after thirty years' service. During childhood 
Peesemsky read eagerly the translated works of Walter Scott 
and Victor Hugo, and later those of Shakespeare, Schiller, 
Goethe, Rousseau, Voltaire and George Sand. From the 
gymnasium of Kostroma he passed through Moscow University, 
and in 1884 entered the government service as a clerk in the 
office of the Crown domains in his native province. Between 
1854 and 1872, when he finally quitted the civil service, he 
occupied similar posts in St Petersburg and Moscow. His 
early works exhibit a profound disbelief in the higher qualities 
of humanity, and a disdain for the other sex, although he appears 
to have been attached to a particularly devoted and sensible 
wife. His first novel, Boyarstchina, was forbidden for its 
unflattering description of the Russian nobility. His principal 
novels are Tufak ("A Muff"), 1850; Teesicha doush ("A 
Thousand Souls "), 1862, which is considered his best work of 
the kind; and Vzbalomoucheneoe more (" A Troubled Sea "), 
giving a picture of the excited state of Russian society about 
the year 1862. He also produced a comedy, Gorkaya soudbina 
(" A Bitter Fate "), depicting the dark sides of the Russian 
peasantry, which obtained for him the Ouvaroff prize of the 
Russian Academy. In 1856 he was sent, together with other 
literary men, to report on the ethnographical and commercial 
condition of the Russian interior, his particular field of inquiry 
having been Astrakhan and the region of the Caspian Sea. 
His scepticism in regard to the liberal reforms of the 'sixties 
made him very unpopular among the more progressive writers 
of that time. He died at Moscow on the 2nd of February 1881 
(Jan. 21, Russian style). 

PEGASUS (from Gr. Tnjybs, compact, strong), the famous 
winged horse of Greek fable, said to have sprung from the trunk 
of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus. 
Belleropbon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on 
the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or received him tamed and 
bridled at the hands of Athena (Pindar, 01. xiii. 63; Pausanias 
ii. 4). Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chimaera 
and overcame the Solymi and the Amazons, but when he tried 
to fly to heaven on the horse's back he threw him and continued 
his heavenward course (Apollodorus ii. 3). Arrived in heaven, 
Pegasus served Zeus, fetching for him his thunder and lightning 
(Hesiod, Theog. 281). Hence some have thought that Pegasus 
is a symbol of the thundercloud. According to O. Gruppe 
(Griechische Mythologie, i. 75, r23) Pegasus, like Arion the 
fabled offspring of Demeter and Poseidon, was a curse-horse, 
symbolical of the rapidity with which curses were fulfilled. In 
later legend he is the horse of Eos, the morning. The erroneous 
derivation from 70^17, " a spring of water," may have given 
birth to the legends which connect Pegasus with water; e.g. 
that his father was Poseidon, that he was born at the springs 
of Ocean, and that he had the power of making springs rise 
from the ground by a blow of his hoof. When Mt Helicon, 
enchanted by the song of the Muses, began to rise to heaven, 
Pegasus stopped its ascent by stamping on the ground (Antoninus 
Liberalis 9), and where he struck the earth Hippocrene (horse- 
spring), the fountain of the Muses, gushed forth (Pausanias 
ii. 31, ix. 31). But there are facts that speak for an independent 
mythological connexion between horses and water, e.g. the 
sacredness of the horse to Poseidon, the epithets Hippios and 
Equester applied to Poseidon and Neptune, the Greek fable 
of the origin of the first horse (produced by Poseidon striking 
the ground with his trident), and the custom in Argolis of 
sacrificing horses to Poseidon by drowning them in a well. 
From his connexion with Hippocrene Pegasus has come to be 
regarded as the horse of the Muses and hence as a symbol of 
poetry. But this is a modern attribute of Pegasus, not known 
to the ancients, and dating only from the Orlando innamorato 
of Boiardo. 



See monograph by F. Hannig, Breslauer philologische Abhand- 
lungen (1902), vol. viii., pt. 4. 

PEGAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
situated in a fertile country, on the Elster, 18 m. S.W. from 
Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz. Pop. (1905), 5656. It has 
two Evangelical churches, that of St Lawrence being a fine 
Gothic structure, a 16th-century town-hall; a very old hospital 
and an agricultural school. Its industries embrace the manu- 
facture of felt, boots and metal wares. 

Pegau grew up round a monastery founded in 1096, but does 
not appear as a town before the close of the I2th century. 
Markets were held here and its prosperity was further enhanced 
by its position on a main road running east and west. In the 
monastery, which was dissolved in 1539, a valuable chronicle 
was compiled, the Annales pegatiienses, covering the period 
from 1039 to 1227. 

See Filssel, Anfang und Ende des Klosters St Jacob zu Pegau 
(Leipzig, 1857) ; and Dillner, Grossel and Gunther, Altes und neues 
aus Pegau (Leipzig, 1905). The Annales pegavienses are published 
in Bd. XVI. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores. 

PEGMATITE (from Gr. Tnjyua, a bond), the name given by 
Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur 
in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali feldspars in crystalline 
intergrowth (see PETROLOGY, Plate II. fig. 6). The term was 
subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsely 
crystalline veins rich in quartz, feldspar and muscovite, which 
often in great numbers ramify through outcrops of granite and 
the surrounding locks. This application of the name has now 
obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many 
authors to include vein-rocks of similar structure and geological 
relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros. 
Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual 
intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedingly 
coarse-grained; in granite-pegmatites the feldspars may be 
several feet or even yards in diameter, and other minerals such 
as apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. Peg- 
matites consist of minerals which are found also in the rocks 
from which they are derived, e.g. granite-pegmatites contain 
principally quartz and feldspar while gabbro-pegmatites 
consist of diallage and plagioclase. Rare minerals, however, 
often occur in these veins in exceptional amount and as very 
perfect crystals. The minerals of the pegmatites are always 
those which were last to separate out from the parent rock. 
As the basic minerals are the first formed the pegmatites contain 
a larger proportion of the acid or more siliceous components 
which were of later origin. In granite-pegmatites there is little 
hornblende, biotite or sphene, but white mica, feldspar and quartz 
make up the greater part of the veins. In gabbro-pegmatites 
olivine seldom occurs, but diallage and plagioclase occur in 
abundance. In this respect the pegmatites and aplites agree; 
both are of more acid types than the average rock from which 
they came, but the pegmatites are coarsely crystalline while 
the aplites are fine-grained. Segregations of the early minerals 
of a rock are frequent as nodules, lumps and streaks scattered 
through its mass, and often dikes of basic character (lampro- 
phyres, &c.) are injected into the surrounding country. These 
have been grouped together as intrusions of melanocrate facies 
(/wXaj, black, Kp&ros, strength, predominance) because in 
them the dark basic minerals preponderate. The aplites and 
pegmatites, on the other hand, are leucocrate (Xew6s, white), 
since they are of acid character and contain relatively large 
amounts of the white minerals quartz and feldspar. 

Pegmatites are associated with plutonic or intrusive rocks and 
were evidently formed by slow crystallization at considerable 
depths below the surface: nothing similar to them is known 
in lavas. They are very characteristic of granites, especially 
those which contain muscovite and much alkali feldspar; in 
gabbros, diorites and syenites piegmatite dikes are comparatively 
rare. The coarsely crystalline structure may be ascribed to 
slow crystallization; and is partly the result of the rocks, in 
which the veins lie, having been at a high temperature when the 
minerals of the pegmatites separated out. In accordance 
with this we find that pegmatite veins are nearly always restricted 



PEGNITZ PEGOLOTTI 



57 



to the area occupied by the parent rock (e.g. the granite), or 
to its immediate vicinity, and within the zone which has been 
greatly heated by the plutonic intrusion, viz. the contact aureole. 
Another very important factor in producing the coarse crystal- 
lization of the pegmatite veins is the presence of abundant 
water vapour and other gases which served as mineralizing 
agents and facilitated the building together of the rock molecules 
in large crystalline individuals. 

Proof that these vapours were important agents in the forma- 
tion of pegmatites is afforded by many of the minerals con- 
tained in the veins. Boron, fluorine, hydrogen, chlorine and 
other volatile substances are essential components of some of 
these minerals. Thus tourmaline, which contains boron and 
fluorine, may be common in the pegmatites but rare in the 
granite itself. Fluorine or chlorine are present in apatite, 
another frequent ingredient of granite pegmatites. Muscovite 
and gilbertite both contain hydrogen and fluorine; topaz is 
rich in fluorine also and all of these are abundant in some 
pegmatites. The stimulating effect which volatile substances 
exert on crystallizing molten masses is well known to experi- 
mental geologists who, by mixing tungstates and fluorides with 
fused powders, have been able to produce artificial minerals 
which they could not otherwise obtain. Most pegmatites are 
truly igneous rocks so far as their composition goes, but in their 
structure they show relations to the aqueous mineral veins. 
Many of them for example have a comby structure, that is to 
say, their minerals are columnar and stand perpendicular to the 
walls of the fissure occupied by the vein. Sometimes they have 
a banding owing to successive deposits having been laid down 
of different character; mica may be external, then feldspar, and 
in the centre a leader or string of pure quartz. In pegmatite 
veins also there are very frequently cavities or vugs, which are 
lined by crystals with very perfect faces. These bear much 
resemblance to the miarolitic or drusy cavities common in 
granite, and like them were probably filled with the residual 
liquid which was left over after the mineral substances were 
deposited in crystals. 

Pegmatites are very irregular not only in distribution, width 
and persistence, but also in composition. The relative abun- 
dance of the constituent minerals may differ rapidly and much 
from point to point. Sometimes they are rich in mica, in 
enormous crystals for which the rock is mined or quarried 
(India). Other pegmatites are nearly pure feldspar, while others 
are locally (especially near their terminations) very full of 
quartz. They may in fact pass into quartz veins (alaskites) 
some of which are auriferous (N. America). Quartz veins of 
another type are very largely developed, especially in regions 
of slate and phyllite; they are produced by segregation of 
dissolved silica from the country rock and its concentration 
into cracks produced by stretching of the rock masses during 
folding. In these segregation veins, especially when the beds 
are of feldspathic nature, crystals of albite and orthoclase may 
appear, in large or small quantity. In this v/ay a second type 
of pegmatite (segregation pegmatite) is formed which is very 
difficult to distinguish from true igneous veins. These two 
have, however, much in common as regards the conditions 
under which they were formed. Great pressures, presence of 
water, and a high though not necessarily very high temperature 
were the principal agencies at work. 

Granite pegmatites are laid down after their parent mass had 
solidified and while it was cooling down: sometimes they contain 
such minerals as garnet, not found in the main mass, and showing 
that the temperature of crystallization was comparatively low. 
Another special feature of these veins is the presence of minerals 
containing precious metals or rare earths. Gold occurs in not a few 
cases; tin in others, while sulphides such as copper pyrites are found 
also. Beryl is the commonest of the minerals of the second group : 
spodumene is another example, and there is much reason to hold 
that diamond is a native of some of the pegmatites of Brazil and 
India, though this is not yet incontestably proved. The syenite- 
pegmatites of south Norway are remarkable both for their coarse 
crystallization and for the great number of rare rfiinerals they have 
yielded. Among these may be mentioned laavenite, rinkite, rosen- 
buschite, mosandrite, pyrochlore, perofskite and lamprophyllite. 



Dpnyllite 
(J. S. F. 



PEGNITZ, a river of Germany. It rises near Lindenhard 
in Upper Franconia (Bavaria) from two sources. At first it 
is called the Fichtenohe, but at Buchau it takes the name of the 
Pegnitz, and flowing in a south-westerly direction disappears 
below the small town of Pegnitz in a mountain cavern. It 
emerges through three orifices, enters Middle Franconia, and 
after flowing through the heart of the city of Nuremberg falls 
into the Regnitz at Furth. 

See Specht, Das Pegnitzgebiet in Bezug auf seinen Wasserhaushalt 
(Munich, 1905). 

The Pegnitz Order (Order of the society of Pegnitz shepherds), 
also known as " the crowned flower order on the Pegnitz," was 
one of the societies founded in Germany in the course of the I7th 
century for the purification and improvement of the German 
language, especially in the domain of poetry. Georg Philipp 
Harsdorffer and Johann Klaj instituted the order in Nuremberg 
in 1644, and named it after the river. Its emblem was the passion 
flower with Pan's pipes, and the motto Mil Nutzen erfreulich, 
or Alle zu einem Ton einslimmig. The members set themselves 
the task of counteracting the pedantry of another school of 
poetry by imagination and gaiety, but lacking imagination 
and broad views they took refuge in allegorical subjects and 
puerile trifling. The result was to debase rather than to raise 
the standard of poetic art in Germany. At first the meetings 
of the order were held in private grounds, but in 1681 they were 
transferred to a forest near Kraftshof or Naunhof. In 1794 
the order was reorganized, and it now exists merely as a literary 
society. 

See Tittman, Die niirnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847); 
and the Festschrift zur 2$o-jahrigen Jubelfeier des pegnesischen 
Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894). 

PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO BALDUCCI (fl. 1315-1340), 
Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service 
of the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity we 
find him at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 1317; in London 
in 1317 and apparently for some time after; in Cyprus from 
1324 to 1327, and again (or perhaps in unbroken continuation 
of his former residence) in 1335. In this last year he obtained 
from the king of Little Armenia (i.e. medieval Cilicia, &c.) a grant 
of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and 1343, 
probably in 1339-1340, he compiled his Libra di divisamenti 
di paesi e di misuri di mercalanzie e d'altre cose bisognevoli di 
sapere a' mercatanti, commonly known as the Pratica delta 
mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a 
sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes 
or payments on merchandise as well as for " every kind of place 
where goods might be bought or sold in cities," the Pralica 
next describes some of the chief trade routes of the i4th century, 
and many of the principal markets then known to Italian 
merchants; the imports and exports of various important 
commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in each of 
those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys, 
weights and measures. The most distant and extensive trade 
routes described by Pegolotti are: (i) that from Tana or Azov 
to Peking via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar, Kulja and Kanchow 
(Gittarchan, Organci, Ottrarre, Armalecco and Camexu in the 
Pratica); (2) that from Lajazzo on the Cilician coast to Tabriz 
in north Persia via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum (Salvastro, 
Arzinga and Arzerone); (3) that from Trebizond to Tabriz. 
Among the markets enumerated are: Tana, Constantinople, 
Alexandria, Damietta, and the ports of Cyprus and the Crimea. 
Pegolotti's notices of ports on the north of the Black Sea are very 
valuable; his works show us that Florentine exports had now 
gained a high reputation in the Levant. In other chapters 
an account is given of 14th-century methods of packing goods 
(ch. 29); of assaying gold and silver (ch. 35); of shipment; 
of "London in England in itself" (ch. 62); of monasteries 
in Scotland and England (" Scotland of England," Scozia di 
Inghilterra) that were rich in wool (ch. 63). Among the latter 
are Newbattle, Balmerino, Cupar, Dunfermline, Dundrennan, 
Glenluce, Coldingham, Kelso, Newminster near Morpeth, 
Furness, Fountains, Kirkstall, Kirstead, Swineshead, Sawley 



PEGU PEIRCE 



and Calder. Pegolotti's interest in England and Scotland is 
chiefly connected with the wool trade. 

There is only one MS. of the Pratica, viz. No. 2441 in the Riccar- 
dian Library at Florence (241 fob., occupying the whole volume), 
written in 1471 ; and one edition of the text, in vol. iii. of Gian 
Francesco Pagnini's Delia Decima e delle altre gravezze impaste dal 
commune di Firenze (Lisbon and Lucca really Florence -1766) ; 
Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 279-308, translated into English the 
most interesting sections of Pegolotti, with valuable commentary 
(London, Hakluyt Society, 1866). See also W. Heyd, Commerce 
du Levant, ii., 12, 50, 58, 78-79, 85-86, 112-119 (Leipzig, 1886); H. 
Kiepert, in Silzungsberichte der philos.-hist. Cl. der berliner Akad., 
p. 901, &c. (Berlin, 1881); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern 
Geography, iii. 324-332, 550, 555 (Oxford, 1906). 

PEGU, a town and former capital of Lower Burma, giving 
its name to a district and a division. The town is situated 
on a river of the same name, 47 m. N.E. of Rangoon by rail; 
pop. (1901), 14,132. It is still surrounded by the old walls, 
about 40 ft. wide, on which have been built the residences of 
the British officials. The most conspicuous object is the Shwe- 
maw-daw pagoda, 324 ft. high, considerably larger and even 
more holy than the Shwe-dagon pagoda at Rangoon. Pegu 
is said to have been founded in 573, as the first capital of the 
Takings; but it was as the capital of the Toungoo dynasty 
that it became known to Europeans in the i6th century. About 
the middle of the i8th century it was destroyed by Alompra; 
but it rose again, and was important enough to be the scene 
of fighting in both the first and second Burmese Wars. It gave 
its name to the province (including Rangoon) which was annexed 
by the British in 1852. 

The district, which was formed in 1883, consists of an alluvial 
tract between the Pegu Yoma range and the Sittang river: 
area, 4276 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 339,572, showing an increase of 
43% in the decade. Christians numbered nearly 9000, mostly 
Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is exported 
in large quantities to Rangoon. The district is traversed by 
the railway, and also crossed by the Pegu-Sittang canal, navi- 
gable for 85 m., with locks. 

The division of Pegu comprises the five districts of Rangoon 
city, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, lying east 
of the Irrawaddy: area 13,084 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,820,638. 

Pegu has also given its name to the Pegu Yoma, a range of hills 
running north and south for about 200 m., between the Irrawaddy 
and Sittang rivers. The height nowhere exceeds 2000 ft. 
but the slopes are steep and rugged. The forests yield teak 
and other valuable timber. The Pegu river, which rises in 
this range, falls into the Rangoon river just below Rangoon 
city, after a course of about 180 m. 

PEILE, JOHN (1838-1910), English philologist, was born 
at Whitehaven on the 24th of April 1838. He" was educated at 
Repton and Christ's College, Cambridge. After a distinguished 
career (Craven scholar, senior classic and chancellor's medallist), 
he became fellow and tutor of his college, reader of comparative 
philology in the university (1884-1891), and in 1887 was elected 
master of Christ's. He took a great interest in the higher 
education of women and became president of Newnham College. 
He was the first to introduce the great philological works of 
George Curtius and Wilhelm Corssen to the English student 
in his Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology (1869). He 
died at Cambridge on the Qth of October 1910, leaving 
practically completed his exhaustive history of Christ's College. 

PEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of 
Hanover, 16 m. by rail N.W. of Brunswick, on the railway to 
Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (1905), 15,421. The town has 
a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools. 
Its industries include iron and steel works, breweries, distilleries 
and brickyards, and the manufacture of starch, sugar, malt, 
machinery and artificial manure. There are also large horse 
and cattle markets held here. Peine was at one time a strongly 
fortified place, and until 1803 belonged to the bishopric of 
Hildesheim. 

PEINE FORTE ET DURE (French for "hard and severe 
punishment "), the term for a barbarous torture inflicted on those 
who, arraigned of felony, refused to plead and stood silent, or 



challenged more than twenty jurors, which was deemed a con- 
tumacy equivalent to a refusal to plead. By early English law 
a prisoner, before he could be tried, must plead " guilty " or 
" not guilty." Before the i3th century it was usual to imprison 
and starve till submission, but in Henry IV. 's reign the peine 
was employed. The prisoner was stretched on his back, and 
stone or iron weights were placed on him till he either submitted 
or was pressed to death. Pressing to death was abolished in 
1772; " standing mute " on an arraignment of felony being then 
made equivalent to conviction. By an act of 1828 a plea of 
" not guilty " was to be entered against any prisoner refusing 
to plead, and that is the rule to-day. An alternative to the 
peine was the tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip- 
cord until pain forced the prisoner to speak. This was said to be 
a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the igth century. 

Among recorded instances of the' infliction of the peine are: 
Juliana Quick (1442) for high treason in speaking derisively of 
Henry VI.; Margaret Clitherow, "the martyr of York" (1586); 
Walter Calverly, of Calverly, Yorks, for the murder of his children 
(1605); and Major Strangways at Newgate, charged with murder of 
his brother-in-law (1657). In this last case it is said that upon the 
weights being placed in position several cavalier friends of Strang- 
ways sprang on his body and put him out of his pain. In 1721 one 
Nathaniel Hawes lay under a weight of 250 Ib for seven minutes, 
finally submitting. The peine was last employed in 1741 at 
Cambridge assizes, when a prisoner was so put to death ; the penalty 
of thumb-tying having first been tried. In 1692 at Salem, Massa- 
chusetts, Giles Corey, accused of witchcraft, refusing to plead, was 
pressed to death. This is believed to be the only instance of the 
infliction of the penalty in America. 

PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO, a lake of north-west Russia, 
between the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov, Livonia and 
Esthonia. Including its southern extension, sometimes known 
as Lake Pskov, it has an area of 1356 sq. m. Its shores are 
flat and sandy, and in part wooded; its waters deep, and they 
afford valuable fishing. The lake is fed by the Velikaya, which 
enters it at its southern extremity, and by the Embach, which 
flows in half way up its western shore; it drains into the Gulf of 
Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east corner. 

PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Ueipaievs), the port town 
of Athens, with which its history is inseparably connected. 
Pop. (1907), 67,982. It consists of a rocky promontory, contain- 
ing three natural harbours, a large one on the north-west which 
is still one of the chief commercial harbours of the Levant, and 
two smaller ones on the east, which were used chiefly for naval 
purposes. Themistocles was the first to urge the Athenians 
to take advantage of these harbours, instead of using the sandy 
bay of Phaleron ; and the fortification of the Peiraeus was begun 
in 493 B.C. Later on it was connected with Athens by the Long 
Walls in 460 B.C. The town of Peiraeus was laid out by the 
architect Hippodamus of Miletus, probably in the time of 
Pericles. The promontory itself consisted of two parts the 
hill of Munychia, and the projection of Acte; on the opposite 
side of the great harbour was the outwork of Eetioneia. The 
most stirring episode in the history of the Peiraeus is the seizure 
of Munychia by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, and the 
consequent destruction of the " 30 tyrants " in 404 B.C. The 
three chief arsenals of the Peiraeus were named Munychia, 
Zea and Cantharus, and they contained galley slips for 82, 196 
and 94 ships respectively in the 4th century B.C. 

See under ATHENS. Also Angelopoulos, Hepl UtipatSis <u rSir 
\i/j.ivav aiiTou (Athens, 1898). 

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809-1880), American mathematician 
and astronomer, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 
4th of April 1809. Graduating at Harvard College in 1829, 
he became mathematical tutor there in 1831 and professor in 
1833. He had already assisted Nathaniel Bowditch in his 
translation of the Mecanique celeste, and now produced a series 
of mathematical textbooks characterized by the brevity and 
terseness which made his teaching unattractive to inapt pupils. 
Young men of talent, on the contrary, found his instruction 
most stimulating, and after Bowditch's death in 1838 Peirce 
stood first among American mathematicians. His researches 
into the perturbations of Uranus and Neptune (Proc. Amer. 



PEISANDER PEISISTRATUS 



59 



Acad., 1848) gave him a wider fame; he became in 1849 con- 
sulting astronomer to the American Nautical Almanac, and for 
this work prepared new tables of the moon (1852). A discussion 
of the equilibrium of Saturn's rings led him to conclude in 1855 
that they must be of a fluid nature. From 1867 to r8;4 he was 
superintendent of the Coast Survey. In 1857 he published his 
best known work, the System of Analytical Mechanics, which 
was, however, surpassed in brilliant originality by his Linear 
Associative Algebra (lithographed privately in a few copies, 
1870; reprinted in the Amer. Journ. Math., 1882). He died at 
Cambridge, Mass., on the 6th of October 1880. 

See New Amer. Cyclopaedia (Ripley and Dana), vol. xiii. (1861); 
T. J. J. See, Popular Astronomy, iii. 49; Nature, xxii. 607; R. Grant, 
Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, pp. 205, 292; J. C. Ppggendorff, Biog. 
lit. Handworterbuch; Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xli. 191. 

PEISANDER, of Camirus in Rhodes, Greek epic poet, sup- 
posed to have flourished about 640 B.C. He was the author 
of a Heracleia, in which he introduced a new conception of the 
hero, the lion's skin and club taking the place of the older 
Homeric equipment. He is also said to have fixed the number 
of the " labours of Hercules " at twelve. The-work, which accord- 
ing to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, vi. ch. 2) was simply 
a plagiarism from an unknown Pisinus of Lindus, enjoyed 
so high a reputation that the Alexandrian critics admitted the 
author to the epic canon. From an epigram (20) of Theocritus 
we learn that a statue was erected in honour of Peisander by 
his countrymen. He is to be distinguished from Peisander 
of Laranda in Lycia, who lived during the reign of Alexander 
Severus (A.D. 222-235), ar >d wrote a poem on the mixed marriages 
of gods and mortals, after the manner of the Eoiai of Hesiod. 

See fragments in G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenta (1878) ; 
also F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1844), on the twelve 
labours of Hercules in Peisander. 

PEISISTRATUS, (6057-527 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was 
the son of Hippocrates. He was named after Peisistratus, the 
youngest son of Nestor, the alleged ancestor of his family; he 
was second cousin on his mother's side to Solon, and numbered 
among his ancestors Codrus the last great king of Athens. Thus 
among those who became " tyrants " in the Greek world he 
gained his position as one of the old nobility, like Phalaris of 
Agrigentum, and Lygdamis of Naxos; but unlike Orthagoras of 
Sicyon, who had previously been a cook. Peisistratus, though 
Solon's junior by thirty years, was his lifelong friend (though this 
is denied), nor did their friendship suffer owing to their political 
antagonism. From this widely accepted belief arose the almost 
certainly false statement that Peisistratus took part in Solon's 
successful war against Megara, which necessarily took place 
before Solon's archonship (probably in 600 B.C.). Aristotle's 
Constitution of Athens (ch. 17) carefully distinguishes Solon's 
Megarian War from a second in which Peisistratus was no doubt 
in command, undertaken between 570 and 565 to recapture 
Nisaea (the port of Megara) which had apparently been recovered 
by the Megarians since Solon's victory (see Sandys on The 
Constitution of Athens, ch. 14, i, note, and E. Abbott, History 
of Greece, vol. i. app. p. 544). Whatever be the true explanation 
of this problem, it is certain (i) that Peisistratus was regarded 
as a leading soldier, and (2) that his position was strengthened 
by the prestige of his family. Furthermore (3) he was a man 
of great ambition, persuasive eloquence and wide generosity; 
qualities which especially appealed at that time to the classes 
from whom he was to draw his support hence the warning of 
Solon (Frag. II. B) : " Fools, you are treading in the footsteps 
of the fox; can you not read the hidden meaning of these charm- 
ing words?" Lastly, (4) and most important, the times were 
ripe for revolution. In the article on SOLON (ad fin.) it is shown 
that the Solonian reforms, though they made a great advance 
in some directions, failed on the whole. They were too moderate 
to please the people, too democratic for the nobles. It was 
found that the government by Boule and Ecclesia did not mean 
popular control in the full sense; it meant government by the 
leisured classes, inasmuch as the industrious farmer or herdsman 
could not leave his work to give his vote at the Ecclesia, or do 
his duty as a councillor. Partly owing to this, and partly to 



ancient feuds whose origin we cannot trace, the Athenian people 
was split up into three great factions known as the Plain (Pedieis) 
led by Lycurgus and Miltiades, both of noble families; the Shore 
(Par alt) led by the Alcmaeonidae, represented at this time by 
Megacles, who was strong in his wealth and by his recent marriage 
with Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon; the Hill or 
Upland (Diacreis, Diacrii) led by Peisistratus, who no doubt 
owed his influence among these hillmen partly to the possession 
of large estates at Marathon. In the two former divisions 
the influence of wealth and birth predominated; the hillmen 
were poorly housed, poorly clad and unable to make use of the 
privileges which Solon had given them. 1 Hence their attachment 
to Peisistratus, the " man of the people," who called upon them 
to sweep away the last barriers which separated rich and poor, 
nobles and commoners, city and countryside. Lastly, there 
was a class of men who were discontented with the Solonian 
constitution: some had lost by his Seisachtheia, others had 
vainly hoped for a general redistribution. These men saw their 
only hope in a revolution. Such were the factors which enabled 
him to found his tyranny. 

To enter here into an exhaustive account of the various theories 
which even before, though especially after, the appearance of 
the Constitution of Athens have been propounded as to the 
chronology of the Peisistratean tyranny, is impossible. For 
a summary of these hypotheses see J. E. Sandys's edition of the 
Constitution of Athens (p. 56, c. 14 note). The following is in 
brief the sequence of events: In 560 B.C. Peisistratus drove 
into the market-place, showed to an indignant assembly marks 
of violence on himself and his mules, and claimed to be the 
victim of assault at the hands of political enemies. The people 
unhesitatingly awarded their " champion " a bodyguard of 
fifty men (afterwards four hundred) armed with clubs. With 
this force he proceeded to make himself master of the Acropolis 
and tyrant of Athens. The Alcmaeonids fled and Peisistratus 
remained in power for about five years, during which Solon's 
death occurred. In 555 or 554 B.C. a coalition of the Plain 
and the Coast succeeded in expelling him. His property was 
confiscated and sold by auction, but in his absence the strife 
between the Plain and the Coast was renewed, and Megacles, 
unable to hold his own, invited him to return. The condition 
was that their families should be allied by the marriage of 
Peisistratus to Megacles' daughter Coesyra. A second coup d'etat 
was then effected. A beautiful woman, it is said, by name 
Phya, was disguised as Athena and drove into the Agora with 
Peisistratus at her side, while proclamations were made that 
the goddess herself was restoring Peisistratus to Athens. The 
ruse was successful, but Peisistratus soon quarrelled with 
Megacles over Coesyra. By a former marriage he already had 
two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, now growing up, and in his 
first tyranny or his first exile he married an Argive, Timonassa, 
by whom he had two other sons lophon and Hegesistratus, the 
latter of whom is said to be identical with Thessalus (Ath. Pol. 
c. 17), though from Thucydides and Herodotus we gather that 
they were distinct e.g. Herodotus describes Hegesistratus as 
a bastard, and Thucydides says that Thessalus was legitimate. 
Further it is suggested that Peisistratus was unwilling to have 
children by one on whom lay the curse of the Cylonian outrage. 
The result was that in the seventh year (or month, see Ath. Pol. 
c. 15. i, Sandys's note) Megacles accused him of neglecting his 
daughter, combined once more with the third faction, and 
drove the tyrant into an exile lasting apparently for ten or eleven 
years. During this period he lived first at Rhaecelus and later 
near Mt Pangaeus and on the Strymon collecting resources of 
men and money. He came finally to Eretria, and, with the help 
of the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naxos, whom he afterwards 
made ruler of that island, he passed over to Attica and defeated 
the Athenian forces at the battle of Pallenis or Pellene. From 
this time till his death he remained undisputed master of Athens. 
The Alcmaeonids were compelled to leave Athens, and from 

1 It is suggested with probability that the Diacrii were rather 
the miners of the Laurium district (P. M. Ure, Journ. Hell. Stud., 
1906, pp. 131-142). 



6o 



PEKIN 



the other noble families which remained he exacted 400 hostages 
whom he put in the care of his ally Lygdamis. 

In the heyday of the Athenian democracy, citizens both 
conservative and progressive, politicians, philosophers and 
historians were unanimous in their denunciation of " tyranny." 
Yet there is no doubt that the rule of Peisistratus was most 
beneficial to Athens both in her foreign and in her internal 
relations, (i) During his enforced absence from Athens he 
had evidently acquired a far more extended idea of the future 
of Athens than had hitherto dawned on the somewhat parochial 
minds of her leaders. He was friendly with Thebes and Argos; 
his son Hegesistratus he set in power at Sigeum (see E. Abbott, 
Hist, of Gr. vol. i. xv. 9) and his friend Lygdamis at Naxos. 
From the mines of Thrace, and perhaps from the harbour dues 
and from the mines of Laurium, he derived a large revenue; 
under his encouragement, Miltiades had planted an Athenian 
colony on the shores of the Thracian Chersonese; he had even 
made friends with Thessaly and Macedonia, as is evidenced by 
the hospitality extended by them to Hippias on his final ex- 
pulsion. Finally, he did not allow his friendliness with Argos 
to involve him in war with Sparta, towards whom he pursued a 
policy of moderation. (2) At home it is admitted by all authori- 
ties that his rule was moderate and beneficent, and that he was 
careful to preserve at least the form of the established constitu- 
tion. It is even said that, being accused of murder, he was ready 
to be tried by the Areopagus. Everything which he did during 
his third period of rule was in the interests of discipline and order. 
Thus he hired a mercenary bodyguard, and utilized for his own 
purposes the public revenues; he kept the chief magistracies 
(through which he ruled) in the hands of his family; he imposed 
a general tax 1 of 10% (perhaps reduced by Hippias to 5%) 
on the produce of the land, and thus obtained control over the 
fleet and spread the burden of it over all the citizens (see the 
spurious letter of Peisistratus to Solon, Diog. La'ert. i. 53 ; Thuc. 
vi. 54 and Arnold's note ad loc.; Boeckh iii. 6; Thirlwall c. xi., 
pp. 72-74; and Grote). But the great wisdom of Peisistratus is 
shown most clearly in the skill with which he blinded the people 
to his absolutism. Pretending to maintain the Solonian con- 
stitution (as he could well afford), he realized that people would 
never recognize the deception if a sufficient degree of prosperity 
were ensured. Secondly, he knew that the greater the propor- 
tion of the Athenians who were prosperously at work in the 
country and therefore did not trouble to interfere in the work 
of government the less would be the danger of sedition, whose seeds 
are in a crowded city. Hence he appears to have encouraged 
agriculture by abating the tax on small farms, and even by 
assisting them with money and stock. Secondly, he established 
deme law-courts to prevent people from having recourse to 
the city tribunals; it is said that he himself occasionally " went 
on circuit," and on one of these occasions was so struck by the 
plaints of an old farmer on Hymettus, that he remitted all 
taxation on his land. Thus Athens enjoyed immunity from 
war and internecine struggle, and for the first time for years 
was in enjoyment of settled financial prosperity (see Constitution 
of Athens, c. 16. 7 6 ri Kpbvov /3ios). 

The money which he accumulated he put to good use in the 
construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleisthenes 
of Sicyon and Feriander of Corinth, he realized that one great 
source of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over 
the local cults. This he diminished by increasing the splendour 
of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac 2 
rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion. 
With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and 
began, though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus (the magni- 
ficent columns now standing belong to the age of Hadrian). 

* It should be noted as against this, the general account, that 
Thucydides, speaking apparently with accuracy, describes the tax 
as tUoffTTi (5%); the Constitution of Athens speaks of (the familiar) 
HCKHTJI (10%). 

2 Dionysus, as the god of the rustics, was especially worshipped 
at Icaria, near Marathon, and so was the god of the Diacrii. It 
seems likely that Peisistratus, to please his supporters, originated 
the City-Dionysia. 



To him are ascribed also the original Parthenon on the Acropolis, 
afterwards burned by the Persians, and replaced by the Parthenon 
of Pericles. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the 
dramatic representations which belonged to the Dionysiac 
cult, and that it was under his encouragement that Thespis 
of Icaria, by impersonating character, laid the foundation of 
the great Greek drama of the 5th and 4th centuries. Lastly, 
Peisistratus carried out the purification of Delos, the- sacred 
island of Apollo of the lonians; all the tombs were removed 
from the neighbourhood of the shrine, the abode of the god of 
light and joy. 

We have spoken of his services to the state, to the poor, to 
religion. It remains to mention his alleged services to literature. 
All we can reasonably believe is that he gave encouragement 
to poetry as he had done to architecture and the drama; Onoma- 
critus, the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the 
oracles of Musaeus, was a member of his household. Honestly, 
or to impress the people, Peisistratus made considerable use of 
oracles (e.g. at the battle of Pellene), and his descendants, by 
the oracles of Onomacritus, persuaded Darius to undertake 
their restoration. As to the library of Peisistratus, we have no 
good evidence; it may perhaps be a fiction of an Alexandrian 
writer. There is strong reason for believing the story that he 
first collected the Homeric poems and that his was the text 
which ultimately prevailed (see HOMER). 

It appears that Peisistratus was benevolent to the last, and, 
like Julias Caesar, showed no resentment against enemies and 
calumniators. What Solon said of him in his youth was true 
throughout, " there is no better-disposed man in Athens, save 
for his ambition." He was succeeded by his sons Hippias 
and Hipparchus, by whom the tyranny was in various ways 
brought into disrepute. 

It should be observed that the tyranny of Peisistratus is one 
of the many epochs of Greek history on which opinion has almost 
entirely changed since the age of Grote. Shortly, his services 
to Greece and to the world may be summed up under three heads: 
In foreign policy, he sketched out the plan on which Athens 
was to act in her external relations. He advocated (a) alliances 
with Argos, Thessaly and Macedon, (6) ascendancy in the Aegean 
(Naxos and Delos), (c) control of the Hellespontine route 
(Sigeum and the Chersonese), (d) control of the Strymon valley 
(Mt Pangaeus and the Strymon). Further, his rule exemplifies 
what is characteristic of all the Greek tyrannies the advantage 
which the ancient monarchy had over the republican form 
of government. By means of his sons and his deputies (or 
viceroys) and by his system of matrimonial alliances he gave 
Athens a widespread influence in the centres of commerce, 
and brought her into connexion with the growing sources 
of trade and production in the eastern parts of the Greek 
world. (2) His importance in the sphere of domestic policy 
has been frequently underrated. It may fairly be held that 
the reforms of Solon would have been futile had they not been 
fulfilled and amplified by the genius of Peisistratus. (3) It 
was under his auspices that Athens began to take the lead in 
literature. From this period we must date the beginning 
of Athenian literary ascendancy. But see ATHENS. 

AUTHORITIES. Ancient: Herod, i. 50; Plut. Solon 30; Arist. 
Politics, v. 12, 5-1315 b.; Constitution of Athens (Ath. Pol.) cc. 14-19. 
On the chronological problems see also P. Meyer, Arist. Pol. and 
the Ath. Pol. pp. 48-9; Gomperz, Die Schrift v. Staatswesen, &c. 
(1891); Bauer, Lit. and hist. Forsch. z. Arist. Ath. Pol. (50 sqq.). 
On the characteristics of the Peisistratid tyranny see Greenidge, 
Handbook of Creek Constitutional History, pp. 26 sqq. ; and the histories 
of Greece. On the question of the family of Peisistratus see Wilamo- 
witz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893) and a criticism 
by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, vol. viii. p. 206, col. 2. 

(J. M. M.) 

PEKIN, a city and the county-seat of Tazewell county, 
Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, in the central part of the 
state, about u m. S. of Peoria, and about 56 m. N. of Springfield. 
Pop. (1910), 9897. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & 
St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago 
& St Louis, the Peoria Railway Terminal Company, the Peoria 



PEKING 



61 



& Pekin Union and (for freight between Peoria and Pekin) the 
Illinois Valley Belt railways. Situated in a rich agricultural 
region and in the Illinois coalfields, Pekin is a shipping point 
and grain market of considerable importance, and has various 
manufactures. The value of the factory products in 1905 was 
$1,121,130. Pekin was first settled about 1830, was incorpor- 
ated in 1839, and re-incorporated in 1874. 

PEKING, or PEKIN, the capital of the Chinese Empire, situated 
in 39 57' N. and 116 29' E., on the northern extremity of the 
great alluvial delta which extends southward from its walls for 
700 m. For nine centuries Peking, under various names and 
under the dominion of successive dynasties, has, with some 
short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its situation near 
the northern frontier recommended it to the Tatar invaders as 
a convenient centre for their power, and its peculiarly fortunate 
position as regards the supernatural terrestrial influences per- 
taining to it has inclined succeeding Chinese monarchs to accept 
it as the seat of their courts. In 986 it was taken by an invading 
force of Khitan Tatars, who adopted it as their headquarters 
and named it Nanking, or the " southern capital." During the 
early part of the 1 2th century the Chinese recaptured it and re- 
duced it from the rank of a metropolis to that of a provincial 
city of the first grade, and called it Yen-shan Fu. In 1151 it 
fell into the hands of the Kin Tatars, who made it a royal 
residence under the name of Chung-tu, or " central capital." 
Less than a century later it became the prize of Jenghiz Khan, 
who, having his main interests centred on the Mongolian steppes, 
declined to move his court southwards. His great successor, 
Kublai Khan (1280-1294), rebuilt the town, which he called 
Yenking, and which became known in Chinese as Ta-tu, or 
" great court," and in Mongolian as Khanbalik (Cambaluc), or 
" city of the khan." During the reign of the first emperor of 
the dynasty (1368-1399) which succeeded that founded by 
Jenghiz Khan the court resided at the modern Nanking, but 
the succeeding sovereign Yung-lo (1403-1425) transferred his 
court to Pe-king (i.e. " north-court "), which has ever since been 
the seat of government. For further history see CAMBALUC. 

During the periods above mentioned the extent and boundaries 
of the city varied considerably. Under the Kin dynasty the 
walls extended to the south-west of the Tatar portion of the 
present city, and the foundations of the northern ramparts of 
the Khan-balik of Kublai Khan are still to be traced at a distance 
of about 2 m. north beyond the existing walls. The modern 
city consists of the nei ch' eng, or inner city, commonly known to 
foreigners as the " Tatar city," and the wai ch'Sng, or outer 
city, known in the same way as the " Chinese city." These 
names are somewhat misleading, as the inner city is not enclosed 
within the outer city, but adjoins its northern wall, which, being 
longer than the nei ch'eng is wide, outflanks it considerably at 
both ends. The outer walls of the double city contain an area 
of about 25 sq. m., and measure 30 m. in circumference. Unlike 
the walls of most Chinese cities, those of Peking are kept in 
perfect order. Those of the Tatar portion, which is the oldest 
part of the city, are 50 ft. high, with a width of 60 ft. at the base 
and 40 ft. at the top, while those of the Chinese city, which were 
built by the emperor Kia-tsing in 1543, measure 30 ft. in height, 
and have a width of 25 ft. at the base and 15 ft. at the top. The 
terre-plein is well and smoothly paved, and is defended by a 
crenellated parapet. The outer faces of the walls are strength- 
ened by square buttresses built out at intervals of 60 yds., and 
on the summits of these stand the guard-houses for the troops 
on duty. Each of the sixteen gates of the city is protected by 
a semi-circular enceinte, and is surmounted by a high tower 
built in galleries and provided with countless loopholes. 

Peking suffered severely during the Boxer movement and the 
siege of the legations in the summer of 1900. Not only were 
most of the foreign buildings destroyed, but also a large number 
of important Chinese buildings in the vicinity of the foreign 
quarter, including the ancient Hanlin Yuen, the boards of war, 
rites, &c. Almost the whole of the business quarter, the 
wealthiest part of the Chinese city, was laid in ashes (see 
CHINA: History). 



The population of Peking is reckoned to be about 1,000,000, 
a number which is out of all proportion to the immense area 
enclosed within its walls. This disparity is partly accounted 
for by the facts that large spaces, notably in the Chinese city, 
are not built over, and that the grounds surrounding the imperial 
palace, private residences and temples are very extensive. One 
of such enclosures constitutes the British legation, and most 
of the other foreign legations are similarly, though not so 
sumptuously, lodged. Viewed from the walls Peking looks like 
a city of gardens. Few crowded neighbourhoods are visible, 
and the characteristic features of the scene which meets the eye 
are the upturned roofs of temples, palaces, and mansions, gay 
with blue, green and yellow glazed tiles, glittering among the 
groves -of trees with which the city abounds. It is fortunate 
that the city is not close-built or crowded, for since the first 
advent of foreigners in Peking in 1860 nothing whatever had been 
done until 1900 to improve the streets or the drainage. The 
streets as originally laid out were wide and spacious, but being 
unpaved and undrained they were no better than mud tracks 
diversified by piles of garbage and foul-smelling stagnant pools. 
Such drainage as had at one time existed was allowed to get 
choked up, giving rise to typhoid fever of a virulent type. Some 
attempt has been made to improve matters by macadamizing 
one of the principal thoroughfares, but it will be the labour of a 
Hercules to cleanse this vast city from the accumulated filth of 
ages of neglect. 

Enclosed within the Tatar city is the Hwang ch'tng, or 
" Imperial city," which in its turn encloses the Tsze-kin ch'Sng, 
or " Forbidden city," in which stands the emperor's palace. 
On the north of the Tsze-kin ch'tng, and separated from it by 
a moat, is an artificial mound known as the Kings/tan, or " Pros- 
pect Hill." This mound, which forms a prominent object in 
the view over the city, is about 150 ft. high, and is topped with 
five summits, on each of which stands a temple. It is encircled 
by a wall measuring upwards of a mile in circumference, and is 
prettily planted with trees, on one of which the last emperor 
of the Ming dynasty (1644), finding escape from the Manchu 
invaders impossible, hanged himself. On the west of Prospect 
Hill is the Si yuan, or " Western Park," which forms part of 
the palace grounds. This park is tastefully laid out, and is 
traversed by a lake, which is mainly noticeable from the remark- 
ably handsome marble bridge which crosses it from east to west. 
Directly northwards from Prospect Hill stands the residence of 
the T'itu, or "governor of the city," and the Bell and the Drum 
Towers, both of which have attained celebrity from the nature 
of their contents the first from the huge bell which hangs in it, 
and the second from the appliances it contains for marking the 
time. The bell is one of five which the emperor Yung-lo ordered 
to be cast. In common with the others, it weighs 120,000 Ib, 
is 14 ft. high, 34 ft. in circumference at the rim, and 9 in. thick. 
It is struck by a wooden beam swung on the outside, and only 
at the changes of the night-watches, when its deep tone may be 
heard in all parts of the city. In the Drum Tower incense-sticks, 
specially prepared by the astronomical board, are kept burning 
to mark the passage of time, in which important duty their 
accuracy is checked by a clepsydra. Another of Yung-lo's 
bells is hung in a Buddhist temple outside the north-west angle 
of the city wall, and is covered both on the inside and outside 
with the Chinese texts of the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Sad- 
dharma pundarika Sutra. 

Turning southwards we come again to the Forbidden City, the 
central portion of which forms the imperial palace, where, in halls 
which for the magnificence of their proportions and barbaric 
splendour are probably not to be surpassed anywhere, the Son 
of Heaven holds his court. In the eastern and western portions 
of this city are situated the residences of the highest dignitaries 
of the empire; while beyond its confines on the south stand the 
offices of the six official boards which direct the affairs of the 
eighteen provinces. It was in the " yamen " of one of these 
boards the Li Pu or board of rites that Lord Elgin signed 
the treaty at the conclusion of the war in 1860 an event which 
derives especial interest from the fact of its having been the first 



62 



PELAGIA, ST PELAGIUS (POPES) 



occasion on which a European plenipotentiary ever entered 
Peking accompanied by all the pomp and circumstance of his 
rank. 

Outside the Forbidden City the most noteworthy building is 
the Temple of Heaven, which stands in the outer or Chinese 
city. Here at early morning on the zist of December the 
emperor offers sacrifice on an open altar to Shang-ti, and at 
periods of drought or famine presents prayers for relief to the 
same supreme deity. The altar at which these solemn rites 
are performed consists of a triple circular marble terrace, 210 ft. 
wide at the base, 150 in the middle and 90 at the top. The 
uppermost surface is paved with blocks of the same material 
forming nine concentric circles, the innermost consisting of nine 
blocks, and that on the outside of eighty-one blocks. On the 
central stone, which is a perfect circle, the emperor kneels. 
In the same temple stands the altar of prayer for good harvests, 
which is surmounted by a triple-roofed circular structure 99 ft. 
in height. The tiles of these roofs are glazed porcelain of the 
most exquisite deep-blue colour, and add a conspicuous element 
of splendour to the shrine. 

The other powers of nature have shrines dedicated to them in 
the altar: to the Earth on the north of the city, the altars to the 
Sun and Moon outside the north-eastern and north-western 
angles respectively of the Chinese city, and the altar of agricul- 
ture inside the south gate of the Chinese city. Next to these 
in religious importance comes the Confucian temple, known as 
the Kwo-tsze-kien. Here there is no splendour; everything is 
quite plain; and one hall contains all that is sacred in the 
building. There the tablets of " the soul of the most holy 
ancestral teacher, Confucius," and of his ten principal disciples 
stand as objects of worship for their countless followers. In one 
courtyard of this temple are deposited the celebrated ten stone 
drums which bear poetical inscriptions commemorative of the 
hunting expeditions of King Suan (827-781 B.C.), in whose reign 
they are believed, though erroneously, to have been cut; and 
in another stands a series of stone tablets on which are inscribed 
the names of all those who have obtained the highest literary 
degree of Tsin-shi for the last five centuries. 

In the south-eastern portion of the Tatar city used to stand 
the observatory, which was built by order of Kublai Khan in 
1296. During the period of the Jesuit ascendancy in the reign 
of K'ang-hi (1661-1721), the superintendence of this institution 
was confided to Roman Catholic missionaries, under whose 
guidance the bronze instruments formerly existing were con- 
structed. The inhabitants of Peking being consumers only, 
and in no way producers, the trade of the city is very small, 
though the city is open to foreign commerce. In 1897 a railway 
was opened between Tientsin and Peking. This was only 
effected after great opposition from the ultra-Conservatives, 
but once accomplished the facilities were gladly accepted by all 
classes, and the traffic both in goods and passengers is already 
enormous. Out of deference to the scruples of the ultra-Conser- 
vatives, the terminus was fixed at a place called Lu-Kou-ch'iao, 
some 4 m. outside the walls, but this distance has since been 
covered by an electric tramway. The trunk line constructed 
by the Franco-Belgian syndicate connects Lu-Kou-ch'iao, the 
original terminus, with Hankow hence the name Lu-Han by 
which this trunk line is generally spoken of, Lu being short for 
Lu-Kou-ch'iao and Han for Hankow. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A Williamson, Journeys in North China, Man- 
churia and Eastern Mongolia (2 vols., London, 1870) ; S. W. Williams, 
The Middle Kingdom, revised ed. (New York, 1883); A Favier, 
Peking, histoire et description (Peking, 1900 contains over 800 
illustrations, most of them reproductions of the work of Chinese 
artists) ; N. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking 
during the Summer of 1900 (London, 1901); A. H. Smith, China in 
Convulsion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1902). (R. K. D.) 

PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of 
fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop 
rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (De virg. iii. 
7, 33! Ep. xxxvii. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons 
by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on the 8th of 
October (Wright's Syriac Marlyrology). In the Greek synaxaria 



the same day is assigned to two other saints of the name of 
Pelagia one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito 
and also " the sinner "; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus, 
in Cilicia. The legend of the former of these two is famous. 
She was a celebrated dancer and courtesan, who, in the full 
flower of her beauty and guilty sovereignty over the youth of 
Antioch, was suddenly converted by the influence of the holy 
bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a 
church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants 
and admirers. Seeking out Nonnus, she overcame, his canonical 
scruples by her tears of genuine penitence, was baptized, and, 
disguising herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a 
grotto on the Mount of Olives, where she died after three years 
of strict penance. This story seems to combine with the name 
of the older Pelagia some traits from an actual history referred 
to by Chrysostom (Horn, in Malth. Ixvii. 3). In associating 
St Pelagia with St Marina, St Margaret (q.v.), and others, of 
whom either the name or the legend recalls Pelagia, Hermann 
Usener has endeavoured to show by a series of subtle deductions 
that this saint is only a Christian travesty of Aphrodite. But 
there is no doubt of the existence of the first Pelagia of Antioch, 
the Pelagia of Ambrose and Chrysostom. The legends which 
have subsequently become connected with her name are the 
result of a very common development in literary history. 

See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seq.; H. Usener, Legenden 
der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn, 1879); H. Delehaye, The Legends of the 
Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197-205. (H. DE.) 

PELAGIUS, the name of two popes. 

PELAGIUS I., pope from 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth, 
and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank of 
deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose over- 
throw in favour of Vigilius his intrigues promoted. Vigilius 
continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was 
sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on eccle- 
siastical business; he afterwards took part in the synod at 
Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. He had amassed some 
wealth, which on his return to Rome he so employed among the 
poor as to secure for himself great popularity; and, when Vigilius 
was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon, 
was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with Totila, 
the Gothic invader, saved the citizens from murder and outrage. 
He appears to have followed his master to Constantinople, and 
to have taken part in the Three Chapters controversy; in 553, 
at all events, he signed the " constitutum " of Vigilius in favour 
of these, and for refusing, with him, to accept the decrees of the 
fifth general council (the 2nd of Constantinople, 553) shared 
his exile. Even after Vigilius had approved the comdemnation 
of the Three Chapters, Pelagius defended them, and even pub- 
lished a book on the subject. But when Vigilius died (June 7, 
555), he accepted the council, and allowed himself to be desig- 
nated by Justinian to succeed the late pope. It was in these 
circumstances that he returned to Rome; but most of the clergy, 
suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some 
share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship. 
He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had 
publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius's death in the 
church of St Peter, he met with toleration in his own immediate 
diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held 
aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be 
removed from the diptychs. This elicited from him a circular, 
in which he asserted his loyalty to the four general councils, 
and declared that the hostile bishops had been guilty of schism. 
The bishops of Liguria and Aemilia, headed by the archbishop 
of Milan, and those of Istria and Venice, headed by Paulinus of 
Aquileia, also withheld their fellowship; but Narses resisted 
the appeals of Pelagius, who would have invoked the secular 
arm. Childebert, king of the Franks, also refused to interfere. 
Pelagius died on the 4th of March 561, and was succeeded by 
John III. 

PELAGIUS II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, was 
pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of 
Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on the 26th of 



PELAGIUS 



November. To make his apologies for this irregularity he sent 
Deacon Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great, 
as his apocrisiarius to Constantinople. In 585 he sought to 
heal the schism which had subsisted since the time of Pelagius I. 
in connexion with the Three Chapters, but his efforts were 
without success. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by 
reviving the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic 
patriarch, elicited a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the 
decretal which professes to convey the exact words of the 
document is now known to be false. He died in January 590, 
and was succeeded by Gregory I. 

PELAGIUS (c. 360- c. 420), early British theologian. Of the 
origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is 
supposed to be a graecized form of the Cymric Morgan (sea- 
begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of 
British (probably of Irish) birth, and gave him the appellation 
Brito. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body 
and mind (Jerome, " stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus prae- 
gravatus "). He was influenced by the monastic enthusiasm 
which had been kindled in Gaul by Athanasius (336), and which, 
through the energy of Martin of Tours (361), rapidly communi- 
cated itself to the Britons and Scots. For, though Pelagius 
remained a layman throughout his life, and though he never 
appears in any strict connexion with a coenobite fraternity, 
he yet adhered to monastic discipline ("veluti monachus "), 
and distinguished himself by his purity of life and exceptional 
sanctity (" egregie Christianus ") He seems to have been one 
of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of that remarkable series 
of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland, 
and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion 
they had received from it. Coming to Rome in the beginning of 
the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of date 405), he 
found a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his 
remonstrances were met by the plea of human weakness. To 
remove this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human 
nature became his first object. It seemed to him that the 
Augustinian doctrine of total depravity and of the consequent 
bondage of the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and 
threw upon God the blame which really belonged to man. His 
favourite maxim was, " If I ought, I can." 

The views of Pelagius did not originate in a conscious reaction 
against the influence of the Augustinian theology, although each 
of these systems was developed into its ultimate form by the 
opposition of the other. Neither must too much weight be 
allowed to the circumstance that Pelagius was a monk, for he was 
unquestionably alive to the delusive character of much that 
passed for monkish sanctity. Yet possibly his monastic training 
may have led him to look more at conduct than at character, 
and to believe that holiness could be arrived at by rigour 
of discipline. This view of things suited his matter-of-fact 
temperament. Judging from the general style of his writings, 
his religious development had been equable and peaceful, not 
marked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the abrupt transi- 
tions, which characterized the experience of his great opponent. 
With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing before 
him, and many of his practical counsels are marked by sagacity, 
and are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb (" corpus 
non frangendum, sed regendum est "). His interests were 
primarily ethical; hence his insistence on the freedom of the will 
and his limitation of the action of divine grace. 

The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated in the 
commentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409, 
might not so speedily have attracted attention had they not 
been adopted by Coelestius, a much younger and bolder man than 
his teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained 
as a lawyer, but abandoned his profession for an ascetic life. 
When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends 
crossed to Africa. There Pelagius once or twice met with 
Augustine, but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly 
expected that his opinions would be more cordially received. 
Coelestius remained in Carthage with the view of receiving 
ordination. But Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, being warned 



against him, summoned a synod, at which Paulinus, a deacon 
of Milan, charged Coelestius with holding the following six 
errors: (i) that Adam would have died even if he had not sinned; 
(2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone, not the human 
race; (3) that new-born children are in the same condition in 
which Adam was before the fall; (4) that the whole human race 
does not die because of Adam's death or sin, nor will the race 
rise again because of the resurrection of Christ; (5) that the law 
gives entrance to heaven as well as the gospel; (6) that even before 
the coming of Christ there were men who were entirely without 
sin. To these propositions a seventh is sometimes added, " that 
infants, though unbaptized, have eternal life," a corollary from 
the third. Coelestius did not deny that he held these opinions, 
but he maintained that they were open questions, on which the 
Church had never pronounced. The synod, notwithstanding, 
condemned and excommunicated him. Coelestius, after a futile 
appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus, and there received ordination. 
In Palestine Pelagius lived unmolested and revered, until in 
415 Orosius, a Spanish priest, came from Augustine, who in the 
meantime had written his De peccatorum mentis, to warn Jerome 
against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius 
was cited by Jerome before John, bishop of Jerusalem, and 
charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he 
desires it. This prosecution broke down, and in December of 
the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen 
bishops at Diospolis (Lydda). The prosecutors on this occasion 
were two deposed Gallican bishops, Heros of Aries and Lazarus 
of Aix, but on account of the illness of one of them neither could 
appear. The proceedings, being conducted in various languages 
and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified 
Jerome's application to the synod of the epithet " miserable." 
But there is no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of 
Coelestius, that " the divine grace and help is not granted to 
individual acts, but consists in free will, and in the giving of the 
law and instruction." At the same time he affirmed that a 
man is able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the command- 
ments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The 
synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced 
Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pelagius 
naturally plumed himself on his acquittal, and provoked Augus- 
tine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows 
that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that, 
being interpreted by his previous written statements, it involved 
a denial of what the Church understood by grace and by man's 
dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole 
resented the decisions of Diospolis, and in 416 sent up from 
their synods of Carthage and Mileve (in Numidia) an appeal to 
Innocent, bishop of Rome, who, flattered by the tribute thus 
paid to the see of Rome, decided the question in favour of the 
African synods. And, though his successor Zosimus wavered 
for some time, he at length fell in with what he saw to be the 
general mind of both the ecclesiastical and the civil powers. 
For, simultaneously with the largely attended African synod 
which finally condemned Pelagianism in the West, an imperial 
edict was issued at Ravenna by Honorius on the 3oth of April 
418, peremptorily determining the theological question and 
enacting that not only Pelagius and Coelestius but all who 
accepted their opinions should suffer confiscation of goods 
and irrevocable banishment. Thus prompted, Zosimus drew 
up a circular inviting all the bishops of Christendom to subscribe 
a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bishops 
refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good 
birth, approved sanctity and great capacity, who now became 
the recognized leader of the movement. But not even his 
acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered 
hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the 
decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420; 
Coelestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius 
in 428. 

Pelagianism. The system of Pelagius is a consistent whole, 
each part involving the existence of every other. Starting from 
the idea that " ability limits obligation," and resolved that men 



6 4 



PELAGIUS 



should feel their responsibility, he insisted that man is able to do 
all that God commands, and that there is, and can be, no sin where 
the will is not absolutely free-^-able to choose good or evil. The 
favourite Pelagian formula, " Si necessitatis est, peccatum non est; 
si voluntatis, vitari potest," had an appearance of finality which 
imposed on superficial minds. The theory of the will involved in 
this fundamental axiom of Pelagianism is that which is commonly 
known as the " liberty of indifference," or " power of contrary 
choice " a theory which affirms the freedom of the will, not in the 
sense that the individual is self-determined, but in the sense that in 
each volition and at each moment of life, no matter what the previous 
career of the individual has been, the will is in equipoise, able to 
choose good or evil. We are born characterless (non pleni), and with 
no bias towards good or evil (ut sine virtute, ita et sine vitio). It 
follows that we are uninjured by the sin of Adam, save in so far as 
the evil example of our predecessors misleads and influences us (non 
propagine sed exemplo). There is, in fact, no such thing as original 
sin, sin being a thing of will and not of nature; for if it could be of 
nature our sin would be chargeable on God the creator. This will, 
capable of good as of evil, being the natural endowment of man, is 
found in the heathen as well as in the Christian, and the heathen may 
therefore perfectly keep such law as they know. But, if all men have 
this natural ability to do and to be all that is required for perfect 
righteousness, what becomes of grace, of the aid of the Holy Spirit, 
and, in a word, of Christianity ? Pelagius vacillates considerably 
in his use of the word " grace." Sometimes he makes it equivalent 
to natural endowment. Indeed one of his most careful statements 
is to this effect: " We distinguish three things the ability, the will, 
the act (posse, velle, esse). The ability is in nature, and must be 
referred to God, who has bestowed this on His creature; the other 
two, the will and the act, must be referred to man, because they flow 
from the fountain of free will " (Aug., De gr. Christi, ch. 4). But at 
other times he admits a much wider range to grace, so as to make 
Augustine doubt whether his meaning is not, after all, orthodox. 
But, when he speaks of grace " sanctifying," " assisting," and so 
forth, it is only that man may " more easily " accomplish what he 
could with more difficulty accomplish without grace. A decisive 
passage occurs in the letter he sent to the see of Rome along with his 
Confessio fidei : " We maintain that free will exists generally in all 
mankind, in Christians, Jews and Gentiles; they have all equally 
received it by nature, but in Christians only is it assisted by grace. 
In others this good of their original creation is naked and unarmed. 
They shall be judged and condemned because, though possessed of 
free will, by which they might come to the faith and merit the grace 
of God, they make an ill use of their freedom ; while Christians shall 
be rewarded because, by using their free will aright, they merit the 
grace of the Lord and keep His commandments ' (ibid. chs. 33, 34). 
Pelagius allowed to grace everything but the initial determining 
movement towards salvation. He ascribed to the unassisted human 
will power to accept and use the proffered salvation of Christ. It 
was at this point his departure from the Catholic creed could be 
made apparent: Pelagius maintains, expressly and by implication, 
that it is the human will which takes the initiative, and is the 
determining factor in the salvation of the individual; while the 
Church maintains that it is the divine will that takes the initiative 
by renewing and enabling the human will to accept and use the 
aid or grace offered. 

Semipelagianism. It was easy for Augustine to show that this 
was an " impia opinio " ; it was easy for him to expose the defective 
character of a theory of the will which implied that God was not 
holy because He i necessarily holy ; it was easy for him to show that 
the positions of Pelagius were anti-Scriptural (see AUGUSTINE) ; 
but, though his arguments prevailed, they did not wholly convince, 
and the rise of Semipelagianism an attempt to hold a middle course 
between the harshness of Augustinianism and the obvious errors of 
Pelagianism is full of significance. This earnest and conciliatory 
movement discovered itself simultaneously in North Africa and in 
southern Gaul. In the former Church, which naturally desired to 
adhere to the views of its own great theologian, the monks of Adrum- 
etum found themselves either sunk to the verge of despair or pro- 
voked to licentiousness by his predestinarian teaching. When this 
was reported to Augustine he wrote two elaborate treatises to show 
that when God ordains the end He also ordains the means, and if 
any man is ordained to life eternal he is thereby ordained to holiness 
and zealous effort. But meanwhile some of the monks themselves 
had struck out a via media which ascribed to God sovereign grace 
and yet left intact man's responsibility. A similar scheme was 
adopted by Cassian of Marseilles (hence Semipelagians are often 
spoken of as Massilians), and was afterwards ably advocated by 
Vincent of Lerins and Faustus of Rhegium. These writers, in 
opposition to Pelagius, maintained that man was damaged by 
the fall, and seemed indeed disposed to purchase a certificate of 
orthodoxy by the abusive epithets they heaped upon Pelagians 
(ranae, muscae moriturae, &c.). The differentia of Semipelagianism 
is the tenet that in regeneration, and all that results from it, the divine 
and the human will are co-operating (synergistic) coefficient factors. 
After finding considerable acceptance, this theory was ultimately 
condemned, because it retained the root-principle of Pelagianism 
that man has some ability to will good and that the beginning of 
salvation may be with man. The Councils of Orange and Valence 



(529), however, which condemned Semipelagianism, did so with 
the significant restriction that predestination to evil was not to be 
taught a restriction so agreeable to the general feeling of the 
Church that, three centuries after, Gottschalk was sentenced to be 
degraded from the priesthood, scourged and imprisoned for teaching 
reprobation. The questions raised by Pelagius continually recur, 
but, without tracing the strife as sustained by Thomists and Jansen- 
ists on the one side and the Jesuits and Armmians on the other, this 
article can only indicate the general bearing of the controversy on 
society and the Church. 

The anthropology of Pelagius was essentially naturalistic. It 
threatened to supersede grace by nature, to deny all immediate 
divine influence, and so to make Christianity practically useless. 
Pelagius himself did not carry his rationalism through to its issues; 
but the logical consequence of his system was, as Augustine per- 
ceived, the denial of the atonement and other central truths of 
revealed religion. And, while the Pelagians never existed as a sect 
separate from the Church Catholic, yet wherever rationalism has 
infected any part of the Church there Pelagianism has sooner or 
later appeared; and the term " Pelagian " has been continued to 
denote views which minimize the effects of the fall and unduly 
magnify man's natural ability. These views and tendencies have 
appeared in theologies which are not in other respects rationalistic, 
as, e.g. in Arminianism; and their presence in such theologies is 
explained by the desire to remove everything which might seem to 
discourage human effort. 

It is not easy to determine how far the vices which ate so deeply 
into the life of the Church of the middle ages were due to the sharp- 
ness with which some of the severer features of the Augustinian 
theology were defined during the Pelagian controversy. The 
pernicious belief in the magical efficacy of the sacraments and the 
consequent detective ethical power of religion, the superstitious 
eagerness to accept the Church's creed without examining or really 
believing it, the falsity and cruelty engendered and propagated 
by the idea that in the Church's cause all weapons were justifiable, 
these vices were undoubtedly due to the belief that the visible church 
was the sole divinely-appointed repository of grace. And the 
sharply accentuated tone in which Augustinianism affirmed man's 
inability quickened the craving for that grace or direct agency of 
God upon the soul which the Church declared to be needful and 
administered through her divinely appointed persons and sacra- 
ments, and thus brought a decided impulse to the development of 
the sacerdotal system. 

Again, although it may fairly be doubted whether, as Baur 
supposes, Augustine was permanently tainted with the Manichaean 
notion of the inherent evil of matter, it can scarcely be questioned 
that his views on marriage as elicited by the Pelagian controversy 
gave a considerable impulse to the already prevalent idea of the 
superiority of virginity. When the Pelagians declared that Augus- 
tine's theory of original sin discredited marriage by the implication 
that even the children of the regenerate were born in sin, he could 
only reply (De nuptiis et concupiscentia) that marriage now cannot 
partake of the spotless purity of the marriage of unfallen man, and 
that, though what is evil in concupiscence is made a good use of in 
marriage, it is still a thing to be ashamed of not only with the 
shame of natural modesty (which he does not take into account) 
but with the shame of guilt. So that, even although he is careful 
to point out the advantages of marriage, an indelible stigma is still 
left even on the lawful procreation of children. 

" The Pelagians deserve respect," says Harnack, " for their 
purity of motive, their horror of the Manichaean leaven and the 
opus operatum, their insistence on clearness, and their intention 
to defend the Deity. But we cannot but decide that their doctrine 
fails to recognize the misery of sin and evil, that in its deepest roots 
it is godless, that it knows, and seeks to know, nothing of redemption 
and that it is dominated by an empty formalism (a notional mytho- 
logy), which does justice at no single point to actual quantities, 
and on a closer examination consists of sheer contradictions. In the 
form in which this doctrine was expressed by Pelagius and in fact 
also by Julian-^-i.e. with all the accommodations to which he 
condescended, it was not a novelty. But in its fundamental 
thought it was; or rather, it was an innovation because it abandoned 
in spite of all accommodations in expression, the pole of the 
mystical doctrine of redemption, which the Church had steadfastly 
maintained side by side with the doctrine of freedom." 

In the Pelagian controversy some of the fundamental differences 
between the Eastern and Western theologies appear. The former laid 
stress on " the supernatural character of Christianity as a fact in 
the objective world " and developed the doctrines of the Trinity and 
the Incarnation; the Western emphasized " the supernatural charac- 
ter of Christianity as an agency in the subjective world " and 
developed the doctrines of sin and grace. All the Greek fathers 
from Origen to Chrysostum had been jealous for human freedom and 
loath to make sin a natural power, though of course admitting a 
general state of sinfulness. The early British monasteries had been 
connected with the Orient. Pelagius was familiar with the Greek 
language and theology, and when he came to Rome he was much in 
the company of Rufinus and his circle who were endeavouring to 
propagate Greek theology in the Latin Church. 

LITERATURE. Pelagius's Gommentarii in epistolas Pauli, Libellus 



PELASGIANS PELEUS 



fidei ad Innocenlium and Epistola ad Demetriadem are preserved 
in Jerome's works (vol. v. of Martiani's ed., vol. xi. of Vallarsi's). 
The last-named was also published separately by Semler (Halle, 
1775). There are of course many citations in the Anti-Pelagian 
Treatises of Augustine. On the Commentaries see Journal of Theol. 
Studies, vii. 568, viii. 526; an edition is being prepared for the 
Cambridge Texts and Studies by A. Souter. 

See also F. Wiggers, Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianis- 
mus (2 vols., Berlin, 1831-1832 ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., by R. Emerson, 
Andover, 1840); J. L. Jacobi, Die Lehre d. Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842); 
F. Klasen, Die innere Entivickelung des Pelagianismus (Freiburg, 
1882) ; B. B. Warfield, Two Studies in the History of Doctrine (New 
York, 1893) ; A. Haniack, History of Dogma, Eng. trans., v. 168-202 ; 
F. Loofs, Dogmengeschischte and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Real- 
encyklo. fur prot. Theologie u. Kirche (end of vol. xv.), where a full 
bibliography is given. (M. D.) 

PELASGIANS, a name applied by Greek writers to a pre- 
historic people whose traces were believed to exist in Greek lands. 
If the statements of ancient authorities are marshalled in order 
of their date it will be seen that certain beliefs cannot be traced 
back beyond the age of this or that author. Though this does 
not prove that the beliefs themselves were not held earlier, it 
suggests caution in assuming that they were. In the Homeric 
poems there are Pelasgians among the allies of Troy: in the 
catalogue, Iliad, ii. 840-843, which is otherwise in strict geogra- 
phical order, they stand between the Hellespontine towns and 
the Thracians of south-east Europe, i.e. on the Hellespontine 
border of Thrace. Their town or district is called Larissa and 
is fertile, and they are celebrated for their spearmanship. Their 
chiefs are Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of 
Teutamus. Iliad, x. 428-429, describes their camping ground 
between the town of Troy and the sea; but this obviously 
proves nothing about their habitat in time of peace. Odyssey, 
xvii. 175-177, notes Pelasgians in Crete, together with two appa- 
rently indigenous and two immigrant peoples (Achaeans and 
Dorians), but gives no indication to which class the Pelasgians 
belong. In Lemnos (Iliad, vii. 467; xiv. 230) there are no 
Pelasgians, but a Minyan dynasty. Two other passages (Iliad, 
ii. 681-684; x vi. 233-235) apply the epithet " Pelasgic " to a 
district called Argos about Mt Othrys in south Thessaly, and 
to Zeus of Dodona. But in neither case are actual Pelasgians 
mentioned; the Thessalian Argos is the specific home of Hellenes 
and Achaeans, and Dodona is inhabited by Perrhaebians and 
Aenianes (Iliad, ii. 750) who are nowhere described as Pelasgian. 
It looks therefore as if " Pelasgian " were here used connota- 
tively, to mean either " formerly occupied by Pelasgian " or 
simply " of immemorial age." 

Hesiod expands the Homeric phrase and calls Dodona " seat 
of Pelasgians " (fr. 225); he speaks also of a personal Pelasgus 
as father of Lycaon, the culture-hero of Arcadia; and a later 
epic poet, Asius, describes Pelasgus as the first man, whom 
the earth threw up that there might be a race of men. Hecataeus 
makes Pelasgus king of Thessaly (expounding Iliad, ii. 681-684) ; 
Acusilaus applies this Homeric passage to the Peloponnesian 
Argos, and engrafts the Hesiodic Pelasgus, father of Lycaon, 
into a Peloponnesian genealogy. Hellanicus a generation later 
repeats this blunder, and identifies this Argive and Arcadian 
Pelasgus with the Thessalian Pelasgus of Hecataeus. For 
Aeschylus (Supplices i, sqq.) Pelasgus is earthborn, as in Asius, 
and rules a kingdom stretching from Argos to Dodona and the 
Strymon; but in Prometheus 879, the " Pelasgian " land simply 
means Argos. Sophocles takes the same view (Inachus, fr. 256) 
and for the first time introduces the word " Tyrrhenian " into 
the story, apparently as synonymous with Pelasgian. 

Herodotus, like Homer, has a denotative as well as a conno- 
tative use. He describes actual Pelasgians surviving and 
mutually intelligible (a) at Placie and Scylace on the Asiatic 
shore of the Hellespont, and (b) near Creston on the Strymon; 
in the latter area they have " Tyrrhenian " neighbours. He 
alludes to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under 
changed names; Samothrace and Antandrus in Troas are 
probably instances of this. In Lemnos and Imbros he describes 
a Pelasgian population who were only conquered by Athens 
shortly before 500 B.C., and in this connexion he tells a story of 
earlier raids of these Pelasgians on Attica, and of a temporary 
xxi. 3 



settlement there of Hellespontine Pelasgians, all dating from a 
time " when the Athenians were first beginning to count as 
Greeks." Elsewhere " Pelasgian " in Herodotus connotes 
anything typical of, or surviving from, the state of things in 
Greece before the coming of the Hellenes. In this sense all 
Greece was once " Pelasgic "; the clearest instances of Pelasgian 
survival in ritual and customs and antiquities are in Arcadia, 
the " Ionian " districts of north-west Peloponnese, and Attica, 
which have suffered least from hellenization. In Athens itself 
the prehistoric wall of the citadel and a plot of ground close 
below it were venerated in the 5th century as " Pelasgian "; so 
too Thucydides (ii. 17). We may note that all Herodotean 
examples of actual Pelasgi lie round, or near, the actual Pelasgi 
of Homeric Thrace; that the most distant of these is confirmed 
by the testimony of Thucydides (iv. 106) as to the Pelasgian 
and Tyrrhenian population of the adjacent seaboard: also 
that Thucydides adopts the same general Pelasgian theory of 
early Greece, with the refinement that he regards the Pelasgian 
name as originally specific, and as having come gradually into 
this generic use. 

Ephorus, relying on Hesiodic tradition of an aboriginal Pelas- 
gian type in Arcadia, elaborated a theory of the Pelasgians as a 
warrior- people spreading (like " Aryans ") from a " Pelasgian 
home," and annexing and colonizing all the parts of Greece 
where earlier writers had found allusions to them, from Dodona 
to Crete and the Troad, and even as far as Italy, where again 
their settlements had been recognized as early as the time of 
Hellanicus, in close connexion once more with " Tyrrhenians." 

The copious additional information given by later writers 
is all by way either of interpretation of local legends in the light 
of Ephorus's theory, or of explanation of the name" Pelasgoi "; 
as when Philochorus expands a popular etymology " stork-folk " 
(ireXacryoi 7reXap7of) into a theory of their seasonal migrations; 
or Apollodorus says that Homer calls Zeus Pelasgian " because 
he is not far from every one of us," &n TTJS 77}$ TeXas tariv. 
The connexion with Tyrrhenians which began with Hellanicus, 
Herodotus and Sophocles becomes confusion with them in the 
3rd century, when the Lemnian pirates and their Attic kinsmen 
are plainly styled Tyrrhenians, and early fortress-walls in Italy 
(like those on the Palatine in Rome) are quoted as " Arcadian " 
colonies. 

Modern writers have either been content to restate or amplify 
the view, ascribed above to Ephorus, that " Pelasgian " simply 
means " prehistoric Greek," or have used the name Pelasgian 
at their pleasure to denote some one element in the mixed 
population of the Aegean Thracian, Illyrian (Albanian) or 
Semitic. G. Sergi (Origine e diffusions delta stirpe mcditer- 
ranea, Rome, 1895; Eng. trans. The Mediterranean Race, 
London, 1901), followed by many anthropologists, describes 
as " Pelasgian " one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African 
race of mankind, and one group of types of skull within that race. 
The character of the ancient citadel wall at Athens, already 
mentioned, has given the name " Pelasgic masonry " to all 
constructions of large unhewn blocks fitted roughly together 
without mortar, from Asia Minor to Spain. 

For another view than that here taken see ACHAEANS; also 
GREECE: Ancient History, 3, " Homeric Age." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides sections on the subject in all principal 
histories of Greece and bibliographies in G. Busolt, Gr. Geschichte, 
i 2 (Gotha, 1893, 164-182) ; and K. F. Hermann (Thumser), Gr. Staats- 
alterthumer, 6, see S. Bruck, Quae veteres de Pelasgis tradiderint 
(Breslau, 1884) ; B. Giseke, Thrakisch-pelasgische Stdmme auf der 
Balkanhalbinsel (Leipzig, 1858); F. G. Hahn, Albanesische Studien 
(Jena, 1854); P. Volkmuth, Die Pelasger als Semiten (Schaffhausen, 
1860); H. Kiepert, Monatsbericht d. berl. Akademie (1861), pp. 114 
sqq.; K. Pauli, Eine vorgriechische^ InschriU auf Lemnos (Leipzig, 
1886); E. Meyer, " Die Pelasger " in Forschungen z. alien Geschichte 
(Halle, 1892), i. 124; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (Cambridge, 
1901), vol. i. ; J. L. Myres, " A History of the Pelasgian Theory " 
(in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvii. 170); H. Marsh, Horae 
pelasgicae (Cambridge, 1815); L. Benloew, La Greet avant les Grecs 
(Paris, 1877). (J. L. M.) 

PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia 
in Thessaly, son of Aeacus, king of Aegina, and brother (or 



66 



PELEW ISLANDS PELHAM (FAMILY) 



intimate friend) of Telamon. The two brothers, jealous of the 
athletic prowess of their step-brother Phocus, slew him; but the 
crime was discovered, and Peleus and Telamon were banished. 
Peleus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who 
purified him from the guilt of murder, and gave him his daughter 
Antigone to wife, and a third of the kingdom as her dowry. 
Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the Calydonian 
boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time to lolcus, 
where he was purified by Acastus. The most famous event in 
the life of Peleus was his marriage with the sea-goddess Thetis, 
by whom he became the father of Achilles. The story ran that 
both Zeus and Poseidon had sought her hand, but, Themis 
(or Prometheus or Proteus) having warned the former that a 
son of Thetis by Zeus would prove mightier than his father, 
the gods decided to marry her to Peleus. Thetis, to escape a 
distasteful union, changed herself into various forms, but at 
last Peleus, by the instructions of Chiron, seized and held her 
fast till she resumed her original shape, and was unable to 
offer further resistance. The wedding (described in the fine 
Epilhalamium of Catullus) took place in Chiron's cave on Mt 
Pelion. Peleus survived both his son Achilles and his grandson 
Neoptolemus, and was carried away by Thetis to dwell for ever 
among the Nereids. 

See Apollodorus iii. 12, 13; Ovid, Metam. xi; Pindar, 'Isthmia, 
viii. 70, Nemea, iv. 101; Catullus, Ixiv.; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816; 
Euripides, Andromache, 1242-1260. 

PELEW ISLANDS (Ger. Palauinseln, also Palao), a group of 
twenty-six islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 2 35' 
and 9 N., and 130 4' and 134 40' E., belonging to Germany. 
They lie within a coral barrier reef, and in the south the islands 
are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rocks. They are well 
wooded, the climate is healthy, and the water-supply good. 
A few rats and bats represent the indigenous mammals, but the 
sea is rich in fish and molluscs; and Dr Otto Finsch (Journ. des 
Museum Godefroy, 1875) enumerated 56 species of birds, of 
which 12 are peculiar to the group. The total area is 175 sq. m., 
the largest islands being Babeltop (Babelthuap, Baobeltaob and 
other variants), Uruktapi (Urukthopel), Korror, Nyaur, Peleliu 
and Eilmalk (Irakong). The population is about 3100. The 
natives are Micronesians, and are darker and shorter than their 
kinsmen, the Caroline Islanders. They usually have the frizzly 
hair of the Melanesians, and paint their bodies in brilliant colours, 
especially yellow. The men vary in height from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in., 
the women from 4 ft. 9 to 5 ft. 2 in. The skull shows a strong 
tendency to brachycephalism. Two curious customs may be 
noted the institution of an honourable order bestowed by the 
king, called klilt; and a species of mutual aid society, sometimes 
confined to women, and possessing considerable political influ- 
ence. There are five kinds of currency in the islands, consisting 
of beads of glass and enamel, to which a supernatural origin is 
ascribed. 

The islands were sighted in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, 
who named them the Arrecifos. The origin of the 
name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by 
Germany from Spain in 1899, and are administered together 
with the western Carolines, Yap being the administrative 
centre. 

See K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln (Leipzig, 1873); J. S. Kubary, 
Die sozialen Einrichtungen der Palauer (Berlin, 1885) ; A. A. Marche, 
et Palouan (Paris, 1887). 



PELF, a term now chiefly used of money and always in a 
derogatory sense. The word originally meant plunder, pillage 
(O. Fr. Pelfre, probably from Lat. pilare, to deprive of hair, pilus), 
and this significance is still kept in the related word " pilfer," to 
make petty thefts. 

PELHAM, the name of an English farrfily, derived from Pelham 
in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de 
Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the 
possession of the same family before the Norman conquest. 
The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton 
(1706-1768), the earldom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of 
Newcastle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from 



1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of 
Yarborough from 1837. 

JOHN DE PELHAM, who was one of the captors of John II. of 
France at Poitiers, acquired land at Winchelsea by his marriage 
with Joan Herbert, or Finch. His son, JOHN DE PELHAM (d. 
1429), was attached to the party of John of Gaunt and his son 
Henry IV. In 1393 he received a life appointment as constable 
of Pevensey Castle, an honour subsequently extended to his 
heirs male, and he joined Henry on his invasion in 1399, if he 
did not actually land with him at Ravenspur. He was knighted 
at Henry's coronation, and represented Sussex in parliament 
repeatedly during the reign of Henry IV., and again in 1422 and 
1427. As constable of Pevensey he had at different times the 
charge of Edward, duke of York, in 1405; Edmund, earl of 
March, with his brother Roger Mortimer in 1406; James I. of 
Scotland in 1414; Sir John Mortimer in 1422, and the queen 
dowager, Joan of Navarre, from 1418 to 1422. He was con- 
stantly employed in the defence of the southern ports against 
French invasion, and his powers were increased in 1407 by his 
appointment as chief butler of Chichester and of the Sussex 
ports, and in 1412 by the grant of the rape of Hastings. He 
was treasurer of England in 1412-1413, and although he was 
superseded on the accession of Henry V. he was sent in the 
next year to negotiate with the French court. He was included 
among the executors of the wills of Henry IV., of Thomas, duke 
of Clarence, and of Henry V. He died on the I2th of February 
1429, and was succeeded by his son John, who took part in 
Henry V.'s expedition to Normandy in 1417. 

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sir WILLIAM PELHAM (c. 1530- 
1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton, 
Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. He was captain of 
pioneers at the siege of Leith in 1560, and served at the siege 
of Havre in 1562, and with Coligny at Caen in 1563. He then 
returned to Havre, at that time occupied by English troops, 
and was one of the hostages for the fulfilment of its surrender 
to Charles IX. in 1564. After his return to England he fortified 
Berwick among other places, and was appointed lieutenant- 
general of ordnance. He was sent to Ireland in IS79, when he 
was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury 
died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made his 
successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth. 
Alarmed by the proceedings of Gerald Fitzgerald, i$th earl of 
Desmond, and his brother John Desmond, he proclaimed the 
earl a traitor. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham's 
action, which was justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond. 
Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde, was entrusted with the 
campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1 580, 
when it was believed that a Spanish descent was about to be 
made in the south-west. The English generals laid waste 
northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle, 
which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child. 
Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle, 
and were garrisoned by Pelham, who hoped with the concourse 
of Admiral Winter's fleet to limit the struggle to Kerry. He 
vainly sought help from the gentry of the county, who sym- 
pathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submission by 
a series of " drives." After the arrival of the new deputy, Lord 
Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England on the ground of 
health. He had retained his office as lieutenant-general of 
ordnance, and was now made responsible for debts incurred 
during his absence. Leicester desired his services in the Nether- 
lands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set 
him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estates 
as security for his liabilities. The favour shown by Leicester 
to Pelham caused serious jealousies among the English officers, 
and occasioned a camp brawl in which Sir Edward Norris 
was injured. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in 1586, and 
accompanied Leicester to England in 1587. Returning to the 
Netherlands in the same year he died at Flushing on the 24th of 
November 1587. His half-brother, Sir Edmund Pelham (d. 
1606), chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was the first 
English judge to go on circuit in Ulster. 



PELHAM, H. PELIAS 



67 



Sir William married Eleanor, daughter of Henry Neville, 
earl of Westmorland, and was the ancestor of the Pelhams of 
Brocklesby, Lincolnshire. In the fourth generation Charles 
Pelham died in 1763 without heirs, leaving his estates to his 
great-nephew Charles Anderson (1749-1823), who thereupon 
assumed the additional name of Pelham, and was created Baron 
Yarborough in 1794. His son Charles (1781-1846), who was 
for many years commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, was 
created earl of Yarborough and Baron Worsley in 1837. Charles 
Alfred Worsley, the 4th earl (b. 1859), exchanged the name of 
Anderson- Pelham for that of Pelham in 1905. He married in 
1886 Marcia Lane-Fox, eldest daughter of the izth Baron 
Conyers, who became in 1892 Baroness Conyers in her own 
right. 

Sir NICHOLAS PELHAM (1517-1560), an elder half-brother of 
Sir William Pelham, defended Seaford against the French in 
1545, and sat for Arundel and for Sussex in parliament. He 
was the ancestor of the earls of Chichester. His second son, 
Sir THOMAS PELHAM (d. 1 6 24) , was created a baronet in 1 6 1 1 . His 
descendant, Sir THOMAS PELHAM, 4th baronet (c. 1650-1712), 
represented successively East Grinstead, Lewes and Sussex in 
parliament, and was raised to the House of Lords as Baron 
Pelham of Laughton in 1706. By his second marriage with 
Grace (d. 1700), daughter of Gilbert Holies, 3rd earl of Clare, 
and sister of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, he had five daugh- 
ters, and two sons Thomas Pelham, earl of Clare, duke of 
Newcastle-on-Tyne and ist duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme (see 
NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF), and Henry Pelham (q.v.Y The duke 
of Newcastle died without heirs, and the dukedom of Newcastle- 
under-Lyme descended to his nephew, Henry Fiennes Clinton, 
afterwards known as Pelham-Clinton, and his heirs, but the 
barony of Pelham of Laughton became extinct. In 1762 
Newcastle had been created Baron Pelham of Stanmer, with 
reversion to his cousin and heir-male, THOMAS PELHAM (1728- 
1805), who became commissioner of trade (1754), lord of the 
admiralty (1761-1764), comptroller of the household (1765- 
1774), privy councillor (1765), surveyor-general of the customs 
of London (1773-1805), chief justice in eyre (1774-1775) and 
keeper of the wardrobe (1775-1782), and was created earl of 
Chichester in 1801. His third son, George (1766-1827), was 
successively bishop of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln. THOMAS 
PELHAM, 2nd earl of Chichester (1756-1826), son of the ist 
earl, was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's 
ministry (1782), and chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition 
ministry of 1783. In 1795 he became Irish chief secretary 
under Pitt's government, retiring in 1798; he was home secre- 
tary from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who 
made him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1803. 
Pelham went out of office in 1804, and in the next year 
succeeded to the earldom. He was joint postmaster-general 
from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his 
life postmaster-general. His son and heir, HENRY THOMAS 
PELHAM (1804-1886), 3rd earl, was an ecclesiastical commissioner 
from 1850 until his death, and was greatly interested in various 
religious, philanthropic and educational movements; and two 
other sons were well-known men Frederick Thomas Pelham 
(1808-1861), who became a rear-admiral in 1858, and subse- 
quently lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and John Thomas 
Pelham (1811-1894), who was bishop of Norwich from 1857 to 
1893. The third earl's son, Walter John Pelham (1838-1892), 
succeeded his father in 1886, and his nephew Jocelyn Brudenell 
Pelham (b. 1871) became 6th earl of Chichester in 1905. 

PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754), prime minister of England, 
younger brother of Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, 
was born in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, ist Baron 
Pelham of Laughton (1650-1712; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace 
Holies, daughter of the 3rd earl of Clare (see above). He was 
educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford, 
which he entered in July 1710. As a volunteer he served in 
Dormer's regiment at the battle of Preston in 1715, spent some 
time on the Continent, and in 1717 entered parliament for 
Seaford, Sussex. Through strong family influence and the 



recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the 
Treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county. 
In 1724 he entered the ministry as secretary of war, but this 
office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of 
paymaster of the forces. He made himself conspicuous by 
his support of Walpole on the question of the excise, and in 
1743 a union of parties resulted in the formation of an adminis- 
tration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of 
chancellor of the exchequer; but rank and influence made his 
brother, the duke of Newcastle, very powerful in the cabinet, 
and, in spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional 
disputes between them, which led to difficulties. Being strongly 
in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with languor and 
indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable 
struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost 
without a murmur. The king, thwarted in his favourite 
schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose 
was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and 
Newcastle), who, however, at the king's request, resumed office. 
Pelham remained prime minister till his death on the 6th of 
March 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects 
were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with 
a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions 
of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant 
elements of the cabinet for any length of time. Moreover, he 
possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the 
house. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might exist 
within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. Nor 
can a high degree of praise be denied to his financial policy, 
especially his plans for the reduction of the national debt and 
the simplification and consolidation of its different branches. 
He had married in 1 726 Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the 
2nd duke of Rutland; and one of his daughters married Henry 
Fiennes Clinton, 2nd duke of Newcastle. 

See W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Pelham Administration. (2 vols., 
1829). For the family history see Lower, Pelham Family (1873); 
also the Pelham and Newcastle MSS. in the British Museum. 

PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907), English scholar 
and historian, was born at Berg Apton, Norfolk, on the igth 
of September 1846, son of the Hon. John Thomas Pelham 
(1811-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl of 
Chichester. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, 
Oxford, where he took a first class in literae humaniores in 
1869. He was a tutor of Exeter College from 1869 to 1890. In 
1887 he became university reader in ancient history, and two 
years later was elected to the Camden professorship. He 
became curator of the Bodleian library in 1892, and in 1897 
president of Trinity College. He was also a fellow of Brasenose 
College, honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British 
Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of 
Harrow School. His chief contribution to ancient history was 
his article on Roman history in the gth edition of the Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions 
as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures, 
though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original 
research and learning. His death on the I3th of February 1907 
not only prevented the publication in systematic form of his own 
important researches, but also delayed the appearance of much 
that had been left in MS. by H. Furneaux and A. H. J. Greenidge, 
and was at the time under his charge. Apart from the Outlines 
he published only The Imperial Domains and the Colonate (1890), 
The Roman Frontier System (1895), and articles in periodicals 
of which the most important was an article in the Quarterly 
Review on the early Caesars (April, 1905). He did much for the 
study of archaeology at Oxford, materially assisted the Hellenic 
Society and the British School at Athens, and was one of the 
founders of the British School at Rome. He married in 1873 
Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton. 

PELIAS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter 
of Salmoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's 
brother Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore 
Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon, Pelias was by some thought to be 



68 



PELICAN PELISSIER 



the son of Cretheus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were 
exposed by their mother, but were nurtured by a herdsman. 
When grown to manhood they were acknowledged by their 
mother. After the death of Cretheus, Pelias made himself master 
of the kingdom of lolous, having previously quarrelled with 
Neleus, who removed to Messenia, where he founded Pylos. 
In. order to rid himself of Jason, Pelias sent him to Colchis in 
quest of the golden fleece, and took advantage of his absence 
to put to death his father, Aeson, his mother and brother. 
When Jason returned he sought to avenge the death of his 
parents, and Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut in 
pieces and boil their father, assuring them that he would thus 
be restored to youth. Acastus, son of Pelias, drove out Jason 
and Medea and celebrated funeral games in honour of his father, 
which were celebrated by the poet Stesichorus and represented 
on the chest of Cypselus. The death of Pelias was the subject 
of Sophocles' Rhizotomoi (Root-cutters), and in the Tyro he 
treated another portion of the legend. Peliades (the daughters 
of Pelias) was the name of Euripides' first play. 

PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelecanus or Pdicanus), a large 
fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch 
formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long, 
and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bill. The 
ordinary pelican, the Onocrotalus of the ancients, to whom it was 
well known, and the Pelecanus onocrotalus of ornithologists, 
is a very abundant bird in some districts of south-eastern 
Europe, south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, occasionally 
straying, it is believed, into the northern parts of Germany and 
France; but the possibility of such wanderers having escaped 
from confinement is always to be regarded, 1 since few zoological 
gardens are without examples. Its usual haunts are the shallow 
margins of the larger lakes and rivers, where fishes are plentiful, 
since it requires for its sustenance a vast supply of them. The 
nest is formed among reeds, placed on the ground and lined with 
grass. Therein two eggs, with white, chalky shells, are com- 
monly laid. The young during the first twelvemonth are of a 
greyish-brown, but when mature almost the whole plumage, 
except the black primaries, is white, deeply suffused by a rich 
blush of rose or salmon-colour, passing into yellow on the crest 
and lower part of the neck in front. A second and somewhat 
larger species, Pelecanus crispus, also inhabits Europe, but has 
a more eastern distribution. This, when adult, is readily dis- 
tinguishable from the ordinary bird by the absence of the blush 
from its plumage, and by the curled feathers that project from 
and overhang each side of the head, which with some difference 
of coloration of the bill, pouch, bare skin round the eyes and 
irides give it a wholly distinct expression. Two specimens of the 
humerus have been found in the English fens (Ibis, 1868, p. 363; 
Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 702), thus proving the existence of 
the bird in England at no very distant period, and one of them 
being that of a young example points to its having been bred 
in this country. It is possible from their large size that they 
belonged to P. crispus. Ornithologists have been much divided 
in opinion as to the number of living species of the genus Pele- 
canus (cf. op. til., 1868, p. 264; 1869, p. 571; 1871, p. 631) the 
estimate varying from six to ten or eleven; but the former is the 
number recognized by M. Dubois (Bull. Mus. de Belgique, 1883). 
North America has one, P. erythrorhynchus, very similar to 
P. onocrotalus both in appearance and habits, but remarkable 
for a triangular, horny excrescence developed on the ridge of the 
male's bill in the breeding season, which falls off without leaving 
trace of its existence when that is over. Australia has P. 
conspicillatus, easily distinguished by its black tail and wing- 
coverts. Of more marine habit are P. philippensis and P.fuscus, 
the former having a wide range in Southern Asia, and, it is said, 
reaching Madagascar, and the latter common on the coasts of 
the warmer parts of both North and South America. 
The genus Pelecanus as instituted by Linnaeus included the 
1 This caution was not neglected by the prudent, even so long ago 
as Sir Thomas Browne's days; for he, recording the occurrence of a 
pelican in Norfolk, was careful to notice that about the same time one 
of the pelicans kept by the king (Charles II.) in St James's Park, 
had been lost. 



cormorant (q.v.) and gannet (q.v.) as well as the true pelicans, 
and for a long while these and some other distinct groups, as the 
snake-birds (q.v.), frigate-birds (q.v.) and tropic -birds (q.v.), 
which have all the four toes of the foot connected by a web, were 
regarded as forming a single family, Pelecanidae; but this name 
has now been restricted to the pelicans only, though all are 
still usually associated in the suborder Steganopodes of Ciconii- 
form birds. It may be necessary to state that there is no founda- 
tion for the venerable legend of the pelican feeding her young 
with blood from her own breast, which has given it an important 
place in ecclesiastical heraldry, except that, as A. D. Bartlett 
suggested (Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 146), the curious bloody 
secretion ejected from the mouth of the flamingo may have 
given rise to the belief, through that bird having been mistaken 
for the " Pelican of the wilderness." 2 (A. N.) 

PELION, a wooded mountain in Thessaly in the district of 
Magnesia, between Volo and the east coast. Its highest point 
(mod. Plessidi) is 5340 ft. It is famous in Greek mythology; 
the giants are said to have piled it on Ossa in order to scale 
Olympus, the abode of the gods; it was the home of the centaurs, 
especially of Chiron, who had a cave near its summit, and 
educated many youthful heroes; the ship " Argo " was built 
from its pine-woods. On its summit was an altar of Zeus 
Actaeus, in whose honour an annual festival was held in the 
dog-days, and worshippers clad themselves in skins. 

PELISSE (through the Fr. from Lat. pellicia: sc. veslis, a 
garment made of fur, pellis, skin), properly a name of a cloak 
made of or lined with fur, hence particularly used of the fur- 
trimmed " dolman " worn slung from the shoulders by hussar 
regiments. The word is now chiefly employed as the name of a 
long-sleeved cloak of any material worn by women and children. 

PEllSSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864), duke 
of Malakoff, marshal of France, was born on the 6th of November 
1794 at Maromme (Seine Inferieure), of a family of prosperous 
artisans or yeoman, his father being employed in a powder- 
magazine. After attending the military college of La Fleche 
and the special school of St Cyr, he in 1815 entered the army as 
sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination 
in 1819 secured his appointment to the staff. He served as 
aide-de-camp in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and in the 
expedition to the Morea in 1828-29. In 1830 he took part in 
the expedition to Algeria, and on his return was promoted to 
the rank of chef d'escadron. After some years' staff service in 
Paris he was again sent to Algeria as chief of staff of the province 
of Oran with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remained there 
till the Crimean War, taking a prominent part in many important 
operations. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a whole 
Arab tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where 
they had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such indig- 
nation in Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, publicly 
expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the governor-general 
of Algeria, not only gave it his approval, but secured 
for Pelissier the rank of general of brigade, which he held till 
1850, when he was promoted general of division. After the 
battles of October and November 1854 before Sevastopol, 
Pelissier was sent to the Crimea, where on the i6th of May 1855 
he succeeded Marshal Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the 
French forces before Sevastopol (see CRIMEAN WAR). His 
command was marked by relentless pressure of the enemy and 
unalterable determination to conduct the campaign without 
interference from Paris. His perseverance was crowned with 

1 The legend was commonly believed in the middle ages. 
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantly, in his Physiologus (1588), writes 
that the female bird, in cherishing her young, wounds them with 
loving, and pierces their sides, and they die. After three days the 
male pelican comes and finds them dead, and his heart is pained. 
He smites his own side, and as he stands over the wounds of the dead 
young ones the blood trickles down, and thus are they made alive 
again. The pelican " in his piety " -4.e. in this pious act of reviving 
his offspring was a common subject for 15th-century emblem 
books; it became a symbol of self-sacrifice, a type of Christian 
redemption and of the Eucharistic doctrine. The device was 
adopted by Bishop Fox in 1516 for his new college of Corpus Christi, 
Oxford. [H. CH.l 



PELL PELLETAN 



69 



success in the storming of the Malakoff on the 8th of September. 
On the 1 2th he was promoted to be marshal. On his return to 
Paris he was named senator, created duke of Malakoff (July 22, 
1856), and rewarded with a grant of 100,000 francs per annum. 
From March 1858 to May 1859 he was French ambassador in 
London, whence he was recalled to take command of the army 
of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became 
grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. In 1860 he was 
appointed governor-general of Algeria, and he died there on the 
2 and of May 1864. 

See Marbaud, Le Marechal Pelissier (1863); Castillo, Portraits 
historiques, 2nd series (1859). 

PELL, JOHN (1610-1685), English mathematician, was born 
on the ist of March 1610 at Southwick in Sussex, where his 
father was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered 
Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his 
university career he became an accomplished linguist, and even 
before he took his M.A. degree (in 1630) corresponded with 
Henry Briggs and other mathematicians. His great reputation 
and the influence of Sir William Boswell, the English resident, 
with the states-general procured his election in 1643 to the chair 
of mathematics in Amsterdam, whence he removed in 1646, 
on the invitation of the prince of Orange, to Breda, where he 
remained till 1652. 

From 1654 to 1658 Pell acted as Cromwell's political agent 
to the Protestant cantons of Switzerland. On his return to 
England he took orders and was appointed by Charles II. to 
the rectory of Fobbing in Essex, and in 1673 he was presented 
by Bishop Sheldon to the rectory of Laindon in the same county. 
His devotion to mathematical science seems to have interfered 
alike with his advancement in the Church and with the proper 
management of his private affairs. For a time he was confined 
as a debtor in the king's bench prison. He lived, on the 
invitation of Dr Whistler, for a short time in 1682 at the College 
of Physicians, but died on the I2th of December 1685 at the 
house of Mr Cothorne, reader of the church of St Giles-in-the 
Fields. Many of Pell's manuscripts fell into the hands of Dr 
Busby, master of Westminster School, and afterwards came into 
the possession of the Royal Society; they are still preserved in 
something like forty folio volumes, which contain, not only 
Pell's own memoirs, but much of his correspondence with the 
mathematicians of his time. 

The Diophantine analysis was a favourite subject with Pell; 
he lectured on it at Amsterdam; and he is now best remembered 
for the indeterminate equation ai 2 + l=y 2 , which is known by his 
name. This problem was proposed by Pierre de Fermat first to 
Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians. 
Pell's connexion with the problem simply consists of the publication 
of the solutions of John Wallis and Lord Brounker in his edition of 
Branker's Translation of Rhonius's Algebra (1668). His chief works 
are: Astronomical History of Observations of Heavenly Motions and 
Appearances (1634); Ediptica prognostica (1634); Controversy with 
Longomontanus concerning the Quadrature of the Circle (1646?); 
An Idea of the Matliematics, I2mo (1650); A Table of Ten Thousand 
Square Numbers (fol. ; 1672). 

PELLA, the capital of ancient Macedonia under Philip II. 
(who transferred the seat of government hither from Edessa) 
and Alexander the Great, who was born here. It seems to have 
retained some importance up to the time of Hadrian. Scanty 
remains exist and some springs in the neighbourhood are still 
known as the baths of Pel. The site (identified by Leake) is 
occupied by the village of Neochori (Turk. Yeni-Keui) about 
32m. north-west of Salonika. 

PELLAGRA (Ital. pelle agra, smarting skin), the name given, 
from one of its early symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of com- 
paratively modern origin. For some time it was supposed to 
be practically confined to the peasantry in parts of Italy (particu- 
larly Lombardy) and France, and in the Asturias (mal de la 
rosa), Rumania and Corfu. But it has recently been identified 
in various outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes, 
India) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the 
Zulus and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had 
been observed up to 1906, but since then numerous cases have 
been reported. It is in Italy, however, that it has been most 



prevalent. The malady is essentially chronic in character. 
The indications usually begin in the spring of the year, declining 
towards autumn, and recurring with increasing intensity and 
permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who 
is acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from head- 
aches, giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin, 
especially in the hands and feet, and diarrhoea. At the same 
time a red rash appears on the skin, of the nature of erysipelas, 
the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially where 
they are directly exposed to the sun. About July or August 
of the first season these symptoms disappear, the spots on the 
skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year 
following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave 
traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes 
more like a mummy, his skin shrivelled and sallow, or even 
black at certain spots, as in Addison's disease, his angles pro- 
truding, his muscles wasted, his movements slow and languid, 
and his sensibility diminished. Meanwhile there are more special 
symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping 
of the eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and other disorders of 
vision, together with symptoms relating to the digestive system, 
such as a red and dry tongue, a burning feeling in the mouth, 
pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. After a certain stage the 
disease passes into a profound disorganization of the nervous 
system; there is a tendency to melancholy, imbecility, and a 
curious mummified condition of body. After death a general 
tissue degeneration is observed. 

The causation of this obscure disease has recently come up 
for new investigation in connexion with the new work done in 
relation to sleeping-sickness and other tropical diseases. So 
long as it was supposed to be peculiar to the Italian peasantry, 
it was associated simply with their staple diet, and was regarded 
as due to the eating of mouldy maize. It was by his views in 
this regard that Lombroso (q.v.) first made his scientific reputa- 
tion. But the area of maize consumption is now known to be 
wider than that of pellagra, and pellagra is found where maize 
is at least not an ordinary diet. In 1905 Dr L. W. Sambon, at 
the meeting of the British Medical Association, suggested that 
pellagra was probably protozoal in origin, and subsequently 
he announced his belief that the protozoon was communicated 
by sand-flies, just as sleeping-sickness by the tsetse fly; and this 
opinion was supported by the favourable action of arsenic in 
the treatment of the disease. His hypothesis was endorsed 
by Sir Patrick Manson, and in January 1910 an influential 
committee was formed, to enable Dr Sambon to pursue his 
investigations in a pellagrous area. 

PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846- ), French 
politician and journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of June 
1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (1813-1884), a writer of some 
distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire. 
Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate 
in laws, and was qualified as an " archiviste paleographe." 
At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to 
the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government. 
After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among 
the most radical section of French politicians, as an opponent 
of the " opportunists " who continued the policy of Gambetta. 
In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success 
to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the 
Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth 
arrondissement of Paris, and in 1885 for the Bouches du 
Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898; and he was 
repeatedly chosen as " reporter " to the various bureaus. Dur- 
ing the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously 
on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition 
known as the "Bloc" was formed he took his place as a Radical 
leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet of 
M. Combes, June 1902 to January 1905, but his administration 
was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval 
experts. During the great sailors' strike at Marseilles in 1904 
he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and 
methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that 



PELLICANUS PELLICO 



his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the 
navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent 
controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's 
indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common 
subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes 
ministry he became less prominent in French politics. 

PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), German theologian, 
was born at Ruffach in Alsace, on the 8th of January 1478. 
His German name, Kursner, was changed to Pellicanus by his 
mother's brother Jodocus Gallus, an ecclesiastic connected with 
the university of Heidelberg, who supported his nephew for sixteen 
months at the university in 1491-1492. On returning to Ruffach, 
he taught gratis in the Minorite convent school that he might 
borrow books from the library, and in his sixteenth year resolved 
to become a friar. This step helped his studies, for he was sent 
to Tubingen in 1496 and became a favourite pupil of the guardian 
of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, a man of 
considerable general learning. There seems to have been at 
that time in south-west Germany a considerable amount of 
sturdy independent thought among the Franciscans; Pellicanus 
himself became a Protestant very gradually, and without any 
such revulsion of feeling as marked Luther's conversion. At 
Tubingen the future " apostate in three languages " was able 
to begin the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no 
grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris carried him a huge codex of 
the prophets on his own shoulders all the way from Mainz. He 
learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the 
Star of the Messiah of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint 
or two from Reuchlin, who also lent him the grammar of Moses 
Kimhl, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help 
of Jerome's Latin. He got on so well that he was not only 
a useful helper to ReuchHn but anticipated the manuals of the 
great Hebraist by composing in 1501 the first Hebrew grammar 
in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards 
included in Reysch's Margarita philosophica. Hebrew remained 
a favourite study to the last. Pellican's autobiography de- 
scribes the gradual multiplication of accessible books on the 
subjects, and he not only studied but translated a vast mass of 
rabbinical and Talmudic texts, his interest in Jewish literature 
being mainly philological. The chief fruit of these studies is 
the vast commentary on the Bible (Zurich, 7 vols., 1532-1539), 
which shows a remarkably sound judgment on questions of the 
text, and a sense for historical as opposed to typological exegesis. 

Pellicanus became priest in 1501 and continued to serve his 
order at Ruffach, Pforzheim, and Basel till 1526. At Basel 
he did much laborious work for Froben's editions, and came to 
the conclusion that the Church taught many doctrines of which 
the early doctors of Christendom knew nothing. He spoke his 
views frankly, but he disliked polemic; he found also more 
toleration than might have been expected, even after he became 
active in circulating Luther's books. Thus, supported by the 
civic authorities, he remained guardian of the convent of his 
order at Basel from 1519 till 1524, and even when he had to 
give up his post, remained in the monastery for two years, 
professing theology in the university. At length, when the 
position was becoming quite untenable, he received through 
Zwingli a call to Zurich as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and 
formally throwing off his monk's habit, entered on a new life. 
Here he remained till his death on the 6th of April 1556. 

Pellicanus's scholarship, though not brilliant, was really 
extensive; his sound sense, and his singularly pure and devoted 
character gave him a great influence. He was remarkably free 
from the pedantry of the time, as is shown by his views about 
the use of the German vernacular as a vehicle of culture (Chron. 
I 3S> 36). As a theologian his natural affinities were with 
Zwingli, with whom he shared the advantage of having grown 
up to the views of the Reformation, by the natural progress 
of his studies and religious life. Thus he never lost his sym- 
pathy with humanism and with its great German representative, 
Erasmus. 

Pellicanus's Latin autobiography (Chronicon C.P.R.) is one of the 
most interesting documents of the period. It was first published 



by Riggenbach in 1877, and in this volume the other sources for his 
life are registered. See also Emil Silberstein, Conrad Pellicanus; 
ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Studiums der hebr. Sprache (Berlin, 
1900). 

PELLICIER, GUILLAUME (c. 1490-1568), French prelate 
and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of 
Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he had 
the seat of his bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appointed 
ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the 
entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery of the 
system of espionage he had employed the king had to recall him 
in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the 
chateau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he 
replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his 
episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a 
man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists, 
and took a keen interest in the natural sciences. 

See].2l\er,LaDiplomatiefranc,aise . . . d'apres le correspondence 
de G. Pellicier (Paris, 1881); and A. Tausserat-Radel, Correspondance 
politique de Guillaume Pellicier (Paris, 1899). 

PELLICO, SILVIO (1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was born 
at Saluzzo in Piedmont on the 24th of June 1788, the earlier 
portion of his life being passed at Pinerolo and Turin under 
the tuition of a priest named Manavella. At the age of ten 
he composed a tragedy under the inspiration of Caesarotti's 
translation of the Ossianic poems. On the marriage of his twin 
sister Rosina with a maternal cousin at Lyons he went to reside 
in that city, devoting himself during four years to the study of 
French literature. He returned in 1810 to Milan, where he 
became professor of French in the Collegio degli Orfani Militari. 
His tragedy Francesca da Rimini, was brought out with success 
by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818. Its publication was 
followed by that of the tradegy Eitfemio da Messina, but the 
representation of the latter was forbidden. Pellico had in the 
meantime continued his work as tutor, first to the unfortunate 
son of Count Briche, and then to the two sons of Count Porro 
Lambertenghi. He threw himself heartily into an attempt to 
weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educa- 
tional means. Of the powerful literary executive which gathered 
about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, Pellico was the able 
secretary the management of the Conciliatore, which appeared 
in 1818 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him. 
But the paper, under the censorship of the Austrian officials, 
ran for a year only, and the society itself was broken up by the 
government. In October 1820 Pellico was arrested on the 
charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Santa Margherita 
prison. After his removal to the Piombi at Venice in February 
1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies Ester d'En- 
gaddi and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced 
on him in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen years 
carcere duro, and in the following April he was placed in the 
Spielberg at Briinn. His chief work during this part of his 
imprisonment was the tragedy Leoniero da Derlona, for the 
preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory. 
After his release in 1830 he commenced the publication of his 
prison compositions, of which the Ester was played at Turin 
in 1831, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared his 
Gismonda da Mendrizio, Erodiade and the Leoniero, under the 
title of Tre nuovi tragedie, and in the same year the work which 
gave him his European fame, Le Mie prigioni, an account of 
his sufferings in prison. The last gained him the friendship 
of the Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons, 
and in 1834 he accepted from her a yearly pension of 1200 francs. 
His tragedy Tommaso Moro had been published in 1833, his 
most important subsequent publication being the Opere inedite 
in 1837. On the decease of his parents in 1838 he was received 
into the Casa Barolo, where he remained till his death, assisting 
the marchesa in her charities, and writing chiefly upon religious 
themes. Of these works the best known is the Dei Doveri degli 
uomini, a series of trite maxims which do honour to his piety 
rather than to his critical judgment. A fragmentary biography 
of the marchesa by Pellico was published in Italian and English 
after her death. He died on the 3ist of January 1854, and was 



PELLISSON PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



buried in the Campo Santo at Turin. His writings are defective 
in virility and breadth of thought, and his tragedies display 
neither the insight into character nor the constructive power 
of a great dramatist. It is in the simple narrative and naive 
egotism of Le Mie prigioni that he has established his strongest 
claim to remembrance, winning fame by his misfortunes rather 
than by his genius. 

See Piero Maroncelli, Addizioni alle mie prigioni (Paris, 1834); 
the biographies by Latour; Gabriele Rosselli ; Didier, Revue des 
deux mondes (September 1842) ; De Lomenie, Galerie des contemp. 
illustr. iv. (1842); Chiala (Turin, 1852); Nollet-Fabert (1854); 
Giorgio Briano (1854); Bourdon (1868); Rivieri (1899-1901). 

PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born at 
B6ziers on the 3oth of October 1624, of a distinguished Calvinist 
family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar 
of Castres. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to 
Valentin Conrart, who was a co-religionist, he became through 
him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson 
undertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Relation 
contenant I'histoire de I'academie franfaise. This panegyric 
was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by 
permission to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson 
became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet, 
and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was 
imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand 
by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated 
Memoir e in 1661, with the title Discours au roi, par un de ses 
fideles sujets sur le proces de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts 
in favour of Fouquet are marshalled with great skill. Another 
pamphlet, Seconde defense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson 
was released in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour. 
He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity 
wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years 
1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and 
obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th 
of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mile de 
Scudery, in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante. 
His sterling worth of character made him many friends and 
justified Bussy-Rabutin's description of him as " encore plus 
honnete homme que bel esprit." 

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; and F. L. Marcon, 
tude sur la vie el les ceuvres de Pellisson (1859). 

PELLITORY, in botany, the common name for a small hairy 
perennial herb which grows on old walls, bedgebanks and 
similar localities, and is known botanically as Parietaria offici- 
nalis (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from 
which spring erect or spreading stems i to 2 ft. long, bearing 
slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green 
flowers. It belongs to the nettle order (Urticaceae), and is 
nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging. 

PELLOUX, LUIGI (1830- ), Italian general and politician, 
was born on the ist of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of 
parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was 
annexed to France. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery 
in 1857, he gained the medal for military valour at the battle 
of Custozza in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of 
artillery which battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta 
Pia. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for 
Leghorn, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party 
of the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880 
became general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many 
useful reforms in the army. After a succession of high military 
commands he received the appointment of chief of the general 
staff in 1896. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti 
cabinets of 1891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio 
of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In 
May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill, 
fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of 9,560,000 
a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the 
Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning 
office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari, 
where, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring 



public order. Upon the fall of Rudini in June 1898, General 
Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation 
of a cabinet, and took for himself the post of minister of the 
interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again en- 
trusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stern 
measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy, 
and his new cabinet was essentially military and conservative. 
The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken 
over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promul- 
gated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist 
party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in 
forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900, 
and to resign office after the general election in June. In the 
autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin 
army corps. 

PELOMYXA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose 
Rhizopoda (q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded 
pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see AMOEBA), often containing 
peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium. 
It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the 
bottom of ponds and lakes. 

PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general. 
He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed 
great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content 
to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban 
contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia, 
where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epami- 
nondas (q.v.}. Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the 
Spartans (383 or 382) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a 
conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and 
killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people 
against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army 
gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was 
elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan 
force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed 
mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300 
infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly 
to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity 
with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans. 
In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarch 
into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuc- 
cessfully accused of having retained their command beyond 
the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessa- 
lians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander, 
tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into 
Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne. 
In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home 
hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II., 
the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again 
called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by 
his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with 
Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was 
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from 
Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas 
went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to 
prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the 
Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian 
towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the 
sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of 
troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge 
of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own 
hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the 
tyrant's guards. 

Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon, 
Hellenica, vii. I. See also THEBES. (M. O. B. C.) 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, in Greek history, the name given 
specially to the struggle between Athens at the head of the 
Delian League and the confederacy of which Sparta was the 
leading power. 1 According to Thucydides the war, which was 

1 Some historians prefer to call it the Second Peloponnesian War, 
the first being that of 457, which ended with the Thirty Years' 
Peace. 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



in his view the greatest that had ever occurred in Greece, lasted 
from 431 to the downfall of Athens in 404. The genius of 
Thucydides has given to the struggle the importance of an 
epoch in world history, but his view is open to two main criti- 
cisms (i) that the war was in its ultimate bearings little 
more than a local disturbance, viewed from the standpoint 
of universal history; (2) that it cannot be called a war in the 
strict sense. The former of these criticisms is justified in the 
article on GREECE: History (q.v.). Unless we are to believe 
that the Macedonian supremacy is directly traceable to the 
mutual weakening of the Greek cities in 431-403, it is difficult 
to see what lasting importance attaches to the war. As regards 
the second, a few chief difficulties may be indicated. The very 
narrative even of Thucydides himself shows that the " war " 
was not a connected whole. It may be divided into three main 
periods (i) from 431 to 421 (Lysias calls it the " Archidamian " 
War), when the Peace of Nicias, not merely formally, but actually 
produced a cessation of hostilities; (2) from 421 till the inter- 
vention of Sparta in the Sicilian War; during these years there 
was no " Peloponnesian War," and there were several years in 
which there was in reality no fighting at all: the Sicilian expedi- 
tion was in fact a side issue; (3) from 413 to 404, when fighting 
was carried on mainly in the Aegean Sea (Isocrates calls this 
the " Decelean " War). The disjointed character of the struggle 
is so obvious from Thucydides himself that historians have come 
to the conclusion that the idea of treating the whole struggle as 
a single unit was ex post facto (see GREECE: History, A, 
" Ancient " ad fin.). 

The book itself affords evidence which goes far to justify this 
view. A very important problem is presented by bk. v., which is 
obviously put in as a connecting link to prove a theory. Thucy- 
dides expressly warns us not to regard the period of this book 
as one of peace, and yet the very contents of the book refute 
his argument. In 419 and 417 there is practically no fighting: 
the Mantinean War of 418 is a disconnected episode which did 
not lead to a resumption of hostilities: in 420 there are only 
obscure battles in Thrace: in 416 there is only the expedition 
to Melos; and finally from 421 to 413 there is official peace. 
Other details may be cited in corroboration. Book v. (ch. 26) 
contains a second introduction to the subject; 65 6 ir6Xe/io$ in 
i. 23 and iv. 48 is the Archidamian or Ten Years' War; in v. 26 
we read of a irptoros iroXe/jos, a uorepos TroXe^os and an a.va.Kux'h- 
Some critics think on these and other grounds that Thucydides 
wrote and published bks. i.-v. 25 by itself, then bks. vi. and 
vii. (Sicilian expedition), and finally revising his view joined 
them into one whole by the somewhat unsatisfactory bk. v. 26 
and following chapters, and began to round off the story with 
the incomplete bk. viii. (on this see GREECE: History, as above). 
It is perhaps most probable that he retained notes made con- 
temporarily and worked them up some time after 404, in a few 
passages failing to correct inconsistencies and dying before 
bk. viii. was completed. The general introduction in bk. i. 
was unquestionably written shortly after 404. 

The causes of the war thus understood are complex. The 
view taken by Thucydides that Sparta was the real foe of 
Athens has been much modified by modern writers. The key 
to the situation is in fact the commercial rivalry of the Corin- 
thians, whose trade (mainly in the West) had been seriously 
limited by the naval expansion of the Delian League. This 
rivalry was roused to fever heat by the Athenian intervention 
in 434-33 on behalf of Corcyra, Corinth's rebellious colony (see 
CORFU) and from that time the Corinthians felt that the Thirty 
Years' Truce was at an end. An opportunity soon offered for 
making a counter attack. Potidaea, a Dorian town on the 
western promontory of Chalcidice in Thrace, a tributary ally 
of Athens to which however Corinth as metropolis still sent 
annual magistrates was induced to revolt, 1 with the support 
of the Macedonian king Perdiccas, formerly an Athenian ally. 
The Athenian Phormio succeeded in blockading the city so that 

1 The importance of this revolt lay in the fact that it immediately 
involved danger to Athens throughout the Chalcidic promontories, 
and her north-east possessions generally. 



its capture was merely a question of time, and this provided the 
Corinthians with an urgent reason for declaring war. 

Prior to these episodes Athens had not been in hostile contact 
with any of the Peloponnesian confederate states for more than 
ten years, and Pericles had abandoned a great part of his imperial 
policy. He now laid an embargo upon Megara by which the 
Megarians were forbidden on pain of death to pursue trading 
operations with any part of the Athenian Empire. The circum- 
stances of this decree (or decrees) are not material to the present 
argument (see Grote, History of Greece, ed. 1907, p. 370 
note) except that it turned special attention to the commercial 
supremacy which Athens claimed to enjoy. In 432 a conference 
of Peloponnesian allies was summoned and the Corinthian envoys 
urged the Spartans to declare war on the ground that the power 
of Athens was becoming so great as to constitute a danger to the 
other states. This might have been urged with justice before 
the Thirty Years' Truce (447) ; but by that truce Athens gave 
up all her conquests in Greece proper except Naupactus and 
Plataea, while her solitary gains in Amphipolis and Thurii 
were compensated by other losses. The fact that the Corinthian 
argument failed to impress Sparta and many of the delegates 
is shown by the course of the debate. What finally impelled 
the Spartans to agree to the war was the veiled threat by the 
Corinthians that they would be driven into another alliance 
(i.e. Argos, i. 71). We can hardly regard Sparta as the deter- 
mined enemy of Athens at this time. Only twice since 461 had 
she been at war with Athens in 457 (Tanagra) and 447, when she 
deliberately abstained from pushing the advantage which the 
revolt in Euboea provided; she had refused to help the oli- 
garchs of Samos in 440. Corinth however had not only strong, 
but also immediate and urgent reasons (Potidaea and Corcyra) 
for desiring war. It has been argued that the war was ulti- 
mately a struggle between the principles of oligarchy and 
democracy. This view, however, cannot be taken of the early 
stages of the war when there was democracy and oligarchy on 
both sides (see ad fin.) ; it is only in the later stages that the 
political difference is prominent. 

The Opposing Forces. The permanent strength of the 
Peloponnesian confederacy lay in the Peloponnesian states, all 
of which except Argos and Achaea were united under Sparta's 
leadership. But it included also extra-Peloponnesian states 
viz. Megara, Phocis, Boeotia and Locris (which had formed 
part of the Athenian land empire), and the maritime colonies 
round the Ambracian Gulf. The organization was not elaborate. 
The federal assembly with few exceptions met only in time of 
war, and then only when Sparta agreed to summon it. It 
met in Sparta and the delegates, having stated their views 
before the Spartan Apella, withdrew till the Apella had come 
to a decision. The delegates were then invited to return and 
to confirm that decision. It is clear that the link was purely 
one of common interest, and that Sparta had little or no control 
over, e.g. so powerful a confederate as Corinth. Sparta was 
the chief member of the confederacy (hegemon), but the states 
were autonomous. In time of war each had to provide two-thirds 
of its forces, and that state in whose territory the war was to take 
place had to equip its whole force. 

The Athenian Empire is described elsewhere (DELIAN LEAGUE, 
ATHENS). Here it must suffice to point out that there was 
among the real and technical allies no true bond of interest, and 
that many of the states were in fact bound by close ties to 
members of the Peloponnesian confederacy (e.g. Potidaea to 
Corinth). Sparta could not only rely on voluntary co-operation 
but could undermine Athenian influence by posing as the 
champion of autonomy. Further, Thucydides is wrong on his 
own showing in saying that Sparta refused to tolerate democratic 
government in confederate cities: it was not till after 418 that 
this policy was adopted. Athens, on the other hand, had un- 
doubtedly interfered in the interest of democracy in various 
allied states (see DELIAN LEAGUE). 

No detailed examination of the comparative military and 
naval resources of the combatants can here be attempted. On 
land the Peloponnesians were superior: they had at least 30,000 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



73 



hoplites not including 10,000 from Central Greece and Boeotia: 
these soldiers were highly trained. The Athenian army was 
undoubtedly smaller. There has been considerable discussion 
as to the exact figures, the evidence in Thucydides being highly 
confusing, but it is most probable that the available fighting 
force was not more than half that of the Peloponnesian confed- 
eracy. Even of these we learn (Thuc. iii. 87) that 4400 died 
in the great plague. The only light-armed force was that of 
Boeotia at Delium (10,000 with 500 peltasts). Of cavalry Athens 
had looo, Boeotia a similar number. The only other cavalry 
force was that of Thessaly, which, had it been loyal to Athens, 
would have meant a distinct superiority. In naval power the 
Athenians undoubtedly had an overwhelming advantage at the 
beginning, both in numbers and in training. 

Financially Athens had an enormous apparent advantage. 
She began with a revenue of 1000 talents (including 600 from 
<rujti^axot) , and had also, in spite of the heavy expense which 
the building schemes of Pericles had involved, a reserve of 6000 
talents. The Peloponnesians had no reserve and no fixed 
revenue assessment. On the other hand the Peloponnesian 
armies were unpaid, while Athens had to spend considerable 
sums on the payment of crews and mercenaries. In the last 
stages of the war the issue was determined by the poverty of 
Athens and Persian gold. 

The events of the struggle from 43 1 to 404 may be summarized 
in the three periods distinguished above. 

i. The Ten Years' or Archidamian War. The Spartans sent 
to Athens no formal declaration of war but rather sought first 
to create some specious casus belli by sending requisitions to 
Athens. The first, intended to inflame the existing hostilities 
against Pericles (q.v.) in Athens, was that he should be expelled 
the city as being an Alcmaeonid (grand-nephew of Cleisthenes) 
and so implicated in the curse pronounced on the murderers 
of Cylon nearly 200 years before. This outrageous demand 
was followed by three others that the Athenians should (i) 
withdraw from Potidaea, (2) restore autonomy to Aegina, and 
(3) withdraw the embargo on Megarian commerce. Upon the 
refusal of all these demands Sparta finally made the maintenance 
of peace contingent upon the restoration by Athens of autonomy 
to all her allies. Under the guidance of Pericles Athens replied 
that she would do nothing on compulsion, but was prepared 
to submit difficulties to amicable arbitration on the basis of 
mutual concessions. Before anything could come of this 
proposal, matters were precipitated (end of March 431) by the 
attack of Thebes upon Plataea (q.v.), which immediately sought 
and obtained the aid of Athens. War was begun. The Spartan 
king Archidamus assembled his army, sent a herald to announce 
his approach, marched into Attica and besieged Oenoe. 

Meanwhile Pericles had decided to act on the defensive, i.e. 
to abandon Attica, collect all its residents in Athens and treat 
Athens as an island, retaining meanwhile command of the sea 
and making descents on Peloponnesian shores. The policy, 
which Thucydides and Grote commend, had grave defects 
though it is by no means easy to suggest a better; e.g. it meant 
the ruin of the landed class, it tended to spoil the moral of those 
who from the walls of Athens annually watched the wasting of 
their homesteads, and it involved the many perils of an over- 
crowded city a peril increased by, if not also the cause of, the 
plague. Moreover sea power was not everything, and delay 
exhausted the financial reserves of the state, while financial 
considerations, as we have seen, were comparatively unimportant 
to the Peloponnesians. The descents on the Peloponnese were 
futile in the extreme. 

Archidamus, having wasted much territory, including Achar- 
nae, retired at the end of July. The Athenians retaliated by 
attacking Methone (which was secured by Brasidas),by successes 
in the West, by expelling all Aeginetans from Aegina (which was 
made a cleruchy), and by wasting the Megarid. 

In 430 Archidamus again invaded Attica, systematically 
wasting the country. Shortly after he entered Attica plague 
broke out in Athens, borne thither by traders from Carthage 
or Egypt (Holm, Greek History, ii. 346 note). The effect upon 



the overcrowded population of the city was terrible. Of the 
1 200 cavalry (including mounted archers) 300 died, together with 
4400 hoplites: altogether the estimate of Diodorus (xii. 58) that 
more than 10,000 citizens and slaves succumbed is by no means 
excessive. None the less Pericles sailed with 100 triremes, and 
ravaged the territory near Epidaurus. Subsequently he re- 
turned and the expedition proceeded to Potidaea. But the plague 
went with them and no results were achieved. The enemies of 
Pericles, who even with the aid of Spartan intrigue had hitherto 
failed to harm his prestige, now succeeded in inducing the 
desperate citizens to fine him for alleged malversation. The 
verdict, however, shocked public feeling and Pericles was 
reinstated in popular favour as strategus (c. Aug. 430). About 
a year later he died. In the autumn of 430 a Spartan attack 
on Zacynthus failed and the Ambraciots were repulsed from 
Amphilochian Argos. In reply Athens sent Phormio to Nau- 
pactus to watch her interests in that quarter. In the winter 
Potidaea capitulated, receiving extremely favourable terms. 

In 429 the Peloponnesians were deterred by the plague from 
invading Attica and laid siege to Plataea in the interests of 
Thebes. The Athenians failed in an expedition to Chalcidice 
under Xenophon, while the Spartan Cnemus with Chaonian 
and Epirot allies was repulsed from Stratus, capital of Acarnania, 
and Phormio with only 20 ships defeated the Corinthian fleet 
of 47 sail in the Gulf of Corinth. Orders were at once sent from 
Sparta to repair this disaster and 77 ships were equipped. Help 
sent from Athens was diverted to Crete, and after much 
manoeuvring Phormio was compelled to fight off Naupactus. 
Nine of his ships were driven ashore, but with the other n he 
subsequently defeated the enemy and recovered the lost nine. 
With the reinforcement which arrived afterwards he established 
complete control of the western seas. A scheme for operating 
with Sitalces against the Chalcidians of Thrace fell through, 
and Sitalces joined Perdiccas. 

The year 428 was marked by a third invasion of Attica and 
by the revolt of Lesbos from Athens. After delay in fruitless 
negotiations the Athenian Cleippides, and afterwards Paches, 
besieged Mytilene, which appealed to Sparta. The Pelopon- 
nesian confederacy resolved to aid the rebels both directly and 
by a counter demonstration against Athens. The Athenians, 
though their reserve of 6000 talents was by now almost exhausted 
(except for 1000 talents in a special reserve), made a tremendous 
effort (raising 200 talents by a special property tax), and not 
only prevented an invasion by a demonstration of 100 triremes 
at the Isthmus, but sent Asopius, son of Phormio, to take his 
place in the western seas. In spring 427 the Spartans again 
invaded Attica without result. The winter of 428-427 was 
marked by the daring escape of half the Plataean garrison under 
cover of a stormy night, and by the capitulation of Mytilene, which 
was forced upon the oligarchic rulers by the democracy. The 
Spartan fleet arrived too late and departed without attempting 
to recover the town. Paches cleared the Asiatic seas of the 
enemy, reduced the other towns of Mytilene and returned to 
Athens with upwards of 1000 prisoners. An assembly was 
held and under the invective of Cleon (q.v.) it was decided to kill 
all male Mytileneans of military age and to sell the women an*} 
children as slaves. This decree, though in accordance with <.ie 
rigorous customs of ancient warfare as exemplified by the treat- 
ment which Sparta shortly afterwards meted out to the Plat ieans, 
shocked the feelings of Athens, and on the next day it was 
(illegally) rescinded just in time to prevent Paches carrying it 
out. The thousand 1 oligarchic prisoners were however executed, 
and Lesbos was made a cleruchy. 

Meanwhile there occurred civil war in Corcyra, in which 
ultimately, with the aid of the Athenian admiral Ev.rymedon, 
the democracy triumphed amid scenes of the wildest savagery. 
In the autumn of the year Nicias fortified Minoa at the mouth 
of the harbour of Megara. Shortly afterwards the Spartans 

1 So Thuc. iii. 50. It is suggested that this number is an error 
for 30 or 50 (i.e., A or N for A). It seems incredible that 1000 
could be described as " ringleaders " out of a population of perhaps 
5000. 






74 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



planted an unsuccessful colony at Heraclea in the Trachinian 
territory north-west of Thermopylae. 

In the summer of 426 Nicias led a predatory expedition along 
the north-west coast without achieving any positive victory. 
More important, though equally ineffective, was the scheme of 
Demosthenes to march from Naupactus through Aetolia, sub- 
duing the wild hill tribes, to Cytinium in Doris (in the upper 
valleys of the Cephissus) and thence into Boeotia, which was 
to be attacked simultaneously from Attica. The scheme was 
crushed by the courage and skill of the Aetolians, who thereupon 
summoned Spartan and Corinthian aid for a counter attack on 
Naupactus. Demosthenes averted this, and immediately after- 
wards by superior tactics inflicted a complete defeat at Olpae 
in Acarnania on Eurylochus at the head of a Spartan and 
Ambracian force. An Ambracian reinforcement was annihilated 
at one of the peaks called Idomene, and a disgraceful truce was 
accepted by the surviving Spartan leader Menedaeus. This 
was not only the worst disaster which befell any powerful state 
up to the peace of Nicias (as Thucydides says), but was a serious 
blow to Corinth, whose trade on the West was, as we have seen, 
one of the chief causes of the war. 

The year 425 is remarkable for the Spartan disaster of Pylos 
(q.v.). The Athenians had despatched 40 triremes under 
Eurymedon and Procles to Sicily with orders to call first at 
Corcyra to prevent an expected Spartan attack. Meantime 
Demosthenes had formed the plan of planting the Messenians of 
Naupactus in Messenia now Spartan territory and obtained 
permission to accompany the expedition. The fleet was, as it 
chanced, delayed by a storm in the Bay of Navarino, and rough 
fortifications were put up by the sailors on the promontory of 
Pylos. Demosthenes was left behind in this fort, and the 
Spartans promptly withdrew from their annual raid upon 
Attica and their projected attack on Corcyra to dislodge him. 
After a naval engagement (see PYLOS) a body of Spartan hoplites 
were cut off on Sphacteria. So acutely did Sparta feel their 
. position that an offer of peace was made on condition that the 
hoplites should go free. The eloquence of Cleon frustrated the 
peace party's desire to accept these terms, and ultimately to the 
astonishment of the Greek world the Spartan hoplites to the 
number of 292 surrendered unconditionally (see CLEON). 

Thus in 424 the Athenians had seriously damaged the prestige 
of Sparta, and broken Corinthian supremacy in the north-west, 
and the Peloponnesians had no fleet. This was the zenith of 
their success, and it was unfortunate for them that they declined 
the various offers of peace which Sparta made. The next 
two years changed the whole position. The doubling of the 
tribute in 425 pressed hardly on the allies (see DELIAN LEAGUE): 
Nicias failed in a plot with the democratic party in Megara to 
seize that town; and the brilliant campaigns of Brasidas (q.v.) 
in the north-east, culminating in the capture of Amphipolis (422), 
finally destroyed the Athenian hopes of recovering their land 
empire, and entirely restored the balance of success and Spartan 
prestige. Moreover, the admirably conceived scheme for a 
simultaneous triple attack upon Boeotia at Chaeronea in the 
north, Delium in the south-east, and Siphae in the south-west 
had fallen through owing to the inefficiency of the generals. 
'1 l ->e scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party 
in Yhebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium 
by U e, Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the 
policy of, an Athenian land empire. 

The. e disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens 
withonJy one trump card the possession of the Spartan hoplites 
captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in 
the spring of 423 induced Sparta in spite of the successes which 
Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the " truce of 
Laches " which, however, was rendered abortive by the refusal 
of Brasidas to. surrender Scione. The final success of Brasidas 
at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved 
the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at 
Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant. 

2. From 421 to 41,3. Peace was signed in March 421 on the 
basis of each side's Surrendering what had been acquired by 



the war, not including those cities which had been acquired by 
capitulation. It was to last for fifty yeais. Its weak points, 
however, were numerous. Whereas Sparta had been least of 
all the allies interested in the war, and apart from the campaigns 
of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her allies 
benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not 
regain Sollium and Anactorium, while Megara and Thebes 
respectively were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea 
and receive Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led 
to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refusal to 
carry out the terms of agreement. The history of the next 
three years is therefore one of complex inter-state intrigues 
combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta 
and Athens concluded a defensive alliance; the Sphacterian 
captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pylos. 
Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens nothing 
but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nicias and 
Alcibiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this 
time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argos was 
expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Argos 
as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos, 
Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (420). 
This coalition between two different elements an anti-oligarchic 
party and a war party had no chance of permanent existence. 
The war party in Sparta regained its strength under new ephors 
and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Argos 
and Boeotia. The details cannot here be discussed. The result 
was a re-shuffling of the cards. The democratic states of the 
Peloponnese were driven, partly by the intrigues of Alcibiades, 
now anti-Laconian, into alliance with Athens, with the object of 
establishing a democratic Peloponnese under the leadership of 
Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset 
by Alcibiades himself, who, having succeeded in displacing 
Nicias as strategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to help in 
attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determine 
Alcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the election to the post of 
strategus in the next year, and the suspicions of the Pelopon- 
nesian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent 
by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the 
Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spartans 
were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and soon 
afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an alliance 
between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oligarchy 
was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having 
vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athens. 
It was thus left to Athens to expend men and money on 
protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped 
practically to control the Peloponnesus. All this time, however, 
the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken. 

The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Peloponnesian 
coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to the 
Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may be 
found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the 
Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch (in 
his comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the in- 
scription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (Hicks 
and Hill, Gr. Hist. Inscr. 70), we can scarcely doubt that there 
were expeditions in 4-18 (Euthydemus) and the summer of 417 
(Nicias), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadron 
under Chaeremon was despatched. This policy which was 
presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Alcibiades having 
failed, the way was cleared for a reassertion of that policy of 
western conquest which had always had advocates from 
Themistocles onward in Athens, 1 and was part of the 
democratic programme. 

The tragic fiasco of the Sicilian expedition, involving the death 

1 In 454 Athens made a treaty with Segesta (inscr. Hicks and 
Hill, Greek Hist. Inscr. 34) : in 433 with Rhegium and Leontini 
(Hicks and Hill, 51 and 52; cf. Thuc. iii. 86, ira\ai& avunaxia with 
Chalcidic towns in Sicily) : in 444 the colony of Thurii was founded: 
in 427 (see above) 60 ships were sent to Sicily; and if we may 
believe Aristophanes (Eq. 1302) Hyperbolus asked for too triremes 
for Carthage. 



PELOPONNESIAN WAR 



75 



of Nicias and the loss of thousands of men and hundreds of ships, 
was a blow from which Athens never recovered (see under 
SYRACUSE and SICILY). Even before the final catastrophe 
the Spartans had reopened hostilities. On the advice of 
Alcibiades (q.i>.), exiled from Athens in 415, they had fortified 
Decelea in Attica within fifteen miles of Athens. This place 
not only served as a permanent headquarters for predatory 
expeditions, but cut off the revenue from the Laurium mines, 
furnished a ready asylum for runaway slaves, and rendered the 
transference of supplies from Euboea considerably more difficult 
(i.e. by the sea round Cape Sunium). Athens thus entered 
upon the third stage of the conflict with exceedingly poor 
prospects. 

3. The Ionian or Dccelean War. From the Athenian stand- 
point this war may be broken up into three periods: (i) period of 
revolt of allies (413-411), (2) the rally (410-408), (3) the relapse 
(407-404). As contrasted with the Archidamian War, this 
war was fought almost exclusively in the Aegean Sea, the enemy 
was primarily Sparta, and the deciding factor was Persian gold. 
Furthermore, apart from the gradual disintegration of the 
empire, Athens was disturbed by political strife. 

In 412 many Ionian towns revolted, and appealed either to 
Agis at Decelea or to Sparta direct. Euboea, Lesbos, Chios, 
Erythrae led the way in negotiation and revolt, and simul- 
taneously the court of Susa instructed the satraps Pharnabazus 
and Tissaphernes to renew the collection of tribute from the 
Greek cities of Asia Minor. The satraps likewise made over- 
tures to Sparta. The revolt of the Ionian allies was due in part 
to Alcibiades also, whose prompt action in co-operation with his 
friend the ephor Endius finally confirmed the Chian oligarchs 
in their purpose. In 411 a treaty was signed by Sparta and 
Tissaphernes against Athens: the treaty formally surrendered 
to the Persian king all territory which he or his predecessors 
had held. It was subsequently renewed in a form somewhat 
less disgraceful to Greek patriotism by the Spartans Astyochus 
and Theramenes. On the other hand, a democratic rising in 
Samos prevented the rebellion of that island, which for the 
remainder of the war was invaluable to Athens as a stronghold 
lying between the two great centres of the struggle. 

After the news of the Sicilian disaster Athens was compelled 
at last to draw on the reserve of 1000 talents which had lain 
untouched in the treasury. 1 The revolt of the Ionian allies, 
and (in 411) the loss of the Hellespontine, Thracian and Island 
tributes (see DELIAN LEAGUE), very seriously crippled her 
finances. On the other hand, Tissaphernes undertook to pay 
the Peloponnesian sailors a daily wage of one Attic drachma 
(afterwards reduced to 2 drachma). In Attica itself Athens 
lost Oenoe and Oropus, and by the end of 411 only one quarter 
of the empire remained. In the meanwhile Tissaphernes began 
to play a double game with the object of wasting the strength 
of the combatants. Moreover Alcibiades lost the confidence 
of the Spartans and passed over to Tissaphernes, at whose 
disposal he placed his great powers of diplomacy, at the same 
time scheming for his restoration to Athens. He opened 
negotiations with the Athenian leaders in Samos and urged 
them to upset the democracy and establish a philo-Persian 
oligarchy. After elaborate intrigues, in the course of which 
Alcibiades played false to the conspirators by forcing them to 
abandon the idea of friendship with Tissaphernes owing to the 
exorbitant terms proposed, the new government by the Four 
Hundred was set up in Athens (see THERAMENES). This 
government (which received no support from the armament in 
Samos) had a brief life, and on the final revolt of Euboea was 
replaced by the old democratic system. Alcibiades (q.v.) was 
soon afterwards invited to return to Athens. 

The war, which, probably because of financial trouble, the 
Spartans had neglected to pursue when Athens was thus in the 
throes of political convulsion, was now resumed. After much 
manoeuvring and intrigues a naval battle was fought at Cynos- 

1 She had already abolished the system of tribute in favour of 
a 5% ad valorem tax on all imports and exports carried by sea 
between her ports and those of the allies. 



sema in the Hellespont in which victory on the whole rested 
with the Athenians (Aug. 411), though the net result was 
inconsiderable. About this time the duplicity of Tissaphernes 
who having again and again promised a Phoenician fleet and 
having actually brought it to the Aegean finally dismissed it 
on the excuse of trouble in the Levant and the vigorous honesty 
of Pharnabazus definitely transferred the Peloponnesian forces 
to the north-west coast of Asia Minor and the Hellespont. 
There they were regularly financed by Pharnabazus, while the 
Athenians were compelled to rely on forced levies. In spite of this 
handicap Alcibiades, who had been seized and imprisoned by 
Tissaphernes at Sardis but effected his escape, achieved a remark- 
able victory over the Spartan Mindarus at Cyzicus (about April 
410). So complete was the destruction of the Peloponnesian 
fleet that, according to Diodorus, peace was offered by Sparta 
(see ad fin.)a.nd would have been accepted but for the warlike 
speeches of the " demagogue " Cleophon representing the 
extreme democrats. 2 Another result was the return to allegiance 
(4og) of a number of the north-east cities of the empire. Great 
attempts were made by the Athenians to hold the Hellespont 
and then to protect the corn-supply from the Black Sea. In 
Greece these gains were compensated by the loss of Pylos and 
Nisaea. 

In 408 Alcibiades effectively invested Chalcedon, which 
surrendered by agreement with Pharnabazus, and subsequently 
Byzantium also fell into his hands with the aid of some of its 
inhabitants. 

Pharnabazus, weary of bearing the whole cost of the war for 
the Peloponnesians, agreed to a period of truce so that envoys 
might visit Susa, but at this stage the whole position was changed 
by the appointment of Cyrus the Younger as satrap of Lydia, 
Greater Phrygia and Cappadocia. His arrival coincided with 
the appointment of Lysander (c. Dec. 408) as Spartan admiral - 
the third of the three great commanders (Brasidas and Gylippus 
being the others) whom Sparta produced during the war. Cyrus 
promptly agreed on the special request of Lysander (q.v.) to pay 
slightly increased wages to the sailors, while Lysander established 
a system of anti-Athenian clubs and oligarchic governments 
in various cities. Meanwhile Alcibiades (May 407), having 
exacted levies in Caria, returned at length to Athens and was 
elected strategus with full powers (see STRATEGUS). He raised 
a large force of men and ships and endeavoured to draw Lysander 
(then at Ephesus) into an engagement. But Cyrus and Lysander 
were resolved not to fight till they had a clear advantage, and 
Alcibiades took a small squadron to Phocaea. In spite of his 
express orders his captain Antiochus in his absence provoked a 
battle and was defeated and killed at Notium. This failure and 
the refusal of Lysander to fight again destroyed the confidence 
which Alcibiades had so recently regained. Ten strategi were 
appointed to supersede him and he retired to fortified ports in 
the Chersonese which he had prepared for such an emergency 
(c. Jan. 406). At the same time Lysander's year of office expired 
and he was superseded by Callicratidas, to the disgust of all those 
whom he had so carefully organized in his service. Callicratidas, 
an honourable man of pan-Hellenic patriotism, was heavily 
handicapped in the fact that Cyrus declined to afford him the 
help which had made Lysander powerful, and had recourse to 
the Milesians and Chians, with whose aid he fitted out a fleet of 
140 triremes (only 10 Spartan). With these he pursued Conon 
(chief of the ten new Athenian strategi), captured 30 of his 70 
ships and besieged him in Mytilene. Faced with inevitable 
destruction, Conon succeeded in sending the news to Athens, 
where by extraordinary efforts a fleet of no ships was at once 
equipped. Callicratidas, hearing of this fleet's approach, with- 
drew from Mytilene, leaving Eteonicus in charge of the blockade. 
Forty more ships were collected by the Athenians, who met 
and defeated Callicratidas at Arginusae with a loss of more than 
half his fleet. The immediate result was that Eteonicus left 
Mytilene and Conon found himself free. Unfortunately the 
victorious generals at Arginusae, through negligence or owing 

- Xenophon, Hell, does not mention it : Thucydides's history 
had by this time come to an end. 



7 6 



PELOPONNESUS PELOTA 



to a storm, failed to recover the bodies of those of their crews 
who were drowned or killed in the action. They were therefore 
recalled, tried and condemned to death, except two who had 
disobeyed the order to return to Athens. 

At this point Lysander was again sent out, nominally as 
secretary to the official admiral Aracus. Cyrus, recalled to 
Susa by the illness of Darius, left him in entire control of his 
satrapy. Thus strengthened he sailed to Lampsacus on the 
Hellespont and laid siege to it. Conon, now in charge of the 
Athenian fleet, sailed against him, but the fleet was entirely 
destroyed while at anchor at Aegospotami (Sept. 405), Conon 
escaping with only 12 out of 180 sail to Cyprus. In April 404 
Lysander sailed into the Peiraeus, took possession of Athens, 
and destroyed the Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus. 
An oligarchical government was set up (see CRITIAS), and 
Lysander having compelled the capitulation of Samos, the last 
Athenian stronghold, sailed in triumph to Sparta. 

Two questions of considerable importance for the full understand- 
ing of the Peloponnesian War may be selected for special notice: 
( I ) how far was it a war between two antagonistic theories of govern- 
ment, oligarchic and democratic ? and (2) how far was Athenian 
statesmanship at fault in declining the offers of peace which Sparta 
made? 

1. A common theory is that Sparta fought throughout the war 
as an advocate of oligarchy, while Athens did not seek to interfere 
with the constitutional preferences of her allies. The view is based 
partly on Thuc. i. 19, according to which the Spartans took care that 
their allies should adhere to a policy convenient to themselves. This 
idea is disproved by Thucydides" own narrative, which shows that 
down to 418 (the battle of Mantinea) Sparta tolerated democratic 
governments in Peloponnesus itself e.g. Elis, Mantinea, Sicyon, 
Achaea. It was only after that date that democracy was suppressed 
in the Peloponnesian League, and even then Mantinea remained 
democratic. In point of fact, it was only when Lysander became 
the representative of Spartan foreign policy i.e. in the last years 
of the war that Sparta was identified with the oligarchic policy. 

On the other hand, there is strong evidence that the Athenian 
Empire at a much earlier date was based upon a uniform democratic 
type of government (cf. Thuc. i. 19, viii. 64; Xen. Pol. i. 14, Hell. 
iii. 47; Arist. Pol. viii. 69). It is true that we find oligarchic govern- 
ment in Chios and Lesbos (up to 428) and in Samos (up to 440), 
but this is discounted by the fact that all three were " autonomous " 
allies. Moreover, in the case of Samos there was a democracy in 
439, though in 412 the government was again oligarchic. The 
case of Selymbria (see Hicks and Hill, op. cil. 77) is of little account, 
because at that time (409) the Empire was in extremis. In general 
we find that Athenian orators take special credit on the ground that 
the Athenian had given to her allies the constitutional advantages 
which they themselves enjoyed. 

2. In view of the disastrous issue of the war, it is important to 
notice that on three occasions (a) after Pylos, (6) after Cyzicus, 
(c) after Arginusae Athens refused formal peace proposals from 
Sparta, (a) Though Cleon was probably wise in opposing peace 
negotiations before the capture of the Spartans in Sphactena, it 
seems in the light of subsequent events that he was wrong to refuse 
the terms which were offered after the hoplites had been captured. 
No doubt, however, the temper in Athens was at that time pre- 
dominantly warlike, and the surrender of the hoplites was a unique 
triumph. Possibly, too, Cleon foresaw that peace would have 
meant a triumph for the philo-Laconian party. (6) The peace 
proposals of 410 are given by Diodorus, who says that the ephor 
Endius proposed that a peace should be made on the basis of uti 
possidetis, except that Athens should evacuate Pylos and Cythera, 
and Sparta, Decelea. Cleophon, however, perhaps doubting 
whether the offer was sincere (cf. Philochorus in Schol. ap. Eurip. 
Orest. 371; Fragm. ed. Didot, 117, 1 1 8), demanded the status quo 
ante (413 or 431). (c) The proposals of 406, mentioned by Ath. Pol. 
34, were on the same lines, except that Athens no longer had Pylos 
and Cythera, and had lost practically half her empire. At this time 
peace must therefore have been advantageous to Athens as showing 
the world that in spite of her losses she was still one of the great 
powers of Greece. Moreover, an alliance with Sparta would have 
meant a check to Persian interference. It is probable, again, that 
party interest was a leading motive in Cleophon's mind, since a 
peace would have meant the return of the oligarchic exiles and the 
establishment of a moderate oligarchy. 

AUTHORITIES.-^. Busolt, Griech. Gesch., Bd. iii., Teil ii. (1904), 
" Der Peloponnesische Krieg " is essential. All histories of Greece 
may be consulted (see GREECE: History, Ancient, section 
" Authorities "). (J. M. M.) 

PELOPONNESUS ("Island of Pelops "), the ancient and 
modern Greek official name for the part of Greece south of the 
Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea, 



from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and this name 
is still current in popular speech. 

PELOPS, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of Tantalus 
and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father's home was on 
Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a 
Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantalus one day served up to the 
gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods 
detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food 
except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by 
the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The 
gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by 
Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Wherefore the descen- 
dants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after 
(Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Georgics, iii. 7). This tale is 
perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks. 
Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the 
gods, till, for his father's sins, he was cast out from heaven. 
Then, taking much wealth with him, he crossed over from Asia 
to Greece. He went to Pisa in Elis as suitor of Hippodameia, 
daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in 
the chariot-race and slain many suitors for his daughter's hand. 
But by the help of Poseidon, who lent him winged steeds, or 
of Oenomaus's charioteer Myrtilus, whom he or Hippodameia 
bribed, Pelops was victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia, 
and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84). The race of 
Pelops for his wife may be a reminiscence of the early practice of 
marriage by capture. When Myrtilus claimed his promised 
reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea, 
and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the 
house of Pelops which supplied the Greek tragedians with such 
fruitful themes (Sophocles, Electro., 505, with Jebb's note). 
Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes 
and Chrysippus. From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the 
neighbouring Olympia, where he celebrated the Olympian games 
with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were so 
great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the 
ancients as Peloponnesus, " island of Pelops " (VTJO-OS, island). 
In after times Pelops was honoured at Olympia above all other 
heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant 
in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacri- 
ficed to him a black ram. 

From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and 
Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat of 
these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greece that 
the people localized a part of the tale of Pelops in their new home. 
In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown on 
the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the first 
Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus. 

PELOTA (Sp. " little ball," from Lat. pila), a ball game which, 
originating centuries ago in the Basque provinces, has developed 
into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show that 
there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his time. 
Blaid, practically hand fives against the back wall of a court, is 
still played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular that 
the authorities had to forbid its being played against the walls 
of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of large size 
there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastime of 
the Basque, is played against a front wall (fronton), either bare- 
handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-like protector 
(cesla), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sickle-shaped 
wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wheel 
basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the ball is 
caught and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it can 
be hurled with tremendous force. There are several players to a 
side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. The 
score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal efforts 
make him not the least appreciated participant in the game. In 
the other form of the game, played nearly exclusively by profes- 
sionals (pelotaris), there are usually three players on each side, 
two forwards and a back, distinguished by a coloured sash or cap. 
The server (bulteur) slips off his chistera to serve, bouncing the 
ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the wall, and 



PELOTAS PEMBA 



77 



striking it low against the wall. The side that wins the toss has 
the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing 
side at the wall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the 
base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall. 
The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number 
of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when 
after the service the ball is not caught on the volley or first 
bounce, (6) when it does not on the return strike the wall within 
the prescribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits 
of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the 
court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like 
this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a 
court 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The 
ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound 
with yarn and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server 
bounces the ball on the concrete floor quite near the fronton, and 
hits it with his chislera against the wall with a force to make it 
rebound beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that 
distance. 

PELOTAS, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 
on the left bank of the Sao Goncalo river near its entrance into 
tne Lagda dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio 
Grande. Pop. (1900), city, about 24,000; municipio (commune, 
1037 sq. m.), 43,091. The Rio Grande-Bage railway communi- 
cates with the city of Rio Grande, and with the railways extend- 
ing to Bage, Cacequy, Santa Maria, Passo Fundo and Porto 
Alegre. The Sao Goncalo river is the outlet of Lag6a Mirim, 
and Pelotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes. 
The city is built on an open grassy plain (campo) little above the 
level of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings 
include the church of Sao Francisco, dating from the early part 
of the igth century, the municipal hall, a fine theatre, the 
Misericordia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000 
volumes and a great central market. Pelotas is the centre of the 
xarque or earns secca (jerked beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul. 
In its outskirts and the surrounding country are an immense 
number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards 
where the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and 
air. There are many factories or packing nouses where the by- 
products are prepared for market. Pelotas was only a small 
settlement at the beginning of the igth century and had no 
parochial organization until 1812. It became a villa in 1830 and 
a city in 1835. 

PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES (1807-1867), French chemist, 
was born at Valognes, in Normandy, on the 26th (or I3th) of 
February 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an 
industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks. 
The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fere, 
acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne 
(1800-1859) at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was ap- 
pointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning 
to Paris next year became repetiteur, and subsequently professor, 
at the Ecole Fob/technique. He also held the chair of chemistry 
at the College de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint 
and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies. After 
the coup d'etat in 1851 he resigned his appointments, but con- 
tinued to conduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846. 
He died in Paris on the ist of June 1867. Though Pelouze made 
no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investi- 
gator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar, 
on various organic acids gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic, 
&c. on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on 
gun-cotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass. 
He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of 
several elements, and with E. Fremy, published Trait6 de chimie 
generde (1847-1850); Abrege de chimie (1848); and Notions 
generales de chimie (1853). 

PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (1785-1845), French 
physicist, was born at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February 
1785. He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from 
business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experi- 
mental and observational science. His papers, which are 



numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric electricity, 
waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the 
temperature of water in the spheroidal state, and the boiling- 
point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious 
points of natural history. But his name will always be associ- 
ated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic circuit. 
His great experimental discovery, known as the " Peltier effect," 
was that if a current pass from an external source through a 
circuit of two metals it cools the junction through which it passes 
in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which would 
be caused by directly heating that junction, while it heats the 
other junction (see THERMO-ELECTRICITY). Peltier died in Paris 
on the 27th of October 1845. 

PELTUINUM [mod. Civita Ansidonia], a town of the Vestini, 
on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was 
apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vestini who 
dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town 
walls, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist. 

PELUSIUM, an ancient city and port of Egypt, now repre- 
sented by two large mounds close to the coast and the edge of 
the desert, 20 m. E. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the 
mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, which 
has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards 
Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at 
least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East. 
Its name has not been found on Egyptian monuments, but it may 
be the Sin of the Bible and of Assur-bani-pal's inscription. 
Pelusium (" the muddy ") is the Farama of the Arabs, Pere- 
moun in Coptic; the name Tina which clings to the locality seems 
etymologically connected with the Arabic word for clay or mud. 
The site, crowned with extensive ruins of burnt brick of the 
Byzantine or Arab period, has not yielded any important 
remains. (F. LL. G.) 

PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. ir&Xw), in anatomy, the 
bony cavity at the lower part of the abdomen in which much of 
the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are 
contained (see SKELETON, Appcndicidar). 

PEMBA, an island in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of 
Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zanzibar. Pemba lies 
30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4 80' and 5 30' S., 
and 39 35' and 39 50' E. It is some 40 m. long and 10 across 
at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq. m. It is of coral- 
line formation. On the side facing the mainland the coast is 
much indented. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its' Arabic 
name of Al-huthera " The Green." The interior is diversified 
by hills, some of which exceed 600 ft. The land is chiefly owned 
by great Arab proprietors, who work their plantations with 
Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Prior to 
1897 the labourers were all slaves. Their gradual manumission 
was accomplished without injury to the prosperity of the island. 
The population is estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000, of 
whom 2000 to 3000 are Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are of 
Bantu stock, and are known as Wapemba. In the ports there 
are many Hindu traders and a few Europeans. The plantations 
are nearly all devoted to cloves (the annual average output being 
10,000,000 Ib) and coco-nut palms (for the preparation of 
copra). The number of coco-nut plantations is very small 
compared with those devoted to cloves. Yet cloves need much 
care and attention and yield small profit, while the coco-nut 
palm yields a fairly uniform crop of nuts and will grow almost 
anywhere. The preponderance of clove plantations dates from 
a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the clove-trees in 
the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great 
rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their 
palms and planted cloves. The value of the cloves exported in 
1907 was 339,000, or 92 % of the total exports. India, Germany 
and Great Britain are, in the order named, the chief purchasers. 
Other exports include fire-wood, skins and hides, mother-of-pearl, 
wax and small quantities of rubber, cowries, tortoiseshell and 
so-called tortoise-nail. The " tortoise-nail " is the valve with 
which a shell-fish closes its shell. The Llandolphia rubber-vine 
is indigenous, and since 1906 Ceara rubber-trees have beea 



PEMBROKE, EARLS OF 



extensively planted. Rice, the chief of Pemba's imports, could 
easily be grown on the island. Cotton cloths (Kangas) form the 
next most considerable item in the imports. 

Pemba has three ports, all on the west side of the island. 
Shaki-Shaki, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally 
situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by 
dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west 
coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named 
port there is a deep and well-sheltered harbour, approached 
however by a narrow and dangerous channel. 

Pemba is administered as an integral part of the Zanzibar 
dominions, and yields a considerable surplus to the exchequer, 
mainly from a 25% duty imposed on cloves exported. There is 
a weekly steamship service to Zanzibar, and in 1907 the two 
islands were connected by wireless telegraphy (see ZANZIBAR). 

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke 
has been held successively by several English families, the 
jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally 
attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the 
earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert 
de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed 
the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Book), the 
modern Chepstow. After the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which 
he took part, the earl joined the party of the empress Matilda, 
and he married Henry I.'s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert 
de Beaumont, earl of Leicester. 

RICHARD DE CLARE, 2nd earl of Pembroke (d. 1176), commonly 
known as " Strongbow," son of the first earl, succeeded to his 
father's estates in 1148, but had forfeited or lost them by 1168. 
In that year Dermot, king of Leinster, driven out of his kingdom 
by Roderick, king of Connaught, came to solicit help from 
Henry II. He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising 
him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster. 
The earl crossed over in person (1170), took both Waterford and 
Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of 
this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 1171. 
In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and 
Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of 
Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to 
solicit help from Henry II., and surrendered to him all his lands 
and castles. Henry crossed over in October 1172; he stayed in 
Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the 
important places, Richard keeping only Kildare. In 1173 he 
went in person to France to help Henry II., and was present at 
Verneuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In 1174 he 
advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but for- 
tunately Raymond le Gros re-established his supremacy in 
Leinster. Early in 1176 Richard died, just as Raymond had 
taken Limerick for him. Strongbow was the statesman, as the 
Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He is vividly 
described by Giraldus Cambrensis as a tall and fair man, of 
pleasing appearance, modest in his bearing, delicate in features, 
of a low voice, but sage in council and the idol of his soldiers. 
He was buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his 
effigy and that of his wife are still preserved. 

See Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio hibernica; and the Song of 
Dermot, edited by G. H. Orpen (1892). 

Strongbow having died without male issue, his daughter 
ISABEL became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the 
title was borne by her husband, SIR WILLIAM MARSHAL, or 
Le Marechal, second son of John le Marechal, by Sibylle, the 
sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. John le Marechal was a 
partisan of the empress Matilda, and died about 1164. 

The date of Sir William Marshal's birth is uncertain, but his 
parents were married not earlier than 1141, and he was a mere 
child in 1152, when he attracted the notice of King Stephen. 
In 1170 he was selected for a position in the household of Prince 
Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the death 
of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage to the 
Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction for 
two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he 
was pardoned by Henry II. and admitted to the royal service 



about 1188. In 1189 he covered the flight of Henry II. from 
Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful 
Richard Cceur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accession, 
promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king's 'licence for his 
marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match 
gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales 
and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency which 
the king appointed on his departure for the third crusade (1190). 
He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the 
justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but he soon 
discovered that the interests of John were different from those 
of Richard. Hence in 1193 he joined with the loyalists in 
making war upon the prince. Richard forgave Marshal his first 
error of judgment, allowed him to succeed his brother, John 
Marshal, in the hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed 
designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure 
during the interregnum. Though he quarrelled more than once 
with John, Marshal was one of the few English laymen who clung 
to the royal side through the Barons' War. He was one of John's 
executors, and was subsequently elected regent of the king and 
kingdom by the royalist barons in 1 2 1 6. In spite of his advanced 
age he prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and the rebels 
with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May 1217) 
he charged and fought at the head of the young king's army, and 
he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the war was 
terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in the 
straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the 
terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (September 1217); 
but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by 
sound statesmanship. Self-restraint and compromise were the 
key-notes of Marshal's policy. Both before and after the peace 
of 1217 he reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year 
1219, and died on the I4th of May at his manor of Caversham 
near Reading. He was succeeded in the regency by Hubert de 
Burgh, in his earldom by his five sons in succession. 

See the metrical French life, Histoire de GuiUaume le Marechal 
(ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891-1901) ; the Minority of Henry III., 
by G. J. Turner (Trans. Royal Hist. Soc., new series, vol. xviii. 
pp. 245-295); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, chs. xii. and 
xiv. (Oxford, 1896-1897). 

Marshal's eldest son, WILLIAM MARSHAL (d. 1231), 2nd earl of 
Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales and 
in Ireland, where he was justiciar from 1224 to 1226; he also 
served Henry III. in France. His second wife was the king's 
sister, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but 
he left no children. His brother RICHARD MARSHAL (d. 1234), 
3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party, 
and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry III. 
Fearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester in 
August 1233, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to 
Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemies to 
attack him, and in April 1234 he was overpowered and wounded, 
and died a prisoner. His brother GILBERT (d. 1241), who 
became the 4th earl, was a friend and ally of Richard, earl of 
Cornwall. When another brother, Anselm, the 6th earl, died 
in December 1245, the male descendants of the great earl marshal 
became extinct. The extensive family possessions were now 
divided among Anselm's five sisters and their descendants, the 
earldom of Pembroke reverting to the Crown. 

The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke was 
William de Valence (d. 1296), a younger son of Hugh de Lusignan, 
count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of Angouleme 
(d. 1246), widow of the English king John, and was born at 
Valence, near Lusignan. In 1247 William and his brothers, 
Guy and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of their 
half-brother, Henry III. In 1250 Aymer (d. 1260) was elected 
bishop of Winchester, and in 1247 Henry arranged a marriage 
between William and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grand- 
daughter of William Marshal, ist earl of Pembroke. The 
custody of Joan's property, which included the castle and lordship 
of Pembroke, was entrusted to her husband, who in 1295 was 
summoned to parliament as earl of Pembroke. In South Wales 



PEMBROKE, EARLS OF 



79 



Valence tried to regain the palatine rights which had been 
attached to the earldom of Pembroke. But his energies were 
not confined to South Wales. Henry III. heaped lands and 
honours upon him, and he was soon thoroughly hated as one of 
the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. Moreover, some 
trouble in Wales led to a quarrel between him and Simon de 
Montfort, and this soon grew more violent. He would not 
comply with the provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey 
Castle at Winchester, where he was besieged and compelled to 
surrender and leave the country. In 1259 he and Earl Simon 
were formally reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in 
England and once more enjoying the royal favour. He fought 
for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay in France, 
he landed in Pembrokeshire, and took part in 1265 in the siege 
of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist 
victory he was restored to his estates and accompanied Prince 
Edward, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He went several 
times to France on public business; he assisted in the conquest of 
North Wales; and he was one of Edward's representatives in 
the famous suit over the succession to the crown of Scotland in 
1291 and 1292. He died at Bayonne on the I3th of June 1296, 
his body being buried in Westminster Abbey. His eldest 
surviving son, AYMER (c. 1265-1324), succeeded to his father's 
estates, but was not formally recognized as earl of Pembroke 
until after the death of his mother Joan about 1307. He was 
appointed guardian of Scotland in 1306, but with the accession 
of Edward II. to the throne and the consequent rise of Piers 
Gaveston to power, his influence sensibly declined; he became 
prominent among the discontented nobles and was one of those 
who were appointed to select the lord ordainers in 1311. In 
1312 he captured Gaveston at Scarborough, giving the favourite 
a promise that his life should be spared. Ignoring this under- 
taking, however, Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, put Gaveston 
to death, and consequently Pembroke left the allied lords and 
attached himself to Edward II. Valence was present at Bannock- 
burn; in 1317, when returning to England from Rome, he was 
taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large ransom was 
paid. In 1318 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace 
between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the 
formal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received 
some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, a descendant 
of King Henry III., was the founder of Pembroke College, 
Cambridge. 

In 1339 LAURENCE, LORD HASTINGS (d. 1348), a great-grand- 
son of William de Valence, having inherited through the female 
line a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke 
was created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son John 
(d. 1376) married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King 
Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson 
in 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown, 
while the barony of Hastings became dormant and so remained 
till 1840. 

In 1414 Humphrey Plantagenet, fourth son of King Henry 
IV., was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for 
life, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a 
reversion as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of 
heirs to Humphrey, to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 
Accordingly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447 
this nobleman became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in 
1450 and his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to 
Sir Jasper Tudor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper 
being a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the pre- 
dominance of the house of York, but was restored on the 
accession of Henry VII. On his death without heirs in 1495, 
his title became extinct. 

During his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by SIR 
WILLIAM HERBERT (d. 1469), a zealous Yorkist, who had been 
raised to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for 
this service Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468. 
His son William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon 
in lieu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV., 
who thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son Edward, prince 



of Wales; and when this prince succeeded to the throne as 
Edward V., the earldom of Pembroke merged in the crown. 
ANNE BOLEYN, a few months previous to her marriage with 
Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532. 
It is doubted by authorities on peerage law whether the title 
merged in the royal dignity on the marriage of the marchioness 
to the king, or became extinct on her death in 1536. 

The title of earl of Pembroke was ne'xt revived in favour of 
SIR WILLIAM HERBERT (c. 1501-1570), whose father, Richard, 
was an illegitimate son of the ist earl of Pembroke of the house 
of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VIII. 's 
sixth wife, and was created earl in 1551. The title has since been 
held by his descendants. 

An executor of Henry VIII. 's will and the recipient of valuable 
grants of land, Herbert was a prominent and powerful personage 
during the reign of Edward VI., both the protector Somerset and 
his rival, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland, 
angling for his support. He threw in his lot with Dudley, and 
after Somerset's fall obtained some of his lands in Wiltshire and 
a peerage. It has been asserted that he devised the scheme for 
settling the English crown on Lady Jane Grey; at all events he 
was one of her advisers during her short reign, but he declared for 
Mary when he saw that Lady Jane's cause was lost. By Mary 
and her friends Pembroke's loyalty was at times suspected, but 
he was employed as governor of Calais, as president of Wales 
and in other ways. He was also to some extent in the confidence 
of Philip II. of Spain. The earl retained his place at court under 
Elizabeth until 1569, when he was suspected of favouring the 
projected marriage between Mary, queen of Scots, and the duke 
of Norfolk. Among the monastic lands granted to Herbert was 
the estate of Wilton, near Salisbury, still the residence of the 
earls of Pembroke. 

His elder son Henry (c. 1534-1601), who succeeded as 2nd earl, 
was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He married 
in 1577 Mary Sidney, the famous countess of Pembroke (c. 1561- 
1621), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary 
Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney to whom she was deeply attached 
through life, was her eldest brother. Sir Philip Sidney spent the 
summer of 1580 with her at Wilton, or at Ivychurch, a favourite 
retreat of hers in the neighbourhood. Here at her request he 
began the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, which was intended 
for her pleasure alone, not for publication. The two also worked 
at a metrical edition of the Psalms. When the great sorrow of 
her brother's death came upon her she made herself his literary 
executor, correcting the unauthorized editions of the Arcadia 
and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 and 1591. She also 
took under her patronage the poets who had looked to her brother 
for protection. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her, 
and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout's come home againe; in 
Spenser's Astrophel she is " Clorinda." In 1599 Queen Elizabeth 
was her guest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the 
occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea. After her 
husband's death she lived chiefly in London at Crosby Hall, 
where she died. 

The Countess's other works include: A Discourse of Life and 
Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Mornay (1593), and 
Antoine (1592), a version of a tragedy of Robert Gamier. 

WILLIAM HERBERT, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580-1630), son of 
the 2nd earl and his famous countess, was a conspicuous figure 
in the society of his time and at the court of James I. Several 
times he found himself opposed to the schemes of the duke of 
Buckingham, and he was keenly interested in the colonization 
of America. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household 
from 1615 to 1625 and lord steward from 1626 to 1630. He was 
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas 
Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and 
named it Pembroke College in his honour. By some Shake- 
spearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the 
" Mr W. H. " referred to as " the onlie begetter "of Shakespeare's 
sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner of the 
published manuscript, while his mistress, Mary Fitton (q.v.), has 
been identified with the " dark lady " of the sonnets. In both 



8o 



PEMBROKE 



cases the identification rests on very questionable evidence (see 
SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM). He and his brother Philip are the 
" incomparable pair of brethren " to whom the first folio of 
Shakespeare is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in 
London on the loth of April 1630. Clarendon gives a very 
eulogistic account of Pembroke, who appears, however, to have 
been a man of weak character and dissolute hie. Gardiner 
describes him as the Hamlet of the English court. He had 
literary tastes and wrote poems; one of his closest friends 
was the poet Donne, and he was generous to Ben Jonson, 
Massinger and others. 

His brother, PHILIP HERBERT, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was 
for some years the chief favourite of James I., owing this position 
to his comely person and his passion for hunting and for field 
sports generally. In 1605 the king created him earl of Montgomery 
and Baron Herbert of Shurland, and since 1630, when he succeeded 
to the earldom of Pembroke, the head of the Herbert family has 
carried the double title of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery. 
Although Philip's quarrelsome disposition often led him into 
trouble he did not forfeit the esteem of James I., who heaped 
lands and offices upon him, and he was also trusted by Charles I., 
who made him lord chamberlain in 1626 and frequently visited 
him at Wilton. He worked to bring about peace between the 
king and the Scots in 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year 
the quarrel between Charles and the English parliament was 
renewed, he deserted the king who soon deprived him of his office 
of chamberlain. Trusted by the popular party, Pembroke was 
made governor of the Isle of Wight, and he was one of the repre- 
sentatives of the parliament on several occasions, notably during 
the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645 an d at Newport in 1648, and 
when the Scots surrendered Charles in 1647. From 1641 to 1643, 
and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university 
of Oxford; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from 
their positions because they would not take the solemn league 
and covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was 
more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam 
than a learned academy." In 1649, although a peer, he was 
elected and took his seat in the House of Commons as member for 
Berkshire, this " ascent downwards " calling forth many satirical 
writings from the royalist wits. The earl was a great collector 
of pictures and had some taste for architecture. His eldest 
surviving son, Philip (1621-1669), became sth earl of Pembroke, 
and 2nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice married, and was 
succeeded in turn by three of his sons, of whom Thomas, the Sth 
earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note during the reigns of 
William III. and Anne. From 1690 to 1692 he was first lord 
of the admiralty; then he served as lord privy seal until 1699, 
being in 1697 the first plenipotentiary of Great Britain at the 
congress of Ryswick. On two occasions he was lord high admiral 
for a short period; he was also lord president of the council and 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, while he acted as one of the lords 
justices seven times; and he was president of the Royal Society 
in 1689-1690. His son Henry, the gth earl (c. 1689-1750), was a 
soldier, but was better known as the " architect earl." He was 
largely responsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The 
title descended directly to Henry,ioth earl (1734-1794), a soldier, 
who wrote the Method of Breaking Horses (1762); George 
Augustus, nth earl (1759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary to 
Vienna in 1807; and Robert Henry, i2th earl (1791-1862), who 
died without issue. George Robert Charles, the I3th earl 
(1850-1895), was a grandson of the nth earl and a son of Baron 
Herbert of Lea (q.v.), whose second son Sidney (b. 1853) inherited 
all the family titles at his brother's death. 

See G. T. Clark, The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby, 
1880); J. R. Planch6, "The Earls of Strigul '" in vol. x. of the 
Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association (1855); and 
G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895). 

PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew 
county, 74 m. W.N.W., of Ottawa by rail on the south shore of 
Allumette Lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the 
Canadian Pacific and Canada Atlantic railways. Pop. (1901), 
5156. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an 



important centre in the lumber trade, and contains saw, grist 
and woollen mills, axe factory, &c. The Muskrat river affords 
excellent water-power. 

PEMBROKE (Penfro), an ancient municipal borough, a 
contributory parliamentary borough and county-town of Pem- 
brokeshire, Wales, situated on a narrow peninsula at the head of 
the Pennar tidal inlet or " pill " of Milford Haven. Pop. (1901), 
4487; together with Pembroke Dock 15,853. Pembroke is a 
station on the South Wales system of the Great Western railway. 
The old-fashioned town, consisting chiefly of one long broad 
street, retains portions of its ancient walls. A large mill-dam is 
a conspicuous feature on the north of the town. St Mary's 
church in the centre of the town possesses a massive tower of the 
1 2th century. Near the ruined West Gate is the entrance to 
Pembroke Castle, a splendid specimen of medieval fortified 
architecture. The circular vaulted keep erected by Earl William 
Marshal (c. 1200), remains almost intact. Close to the keep 
stands the ruined chamber wherein, according to local tradition, 
Henry VII. was born in 1457. Beneath the fine banqueting hall, 
a flight of steps descends into " the Wogan," a vast subterranean 
chamber giving access to the harbour. Facing the castle, on the 
western side of the pill, stand the considerable remains of 
Monkton Priory, a Benediction house founded by Earl William 
Marshal as a cell to the abbey of Seez or Sayes in Normandy, 
but under Henry VI. transferred to the abbey of St Albans. 
The priory church, now the parish church of the suburb of 
Monkton, contains monuments of the families of Meyrick of 
Bush and Owen of Orielton. St Daniel's chapel forms a 
prominent landmark on the ridge south of the town. 

PEMBROKE DOCK (formerly known as Pater, or Paterchurch), a 
naval dockyard and garrison town, is situated close to Hobb's 
Point, at the eastern extremity of Milford Haven. It forms the 
Pater Ward of Pembroke, from which it is distant 2 m. to the 
north-west. The place owes its origin to the decision of the 
government in 1814 to form a naval dep6t on Milford Haven. 
The dockyard, enclosed by high walls and covering 80 acres, is 
protected by a powerful fort the construction and repairing of 
ironclads are extensively carried on here. There is a submarine 
depot at Pennar Gut, and also accommodation for artillery and 
infantry. Ferry boats ply frequently between Pembroke Dock 
and Neyland on the opposite shore of the Haven. 

Pembroke is probably an Anglo-Norman form of the Cymric 
Penfro, the territory lying between Milford Haven and the 
Bristol Channel, now known as the Hundred of Castlemartin. 
During the invasion of South Wales under William Rufus, 
Arnulf de Montgomeri, fifth son of Roger earl of Shrewsbury, 
seems to have erected a fortress of stone (c. 1090) on the site of 
the castle. The first castellan of this new stronghold was 
Giraldus de Windsor, husband of the Princess Nest of South 
Wales and grandfather of Giraldus Cambrensis. Throughout 
the 1 2th and i3th centuries the castle was strengthened and 
enlarged under successive earls palatine of Pembroke, who made 
this fortress their chief seat. As the capital of the palatinate 
and as the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was in Plantagenet 
times one of the most important fortified cities in the kingdom. 
The town, which had grown up under the shadow of the almost 
impregnable castle, was first incorporated by Henry I. in 1109 
and again by Earl Richard de Clare in 1 1 54 (who also encircled 
the town with walls), and these privileges were confirmed and 
extended under succeeding earls palatine and kings of England. 
In 1835 the corporation was remodelled under the Municipal 
Corporations Act. Henry II. occasionally visited Pembroke, 
notably in 1172, and until the close of the Wars of the Roses, 
both town and castle played a prominent part in the history of 
Britain. With the passing of the Act of Union of Wales and 
England in 1536 however, the jura regalia of the county palatine 
of Pembroke were abolished, and the prosperity of the town 
began to decline. Although acknowledged as the county town 
of Pembrokeshire, Pembroke was superseded by Haverfordwest 
as the judicial and administrative centre of the shire on account 
of the more convenient position of the latter place. By the act 
of 1536 Pembroke was declared the leading borough in the 



PEMBROKESHIRE 



81 



Pembroke parliamentary district, yet the town continued to 
dwindle until the settlement of the government dockyard and 
works on Milford Haven. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars the 
town and castle were garrisoned for parliament by the mayor, 
John Poyer, a leading Presbyterian, who was later appointed 
governor, with Rowland Laugharne of St Brides for his lieu- 
tenant. But at the time of the Presbyterian defection in 1647, 
Poyer and his lieutenant-governors, Laugharne and Powell, 
declared for Charles and held the castle in the king's name. In 
June 1648 Cromwell himself proceeded to invest Pembroke 
Castle, which resisted with great obstinacy. But after the 
water-supply of the garrison had been cut off, the besieged were 
forced to capitulate, on the nth of July 1648, on the condition of 
surrendering up the three chief defenders of the castle. Poyer, 
Laugharne and Powell were accordingly brought to London, 
but finally only Poyer was executed. The magnificent ruin of 
Pembroke Castle is the nominal property of the Crown, but has 
been held on lease since the reign of James II. by the family of 
Pryse of Gogerddan in Cardiganshire. 

PEMBROKESHIRE (Sir Benfro, Dyfed), the most westerly 
county of South Wales, bounded N.E. by Cardigan, E.by Carmar- 
then, S. by the Bristol Channel and W. and N.W. by St Bride's 
Bay and Cardigan Bay of St George's Channel. Area 613 sq. m. 
The whole coast is extremely indented, extending over 140 m. in 
length. The principal inlets are Milford Haven, St Bride's Bay, 
Freshwater Bay, Fishguard Bay and Newport Bay. The chief 
promontories are Cemmaes, Dinas, Strumble, St David's, St 
Ann's and St Gowan's Heads. Five islands of moderate size lie 
off the coast, viz. Ramsey, Grassholm, Skomer and Skokholm 
in St Bride's Bay, and Caldy Island (Ynys Pyr) opposite Tenby; 
the last named having a population of about 70 persons. Rare 
birds, such as peregrine falcons, ravens and choughs are not 
uncommon, while guillemots, puffins and other sea-fowl breed in 
immense numbers on the Stack Rocks, on Ramsey Island and at 
various points of the coast. Seals are plentiful in the caves of 
St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay. The county is undulating, 
and large tracts are bare, but the valleys of the Cleddau, the 
Nevern, the Teifi and the Gwaun are well-wooded. The 
Preselley Mountains stretch from Fishguard to the border of 
Carmarthen, the principal heights being Preselley Top (1760 ft.) 
and Cam Englyn (1022 ft.). Treffgarn Rock in the Plumstone 
Mountains is popularly supposed to mark the northern limit of 
the ancient settlement of the Flemings. The principal rivers are 
the Teifi, forming the northern boundary of the county from 
Abercych to Cardigan Bay; the Nevern and the Gwaun, both 
falling into Cardigan Bay; and the Eastern and Western Cleddau, 
forming the Daugleddau after their junction below Haverford- 
west. All these streams contain trout and salmon. There are 
no lakes, but the broad tidal estuaries of the Daugleddau and 
other rivers, which fall into Milford Haven and are locally called 
" pills," constitute a peculiar feature of south Pembrokeshire 

scenery. 

Geology. Pembrokeshire is divisible into a northern portion 
occupied mainly by Ordovician and Silurian strata, which have been 
subjected to pressures from the north, the strike of the beds being 
south-west-north-east ; and a southern portion, the westerly con- 
tinuation of the South Wales coalfield, with associated Lower 
Carboniferous, Old Red Sandstone and narrow belts of Silurian 
rocks, the whole having been considerably folded and faulted by 
pressure from the south, which has produced a general north- west- 
south-east strike. In the neighbourhood of St Davids are the Pre- 
Cambrian granitic rocks (Dimetian) and volcanic rocks (Pebedian). 
These are surrounded by belts of unconformable Cambrian strata 
(Lingula Flags, Tremadoc beds), followed by Ordovician (Arenig, 
Llandeilo and Bala beds) with associated igneous rocks. These 
comprise gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head, Fishguard, 
Llanwnda, Prescelly; diorites north-west of St Davids, bostonites 
and porphyrites about Abercastle and the basaltic laccolite of Pen 
Caer, besides various contemporaneous acid lavas and tuffs. The 
Ordovician and Silurian rocks extend southward to the neighbour- 
hood of Narberth and Haverfordwest, where Arenig, Llandeilo and 
Bala beds (Slade and Red Hill beds; Sholeshook and Robeston 
Walthen Limestone) and Llandovery beds are recorded. The Coal 
Measures, highly inclined and anthracitic, stretch across from 
Carmarthen Bay to the shore of St Bride's Bay ; they are bordered 
on the north and south-east by the Millstone Grits, Carboniferous 
Limestone series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding 



the limestone appears again farther south at Pembroke, Caldy 
Island and St Gowan's Head; most of the remaining ground about 
Milford Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone with infolded 
strips of Silurian. A fairly large tract of blown-sand occurs in 
Freshwater Bay south of Milford Haven. Silver-bearing lead has 
been mined at Llanfyrnach. 

Climate and Industries. The climate is everywhere mild, and 
in the sheltered valleys near the coast sub-tropical vegetation 
flourishes in the open air. In the south the rainfall is small, and 
the districts round Pembroke suffer from occasional droughts. 
The chief industry is agriculture, wherein stock-raising is 
preferred to the growing of cereals. Of cattle the long-horned, 
jet-black Castlemartin breed is everywhere conspicuous. South 
Pembroke has long been celebrated for its horses, which are bred 
in great numbers by the farmers. The deep-sea fisheries of 
Tenby and Milford are valuable; and fresh fish of good quality 
is exported by rail to the large towns. Oysters are found at 
Langwm and near Tenby; lobsters and crabs abound on the 
western coast. The South Wales coalfield extends into south 
Pembroke, and coal is worked at Saundersfoot, Begelly, Temple- 
ton, Kilgetty and other places. There are slate quarries at 
Glogue, Cilgerran and elsewhere; copper has been worked near St 
Davids, and lead at Llanfyrnach. 

Communications. The South Wales branch of the Great 
Western railway enters Pembrokeshire from the east near 
Clynderwen Junction, whence the main line leads to Fishguard 
Harbour with its important Irish traffic. Other lines proceed 
to Neyland and Milford Haven by way of Haverfordwest, and 
a branch line from Clynderwen to Goodwick joins the main line 
at Letterston. The Whitland- Cardigan branch traverses the 
north-east by way of Crymmych and Cilgerran. Another line 
running south-west from Whitland proceeds by way of Narberth 
and Tenby to Pembroke Dock. 

Population and Administration. The area of Pembrokeshire 
is 395,151 acres with a population in 1891 of 89,138 and 1901 
of 88,732, showing a slight decrease. The municipal boroughs 
are Pembroke (pop. 15,853); Haverfordwest (6007); and 
Tenby (4400). The hamlet of Bridgend and a part of St 
Dogmell's parish are included within the municipal limits of 
Cardigan. Newport (Trefdraeth) (1222), the chief town of 
the barony of Kernes, or Cemmaes, still possesses a mayor and 
corporation under a charter granted in 1215 by Sir Nicholas 
Marteine, lord of Kernes, whose hereditary representative 
still nominates the mayor and aldermen, but its surviving 
municipal privileges are practically honorary. Milford Haven 
(5102), Narberth (1070) and Fishguard (2002) are urban districts. 
Other towns are St Davids (1710), St Dogmells (Llandudoch) 
(1286); and Cilgerran (1038). Pembrokeshire lies in the South 
Wales circuit, and assizes are held at Haverfordwest. Two 
members are returned to parliament; one for the county, and 
one for the united boroughs of Pembroke, Haverfordwest, 
Tenby, Fishguard, Narberth, Neyland, Milford and Wiston 
(Castell Gwys). Ecclesiastically, the county contains 153 
parishes and lies wholly in the diocese of St Davids. 

History. Pembrokeshire, anciently known to the Welsh 
as Dyfed, was originally comprised in the territory of the 
Dimetae, conquered by the Romans. During the 6th century 
St David, or Dewi Sant, moved the chief seat of South Welsh 
monastic and ecclesiastical life from Caerleon-on-Usk to his 
native place Menevia, which, known in consequence as Tyddewi, 
or St Davids, continued a centre of religious and educational 
activity until the Reformation, a period of 1000 years. On 
the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877, Dyfed fell nominally under the 
sway of the princes of Deheubarth, or South Wales; but their 
hold was never very secure, nor were they able to protect the 
coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. In 1081 William 
the Conqueror penetrated west as far as St Davids, where he is 
said to have visited St David's shrine as a devout pilgrim. 
In 1092 Arnulf de Montgomeri, son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury, 
did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With 
the building of Pembroke Castle, of which Gerald de Windsor 
was appointed castellan, the Normans began to spread over 
southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing in Fishguard 



PEMBROKESHIRE 



Bay and building the castle of Newport at Trefdraeth, won for 
himself the extensive lordship of Kemes (Cemmaes) between 
the river Teifi and the Preselley Mountains. The systematic 
planting of Flemish settlers in the hundred of Rhos, or Roose, 
in or about the years 1106, 1108 and mi with the approval 
of Henry I., and again in 1156 under Henry II., marks an 
all-important episode in the history of Pembrokeshire. The 
castles of Haverfordwest and Tenby were now erected to protect 
these aliens, and despite the fierce attacks of the Welsh princes 
their domain grew to be known as " Little England beyond 
Wales," a district whereof the language, customs and people 
still remain characteristic. In 1138 Gilbert de Clare, having 
previously obtained Henry I.'s permission to enjoy all lands 
he might win for himself in Wales, was created earl of Pembroke 
in Stephen's reign with the full powers of an earl palatine in 
Dyfed. The devolution of this earldom is dealt with in a 
separate article. 

In 1536, by the Act of Union (27 Henry VIII.), the king 
abolished all special jurisdiction in Pembrokeshire, which he 
placed on an equal footing with the remaining shires of Wales, 
while its borders were enlarged by the addition of Kemes, 
Dewisland and other outlying lordships. By the act of 1536 
the county returned to parliament one knight for the shire 
and two burgesses; one for the Pembroke boroughs and one 
for the town and county of Haverfordwest, both of which since 
1885 have been merged in the] Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest 
parliamentary division. The Reformation deprived the county 
of the presence of the bishops of St Davids, who on the partial 
dismantling of the old episcopal palace at St Davids removed 
their chief seat of residence to Abergwiliy, near Carmarthen. 
Meanwhile the manor of Lamphey was granted to the family 
of Devereux, earls of Essex, and other episcopal estates were 
alienated to court favourites, notably to Sir John Perrot of 
Haroldstone (1517-1592), afterwards lord-deputy of Ireland. 
During the Civil Wars the forces of the parliament, commanded 
by Colonel Laugharne and Captain Swanley, reduced the royal 
forts at Tenby, Milford and Haverfordwest. In February 
1797 some French frigates appeared off Fishguard Bay and 
landed about 1400 Frenchmen at Llanwnda. The invaders 
soon capitulated to the local militia, practically without striking 
a blow. The ipth century saw the establishment of the naval 
dockyard at Paterchurch and the building of docks and quays 
at Neyland and Milford. In 1906 extensive works for cross- 
traffic with Ireland were opened at Fishguard Harbour. 

Many of the old Pembrokeshire families, whose names appear 
prominent in the county annals, are extinct in the county itself. 
Amongst these may be mentioned Perrot of Haroldstone, 
Devereux of Lamphey, Barlow of Slebech, Barrett of Gilliswick, 
Wogan of Wiston, Elliot of Amroth and Owen of Henllys. 
Amongst ancient families still existing are Philipps of Lydstep 
and Amroth (descendants of the old Welsh lords of Cilsant); 
Philipps of Picton Castle (a branch of the same house in the 
female line); Lort of Stackpole Court, now represented by Earl 
Cawdor; Scourfield of Moate; Bowen of Llwyngwair; Edwardes, 
Lords Kensington, of St Brides; Meyrickof Bush; Lort-Philipps 
of Lawrenny; Colby of Ffynone; Stokes of Cuffern; Lloyd of 
Newport Castle (in which family is vested the hereditary lord- 
ship of the barony of Kemes); Saunders-Davies of Pentre; and 
Gower of Castle Malgwyn. 

Antiquities. There are few remaining traces in the county 
of the Roman occupation of Dimetia, but in British encamp- 
ments, tumuli, cromlechs and monumental stones Pembrokeshire 
is singularly rich. Of the cromlechs the best preserved are those 
at Longhouse, near Mathry; at Pentre Evan in the Nevern 
Valley; and at Llech-y-dribedd, near Moylgrove; whilst of the 
many stone circles and alignments, that known as Pare-y-Marw, 
or " The Field of the Dead," near Fishguard, is the least injured. 
Stones inscribed in Ogam characters are not uncommon, and 
good examples exist at Caldy Island, Bridell, St Dogmells 
and Cilgerran. There are good specimens of Celtic floriated 
churchyard crosses at Carew, Penally and Nevern. Interesting 
examples of medieval domestic architecture are the ruins 



of the former episcopal mansions at Llawhaden, St Davids 
and Lamphey, the two latter of which were erected by Bishop 
Gower between the years 1328-1347. With the exception of 
the cathedral at St Davids and the principal churches of Haver- 
fordwest and Tenby, the parish churches of Pembrokeshire 
are for the most part small, but many are ancient and possess 
fine monuments or other objects of interest, especially in 
" Little England beyond Wales." Amongst the more note- 
worthy are the churches at Stackpole Elidur, Carew, Burton, 
Gumfreston, Nevern, St Petrox and Rudbaxton, the last-named 
containing a fine Jacobean monument of the Hayward family. 
Pembrokeshire has long been famous for its castles, of which the 
finest examples are to be observed at Pembroke; Manorbier, 
built in the izth century and interesting as the birthplace and 
home of Giraldus Cambrensis; Carew, exhibiting many interest- 
ing features both of Norman and Tudor architecture; and 
Picton, owned and inhabited by a branch of the Philipps family. 
Other castles are the keep of Haverfordwest and the ruined for- 
tresses at Narberth, Tenby, Newport, Wiston, Benton, Upton and 
Cilgerran. There are some remains of monastic houses at Tenby 
and Pembroke, but the most important religious communities 
were the priory of the Augustinian friars at Haverfordwest 
and the abbey of the Benedictines at St Dogmells. Of this 
latter house, which was founded by Martin de Tours, first lord 
of Kemes, at the close of the nth century, and who owned the 
priories of Pill and Caldy, considerable ruins exist near the left 
bank of the Teifi about i m. below Cardigan. Of the ancient 
preceptory of the Knights of St John at Slebech scarcely a trace 
remains, but of the college of St Mary at St Davids founded by 
Bishop Houghton in 1377, the shell of the chapel survives in 
fair preservation. Pembrokeshire contains an unusually large 
number of county seats, particularly in the south, which includes 
Stackpole Court, the residence of Earl Cawdor, a fine mansion 
erected in the i8th century; Picton Castle; Slebech, once the 
seat of the Barlows; Orielton, formerly belonging to the Owens; 
and Ffynone, the residence of the Colby family. 

Customs, 6"c. The division of Pembrokeshire ever since the 
1 2th century into well-defined Englishry and Welshry has 
produced two distinct sets of languages and customs within the 
county. Roughly speaking, the English division, the Anglia 
Transwalliana of Camden, occupies the south-eastern half and 
comprises the hundreds of Roose, Castlemartin, Narberth and 
Dungleddy. In the Welshry, which includes the hundreds of 
Dewisland and Cilgerran together with the old barony of Kemes, 
the language, customs, manners and folk-lore of the inhabitants 
are almost identical with those of Cardigan and Carmarthen. 
The old Celtic game of Knappan, a pastime partaking of the 
nature both of football and hockey, in which whole parishes 
and even hundreds were wont to take an active part, was pre- 
valent in the barony of Kemes so late as the i6th century, 
as George Owen of Henllys, the historian and antiquary, records; 
and the playing of knappan lingered on after Owen's day. 
Amongst the settlers of the Englishry, who are of mingled Anglo- 
Saxon, Flemish, Welsh and perhaps Scandinavian descent, 
many interesting superstitions and customs survive. The 
English spoken by these dwellers in " Little England beyond 
Wales " contains many curious idioms and words and the pronun- 
ciation of some of the vowels is peculiar. Certain picturesque 
customs, many of them dating from pre-Reformation times, 
are still observed, notably in the neighbourhood of Tenby. 
Such are the sprinkling of persons with dewy evergreens on 
New Year's morning; the procession of the Cutty Wren on St 
Stephen's day, and the constructing of little huts at Lammastide 
by the farm boys and girls. As early as the opening years of 
the I9th century, cripples and ophthalmic patients were in the 
habit of visiting the ancient hermitage at St Gowan's Head to 
bathe in its sacred well; and Richard Fenton, the county historian 
alludes (c. 1808) to the many crutches left at St Gowan's chapel 
by grateful devotees. Belief in ghosts, fairies, witches, &c., 
is still prevalent in the more remote places, and the dress of 
the fishwives of Langwm near Haverfordwest is highly picturesque 
with its short skirt, scarlet shawl and buckled shoes. 



PEMMICAN PEN 



AUTHORITIES. -Richard Fenton, A Historical Tour throng 
Pembrokeshire (London, 1810); Edward Laws, History of Little Eng 
land beyond Wales (London, 1888) ; Basil Jones and E. A. Freeman 
History and Antiquities of St David's (London, 1856), &c. 

PEMMICAN, a North American Indian (Cree) word for a 
meat prepared in such a way as to contain the greatest amoun 
of nourishment in the most compact form. As made by th< 
Indians it was composed of the lean parts of the meat, dried in 
the sun, and pounded or shredded and mixed into a paste with 
melted fat. It is flavoured with acid berries. If kept dry it 
will keep for an indefinite time, and is thus particularly service 
able in arctic or other explorations. 

PEMPHIGUS (Gr. miJ.<t>i, a bubble), a skin disease, in which 
large blebs appear, on a red base, containing a clear or yellowish 
fluid; the blebs occasion much irritation, and when they burst 
leave raw ulcerated surfaces. The disease is principally known 
in unhealthy or neglected children. A variety of the malady 
pemphigus foliaceous, affects the whole body, and gradually 
proves fatal. Pemphigus of an acute septicaemic type occurs 
in butchers or those who handle hides, and a diplococcus has 
been isolated by William Bullock. The treatment is mainly 
constitutional, by means of good nourishment, warm baths, 
local sedatives and tonics. In chronic pemphigus, streptococci 
have been found in the blebs, and the opsonic index was low 
to streptococci. Improvement has been known to take place 
on the injection of a vaccine of streptococci. 

PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen), an instrument for writing 
or for forming lines with an ink or other coloured fluid. The 
English word, as well as its equivalents in French (plume) and in 
German (Feder), originally means a wing-feather, but in ancient 
times the implements used for producing written characters 
were not quills. The earliest writing implement was probably 
the stilus (Gr. -ypa^ij), a pointed bodkin of metal, bone or ivory, 
used for producing incised or engraved letters on boxwood 
tablets covered with wax. The calamus (Gr. KaXa/xos) or arundo, 
the hollow tubular stalk of grasses growing in marshy lands, 
was the true ancient representative of the modern pen; hollow 
joints of bamboo were similarly employed. 

An early specific allusion to the quill pen occurs in the writings 
of St Isidore of Seville (early part of the 7th century), 1 but there 
is no reason to assume that it was not in use at a still more 
remote date. The quills still largely employed among Western 
communities as writing instruments are obtained principally 
from the wings of the goose (see FEATHER). In 1809 Joseph 
Bramah devised and patented a machine for cutting up the 
quill into separate nibs by dividing the barrel into three or even 
four parts, and cutting these transversely into " two, three, 
four and some into five lengths." Bramah's invention first 
familiarized the public with the appearance and use of the nib 
slipped into a holder. In 1818 Charles Watt obtained a patent 
for gilding and preparing quills and pens, which may be regarded 
as the precursor of the gold pen. But a more distinct advance 
was effected in 1822, when J. I. Hawkins and S. Mordan patented 
the application of horn and tortoise-shell to the formation of 
pen-nibs, the points of which were rendered durable by small 
pieces of diamond, ruby or other very hard substance, or by 
lapping a small piece of thin sheet gold over the end of the 
tortoise-shell. 

Metallic pens, though not unknown in classical times a 
bronze pen found at Pompeii is in the Naples Museum were 
SteeiPeas '' tt ^ e use( ^ until the igth century and did not 
become common till near the middle of that cen- 
tury. It is recorded that a Birmingham split-ring manufacturer, 
Samuel Harrison, made a steel pen for Dr Joseph Priestley 
in 1780. Steel pens made and sold in London by a certain 
Wise in 1803 were in the form of a tube or barrel, the edges of 
which met to form the slit, while the sides were cut away as in 
the case of an ordinary quill. Their price was about five shillings 
each, and as they were hard, stiff and unsatisfactory instruments 
they were not in great demand. A metallic pen patented by 
" Instrumenta scribae calamus et penna; ex his enim verba 
paginis mfiguntur ; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen 
dividitur in duo." 



Bryan Donkin in 1808 was made of two separate parts, flat or 
nearly so, with the flat sides placed opposite each other to form 
the slit, or alternatively of one piece, flat and not cylindrical as in 
the usual form, bent to the proper angle for insertion in the 
tube which constituted the holder. To John Mitchell prob- 
ably belongs the credit of introducing machine-made pens, 
about 1822, and James Perry is believed to have been the first 
maker of steel slip pens. In 1828 Josiah Mason, who had been 
associated with Samuel Harrison, in the manufacture of split 
rings, saw Perry's pens on sale in Birmingham, and after examin- 
ing them saw his way both to improve and to cheapen the process 
of making them. He therefore put himself in communication 
with Perry, and the result was that he began to make barrel 
pens for him in 1828 and slip pens in 1829. Perry, who did much 
to popularize the steel pen and bring it into general use, in his 
patent of 1830 sought to obtain greater flexibility by forming 
a central hole between the points and the shoulders and by 
cutting one or more lateral slits on each side of the central 
slit; and Joseph Gillot, in 1831 described an improvement 
which consisted in forming elongated points on the nibs of 
the pens. 

The metal used consists of rolled sheets of cast steel of the 
finest quality made from Swedish charcoal iron. These sheets, 
after being cut into strips of suitable width, annealed in a muffle- 
furnace and pickled in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid to free 
the surface from oxidized scale, are rolled between steel rollers till 
they are reduced to ribbons of an even thickness, about ifa in. 
From these ribbons the pen blanks are next punched out, and 
then, after being embossed with the name of the maker or other 
marks, are pierced with the central perforation and the side or 
shoulder slits by which flexibility is obtained. After another 
annealing, the blanks, which up to this point are flat, are 
" raised " or rounded between dies into the familiar semi- 
cylindrical shape. The next process is to harden and temper 
them by heating them in iron boxes in a muffle-furnace, plunging 
them in oil, and then heating them over a fire in a rotating 
cylindrical vessel till their surfaces attain the dull blue tint 
characteristic of spring-steel elasticity. Subsequently they 
are " scoured " in a bath of dilute acid, and polished in a 
revolving cylinder. The grinding of the points with emery 
follows, and then the central slit is cut by the aid of two 
very fine-edged cutters. Finally the pens are again polished, 
are coloured by being heated over a fire in a revolving 
cylinder, and in some cases are coated with a varnish of shellac 
dissolved in alcohol. Birmingham was the first home of the 
steel-pen industry, and continues its principal centre. The 
manufacture on a large scale was begun in the United States 
about 1860 at Camden, N.J., where the Esterbrook Steel Pen 
Manufacturing Company was incorporated in 1866. 

Metals other than steel have frequently been suggested by 
nventors, those most commonly proposed being gold, silver, 
zinc, German silver, aluminium and aluminium 
bronze. Dr W. H. Wollaston, it is recorded, had a ' dpeas - 
a gold pen composed of two thin strips of gold tipped 
with rhodium, apparently made on the principle patented by 
Donkin in 1808, and Lord Byron used one in 1810. Gold 
being extremely resistant to corrosion, pens made of it are very 
durable, but the metal is too soft for the points, which wear 
quickly unless protected by some harder material. For this 
>urpose iridium is widely employed, by fusing the gold round 
t with a blowpipe. 

Various devices have been adopted in order to increase the 

ime for which a pen can be used without a fresh supply of ink. 

These fall into" two main classes. In one, the form 

of the nib itself is modified, or some attachment %,"' r 

s added, to enlarge the ink capacity; in the other, 

which is by far the more important, the holder of the pen is 

utilized as a cistern or reservoir from which ink is supplied 

o the nib. Pens of the second class, which have the further 

advantage of being portable, are heard of under the name of 

' fountain inkhorns " or " fountain pens " so far back as the 

jeginning of the i8th century, but it was not till a hundred 



PENALTY PENANG 



years later that inventors applied themselves seriously to their 
construction. Joseph Bramah patented several plans; one was 
to employ a tube of silver or other metal so thin that it could 
be readily squeezed out of shape, the ink within it being thus 
forced out to the nib, and another was to fit the tube with a 
piston that could slide down the interior and thus eject ink. 
In modern fountain pens a feed bar conveys, by capillary action, 
a fresh supply of ink to replace that which has been left on the 
paper in the act of writing, means being also provided by which 
air can pass into the reservoir and fill the space left empty by 
the outflowing ink. In another form of reservoir pen, which 
is usually distinguished by the name stylograph, there is no 
nib, but the ink flows out through a minute hole at the end 
of the holder, which terminates in a conical point. An iridium 
needle, held in place by a fine spring, projects slightly through 
the hole and normally keeps the aperture closed; but when 
the pen is pressed on the paper, the needle is pushed back and 
allows a thin stream of ink to flow out. 

See J. P. Maginnis, " Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain 
Pens," Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1905). 

PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment), in its original meaning, 
a punishment inflicted for some violation of the law or rule 
of conduct. Although still freely used in its original sense in 
such phrases, for example, as " the death penalty," " the penalty 
of rashness," &c., the more usual meaning attached to the word 
is that of a pecuniary mulct. Penalty is used specifically for 
a sum of money recovered by virtue of a penal statute, or re- 
coverable in a court of summary jurisdiction for infringement 
of a statute. A sum of money agreed upon to be paid in case 
of non-performance of a condition in a bond or in breach of a 
contract or any stipulation of it is also termed a penalty (see 
DAMAGES). 

PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence), 
strictly, repentance of sins. Thus in the Douai version of the 
New Testament the Greek word jueravoia is rendered " penance," 
where the Authorized Version has " repentance." The two 
words, similar in their derivation and original sense, have 
however come to be symbolical of conflicting views of the essence 
of repentance, arising out of the controversy as to the respective 
merits of " faith " and " good works." The Reformers, uphold- 
ing the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance 
consisted in a change of the whole moral attitude of the mind 
and soul (eiriGTptfcadai, Matt. xiii. 15; Luke xxii. 32), and that 
the Divine forgiveness followed true repentance and confession 
to God without any reparation of " works." This is the view 
generally held by Protestants. In the Roman Catholic Church 
the sacrament of penance consists of three parts: contritio, 
confessio, satisfactio. Contrilio is in fact repentance as Protestant 
theologians understand it, i.e. sorrow for sin arising from love 
of God, and long before the Reformation the schoolmen debated 
the question whether complete "contrition" was or was not 
in itself sufficient to obtain the Divine pardon. The Council 
of Trent, however, decided that " reconciliation " could not 
follow such contrition without the other parts of the sacrament, 
which form part of it (sine sacramenti voto, quod in ilia includatur). 
Contrition is also distinguished from " attrition " (attritio), i.e. 
repentance due to fear of punishment. It was questioned 
whether a state of mind thus produced would suffice for obtaining 
the benefits of the sacrament; this point was also set at rest by 
the Council of Trent, which decided that attrition, though not 
in itself capable of obtaining the justification of the sinner, is 
also inspired by God and thus disposes the soul to benefit by 
the grace of the sacrament. 

The word " penance," applied to the whole sacrament, is 
also used of the works of satisfaction imposed by the priest on 
the penitent, i.e. the temporal punishment (poena). This 
varies with the character and heinousness of the offences com- 
mitted. In the middle ages " doing penance " was often a 
process as terrible and humiliating to the penitent as it was 
possibly edifying to the Church. Public penances have, how- 
ever, long been abolished in all branches of the Christian 
Church. (See CONFESSION.) 



PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island), the town 
and island which, after Singapore, form the most important 
portion of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. The 
island is situated in 5 24' N. and 100 21' E., and distantabout 
2^ m. from the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. The island is 
about 15^ m. long by loj m. wide at its broadest point. Its area 
is something over 107 sq. m. The town, which is built on a pro- 
montory at a point nearest to the mainland, is largely occupied by 
Chinese and Tamils, though the Malays are also well represented. 
Behind the town, Penang Hill rises to a height of some 2700 ft., 
and upon it are built several government and private bungalows. 
The town possesses a fine European club, a racecourse, and good 
golf links. Coco-nuts are grown in considerable quantities 
along the seashore, and rice is cultivated at Balek Pulau and in 
the interior, but the jungle still spreads over wide areas. Penang 
has an excellent harbour, but has suffered from its proximity 
to Singapore. There are a Church of England and a Roman 
Catholic church in the town, and a training college under the 
Roman Catholic missionaries of the Societe des Missions 
Etrangeres at Pulau Tikus, a few miles outside the town. 

Administration. Since 1867 Penang has been under the 
administrative control of a resident councillor who is responsible 
to the governor of the Straits. He is aided in his duties by 
officers of the Straits Civil Service. Two unofficial members 
of the legislative council of the colony, which holds its sittings 
in Singapore, are nominated by the governor, with the sanction 
of the secretary of state for the colonies, to represent Penang. 
Their term of office is for five years. The official name of the 
island is Prince of Wales Island and that of the town is George- 
town; neither of these names, however, is in general use. Among 
the Malays Penang is usually spoken of as Tanjong or " The 
Cape," on account of the promontory upon which the town is 
situated. The town is administered by a municipal council 
composed of ex officio, nominated, and elected members. 

Population. The population of Penang at the time of the 
census of 1901 was 128,830, of whom 85,070 were males (69,210 
over and 15,860 under 15 years of age), and 43,760 were females 
(28,725 over and 15,035 under 15 years of age). The population 
was composed of 71,462 Chinese, 34,286 Malays, 18,740 Tamils 
and other natives of India, 1649 Eurasians, 993 Europeans and 
Americans, and 1699 persons of other nationalities. As in other 
parts of the Straits Settlements the men are far more numerous 
than the women. The total population of the settlement of 
Penang, which includes not only the island but Province 
Wellesley and the Dindings, was 248,207 in 1901. 

Shipping. The number of ships which entered and left the port 
of Penang during 1906 was 2324 with an aggregate tonnage of 
2,868,459. Of these 1802 were British with an aggregate tonnage of 
1 ,966,286. These figures reveal a considerable falling-off during the 
past decade, the number of vessels entering and leaving the port 
in 1898 being 5114 with an aggregate tonnage of 3,761,094. This 
is mainly due to the construction of the railway which runs from a 
point on the mainland opposite to Penang, through the Federated 
Malay States of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sembilan to Malacca, 
and has diverted to other ports and eventually to Singapore much 
of the coastal traffic which formerly visited Penang. 

Finance and Trade. The revenue of Penang, that is to say, not 
only of the island but of the entire settlement, amounted in 1906 
to $6,031,917, of which $2,014,033 was derived from the revenue 
farms for the collection of import duties on opium, wine and spirits; 
$160,047 from postal revenue; $119,585 from land revenue; $129,151 
from stamps. The expenditure for 1906 amounted to $5,072,406, 
of which $836,097 was spent on administrative establishments, 
$301,252 on the upkeep of existing public works; $415,175 on the 
construction of works and buildings, and of new roads, streets, 
bridges, &c. The imports in 1906 were valued at $94,546,112; 
the exports at $90,709,225. Of the imports $57,880,889 worth 
came from the United Kingdom or from British possessions or 
protectorates; $23,937,737 worth came from foreign countries; 
and $3,906,241 from the Dindings, Malacca and Singapore. Of the 
exports, $23,122,947 went to the United Kingdom, or to British 
possessions or protectorates; $37,671,033 went to foreign countries; 
and $2,754,238 went to the Dindings, Malacca or Singapore. 

History Penang was founded on the i7th of July 1786, 
having been ceded to the East India Company by the Sultan 
of Kedah in 1785 by an agreement with Captain Light, for an 
annuity of $10,000 for eight years. In 1791 the subsidy was 



PENARTH PENATES 



changed to $6ooc, in perpetuity; for some years later this was 
raised to $10,000, and is still annually paid. This final addition 
was made when Province Wellesley was purchased by the East 
India Company for $2000 in 1798. At the time of the cession 
Penang was almost uninhabited. In 1796 it was made a penal 
settlement, and 700 convicts were transferred thither from the 
Andaman Islands. In 1805 Penang was made a separate 
presidency, ranking with Bombay and Madras; and when in 
1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with it, Penang 
continued to be the seat of government. In 1829 Penang was 
reduced from the rank of a presidency, and eight years later 
the town of Singapore was made the capital of the Settlements. 
In 1867 the Straits Settlements were created a Crown colony, 
in which Penang was included. 

See Straits Settlements Blue Book 1906 (Singapore, 1907); The 
Straits Directory (Singapore, 1907) ; Sir Frank Swettenham, British 
Malaya (London, 1906). (H. CL.) 

PENARTH, an urban district and seaport in the southern 
parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, 166 m. by rail 
from London, picturesquely situated on rising ground on the 
south side of the mouth of the Ely opposite Cardiff, from which 
it is 4 m. distant by rail and 2 m. by steamer. Pop. (1901), 14,228. 
The place derives its name from two Welsh words, " pen," a head, 
and " garth," an enclosure. Penarth was a small and unimpor- 
tant village until a tidal harbour at the mouth of the Ely was 
opened in 1859, and a railway, 6 m. long, was made about the 
same time, connecting the harbour with the Taff Vale railway 
at Radyr. A dock, authorized in 1857, was opened in 1865, 
when all three undertakings, which had cost 775,000, were 
leased in perpetuity to the Taff Vale Railway Company. The 
monopoly which the Bute Docks at Cardiff had previously 
enjoyed in shipping coal from the valleys of the Taff and Rhondda 
was thus terminated. The town is frequented in summer as a 
bathing-place, and the Rhaetic beds at the head are of special 
interest to geologists. On this head there stood an old church, 
probably Norman, which served as a landmark for sailors. 
The remains of an old chantry have been converted into a barn. 
Besides two Established and one Roman Catholic church, the 
principal buildings of Penarth are its various Nonconformist 
chapels, intermediate and technical school (1894), custom house, 
dock offices, and Turner House with a private art gallery which 
is thrown open on certain days to the public. Three miles to 
the west is Dinas Powis Castle. In 1880-1883 gardens were 
laid out along the cliff, in 1894 a promenade and landing-pier 
with a length of 630 ft. were constructed, and in 1900 a marine 
subway open at all times for foot passengers was made under 
the river Ely. The dock, as first constructed, comprised 17! 
acres, was extended in 1884 at a cost of 250,000, and now 
covers 23 acres with a basin of 3 acres. It is 2900 ft. in length, 
has a minimum depth of 26 ft., and is furnished with every 
modern appliance for the export of coal, of which from 20,000 
to 30,000 tons can be stored in the sidings near by. The 
Penarth-Ely tidal harbour has a water area of 55 acres with 
a minimum depth of 20 ft., and a considerable import trade is 
carried on here mainly by coasting vessels; but as only one of 
its sides has wharves (about 3000 ft. along) scarcely more than 5 % 
of the total shipping of the port is done here. It has commo- 
dious warehouses, also tanks to hold about 6000 tons of oil. 

PENATES (from Lat. penus, eatables, food), Roman gods of the 
store-room and kitchen. The store-room over which they 
presided was, in old times, beside the atrium, the room which 
served as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one; but in later 
times the store-room, was in the back part of the house. It was 
sanctified by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure 
and chaste persons might enter it, just as with the Hindus 
the kitchen is sacred and inviolable. They had no individual 
names, but were always known under the general designation, 
Penates. Closely associated with the Penates were the Lares 
(g.v.) another species of domestic deity, who seem to have 
been the deified spirits of deceased ancestors. But while each 
family had two Penates it had but one Lar. In the household 
shrine the image of the Lar (dressed in a toga) was placed 



between the two images of the Penates, which were represented 
as dancing and elevating a drinking-horn in token of joy and 
plenty. The three images together were sometimes called 
Penates, sometimes Lares, and either name was used metaphori- 
cally for "home." The shrine stood originally in the atrium, 
but when the hearth and the kitchen were separated from the 
atrium and removed to the back of the house, and meals were 
taken in an upper storey, the position of the shrine was also 
shifted. In the houses at Pompeii it is sometimes in the kitchen, 
sometimes in the rooms. In the later empire it was placed 
behind the house-door, and a taper or lamp was kept burning 
before it. But the worship in the interior of the house was also 
kept up even into Christian times; it was forbidden by an 
ordinance of Theodosius (A.D. 392). The old Roman used, in 
company with his children and slaves, to offer a morning sacrifice 
and prayer to his household gods. Before meals the blessing 
of the gods was asked, and after the meal, but before dessert, 
there was a short silence, and a portion of food was placed on 
the hearth and burned. If the hearth and the images were not 
in the eating-room, either the images were brought and put 
on the table, or before the shrine was placed a table on which 
were set a salt-cellar, food and a burning lamp. Three days 
in the month, viz. the Calends, Nones and Ides (i.e. the first, 
the fifth or seventh, and the thirteenth or fifteenth), were set 
apart for special family worship, as were also the Caristia 
(Feb. 22) and the Saturnalia in December. On these days as 
well as on such occasions as birthdays, marriages, and safe 
returns from journeys, the images were crowned and offerings 
made to them of cakes, honey, wine, incense, and sometimes a 
pig. As each family had its own Penates, so the state, as a 
collection of families, had its public Penates. Intermediate 
between the worship of the public and private Penates were 
probably the rites (sacra) observed by each clan (gens) or collec- 
tion of families supposed to be descended from a common 
ancestor. The other towns of Latium had their public Penates as 
well as Rome. The sanctuary of the whole Latin league was at 
Lavinium. To these Penates at Lavinium the Roman priests 
brought yearly offerings, and the Roman consuls, praetors 
and dictators sacrificed both when they entered on and when 
they laid down their office. To them, too, the generals sacrificed 
before departing for their province. Alba Longa, the real 
mother-city of Latium, had also its ancient Penates, and the 
Romans maintained the worship on the Alban mount long after 
the destruction of Alba Longa. The Penates had a temple of 
their own at Rome. It was on the Velia near the Forum, and 
has by some been identified with the round vestibule of the 
church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. In this and many other temples 
the Penates were represented by two images of youths seated 
holding spears. The Penates were also worshipped in the neigh- 
bouring temple at Vesta. To distinguish the two worships 
it has been supposed that the Penates in the former temple 
were those of Latium, while those in the temple of Vesta were 
the Penates proper of Rome. Certainly the worship of the 
Penates, whose altar was the hearth and to whom the kitchen 
was sacred, was closely connected with that of Vesta, goddess 
of the domestic hearth. 

The origin and nature of the Penates was a subject of much 
discussion to the Romans themselves. They were traced to the 
mysterious worship of Samothrace; Dardanus, it was said, took 
the Penates from Samothrace to Troy, and after the destruction 
of Troy, Aeneas brought them to Italy and established them at 
Lavinium. From Lavinium Ascanius carried the worship to 
Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa it was brought to Rome. 
Equally unsatisfactory with this attempt to connect Roman 
religion with Greek legend are the vague and mystic speculations 
in which the later Romans indulged respecting the nature of 
the Penates. Some said they were the great gods to whom we 
owe breath, body and reason, viz. Jupiter representing the 
middle ether, Juno the lowest air and the earth, and Minerva 
the highest ether, to whom some added Mercury as the god 
of speech (Servius, on Aen. ii. 296; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 4, 8; 
Arnobius, Adv. Nat. iii. 40). Others identified them with Apollo 



86 



PENCIL PENDA 



and Neptune (Macrob. iii. 4, 6; Arnob. loc. cit.; Servius, on 
Aen. iii. 1 19). The Etruscans held the Penates to be Ceres, Pales 
and Fortuna, to whom others added Genius Jovialis (Servius on 
Aen. ii. 325; Arnob. loc. cit.). The late writer Martianus Capella 
records the view that heaven was divided into sixteen regions, in 
the first of which were placed the Penates, along with Jupiter, 
the Lares, &c. More fruitful than these misty speculations is 
the suggestion, made by the ancients themselves, that the 
worship of these family gods sprang from the ancient Roman 
custom (common to many savage tribes) of burying the dead 
in the house. But this would account for the worship of the 
Lares rather than of the Penates. A comparison with other 
primitive religious beliefs suggests the conjecture that the 
Penates may be a remnant of fetishism or animism. The Roman 
genii seem certainly to have been fetishes and the Penates were 
perhaps originally a species of genii. Thus the Penates, as 
simple gods of food, are probably much more ancient than 
deities like Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Minerva. 

With the Penates we may compare the kindly household gods 
of old Germany; they too had their home on the kitchen hearth- 
and received offerings of food and clothing. In the castle of 
Hudemiihlen (Hanover) there was a kobold for whom a cover 
was always set on the table. In Lapland each house had one 
or more spirits. The souls of the dead are regarded as house- 
spirits by the Russians; they are represented as dwarfs, and are 
served with food and drink. Each house in Servia has its 
patron-saint. In the mountains of Mysore every house has its 
bhuta or guardian deity, to whom prayer and sacrifices are 
offered. The Chinese god of the kitchen presents some curious 
analogies to the Penates: incense and candles are burnt before 
him on the first and fifteenth of the month; some families burn 
incense and candles before him daily; and on great festivals, 
one of which is at the winter solstice (nearly corresponding to 
the Saturnalia), he is served with cakes, pork, wine, incense, 
&c., which are placed on a table before him. 

See ROMAN RELIGION. Q. G. Fs. ; X.) 

PENCIL (Lat. penkillus, brush, literally little tail), a name 
originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting, 
and still employed to denote the finer camel's-hair and sable 
brushes used by artists, but now commonly signifying solid 
cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing. 
It has been asserted that a manuscript of Theophilus, attributed 
to the 13th century, shows signs of having been ruled with a 
black-lead pencil; but the first distinct allusion occurs in the 
treatise on fossils by Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1565), who 
describes an article for writing formed of wood and a piece of 
lead, or, as he believed, an artificial composition called by some 
stimmi anglicanum (English antimony). The famous Borrowdale 
mine in Cumberland having been discovered about that time, 
it is probable that we have here the first allusion to that great 
find of graphite. While the supply of the Cumberland mine 
lasted, the material for English pencils consisted simply of the 
native graphite as taken from the mine. The pieces were 
sawn into thin sheets, which again were cut into the slender 
square rods forming the " lead " of the pencil. 

Strenuous efforts were made on the continent of Europe and 
in England to enable manufacturers to become independent 
of the product of the Cumberland mine. In Nuremberg, where 
the great pencil factory of the Faber family (q.v.) was established 
in 1760, pencils were made from pulverized graphite cemented 
into solid blocks by means of gums, resins, glue, sulphur and 
other such substances, but none of these preparations yielded 
useful pencils. In the year 1795 N. J. Cont6 (q.v.), of Paris, 
devised the process by which now all black-lead pencils, and 
indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured. In 1843 William 
Brockedon patented a process for compressing pure black-lead 
powder into solid compact blocks by which he was enabled to 
use the dust, fragments, and cuttings of fine Cumberland lead. 
Brockedon's process would have proved successful but the 
exhaustion of the Borrowdale supplies and the excellence of 
Conte's process rendered it more of scientific interest than of 
commercial value. 



The pencil leads prepared by the Conte process consist of a 
mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite, having been pulver- 
ized and subjected to any necessary purifying processes, is 
" floated " through a series of settling tanks, in each of which 
the comparatively heavy particles sink, and only the still finer 
particles are carried over. That which sinks in the last of the 
series is in a condition of extremely fine division, and is used 
for pencils of the highest quality. The clay, which must be free 
from sand and iron, is treated in the same manner. Clay and 
graphite so prepared are mixed together in varying propor- 
tions with water to a paste, passed repeatedly through a 
grinding mill, then placed in bags and squeezed in a 
hydraulic press till they have the consistency of stiff dough, 
in which condition they are ready for forming pencil rods. For 
this purpose the plastic mass is placed in a strong upright 
cylinder, from which a plunger or piston, moved by a screw, 
forces it out through a perforated base-plate in a continuous ' 
thread. This thread is finally divided into suitable lengths, 
which are heated in a closed crucible for some hours. The two 
factors which determine the comparative hardness and blackness 
of pencils are the proportions of graphite and clay in the leads 
and the heat to which they are raised in the crucible. According 
as the proportion of graphite is greater and the heat lower the 
pencil is softer and of deeper black streak. 

The wood in which the leads are cased is pencil cedar from 
Juniperus virginiana for the best qualities, and pine for the 
cheaper ones. A board of the selected wood, having a thickness 
about equal to half the diameter of the finished pencil and as 
wide as four or six pencils, is passed through a machine which 
smooths the surface and cuts round or square grooves to receive 
the leads. The leads being placed in the grooves the board is 
covered with another similarly grooved board, and the two 
are fastened together with glue. When dry they are taken 
to rapidly revolving cutters which remove the wood between 
the leads. The individual pencils thus formed only need to 
be finished by being dyed and varnished and stamped with 
name, grade, &c. Instead of wood, paper has been tried for 
the casings, rolled on in narrow strips which are torn off to 
expose fresh lead as the point becomes worn down by use. 

Black pencils of an inferior quality are made from the dust of 
graphite melted up with sulphur and run into moulds. Such, with 
a little tallow added to give them softness, are the pencils commonly 
used by carpenters. Coloured pencils consist of a mixture of clay, 
with appropriate mineral colouring matter, wax, and tallow, treated 
by the Conte method, as in making lead pencils. In indelible and 
copying pencils the colouring matter is an aniline preparation mixed 
with clay and gum. The mixture not only makes a streak which 
adheres to the paper, but, when the writing is moistened with water, 
it dissolves and assumes the appearance and properties of an ink. 

PENDA, king of Mercia (d. 654 or 655), son of Pybba, probably 
came to the throne in 626, but it is doubtful whether he actually 
became king of Mercia until 633, the year of the defeat and death 
of Edwin of Northumbria. According to the Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle he was eighty years old at his death, but the energy 
of his administration and the evidence with regard to the ages 
of his children and relatives render it almost impossible. In 
628 the Chronicle records a battle between him and the West 
Saxons at Cirencester in that year. In 633 Penda and Ceadwalla 
ovei threw Edwin at Hatfield Chase; but after the defeat of 
the Welsh king at Oswald at " Hefenfelth " in 634, Mercia 
seems to have been for a time subject to Northumbria. In . 
642 Penda slew Oswald at a place called Maerfeld. He was 
continually raiding Northumbria and once almost succeeded 
in reducing Bamborough. He drove Cenwalh of Wessex, who 
had divorced his sister, from his throne. In 654 he attacked the 
East Angles, and slew their king Anna (see EAST ANGLIA). 
In 654 or 655 he invaded Northumbria in spite of the attempts 
of Oswio to buy him off, and was defeated and slain on the 
banks of the " Winwaed." In the reign of Penda the districts 
corresponding to Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire were 
probably acquired, and he established his son Peada as a 
dependent prince in Middle Anglia. Although a pagan, he 
allowed his daughter Cyneburg to marry Alchfrith, the son of 



PENDANT PENDLETON, E. 



87 



Oswio, and it was in his reign that Christianity was introduced 
into Middle Anglia by his son Peada. 

See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896) ; Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899). 

PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang), any hang- 
ing object, such as a jewel or other ornament hanging from 
a brooch, bracelet, &c., or the loose end of a knight's belt left 
hanging after passing through the buckle, and terminating in 
an ornamental end. In architecture the word is applied to an 
elongated boss, either moulded or foliated, such as hangs down 
from the intersection of ribs, especially in fan tracery, or at the 
end of hammer beams. Sometimes long corbels, under the wall 
pieces, have been so called. The name has also been given to 
the large masses depending from enriched ceilings, in the later 
works of the Pointed style. " Pendants " or " Pendent posts " 
are those timbers which are carried down the side of the wall 
from the plate, and receive the hammer braces. 

PENDENTIVE, the term given in architecture to the bridging 
across the angles of a square hall, so as to obtain a circular base 
for a dome or drain. This may be done by corbelling out in 
the angles, in which case the pendentive may be a portion of a 
hemisphere of which the half diagonal of the square hall is the 
radius; or by throwing a series of arches across the angle, each 
ring as it rises advancing in front of the one below and being 
carried by it during its construction; in this case the base 
obtained is octagonal, so that corbels or small pendentives 
are required for each angle of the octagon, unless as in the church 
of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople a portion of the 
dome is set back; or again, by a third method, by sinking a 
semicircular niche in the angle. The first system was that 
employed in St Sophia at Constantinople, and in Byzantine 
churches generally, also in the domed churches of Perigord and 
Aquitaine. The second is found in the Sassanian palaces of 
Serbistan and Firuzabad, and in medieval architecture in 
England, France and Germany, where the arches are termed 
" squinches." The third system is found in the mosque at 
Damascus, and was often adopted in the churches in Asia 
Minor. There is still another method in which the pendentive 
and cupola are part of the same hemispherical dome, and in 
this case the ring courses lie in vertical instead of horizontal 
planes, examples of which may be found in the vault of Magnesia 
on Maeander in Asia Minor, and in the tomb at Valence known 
as le pendentif de Valence. The problem is one which has taxed 
the ingenuity of many builders in ancient times; the bas-reliefs 
found at Nimrud show that in the pth century B.C. domes were 
evidently built over square halls, and must have been carried 
on pendentives of some kind. 

FENDER, SIR JOHN (1816-1896), British cable pioneer, was 
born in the Vale of Leven, Scotland, on the loth of September 
1816, and after attending school in Glasgow became a successful 
merchant in textile fabrics in that city and in Manchester. 
His name is chiefly known in connexion with submarine cables, 
of which on the commercial side he was an important promoter. 
He was one of the 345 contributors who each risked a thousand 
pounds in the Transatlantic Cable in 1857, and when the Atlantic 
Telegraph Company was ruined by the loss of the 1865 cable he 
formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company to continue 
the work, but it was not till he had given his personal guarantee 
for a quarter of a million pounds that the makers would under- 
take the manufacture of a new cable. But in the end he was 
justified, and telegraphic communication with America became 
a commercial success. Subsequently he fostered cable enter- 
prise in all parts of the world, and at the time of his death, 
which occurred at Footscray Place, Kent, on the yth of July 
1896, he controlled companies having a capital of 15 millions 
sterling and owning 73,640 nautical miles of cables. He repre- 
sented Wick Burghs in parliament from 1872 to 1885 and from 
1892 to 1896. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1888 and was pro- 
moted in 1892 to be G.C.M.G. His eldest son James (b. 1841), 
who was M.P. for Mid Northamptonshire in 1895-1900, was 
created a baronet in 1897; and his third son, John Denison 
(b. 1855), was created a K.C.M.G. in 1901. 



PENDLESIDE SERIES, in geology, a series of shales between 
the upper division of the Carboniferous Limestone and the 
Millstone Grits occurring in the Midlands between Stoke-on- 
Trent and Settle. It consists of black limestones at the base, 
followed by black shales with calcareous nodules, which pass 
into sandy shales with ganister-like sandstones. In places 
the series attains a thickness of 1500-1000 ft., and where it is 
thickest the Millstone Grits also attain their maximum thickness. 
The peculiarities of the series, which is characterized by a rich 
fauna with Productus giganteus, P. slriatus, Dibunophyllum, 
Cyalhaxonia cornu and Lonsdaleia floriformis, can be best 
studied on the western slope of Pendle Hill, Lancashire, in the 
valley of the Hodder, dividing the counties of Lancashire and 
Yorkshire, at Mam Tor and the Edale valley in Derbyshire, and 
Morredge, the Dane valley in north Staffordshire, Bagillt and 
Teilia in North Wales, and Scarlett and Poolvash, Isle of Man. 
The limestones at the base are hard, compact and fissile, often 
cherty, and vary much in the amount of calcium carbonate which 
they contain, at times passing into calcareous shales. 

These limestones and shales contain a distinct fauna which 
appears for the first time in the Midlands, characterized by 
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis, Posidonomya 
Becheri, Posidonomya membranacea, Nomismoceras rotiforme 
and Glyphioceras slriatus. Immediately below beds with this 
fauna are thin limestones with Prolecaniles compressus, Slrobo- 
ceras bisidcatus, many trilobites, and corals referable to the 
genera Cyathaxonia, Zaphrentis and Amplexizaphrentis. The 
fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous Limestone becomes 
largely extinct and is replaced by a shale fauna, but the 
oncoming of the age of Goniatites is shown by the presence 
in the upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone of numerous 
species and genera of this group, Glyphioceras creneslria being 
the most common and having the wider horizontal range. 
The whole Pendleside series can be divided into zones by the 
different species of Goniatites. At the base Prolecanites com- 
pressus characterizes the passage beds between the Carboniferous 
Limestone and the Pendlesides; Nomismoceras rotiforme and 
Glyphioceras slrialus are found in a narrow zone immediately 
above. Then Glyphioceras reticulatum appears and reaches 
its maximum, and is succeeded by Glyphioceras diadema 
and Glyphioceras spirals, while immediately below the 
Millstone Grits Glyphioceras bilingue appears and passes up in 
that series. The Millstone Grits are characterized by the 
presence of Gaslrioceras Lisleri. The Pendleside series is 
therefore characterized by an Upper Carboniferous fauna, 
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis and some other 
species which pass up right through the Coal Measures appearing 
for the first time, and the base of the series marks the division 
between Upper and Lower Carboniferous times. 

The series passes eastward into Belgium and thence into 
Germany, when the same fossil zones are found in the basin of 
Namur and the valley of the Dill. Traced westward the series is 
well developed in Co. Dublin and on the west coast of Cos. Clare 
and Limerick. There can be no doubt that the Pendleside series 
of the Midlands represents the Lower Culm of Codden Hill, 
north Devon, and the Lower Culm of the continent of Europe. 
The faunas in these localities have the same biological succession 
as in the midlands. 

See Wheelton Hind and J. Allen Howe, Quart. Journ. Geog. 
Soc. vol. Ivii. (1901), and numerous other papers by the first-named 
author. (W. Hi.) 

PENDLETON, EDMUND (1721-1803), American lawyer and 
statesman, was born, of English Royalist descent, in Caroline 
county, Virginia, on the 9th of September 1721. He was 
self-educated, but after reading law and being admitted to the 
bar (1744) his success was immediate. He served in the 
Virginia House of Burgesses from 1752 until the organization 
of the state government in 1776, was the recognized leader of 
the conservative Whigs, and took a leading part in opposing 
the British government. He was a member of the Virginia 
committee of correspondence in 1773, in 1774 was president 
of the Virginia provincial convention, and a member of the first 



88 



PENDLETON, G. H. PENGUIN 



Continental Congress. In 1776, as president of the provincial 
convention, which adopted a state constitution for Virginia, 
he drew up the instructions to the Virginia members of Congress 
directing them to advocate the independence of the American 
colonies. In the same year he became president of the Virginia 
committee of safety, and in October was chosen the first 
speaker of the House of Delegates. With Jefferson and Chan- 
cellor George Wythe he drew up a new law code for Virginia. 
He was president of the court of chancery in 1777-1788, and 
from 1779 until his death was president of the Virginia court of 
appeals. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the Federal consti- 
tution, and in 1 788 exerted strong influence to secure its ratifi- 
cation by his native state. He was a leader of the Federalist 
party in Virginia until his death at Richmond, Va., on the 
23rd of October 1803. 

PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825-1889), American lawyer 
and legislator, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 25th of 
July 1825. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg, 
studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began to practise 
at Cincinnati. He was a member of the Ohio Senate in 1854 
and 1855, and from 1857 to 1865 was a Democratic member of 
the national House of Representatives, in which he opposed 
the war policy of Lincoln. In 1864 he was the Democratic 
candidate for vice-president. After leaving Congress he became 
one of the earliest champions of the " Ohio idea " (which 
he is said to have originated), demanding that the government 
should pay the principal of its s~2o-year 6% bonds in the 
" greenback " currency instead of in coin. The agricultural 
classes of the West regarded this as a means of relief, and 
Pendleton became their recognized leader and a candidate for the 
Democratic nomination to the presidency in 1868, but he failed 
to receive the requisite two-thirds majority. In 1869 he was the 
Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated 
by Rutherford B. Hayes. For the next ten years he devoted 
himself to the practice of law and to the supervision of the 
Kentucky Railroad Company, of which he had become president 
in 1869. From 1879 to 1885 he was a Democratic member of 
the United States Senate, and introduced the so-called Pendleton 
Act of 1883 for reforming the civil service, hostility to which 
lost him his seat in 1885. He was minister to Germany from 
1885 to the summer of 1889, and died at Brussels on the 24th 
of November 1889. 

PENELOPE, in Greek legend, wife of Odysseus, daughter of 
Icarius and the nymph Periboea. During the long absence 
of her husband after the fall of Troy many chieftains of Ithaca 
and the islands round about became her suitors; and, to rid 
herself of the importunities of the wooers, she bade them wait 
till she had woven a winding-sheet for old Laertes, the father 
of Odysseus. But every night she undid the piece which she 
had woven by day. This she did for three years, till her maids 
revealed the secret. She was relieved by the arrival of Odysseus, 
who returned after an absence of twenty years, and slew the 
wooers. The character of Penelope is less favourable in late 
writers than in the Homeric story. During her husband's absence 
she is said to have become the mother of Pan by Hermes, and 
Odysseus, on his return, repudiated her as unfaithful (Herodotus 
ii. 145 and schol.). She thereupon withdrew to Sparta and 
thence to Mantineia, where she died and where her tomb was 
shown. According to another account she married Telegonus 
the son of Odysseus and Circe, after he had killed his father, 
and dwelt with him in the island of Aeala or in the Islands of 
the Blest (Hyginus, Feb. 127). 

PENGELLY, WILLIAM (1812-1894), English geologist and 
anthropologist, was born at East Looe in Cornwall on the I2th 
of January 1812, the son of the captain of a small coasting vessel. 
He began life as a sailor, after an elementary education in 
his native village, but in 1828 he abandoned a seafaring life. 
He had developed a passion for learning, and about 1836 he 
removed to Torquay and started a school; in 1846 he became 
a private tutor in mathematics and natural science. Geology 
had in early years attracted his attention, but it was not until 
he was about 30 years of age that he began seriously to cultivate 



the study. In 1837 he was instrumental in the reorganization 
of the Torquay Mechanics' Institute, in 1844 mainly owing to 
his energy the Torquay Natural History Society was founded, 
and in 1862 he assisted in founding the Devonshire Association 
for the Advancement of Literature, Science and Art. Meanwhile 
he had been occupied in collecting fossils from many parts 
of Devon and Cornwall, and in 1860 the Baroness Burdett- 
Coutts acquired and presented them to the Oxford Museum, 
where they form "The Pengelly Collection." Through the 
generosity of the same lady he was called upon to examine 
the lignites and clays of Bovey Tracey, in conjunction with 
Dr Oswald Heer, who undertook the determination of the 
plant-remains. Their report was published by the Royal 
Society (1862), and Pengelly was elected F.R.S. in 1863. He 
aided in the investigations of the Brixham bone-cavern from 
the date of its discovery in 1858, the full report being issued 
in 1873; and he was the main explorer of Kent's Hole, Torquay, 
and from 1864 for more than fifteen years he laboured with 
unflagging energy in examining and recording the exact position 
of the numerous organic remains that were disinterred during 
a systematic investigation of this cave, carried on with the aid 
of grants from the British Association. He first attended the 
British Association at the Cheltenham meeting in 1856, and was 
present at subsequent meetings (except that at Montreal in 
1884) until 1889. His observations assisted in establishing 
the important fact of the contemporaneity of Palaeolithic man 
with various Pleistocene mammalia, such as the mammoth, 
cave-bear, cave-lion, &c. He was awarded the Lyell medal 
by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died at 
Torquay on the i6th of March 1894. 

See Memoir of William Pengelly, edited by his daughter Hester 
Pengelly, with a summary of his scientific work by the Rev. Pro- 
fessor T. G. Bonney (1897). 

PENGUIN, the name of a flightless sea-bird, 1 but, so far as 
is known, first given to one inhabiting the seas of Newfound- 
land as in Hore's " Voyage to Cape Breton," 1536 (Hakluyt, 
Researches, iii. 168-170), which subsequently became known 
as the great auk or garefowl (q.v.) ; though the French equiva- 
lent Pingouin* preserves its old application, the word penguin 
is by English ornithologists always used for certain birds 
inhabiting the Southern Ocean, called by the French Manckots, 
the Sphenistidae of ornithologists. For a long while their 
position was very much misunderstood, some systematists 
having placed them with the Alcidae or Auks, to which they 
bear only a relationship of analogy, as indeed had been perceived 
by a few ornithologists, who recognized in the penguins a very 
distinct order, Impennes. L. Stejneger (Standard Nat. Hist. 
vol. iv., Boston, 1885) gave the Impennes independent rank 
equivalent to the rest of Carinate birds; M. A. Menzbier 
(Vergl. Osteal, d. Penguine, Moscow, 1887) took a similar 
view; M. Furbringer was first to show their relation to 
Procellariformes, and this view is now generally accepted. 

1 Of the three derivations assigned to this name, the first is by 
Drayton in 1613 (Polyolbion, Song 9), where it is said to be the Welsh 
pen gwyn, or 'white head"; the second, which seems to meet 
with Littr6's approval, deduces it from the Latin pinguis (fat), 
which idea has given origin to the German name, Fettganse, for these 
birds; the third supposes it to be a corruption of " pin-wing " (Ann. 
Nat. History, 4th series, vol. iv. p. 133), meaning a bird that has under- 
gone the operation of pinioning or, as in one part at least of England 
it is commonly called, " pin-winging." The first hypothesis has 
been supported on the ground that Breton sailors speaking a language 
closely allied to Welsh were acquainted with the great auk, and 
that the conspicuous white patches on the head of that bird 
justified the name " white head." To the second hypothesis Skeat 
(Dictionary, p. 433) objects that it " will not account for the suffix -in, 
and is therefore wrong; besides which the ' Dutchmen ' [who were 
asserted to be the authors of the name] turn out to be Sir Francis 
Drake " and his men. In support of the third hypothesis Mr Reeks 
wrote (Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 1854) that the people in Newfoundland 
who used to meet with this bird always pronounced its name 
"pin wing." Skeat's inquiry (loc. fit.), whether the name may not 
after all be South American, is to be answered in the negative, since, 
so far as evidence goes, it was given to the North- American bird 
before the South-American was known in Europe. 

2 Gorfou has also been used by some French writers, being a 
corruption of Geirfugl or Garefowl. 



PENHALLOW PENINGTON 



89 



There is a total want of quills in their wings, which are incapable 
of flexure, though they move freely at the shoulder-joint, and 
some at least of the species occasionally make use of them for 
progressing on land. In the water they are most efficient 
paddles. The plumage, which clothes the whole body, generally 
consists of small scale-like feathers, many of them consisting 
only of a simple shaft without the development of barbs; but 
several of the species have the head decorated with long cirrhous 
tufts, and in some the tail-quills, which are very numerous, 
are also long. 1 In standing these birds preserve an upright 
position, sometimes resting on the " tarsus " 2 alone, but in 
walking or running this is kept neaihr vertical, and their weight 
is supported by the toes alone. .-r 

The most northerly limit of the penguins' range in the 
Atlantic is Tristan d'Acunha, and in the Indian Ocean Amsterdam 
Island, but they also occur off the Cape of Good Hope and along 
the coast of Australia, as well as on the south and east of New 
Zealand, while in the Pacific one species at least extends 
along the west coast of South America and to the Galapagos; 
but north of the equator none are found. In the breeding 
season they resort to the most desolate lands in higher southern 
latitudes, and indeed have been met with as far to the south- 
ward as navigators have penetrated. Possibly the Falkland 
Islands are richest in species, though, as individuals, they 




King- Penguin (Aptenodytes pennanti). 

are not nearly so numerous there as in many other places. The 
food of penguins consists of crustaceans, cephalopods and other 
molluscs, varied by fish and vegetable matter. The birds 
form immense breeding colonies, known as " rookeries." The 
nest of grass, leaves, or where vegetation is scanty of stones 
or rubbish, is placed on the ground or in holes. Two chalky 
white or greenish eggs are laid. The young penguins, clad 
in thick down, are born blind and are fed by the parents for 
an unusually long time before taking to the water. Penguins 
bite savagely when molested, but are easily trained and 
display considerable intelligence. 

The Spheniscidae have been divided into at least eight genera, 
but three, or at most four, seem to be all that are needed, and 

1 The pterylographical characters of the penguins are well 
described by A. Hyatt (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1871). A. D. 
Bartlett has observed (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1879, pp. 6-9) that, 
instead of moulting in the way that birds ordinarily do, penguins, 
at least in passing from the immature to the adult dress, cast off 
the short scale-like feathers from their wings in a manner that he 
compares to " the shedding of the skin in a serpent." 

2 The three metatarsals in the penguins are not, as in other birds, 
united for the whole of their length, but only at'the extremities, thus 
preserving a portion of their originally distinct existence, a fact 
probably attributable to arrest of development, since the researches 
of C. Gegenbaur show that the embryos of all birds, so far as is known, 
possess these bones in an independent condition. 



three can be well distinguished, as pointed out by E. Coues in 
Proc. Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, 1872 (pp. 170-212), 
by anatomical as well as by external characters. They are: (i) 
Aptenodytes, easily recognized by its long and thin bill, slightly 
decurved, from which Pygoscelis, as M. Watson has shown, 
is hardly distinguishable; (2) Eudyptes, in which the bill is 
much shorter and rather broad; and (3) Spheniscus, in which 
the shortish bill is compressed and the maxilla ends in a conspi- 
cuous hook. Aptenodytes contains the largest species, among 
them those known as the " Emperor " and " King " penguins 
A. patagonica and A. longirostris. Three others belong also 
to this genus, if Pygoscelis be not recognized, but they seem 
not to require any particular remark. Eudyptes, containing 
the crested penguins, known to sailors as " Rock-hoppers " 
or" Macaronis," would appear to have five species, and Sphenis- 
cus four, among which S. mendiculus, which occurs in the 
Galapagos, and therefore has the most northerly range of the 
whole group, alone needs notice here. (A. N.) 

The generic and specific distribution of the penguins is the subject 
of an excellent essay by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in the Annales 
des sciences naturelles for 1880 (vol. ix. art. 9, pp. 23-81); see also 
the Records of the Antarctic Expedition, 19011904. 

PENHALLOW, SAMUEL (1665-1726), American colonist 
and historian, was born at St Mabon, Cornwall, England, 
on the 2nd of July 1665. From 1683 to 1686 he attended a 
school at Newington Green (near London) conducted by the 
Rev. Charles Morton (1627-1698), a dissenting clergyman, 
with whom he emigrated to Massachusetts in 1686. He was 
commissioned by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 
in New England to study the Indian languages and to preach 
to the Indians; but he was soon diverted from this work. 
Removing to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he there married a 
daughter of John Cutt (1625-1681), president of the province 
of New Hampshire in 1679-1680, a successful merchant and 
mill-owner, and thus came into possession of considerable 
property (including much of the present site of Portsmouth). 
In 1700 he was speaker of the Assembly and in 1702 became a 
member of the Provincial Council, but was suspended by 
Lieut. -Governor George Vaughan (1676-1724). Penhallow, 
however, was sustained by Governor Samuel Shute (1662-1742), 
and Vaughan was removed from office in 1716. In 1714 
Penhallow was appointed a justice of the superior court of 
judicature, and from 1717 until his death was chief justice of that 
court; and he also served as treasurer of the province in 1699- 
1726, and as secretary of the province in 1714-1726. He died at 
Portsmouth on the 2nd of December 1726. He wrote a valuable 
History of the War of New England with the Eastern Indians, 
or a Narrative of their Continued Perfidy and Cruelty (1726; 
reprinted in the Collections of the New Hampshire Historical 
Society, vol. i., 1824, and again at Cincinnati in 1859), which 
covers the period from 1703 to 1726, and is a standard contem- 
porary authority. 

PENINGTON, SIR ISAAC (c. 1587-1661), lord mayor of London, 
eldest son of Robert Penington, a London fishmonger, was born 
probably in 1587. His father besides his London business had 
landed estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, which Isaac inherited 
in addition to a property in Buckinghamshire which he himself 
purchased. In 1638 Isaac became an alderman and high 
sheriff of London. In 1640 he was elected to the House of 
Commons as member for the city of London, and immediately 
took a prominent place among the Puritan party. In 1642 
he was elected lord mayor of London, but retained his seat in 
parliament by special leave of the Commons; and he was 
elected lord mayor for a second term in the following year, 
continuing while in office to raise large sums of money for the 
opposition to the Court party. From 1642 to 1645 he was 
lieutenant of the Tower, in which capacity he was present at 
the execution of Laud; but, though one of the commissioners 
for the trial of Charles I., he did not sign the death warrant. 
After the king's death Penington served on Cromwell's council 
of state, and on several committees of government. His 
services were rewarded by considerable grants of land, and a 



9 o 



PENINSULA PENINSULAR WAR 



knighthood conferred in 1649. He was tried and convicted 
of treason at the Restoration, and died while a prisoner in the 
Tower on the iyth of December 1661. He was twice married, 
and had six children by his first wife, several of whom became 
Quakers. 

ISAAC PENINGTON (1616-1679), Sir Isaac's eldest son, was 
one of the most notable of the 17th-century Quakers. He 
was early troubled by religious perplexities, which found expres- 
sion in many voluminous writings. No less than eleven religious 
works, besides a political treatise in defence of democratic 
principles, were published by him in eight years. He belonged 
for a time to the sect of the Independents; but about 1657, 
influenced probably by the preaching of George Fox, whom he 
heard in Bedfordshire, Penington and his wife joined the Society 
of Friends. His wife was daughter and heiress of Sir John 
Proude, and widow of Sir William Springett, so that the worldly 
position of the couple made them a valuable acquisition to the 
Quakers. Isaac Penington was himself a man of very consider- 
able gifts and sweetness of character. In 1661 he was imprisoned 
for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on several subse- 
quent occasions he passed long periods in Reading and Aylesbury 
gaols. He died on the 8th of October 1679; his wife, who wrote 
an account of his imprisonments, survived till 1682. In 1681 
Penington's writings were published in a collected edition, 
and several later editions were issued before the end of the i8th 
century. His son John Penington (1655-1710) defended his 
father's memory against attack, and published some con- 
troversial tracts against George Keith. Edward Penington 
(1667-1711), another of Isaac Penington's sons, emigrated to 
Pennsylvania, where ha founded a family. Isaac Penington's 
stepdaughter, Gulielma Springett, married William Penn. 

See Maria Webb, The Penns and Peningtons of the l?th Century 
(London, 1867); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil 
Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839); Bulstrode Whitelocke, 
Memorials of English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration (London, 
I73 2 ); J- Gurney Beyan, Life of Isaac Penington (London, 1784); 
Thomas Ellwood, History of the Life of Ellwood by his own hand 
(London, 1765); Willem Sewel, History of the Quakers (6th ed., 2 
vols., London, 1834). 

PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsida, from paene, almost, and insula, 
an island), in physical geography, a piece of land nearly sur- 
rounded by water. In its original sense it connotes attachment 
to a larger land-mass by a neck of land (isthmus) narrower than 
the peninsula itself, but it is often extended to apply to any 
long promontory, the coast-line of which is markedly longer than 
the landward boundary. 

PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). This important war, the 
conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the prestige of 
British arms, had for its main object the freedom of the Peninsula 
of Spain and Portugal from the domination of Napoleon; and 
hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the soil 
of France. 

Nelson having destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar, 
Napoleon feared the possibility of a British army being landed 
on the Peninsular coasts, whence in conjunction with Portuguese 
and Spanish forces it might attack France from the south. He 
therefore called upon Portugal, in August 1807, to comply with 
his Berlin decree of the 2ist of November 1806, under which 
continental nations were to close their ports to British subjects, 
and have no communication with Great Britain. At the same 
time he persuaded the weak king of Spain (Charles IV.) and 
his corrupt minister Godoy to permit a French army to pass 
through Spain towards Portugal; while under a secret treaty 
signed at Fontainebleau on the 2 7th of October 1807 Spanish 
troops were to support the French. Portugal was to be sub- 
sequently divided between Spain and France, and a new princi- 
pality of the Algarve was to be carved out for Godoy. Portugal 
remonstrated against Napoleon's demands, and a French corps 
(30,000) under General Junot was instantly despatched to 
Lisbon. Upon its approach the prince regent fled, and the 
country was occupied by Junot, most of the Portuguese troops 
being disbanded or sent abroad. Napoleon induced the king 
of Spain to allow French troops to occupy the country and to 



send the flower of the Spanish forces (15,000) under the marquis 
of Romana 1 to assist the French on the Baltic. Then Dupont 
de 1'Etang (25,000) was ordered to cross the Bidassoa on the 
22nd of November 1807; and by the 8th of January 1808 he had 
reached Burgos and Valladolid. Marshal Moncey with a corps 
occupied Biscay and Navarre; Duhesme with a division entered 
Catalonia; and a little later Bessieres with another corps had 
been brought up. There were now about 100,000 French 
soldiers in Spain, and Murat, grand duke of Berg, as " lieutenant 
for the emperor," entered Madrid. During February and 
March 1808 the frontier fortresses of Pampeluna, St Sebastian, 
Barcelona and Figueras were treacherously occupied and Spain 
lay at the feet of Napoleon. The Spanish people, in an outburst 
of fury against the king and Godoy, forced the former to abdicate 
in favour of his son Ferdinand; but the inhabitants of Madrid 
having (May 2, 1808) risen against the French, Napoleon refused 
to recognize Ferdinand; both he and the king were compelled 
to renounce their rights to the throne, and a mercenary council 
of regency having been induced to desire the French emperor to 
make his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king, he acceded to their 
request. 2 

The mask was now completely thrown off, and Spain and 
Portugal rose against the French. Provincial " juntas " (com- 
mittees of government) were organized; appeals for assistance 
made to the British government, which granted arms, money 
and supplies, and it was resolved to despatch a British force 
to the Peninsula. Before it landed, the French under Dupont, 
Moncey and Marshal Bessieres (75,000) had occupied parts 
of Biscay, Navarre, Aragon and the Castiles, holding Madrid 
and Toledo, while General Duhesme (14,000) was in Catalonia. 
Moncey (7000) had marched towards the city of Valencia, but 
been repulsed in attempting to storm it (June 28); Bessieres 
had defeated the Spanish general Joachim Blake at Medina 
de Rio Seco (June 14, 1808) and Dupont (13,000) had been 
detached (May 24) from Madrid to reduce Seville and Cadiz in 
Andalusia. Spanish levies, numbering nearly 100,000 regulars 
and militia, brave and enthusiastic, but without organization, 
sufficient training, or a commander-in-chief, had collected 
together; 30,000 being in Andalusia, a similar number in Gab'cia, 
and others in Valencia and Estremadura, but few in the central 
portion of Spain. 

At this juncture Dupont, moving upon Cadiz, met with areverse 
which greatly influenced the course of the Peninsular War. On 
the 7th of June 1808 he had sacked Cordova; but while he was 
laden with its spoils the Spanish general Castanos with the army 
of Andalusia (30,000), and also a large body of armed peasantry, 
approached. Falling back to Andujar, where he was reinforced 
to 22,000 strong, Dupont detached a force to hold the mountain 
passes in his rear, whereupon the Spaniards interposed between 
the detachment and the main body and seized Baylen. Failing 
to dislodge them, and surrounded by hostile troops and an 
infuriated peasantry, Dupont capitulated with over Battle of 
20,000 men. This victory, together with the in- Bayieo, July 
trepid defence of Saragossa by the Spanish general ' ' ' ' 
Jose Palafox (June 15 to August 13, 1808) temporarily 
paralysed the French and created unbounded enthusiasm in 
Spain. Duhesme, having failed to take Gerona, was blockaded 
in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. i, 1808), and the 
French forces closed to their rear to defend their communications 
with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon 
and Cadiz, in order to secure these harbours, to prevent the 
subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the basins of the 
Guadiana, Tagus and Douro into Spain. The British force 
consisted of 9000 men from Cork, under Sir Arthur Wellesley 
at first in chief command; 5000 from Gibraltar, under General 
(Sir Brent) Spencer; and 10,000 under Sir John Moore coming 
from Sweden; Wellesley and Moore being directed towards 
Portugal, and Spencer to Cadiz. On the ist of August 1808 

1 They subsequently escaped from Jutland, on British vessels, 
and reached Santander in October 1808. 

2 The king, the queen and Godoy were eventually removed to 
Rome, and Ferdinand to Valencay in France. 



PENINSULAR WAR 



9 1 



Wellesley began to land his troops, unopposed, near Figueira da 
Foz at the mouth of the Mondego; and the Spanish victory of 
Baylen having relieved Cadiz from danger, Spencer now joined 
him, and, without waiting for Moore the army, under 15,000 in 
all (which included some Portuguese) 1 with 18 guns, advanced 
towards Lisbon. 

Campaign in Portugal, 1808. The first skirmish took place 
at Obidos on the isth of August 1808, against Delaborde's 
division (5000 men with 5 guns), which fell back to Roleia 
(Rorifa or Rolica). A battle took place here (Aug. 17) in which 
Sir Arthur Wellesley attacked and drove him from two successive 
positions. The allied loss was about 500: the French 600 and 
three guns. 1 On the 2Oth of August the Allies, strengthened 
by the arrival of two more brigades (4000 men), occupied some 
heights north of Vimiera (Vimeira or Vimeiro) where the roads 
branch off to Torres Vedras and Mafra. Wellesley meant to 
turn the defile of Torres Vedras by Mafra at once if possible; 
but on this night Sir Harry Burrard, his senior, arrived off 
Vimiera, and though he did not land, gave instructions to wait 
for Sir John Moore. On the 2ist of August the Allies were 
attacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon, 
had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies 
Battle of numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly 
Vimiera, 14,000, with 20 guns. Junot, believing the allied 
August 21, i e ft to be weakly held, attacked it without recon- 
t808 ' noitring, but Wellesley's regiments, marched thither 

behind the heights, sprang up in line; and under their volleys 
and bayonet charge, supported by artillery fire, Junot's deep 
columns were driven off the direct road to Lisbon. The losses 
were: Allies about 800, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now 
again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but 
Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command, 
decided otherwise. On the 2nd of August Junot, knowing 
of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of 
a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the 
Convention of Cintra 2 (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French 
evacuated Portugal, on condition that they were sent with 
their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been 
rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur 
Wellesley had already given proof of his exceptional gifts as 
a leader. In England however a cry was raised that Junot 
should have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender; 
and Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry 
Burrard 3 were brought before a court of inquiry in London. 
This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean- 
time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed 
command of the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000 
strong. 

Moore's Campaign in Spain, 1808-9. The British govern- 
ment notified to Sir John Moore that some 10,000 men were 
to be sent to Corunna under Sir David Baird; that he, with 
20,000, was to join him, and then both act in concert with the 
Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely 
influenced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary 
to mention their positions, and also the fact that greater reliance 
had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than 
future events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when 
Moore's troops had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still 
held a defensive position behind the Ebro; Bessieres being in the 
basin of Vitoria, Marshal Key north-west of Logrono, and Moncey 
covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons 
of Biscay, Navarre, and a reserve at Bayonne, their strength 
was about 75,000 men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and 
observing Sanguessa; Castanos with the victors of Baylen 

1 In this account of the war the losses and numbers' engaged in 
different battles are given approximately only; and the former 
include killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on 
these matters. 

1 It was not, however, signed at Cintra, but at Lisbon, and was 
mainly negotiated near Torres Vedras. 

8 The two latter were recalled from the Peninsula ; Sir Arthur 
Wellesley had proceeded to London upon leave, and had only signed 
the armistice with Junot, not the convention itself. 



(34,000) west and south of Tudela and near Logrono; Blake 
(32,000) east of Reynosa, having captured Bilbao; Count de 
Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assem- 
bling about Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held 
by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied. 

Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by sea or land. 
To do so by sea at this season was to risk delay, while in moving 
by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the 
French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the 
roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while 
transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to 
procure, he sent Sir John Hope, with the artillery, cavalry and 
reserve ammunition column, south of the river, through Badajoz 
to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the 
Escurial Pass, involving a considerable d6tour; while he himself 
with the infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the 
shorter roads north of the Tagus through Coimbra and Almeida, 
and also by Alcantara and Coria to Ciudad Rodrigo and Sala- 
manca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him, 
and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or 
whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore 
was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed. 
Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men present 
and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself 
on the 30th of October had left Paris to place himself at 
their head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every 
direction: Castanos was defeated near Logrono (Oct. 27); 
Castanos and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at Zornoza 
(Oct. 29), Espinosa (Nov. n) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and 
Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 10). Thus when 
Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at Astorga; 
Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at Aranda; and 
French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the 
French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at 
Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and 
strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and 
so his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia 
and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he 
now took the important resolution of striking a blow for Spain, 
and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's 
communications with France. Hope having joined him through 
Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benavente, Astorga 
and Lugo, in case of retreat in that direction, he moved 
forward, and on the I3th of December approached the Douro, 
at and near Rueda east of Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid 
had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant 
charge of the Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced 
the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another action stormed 
the Retire commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3) ; that the French 
were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon 
was unaware of his vicinity, and that Soult's corps, isolated on 
the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He 
then finally decided to attack Soult (intending subsequently to 
fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from 
Lisbon to Corunna and Vigo; thus changing his base from 
Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army, 
now rallying under the marquis de la Romafia near Leon, was 
to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid. 

On the 2oth of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga, 
and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in 
which the British hussar brigade distinguished itself. But on 
the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about 
to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces 
were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near 
Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the bridge there. Napoleon, 
directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to 
Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; recalled his other troops 
from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and, with 
50,000 men and 150 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He 
traversed over 100 m. in less than five days across the snow- 
covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordesillas on the Douro on the 
26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the English 



PENINSULAR WAR 



pass to-day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun) 
they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 3ist of 
December, where Napoleon arrived on the ist of January 1809. 
Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards 
France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore. 

On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and bitter cold, 
combined with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the 
discipline of Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the nth 
of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road 
from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the I4th of 
January the transports arrived; and on the i6th Soult attacked. 
Battle of In this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with 
Corunna, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very light guns. 
January 16, goult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was 
1809 ' about to deliver a counter-attack when he himself 

fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night 
was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and subse- 
quently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The 
British casualties were about 1000, the French 2000. When the 
troops landed in England, half clothed and half shod, their 
leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his 
reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that 
when Napoleon in person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain, 
had stretched forth his hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia, 
Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to 
Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a 
notable achievement. 

Campaign in Portugal and Spain, I Sop. On the 2 2nd of April 
1809 Sir Arthur Wellesley reached Lisbon. By this time, 
French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a 
distance, had advanced Soult from Galicia to capture Oporto 
and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on 
his left towards Abrantes) and Marshal Victor, still farther 
to the left, with a siege train to take Badajoz, Merida and subse- 
quently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had 
taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese 
having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted, 
detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to Braganza 
and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and 
defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28, 1809); but, surrounded 
by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and 
together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied 
side the British (25,000), including some German auxiliaries, 
were about Leiria: the Portuguese regular troops (16,000) near 
Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observ- 
ing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body under Silveira being 
at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress 
had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese 
levies; Major-General William Carr Beresford, with the rank of 
marshal, was placed at their head. Of the Spaniards, Palafox, 
after his defeat at Tudela had most gallantly defended Saragossa 
a second time (Dec. 20, i8o8-Feb. 20, 1809); the Catalonians, 
after reverses at Molins de Rey (Dec. 21, 1808) and at Vails 
(Feb. 25, 1809) had taken refuge in Tarragona; and Rosas had 
fallen (Dec. 5, 1808) to the French general Gouvion St Cyr who, 
having relieved Barcelona, was besieging Gerona. Romana's 
force was now near Orense in Galicia. A supreme junta had been 
formed which could nominally assemble about 100,000 men, 
but jealousy among its members was rife, and they still declined 
to appoint any commander-in-chief. 

On the sth of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the 
river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante, 
from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult 
Passage of expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted 
the Douro, near its mouth, with fishing craft; but Wellesley, by 
May 12,1809. a Baring surprise, crossed (May 12) close above 
Oporto, and also by a ford higher up. After some fighting 
Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese 
being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only good 
road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now 
learned that Beresford had taken this important point from 
Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns and 



much baggage, to escape, with a loss of some 5000 men, over the 
mountains of the Sierra Catalina to Salamonde, and thence to 
Orense. 

During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced 
the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley return- 
ing to Abrantes, he retired. News having been received that 
Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aspern, 
near Vienna (May 22, 1809), Wellesley next determined leaving 
Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo to move with 22,000 
men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000) 
towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 25,000 supported 
by King Joseph (50,000) covering the capital, was near Talavera. 
Sir Robert Wilson with 4000 Portuguese from Salamanca, and 
a Spanish force under Venegas (25,000) from Carolina, were to 
co-operate and occupy Joseph, by closing upon Madrid. Cuesta, 
during the advance up the valley of the Tagus, was to occupy 
the pass of Banos on the left flank; the Spanish authorities were 
to supply provisions, and Venegas was to be at Arganda, near 
Madrid, by the 22nd or 23rd of July; but none of these arrange- 
ments were duly carried out, and it was on this that the remain- 
der of the campaign turned. Writing to Soult from Austria, 
Napoleon had placed the corps of Ney and Mortier under his 
orders, and said: " Wellesley will most likely advance by the 
Tagus against Madrid; in that case, pass the mountains, fall on 
his flank and rear, and crush him." 

By the 2oth of July Cuesta had joined Wellesley at Oropesa; 
and both then moved forward to Talavera, Victor falling back 
before them: but Cuesta, irritable and jealous, 
would not work cordially with Welksley; Venegas Talavera, 
counter-ordered it is said by the Spanish junta did July 27, 28, 
not go to Arganda, and Wilson, though he advanced l809 ' 
close to Madrid, was forced to retire, so that Joseph joined 
Victor, and the united force attacked the Allies at Talavera 
de la Reina on the Tagus. The battle lasted for two days, 
and ended in the defeat of the French, who fell back towards 
Madrid. 1 Owing to want of supplies, the British had fought 
in a half -starved condition; and Wellesley now learnt to his sur- 
prise that Soult had passed the mountains and was in his rear. 
Having turned about, he was on the march to attack him, when 
he heard (Aug. 23) that not Soult's corps alone, but three French 
corps, had come through the pass of Banos without opposition; 
that Soult himself was at Naval Moral, between him and the 
bridge of Almaraz on the Tagus, and that Cuesta was retreating 
from Talavera. Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous 
position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at 
Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south 
bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved, 
through Merida, northwards to the banks of the Agueda, 
commencing to fortify the country around Lisbon. 

Elsewhere in the Peninsula during this year, Blake, now 
in Catalonia, after routing Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, 1809), 
was defeated by him at Maria (June 15) and at Belchite (June 
18); Venegas, by King Joseph and Sebastiani, at Almonacid 
on the nth of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previous 
victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at Alba de 
Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28) ; the old forces of Venegas 
and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were decisively 
routed by King Joseph at Ocafia (Nov. 19); and Gerona after 
a gallant defence, had surrendered to Augereau (Dec. 10). 

Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created Baron 
Douro and Viscount Wellington. He was made captain-general 
by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience 
after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his expectations 
from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had been almost 
intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped from a 
critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for joint 
operations, on any large scale, with Spanish armies not under 
his own direct command. 

1 After the battle the Light Division, under Robert Craufurd, 
joined Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the field in time it 
had covered, in heavy marching order, over 50 m. in 25 hours, in 
hot July weather. 



PENINSULAR WAR 



93 



Campaign in Portugal, 1810. Napoleon, having avenged 
Aspern by the victory of Wagram (July 6, 1809), despatched to 
Spain large reinforcements destined to increase his army there 
to about 370,000 men. Marshal Massena with 120,000, including 
the corps of Ney, Junot, Reynier and some of the Imperial 
Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but 
first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain 
(equivalent to chief of the staff), was, with the corps of Victor, 
Mortier and Sebastiani (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult 
(Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz, 
the Supreme Junta resigned its powers to a regency of five 
members (Feb. 2, 1810). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps 
(Feb. 4) , and then Soult halted, waiting for Massena, who arrived 
at Valladolid on the isth of May. 

In England a party in parliament were urging the withdrawal 
of the British troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would 
have strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus 
cautious and defensive, and he had already commenced the since 
famous lines of Torres Vedras round Lisbon. In June 1810 his 
headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British, 
30,000 Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia, 
he watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo 
to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line 
of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul. 

Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz 
and Elvas, Massena, early in June 1810, moved forward, and 
Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June 10). Next pushing 
back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida, 
taking it on the 27th of August. Then calling up Reynier, 
who during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara, 
he marched down the right bank of the Mondego, and 
entered Viseu (Sept. 21). Wellington fell back before him 
down the left bank, ordering up Rowland Hill's force from 
the Badajoz road, the peasantry having been previously 
called upon to destroy their crops and retire within the lines of 
Torres Vedras. A little north of Coimbra, the -road which 
Massena followed crossed the Sierra de Bussaco (Busaco), a very 
strong position where Wellington resolved to offer him battle. 
Massena, superior in numbers and over-confident, made a direct 
attack upon the heights on the 27th of September 1810: his 
Battle of strength being about 60,000, while that of the Allies 
Busaco. was about 50,000, of whom nearly half were Portu- 



September 



27, 1810. 



g ues e. 



After a stern conflict the French were 
the loss being five generals and nearly 5000 
men, while the Allies lost about 1300. The next day Massena 
turned the Sierra by the Boyalva Pass and Sardao, which latter 
place, owing to an error, had not been occupied by the Portu- 
guese, and Wellington then retreated by Coimbra and Leiria 
to the lines, which he entered on the nth of October, having 
within them fully 100,000 able-bodied men. 

The celebrated " Lines of Torres Vedras " were defensive 
works designed to resist any army which Napoleon could send 
Lines of a g ainst them. They consisted of three great lines, 
Torres strengthened by about 150 redoubts, and earthworks 
Vedras, of various descriptions, mounting some 600 cannon; 
1810-n. tne outer ii nCi nearly 30 m. long, stretching over 
heights north of Lisbon, from the Tagus to the sea. As Massena 
advanced, the Portuguese closing upon his rear retook Coimbra 
(Oct. 7), and when he neared the lines, astounded at their strength, 
he sent General Foy to the emperor to ask for reinforcements. 
After an effort, defeated by Hill, to cross the Tagus, he withdrew 
(Nov. 15) to Santarem. This practically closed Wellington's 
operations for the year 1810, his policy now being not to lose 
men in battle, but to reduce Massena by hunger and distress. 

In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May 
10); captured Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and 
invested Tortosa (Dec. 15). The Spanish levies had been unable 
to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued 
almost all Spain, and being now in possession of Ciudad Rodrigo 
and Almeida. On the other hand Wellington still held Lisbon 
with parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not 
felt disposed to attempt the capture of the last two fortresses. 



Campaign of 1811. Napoleon, whose attention was now 
directed towards Russia, refused to reinforce Massena, but 
enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult, 
therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan. 
26, 1811) and took it from the Spaniards (March 10). With the 
hope of raising the blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir Thomas 
Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch [q.v.]) left that harbour by 
sea, and joining with Spanish troops near Tarifa, advanced by 
land against Victor's blockading force, a Spanish general, La 
Pena, being in chief command. As they neared Barrosa, Victor 
attacked them, the Allies numbering in the battle about 13,000 
with 24 guns, 4000 being British; the French 9000, actually 
engaged, with 14 guns; but with 5000 more a few miles off and 
others in the French lines. Hard fighting, chiefly Battle of 
between the French and British, now ensued, and Barrosa, 
at one time the Barrosa ridge, the key of the position Marcbs, 
left by La Pena's orders, practically undefended, I8tl ' 
fell into the French hands: but Graham by a resolute 
counter-attack regained it, and Victor was in the end driven 
back. La Pena, who had in the battle itself failed to give 
proper support to Graham, would not pursue, and Graham 
declining to carry on further operations with him, re-entered 
Cadiz. The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that 
although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not 
attained. The British loss was about 1200; the French 2000, 
6 guns and an eagle. 

On the day of the above battle Massena, having destroyed 
what guns he could not horse, and skilfully gained time by a 

feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before . 

A . i T^ i i TT- Masseaa's 

the lines, through Coimbra and Espmhal. His g etrea t. 

army was in serious distress; he was in want of food 
and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were 
deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to 
remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break 
up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached 
to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to 
Soult. Ney, commanding Massena's rearguard, conducted 
the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington 
adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive 
operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the sword. 
This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors 
of Massena's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at Pombal 
(March 10) , Redinha (March 1 2) and Condeixa (March 13) . Here 
Ney was directed to make a firm stand; but, ascertaining that the 
Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and 
fearing to be cut off also from Murcella, he burnt Condeixa, 
and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March 
14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off 
Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Massena, sacri- 
ficing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico 
and Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington 
(March 29) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3, 
1811), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost 
in Portugal nearly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease, 
and 6000 in the retreat alone. 

The key to the remaining operations of i8n lies in the impor- 
tance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of 
the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal 
into Spain Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the northern, and 
Badajoz and Elvas on the southern road; all these except Elvas 
were in French hands. Wellington, on the gth of April 1811, 
directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off 
himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring 
the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north 
on the news that Massena was moving to relieve Almeida. On 
the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fuentes d'Onor near 
Almeida, and Massena coming up himself made a more serious 
attack on the sth of May. The- Allies numbered Battle of 
about 33,000, with 42 guns; the French 45,000 with Fueates 
30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- fOaor, 
ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light "** ia 
Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French 



94 



PENINSULAR WAR 



cavalry; and for the extraordinary feat of arms of Captain 
Norman Ramsay, R.H.A., in charging through the French cavalry 
with his guns. Massena failed to dislodge the Allies, and on 
the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to 
Wellington on the nth of May 1811. The allied loss in the 
fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about 1500: the 
French 3000. 

In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and 50 guns), ad- 
vancing to relieve Badajoz, compelled Beresford to suspend 

Battle of tne S ' e 6 e > anc * to ta ^ e U P a Posit* 011 w ith aDout 30,000 

Aibuera, men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns 
May 16, behind the river Albuhera (or Aibuera). Here 
K "' Soult attacked him on the i6th of May. An unusu- 

ally bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were 
chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards. 
At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were 
lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry Cole's division 
restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The 
allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British 
force) ; the French about 8000. 

After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and 
the siege of Badajoz was continued: but now Marshal Marmont, 
having succeeded Massena, was marching southwards to join 
Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling- 
ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the Alemtejo, he 
returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced 
a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente 
Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to 
Seville, the latter to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of 
Bafios. 

In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north 
under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca their total 
force being 60,000, with 100 guns and succeeded (Sept. 25) in 
introducing a convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before 
so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain 
the blockade; but on Marmont afterwards advancing towards 
him, he fought a rearguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept. 
25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which 
the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and 
again at Fuente Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 26) he maintained for 
30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's 
army of 60,000, in order to save the Light Division from being 
cut off. At Aldea de Ponte there was a further sharp engage- 
ment (Sept. 27), but Wellington taking up a strong position near 
Sabugal, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the 
valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington 
again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo. 

Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the 
28th of October 1811, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured 
Arroyo de los Molinos (between Badajoz and Trujillo), almost 
annihilating a French corps under Gerard; and in December 1811 
the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near 
Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. i, 1811); 
Tarragona (June 28); and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's 
relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. Macdonald 
also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th 
of April 1811 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the 
French, but they still held Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 
two main gates into Spain. 

Campaign in Spain, 1812, The campaign of 1812 marks an 
important stage in the war. Napoleon, with the Russian War in 
prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from 
Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a 
war of " magazines." Based on rivers (the navigation of which 
greatly improved) and the sea, he formed dep6ts or magazines 
of provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take 
and keep the field. The French, on the other hand, had great 
difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to 
their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the 
country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed 
the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the 
guerrilla bands by forcing the French corps to assemble in their 



districts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materi- 
ally hindered the combination of their corps for concerted action. 
Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed 
Hill, as a blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajoz, he 
suddenly (Jan. 8, 1812) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo. 

The French, still numbering nearly 200,000, now held the 
following positions: the Army of the North Dorsenne (48,000) 
was about the Pisuerga, in the Asturias, and along the northern 
coast; the Army of Portugal Marmont (50,000) mainly in 
the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army of 
the South Soult (55,000) in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre 
Joseph (19,000) about Madrid. 

The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the ordinary 
course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that 
Marmont was moving northward, the assault was giegeof 
delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The Ciudad 
gallantry of the troops made it successful, though with Rodrigo, 
the loss of Generals Craufurd and McKinnon, and 1300 *J^ *" 
men, and Marmont's battering train of 150 guns here 
fell into the allied hands. Then, after a feint of passing on into 
Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 22,000 men, 
laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 1812), Hill with 30,000 covering 
the siege near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of 
time, arid had to assault prematurely. Soult and Marmont 
having begun to move to relieve the garrison, the assault was 
delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and siege of 
though the assailants failed at the breaches, the Badajoz, 
carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade Malvl > t7 to 
of one of the bastions and of the castle succeeded, ' 

and Badajoz fell, Souk's pontoon train being taken in it. After 
the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the 
victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone 
and 5000 in the entire siege. 

The Allies had now got possession of the two great gates into 
Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out, 
destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which 
Soult to the south of the river chiefly communicated with Mar- 
mont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making 
preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more 
turned northward, crossed the Tormes (June 17, 1812), and 
advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were drawn 
up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts, 
the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost 
him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along 
the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellington 
hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire, 
but in this he was disappointed. 

On the isth of July 1812, Marmont, after a feint against 
Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned his 
right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba 
on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place, 
Wellington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more 
to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and 
Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and being 
under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at 
Alba on that river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching 
power had been underestimated, and on the 2ist of July while 
Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly 
his line of communications through Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont 
had reached a point from which he hoped to interpose between 
Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. This 
he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 1812, which brought 
on the important battle of Salamanca (q.v.) in which Battle of 
Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French Salamanca, 
falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos. Ju 'y 22 > 
Wellington entered Valladolid (July 30), and thence 
marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasco 
Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired 
before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, 1812), 
where, in the Retire, 1700 men, 180 cannon, two eagles, and a 
quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege 
of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Suchet 



PENINSULAR WAR 



95 



with some 55,000 men. Wellington then brought up Hill to 
Madrid. 

On the ist of September 1812, the French armies having begun 
once more to collect together, Wellington marched against the 
Slege of the Army of the North, now under General Clause], and 
Castle of laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure 
Burgos, the road towards Santander on the coast. But the 
Ocf'i/ 9 * stren S tn f the castle had been underrated ; 
Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and 
transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having 
left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were 
both approaching, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the 
Retreat 2ist of October, and, directing the evacuation of 
irom Madrid, commenced the " Retreat from Burgos." 

Burgos. j n (.jjjg retreat, although military operations were 
skilfully conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, as 
in that to Corunna, became much relaxed. 

By November 1812, Hill having joined him at Salamanca, 
Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad 
Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for con- 
venience of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the 
successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to 
the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied, 
the siege of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo 
and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had 
abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered 
to them (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was 
that the Spanish Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 22, 1812) 
to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the 
operations of this campaign Wellington was created earl, and 
subsequently marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo 
by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal. 

Campaign in Spain and the South of France, 1813. At the 
opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold 
Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the remainder of the 
French (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and 
Biscay, guarding also the communications with France. Of 
these about 60,000 under Joseph were more immediately 
opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments, 
from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tormes to the Douro, and 
along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized 
the Spanish forces Castanos (40,000), with the guerrilla bands 
of Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and 
northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (20,000) in 
Murcia; Del Parque (12,000) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell 
(15,000) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been 
raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the 
Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered 
some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and 
Tormes, their line stretching from their left near Lamego to the 
pass of Banos, Hill being on the right. The district of the Tras- 
os-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and 
Sabor, was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that 
Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river. 
He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to 
confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and 
above Salamanca, having previously which was to be the 
decisive movement detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to 
make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned, 
towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn 
Joseph's right. Graham, crossing the Douro near Lamego, 
carried out his laborious march with great energy, and Joseph 
retired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisuerga. The 
allied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in 
Galicia to 90,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to- 
wards the Pisuerga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of 
Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington 
turned his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde 
and Puente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated 
behind the Zadorra near the town of Vitoria. 

Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied 
line of communications was changed to that port. On the 2oth 



of June Wellington encamped along the river Bayas, and the 
next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive 
battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see VITORIA. In it Battle of 
King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after vitoria, 
it, the wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- June 21, 
Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within l813 - 
a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces, 
with the exception of the garrisons of San Sebastian (3000), 
Pampeluna (3000), Santona (1500), and the troops under Suchet 
holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the 
Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all 
intents and purposes, free from foreign domination, although 
the war was yet far from concluded. The French struggled 
gallantly to the close: but now a long succession of their leaders 
Junot, Soult, Victor, Massena, Marmont, Joseph had been 
in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troops 
fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many 
defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting influence of great 
successes, and with that absolute confidence in their chief 
which doubled their fighting power. 

For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field 
marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory * 
by the Portuguese government in Brazil. He now, with about 
80,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on 
the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched 
along the Pyrenees by the passes of Vera, Echallar, Maya and 
Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being 
to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not 
having sufficient materiel for two sieges, he laid siege to San 
Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham 
commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the loth of 
July 1813, but as Soult was approaching to its relief, the assault 
was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately siegeotsan 
a conflagration breaking out near the breaches Sebastian, 
caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the Ju 'y 10-24, 
breaches in the interval having been strengthened, I8t3 ' 
it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington 
then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured 
(July 25) to turn the allied right, and reach Pampeluna. 
Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their 
defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position Batt j et / 
close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he the Pyn- 
attempted to carry (July 28). By this time Welling- nees,juiy2S 
ton had reached it from the allied left ; reinforcements JgiV*****' 
were pressing up on both sides, and about 1 2,000 allied 
troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as 
" bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the 
Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manoeuvred to his right 
towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive, 
and, in a series of engagements, drove the French back (Aug. 2) 
beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya 
(July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. i); and 
Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being 
about Allies under 7000, French 10,000. After this, Wellington 
renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the place, excepting 
the castle, after a heavy expenditure of life (Aug. 31). Upon 
the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but stormofSaa 
in the combats of Vera and St Marcial was repulsed. Sebastian, 
The castle surrendered on the gth of September, Augustsi, 
the losses in the entire siege having been about lsl3 ' 
Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw 
his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position, 
and secure the port of Fuenterrabia. 

Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which 
had to be effected prior to the further invasion of France. At 
daylight on the 7th of October 1813 he crossed the Bidassoa in 
seven columns, and attacked the entire French position, 
which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north 

1 Duque da Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The 
coincidence of the title with the place-name of the battle which had 
not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but 
accidental. 



9 6 



PENINSULAR WAR 



of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great 
Rhune, 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in 
Passage strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of 
otttie the enemy, who in view of the width of the river 
Bidassoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing 
October 7, impossible at that point. The French right was 
Wl3 ' then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his 

right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession 
after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle. 
The loss was about Allies, 1600; French, 1400. The passage 
of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle " 
(Napier). 

On the 3ist of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Welling- 
ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before 
further invading France. The British government, however, 
in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate 
advance, so on the night of the pth of November 1813 he 
brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward 
of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000), 
in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St 
Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence, 
behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army 
had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade, 
Wellington on the loth of November 1813 attacked this extended 
Passage of position of 16 m. in five columns, these being so 
the Nivelle, directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works 
Nov. to, a mass of about 50,000 men converged towards the 
1813. French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting, 

it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it, 
cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to 
St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now 
late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks 
of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the 
respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was 
about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their 
magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne 
from the sea to the left bank of the Nive. 

After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though 
during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains 
and Cambo. The weather had become bad, and the Nive 
unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of 
delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting 
the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also 
difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also 
the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had 
become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington 
took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain 
and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation 
was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at 
this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These 
matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington, 
who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could 
not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the 
French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter- 
mined to occupy the right as well as the left bank of the Nive. 
He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult 
held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications 
through Irun. Therefore, on the gth of December 1813, after 
making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with 
Passage of a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford, 
the Nive, near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and 
Dec. 9, thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque, 
1813. where Soult barred his way across the road to 

Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions 
by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage 
of his central position to attack it with all his available force, 
first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning 
of the loth of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns, 
upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position 
from the sea, 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes 
(or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate 
fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected 



ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end, 
Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the 
French retired baffled. On the nth and i2th of Battles 
December there were engagements of a less severe Defore 
character, and finally on the I3th of December Soult %%*'/* 
with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the the Nive, 
right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dec. 10-13, 
14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque tsia. 
past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about 
St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but 
for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the 
French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over 
the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses 
in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battles 
of the Nive) were Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both 
the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly 
distinguished themselves in these battles. 

In eastern Spain Suchet (April n, 1813) had defeated Elio's 
Murcians at Yecla and Villena, but was subsequently routed 
by Sir John Murray 1 near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged 
Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was 
later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the 
battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated 
Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13). 

Campaign in the South of France, 1814. When operations re- 
commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from 
Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence 
bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced 
posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's 
left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill, 
observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back 
till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclu- 
sive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available 
field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the 
Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much 
the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object 
to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army 
might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place 
on both banks of the river. 

At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its 
entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest 
weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands 
and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil 
near its banks made the transport of bridging materiel by land 
laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, con- 
vinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected, 
decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de 
Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed 
chasse-marees). Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to watch 
Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's 
left. Hill on the I4th and isth of February, after a combat 
at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and 
Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze 
and Gave 2 de Mauleon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's 
object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000 
men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the 
Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz 
to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavour- 
able weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir 
John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave 
d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25). 
Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, suc- 
ceeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across passage of 
the river in boats. The nature of the ground, the Adour, 
and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this *%* & < 
point, led to the French coming out very tardily to ** I814 ' 
oppose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets 
(then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right 
bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of 

1 Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean 
islands. 

'"Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent. 



PENINSULAR WAR 



97 



chetsse-maries appeared from St Jean de Luz, preceded by men- 
of-war boats. Several men and vessels were lost in crossing the 
bar; but by noon on the 26th of February the bridge of 26 
vessels had been thrown and secured; batteries and a boom 
placed to protect it, 8000 troops passed over, and the enemy's 
gunboats driven up the river. Bayonne was then invested on 
both banks as a preliminary to the siege. 

On the 27th of February Wellington, having with little loss 
effected the passage of the Pau below Orthes, attacked Soult. 
In this battle the Allies and French were of about equal strength 
(37,00x3): the former having 48 guns, the latter 40. Soult held 
Battle of a st ron g position behind Orthes on heights command- 
Orthes, ing the roads to Dax and St Sever. Beresford was 
Feb. 27, directed to turn his right, if possible cutting him off 
""' from Dax, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road. 

Beresford's attack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was 
repulsed, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French 
had left a central part of the heights unoccupied, thrust up the 
Light Division into it, between Soult's right and centre. At the 
same time Hill, having found a ford above Orthes, was turning 
the French left, when Soult retreated just in time to save being 
cut off, withdrawing towards St Sever, which he reached on the 
28th of February. The allied loss was about 2000; the French 
4000 and 6 guns. 

From St Sever Soult turned eastwards to Aire, where he 
covered the roads to Bordeaux and Toulouse. Beresford, with 
12,000 men, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as 
promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 2nd of 
March 1814, Soult retired by Vic Bigorre, where there was a 
combat (March 19), and Tarbes, where there was a severe action 
(March 20), to Toulouse behind the Garonne. He endeavoured 
also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in 
vain, for Wellington's justice and moderation afforded them no 
grievances. Wellington wished to pass the Garonne above 
Toulouse in order to attack the city from the south its weakest 
side and interpose between Soult and Suchet. But finding it 
impracticable to operate in that direction, he left Hill on the 
west side and crossed at Grenade below Toulouse (April 3). 
When Beresford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed 
over, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the 
right bank. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8) 
was restored; Wellington crossed the Garonne and the Ers, and 
attacked Soult on the loth of April. In the battle of Toulouse 
the French numbered about 40,000 (exclusive of the local 
National Guards) with 80 guns; the Allies under 52,000 with 64 
Battle of guns. Soult's position to the north and east of the 
Toulouse, city was exceedingly strong, consisting of the canal 
April 10, L an g ue d OC) some fortified suburbs, and (to the 
extreme east) the commanding ridge of Mont Rave, 
crowned with redoubts and earthworks. Wellington's columns, 
under Beresford, were now called upon to make a flank march 
of some two miles, under artillery, and occasionally musketry, 
fire, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the 
Spanish troops assaulted the north of the ridge, to wheel up, 
mount the eastern slope, and carry the works. The Spaniards 
were repulsed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and 
Soult fell back behind the canal. On the 1 2th of April Welling- 
ton advanced to invest Toulouse from the south, but Soult on 
the night of the nth had retreated towards Villefranque, and 
Wellington then entered the city. The allied loss was about 
5000; the French 3000. Thus, in the last great battle of the 
war, the courage and resolution of the soldiers of the Peninsular 
army were conspicuously illustrated. 

On the I3th of April 1814 officers arrived with the announce- 
ment to both armies of the capture of Paris, the abdication of 
Napoleon, and the practical conclusion of peace; and on the 
i8th a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered 
into between Wellington and Soult. Unfortunately, after 
Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a sortie from 
Bayonne on the i4th of April, each lost about 1000 men: so 
that some 10,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made. 

In the east, during this year (1814), Sir W. Clinton had, on 
xxi. 4 



the 1 6th of January, attacked Suchet at Molins de Rey and 
blockaded Barcelona (Feb. 7); the French posts of Lerida, 
Mequinenza and Monzon had also been yielded up, and Suchet, 
on the and of March, had crossed the Pyrenees into France. 
Figueras surrendered to Cuesta before the end of May; and peace 
was formally signed at Paris on the 3oth of May. 

Thus terminated the long and sanguinary struggle of the 
Peninsular War. The British troops were partly sent to England, 
and partly embarked at Bordeaux for America, with which 
country war had broken out (see AMERICAN WAR OF 1812-15): 
the Portuguese and Spanish recrossed the Pyrenees: the French 
army was dispersed throughout France: Louis XVIII. was 
restored to the P'rench throne: and Napoleon was permitted 
to reside in the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been 
conceded to him by the allied powers. For the operations 
of this campaign Wellington was created marquess of Douro 
and duke of Wellington, and peerages were conferred upon 
Beresford, Graham and Hill. 

The events of the Peninsular War, especially as narrated 
in the Wellington Despatches, are replete with instruction not 
only for the soldier, but 'also for the civil administrator. Even 
in a brief summary of the war one salient fact is noticeable, 
that all Wellington's reverses were in connexion with his sieges, 
for which his means were never adequate. In his many battles 
he was always victorious, his strategy eminently successful, 
his organizing and administrative power exceptionally great, 
his practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous; 
but he never had an army fully complete in its departments 
and warlike equipment. He had no adequate corps of sappers 
and miners, or transport train. In 1812 tools and material 
of war for his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he 
was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran short; a battering 
train, long demanded, reached him not only some time after 
it was needed, but even then with only one day's provision of 
shot and shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail- 
able in store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure, 
the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged 
determination Wellington rose superior to almost every diffi- 
culty, but he could not overcome all; and the main teaching of 
the Peninsular War turns upon the value of an army that is 
completely organized in its various branches before hostilities 
break out. (C. W. R.) 

AUTHORITIES. The Wellington Despatches, ed. Gurwood (London, 
1834-1839); Supplementary Wellington Despatches (London, 1858- 
1861 and 1867-1872) ; Sir W. Napier, History of War in the Peninsula 
and South of France (London, 1828-1840); C. W. C. Oman, History 
of the Peninsular War (London, 1902) ; Sir J. Jones, Journals and 
Sieges in Spain, 1811-12 (London, 1814); and Account of the War 
in Spain, Portugal and South of France, 1808-14 (London, 1821) ; Sir 
J. F. Maurice, Diary of Sir John Moore (London, 1904); Command- 
ant Balagny, Campagne de I'Empereur Napoleon en Espagne, 1808- 
1800 (Paris, 1902); Major-General C. W. Robinson, Wellington's 
Campaigns (London, 1907) ; Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1789- 
1815 (London, 18351842); T. Choumara, Considerations militaires 
sur les memoires du Marechal Suchet et sur la bataille de Toulouse 
(Paris, 1838); Commandant Clerc, Campagne du Marechal Soult 
dans les Pyrenees occidentals en 1813-14 (Paris, 1894); Memoires 
du Baron Marbot (Paris, 1891 ; Eng. trans, by A. J. Butler, London, 
1902) ; H. R. Clinton, The War in the Peninsula, &c. (London, 1889) ; 
Marshal Suchet's Memoires (Paris, 1826; London, 1829); Captain L. 
Butler, Wellington's Operations in the Peninsula, 1808-14 (London, 
1904); Batty, Campaign of the Left Wing of the Allied Army in the 
Western Pyrenees and South of France, 1813-14 (London, 1823); 
Foy, Histoire de la guerre de la Peninsule, &c., sous Napoleon (Paris 
and London, 1827); Lord Londonderry, Narrative of the Peninsular 
War, 1808-13 (London, 1829) ; R. Southey, History of the Peninsular 
War (London, 1823-1832) ; Major A. Griffiths, Wellington and Water- 
loo (illustrated; London, 1898); Thiers, Histoire du consulat el de 
V empire (Paris, 1845-1847; and translated by D. F. Campbell, 
London, 1845); Captain A. H. Marindin, The Salamanca Campaign 
(London, 1906); Marmont's Memoires (Paris, 1857); Colonel Sir 
A. S. Frazer, Letters during the Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns 
(ed. by Major-General E. Sabine, London, 1859); Lieut. -Colonel 
W. Hill-James, Battles round Biarritz, Nivelle and the Nive (London, 
1896); Battles round Biarritz, Carres and the Bridge of Boats (Edin- 
burgh, 1897); H. B. Robinson, Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Sir 
T. Picton (London, 1835): G. C. Moore-Smith, Autobiography oj 
Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Smith (London, 1901); Life of John 
Colborne (F.-M. Lord Seaton) (London, 1903) ; Rev. A. H. Crauford, 



9 8 



PENISCOLA PENITENTIARY 



General Craufurd and his Light Division (London, 1891); Sir George 
Larpent, Private Journal of F. S. Larpent during the Peninsular War 
(London, 1853); Major-General H. D. Hutchinson, Operations in 
the Peninsula, 1808-9 (London, 1905); The Dickson MSS., being 
Journals of Major-General Sir Alexander Dickson during the Penin- 
sular War (Woolwich, 1907). 

PEftlSCOLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Cas- 
tellon de la Plana, and on the Mediterranean Sea, 5 m. by road 
S. of Benicarl6. Pop. (1900), 3142. Peniscola, often called the 
Gibraltar of Valencia, is a fortified seaport, with a lighthouse, 
built on a rocky headland about 220 ft. high, and only joined 
to the mainland by a narrow strip of sand. Originally a 
Moorish stronghold, it was captured in 1233 by James I. of 
Aragon, who entrusted it to the Knights Templar. In the 
i4th century it was garrisoned by the knights of Montesa, and 
in 1420 it reverted to the Crown. From 1415 it was the home 
of the schismatic pope Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), whose 
name is commemorated in the Bufador de Papa Luna, a curious 
cavern with a landward entrance through which the sea-water 
escapes in clouds of spray. 

PENITENTIAL (Lat. poenilentiale, libellus poenitentialis, 
&c.), a manual used by priests of the Catholic Church for 
guidance in assigning the penance due to sins. Such manuals 
played a large r61e in the early middle ages, particularly in 
Ireland, England and Frankland, and their influence in the 
moral education of the barbarian races has not received 
sufficient attention from historians. They were mainly com- 
posed of canons drawn from various councils and of dicta from 
writings of some of the fathers. Disciplinary regulations in 
Christian communities are referred to from the very borders of the 
apostolic age, and a system of careful oversight of those admitted 
to the mysteries developed steadily as the membership grew 
and dangers of contamination with the outside world increased. 
These were the elaborate precautions of the catechumenate, and 
as a bulwark against the persecutions the rigid system known 
as the Discipline of the Secret (disciplina arcani). The treat- 
ment of the lapsed, which produced the Novatian heresy, was 
also responsible for what has frequently been referred to as 
the first penitential. This is the libellus in which, according 
to Cyprian (Ep. 51), the decrees of the African synods of 251 
and 255 were embodied for the guidance of the clergy in dealing 
with their repentant and returning flocks. This manual, 
which has been lost, was evidently not like the code-like com- 
pilations of the 8th century, and it is somewhat misleading to 
speak of it as a penitential. Jurisdiction in penance was still 
too closely limited to the upper ranks of the clergy to call forth 
such literature. Besides the bishop an official well versed 
in the penitential regulations of the Church, called the poeni- 
tentiarius, assigned due penalties for sins. For their guidance 
there was considerable conciliar legislation (e.g. Ancyra, Nicaea, 
Neocaesarea, &c.), and certain patristic letters which had 
acquired almost the force of decretals. Of the latter the 
most important were the three letters of St Basil of Caesarea 
(d. 379) to Bishop Amphilochus of Iconium containing over 
eighty headings. 

Three things tended to develop these rules into something 
like a system of penitential law. These were the development 
of auricular confession and private penance; the extension of 
the penitential jurisdiction among the clergy owing to the 
growth of a parochial priesthood; and the necessity of adapting 
the penance to the primitive ideas of law prevailing among the 
newly converted barbarians, especially the idea of compensation 
by the wergild. In Ireland in the middle of the sth century 
appeared the " canons of St Patrick." In the first half of the 
next century these were followed by others, notably those of 
St Finian (d. 552). At the same time the Celtic British Church 
produced the penitentials of St David of Menevia (d. 544) and 
of Gildas (d. 583) in addition to synodal legislation. These 
furnished the material to Columban (d. 615) for his Liber de 
poenitentia and his monastic rule, which had a great influence 
upon the continent of Europe. The Anglo-Saxon Church 
was later than the Irish, but under Theodore of Tarsus (d.6Qo), 
archbishop of Canterbury, the practice then in force was made 



the basis of the most important of all penittntials. The 
Poenilenliale Theodori became the authority in the Church's 
treatment of sinners for the next four centuries, both in England 
and elsewhere in Europe. The original text, as prepared by 
a disciple of Theodore, and embodying his decisions, is given 
in Haddan and Stubbs's Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents 
relating to Great Britain and Ireland (in. 173 seq.). A 
Penitenliale Commeani (St Cumian), dating apparently from 
the early Sth century, was the third main source of Frankish 
penitentials. The extent and variety of this literature led the 
Gallican Church to exercise a sort of censorship in order to 
secure uniformity. After numerous synods, Bishop Haltigar 
of Cambrai was commissioned by Ebo of Reims in 829 to prepare 
a definitive edition. Haltigar used, among his other materials, 
a so-called poenilenliale romanum, which was really of Frankish 
origin. The canons printed by David Wilkins in his Concilia 
(1737) as being by Ecgbert of York (d. 767) are largely a transla- 
tion into Anglo-Saxon of three books of HaJtigar's penitentials. 
In 841 Hrabanus Maurus undertook a new Liber poenitentium 
and wrote a long letter on the subject to Heribald of Auxerre 
about 853. Then followed the treatise of Reginon of Prum 
in 906, and finally the collection made by Burchard, bishop of 
Worms, between 1012 and 1023. The codification of the canon 
law by Gratian and the change in the sacramental position of 
penance in the 1 2th century closed the history of penitentials. 

Much controversy has arisen over the question whether 
there was an official papal penitential. It is claimed that 
(quite apart from Haltigar's poenitentiale romanum) such a 
set of canons existed early in Rome, and the attempt has been 
made by H. J. Schmitz in his learned treatise on penitentials 
(Buszbucher und das kanonische Buszverfahren, 1883 and 1898) 
to establish their pontifical character. The matter is still in 
dispute, Schmitz's thesis not having met with universal 
acceptance. 

In addition to the works mentioned above the one important work 
on the penitentials was L. W. H. Wasserschleben's epoch-making 
study and collection of texts, Die Buszordnungen der abendldndischcn 
Kirche nebst einer rechtsgeschichtlichen Einleitung (Halle, 1851). 
See articles in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, Hauck's Real- 
encyklopadie, and Haddan and Stubbs's Councils. See also Seebasz 
in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, xviii. 58. On the canons of 
St Patrick see the Life of St Patrick by J. B. Bury (pp. 233-275). 

PENITENTIARY (med. Lat. poenitenliarius, from poenitentia, 
penance, poena, punishment, a term used both as adjective and 
substantive, referring either to the means of repentance or 
that of punishment. In its ecclesiastical use the word is used 
as the equivalent both of the Latin poenitentiarius, " penitentiary 
priest," and poenitentiaria, the dignity or office of a poenitenti- 
arius. By an extension of the latter sense the name is applied 
to the department of the Roman Curia known as the apostolic 
penitentiary (sacra poenitentiaria aposlolica), presided over 
by the cardinal grand penitentiary (major poenitentiarius, 
Ital. penitenziere maggiore) and having jurisdiction more particu- 
larly in all questions in foro interno reserved for the Holy See 
(see CURIA ROMANA). In general, the poenilentiarius, or peni- 
tentiary priest, is in each diocese what the grand penitentiary 
is at Rome, i.e. he is appointed to deal with all cases of conscience 
reserved for the bishop. In the Eastern Church there are very 
early notices of such appointments; so far as the West is con- 
cerned, Hinschius (Kirchenrecht, i. 428, note 2) quotes from 
the chronicle of Bernold, the monk of St Blase (c. 1054-1100), ' 
as the earliest record of such "appointment, that made by 
the papal legate Odo of Ostia in 1054. In 1215 the fourth 
Lateran Council, by its loth canon, ordered suitable men to 
be ordained in all cathedral and conventual churches, to act 
as coadjutors and assistants to the bishops in hearing confessions 
and imposing penances. The rule was not immediately nor 
universally obeyed, the bishops being slow to delegate their 
special powers. Finally, however, the council of Trent (Sess. 
xxiv. cap. viii. de reform.) ordered that, " wherever it could 
conveniently be done," the bishop should appoint in his cathedral 
a poenilentiarius, who should be a doctor or licentiate in theology 
or canon law and at least forty years of age. 



PENKRIDGE PENN, WILLIAM 



99 



See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, \. 427, &c. (Berlin, 1869); Du 
Cange, Glossarium s.v. " Poenitentiarius " ; Herzog-Hauck, Real- 
encyklopadie (ed. 1904), s.v. " Ponitentiarius." 

PENKRIDGE, a town in the western parliamentary division 
of Staffordshire, England; 134 m. N.W. from London by the 
London & North-Western railway, on the small river Penk. 
Pop. (1901), 2347. Trade is chiefly agricultural and there are 
stone-quarries in the vicinity. The church of St Michael and 
All Angels, formerly collegiate and dedicated to St Mary, is a 
fine building principally Perpendicular, but with earlier portions. 
The Roman Watling Street passes from east to west 3 m. south 
' of Penkridge. In the neighbourhood is Pillaton Hall, retaining 
a picturesque chapel of the isth century. 

PENLEY, WILLIAM SYDNEY (1852- ), English actor, 
was born at Broadstairs, and educated in London, where his 
father had a school. He first made his mark as a comedian 
by his exceedingly amusing performance as the curate in The 
Private Secretary, a part in which he succeeded Beerbohrn 
Tree; but he is even more associated with the title role in 
Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt (1892), a farce which had 
an unprecedentedly long run and was acted all over the world. 

PENMARC'H, a village of western France in the department 
of Finistere, 18 m. S.W. of Quimper by road. Pop. (1906), of 
the village, 387; of the commune, 5702. On the extremity of 
the peninsula on which it is situated are fortified remains of a 
town which was of considerable importance from the i4th to 
the i6th centuries and included, besides Penmarc'h, St Guenole 
and Kerity. It owed its prosperity to its cod-banks, the dis- 
appearance of which together with the discovery of the New- 
foundland cod-banks and the pillage of the place by the bandit 
La Fontenelle in 1595 contributed to its decadence. The 
church of St Nouna, a Gothic building of the early i6th century 
at Penmarc 'h, and the church of St Guenole, an unfinished 
tower of the isth century and the church of Kerity (isth 
century) are of interest. The coast is very dangerous. On 
the Point de Penmarc 'h stands the Phare d'Eckmuhl, with a 
light visible for 60 miles. There are numerous megalithic 
monuments in the vicinity. 

PENN, WILLIAM (1621-1670), British admiral, was the 
son of Giles Penn, merchant and seaman of Bristol. He served 
his apprenticeship at sea with his father. In the first Civil 
War he fought on the side of the parliament, and was in com- 
mand of a ship in the squadron maintained against the king 
in the Irish seas. The service was arduous and called for both 
energy and good seamanship. In 1648 he was arrested and 
sent to London, but was soon released, and sent back as rear 
admiral in the " Assurance " (32). The exact cause of the 
arrest is unknown, but it may be presumed to have been that 
he was suspected of being in correspondence with the king's 
supporters. It is highly probable that he was, for until the 
Restoration he was regularly in communication with the Royal- 
ists, while serving the parliament, or Cromwell, so long as their 
service was profitable, and making no scruple of applying for 
grants of the confiscated lands of the king's Irish friends. 
The character of " mean fellow " given him by Pepys is borne 
out by much that is otherwise known of him. But it is no less 
certain that he was an excellent seaman and a good fighter. 
After 1650 he was employed in the Ocean, and in the Mediter- 
ranean in pursuit of the Royalists under Prince Rupert. He 
was so active on this service that when he returned home on 
the i8th of March 1651 he could boast that he had not put foot 
on shore for more than a year. When the first Dutch War 
broke out Penn was appointed vice-admiral to Blake, and was 
present at the battle of the 28th of September off the Kentish 
Knock. In the three days' battle off Portland, February 
1653, he commanded the Blue squadron, and he also served 
with distinction in the final battles of the war in June and July. 
In December he was included in the commission of admirals 
and generals at sea, who exercised the military command of 
the fleet, as well as " one of the commissioners for ordering and 
managing the affairs of the admiralty and navy." In 1654 he 
offered to carry the fleet over to the king, but in October of 



the same year he had no scruple in accepting the naval command 
in the expedition to the West Indies sent out by Cromwell, 
which conquered Jamaica. He was not responsible for the 
shameful repulse at San Domingo, which was due to a panic 
among the troops. On their return he and his military colleague 
Venables were sent to the Tower. He made humble submission, 
and when released retired to the estate he had received from 
confiscated land in Ireland. He continued in communication 
with the Royalists, and in 1660 had a rather obscure share in 
the Restoration. He was reappointed commissioner of the 
navy by the king, and in the second Dutch War served as 
"great captain commander" or captain of the fleet, with 
the duke of York (afterwards King James II.) at the battle 
of Lowestoft (June 3, 1665). When the duke withdrew from 
the command, Penn's active service ceased. He continued 
however to be a commissioner of the navy. His death occurred 
on the i6th of September 1670, and he was buried in the church 
of St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol. His portrait by Lely is in the 
Painted Hall at Greenwich. By his wife Margaret Jasper, he 
was the father of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania. 
Though Sir William Penn was not a high-minded man, he is 
a figure of considerable importance in British naval history. 
As admiral and general for the parliament he helped in 1653 
to draw up the first code of tactics provided for the navy. It 
was the base of the " Duke of York's Sailing and Fighting 
Instructions," which continued for long to supply the orthodox 
tactical creed of the navy. 

See the Memorials of the Professional Life and Times of SirWilliam 
Penn, by Granville Penn. (D. H.) 

PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718), English Quaker and founder 
of Pennsylvania, son of Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670) 
and Margaret Jasper, a Dutch lady, was born at Tower Hill, 
London, on the I4th of October 1644. During his father's 
absence at sea he lived at Wanstead in Essex, and went to school 
at Chigwell close by, in which places he was brought under 
strong Puritan influences. Like many children of sensitive 
temperament, he had times of spiritual excitement; when about 
twelve he was " suddenly surprised with an inward comfort, 
and, as he thought, an external glory in the room, which gave 
rise to religious emotions, during which he had the strongest 
conviction of the being of a God, and that the soul of man was 
capable of enjoying communication with Him." Upon the 
death of Cromwell, Penn's father, who had served the Protector 
because there was no other career open, remained with his family 
on the Irish estates which Cromwell had given him, of the value 
of 300 a year. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell he 
at once declared for the king and went to the court in Holland, 
where he was received into favour and knighted; and at the 
elections for the convention parliament he was returned for 
Weymouth. Meanwhile young Penn studied under a private 
tutor on Tower Hill until, in October 1660, he was entered as a 
gentleman commoner at Christ Church. He appears in the 
same year to have contributed to the Threnodia, a collection 
of elegies on the death of the young duke of Gloucester. 

The rigour with which the Anglican statutes were revived, 
and the Puritan heads of colleges supplanted, roused the spirit 
of resistance at Oxford to the uttermost. With this spirit Penn, 
who was on familiar terms with John Owen (1616-1683), and 
who had already fallen under the influence of Thomas Loe 
the Quaker, then at Oxford, actively sympathized. He and 
others refused to attend chapel and church service, and were 
fined in consequence. How far his leaving the university 
resulted from this cannot be clearly ascertained. Anthony 
Wood has nothing regarding the cause of his leaving, but says 
that he stayed at Oxford for two years, and that he was noted 
for proficiency in manly sports. There is no doubt that in 
January 1662 his father was anxious to remove him to Cambridge, 
and consulted Pepys on the subject; and in later years he speaks 
of being " banished " the college, and of being whipped, beaten 
and turned out of doors on his return to his father, in the 
anger of the latter at his avowed Quakerism. A reconciliation, 
however, was effected; and Penn was sent to France to forget this 



IOO 



PENN, WILLIAM 



folly. The plan was for a time successful. Penn appears to have 
entered more or less into the gaieties of the court of Louis XIV., 
and while there to have become acquainted with Robert Spencer, 
afterwards earl of Sunderland, and with Dorothy, sister to 
Algernon Sidney. What, however, is more certain is that he 
somewhat later placed himself under the tuition of Moses 
Amyraut, the celebrated president of the Protestant college 
of Saumur, and at that time the exponent of liberal Calvinism, 
from whom he gained the patristic knowledge which is so 
prominent in his controversial writings. He afterwards travelled 
in Italy, returning to England in August 1664, with " a great 
deal, if not too much, of the vanity of the French garb and 
affected manner of speech and gait." 1 

Until the outbreak of the plague Penn was a student of 
Lincoln's Inn. For a few days also he served on the staff of 
his father now great captain commander and was by him 
sent back in April 1665 to Charles with despatches. Returning 
after the naval victory off Lowestoft in June, Admiral Penn 
found that his son had again become settled in seriousness and 
Quakerism. To bring him once more to views of life not incon- 
sistent with court preferment, the admiral sent him in February 
1666 with introductions to Ormonde's pure but brilliant court 
in Ireland, and to manage his estate in Cork round Shannan- 
garry Castle, his title to which was disputed. Penn appears 
also later in the year to have been " clerk of the cheque " 
at Kinsale, of the castle and fort of which his father had the 
command. When the mutiny broke out in Carrickfergus Penn 
volunteered for service, and acted under Arran so as to gain 
considerable reputation. The result was that in May 1666 
Ormonde offered him his father's company of foot, but, for 
some unexplained reason, the admiral demurred to this arrange- 
ment. It was at this time that the well-known portrait was 
painted of the great Quaker in a suit of armour; and it was at 
this time, too, that the conversion, begun when he was a boy 
by Thomas Loe in Ireland, was completed at the same place 
by the same agency. 2 . 

On the 3rd of September 1667 Penn attended a meeting of 
Quakers in Cork, at which he assisted to expel a soldier who 
had disturbed the meeting. He was in consequence, with 
others present, sent to prison by the magistrates. From prison 
he wrote to Lord Orrery, the president of Munster, a letter, 
in which he first publicly makes a claim for perfect freedom of 
conscience. He was immediately released, and at once returned 
to his father in London, with the distinctive marks of Quakerism 
strong upon him. Penn now became a minister of the denomi- 
nation, and at once entered upon controversy and authorship. 
His first book, Truth Exalted, was violent and aggressive in the 
extreme; The same offensive personality is shown in The Guide 
Mistaken, a tract written in answer to John Clapham's Guide 
to the True Religion. It was at this time, too, that he appealed, 
not unsuccessfully, to Buckingham, who on Clarendon's fall 
was posing as the protector of the Dissenters, to use his efforts 
to procure parliamentary toleration. 

Penn's first public discussion was with Thomas Vincent, a 
London Presbyterian minister, who had reflected on the 
" damnable " doctrines of the Quakers. The discussion, which 
had turned chiefly upon the doctrine of the Trinity, ended 
uselessly, and Penn at once published The Sandy Foundation 
Shaken, a tract of ability sufficient to excite Pepys's astonish- 
ment, in which orthodox views were so offensively attacked 
that Penn was placed in the Tower, where he remained for nearly 
nine months. The imputations upon his opinions and good 
citizenship, made as well by Dissenters as by the Church, he 
repelled in Innocency with her Open Face, in which he asserts 
his full belief in the divinity of Christ, the atonement, and 
justification through faith, though insisting on the necessity 
of good works. It was now, too, that he published the most 
important of his books, No Cross, No Crown, which contained 
an able defence of the Quaker doctrines and practices, and a 
scathing attack on the loose and unchristian lives of the clergy. 

1 Pepys, August 30, 1664. 

2 Webb, The Penns and Penningtons (1867), p. 174. 



While completely refusing to recant Penn addressed a letter 
to Arlington in July 1669, in which, on grounds of religious 
freedom, he asked him to interfere. It is noteworthy, as 
showing the views then predominant, that he was almost at 
once set at liberty. 

An informal reconciliation now took place with his father, 
who had been impeached through the jealousy of Rupert and 
Monk (in April 1668), and whose conduct in the operations of 
1665 he had publicly vindicated; and Penn was again sent on 
family business to Ireland. At the desire of his father, whose 
health was fast failing, Penn returned to London in 1670. 
Having found the usual place of meeting in Gracechurch Street 
closed by soldiers, Penn, as a protest, preached to the people 
in the open street. With William Mead he was at once arrested 
and indicted at the Old Bailey on the ist of September for 
preaching to an unlawful, seditious and riotous assembly, 
which had met together with force and arms. The Conventicle 
Act not touching their case, the trial which followed, and which 
may be read at length in Penn's People's Ancient and Just 
Liberties Asserted, was a notable one in the history of trial by 
jury. With extreme courage and skill Penn exposed the 
illegality of the prosecution, while the jury, for the first time, 
asserted the right of juries to decide in opposition to the ruling 
of the court. They brought in a verdict declaring Penn and 
Mead " guilty of speaking in Gracechurch Street," but refused 
to add " to an unlawful assembly "; then, as the pressure upon 
them increased, they first acquitted Mead, while returning 
their original verdict upon Penn, and then, when that verdict 
was not admitted, returned their final answer " not guilty " 
for both. The court fined the jurymen 40 marks each for their 
contumacy, and, in default of payment, imprisoned them, 
whereupon they vindicated and established for ever the right 
they had claimed in an action (known as Bushell's case from the 
name of one of the jurymen) before the court of common pleas, 
when all twelve judges unanimously declared their imprisonment 
illegal. 

Penn himself had been fined for not removing his hat in court, 
had been imprisoned on his refusal to pay, and had earnestly 
requested his family not to pay for him. The fine, however, 
was settled anonymously, and he was released in time to be 
present at his father's death on the i6th of September 1670, 
at the early age of forty-nine. Penn now found himself in 
possession of a fortune of 1500 a year, and a claim on the 
Crown for 16,000, lent to Charles II. by his father. Upon his 
release Penn at once plunged into controversy, challenging a 
Baptist minister named Jeremiah Ives, at High Wycombe, to 
a public dispute and, according to the Quaker account, easily 
defeating him. No account is forthcoming from the other 
side. Hearing at Oxford that students who attended Friends' 
meeting were rigorously used, he wrote a vehement and abusive 
remonstrance to the vice-chancellor in defence of religious 
freedom. This found still more remarkable expression in the 
Seasonable Caveat against Popery (Jan. 1671). 

In the beginning of 1671 Penn was again arrested for preaching 
in Wheeler Street meeting-house by Sir J. Robinson, the 
lieutenant of the Tower, formerly lord mayor, and known as a 
brutal and bigoted churchman. Legal proof being wanting 
of any breach of the Conventicle Act, and the Oxford or Five 
Mile Act also proving inapplicable, Robinson, who had some 
special cause of enmity against Penn, urged upon him the oath 
of allegiance. This, of course, the Quaker would not take, 
and consequently was imprisoned for six months. During this 
imprisonment Penn wrote several works, the most important 
being The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience (Feb. 1671), 
a noble defence of complete toleration. Upon his release he 
started upon a missionary journey through Holland and 
Germany; at Emden he founded a Quaker society, and 
established an intimate friendship with the princess palatine 
Elizabeth. 

Upon his return home in the spring of 1672 Penn married 
Gulielma Springett, daughter of Mary Pennington by her first 
husband, Sir William Springett; she appears to have been 



PENN, WILLIAM 



101 



equally remarkable for beauty, devotion to her husband, and 
firmness to the religious principles which she had adopted when 
little more than a child. 1 He now settled at Rickmansworth 
in Hertfordshire, and gave himself up to controversial writing. 
To this year, 1672, belong the Treatise on Oaths and England's 
Present Interest Considered. In the year 1673 Penn was still 
more active. He secured the release of George Fox, addressed 
the Quakers in Holland and Germany, carried on public 
controversies with Thomas Hicks, a Baptist, and John Faldo, an 
Independent, and published his treatise on the Christian Quaker 
and his Divine Testimony Vindicated, the Discourse of the General 
Ride of Faith and Practice? Reasons against Railing (in answer 
to Hicks), Counterfeit Christianity Detected, and a Just Rebuke 
to One-and-lwenly Learned Divines (an answer to Faldo and to 
Quakerism no Christianity). His last public controversy was 
in 1675 with Richard Baxter, in which, of course, each party 
claimed the victory. 

At this point Penn's connexion with America begins. The 
province of New Jersey, comprising the country between the 
Hudson and Delaware rivers on the east and west, had been 
granted in March 1663-1664 by Charles II. to his brother; James 
in turn had in June of the same year leased it to Lord Berkeley 
and Sir G. Carteret in equal shares. By a deed, dated i8th 
of March 1673-1674, John Fenwick, a Quaker, bought one of 
the shares, that of Lord Berkeley (Stoughton erroneously says 
Carteret's) in trust for Edward Byllinge, also a Friend, for 
1000. This sale was confirmed by James, after the second 
Dutch War, on the 6th of August 1680. Disputes having arisen 
between Fenwick and Byllinge, Penn acted as arbitrator; and 
then, Byllinge being in money difficulties, and being compelled 
to sell his interest in order to satisfy his creditors, Penn was 
added, at their request, to two of themselves, as trustee. The 
disputes were settled by Fenwick receiving ten out of the hundred 
parts into which the province was divided, 3 with a considerable 
sum of money, the remaining ninety parts being afterwards 
put up for sale. Fenwick sold his ten parts to two other Friends, 
Eldridge and Warner, who thus, with Penn and the other two, 
became masters of West Jersey, West New Jersey, or New West 
Jersey, as it was indifferently called. 4 The five proprietors 
appointed three commissioners, with instructions dated from 
London the 6th of August 1676, to settle disputes with Fenwick 
(who had bought fresh land from the Indians, upon which Salem 
was built, Penn being himself one of the settlers there) and to 
purchase new territories, and to build a town New Beverley, 
or Burlington, being the result. For the new colony Penn drew 
up a constitution, under the title of " Concessions." The 
greatest care is taken to make this constitution " as near as 
may be conveniently to the primitive, ancient and fundamental 
laws of the nation of England." But a democratic element 
is introduced, and the new principle of perfect religious freedom 
stands in the first place (ch. xvi.). With regard to the liberty 
of the subject, no one might be condemned in life, liberty or 
estate, except by a jury of twelve, and the right of challenging 
was granted to the uttermost (ch. xvii.). Imprisonment for 
debt was not abolished (as Dixon states), but was reduced to a 
minimum (ch. xviii.), while theft was punished by twofold 
restitution either in value or in labour to that amount (ch. 
xxviii.). The provisions of ch. xix. deserve special notice. 
All causes were to go before three justices, with a jury. " They, 
the said justices, shall pronounce such judgment as they shall 
receive from, and be directed by the said twelve men, in whom 
only the judgment resides, and not otherwise. And in case of 
their neglect and refusal, that then one of the twelve, by consent 
of the rest, pronounce their own judgment as the justices should 
have done." The justices and constables, moreover, were 

1 For a very charming account of her, and the whole Pennington 
connexion, see Maria Webb's The Penns and Penningtons. 

2 See on this Stoughton's Penn, p. 113. 

3 The deed by which Fenwick and Byllinge conveyed West New 
Jersey to Penn, Lawry and Nicholas Lucas is dated the loth of 
February 1674-1675. 

4 The line of partition was "from the. east side of Little Egg 
Harbour, straight north, through the country, to the utmost branch 
of Delaware River." 



elected by the people, the former for two years only (ch. xli.). 
Suitors might plead in person, and the courts were public 
(ch. xxii.). Questions between Indians and settlers were to be 
arranged by a mixed jury (ch. xxv.). An assembly was to 
meet yearly, consisting of a hundred persons, chosen by the 
inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors, one for each division 
of the province. The election was to be by ballot, and each 
member was to receive a shilling a day from his division, " that 
thereby he may be known to be the servant of the people." 
The executive power was to be in the hands of ten commissioners 6 
chosen by the assembly. Such a constitution soon attracted 
large numbers of Quakers to West Jersey. 

It was shortly before these occurrences that Penn inherited 
through his wife the estate of Worminghurst in Sussex, whither 
he removed from Rickmansworth. He now (July 25, 1677) 
undertook a second missionary journey to the continent along 
with George Fox, Robert Barclay and George Keith. He 
visited particularly Rotterdam and all the Holland towns, 
renewed his intimacy with the princess Elizabeth at Herwerden, 
and, under considerable privations, travelled through Hanover, 
Germany, the lower Rhine and the electorate of Brandenburg, 
returning by Bremen and the Hague. It is worthy of recollec- 
tion that the Germantown (Philadelphia) settlers from Kirch- 
heim, one of the places which responded in an especial degree 
to Penn's teaching, are noted as the first who declared it wrong 
for Christians to hold slaves. Penn reached England again on 
the 24th of October. He tried *.o gain the insertion in the bill 
for the relief of Protestant Dissenters of a clause enabling Friends 
to affirm instead of taking the oath, and twice addressed the 
House of Commons' committee with considerable eloquence 
and effect. The bill, however, fell to the ground at the sudden 
prorogation. 

In 1678 the popish terror came to a head, and to calm and 
guide Friends in the prevailing excitement Penn wrote his 
Epistle to the Children of Light in this Generation. A far more 
important publication was An Address to Protestants of all 
Persuasions, by William Penn, Protestant, in 1679; a powerful 
exposition of the doctrine of pure tolerance and a protest against 
the enforcement of opinions as articles of faith. This was 
succeeded, at the general election which followed the dissolution 
of the pensionary parliament, by an important political manifesto, 
England's Great Interest in the Choice of this New Parliament, in 
which he insisted on the following points: the discovery and 
punishment of the plot, the impeachment of corrupt ministers 
and councillors, the punishment of " pensioners," the enactment 
of frequent parliaments, security from popery and slavery, and 
ease for Protestant Dissenters. Next came One Project for the 
Good of England, perhaps the most pungent of all his political 
writings. But he was not merely active with his pen. He was 
at this time in close intimacy with Algernon Sidney, who stood 
successively for Guildford and Bramber. In each case, owing 
in a great degree to Penn's eager advocacy, Sidney was elected, 
only to have his elections annulled by court influence. Toleration 
for Dissenters seemed as far off as ever. Encouraged by his suc- 
cess in the West Jersey province, Penn again turned his thoughts 
to America. In repayment of the debt mentioned above he 
now asked from the Crown, at a council held on the 24th of June 
1680, for " a tract of land in America north of Maryland, bounded 
on the east by the Delaware, on the west limited as Maryland 
[i.e. by New Jersey], northward as far as plantable "; this 
latter limit Penn explained to be " three degrees northwards." 
This formed a tract of 300 m. by 160, of extreme fertility, mineral 
wealth and richness of all kinds. Disputes with James, duke 
of York, and with Lord Baltimore, who had rights over 
Maryland, delayed the matter until the i4th of March 1681, 
when the grant received the royal signature, and Penn was made 
master of the province of Pennsylvania. His own account of 
the name is that he suggested " Sylvania," that the king added 
the " Penn " in honour of his father, and that, although he 

6 Penn's letter of the 26th of August 1676 says twelve, and Clark- 
son has followed this; but the Concessions, which were not assented 
to by the inhabitants until the 3rd of March 1676-1677, say ten. 



IO2 



PENN, WILLIAM 



strenuously objected and even tried to bribe the secretaries, he 
could not get the name altered. It should be added that early 
in 1682 Carteret, grandson of the original proprietor, transferred 
his rights in East Jersey to Penn and eleven associates, who 
soon afterwards conveyed one-half of their interest to the earl 
of Perth and eleven others. It is uncertain to what extent 
Penn retained his interest in West and East Jersey, and when 
it ceased. The two provinces were united under one governor 
in 1699, and Penn was a proprietor in 170x3. In 1702 the 
government of New Jersey was surrendered to the Crown. 

By the charter for Pennsylvania Penn was made proprietary 
of the province. He was supreme governor; he had the power 
of making laws with the advice, assent and approbation of the 
freemen, of appointing officers, and of granting pardons. The 
laws were to contain nothing contrary to English law, with a 
saving to the Crown and the privy council in the case of 
appeals. Parliament was to be supreme in all questions of 
trade and commerce; the right to levy taxes and customs was 
reserved to England; an agent to represent Penn was to reside 
in London; neglect on the part of Penn was to lead to the passing 
of the government to the Crown (which event actually took place 
in 1692); no correspondence might be carried on with countries 
at war with Great Britain. The importunity of the bishop of 
London extorted the right to appoint Anglican ministers, 
should twenty members of the colony desire it, thus securing 
the very 'thing which Penn was anxious to avoid the 
recognition of the principle of an esta ilishment. 

Having appointed Colonel (Sir Will am) Markham, his cousin, 
as deputy, and having in October sent out three commissioners 
to manage his affairs until his arrival, Penn proceeded to draw 
up proposals to adventurers, with an account of the resources of 
the colony. He negotiated, too, with James and Lord Balti- 
more with the view, ultimately successful, of freeing the mouth 
of the Delaware, wrote to the Indians in conciliatory terms, 
and encouraged the formation of companies to work the infant 
colony both in England and Germany, especially the " Free 
Society of Traders in Pennsylvania," to whom he sold 20,000 
acres, absolutely refusing, however, to grant any monopolies. 
In July he drew up a body of " conditions and concessions." 
This constitution, savouring strongly of Harrington's Oceana, 
was framed, it is said, in consultation with Sidney, but the 
statement is doubtful. Until the council of seventy-two (chosen 
by universal suffrage every three years, twenty-four retiring 
each year), and the assembly (chosen annually) were duly elected, 
a body of provisional laws was added. 

It was in the midst of this extreme activity that Penn was 
made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Leaving his family 
behind him, Penn sailed with a hundred comrades from Deal 
in the " Welcome " on the ist of September 1682. His Last 
Farewell to England and his letter to his wife and children contain 
a beautiful expression of his pious and manly nature. He 
landed at New Castle on the Delaware on the 27th of October, 
his company having lost one-third of their number by small-pox 
during the voyage. After receiving formal possession, arid 
having visited New York, Penn ascended the Delaware to the 
Swedish settlement of Upland, to which he gave the name of 
Chester. The assembly at once met, and on the 7th of December 
passed the " Great Law of Pennsylvania." The idea which 
informs this law is that Pennsylvania was to be a Christian state 
on a Quaker model. Philadelphia was now founded, and within 
two years contained 300 houses and a population of 2500. At. 
the same time an act was passed, uniting under the same govern- 
ment the territories which had been granted by feoffment by 
James in 1682. Realistic and entirely imaginative accounts (cf. 
Dixon, p. 270), inspired chiefly by Benjamin West's picture, 
have been given of the treaty which there seems no doubt Penn 
actually made in November 1683 with the Indians. His con- 
nexion with them was one of the most successful parts of his 
management, and he gained at once and retained through life 
their intense affection. 

Penn now wrote an account of Pennsylvania from his own 
observation for the " Free Society of Traders," in which he 



shows considerable power of artistic description. Tales of 
violent persecution of the Quakers, and the necessity of settling 
disputes, which had arisen with Lord Baltimore, his neighbour 
in Maryland, brought Penn back to England (Oct. 2, 1684) 
after an absence of two years. In the spring of 1683 he had 
modified the original charter at the desire of the assembly, but 
without at all altering its democratic character. 1 He was, in 
reference to this alteration, charged with selfish and deceitful 
dealing by the assembly. Within five months after his arrival 
in England Charles II. died, and Penn found himself at once in 
a position of great influence. Penn now took up his abode 
at Kensington in Holland House, so as to be near the court. 
His influence there was great enough to secure the pardon of 
John Locke, who had been dismissed from Oxford by Charles, 
and of 1200 Quakers who were in prison. At this time, too, 
he was busy with his pen once more, writing a further account 
of Pennsylvania, a pamphlet in defence of Buckingham's essay 
in favour of toleration, in which he is supposed to have had some 
share, and his Persuasive to Moderation to Dissenting Christians, 
very similar in tone to the One Project for the Good of England. 
When Monmouth's rebellion was suppressed he appears to have 
done his best to mitigate the horrors of the western commission, 
opposing Jeffreys to the uttermost. 2 Macaulay has accused 
Penn of being concerned in some of the worst actions of the court 
at this time. His complete refutation by Forster, Paget, 
Dixon and others renders it unnecessary to do more than allude 
to the cases of the Maids of Taunton, Alderman Kiffin, and 
Magdalen College (Oxford). 

In 1686, when making a third missionary journey to Holland 
and Germany, Penn was charged by James with an informal 
mission to the prince of Orange to endeavour to gain his assent 
to the removal of religious tests. Here he met Burnet, from 
whom, as from the prince, he gained no satisfaction, and who 
greatly disliked him. On his return he went on a preaching 
mission through England. His position with James was 
undoubtedly a compromising one, and it is not strange that, 
wishing to tolerate Papists, he should, in the prevailing temper of 
England, be once more accused of being a Jesuit, while he was 
in constant antagonism to their body. Even Tillotson took up 
this view strongly, though he at once accepted Penn's vehement 
disavowal. In 1687 James published the Declaration of Indul- 
gence, and Penn probably drew up the address of thanks on 
the part of the Quakers. It fully reflects his views, which are 
further ably put in the pamphlet Good Advice to the Church 
of England, Roman Catholics, and Protestant Dissenters, in 
which he showed the wisdom and duty of repealing the Test 
Acts and Penal Laws. At the Revolution he behaved with 
courage. He was one of the few friends of the king who remained 
in London, and, when twice summoned before the council, spoke 
boldly in his behalf. He admitted that James had asked him 
to come to him in France; but at the same time he asserted his 
perfect loyalty. During the absence of William in 1690 he was 
proclaimed by Mary as a dangerous person, but no evidence of 
treason was forthcoming. It was now that he lost by death 
two of his dearest friends, Robert Barclay and George Fox. 
It was at the funeral of the latter that, upon the information 
of the notorious informer William Fuller (1670-1717?), an 
attempt was made to arrest him,but[he had just left the ground; 
the fact that no further steps were then taken shows how little 
the government believed in his guilt. He now lived in retire- 
ment in London, though his address was perfectly well known 
to his friends in the council. In 1691, again on Fuller's evidence, 
a proclamation was issued for the arrest of Penn and two others 
as being concerned in Preston's plot. In .1692 he began to write 
again, both on questions of Quaker discipline and in defence, of 
the sect. Just Measures in an Epistle of Peace and Love, The 
New Athenians (in reply to the attacks of the Athenian Mercury), 
and A Key opening the Way to every Capacity are the principal 
publications of this year. 

Meantime matters had been going badly in Pennsylvania. 



1 Dixon, p. 276. 

2 Burnet, iii. 66; Dalrymple, i. 282. 



PENN, WILLIAM 



103 



Penn had, in 1686, been obliged to make changes in the com- 
position of the executive body, though in 1689 it reverted to 
the original constitution; the legislative bodies had quarrelled; 
and Penn could not gain his rents. The chief difficulty in 
Pennsylvania was the dispute between the province i.e. the 
country given to Penn by the charter and the " territories," 
or the lands granted to him by the duke of York by feoffment in 
August 1682, which were under the same government but had 
differing interests. The difficulties which Quaker principles 
placed in the way of arming the colony a matter of grave 
importance in the existing European complications fought 
most hardly against Penn's power. On the 2ist of October 
1692 an order of council was issued depriving Penn of the 
governorship of Pennsylvania and giving it to Colonel Benjamin 
Fletcher, the governor of New York. To this blow were added 
the illness of his wife and a fresh accusation of treasonable 
correspondence with James. In his enforced retirement he 
wrote the most devotional and most charming of his works 
the collection of maxims of conduct and religion entitled The 
Fruits of Solitude. In December, thanks to the efforts of his 
friends at court, among whom were Buckingham, Somers, 
Rochester, and Henry Sidney, he received an intimation that 
no further steps would be taken against him. The accusation, 
however, had been public, and he insisted on the withdrawal 
being equally public. He was therefore heard in full council 
before the king, and honourably acquitted of all charges of trea- 
son. It was now that he wrote an Essay towards the Present 
and Future Peace of Europe, in which he puts forth the idea of 
a great court of arbitration, a principle which he had already 
carried out in Pennsylvania. 

In 1694 (Feb. 23) his wife Gulielma died, leaving two 
sons, Springett and William, and a daughter Letitia, afterwards 
married to William Aubrey. Two other daughters, Mary and 
Hannah, died in infancy. He consoled himself by writing his 
Account of the Rise and Progress of the People called Quakers. 
The coldness and suspicion with which he had been regarded by 
his own denomination had now ceased, and he was once more 
regarded by the Quaker body as their leader. About the same 
time (Aug. 20) he was restored to the governorship of 
Pennsylvania; and he promised to supply money and men for 
the defence of the frontiers. In 1695 he went on another 
preaching mission in the west, and in March 1696 he formed 
a second marriage, with Hannah Callowhill, his son Springett 
dying five weeks later. In this year he wrote his work On Primi- 
tive Christianity, in which he argues that the faith and practice of 
the Friends were those of the early Church. In 1697 Penn removed 
to Bristol, and during the greater part of 1698 was preaching 
with great success against oppression in Ireland, whither he 
had gone to look after the property at Shannangarry. 

In 1699 he was back in Pennsylvania, landing near Chester 
on the 3oth of November, where the success of Colonel Robert 
Quary, judge of the admiralty in Pennsylvania who was in the 
interests of those who wished to make the province an imperial 
colony and the high-handed action of the deputy Markham in 
opposition to the Crown, were causing great difficulties. Penn 
carried with him particular instructions to put down piracy, 
which the objections of the Quakers to the use of force had 
rendered audacious and concerning which Quary had made 
strong representations to the home government, while Markham 
and the inhabitants apparently encouraged it. Penn and 
Quary, howevei came ut once to a satisfactory understanding 
on this matter, and the illegal traffic was vigorously and success- 
fully attacked. In 1696 the Philadelphian Yearly Meeting 
had passed a resolution declaring slavery contrary to the first 
principles of the gospel. Penn, however, did not venture upon 
emancipation; but he insisted on the instruction of negroes, 
permission for them to marry, repression of polygamy and 
adultery, and proposed regulations for their trial and punishment. 
The assembly, however, a very mixed body of all nations, now 
refused to- accept any of these proposals except the last-named. 
His great success was with the Indians; by their treaty with 
him in 1700 they promised not to help any enemy of England, 



to traffic only with those approved by the governor, and to sell 
furs or skins to none but inhabitants of the province. At the 
same time he showed his capacity for legislation by the share 
he took with Lord Bellomont at New York in the consolidation 
of the laws in use in the various parts of America. 

Affairs now again demanded his presence in England. The king 
had in 1701 written to urge upon the Pennsylvania government 
a union with other private colonies f< r defence, and had asked 
for money for fortifications. The difi culty felt by the Crown 
in this matter was a natural one. A bill was brought into the 
lords to convert private into Crown colonies. Penn's son 
appeared before the committee of the house and managed to 
delay the matter until his father's return. On the isth of 
September Penn called the assembly together, in which the 
differences between the province and the territories again broke 
out. He succeeded, however, in calming them, appointed a 
council of ten to manage the province in his absence, and gave 
a borough charter to Philadelphia. In May 1700, experience 
having shown that alterations in the charter were advisable, 
the assembly had, almost unanimously, requested Penn to revise 
it. On the 28th of October 1701 he handed it back to them in 
the form in which it afterwards remained. An assembly was 
to be chosen yearly, of four persons from each county, with all 
the self-governing privileges of the English House of Commons. 
Two-thirds were to form a quorum. The nomination of sheriffs, 
coroners, and magistrates for each county was given to the 
governor, who was to select from names handed in by the free- 
men. Moreover, the council was no longer elected by the 
people, but nominated by the governor, who was thus practically 
left single in the executive. The assembly, however, who, by 
the first charter, had not the right to propound laws, but might 
only amend or reject them, now acquired that privilege. In 
other respects the original charter remained, and the inviol- 
ability of conscience was again emphatically asserted. Penn 
reached England in December 1701. He once more assumed 
the position of leader of the Dissenters and himself read the 
address of thanks for the promise from the Throne to maintain 
the Act of Toleration. He now took up his abode again at 
Kensington, and published while here his More Fruits of 
Solitude. 

In 1703 he went to Knightsbridge, where he remained until 
1706, when he removed to Brentford, his final residence being 
taken up in 1710 at Field Ruscombe, near Twy ford. In 1/04 
he wrote his Life of Bulstrode Whilelocke. He had now much 
trouble from America. The territorialists were openly rejecting 
his authority, and doing their best to obstruct all business in the 
assembly; and matters were further embarrassed by the inju- 
dicious conduct of Governor John Evans in 1706. Moreover, 
pecuniary troubles came heavily upon him, while the conduct of 
his son William, who became the ringleader of all the dissolute 
characters in Philadelphia, was another and still more severe 
trial. This son was married, and had a son and daughter, but 
appears to have been left entirely out of account in the settle- 
ment of Penn's proprietary rights on his death. 

Whatever were Penn's great qualities, he was deficient in 
judgment of character. This was especially shown in the choice 
of his steward Ford, from whom he had borrowed money, and 
who, by dexterous swindling, had managed, at the time of his 
death, to establish, and hand down to his widow and son, a 
claim for 14,000 against Penn. Penn, however, refused to pay, 
and spent nine months in the Fleet rather than give way. He 
was released at length by his friends, who paid 7500 in composi- 
tion of all claims. Difficulties with his government of Penn- 
sylvania continued to harass him. Fresh disputes took place 
with Lord Baltimore, the owner of Maryland, and Penn also felt 
deeply what seemed to him the ungrateful treatment which 
he met with at the hands of the assembly. He therefore in 
1710 wrote, in earnest and affectionate language, an address 
to his " old friends," setting forth his wrongs. So great was the 
effect which this produced that the assembly which met in 
October of that year was entirely in his interests; revenues were 
properly paid; the disaffected were silenced and complaints 



IO4 



PENNANT PENNINE CHAIN 



were hushed; while an advance in moral sense was shown by 
the fact that a bill was passed prohibiting the importation of 
negroes. This, however, when submitted to the British parlia- 
ment, was cancelled. Penn now, in February 1712, being in 
failing health, proposed to surrender his powers to the Crown. 
The commission of plantations recommended that Penn should 
receive 12,000 in four years from the time of surrender, Penn 
stipulating only that the queen should take the Quakers under 
her protection; and 1000 was given him in part payment. 
Before, however, the matter could go further he was seized with 
apoplectic fits, which shattered his understanding and memory. 
A second attack occurred in 1713. He died on the soth of May 
1718, leaving three sons by his second wife, John, Thomas and 
Richard, and was buried along with his first and second wives at 
Jourdans meeting-house, near Chalfont St Giles in Buckingham- 
shire. In 1790 the proprietary rights of Penn's descendants 
were bought up for a pension of 4000 a year to the eldest male 
descendant by his second wife, and this pension was commuted 
in 1884 for the sum of 67,000. 

Penn's Life was written by Joseph Besse, and prefixed to the 
collected edition of Penn's Works (1726); see also the bibliographical 
note to the article in Diet. Nat. Biog. W. Hepworth Dixon's bio- 
graphy, refuting Macaulay's charges, appeared in 1851. In 1907 
Mrs Colquhoun Grant, one of Penn's descendants, brought out a 
book, Quaker and Courtier: the Life and Work of William Penn. 

(O. A.) 

PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798), British naturalist and 
antiquary, was descended from an old Welsh family, for many 
generations resident at Downing, Flintshire, where he was born 
on the i4th of June 1726. He received his early education at 
Wrexham, and afterwards entered Queen's College, Oxford, 
but did not take a degree. At twelve years of age he was 
inspired with a passion for natural history through being 
presented with Francis Willughby's Ornithology; and a tour in 
Cornwall in 1746-1747 awakened his strong interest in minerals 
and fossils. In 1750 his account of an earthquake at Downing 
was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, where there also 
appeared in 1756 a paper on several coralloid bodies he had 
collected at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. In the following year, 
at the instance of Linnaeus, he was elected a member of the 
Royal Society of Upsala. In 1766 he published the first part 
of his British Zoology, a work meritorious rather as a laborious 
compilation than as an original contribution to science. During 
its progress he visited the continent of Europe and made the 
acquaintance of Buffon, Voltaire, Haller and Pallas. In 1767 
he was elected F.R.S. In 1771 was published his Synopsis 
of Quadrupeds, afterwards extended into a. History of Quadrupeds. 
At the end of the same year he published A Tour in Scotland in 
17 6g, which proving remarkably popular was followed in 1774 
by an account of another journey in Scotland, in two volumes. 
These works have proved invaluable as preserving the record 
of important antiquarian relics which have now perished. 
In 1778 he brought out a similar Tour in Wales, which was 
followed by a Journey to Snowdon (pt. i. 1781; pt. ii. 1783), 
afterwards forming the second volume of the Tour. In 1782 
he published a Journey from Chester to London. He brought 
out Arctic Zoology in 1785-1787. In I79oappeared his Account 
of London, which went through a large number of editions, and 
three years later he published the Literary Life of the late T. 
Pennant, written by himself. In his later years he was engaged 
on a work entitled Outlines of the Globe, vols. i. and ii. of which 
appeared in 1798, and vols. iii. and iv., edited by his son David 
Pennant, in 1800. He was also the author of a number of 
minor works, some of which were published posthumously. 
He died at Downing on the i6th of December 1798. 

PENNAR, or PENNER, two rivers of southern India, distin- 
guished as North and South. The native name is Pinakini. 
Both rise near the hill of Nandidrug in Mysore state, and flow 
eastward into the Bay of Bengal. The northern is the more 
important and has a total length of 355 m., that of the southern 
being 245 m. This latter bears the alternative name of the 
Ponniar. The Pennar (northern) river canal system comprises 
more than 30 m. of canals, irrigating 155,500 acres. 



PENNE, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province 
of Teramo, 26 m. S.E. of Teramo, and 16 m. inland from the 
Adriatic, 1437 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,394. The 
cathedral has been much altered; in its treasury is some fine 
i3th (?) century silversmiths' work; the church of S. Giovanni 
has a fine cross by Nicola di Guardiagrele, and that of S. Maria 
in Colleromano, outside the town, a Romanesque portal. Many 
of the houses have fine terra-cotta friezes. It occupies the site 
of the ancient Pinna, the chief city of the Vestini, who entered 
into alliance with Rome in 301 B.C. and remained faithful to 
her through the Hannibalic wars and even during the revolt 
of the Italian allies in 90 B.C. No remains of the Roman period 
exist, even the city walls being entirely medieval. 

See G. Cplasanti, Pinna (Rome, 1907); V. Bindi, Monumenti 
degli Abruzzi (Naples, 1889, pp. 565 sqq.). 

PENNELL, JOSEPH (1860- ), American artist and author, 
was born in Philadelphia on the 4th of July 1860, and first 
studied there, but like his compatriot and friend, J. M. Whistler, 
he afterwards went to Europe and made his home in London. 
He produced numerous books (many of them in collaboration 
with his wife, Elizabeth Robins Pennell), but his chief distinction 
is as an original etcher and lithographer, and notably as an 
illustrator. Their close acquaintance with Whistler led to 
Mr and Mrs Pennell undertaking a biography of that artist in 
1906, and, after some litigation with his executrix on the right 
to use his letters, the book was published in 1908. 

PENNI, GIANFRANCESCO (1488-1528), Italian painter, 
surnamed " II Fattore," from the relation in which he stood 
to Raphael, whose favourite disciple he was after Giulio Romano, 
was a native of Florence, but spent the latter years of his life 
in Naples. He painted in oil as well as in fresco, but is chiefly 
known for his work in the Loggie of the Vatican. 

PENNINE CHAIN, an extensive system of hills in the north of 
England. The name is probably derived from the Celtic pen, 
high, appearing in the Apennines of Italy and the Pennine Alps. 
The English system is comprised within the following physical 
boundaries. On the N. a well-marked depression, falling below 
500 ft. in height, between the upper valleys of the Irthing and 
the south Tyne, from which it is known as the Tyne Gap, 
separates the Pennines from the system of the Cheviots. On 
the N.E., in Northumberland, the foothills extend to the North 
Sea. On the N.W. the Eden valley forms part of the boundary 
between the Pennines and the hills of the Lake District, and the 
division is continued by the upper valley of the Lune. For the 
rest the physical boundaries consist of extensive lowlands 
on the E. the vale of York, on the W. the coastal belt of Lan- 
cashire and the plain of Cheshire, and on the S. and S.E. the 
valley of the river Trent. The Pennines thus cover parts of 
Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland, Lancashire 
and Yorkshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire, while the southern 
foothills extend into Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire. 

The Pennine system is hardly a range, but the hills are in 
effect broken up into numerous short ranges by valleys cut back 
into them in every direction, for the Pennines form a north and 
south watershed which determines the course of all the larger 
rivers in the north of England. The chain is divided into two 
sections by a gap formed by the river Aire flowing east, a member 
of the Humber basin, and the Ribble flowing west and entering 
the Irish Sea through a wide estuary south of Morecambe Bay. 

The northern section of the Pennine system is broader and 
generally higher than the southern. Its western slope is generally 
short and steep, the eastern long and gradual ; this distinction apply- 
ing to the system at large. In the north-west a sharp escarpment 
overlooks the Eden valley. This is the nearest approach to a true 
mountain range in the Pennine system and indeed in England. 
It is known as the Cross Fell Edge from its highest point, Cross Fell 
(2930 ft.), to the south-east of which a height of 2780 ft. is reached 
in Milburn Forest, and of 2591 ft. in Mickle Fell. This range is 
marked off eastward by the upper valleys of the south Tyne and the 
Tees, and, from the divide between these two, branch ranges spring 
eastward, separated by the valley of the Wear, at the head of which 
are Burnhope Seat (2452 ft.) and Dead Stones (2326 ft.). In the 
northern range the highest point is Midrllehope Moor (2206 ft.), and 
in the southern, Chapel Fell Top (2294 ft.). It is thus seen that the 



PENNSYLVANIA 



105 



higher elevations, like the steeper slopes, lie towards the west. 
Cross Fell Edge terminates southward at a high pass (about 1400 ft.) 
between the head of the Belah, a tributary of the Eden, and the 
Greta, a tributary of the Tees. This pass is followed by the Tebay 
and Barnard Castle line of the North Eastern railway. The hills 
between the Lune valley on the west and the headstream of the 
Eden and the Ribble on the east are broken into masses by the dales 
of tributaries to the first-named river here the chief elevations are 
Wild Boar Fell (2323 ft.), Whernside (2414 ft.), and Ingleborough 
(2373 ft.). The Ribble and Eden valleys afford a route for the main 
line of the Midland railway. Well-marked eastward ranges occur 
here between Swaledale and the river Ure, which traverses the 
celebrated Wensleydale (q.v.), and between the Ure and Wharf e. 
In the first the highest points are High Seat (2328 ft.) and Great 
Shunner Fell (2340 ft.); and in the second Buckden Pike (2302 ft.) 
and Great Whernside (2310 ft.). There is then a general southerly 
slope to the Aire gap. 

The southern section of the system calls for less detailed notice. 
Heights exceeding 2000 ft. are rare. The centre of the section is 
the well-known Peak (q.v.) of Derbyshire. Both here and through- 
out the system the summits of the hills are high uplands, rounded 
or nearly flat, consisting of heathery, peaty moorland or hill pasture. 
The profile of the Pennines is thus not striking as a rule, but much 
fine scenery is found in the narrow dales throughout; Wensleydale, 
Wharfedale and other Yorkshire dales being no less famous than 
the dales of Derbyshire. In the parts about Settle below Ingle- 
borough, in Derbyshire, and elsewhere, remarkable caverns and 
subterranean watercourses in the limestone have been explored to 
great depths. In Ingleborough itself are the Ingleborough cave, near 
Clapham; the chasm of Gaping Ghyll, over 350 ft. deep; Helln or 
Hellan Pot, a vast swallow-hole 359 ft. deep, only exceeded by Row- 
ten Pot (365 ft.) near Whernside; and many others. Malham Tarn, 
near the head of the Aire, is drained by a stream which quickly 
disappears below ground, and the Aire itself is fed by a brook 
gushing forth in full stream at the foot of the cliffs of Malham Cove. 
A notable example in Derbyshire is the disappearance of the Wye into 
Plunge Hole, after which it traverses Poole's Cave, close to Buxton. 
There may also be noted the remarkable series of caverns near 
Castleton (q.v.). Lakes are few and small in the Pennine district, 
but in some of the upland valleys, such as those of the Nidd and the 
Etherow, reservoirs have been formed for the supply of the populous 
manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of York- 
shire, which he on either flank of the system between the Aire gap 
and the Peak. (For geology see ENGLAND and articles on the 
several counties.) 

PENNSYLVANIA, a North Atlantic state of the United 
States of America and one of the original thirteen, lying for 
the most part between latitudes 39 43' 26-3* and 42 N. and 
between longitudes 74 40' and 80 31' 36" W. The state is in 
the form of a rectangle, except in the north-west where a 
triangular projection, extending to 42 1 5' N. lat., gives it a shore- 
line of almost 40 m. on Lake Erie, on the east where the Dela- 
ware river with two large bends separates it from New York and 
New Jersey, and in the south-east where the arc of a circle which 
was described with a iz-m. radius from New Castle, Delaware, 
forms the boundary between it and Delaware. The forty-second 
parallel of N. latitude forms the boundary between it and New 
York on the N.; Mason and Dixon's line is the border between 
it and Maryland and West Virginia on the south and a north 
and south line marks the boundary between it and West 
Virginia and Ohio on the west. The total area is 45,126 sq. m. 
and of this 294 sq. m. are water surface. 

Physical Features. Pennsylvania skirts the coastal plain in the 
south-east below Philadelphia, is traversed from north-east to 
south-west by the three divisions of the Appalachian province 
Piedmont or older Appalachian belt, younger Appalachian ridges 
and valleys and Alleghany plateau and in the north-west corner 
is a small part of the Erie plain. The entire surface has a mean 
elevation of about uoo ft. above the sea. It rises from 20 ft. or 
less on the bank of the Delaware between Philadelphia and Chester 
to 2000-3000 ft. on the higher ridges in the middle section (3136 ft. 
on Blue Knob in Bedford county), and falls again to 900-1000 ft. 
on the Ohio border and to 750 ft. or less on the Erie plain ; in the 
south-east is an area of about 6100 sq. m. that is less than 500 ft. 
above the sea, while on the ridges in the middle of the state is an 
aggregate area of about 2000 sq. m. that everywhere exceeds 
2000 ft. in elevation. The area below 500 ft. is mostly in the 
Triassic lowland of the Piedmont region, or, as the Pennsylvania 
portion of it is called, the south-east province. This is an un- 
dulating plain which has been produced by the wearing away of 
weak sandstones, &c. On the north and west borders of this 
plain are two parts of a chain of semi-detached and usually rounded 
hills, known as the South Mountains. The north-east part is a 
south-westward arm of the New England uplands, is known as the 
Reading Prong, and extends from New Jersey through Easton to 



Reading. The south-west part is a north-eastern prolongation of 
the Virginia Piedmont, is known as the Cumberland Prong, and 
extends N.N.E. through the south part of Cumberland county. 
In the Reading Prong most of the hills rise 900-1000 ft. above the 
sea and about one-half that height above the surrounding country; 
in the Cumberland Prong their height increases to the southward 
until, on the Maryland border, they rise 2100 ft. above the sea 
and 1400 ft. above the adjoining plain. Another range of hills, 
known as the Trenton Prong, extends from the northern suburbs 
of Philadelphia both westward and southward through Chester, 
Delaware, Lancaster and York counties, but these rise only 400-600 
ft. above the sea and have few steep slopes. Both of these ranges 
of hills are composed of hard crystalline rocks, and between them 
lies the lowland eroded on the weaker sandstones and sediments. 
In Bucks and Montgomery counties is a large sandstone area; 
traversing Chester county is the narrow Chester Valley with a 
limestone bottom, and in Lancaster county is the most extensive 
limestone plain. The Pennsylvania portion of the younger Ap- 
palachian ridges and valleys, known as the central province of 
the state, embraces the region between the South Mountains, on 
the south-east, and the crest of the Alleghany plateau or Alleghany 
Front, on the north-west. It extends from south-west to north- 
east about 230 m. and has a nearly uniform width of 50 m. except 
that it narrows rapidly as it approaches the north-east corner of 
the state. The ridges and intervening valleys, long parts of which 
have an approximately parallel trend from south-west to north-east, 
were formed by the erosion of folded sediments of varying hardness, 
the weak belts of rock being etched out to form valleys and the 
hard belts remaining as mountain ridges. After the folding the 
whole region was worn down nearly to sea-level, forming a low 
plain which bevelled across the geological structure ot the entire 
state, including the Piedmont area to the south-east and the plateau 
area to the north-west. Then came a broad uplift followed by the 
erosion which carved out the valleys, leaving hard rocks as mountain 
ridges which rise about to the level of the old erosion plain. In 
Bedford county and elsewhere the ridges rise to 2400 ft. or more 
above the sea, but their more usual height is 1400 to 2000 ft. above 
the sea and 500 to 1000 ft. above the intervening valleys. Their 
crest lines are often of nearly uniform height for miles and generally 
are little broken except by an occasional V-shaped wind gap, a 
narrow water gap or a rounded knob. The valleys rarely exceed 
more than a few miles in width, are usually steep-sided, and fre- 
quently are traversed by longitudinal ranges of hills and cross ridges; 
but the Pennsylvania portion of the Appalachian or Great Valley, 
which forms a distinct division of the central province and lies 
between the South Mountains and the long rampart of Blue 
Mountain, is about 10 m. in width on the Maryland border and to 
the north-east its width increases to 20 m. The north-west part 
of it is a slate belt that has been much dissected by eroding streams, 
but the south-east part is a gently rolling belt of limestone to which 
occasionally a steep hill descends from the slate belt. The Pocono 
plateau, into which the central province merges at its north-east 
extremity, is a continuation of the Catskill plateau southward 
from New York and covers Wayne, Pike and Monroe counties and 
the east portion of Carbon county. Its surface is underlaid by a 
hard sandstone and conglomerate which erode slowly, and the general 
upland level, which is 1400-1800 ft. above the sea, is little broken 
except by shallow valleys and occasional knobs. The Alleghany 
plateau, which extends from the crest of the Alleghany Front to 
and beyond the west and north borders of Pennsylvania and 
covers more than one-half of the state, is much more dissected. 
In Tioga and Potter counties on the north middle border, it rises 
2400-2500 ft. above the sea, but from this height the general upland 
level falls gradually to 1200-1300 ft. in the south-west and 900- 
1000 ft. along the Ohio border, and in Erie county there is a sudden 
fall of about 200 ft. to the Erie plain. In the northern, middle 
and south-west portions of this plateau province the upland is cut 
by an intricate network of narrow valleys and ravines that are 
commonly 300-600 ft. deep and occasionally 800-1000 ft. deep, 
but west of the Allegheny river, where harder rocks have resisted 
such deep dissection and glacial drift has filled depressions or 
smoothed rough surfaces, the uplands are broader and the valleys 
wider and shallower. Most of the Pennsylvania shore of Lake 
Erie is lined with a wall of sand and clay 50-100 ft. in height and 
along the foot of this is only a narrow beach, but in front of the 
city of Erie the shore currents have formed a spit, known as Presque 
Isle, which affords a good harbour. 

The Pocono plateau, nearly all of the central and south-east 
provinces and the north-east portion of the Alleghany plateau are 
drained by the Susquehanna and Delaware river-systems into the 
Chesapeake and Delaware Bays; the greater part of the Alleghany 
plateau is drained by the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers into 
the Ohio river; the extreme southern portion of the central province 
and the extreme western portion of the south-east province are 
drained by tributaries of the Potomac; the Erie plain is drained by 
short streams into Lake Erie; and a very small section of the 
Alleghany plateau, in the northern part of Potter county, is drained 
by the Genesee river into Lake Ontario. The Susquehanna drains 
about 2 1 ,000 sq. m. of the state ; the Ohio, Allegheny and Monongahela 



io6 



PENNSYLVANIA 



14,747 sq. m.; and the Delaware 6443 sq. m. The Susquehanna 
is a wide and shallow stream with a zigzag course and numerous 
islands, but both the Susquehanna and the Delaware, together 
with their principal tributaries, flow for the most part transverse 
to the geological structure, and in the gorges and water-gaps through 
which they pass ridges in the mountain region, is some of the most 
picturesque scenery in the state; a number of these gorges, too, 
have been of great economic importance as passages for railways. 
The lower portion of the Delaware river has been entered by the 
sea as the result of the depression of the land, giving a harbour, at 
the head of which developed the city of Philadelphia. The present 
course of the Upper Allegheny river is the result of the glacier 
which blocked the northward drainage of the region through 
which it flows and turned it southward. The Monongahela is an 
older stream, but like the Allegheny, it meanders much, and both 
rivers flow in deeply intrenched valleys. The few small lakes 
of the state are mostly on the Pocono plateau, where they were 
formed by glaciation; here, too, are some streams with picturesque 
cascades. 

Fauna. Under the protection of a game commission which was 
created in 1895, of some game preserves which have been estab- 
lished by this commission, and of various laws affecting wild 
animals and birds, the numbers of Virginia deer, black bear, rabbits, 
ruffed grouse, quail and wild turkeys have increased until in some 
of the wilder sections they are quite plentiful, while the numbers 
of weasels, minks, lynx and foxes have been diminished. Squirrels, 
racoons, woodchucks and skunks are common, and musk-rats, 
porcupines and opossums are found in some sections. Two species 
of venomous snakes the rattlesnake and the copper-head occur 
in the sparsely settled regions. The avifauna include among the 
birds of prey the red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, marsh 
hawk, Cooper's hawk, sharp-shinned hawk and sparrow hawk ; the 
great horned owl, the barn owl and the screech owl ; and bald eagles 
are not uncommon in the mountainous regions along the larger rivers. 
The " turkey-buzzard " turkey-vulture (very valuable as a 
scavenger) is seen occasionally, especially in the south and south-west. 
The game birds include the ruffed grouse, quail and English pheasant 
(which have increased rapidly under protection), besides woodcock, 
snipe, many species of ducks and a few Canada geese. The song and 
insectivorous birds thrushes, flycatchers, vireos and woodpeckers 
of this latitude, are well represented, and the high plateaus (particu- 
larly the Pocono plateau) have especial ornithological interest as the 
tarrying-places, during the migratory seasons, of many species of 
birds whose natural breeding ground is much farther north. Perch, 
sunfish, trout, bass, pike and pickerel abound in many of the streams. 
Yellow perch are especially plentiful in the lakes on the Pocono 
plateau. Pike-perch and a few blue pike are taken in the Susque- 
hanna, where shad are no longer plentiful since work was begun 
on McCalPs Ferry dam, and in 1908 the entire catch for the river 
was valued at about $20,000, but in the Delaware there are valuable 
shad and herring fisheries. The blue pike, whitefish and herring, 
obtained on Lake Erie are of considerable commercial importance. 
In 1908 the total catch on Lake Erie was valued at $200,869, the 
principal items being herring (90,108), blue pike ($13,657) and 
whitefish ($31,580). The catch of herring was twice as much in 
1908 as in 1907 and that of whitefish nearly four times as much 
in 1908 as in 1907; this increase was attributed to the work of the 
state hatcheries. There were eight hatcheries in 1910 and the 
number of fish distributed from these during 1908 was about 
662,000,000; they consisted chiefly of pickerel, yellow perch, wall- 
eyed pike, white fish, herring, blue pike, trout and shad. 

Flora. Except on some portions of the Pocono plateau, Penn- 
sylvania was originally well forested, and, although most of the 
merchantable timber has been cut, about one-half of the state is 
still woodland. On the higher elevations the trees are mostly 
white pine, yellow pine and hemlock, but in the valleys and lower 
levels are oaks, hickories, maples, elms, birches, locusts, willows, 
spruces, gums, buckeyes, the chestnut, black walnut, butternut, 
cedar, ash, linden, poplar, buttonwood, hornbeam, holly, catalpa, 
magnolia, tulip-tree, Kentucky coffee-tree, sassafras, wild cherry, 
pawpaw, crab-apple and other species. The flora is most varied 
in the Susquehanna Valley below Harrisburg, and on Presque 
Isle are some plants peculiar to the Lake region. The state has 
forest reserves (918,000 acres in 1910) in 26 counties, the largest 
areas being in Potter, Clinton, Center, Cameron, Lycoming, Hunting- 
don, Union and Mifflin counties; and there is an efficient department 
of forestry under a state commissioner of forestry. A state forest 
academy (the only one in the United States) is at Mont Alto, 
where there is one of the three state nurseries; its first class gradu- 
ated in 1906. In 1909 the state legislature passed an act authorizing 
any city, borough or township of the first class to acquire, subject 
to the approval of the commissioner of forestry, a municipal 
forest; and it authorized the distribution of seedling forest trees, 
at cost, to those who would plant and protect them, for growing 
private forests. 

Climate. The temperature is quite mild and equable in the 
south-east province where the ocean influences it and where the 
mountains bounding it on the north and north-west are some 
protection from the colder winds. The crests of the higher ridges 
in the central province are delightfully cool in summer, but the 



adjacent valleys are subject to excessive heat in summer and severe 
cold in winter. The mean annual temperature decreases to the 
north-westward on the Alleghany plateau, but on the Erie plain, 
in the extreme north-west, Lake Erie exerts its moderating influence, 
the mean temperature rises, and extremes shorten. The mean 
annual temperature in the south-east province is about 52 F. ; 
it decreases to 50 in the central province and to 47 or less in some 
of the north-west counties of the Alleghany plateau, but rises to 
49 on the shore of Lake Erie. At Philadelphia the mean tempera- 
ture in winter (December, January and February) is 34, the mean 
temperature in summer (June, July and August) is 74, and the 
range of extremes here for a long period of years ending with 1907 
was within 103 and 6. At Huntingdon, Huntingdon county, in 
the Juniata Valley, the winter mean is 30, the summer mean 71, 
and within the period from 1 888 to 1907 extremes ranged from 
104 to 23. The summer maxima on the mountains are usually 
8 to 10 less than in the valleys directly below them; Saegerstown, 
Crawford county, is nearly 30 m. south of Erie, on Lake Erie, and 
yet the winter mean is 28 at Erie and only 25 at Saegerstown, 
and the lowest temperature on record for Erie is 16 while for 
Saegerstown it is 27. During the period from 1875 to 1905 
inclusive, extremes within the state ranged from 107 at York, 
York county, in July 1901, to -42 at Smithport, McKean county, 
in January 1904. July is the warmest month in all parts of the 
state. January is the coldest in some and February in others. 
The average annual rainfall is 44 in. It is 50 in. or more in some 
regions along the south-east border of the mountain district or 
farther south-east where the rains are occasionally heavy, and it is 
less than 40 in. in some of the north-east and south-west counties. 
The amount of rainfall during the summer is about 3 in. more than 
that during either autumn or winter and 2 in. more than that during 
spring. In the mountain region and in the vicinity of Lake Erie 
there is often a fall of several inches of snow during the winter 
months and the rapid melting of this produces floods on the Dela- 
ware, Susquehanna and Ohio rivers and some of their tributaries. 
The prevailing winds are westerly, but they are frequently interrupted 
by warm breezes from the south, or moisture-bearing currents from 
the east. 

Soils. The most productive soil is that in the south-east section 
of the Great Valley and in Chester Valley where it is derived largely 
from limestone. There is some of the same formation as well as 
that derived from red shales on the sandstone hills in the south-east 
province and in many of the middle and western valleys, but often 
a belt of inferior slate soil adjoins a limestone belt, and many of 
the ridges are covered with a still more sterile soil derived from 
white and grey sandstones. The north-west and north-east sections 
contain some glacial drift but the soil in these parts is not suitable 
for cultivation except in the larger valleys in the north-west where 
it is drained by glacial gravel or there is some sandy loam mixed 
with clay. 

Agriculture. Pennsylvania is noted for its mineral wealth and 
manufactures rather than for its agricultural resources, but in 1900 
about two-thirds of its land was included in farms, a little more 
than two-thirds of its farm-land was improved, and in several 
crops the state has long ranked high. The number of farms in- 
creased from 127,577 in 1850 to 224,248 in 1900, the increase 
resulting in part from a reduction of their size but more largely 
from the appropriation of new lands for farming purposes. The 
average size in 1900 was 86-4 acres. Nearly 60% of them con- 
tained less than too acres and only about 2-7% contained 260 
acres or more. More than seven-tenths (160,105) were worked by 
owners or part owners, and only 34,529 by share tenants, and 
2 3,737 by cash tenants. Hay, Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, 
fruits, vegetables and tobacco are the principal crops. Of the total 
crop acreage in 1899 nearly two-fifths was devoted to hay and 
forage, and the value of the hay crop in 1909 ' (when the crop was 
3,742,000 tons, valued at $54,633,000) was greater than that of any 
other state in the Union except New York. Hay is grown in largest 
quantities in the north, and in the section south-east of Blue 
Mountain. More than one-half of the crop acreage in 1899 was 
devoted to cereals, and of the total cereal acreage 32 % was of 
wheat, 31-2% was of Indian corn, 24-8 % was of oats, 6-5% was 
of rye, and 5-3% was of buckwheat. The product of Indian corn 
was 48,800,000 bushels in 1909; of wheat 26,265,000 bushels; of 
oats 25,948,000 bushels; of barley 196,000 bushels; of rye 5,508,000 
bushels; and of buckwheat 5,665,000 bushels. 

Indian corn, wheat and rye, are cultivated most extensively 
in the south-east counties. Some of the larger oat-producing 
counties also are in the south-east, but most of the buckwheat, 
barley and oats are grown in the north and west counties. The 
dairy business, for which much of the hay crop is needed, has grown 
with the growth of the urban population as is shown in part by a 
steady increase in the number of dairy cows from 530,224 in 1850 
to 1,140,000 in 1910; the value of the dairy products in 1899 
(835,860,110) was exceeded only in New York. The number of 
other cattle has fluctuated somewhat, but there were 917,000 in 
1910 as against 623,722 in 1850. Horses increased in numbfi 

'Statistics for 1909 and 1910 are from the Year Book of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



PENNSYLVANIA 



Scale, i : i, 375,000 

Engflish Miles 



County Seats 

County Boundaries 

Railways 

Canals 



PITTSBURG 



78 jo p Longitude West 78 of Greenwich (] 




South -Eastern 
PENNSYLVANIA 

Scale, 1:687,500 




PENNSYLVANIA 



107 



from 350,398 in 1850 to 619,000 in 1910. The number of mules 
increased steadily from 2259 in 1850 to 43,000 in 1910. The 
raising of sheep and swine was of considerably less relative impor- 
tance in 1910 than in 1850, there being 1,882,357 sheep and 1,040,366 
swine in 1850 and 1,1 12,000 sheep and 931,000 swine in 1910. The 
dairy business is largest in the regions around Philadelphia and 
Pittsburg, and in Erie and Bradford counties. Cattle other than 
dairy cows as well as horses and sheep are most numerous in the 
western counties, in Bradford county on the north border, and in 
some of the counties of the south-east. Swine are most numerous 
in the south-east and south-west counties. The state ranks high 
in the production of potatoes, cabbages, lettuce and turnips, and 
it produces large crops of sweet Indian corn, tomatoes, cucumbers, 
musk-melons, asparagus and celery. The total value of all vegetables 
produced in 1899 was $15,832,904, an amount exceeding that of 
any other state except New York. A large portion of the vegetables 
are grown in the vicinity of Philadelphia or in the vicinity of Pitts- 
burg. The culture of tobacco, which was introduced as early as 
1689, was a small industry until the middle of the igth century, 
but it then developed rapidly except during a brief interruption 
caused by the Mexican War. In 1909 the crop was 30,732,000 Ib. 
More than two-thirds of the state's crop of 1899 was produced in 
Lancaster county, which is one of the largest tobacco-producing 
counties in the United States, and most of the other third was 
produced in York, Tioga, Bradford and Clinton counties. Apples, 
cherries and pears are the principal orchard fruits. Grapes, peaches, 
plums and prunes, apricots, strawberries, raspberries and logan- 
berries, blackberries and dewberries, currants and gooseberries 
are also grown. Orchard fruits are most abundant south-east 
of Blue Mountain, and small fruits near the larger cities, but 
about two-thirds of the grapes are grown in Erie county. Flori- 
culture is an important industry in Philadelphia and its vicinity. 
The sale of nursery products, more than one-half of which were 
grown in Chester and Montgomery counties, amounted in 1899 
to $541,032, and although this was less than one-third that of New 
York it was exceeded in only three other states. 

Minerals. Pennsylvania is by far the most important coal- 
producing state in the Union, and as much of the iron ore of the 
Lake Superior region is brought to its great bituminous coal-field 
for rendering into pig-iron, the value of the state's mineral products 
constitutes a large fraction of the total value for the entire country; 
in 1907, when the value of the mineral products of the state was 
$657,783,345, or nearly one-third that of all the United States, 
and in 1908 when the total for the state was $473,083,212, or more 
than one-fourth that of the whole United States, more than four- 
fifths of it was represented by coal and pig-iron. With the ex- 
ception of two small areas in Colorado and New Mexico, Penn- 
sylvania contains the only anthracite-coal region in the country. 
This is in the east of the state, and although it has a total area of 
about 3300 sq. m., its workable measures are mostly in Lacka- 
wanna, Luzerne, Carbon, Schuylkill and Northumberland counties 
in an area of less than 500 sq. m. This coal was discovered as 
early as 1762 near the site of the present city of Wilkes-Barre and 
during the War of Independence it was used at Carlisle in the manu- 
facture of war materials, but it was of little commercial importance 
until early in the next century. In 1815 the output was reported 
as only 50 tons, but it steadily rose to 74,347,102 tons (valued at 
$158,178,849) in 1908. Besides having practically all the anthracite, 
Pennsylvania has the thickest bituminous coal-measures, and most 
of the coal obtained from these is of the best quality. They form 
the northern extremity of the great Appalachian coal-field and under- 
lie an area of 15,000 sq. m. or more in the west of the state. The 
Pittsburg district, comprising the counties of Allegheny, Washing- 
ton, Fayette and Westmoreland, is exceptionally productive, and 
the coal in Allegheny and Washington counties is noted for its 
gas-producing qualities, while in Fayette and Westmoreland counties 
is obtained the famous Connellsville coking coal. The bituminous 
coal was first used at nearly the same time as the anthracite and it 
was first shipped from Pittsburg in 1803. In 1840 the state's 
output was 464,826 tons. It increased to 1,000,000 tons in 1850, 
to 11,760,000 tons in 1875, to 79,842,326 tons in 1900, to 150,143,177 
tons in 1907; and was 117,179,527 tons in 1908, when it was 35-2% 
of that of the entire country and was valued at $118,816,303. 
In 1880 the output of coal (anthracite and bituminous) in Penn- 
sylvania was 66 % of that of the entire country; in 1908 it was 
48-2%; but ia the latter year the Pennsylvania mines produced 
more coal than the combined production of all the countries of 
the world excepting Great Britain, Germany and Austria-Hungary, 
and it was nearly four times as much as the total mined in Austria, 
nearly five times as much as that mined in France, and seven times 
as much as the output of Russia in that year. Extending from the 
south-west corner of the state through Greene, Washington, Alle- 
gheny, Beaver, Butler, Venango, Clarion, Forest, Elk, Warren, 
McKean and Tioga counties is the Pennsylvania section of the 
Appalachian oil-field which, with the small section in New York, 
furnished nearly all of the country's supply of petroleum for some 
years following the discovery of its value for illuminating purposes. 
The mineral was made known to white men by the Indians, who 
sold it, under the name of Seneca oil, as a cure for various ills, 
and burned it at some of their ceremonies. The early settlers in 



west Pennsylvania also found that some unknown people had dug 
pits several feet in depth around the oil springs apparently for the 
purpose of collecting the oil. But it was not until the middle of 
the igth century that its value as an illuminating oil became known, 
and not until 1859 was the first petroleum well drilled. This 
was the Drake well, on the flats of Oil Creek at Titusville; it 
was about 70 ft. in depth, and when 25 barrels were pumped from 
it in a day its production was considered enormous. By the close 
of 1861 wells had been drilled from which 2000 to 3000 barrels 
flowed in a day without pumping, and the state's yearly output 
continued to increase until 1891, when it amounted to 31,424,206 
barrels. Since then, however, wells have been going dry, and when, 
in 1895, the output fell to 19,144,390 barrels it was exceeded by 
that of Ohio. It went down quite steadily to 9,424,325 in 1908, 
and in that year Pennsylvania was put-ranked as an oil-producing 
state by Oklahoma, California, Illinois, Texas and Ohio. In drilling 
for some of the first oil wells gas escaped, and in a few instances 
this was used as a fuel for generating steam in the boilers of the 
drilling-engines. In some instances, too, wells which were drilled 
for oil produced only gas. A little later, about 1868, successful 
experiments were made with gas as a manufacturing fuel, and in 
1872 the gas industry was fairly well established near Titusville 
by drilling a well and piping the gas for consumption both as fuel 
and light. The value of the stated output increased from approxi- 
mately $75,000 in 1882 to approximately $19,282,000 in 1888, 
and the total value of its output during these and the intervening 
years was more than 80% that of all the United States. The 
industry then became of greater importance in several other states 
and declined in Pennsylvania until in 1896 the value of Penn- 
sylvania's product amounted to only $5,528,610, or 42-5% of that 
of the United States. This temporary decline was, however, 
followed by a rather steady rise and in 1908 the output was valued 
at $19,104,944, which was still far in excess of that of any other 
state and nearly 35% of that of the entire country. The gas 
region has an area of about 15,000 sq. m. and embraces about all 
of the Pennsylvania section of the Alleghany plateau except a 
narrow belt along its east and south-east border. There are de- 
posits of various kinds of iron ore in the eastern, south-eastern, 
middle and some of the western counties, and from the middle of 
the l8th century until near the close of the igth Pennsylvania 
ranked high among the iron-ore-producing states. As late as 1880 
it ranked first, with a product amounting to 1,951,496 long tons. 
But the state's iron foundries moved rapidly westward after the 
first successful experiments in making pig-iron with bituminous 
coal, in 1845, and the discovery, a few years later, that rich ore 
could be obtained there at less cost from the Lake Superior region 
resulted in a decline of iron-mining within the state until, in 1902, 
the product amounted to only 822,932 long tons, 72-2% of which 
was magnetite ore from the Cornwall mines in Lebanon county 
which have been among the largest producers of this kind of ore 
since the erection of the Cornwall furnace in 1742. In 1908 the 
entire iron-ore product of the state, amounting to 443,161 long 
tons, was not 1-3% of that of the United States, but the production 
of the magnetite-ore alone (343,998 long tons) was more than one- 
fifth that of all the United States. In the manufacture of pig-iron 
Pennsylvania is easily first among the states, with a product value 
in 1908 of $111,385,000, nearly 43-8% of that of the entire country. 
Pennsylvania has extensive areas of limestone rock suitable for 
making cement, and in Northampton and Lehigh counties enormous 
quantities of it are used in this industry. Natural-rock cement was 
first made in the state soon after the discovery, in 1831, of deposits 
of cement rock near Williamsport, Lycoming county, and the in- 
dustry was greatly promoted in 1850 when the vast deposits in 
the lower Lehigh Valley were discovered and large quantities of 
cement were required in the rebuilding of the Lehigh Canal. Com- 
petition produced in Lehigh county the first successful Portland 
cement plant in the United States in 1870. The output of the 
natural-rock cement continued greater than that of the Portland until 
1896, but for the succeeding ten years the enormous development 
of the cement industry was almost entirely in the Portland branch, 
its production in the state increasing from 825,054 barrels in 1896 
to 8,770,454 barrels in 1902, and to 18,254,806 barrels (valued at 
$13,899,807) in 1908, when it was more than 30% of that of the 
United States. The production of natural-rock cement was 608,000 
barrels in 1896 and only 252,479 barrels (valued at $87,192) in 
1908. Limestones and dolomites suitable for building purposes 
are obtained chiefly in Montgomery, Chester and Lancaster counties, 
and even these are generally rejected for ornamental work on account 
of their colour, which is usually bluish, grey or mottled. However 
until increased facilities of transport brought more desirable stones 
into competition they were used extensively in Philadelphia and 
with them the main building of Girard College and the United 
States Naval Asylum were erected and the long rows of red-brick 
residences were trimmed. There are limestone quarries in nearly 
two-thirds of the counties and great quantities of the stone are 
used for flux in the iron furnaces, for making quicklime, for railway 
ballast and for road making. The total value of the limestone 
output in 1908 amounted to $4,057,471, and the total value of all 
stone quarried was $6,371,152. In Dauphin county is a quarry 
of bluish-brown Triassic sandstone that has been used extensively 



io8 



PENNSYLVANIA 



especially in Philadelphia, for the erection of the so-called brown 
stone fronts. On the Pocono plateau is a large deposit of a fine- 
grained dark-blue stone of the Devonian formation which is known 
as the Wyoming Valley stone, and, like the New York " bluestone," 
which it closely resembles, is much used for window and door trim- 
mings, steps and flagging. Several cf the western counties contain 
Carboniferous or sub-Carboniferous sandstones that are used locally 
for building and for various other purposes. In 1908 the value of 
Pennsylvania sandstone and bluestone was $1,368,784. North- 
ampton, Lehigh and York counties contain the most productive 
slate quarries in the country, and in 1908 the value of their output 
was $3,902,958; the Northampton and Lehigh slate is the only 
kind in the United States used for school blackboards. There is 
an extensive area in the south-east part of the state containing 
shale clay of a superior quality for making common brick. Kaolin 
abounds in Chester and Delaware counties, and fire-clay in several 
of the western counties. In 1908 the state ranked first in the 
value of its output of brick and tile ($18,981,743), which was 14-74 % 
of the entire product of the United States, and was second only to 
Ohio in the total value of its clay products ($14,842,982), which 
was 11-14% f tnat f r th 6 entire country. Glass sand abounds 
both in the eastern and in the western sections and for many years 
Pennsylvania has used this more extensively in the manufacture 
of glass than any other state. Deposits of crystalline graphite 
are found in Chester and Berks counties. In Chester county, also, 
is one of the most productive deposits of feldspar, second in impor- 
tance only to those of Maine. Soapstone is quarried in Montgomery 
and Northampton counties, phosphate rock, in Juniata county; 
rocks from which mineral paints are made, in several counties, and 
there is some garnet in Delaware county. 

Manufactures. The state ranks second to New York in the value 
of its manufactures, which increased from $155,044,910 in 1850 
to $1,955,551,332 (factory products alone) in 1905, a growth which 
has been promoted by an abundance of fuel, by a good port on the 
Atlantic seaboard, by a network of canals which in the early years 
was of much importance in connecting the port with the Mississippi 
river system, by its frontage on Lake Erie which makes the ores 
of the Lake Superior region easily accessible, and by a great railway 
system which has been built to meet the demands arising from the 
natural resources. By far the most important industry is the 
production of iron and steel. The manufacture of iron was es- 
tablished on a commercial basis in 1716-1718, when a furnace was 
built on Manatawney Creek above Pottstown, and before the close 
of the colonial era Pennsylvania had risen to first rank among the 
iron-producing colonies, a position which it has always held among 
the states of the Union. So long as charcoal only was used in the 
furnaces (until about 1840) and during the brief period in which 
this was replaced largely by anthracite, the industry was of chief 
importance in the eastern section, but with the gradual increase in 
the use of bituminous coal, or of coke made from it, the industry 
moved westward, where, especially in the Pittsburg district, it 
received a new impetus by the introduction of iron ore from the 
Lake Superior region. The value of the output of iron and steel 
increased from $264,571,624 in 1890 to $471,228,844 in 1905, and 
the state furnished 46-5 % of the pig-iron and 54 % of the steel 
and malleable iron produced in the entire country. The manu- 
facture of great quantities of coke has resulted from the demand 
for this product in the iron and steel industry and from the abun- 
dance of coking coal ; the manufacture of glass has been promoted 
by the supply of glass sand and natural gas in the west of the state ; 
the manufacture of leather by the abundance of hemlock bark; the 
manufacture of pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay products by the 
abundance of raw material ; the manufacture of silk and silk goods 
by the large number of women and girls who came into the state 
in families of which the men and boys were employed in mining 
and picking anthracite coal; and in each of these industries as 
well as in a few others the state has for many years produced a 
large portion of the country's product. 

In 1905 the twelve leading manufactures, with the value of each, 
were: steel and malleable iron, $363,773,577; foundry and machine- 
shop products, consisting most largely of steam locomotives, metal- 
working machinery and pumping machinery, $119,650,913; pig- 
iron, $107,455,267; leather, $69,427,852; railway cars and repairs 
by steam railway companies, $61,021,374; refined petroleum, 
$47,459,502; silk and silk goods, $39,333, 520; tobacco, cigars and 
cigarettes, $39,079,122; flour and grist-mill products, $38,518,702; 
refined sugar and molasses, $37,182,504; worsted goods, $35,683,015; 
and malt liquors, $34,863,823. The most marked advances from 
1900 to 1905 were in worsted goods (61-4 %) structural iron-work 
(60 %), and tin and terne-plate (54-4 %). Philadelphia is the 
great manufacturing centre. Within its limits, in 1905, all the 
sugar and molasses were manufactured and much of the petroleum 
was refined, nearly all of the iron and steel ships and steam loco- 
motives were built, and 93 % of the carpets and rugs were made, 
and the total value of the manufactures of this city in that year 
was nearly one-third of that for the entire state. Nearly 20 % of 
the iron and steel was produced by Pittsburg together with Alle- 
gheny ,with which it has since been consolidated, and the production 
of these is the leading industry of New Castle, Johnstown, Duquesne, 
McKeesport, Sharon, Braddock and Dubois, also in the west part of 



the state and of Reading, Harrisburg, Steelton, South Bethlehem, 
Pottstown, Lebanon, Phoenixville and Danville in the east part. 
The silk and cement industries are confined largely to the eastern 
cities and boroughs; the coke, tin and terne-plate, and pickling 
industries to the western; and the construction and repair of rail- 
way cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, and repair of railway 
cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, Chambersburg, Butler and 
Philadelphia. 

Transport and Commerce. The new road cut through the Juniata 
region in the march of the army of Brigadier-General John Forbes, 
against Fort Duquesne in 1758, was a result of the influence of 
Pennsylvania, for it was considered even then a matter of great 
importance to the future prosperity of the province that its seaport, 
Philadelphia, be connected with navigation on the Ohio by the 
easiest line of communication that could be had wholly within its 
limits. As early as 1762 David Rittenhouse and others made a 
survey for a canal to connect the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna 
rivers, and in 1791 a committee of the state legislature reported 
in favour of a project for establishing communication by canals 
and river improvement from Philadelphia to Lake Erie by way 
of the Susquehanna river. Before anything was done, the need of 
improved means of transportation between Philadelphia and the 
anthracite coal-fields became the more pressing. The Schuylkill 
Canal Company, chartered in 1815, began the construction of a 
canal along the Schuylkill river from Philadelphia to Mount Carbon, 
Schuylkill county, in 1816, and completed it in 1826. In 1818 the 
Lehigh Navigation Company was formed to improve the naviga- 
tion of the Lehigh river from its confluence with the Delaware to 
Coalport, and two years later coal was successfully carried down 
the Lehigh and Delaware rivers to Philadelphia in " arks " or 
rectangular boxes, two or more of which were joined together and 
steered by a long oar. So prosperous was the business that in 
1827-1829 the company built a number of locks which made the 
Lehigh navigable in either direction, and in 1827-1832 the state 
did the same for the Delaware between the mouth of the Lehigh 
and Bristol. The Union Canal Company, incorporated in 1811, 
completed a canal from Middletown on the Susquehanna to Reading 
on the Schuylkill in 1827. In 1824 the state legislature authorized 
the appointment of a commission to explore routes from the Schuyl- 
kill to Pittsburg, and from the West Branch of the Susquehanna 
to the Allegheny, and in the three or four succeeding years the 
state committed itself to a very extensive system of internal 
improvements. Work was begun on the system in 1826 and was 
continued without interruption until 1840, when the completed or 
nearly completed portions embraced a railway from Philadelphia 
to Columbia on the Susquehanna, a canal up the Susquehanna and 
the Juniata from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, a portage railway 
from Hollidaysburg through Blair's Gap in the Alleghany Front to 
Johnstown on the Conemaugh river, a canal down the Conemaugh, 
Kiskiminetas, and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburg, a canal up the 
Susquehanna and its west branch from the mouth of the Juniata 
to Farrandsville, in Clinton county, a canal up the Susquehanna 
and its north branch from Northumberland nearly to the New 
York border, and a canal up the Delaware river from Bristol to 
the mouth of the Lehigh; considerable work had also been done on 
two canals to connect the Ohio river with Lake Erie. Work was 
stopped, in 1840, before the system was completed because of the 
intense popular discontent arising from the burden of debt which 
had been assumed and because the success of competing railways 
was then fully assured. In 1845 the state began to sell its canals 
and railways to private corporations and the sale was completed 
in 1859. The western division of the system was abandoned by 
the new owners in 1865 and the worked portion of the east division 
gradually decreased until it, too, was wholly abandoned in 1904, 
with the exception of the Delaware Division Canal, which since 
1866 has been worked by the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company 
in connexion with the Lehigh Canal. In its natural condition there 
were bars in the Delaware river below Philadelphia which obstructed 
the navigation of vessels drawing more than 17-20 ft. of water, 
but in 1899 the Federal government adopted a project for obtaining 
a channel having a minimum depth of 30 ft. The Federal govern- 
ment has much improved the navigation of the Monongahela and 
Allegheny rivers and is committed to a project for slack-water 
navigation on the Ohio which is expected to give Pittsburg com- 
munication with the sea by vessels drawing 9 ft. of water. 

The first railway in the state was that built in 1827 by the Lehigh 
Coal & Navigation Company from Mauch Chunk to its mines, 
o m. distant; but this was only a gravity road down which cars 
loaded with coal descended by their own gravity and up which the 
empty cars were drawn by mules. In 1823 a company was incor- 
porated to build a railway from Philadelphia to Columbia, but 
nothing further was done until 1828, when the state canal com- 
missioners were directed to build this road and the Allegheny 
Portage railway from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown. The latter 
was built with ten inclined planes, five on each side of the summit 
at Blair's Gap and cars were drawn up these by stationary engines. 
Both the Philadelphia & Columbia and the Allegheny Portage 
railways were completed in 1834. From these and other begin- 
nings the state's railway mileage gradually increased to 1240 m. 
in 1850, to 4656 m. in 1870, to 8639 m. in 1890 and to ii,373 m. at 



PENNSYLVANIA 



109 



the end of 1908, when it was exceeded by only two states in the 
Union, Texas and Illinois. The principal railways are the lines 
operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company from New York 
to Washington through Philadelphia; from Philadelphia to Cincin- 
nati, Cleveland, Chicago and St Louis through Harrisburg and 
Pittsburg; from Baltimore, Maryland, to Sodus Point on Lake 
Ontario (Northern Central) through Harrisburg and Williamsport; 
from Williamsport to Buffalo and to Erie, and from Pittsburg to 
Buffalo; the Philadelphia & Reading; the Lehigh Valley; the Erie; 
the Delaware, Lacka wanna & Western; the Baltimore & Ohio; 
and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg. 

The state has one port of entry along the Atlantic coast, one on 
the Ohio river, and one on the Great Lakes. Philadelphia, the 
Atlantic port, exports chiefly petroleum, coal, grain and flour, and 
imports chiefly iron ore, sugar, drugs and chemicals, manufactured 
iron, hemp, jute and flax. In 1909 the value of its exports, 
$80,650,274, was greater than that of any other Atlantic port 
except New York, and the value of its imports, $78,003,464, was 
greater than that of any except New York and Boston. Pittsburg 
ranks high among the interior ports of the country in foreign 
commerce and first among the cities of the United States in the 
tonnage of its domestic commerce. Erie is quite unimportant 
among the lake ports in foreign commerce, but has a large domestic 
trade in iron ore, copper, wheat and flour. 

Population. The population of Pennsylvania was 434,373 
in 1790; 602,365 in 1800; 810,091 in 1810; 1,049,458 in 1820; 
1,348,233 in 1830; 1,724,033 in 1840; 2,311,786 in 1850; 2,906,215 
in 1860; 3,521,951 in 1870; 4,282,891 in 1880; 5,258,014 in 
1890; 6,302,115 in 1900; 7,665,111 in 1910. Of the total in 1900, 
985,250, or 15-6%, were foreign-born, 156,845 were negroes, 
1639 were Indians, 1927 were Chinese and 40 were Japanese. 
Nearly 95% of the foreign-born was composed of natives of 
Germany (212,453), Ireland (205,909), Great Britain (180,670), 
Poland (76,358), Austria (67,492), Italy (66,655), Russia (50,959), 
Hungary (47,393) and Sweden (24,130). Of the native popula- 
tion (5,316,865) 90-7% were born within the state and a little 
more than two-fifths of the remainder were natives of New 
York, Maryland, Ohio, New Jersey, Virginia, New England, 
Delaware and West Virginia. Almost two-thirds of the Indians 
were in Cumberland county where, at Carlisle, is a United 
States Indian Industrial School. In 1906 the total number of 
communicants of different religious denominations in the state 
was 2, 977,022, of whom 1,717,037 were Protestants and 1,214,734 
were Roman Catholics. There is a large number of the smaller 
religious sects in the state; the principal denominations, 
with the number of communicants of each in 1906, are: Metho- 
dist (363,443), Lutheran (335,643), Presbyterian (322,542), 
Reformed Church (177,270), Baptist (141,694), Protestant 
Episcopalian (99,021), United Brethren (55,574), United Evan- 
gelical Church (45,480), Disciples of Christ (26,458), German 
Baptist Brethren (23,176), Eastern Orthodox Churches (22,123), 
Mennonites (16,527), Congregational (14,811), Evangelical Asso- 
ciation (13,294), Friends (12,457), Church of God or " Winne- 
brennerians " (11,157), and Moravian (5322). 

Of the total population in 1900, 3,223,337, or 51 I %, were urban (i.e. 
in places having a population of 4000 or more), 762,846, or 12-15%, 
were semi-urban (i.e. in incorporated places having a population 
less than 4000) and 2,315,932, or 36-75%, were rural (i.e. outside of 
the incorporated places). From 1890 to 1900 the urban population 
increased 854,730, or 36%, and the semi-urban 134,077, or 18-4%, 
but the rural increased only 55,195, or 2-4%. The populations of 
the principal cities in 1900 were as follows: Philadelphia, 1,293,697; 
Pittsburg, 321,616; Allegheny, 129,896 (subsequently annexed to 
Pittsburg); Scranton, 102,026; Reading, 78,961; Erie, 52,7331 
Wilkes-Barre, 51,721; Harrisburg, 50,167; Lancaster, 41,459; 
Altoona, 38,973; Johnstown, 35,936 ;Allentqwn, 35,416 ;McKeesport, 
34,227; Chester, 33,988; York, 33,708; Williamsport, 28,757; New 
Castle, 28,339; Easton, 25,238; Norristown, 22,265; Shenandoah, 
20,321; Shamokin (borough), 18,202; Lebanon, 17,628. 

Administration. Pennsylvania has been governed under 
constitutions of 1776, 1790 and 1838 ; the present government 
is under the constitution of the i6th of December 1873 with 
amendments adopted on the $th of November 1901. An 
amendment to the constitution to be adopted must be approved 
by a majority of the members elected to each house of the 
general assembly in two successive legislatures and then, at 
least three months after the second approval of the general 
assembly, by a majority of the popular vote cast on the adoption 
of the amendment. All male citizens over 21 years of age 



who have been citizens of the United States for one month, 
residents of the state for one year and of the election district 
lor two months immediately preceding the election, have the 
right of suffrage, provided they have paid within two years a 
state or county tax, which shall have been assessed at least 
two months and paid at least one month before the election. 
The Australian or " Massachusetts " ballot, adopted in 1891 
under a law which fails to require personal registration, by a 
srovision like that in Nebraska makes it easy to vote a straight 
ticket; party names are arranged on the ballot according to 
the number of votes secured by each party at the last preceding 
election. 

Executive. The office of governor, superseded in 1776 by a presi- 
dent and council of twelve, was restored in 1790. Under the present 
constitution the governor serves for four years and is ineligible for 
the next succeeding term. The governor and lieutenant-governor 
must be at least 30 years old, citizens of the United States, and 
inhabitants of the state for seven years last preceding election; 
no member of Congress or person holding any office under the 
United States or Pennsylvania may be governor or lieutenant- 
governor. The governor controls a large amount of patronage, 
appointing, subject to the advice and consent of two-thirds of the 
senate, a secretary of the commonwealth and an attorney-general 
during pleasure, and a superintendent of public instruction for four 
years, and may fill vacancies in various offices which occur during 
the recess of the senate. He has a right of veto, extending to items 
in appropriation bills, which may be overridden by a two-thirds 
vote in each house. His power of pardon is limited, being subject 
to the recommendation of three members of a board which consists 
of the lieutenant-governor, secretary of the commonwealth, attorney- 
general and secretary of internal affairs. The other executive 
officials are the lieutenant-governor and the secretary of internal 
affairs, elected for four years, the auditor-general, elected for three 
years, the treasurer, elected for two years, and (all appointed by the 
governor) the secretary of the commonwealth, the attorney-general 
and a superintendent of public instruction. All those chosen by 
election are ineligible for a second consecutive term except the 
secretary of internal affairs. The department of internal affairs 
consists of six bureaus: the land office, vital statistics, weather 
service, assessments, industrial statistics, and railroads, canals, 
telegraphs and telephones. There are also many statutory admini- 
strative officials and boards, such as the adjutant-general, insurance 
commissioner, board of health, board of agriculture, board of public 
grounds and buildings, commissioners of fisheries, and factory and 
mining inspectors. 

Legislature. During the colonial period and the early years of 
statehood the legislature was composed of one house, but the 
bicameral system was adopted in the constitution of 1790. There 
are fifty senators, elected for four years, and approximately two 
hundred representatives, elected for two years. Senators must be 
at least 25 years old, citizens and inhabitants of the state for four 
years next before election and inhabitants of the senatorial districts 
from which each is elected for one year next before election; 
representatives must be at least 21 years old and must have lived 
in the state three years and in the district from which elected one 
year next before election. To avoid the possibility of metropolitan 
domination provision is made that no city or county shall be entitled 
to more than one-sixth of the total number of senators. Sessions 
are biennial. The powers of the two houses are the same except 
that the senate exercises the usual right of confirming appointments 
and of sitting as a court of impeachment, while the House of Repre- 
sentatives initiates money bills and impeachment cases. ( 

Judiciary. The supreme court consists of seven judges elected 
by the voters of the state at large. Minority representation is 
secured by the provision that each elector shall vote for one less than 
the number of judges to be chosen at each election. The state is 
divided into three supreme judicial districts, the eastern, the middle 
and the western. This court was formerly very much overworked, 
but it was relieved by an act of the 2dth of June 1895 establishing 
a superior court (now of seven judges) with appellate jurisdiction. 
There were in 1910 fifty-six district courts of common pleas, one for 
each county of forty thousand inhabitants and not more than four 
counties in a district. The judges of the common pleas are also' 
judges of the courts of oyer and terminer, quarter sessions of the 
peace and general gaol delivery, and the orphans' courts, although 
there are separate orphans' courts in the counties (ten in 1909) 
having a population of more than one hundred and fifty thousand. 
Justices of the peace are elected in wards, districts, boroughs and 
townships. In the colonial period all judges were appointed by the 
governor during good behaviour. The constitution of 1776 provided 
for terms of seven years, that of 1790 restored the life term, and that 
of 1838 fixed the terms for judges of the common pleas at ten years 
and judges of the supreme court at fifteen. A constitutional amend- 
ment of 1850 provided that all judges should be elected by the people. 1 

1 The constitution of 1873 made provision for minority represen- 
tation as follows: " Whenever two judges of the supreme court are 



no 



PENNSYLVANIA 



At present supreme court judges serve for twenty-one years and are 
ineligible for re-election. Superior court and common pleas judges 
serve for ten years, and justices of the peace for five. Judges may be 
impeached for misdemeanour in office or they may be removed by 
the governor, with the consent of two-thirds of each house of the 
general assembly, for any reasonable cause which shall not be 
sufficient ground for impeachment. 

Local Government. The local government is a combination of 
the county system of the South and the township system of New 
England. The county officers are sheriffs, coroners, prothonotaries, 
registers of wills, recorders of deeds, commissioners, treasurers, 
surveyors, auditors or comptrollers, clerks of the courts, and district 
attorneys, elected for three years. The three commissioners and the 
three auditors in each county are chosen by the same limited vote 
process as the supreme-court judges, thus allowing a representation 
to the minority party. Pennsylvania has suffered more perhaps 
than any other state in the Union from legislative interference in 
local affairs. Under an act of the general assembly passed in 1870 
the people of Philadelphia were forced to contribute more than 
$20,000,000 for the construction of a city-hall. To guard_ against 
such encroachments in the future the constitution of 1873 imposed 
the most detailed limitations upon special legislation. The object 
of the provision, however, has been in a large measure nullified by 
the system of city classification, under which Philadelphia is the 
only city of the first class. The passage of the " Ripper Bill " of 1901 
shows that the cities of the second class are by no means secure. 
The apparent object of the measure was to deprive the people of 
Pittsburg temporarily of the privileges of self-government by 
empowering the governor to appoint a recorder (in 1903 the title of 
mayor was again assumed) to exercise (until 1903, when the muni- 
cipal executive should be again chosen by the people) the functions 
of the mayor, thus removed by the governor under this statute; 
and this act applied to the other cities of the second class, Allegheny 
and Scranton, although they had not offended the party managers. 

Miscellaneous Laws. A woman's right to hold, manage and 
acquire property in her own right is not affected by marriage, but 
for a married woman to mortgage or convey her real estate the 
joint action of herself and her husband is necessary. The rights 
of dower and courtesy both obtain. When a husband dies intestate 
leaving a widow and issue, the widow has the use of one-third 
of his real estate for life and one-third of his personal estate abso- 
lutely; if he leaves no issue but there be collateral heirs or other 
kindred, the widow has the real or personal estate or both to the 
value of $5000, the use of one-half the remaining real estate for 
life, and one-half the remaining personal estate absolutely; if the 
husband leaves a will the widow has the choice between her dower 
right and the terms of the will. When a wife dies intestate leaving 
a husband and issue the husband has the use of all her real estate 
for life, and the personal estate is divided among the husband and 
children share and share alike; if there be no issue the husband has 
the use of all her real estate for life and all her personal estate 
absolutely; if the wife leaves a will the husband has the choice 
between its terms and his right by courtesy. Whenever there is 
neither issue nor kindred the surviving husband or wife has all the 
estate. The principal grounds for an absolute divorce are impo- 
tency, adultery, wilful or malicious desertion, cruel and barbarous 
treatment, personal abuse and conviction of any such crime as 
arson, burglary, embezzlement, forgery, kidnapping, larceny, 
murder, perjury or assault with intent to kill. Before filing a 
petition for a divorce the plaintiff must have resided within the 
state at least one year. A suit for a divorce on the ground of deser- 
tion may be commenced when the defendant has been absent six 
months, but the divorce may not be granted until the desertion 
has continued two years. The party convicted of adultery is 
forbidden to marry the co-respondent during the lifetime of the 
other party. A marriage of first cousins or a bigamous marriage 
may be declared void. Pennsylvania has no homestead law, but 
the property of a debtor amounting to $300 in value, exclusive of 
the wearing apparel of himself and family and of all Bibles and 
school-books in use, is exempt from levy and sale on execution or 
by distress for rent; and the exemption extends to the widow and 
children unless there is a lien on the property foe purchase money. 
The child-labour law of 1909 forbids the employment of children 
under eighteen years of age in blast furnaces, tanneries, quarries, 
in managing elevator lifts or hoisting machines, in oiling dangerous 
machinery while in motion, at switch tending, as brakesmen, 
firemen, engineers, motormen and in other positions of similar 
character. The same law prescribes conditions under which 
children between fourteen and eighteen years of age may be em- 
ployed in the manufacture of white-lead, red-lead, paints, phos- 
phorus, poisonous acids, tobacco or cigars, in mercantile establish- 
ments, stores, hotels, offices or in other places requiring protection 
to their health or safety; and it forbids the employment of boys 
under sixteen years of age or of girls under eighteen years of age in 
such factories or establishments more than ten hours a day (unless 
it be to prepare for a short day) or for more than fifty-eight hours 

to be chosen forjthe same term of service each voter shall vote for 
one only, and when three are to be chosen he shall vote for no more 
than two; candidates highest in vote shall be declared elected." 



a week, or their employment there between nine o'clock in the 
evening and six o'clock in the morning, except that in the factories 
requiring continuous night and day employment boys not under 
fourteen years of age may be employed partly by day and partly 
by night not exceeding nine hours in any twenty-four. The em- 
ployment of children under fourteen years of age in coal-mines is 
forbidden, as is also the employment of children under fourteen 
years of age in any cotton, woollen, silk, paper, bagging or flax 
factory, or in any laundry, or the employment of children under 
twelve years of age in any mill or factory whatever within the 
commonwealth. 

Prisons and Charities. Penal and charitable institutions are 
under the supervision of a board of public charities of ten members, 
established in 1869, and a committee in lunacy, composed of five 
members of this board, appointed under an act of 1883. An agita- 
tion begun by the Philadelphia society for assisting distressed 
prisoners in 1776, checked for a time by the War of Independence, 
led ultimately to the passage of a statute in 1818 for the establish- 
ment of the Western Penitentiary at Allegheny (opened 1826) and 
another of 1821 for the establishment of the Eastern Penitentiary 
in Philadelphia (opened 1829). In the former penitentiary prisoners 
are congregated ; in the latter they are kept in solitary confinement. 
An act of 1878 provided for a third penitentiary in the middle 
district, but through the efforts of Governor Henry M. Hoyt the 
plans were changed and instead the Industrial Reformatory was 
established at Huntingdon (opened 1889). The House of Refuge 
of western Pennsylvania, located in Allegheny in 1854 (act of 
1850), became the Pennsylvania Reform School in 1872, and was 
removed to Morganza, Washington county, in 1876. Few states 
have done so much as Pennsylvania for the humane and scientific 
treatment of its dependent and defective classes. Largely as a 
result of the efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix (q.v.), a hospital for the 
insane was established at Harrisburg in 1851 (act of 1845). A 
second hospital was opened at Pittsburg in 1853 (act of 1848), but 
the location was ruined by Pennsylvania railway improvements, 
and in 1862 it was removed to a new site about 7 m. from the city, 
which was called Dixmont in honour of Miss Dix; the hospital is 
not a state institution, but the state provides for the maintenance 
there of patients committed by the courts or the poor authorities 
in the thirteen counties forming the western district. For three 
other districts three state institutions have been established at 
Danville, 1872 (act of 1868), Warren, 1880 (act of 1873), and Norris- 
town, 1880 (act of 1876). An act of 1901 established a homoeopathic 
hospital for the insane at Allentown. A distinction is made between 
hospitals and asylums. The asylum for the chronic insane is at 
South Mountain, 1894 ( act f 1891). A state institution for feeble- 
minded of western Pennsylvania at Polk, Venango county, was 
opened in 1897 (act of 1893), and the eastern Pennsylvania state 
institution for feeble-minded and epileptic at Spring City, Chester 
county, was opened in 1908 (act of 1903). There are institutes for 
the blind at Qverbrook and Pittsburg, and for the deaf and dumb 
at Philadelphia and Edgewood Park, an oral school for the deaf 
at Scranton, a home for the training of deaf children at Philadelphia, 
a soldiers' and sailors' home at Erie (1886), a soldiers' orphans' 
industrial school (1895) at Scotland, Franklin county, the Thaddeus 
Stevens industrial school (1905) at Lancaster, hospitals for the 
treatment of persons injured in the mines, at Ashland (1879), 
Hazleton (1887) and Shamokin (1907), and cottage hospitals at 
Blossburg, Connellsville, Mercer and Philipsburg (all 1887). In 
addition to the institutions under state control a large number of 
local charities receive aid from the public treasury. In 1907- 
1908, $14,222,440 was appropriated for institutions: $7,479,732 
for sfate institutions, $1,240,108 for semi-state institutions, 
$4,757,100 for general hospitals, $149,500 for hospitals for con- 
sumptives, and $745,900 for homes, asylums, &c. The system of 
juvenile courts, created under a statute of 1901, has done much to 
ameliorate the condition of dependent and delinquent children. 

Education. During the colonial period there were many sectarian 
and neighbourhood subscription schools in which the poor could 
receive a free education, but public schools in the modern American 
sense were unknown. The famous Friends' public school, founded 
in Philadelphia in 1689 and chartered in 1697, still exists as the 
William Penn charter school. An agitation begun soon after the 
War of Independence resulted in the creation of a school fund in 
1831 and the final establishment of the present system of public 
schools in 1834. The attempt to repeal the law in 1835 was defeated 
largely through the efforts of Thaddeus Stevens, who was then a 
member of the state house of representatives. During the years 
1852-1857 the educational department became a separate branch 
of the state government, the office of county school superintendent 
was created, the state teachers' association (known since 1900 as 
the Pennsylvania educational association) was organized, and a 
law was enacted for the establishment of normal schools. Since 
1893 the state has furnished textbooks and other necessary supplies 
free of charge, and since 1895 education has been compulsory for 
all children between the ages of eight and thirteen. Schools must 
be kept open not less than seven and not more than ten months 
in the year. Out of a total expenditure of $30,021,774 for the 
fiscal year 1909, $7,875,083 was for educational purposes, of which 
$6,810,906 was for common schools, being appropriations to the 



PENNSYLVANIA 



in 



counties. ' There is a biennial school appropriation of $15,000,000. 
In addition the district directors levy local rates which must 
not be greater than the state and county taxes combined. The 
Pennsylvania state college at State College, Center county, was 
established in 1855 as the farmers' high school of Pennsylvania, in 
1862 became the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and received 
its present name in 1874 after the income from the national land 
grant had been appropriated to the use of the institutions; in 
1909-1910 it had 147 instructors, 1400 students and a library of 
37,000 volumes. Other institutions for higher education are the 
University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia (1749), an endowed 
institution which receives very little support from the state; the 
University oi Pittsburgh (1819), at Pittsburg (q.v.) Dickinson 
College (Methodist Episcopal, 1783), at Carlisle; Haverlord College 
(Society of Friends, 1833), at Haverford; Franklin and Marshall 
(German Reformed, 1853), at Lancaster; Washington and Jefferson 
(Presbyterian, 1802), at Washington ; Lafayette (Presbyterian, 1832), 
at Easton; Bucknell University (Baptist, 1846), at Lewisburg; 
Waynesburg (Cumberland Presbyterian, 1851), at Waynesburg; 
Ursinus (German Reformed, 1870), at Collegeville ; Allegheny 
College (Methodist Episcopal, 1815), at Meadville; Swarthmore 
(Society of Friends (Hicksites), 1866), at Swarthmore: Muhlenberg 
(Lutheran, 1867), at Allentown; Lehigh University (non- sectarian, 
1867), at Bethlehem; and for women Bryn Mawr College (Society 
of Friends, 1885), at Bryn Mawr; the Allentown College (German 
Reformed, 1867), at Allentown ; Wilson College (Presbyterian, 1870), 
and the Pennsylvania College for women (1869), at Pittsburg. 
There are theological seminaries at Pittsburg, the Allegheny Semin- 
ary (United Presbyterian, 1825), Reformed Presbyterian (1856), 
and Western Theological Seminary (Presbyterian, 1827); at Lan- 
caster (German Reformed, 1827); at Meadville (Unitarian, 1844); 
at Bethlehem (Moravian, 1807); at Chester, the Crozer Theological 
Seminary (Baptist, 1868); at Gettysburg (Lutheran, 1826); and in 
Philadelphia several schools, notably the Protestant Episcopal Church 
divinity school (1862) and a Lutheran seminary (1864), at Mount 
Airy. There are many technical and special schools, such as 
Girard College, Drexel institute and Franklin institute at Phila- 
delphia, the Carnegie institute at Pittsburg and the United States 
Indian school at Carlisle (1891). 

Finance. The revenues of the state are derived primarily from 
corporation taxes, business licences, and a 5 % rate on collateral 
inheritance. Taxes on real estate have been abolished and those 
on personal property are being reduced, although the heavy 
expenditures on the new capitol at Harrisburg checked the 
movement temporarily. The total receipts for the year ending on 
the 3Oth of November 1909 were $28,945,210, and the expenditure 
was $30,021,774. During the provincial period Pennsylvania, in 
common with the other colonies, was affected with the paper money 
craze. From 1723 to 1775 it issued 1,094,650 and from 1775 to 
1785 1,172,000 plus $1,550,000. Acts were passed in '1781, 
1792, 1793 and 1794 to facilitate redemption at depreciated rates, 
and the last bills were called in on the 1st of January 1806. The 
state was also carried along by the movement which began about 
1825 for the expenditure of public funds on internal improvements. 
On turnpikes, bridges, canals and railways $53,352,649 was spent 
between 1826 and 1843, the public debt in the latter year reaching 
the high-water mark of $42,188,434. An agitation was then begun 
for retrenchment, the public works were put up for sale, and were 
finally disposed of in 1858 (when the debt was $39,488,244) to the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company for $7,500,000. Under authority 
of a constitutional amendment of 1857 a sinking fund commission 
was established in 1858. Aside from a temporary increase during 
the Civil War (186165) the debt has been rapidly reduced. The 
constitution of 1873 and subsequent legislation have continued 
the commission, but the sources of revenue have been very much 
curtailed, being restricted to the interest on the deposits of the 
fund and interest on certain Allegheny Railroad bonds. The total 
debt on the 3Oth of November 1909 was $2,643,917, of which the 
greater part were 3^ and 4% bonds, maturing on the 1st of February 
1912. The sinking fund at the samedate amounted to $2,652,035, 
leaving a net surplus in the sinking fund of $8118. The sinking 
fund was formerly divided among certain favoured banks in such 
manner as would best advance the political interests of the organi- 
zation which controlled the state; but just after the reform victory 
in the election of 1905 the sinking fund commission instituted the 
policy of buying bonds at the market price, and the debt is now 
being reduced by that method. The financial institutions of Penn- 
sylvania other than national banks are created by state charters 
limited to twenty years and are subject to the supervision of a 
commissioner of banking. 

History. The chief features of Pennsylvania history in 
colonial days were the predominance of Quaker influence, the 
heterogeneous character of the population, liberality in matters 
of religion, and the fact that it was the largest and the most 
successful of proprietary provinces. The earliest European 
settlements within the present limits of the state were some small 
trading posts established by the Swedes and the Dutch in the 



lower valley of the Delaware River in 1623-1681. Between 
1650 and 1660 George Fox and a few other prominent members 
of the Society of Friends had begun to urge the establishment 
of a colony in America to serve as a refuge for Quakers who were 
suffering persecution under the " Clarendon Code." William 
Penn (q.v.) became interested in the 'plan at least as early as 
1666. For his charters of 1680-1682 and the growth of the 
colony under him see PENN, WILLIAM. 

During Penn's life the colony was involved in serious boundary 
disputes with Maryland, Virginia and New York. A decree of 
Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, in 1750, settled the Maryland- 
Delaware dispute and led to the survey in 1763-1767 of the 
boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland (lat. 39 43' 
26-3" N.), called the Mason and Dixon line in honour of the 
surveyors; it acquired considerable importance later as separat- 
ing the free and the slave states. In 1784 Virginia agreed to 
the extension of the line and to the establishment of the western 
limit (the present boundary between Pennsylvania and Ohio) 
as the meridian from a point on the Mason and Dixon line five 
degrees of longitude west of the Delaware river. The 42nd 
parallel was finally selected as the northern boundary in 1789, 
in 1792 the Federal government sold to Pennsylvania the 
small triangular strip" of territory north of it on Lake Erie. A 
territorial dispute with Connecticut over the Wyoming Valley 
was settled in favour of Pennsylvania in 1782 by a court of 
arbitration appointed by the Continental Congress. 

Upon William Penn's death, his widow became proprietary. 
Sir William Keith, her deputy, was hostile to the council, which 
he practically abolished, and was popular with the assembly, 
which he assiduously courted, but was discharged by Mrs Penn 
after he had quarrelled with James Logan, secretary of the 
province. His successors, Patrick Gordon and George Thomas, 
under the proprietorship of John, Thomas and Richard Penn, 
continued Keith's popular policy of issuing a plentiful paper 
currency; but with Thomas the assembly renewed its old struggle, 
refusing to grant him a salary or supplies because of bis efforts 
to force the colony into supporting the Spanish War. Again, 
during the Seven Years' War the assembly withstood the gov- 
ernor, Robert Hunter Morris, in the matter of grants for military 
expenses. But the assembly did its part in assisting General 
Braddock to outfit; and after Braddock's defeat all western 
Pennsylvania suffered terribly from Indian attacks. After the 
proprietors subscribed 5000 f r the protection of the colony 
the assembly momentarily gave up its contest for a tax on the 
proprietary estates and consented to pass a money bill, without 
this provision, for the expenses of the war. But in 1760 the 
assembly, with the help of Benjamin Franklin as agent in 
England, won the great victory of forcing the proprietors to 
pay a tax (566) to the colony; and thereafter the assembly 
had little to contest for, and the degree of civil liberty attained 
in the province was very high. But the growing power of the 
Scotch-Irish, the resentment of the Quakers against the pro- 
prietors for having gone back to the Church of England and 
many other circumstances strengthened the anti-proprietary 
power, and the assembly strove to abolish the proprietorship 
and establish a royal province; John Dickinson was the able 
leader of the party which defended the proprietors; and Joseph 
Galloway and Benjamin Franklin were the leaders of the 
anti-proprietary party, which was greatly weakened at home 
by the absence after December 1764 of Franklin in England 
'as its agent. The question lost importance as independence 
became the issue. 

In 1755 a volunteer militia had been created and was led with 
great success by Benjamin Franklin; and in 1756 a line of forts 
was begun to hold the Indians in check. In the same year a 
force of pioneers under John Armstrong of Carlisle surprised 
and destroyed the Indian village of Kittanning (or Atique) 
on the Allegheny river. But the frontier was disturbed by 
Indian attacks until the suppression of Pontiac's conspiracy. 
In December 1763 six Christian Indians, Conestogas, were 
massacred by the " Paxton boys " from Paxton near the 
present Harrisburg; the Indians who had escaped were taken 



112 



PENNSYLVANIA 



to Lancaster for safe keeping but were seized and killed by the 
" Paxton boys," who with other backwoodsmen marched upon 
Philadelphia early in 1764, but Quakers and Germans gathered 
quickly to protect it and civil war was averted, largely by the 
diplomacy of Franklin. The Paxton massacre marked the close 
of Quaker supremacy and the beginning of the predominance of 
the Scotch-Irish pioneers. 

Owing to its central position, its liberal government, and its 
policy of religious toleration, Pennsylvania had become during 
the i8th century a refuge for European immigrants, especially 
persecuted sectaries. In no other colony were so many different 
races and religions represented. There were Dutch, Swedes, 
English, Germans, Welsh, Irish and Scotch-Irish; Quakers, 
Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Lutherans (Reformed), 
Mennonites, Bunkers, Schwenkfelders, and Moravians. Most 
of these elements have now become merged in the general type, 
but there are still many communities in which the popular 
language is a corrupt German dialect, largely Rheno-Franconian 
in its origin, known as " Pennsylvania Dutch." Before the 
Seven Years' War the Quakers dominated the government, 
but from that time until the failure of the Whisky Insurrection 
(1704) the more belligerent Scotch-Irish (mostly Presbyterians) 
were usually in the ascendancy, the reasons being the growing 
numerical strength of the Scotch-Irish and the increasing 
dissatisfaction with Quaker neglect of means of defending the 
province. 

As the central colony, Pennsylvania's attitude in the struggle 
with the mother country was of vast importance. The British 
party was strong because of the loyalty of the large Church of 
England element, the neutrality of many Quakers, Bunkers, 
and Mennonites, and a general satisfaction with the liberal and 
free government of the province, which had been won gradually 
and had not suffered such catastrophic reverses as had em- 
bittered the people of Massachusetts, for instance. But the 
Whig party under the lead of John Bickinson, Thomas MifBin 
and Joseph Reed was successful in the state, and Pennsylvania 
contributed greatly to the success of the War of Independence, 
by the important services rendered by her statesmen, by 
providing troops and by the financial aid given by Robert 
Morris (q.v.). The two Continental Congresses (1774, and 
1 775~ I 78i) met in Philadelphia, except for the months when 
Philadelphia was occupied by the British army and Congress 
met in Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania, and then in Prince- 
ton, New Jersey. In Philadelphia the second Congress adopted 
the Beclaration of Independence, which the Pennsylvania 
delegation, excepting Franklin, thought premature at the time, 
but which was well supported by Pennsylvania' afterwards. 
During the War of Independence battles were fought at Brandy- 
wine (1777), Paoli (1777), Fort Mifflin (1777) and Germantown 
(1777), and Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778 
at Valley Forge; and Philadelphia was occupied by the British 
from the 26th of September 1777 to the i8th of June 1778. 
The Penns lost their governmental rights in 1776, and three 
years later their territorial interests were vested in the common- 
wealth in return for a grant of 120,000 and the guarantee of 
titles to private estates held in severally. They still own con- 
siderable property in and around Wilkes-Barre, in Luzerne 
county, and in Philadelphia. The first state constitution of 
September 1776 was the work of the Radical party. It deprived 
the Quakers of their part in the control of the government 
and forced many Conservatives into the Loyalist party. This 
first state constitution was never submitted to popular vote. 
It continued the unicameral legislative system, abolished the 
office of governor, and provided for an executive council of 
twelve members. It also created a curious body, known as the 
council of censors, whose duty it was to assemble once in seven 
years to decide whether there had been any infringements of 
the fundamental law. The party which had carried this con- 
stitution through attacked its opponents by withdrawing the 
charter of the college of Philadelphia (now the university of 
Pennsylvania) because its trustees were anti-Constitutionalists 
and creating in its place a university of the state of Pennsyl- 



vania. The Constitutional party in 1785 secured the annulment 
by the state assembly of the charter of the Bank of North 
America, which still retained a congressional charter; and the 
cause of this action also seems to have been party feeling against 
the anti-Constitutionalists, among whom Robert Morris of the 
bank was a leader, and who, especially Morris, had opposed the 
paper money policy of the Constitutionalists. These actions 
of the state assembly against the college and the bank probably 
were immediate causes for the insertion in the Federal Constitu- 
tion (adopted by the convention in Philadelphia in 1787) of the 
clause (proposed by James Wilson of Pennsylvania, a friend 
of the college and of the bank) forbidding any state to pass a 
law impairing the obligation of contracts. The state ratified the 
Federal Constitution, in spite of a powerful opposition largely 
the old (state) Constitutional party on the 22nd of Becember 
1787, and three years later revised its own constitution to make 
it conform to that document. Under the constitution of 1790 
the office of governor was restored, the executive council and 
the council of censors were abolished, and the bicameral legis- 
lative system was adopted. Philadelphia was the seat of the 
Federal government, except for a brief period in 1789-1790, 
until the removal to Washington in 1800. The state capital 
was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799 and from 
Lancaster to Harrisburg in 1812. 

The state was the scene of the Scotch-Irish revolt of 1794 
against the Federal excise tax, known as the Whisky Insurrection 
(q.v.) and of the German protest (1799) against the house tax, 
known as the Fries Rebellion from its leader John Fries (q.v.). 
In 1838 as the result of a disputed election to the state house of 
representatives two houses were organized, one Whig and the 
other Bemocratic, and there was open violence in Harrisburg. 
The conflict has been called the " Buckshot War." The Whig 
House of Representatives gradually broke up, many members 
going over to the Bemocratic house, which had possession of 
the records and the chamber and was recognized by the state 
Senate. Pennsylvania was usually Bemocratic before the 
Civil War owing to the democratic character of its country 
population and to the close commercial relations between 
Philadelphia and the South. The growth of the protectionist 
movement and the development of anti-slavery sentiment, 
however, drew it in the opposite direction, and it voted the 
Whig national ticket in 1840 and in 1848, and the Republican 
ticket for Lincoln in 1860. A split among the Bemocrats in 
1835, due to the opposition of the Germans to internal improve- 
ments and to the establishment of a public school system, 
resulted in the election as governor of Joseph Ritner, the anti- 
Masonic candidate. The anti-Masonic excitement subsided 
as quickly as it had risen, and under the leadership of Thaddeus 
Stevens the party soon became merged with the Whigs. Buring 
the Civil War (1861-65) the state gave to the Union 336,000 
soldiers; and Generals McClellan, Hancock, Meade and Reynolds 
and Admirals Porter and Bahlgren were natives of the state. 
Its nearness to the field of war made its position dangerous. 
Chambersburg was burned in 1862; and the battle of Gettys- 
burg (July 1863), a defeat of Lee's attempt to invade the North 
in force was a turning point in the war. 

The development of the material resources of the state since 
1865 has been accompanied by several serious industrial dis- 
turbances. The railway riots of 1877, which centred at Pittsburg 
and Reading, resulted in the destruction of about two thousand 
freight cars and a considerable amount of other property. An 
organized association, known as the Molly Maguires (g.v.), 
terrorized the mining regions for many years, but was finally 
suppressed through the courageous efforts of President Franklin, 
Benjamin Gowen (1863-1889) of the Philadelphia & Reading rail- 
road with the assistance of Allan Pinkerton and his detectives. 
There have been mining strikes at Scranton (1871), in the Lehigh 
and Schuylkill regions (1875), at Hazleton (1897), and one in the 
anthracite fields (1902) which was settled by a board of arbitra- 
tors appointed by President Roosevelt; and there were street 
railway strikes at Chester in 1908 and in Philadelphia in 1910. 
The calling in of Pinkerton detectives from Chicago and New 



PENNSYLVANIA 



York to settle a strike in the Carnegie steel works at Homestead 
in 1892 precipitated a serious riot, in which about twenty persons 
were killed. It was necessary to call out two brigades of 
the state militia before the disorder was finally suppressed. 
The labour unions took advantage of this trouble to force 
Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Colorado and several 
other states to pass anti-Pinkerton statutes making it illegal to 
import irresponsible armed men from a distance to quell local 
disturbances. On the political side the chief features in the 
history of the state since 1865 have been the adoption of the 
constitution of 1873, the growth of the Cameron-Quay-Penrose 
political machine, and the attempts of the reformers to over- 
throw its domination. The constitution of 1838, which super- 
seded that of 1790, extended the functions of the legislature, 
limited the governor's power of appointment, and deprived 
negroes of the right of suffrage. The provision last mentioned 
was nullified by the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to 
the constitution of the United States. The chief object of the 
present state constitution (1873) was to prohibit local and special 
legislation. It increased the number of senators and represen- 
tatives, created the office of lieutenant-governor, substituted 
biennial for annual sessions of the legislature, introduced minority 
representation in the choice of the higher judiciary and of the 
county commissioners and auditors and provided (as had an 
amendment adopted in 1850) for the election of all judges by 
popular vote. The political organization founded by Simon 
Cameron (q.v.) and strengthened by his son, James Donald 
Cameron, Matthew Stanley Quay and Boies Penrose (b. 1860), 
is based upon the control of patronage, the distribution of state 
funds among favoured banks, the support of the Pennsylvania 
railway and other great corporations, and upon the ability of 
the leaders to persuade the electors that it is necessary to vote 
the straight Republican ticket to save the protective system. 
Robert E. Pattison (1850-1904), a Democrat, was elected 
governor in 1883 and again in 1891, but he was handicapped by 
Republican legislatures. In 1905 a Democratic state treasurer 
was elected. 

PENNSYLVANIA GOVERNORS. 
Under Dutch Rule (1624-1664).! 

Cornells Jacobsen Mey Director 

William van Hulst . 



Governor 



1624-1625 
1625-1626 
1626-1632 
1632-1633 
1633-1638 
1638-1647 
1647-1664 



1638-1641 
1641-1642 
1642-1653 
1653-1654 
1654-1655 

1664-1667 
1664-1667 



Peter Minuit 
David Pieterzen de Vries 
Wouter van Twiller 
William Kieft . . 

Peter Stuyvesant 

Under Swedish Rule (1638- 1655)." 

Peter Minuit 

Peter Hpllender 

John Printz 
ohn Pappegoya 
ohn Claude Rysingh 

Under the Duke of York (1664-1673). 

Richard Nicolls 

Robert Carr Deputy 

Robert Needham . . Commander on the Delaware 1664-1668 

Francis Lovelace 1667-1673 

John Carr .... Commander on the Delaware 1668-1673 
Under Dutch Rule (1673-1674). 

Anthony Colve 1673-1674 

Peter Alrichs Deputy on the Delaware 1673-1674 

Under the Duke of York (1674-1681). 

Sir Edmund Andros 1674-1681 

Under the Proprietors (1681-1693). 
William Markham .... Deputy-Governor . 1681-1682 

William Penn 1682-1684 

Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1684-1686 

Thomas Lloyd 

Robert Turner ] 

Arthur Cook I . Executive Commissioners 1686-1688 

John Simcock 

John Eckley J 

John Blackwell Deputy-Governor . 1688-1690 

Governors of New Netherland and of the Dutch settlements 
on the Delaware. 

1 The Swedish colonies on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch 
in 1655. 



Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1690-1691 

Thomas Lloyd Deputy-Governor . 1691-1693 

William Markham '.'.... . 1691-1693 

Under the Crown (1693-1695). 

Benjamin Fletcher 1693-1695 

William Markham .... Deputy-Governor . 1693-1695 
Under the Proprietors (1695-1776). 

William Markham Deputy-Governor . 1695-1699 

William Penn 16991701 



Andrew Hamilton 
Edward Shippen 
John Evans 
Charles Gookin . 
Sir William Keith 
Patrick Gordon 
James Logan 
George Thomas 
Anthony Palmer 
James Hamilton 
Robert H. Morris 
William Denny . 
James Hamilton 
John Penn 
James Hamilton 
Richard Penn 
John Penn 



. Deputy-Governor . 1701-1703 
President of the Council 1703-1704 
Lieutenant-Governor 1704-1709 

I709-I7I7 
1717-1726 
1726-1736 

President of the Council 1736-1738 
Deputy-Governor 1738-1747 
President of the Council 1747-1748 
Lieutenant-Governor 1748-1754 
Deputy-Governor . 1754-1756 
1756-1759 
1759-1763 
I763-I77I 
1771 

I77I-I773 
1773-1776 



President of the Council 
Lieutenant-Governor 



Period of Statehood (1776- ). 

Benjamin Franklin, Chairman of the Committee of Safety 1776-1777 
. _ . President of the Council 1777-1778 
Acting President of the Council 1777 

President of the Council 1778-1781 
1781-1782 

1782-1785 
1785-1788 
1788-1790 

Federalist . . 1790-1799 
Democratic-Republican 1799-1808 
1808-1817 

1817-1820 

,, 1820-1823 

1823-1829 

Democrat. . I&29-I835 
Anti-Masonic 
Democrat . 



Thomas Wharton, Jr, 
George Bryan 4 . 
Joseph Reed 
William Moore . 
John Dickinson . 
Benjamin Franklin . 
Thomas Mifflin . . . 
Thomas Mifflin . 
Thomas McKean 
Simon Snyder 
William Finley . 
Joseph Heister . 
John A. Shulze . 
George Wolf 
Joseph Ritner 
D. R. Porter . . . 
F. R. Shunk . . . 
W. F. Johnston 6 
William Bigler . 
James Pollock 
W. F. Packer . . . 
A. G. Curtin 
John W. Geary . 
John F. Hartranft . 
Henry M. Hoyt 
Robert E. Pattison . 
James A. Beaver 
Robert E. Pattison . . 
Daniel H. Hastings . 
William A. Stone 
Samuel W. Pennypacker 
Edwin S. Stuart . 
John K. Tener 



Whig 
Democrat 



Republican . 



Democrat 
Republican 

Democrat 
Republican 



1835-1839 
1839-1845 
1845-1848 
1848-1852 
1852-1855 
1855-1858 
1858-1861 
1861-1867 
1867-1873 
1873-1879 
1879-1883 
1883-1887 
1887-1891 
1891-1895 
1895-1899 
1899-1903 
1903-1907 
1907-1911 



1911- 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the physiography of Pennsylvania, see W. S. 
Tower's " Regional and Economic Geography of Pennsylvania," in 
the Bulletins of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, vols. iv., 
v. and yi. (Philadelphia, 1904-1908) ; J. P. Lesley, A Summary 
Description of the Geology of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1892-1895); 
C. B. Trego, A Geography of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1843); 
and Topographic and Geologic Survey of Pennsylvania., 1906-1908 
(Harrisburg, 1909). For industrial statistics see reports of the 
Twelfth United States Census, the Special Reports on Manufactures 
in 1905, by the United States Census Bureau, the annual reports 
on the Mineral Resources of the United States, by the United States 
Geological Survey, and the Year Book of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

For the administration of the state see: The Constitution of the 
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, adopted December 16, 1873, 
amended November 5, 1901 (Harrisburg, 1902); S. George et al. 
(editors), Laws of Pennsylvania^ 1682-1700, preceded by the Duke 
of York's Laws, 1676-1682 (Harrisburg, 1879); A. J. Dallas (editor), 
Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801 (Philadelphia and Lancaster, 
1797-1801); Laws of the General Assembly of Pennsylvania 



3 Lloyd was deputy-governor of the province, the present state 
of Pennsylvania; Markham of the lower counties, the present state 
of Delaware. 

4 The state was governed by a supreme executive council in 
1777-1790. 

6 Governor Shunk resigned in July 1848 and was succeeded by 
W. F. Johnston, president of the state senate. 



PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF 



114 

{Philadelphia, 1801 sqq. and Harrisburg, 1802 sqq.); and The 
Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896 sqq.), published 
under an act of 1887. Some valuable information is to be found 
in B. A. and M. L. Hinsdale, History and Civil Government of Penn- 
sylvania ... (Chicago, 1899); and in the various editions of 
Smull's Legislative Handbook and Manual. For the history of 
penal and charitable institutions, see the Annual Reports of the 
Board of Commissioners of Public Charities (Harrisburg, 1871 sqq.); 
the Annual Reports of the Committee on Lunacy (Harrisburg, 1883 
sqq.); and Amos H. Mylin, Penal and Charitable Institutions of 
Pennsylvania (2 vols., Harrisburg, 1897), an official publication, 
well written and handsomely illustrated. For educational history, 
see N. C. Schaeffer, The Common School Laws of Pennsylvania 
(Harrisburg, 1904); B. A. Hinsdale, Documents Illustrative of 
American Educational History (Washington, 1895); and J. P. 
Wickersham, History of Education in Pennsylvania (Lancaster, 
1886), one of the best state histories of education. For finance 
and banking, see the annual reports of the state treasurer, auditor- 
general, sinking fund commissioners, and the commissioner of 
banking, all published at Harrisburg; An Historical Sketch of the 
Paper Money of Pennsylvania, by a member of the Numismatic 
Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1862); and B. M. Mead, 
A Brief Review of the Financial History of Pennsylvania ... to 
the Present Time (1682-1881) (Harrisburg, 1881). 

The only complete history of the entire period is Howard M. 
Jenkins, et al., Pennsylvania, Colonial and Federal (3 vols., Phila- 
delphia, 1903). This is especially valuable for the detailed histories 
of gubernatorial administrations from 1790 to 1903. The third 
volume contains useful chapters on education, the judiciary, the 
medical profession, journalism, military affairs, internal improve- 
ments, &c. S. G. Fisher, Pennsylvania, Colony and Commonwealth 
(Philadelphia, 1897) contains the best short account of the colonial 
and revolutionary history, but it gives only a very brief summary 
of the period since 1783. W. R. Shepherd, History of Proprietary 
Government in Pennsylvania (New York, 1896), a detailed study 
of the proprietary from the political, governmental and territorial 
points of view, is scholarly, and gives a good account of the boundary 
disputes with Maryland, Virginia, New York and Connecticut. 
Among the older standard works are Samual Hazard, Annals of 
Pennsylvania from the Discovery of the Delaware, 1609-1682 (Phila- 
delphia, 1850), an elaborate account of the early Dutch and Swedish 
settlements on the Delaware river and bay; and Robert Proud, 
History of the Pennsylvania from 1681 until after the year 1742 (2 vols., 
Philadelphia, 1797-1798), written from the Quaker standpoint. 
For early literary history, see M. K. Jackson, Outline of the Literary 
History of Colonial Pennsylvania (New York, 1908). W. H. Egle, 
Illustrated History of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harris- 
burg, 1877), contains trustworthy histories of individual counties 
by various writers. J. B. McMaster and F. D. Stone, Pennsylvania 
and the Federal Constitution, 1787-1788 (Philadelphia, 1888), is 
a useful work. For the anti-Masonic movement, see Charles 
McCarthy, The Anti-Masonic Party (Washington, 1903). S. G. 
Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896), intro- 
ductory to the same author's Colony and Commonwealth, is an 
interesting study of the various nationalities and religions repre- 
sented among the settlers of the state. For the period of Quaker 
predominance (1681-1756), see Isaac Sharpless, History of Quaker 
Government in Pennsylvania (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1898-1899). 
See also J. Taylor Hamilton's " History of the Moravian Church " 
(Nazareth, Pa., 1900), vol. vi. of the Transactions of the Moravian 
Historical Society; Proceedings and Addresses of the Pennsylvania 
German Society, vols. vii. and viii. (Reading, 1897-1898) ; J. F. Sachse, 
German Pietists of Provincial Pennsylvania, 16041708 (Phila- 
delphia, 1895), and German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1708-1800 
(2 vols., Philadelphia, 1899-1901). The chief sources are the 
Pennsylvania Archives (first series, 12 vols., Philadelphia, 1852- 
1856; second series, 19 vols., Harrisburg, 1874-1893; and third 
series, 4 vols., Harrisburg, 1894-1895); Colonial Records, 1683- 
1790 (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1852); and Samuel Hazard, Register 
of Pennsylvania (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1828-1836). The Penn- 
sylvania Historical Society, organized in Philadelphia in 1825, has 
published 14 vols. of Memoirs (1826-1895), a Bulletin of 13 
numbers (1845-1847), one volume of Collections (1853), and the 
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, a Quarterly 
(1877 sqq.). There is a good account of the public archives, both 
printed and manuscript, in the first report of the Public Archives 
Commission of the American Historical Association, published in 
vol. ii. of the annual report of the association for the year 1900 
(Washington, 1901). 

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF, an American institution 
of higher learning, in Philadelphia, occupying about 60 acres, 
near the west bank of the Schuylkill river, north-east of the 
Philadelphia Hospital, east of 3Qth Street, south-east of 
Woodland Avenue, and south of Chestnut Street. In this 
irregular area are all the buildings except the Flower 
Astronomical Observatory (1896), which is 2 m. beyond the 
city limits on the West Chester Pike. The northernmost 



of these buildings is the law school, between Chestnut 
and Sansom Streets, on 34th Street. In a great triangular 
block bounded by Woodland Avenue, Spruce Street, and 34th 
Street are: the university library, which had in, 1909 about 
275,000 bound volumes and 50,000 pamphlets, including the 
Biddle Memorial law library (1886) of 40,000 volumes, the 
Colwell and Henry C. Carey collections in finance and economics, 
the Francis C. Macauley library of Italian, Spanish and Portu- 
guese authors, with an excellent Dante collection, the classical 
library of Ernst von Leutsch of Gottingen, the philological 
library of F. A. Pott of Halle, the Germanic library of R. Bech- 
stein of Rostock, the Semitic library of C. P. Caspar! of Copen- 
hagen, the (Hebrew and Rabbinical) Marcus Jastrow Memorial 
library, the ethnological library of D. G. Brinton, and several 
special medical collections; College Hall, with the university 
offices; Howard 'Houston Hall (1896) the students' club; Logan 
Hall; the Robert Hare chemical laboratory; and (across 36th 
Street) the Wistar institute of anatomy and biology. Imme- 
diately east of this triangular block are: Bennett House; the 
Randal Morgan laboratory of physics; the engineering building 
(1906); the laboratory of hygiene (1892); dental hall; and the 
John Harrison laboratory of chemistry. Farther east are the 
gymnasium, training quarters and Franklin (athletic) field, with 
brick grand-stands. South of Spruce Street are: the free 
museum of science and art (1899), the north-western part of 
a projected group, with particularly valuable American, Egyp- 
tian, Semitic and Cretan collections, the last two being the 
results in part of university excavations at Nippur (1888-1902) 
and at Gournia (1901-1904); between 34th and 36th Streets 
the large and well-equipped university hospital (1874); large 
dormitories, consisting in 1909, of 29 distinct but connected 
houses; medical laboratories; a biological hall and vivarium; 
and across Woodland Avenue, a veterinary hall and hospital. 

The university contains various departments, including the 
college (giving degrees in arts, science, biology, music, architec- 
ture, &c.), the graduate school (1882), a department of law 
(founded in 1790 and re-established in 1850) and a department 
of medicine (first professor, 1756; first degrees granted, 1768), 
the oldest and probably the most famous medical school in 
America. Graduation from the school of arts in the college is 
dependent on the successful completion of 60 units of work (the 
unit is one hour's work a week for a year in lectures or recita- 
tions or two hours' work a week for a year in laboratory courses) ; 
this may be done in three, four or five yearsjof the 60 counts: 
22 must be required in studies (chemistry, 2 units; English, 6; 
foreign languages, 6; history, logic and ethics, mathematics, and 
physics, 2 each); 18 must be equally distributed in two or three 
" groups " the 19 groups include astronomy, botany, chemistry, 
economics, English, fine arts, French, geology, German, Greek, 
history, Latin, mathematics, philosophy, physics, political 
science, psychology, sociology and zoology; and in the remaining 
20 units the student's election is practically free. Special work 
in the senior year of the college counts 8 units for the first 
year's work in the department of medicine. College scholar- 
ships are largely local, two being in the gift of the governor of 
the state, fifty being for graduates of the public schools of the 
city of Philadelphia, and five being for graduates of Pennsyl- 
vania public schools outside Philadelphia; in 1909 there were 
twenty-eight scholarships in the college not local. In the 
graduate school there are five fellowships for research, each 
with an annual stipend of $800, twenty-one fellowships valued 
at $500 each, for men only, and five fellowships for women, 
besides special fellowships and 39 scholarships. 

The corporation of the university is composed of a board of 
twenty-four trustees, of which the governor of Pennsylvania 
is ex-officio president. The directing head of the university, 
and the head of the university faculty and of the faculty of each 
department is the provost a title rarely used in American 
universities; the provost is president pro tempore of the board 
of trustees. 

In 1908-1909 the university had 454 officers of instruction, 
of whom 220 were in the college and 157 in the department 



PENNY 



of medicine, and an enrolment of 4570 students, of whom 2989 
were in the college (412 in the school of arts; 987 in the Towne 
scientific school; 472 in the Wharton school, and 253 in the 
evening school of accounts and finance; 384 in courses for 
teachers; and 481 in the summer school), 353 in the graduate 
school, 327 in the department of law, 559 in the department 
of medicine, 385 in the department of dentistry, and 150 in the 
department of veterinary medicine. 

In August 1907 the excess of the university's assets over its 
liabilities was $13,239,408 and the donations for the year were 
$305,814. A very large proportion of the university's investments 
is in real estate, especially in Philadelphia. In 1907 the total 
value of real estate (including the university buildings) was 
$6,829,154; and libraries, museums, apparatus and furniture 
were valued at $2,025,357. Students' tuition fees vary from 
$150 to $200 a year in the college; and are $160 in the department 
of law, $200 in the department of medicine, $150 in the depart- 
ment of dentistry and $100 in the department of veterinary 
science. The income from tuition fees in 1906-1907 was $458,396 ; 
the payments for "educational salaries" amounted to $433,311, 
and For " administration salaries " to $135,314. 

The university publishes the following series: Astronomical 
Series (1899 sqq.); Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory 
(1892 sqq.) ; Contributions from the Laboratory of Hygiene (1898 sqq.) ; 
Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory (1893 sqq.); Series in 
History (1901 sqq.); Series in Mathematics (1897 sqq.); Series in 
Philology and Literature (1891 sqq.) ; Series in Romanic Languages 
and Literatures (1907 sqq.); Series in Philosophy (1890 sqq.); 
Series in Political Economy and Public Law (1885 sqq.); The American 
Law Register (1852 sqq.); The University of Pennsylvania Medical 
Bulletin (1888 sqq.); Transactions of the Department of Archaeology 
(1904 sqq.); the Journal of Morphology (1887 sqq.); and Transactions 
and Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Pennsylvania (1897 sqq.). 
There are also occasional publications by institutes and depart- 
ments connected with the university. Student publications 
include: a daily, The Pennsylvanian (1885); the weekly, Old Penn 
(1902); a comic monthly, The Punch Bowl; a literary monthly, 
The Red and Blue; a quarterly of the department of dentistry, 
The Penn Dental Journal; an annual, The Record; and The Alumni 
Register (1896), a monthly. 

Benjamin Franklin in 1749 published a pamphlet, entitled 
Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania, 
which led to the formation of a board of twenty-four trustees, 
nineteen of whom, on the i3th of November 1749, met for 
organization and to promote " the Publick Academy in the 
City of Philadelphia," and elected Benjamin Franklin president 
of the board, an office which he held until 1756. So closely 
was Franklin identified with the plan that Matthew Arnold 
called the institution " the University of Franklin." On the 
ist of February 1750 there was conveyed to this board of 
trustees the " New Building " on Fourth Street, near Arch, 
which had been erected in 1740 for a charity school a use to 
which it had not been put and as a " house of Publick Worship," 
in which George Whitefield had preached in November 1740; 
the original trustees (including Franklin) of the " New Building " 
and of its projected charity school date from 1740, and therefore 
the university attaches to its seal the words " founded 1740." 
In the " New Building " the academy was opened on the 7th 
of January 1751, the city having voted 200 in the preceding 
August for the completion of the building. On the i6th of 
September 1751 a charitable school " for the instruction of poor 
Children gratis in Reading, Writing, and Arilhmetick " was 
opened in the " New Building." The proprietaries, Thomas 
and Richard Penn, incorporated "The Trustees of the Academy 
and Charitable School in the Province of Pennsylvania " in 
1753; and in 1755 issued a confirmatory charter, changing the 
corporate name to " The Trustees of the College, Academy and 
Charitable School," &c., whereupon William Smith (1727-1803) 
of the university of Aberdeen, who had become rector of the 
academy in 1732 and had taken orders in the Church of Englanc 
in 1753, became provost of the college. In 1756 Dr Smith 
established a complete and liberal curriculum which was adoptee 
by Bishop James Madison in 1777 when he became president 
of the College of William and Mary. In 1757 the first college 
class graduated. Under Smith's control the Latin school grew 
in importance at the expense of the English school, to the great 
annoyance of Franklin. In 1762-1764 Dr Smith collected for 



he college in England about 6900; and in 1764 his influence 
lad become so strong that it was feared that the college would 
Decome sectarian. The Penns and others deprecated this 
and the trustees bound themselves (1764) to " use their utmost 
endeavours that . . . (the original plan) be not narrowed, nor 
the members of the Church of England, nor those dissenting 
rom them ... be put on any worse footing in this seminary 
than they were at the time of receiving the royal brief." From 
September 1777 to June 1778 college exercises were not held 
jecause Philadelphia was occupied by British troops. In 1779 
;he state legislature, on the ground that the trustees' declara- 
;ion in 1764 was a " narrowing of the foundation," * confiscated 
the rights and property of the college and chartered a new 
corporation " the Trustees of the University of the State of 
Pennsylvania"; in 1789 the college was restored to its rights 
and property and Smith again became its provost; in 1791 the 
college and the university of the State of Pennsylvania were 
united under the title, " the University of Pennsylvania," 
whose trustees were elected from their own members by the 
board of trustees of the college and that of the university. In 
1802 the university purchased new grounds on Ninth Street, 
between Market and Chestnut, where the post office building 
now is; there until 1829 the university occupied the building 
erected for the administrative mansion of the president of the 
United States; there new buildings were erected after 1829; 
and from these the university removed to its present site in 
1872. 

The provosts have been: in 1755-1779 and in 1780-1803, 
William Smith; in 1779-1791, of the university of the state 
of Pennsylvania, John Ewing (1732-1802); in 1807-1810, John 
McDowell (1750-1820) ; in i8io-i8i3,John Andrews (1746-1813) ; 
in 1813-1828, Frederick Beasley (1777-1845); in 1828-1833, 
William Heathcote De Lancey (1797-1865); in 1834-1853, 
John Ludlow (1793-1857); in 1854-1859, Henry Vethake 
(1792-1866); in 1860-1868, Daniel Raynes Goodwin (1811-1890); 
in 1868-1880, Charles Janeway Stille (1819-1899); in 1881-1894. 
William Pepper (1843-1898); in 1894-1910, Charles Custis Har- 
rison (b. 1844), and in 1911 sqq. Edgar Fahs Smith (b. 1856). 

See T. H. Montgomery, A History of the University of Pennsylvania 
from its Foundation to A.D. 1770 (Philadelphia, 1900); George B. 
Wood, Early History of the University of Pennsylvania (3rd ed., 
ibid., 1896); J. B. McMaster, The University of Pennsylvania (ibid. 
1897); G. E. Nitzsche, Official Guide to the University^ of Penn- 
sylvania (ibid., 1906); and Edward P. Cheyney, "University of 
Pennsylvania," in vol. i. of Universities and their Sons (Boston, 
1901). 

PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, 
earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig 
and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. 
Pfand, and Eng. " pawn," the word meaning a little pledge 
or token, or with Ger. Pfanne, a pan), an English coin, equal 
in value to the one-twelfth of a shilling. It is one of the oldest 
of English coins, superseding the sceatta or sceat (see 
NUMISMATICS; and BRITAIN: Anglo Saxon, " Coins "). It was 
introduced into England by Offa, king of Mercia, who took as a 
model a coin first struck by Pippin, father of Charlemagne, 
about 735, which was known in Europe as novus denarius. Offa's 
penny was made of silver and weighed 225 grains, 240 pennies 
weighing one Saxon pound (or Tower pound, as it was afterwards 
called), hence the term pennyweight (dwt.). In 1527 the Tower 
pound of 5400 grains was abolished, and the pound of 5760 
grains adopted instead. The penny remained, with some few 
exceptions, the only coin issued in England until the introduction 
of the gold florin by Edward III. in 1343. It was not until 
the reign of Edward I. that halfpence and farthings became a 
regular part of the coinage, it having been usual to subdivide 
the penny for trade purposes by cutting it into halves and 
quarters, a practice said to have originated in the reign of 
jEthelred II. In 1257, in the reign of Henry III., a gold penny, 

1 Probably the actual reason was that the assembly, dominated 
by the advocates of the radical constitution of 1776, was attempting 
to punish the trustees of the college, who were almost all " anti- 
constitutionalists." 



n6 



PENN YAN PENRHYN, 2ND BARON 



of the value of twenty silver pence, was struck. The weight 
and value of the silver penny steadily declined from 1300 


onwards, as will be seen from the following table: 






Value in silver 


Reign. 


Weight. 


925 fine, at 






53. 6d. per oz. 




Grains. 


Penny. 


William I., 1066 . 


22* 


3-09 


Edward I., 1300 . 


22 


3-02 


III., 1344 


20i 


2-78 


III., 1346 


2O 


2-75 


HI-, 1351 


18 


2-47 


Henry IV., 1412 . 


15 


2'O6 


Edward IV., 1464 


12 


65 


Henry VIII., 1527 


10* 


44 


VIII., 1543 


IO 


37 


Edward VI., 1552 


8 


IO 


Elizabeth, 1601 


7f 


06 



The last coinage of silver pence for general circulation was 
in the reign of Charles II. (1661-1662), since which time they 
have only been coined for issue as royal alms on Maundy Thurs- 
days. Copper halfpence were first issued in Charles II.'s reign, 1 
but it was not until 1797, in the reign of George III., that copper 
pence were struck. This copper penny weighed i oz. avoir- 
dupois. In the same year copper twopences were issued weighing 
2 oz., but they were found too cumbersome and were discon- 
tinued. In 1860 bronze was substituted for the copper coinage, 
the alloy containing 95 parts of copper, 4 of tin, and i of zinc. 
The weight was also reduced, i Ib of bronze being coined into 
48 pennies, as against 24 pennies into which i ft of copper 

was coined. 

PENN YAN, a village and the county-seat of Yates county, 
New York, U.S.A., situated N. of Keuka Lake, on the outlet 
extending to Lake Seneca, about 170 m. W. of Albany, and 
about 95 m. E. by S. of Buffalo. Pop. (1905), 454! (191) 
4597. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River 
and the Northern Central railways and by electric railway to 
Branchport, and has steamboat connexions with Hammonds- 
port at the head of Keuka Lake. The lake, one of the most 
beautiful of the so-called " finger lakes " of central New York, 
abounds in lake and rainbow trout, black bass, pickerel and 
pike, and there are many summer cottages along its shores. At 
Keuka Park, on the west shore of the lake, is Keuka College 
(1890), and at Eggleston's Point is held a summer " natural 
science camp " for boys. The village is the seat of the Penn 
Yan Academy (1859). The lake furnishes water-power, and 
among the manufactures are paper, lumber, carriages, shoes, 
&c. Much ice is shipped from the village. Penn Yan is an 
important shipping point in the apple and grape-growing region 
of central New York, and winemaking is an important industry. 
The first frame dwelling at Penn Yan was built in 1799; the 
village became the county-seat in 1823, when Yates county was 
created, and was incorporated in 1833. The first settlers 
were chiefly followers of Jemima Wilkinson (1753-1819), a 
religious enthusiast, born in Cumberland township, Providence 
county, Rhode Island, who asserted that she had received a 
divine commission. She preached in Rhode Island, Connec- 
ticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Obtaining a large 
tract (which was called Jerusalem in 1789) in the present Yates 
county, she founded in 1788 the village of Hopeton on the outlet 
of Keuka Lake about a mile from Seneca Lake. Many followers 
settled there, and she herself lived there after 1790. Some of 
her followers left her before 1800, and then the community 
gradually broke up. The name of the village is said to have 
been derived from the first syllables of " Pennsylvania " and 
" Yankee," as most of the early settlers were Pennsylvanians 
and New Englanders. 

1 The figure of Britannia first appeared on this issue of copper 
coins. The original of Britannia is said to have been Frances 
Stewart, afterwards duchess of Richmond (Pepys, Diary, Feb. 25, 
1667). It was in Charles II.'s reign, too, that the practice was 
established of placing the sovereign s bust in a direction contrary 
to that of his predecessor. 



See Lewis C. Aldrich, History of Yates County, New York (Syracuse, 
1892). 

PENNYROYAL, in botany, a herb formerly much used in 
medicine, the name being a corruption of the old herbalist's 
name " Pulioll-royall," Pulegium regium. It is a member 
of the mint genus, and has been known to botanists since the 
time of Linnaeus as Mentha pulegium. It is a perennial herb 
with a slender branched stem, square in section, up to a foot 
in length and rooting at the lower nodes, small opposite stalked 
oval leaves about half-inch long, and dense clusters of small 
reddish-purple flowers in the leaf axils, forming almost globular 
whorls. It grows in damp gravelly places, especially near pools, 
on heaths and commons. It has a strong smell somewhat like 
that of spearmint, due to a volatile oil which is readily obtained 
by distillation with water, and is known in pharmacy as Oleum 
pulegii. The specific name recalls its supposed property of 
driving away fleas (pulices). Like the other mints it has 
carminative and stimulant properties. 

PENOBSCOT, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian 
stock. Their old range was the country around the river 
Penobscot in Maine. They sided with the French in the colonial 
wars, but made a treaty of peace with the English in 1749. 
They fought against the English in the War of Independence, 
and were subsequently settled on an island in the Penobscot 
river, near Oldtown. 

PENOLOGY (Lat. poena, punishment), the modern name 
given to penitentiary science, that concerned with the processes 
devised and adopted for the repression and prevention of crime. 
(See CRIME; CRIMINOLOGY; PRISON; JUVENILE OFFENDERS; 
RECIDIVISM, &c.) 

PENRHYN, GEORGE SHOLTO GORDON DOUGLAS-PEN- 
NANT, 2nd BARON (1836-1907), was the son of Colonel Edward 
Gordon Douglas (1800-1886), brother of the igth earl of Morton, 
who, through his wife, Juliana, elder daughter and coheir of 
George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, Carnarvon, 
had large estates in Wales and elsewhere, and was created 
Baron Penrhyn in 1866. Dawkins had inherited the estates 
from Richard Penryn, who was created Baron Penryn in 1763, 
the title becoming extinct on his death in 1808. 

George Douglas-Pennant was conservative M.P. for Car- 
narvonshire in 1866-1868 and 1874-1880, and succeeded his 
father in the title in 1886. A keen sportsman, a benevolent 
landlord, a kind and considerate employer, Lord Penrhyn 
came of a proud race, and was himself of an imperious disposition. 
He came prominently before the public in 1897 and subsequent 
years in connexion with the famous strike at his Welsh slate- 
quarries. During his father's lifetime the management of the 
Penrhyn quarry had been left practically to an elective com- 
mittee of the operatives, and it was on the verge of bankruptcy 
when in 1885 he took matters in hand; he abolished the com- 
mittee, and with the help of Mr E. A. Young, whom he brought 
in from London as manager, he so reorganized the business 
that this slate-quarry yielded a profit of something like 150,000 
a year. The new men and new methods were, however, not 
to the taste of the trade unionist leaders of the quarrymen, 
and in 1897, when the " new unionism " was rampant in 
labour questions throughout England, a strike was deliberately 
fomented. Lord Penrhyn refused to recognize the union or its 
officials, though he was willing to consider any grievances from 
individual quarrymen, and a protracted struggle ensued, in 
which his determination was invincible. He became the object 
of the bitterest political hostility, and trade unionism exerted 
itself to the utmost, but vainly, to bring about some form of 
government intervention. Penrhyn strikers perambulated 
the country, singing and collecting contributions to their funds. 
But in spite of every pressure Lord Penrhyn insisted on being 
master of his own property, and by degrees the agitation col- 
lapsed. His death on the loth of March 1907 evoked general 
and genuine regret. Lord Penrhyn was twice married, and had 
fifteen surviving children. He was succeeded in the title by 
his eldest son, Edward Sholto (b. 1864), who was Unionist M.P. 
for South Northamptonshire from 1895 to 1900. 



PENRITH PENRYN 



117 



PENRITH, a municipality of Cumberland county, New South 
Wales, Australia, on the Nepean River, 34 m. by rail W. by N. 
of Sydney. Penrith and the adjoining township of St Mary's 
are chiefly remarkable for their connexion with the railway. 
The iron tubular bridge which carries the line over the Nepean 
is the best of its kind in the colony, while the viaduct over 
Knapsack Gulley is the most remarkable erection of its kind 
in Australia. There are large engineering works and railway 
fitting shops at Penrith, which is also the junction for all the 
western goods traffic. The inhabitants of both towns are mainly 
railway employes. Pop. (1901), of Penrith 3539, of St Mary's 
1840. 

PENRITH, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary 
division of Cumberland, England, in a valley near the river 
Eamont, on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, London 
& North Western and North Eastern railways. Pop. of urban 
district (1901), 9182. It contains some interesting brasses. 
A 14th-century grammar school was refounded by Queen 
Elizabeth; and there are two mansions dating from the same 
reign, which have been converted into inns. Though there are 
breweries, tanneries and saw-mills, the town depends mainly 
on agriculture. There are some ruins of a castle erected as a 
protection against the Scots. Near Penrith on the south, above 
the precipitous bank of the Eamont, stands a small but beau- 
tiful old castellated house, Yanwath Hall. To the north-east 
of the town is Eden Hall, rebuilt in 1824. Among many fine 
paintings, it contains portraits by Hoppner, Kneller, Lely, Opie 
and Reynolds. The " Luck of Eden Hall," which has been 
celebrated in a ballad by the duke of Wharton, and in a second 
ballad written by Uhland, the German poet, and translated 
by Longfellow, is an enamelled goblet, kept in a leathern case 
dating from the times of Henry IV. or Henry V. It was long 
supposed to be Venetian, but has been identified as of rare 
Oriental workmanship. The legend tells how a seneschal of 
Eden Hall one day came upon a company of fairies dancing at 
St Cuthbert's Well in the park. These flew away, leaving their 
cup at the water's edge, and singing " If that glass either break 
or fall, Farewell to the luck of Eden Hall." Its true history 
is unknown. 

Penrith, otherwise Penreth, Perith, Perath, was founded by 
the Cambro-Celts, but on a site farther north than the present 
town. In 1222 Henry III. granted a yearly fair extending from 
the eve of Whitsun to the Monday after Trinity and a weekly 
market on Wednesday, but some time before 1787 the market 
day was changed to Tuesday. The manor in 1242 was handed 
over to the Scottish king who held it till 1295, when Edward I. 
seized it. In 1397 Richard II. granted it to Ralph Neville, 
first earl of Westmorland; it then passed to Warwick the king- 
maker and on his death to the crown. In 1694 William III. 
granted the honour of Penrith to the earl of Portland, by whose 
descendant it was sold in 1787 to the duke of Devonshire. A 
court leet and view of frankpledge have been held here from 
time immemorial. In the i8th and early part of the igth century 
Penrith manufactured checks, linen cloth and ginghams, but 
the introduction of machinery put an end to this industry, only 
the making of rag carpets surviving. Clock and watch-making 
seems to have been an important trade here in the i8th century. 
The town suffered much from the incursions of the Scots, and 
Ralph, earl of Westmorland, who died 1426, built the castle, 
but a tower called the Bishop's Tower had been previously 
erected on the same site. In 1597-1598 a terrible visitation of 
plague attacked the town, in which, according to an old inscrip- 
tion on the church, 2260 persons perished in Penrith, by which 
perhaps is meant the rural deanery. During the Civil War the 
castle was dismantled by the Royalist commandant. In 1745 
Prince Charles Edward twice marched through Penrith, and a 
skirmish took place at Clifton. The church of St Andrew 
is of unknown foundation, but the list of vicars is complete 
from 1223. 

PENRY, JOHN (1550-1593), Welsh Puritan, was born in 
Brecknockshire in 1559; tradition points to Cefn Brith, a farm 
near Llangammarch, as his birthplace. He matriculated at 



Peterhouse, Cambridge, in December 1580, being then almost 
certainly a Roman Catholic; but soon became a convinced 
Protestant, with strong Puritan leanings. Having graduated 
B.A., he migrated to St Alban's Hall, Oxford, and proceeded 
M.A. in July 1586. He did not seek episcopal ordination, but 
was licensed as University Preacher. The tradition of his 
preaching tours in Wales is slenderly supported; they could 
only have been made during a few months of 1 586 or the autumn 
of 1587. At this time ignorance and immorality abounded in 
Wales. In 1562 an act of parliament had made provision for 
translating the Bible into Welsh, and the New Testament was 
issued in 1567; but the number printed would barely supply 
a copy for each parish church. Indignant at this negligence, 
Penry published, early in 1587, The ^Equity of an Humble 
Supplication- in the behalf of the country of Wales, that some 
order may be taken for the preaching of the Gospel among those 
people. Archbishop Whitgift, angry at the implied rebuke, caused 
him to be brought before the High Commission and imprisoned 
for about a month. On his release Penry married a lady of 
Northampton, which town was his home for some years. With 
the assistance of Sir Richard Knightley and others, he set up 
a printing press, which for nearly a year from Michaelmas 1 588 
was in active operation. It was successively located at East 
Moulsey (Surrey), Fawsley (Northampton), Coventry and other 
places in Warwickshire, and finally at Manchester, where it was 
seized in August 1589. On it were printed Penry's Exhortation 
to the governours and people of Wales, and View of . . . such 
publike wants and disorders as are in the service of God . . . in 
Wales; as well as the celebrated Martin Marprelate tracts. 
In January 1590 his house at Northampton was searched and his 
papers seized, but he succeeded in escaping to Scotland. There 
he published several tracts, as well as a translation of a learned 
theological work known as Theses Genevenses. Returning 
to England in September 1592, he joined the Separatist Church 
in London, in which he declined to take office, though after the 
arrest of the ministers, Francis Johnson and John Greenwood, 
he seems to have been the regular preacher. He was arrested 
in March 1593, and efforts were made to find some pretext for 
a capital charge. Failing this a charge of sedition was based 
on the rough draft of a petition to the queen that had been found 
among his private papers; the language of which was indeed 
harsh and offensive, but had been neither presented nor published. 
He was convicted by the Queen's Bench on the 2ist of May 
1593, and hanged on the 29th at the unusual hour of 4 p.m., 
the signature of his old enemy Whitgift being the first of those 
affixed to the warrant. 

See the Life, by John Waddington (1854). 

PENRYN, a market town and port, and municipal and 
contributary parliamentary borough of Cornwall, England, 
2 m. N.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western 
railway. Pop. (1901), 3190. It lies at the head of the estuary 
of the Penryn River, which opens from the main estuary of the 
Fal at Falmouth. Granite, which is extensively quarried in 
the neighbourhood, is dressed and polished at Penryn, and there 
are also chemical and bone manure works, engineering, iron 
and gunpowder works, timber-yards, brewing, tanning and 
paper-making. The harbour dries at low tide, but at high 
tide has from 9 to 125 ft. of water. Area, 291 acres. 

Penryn owed its development to the fostering care of the 
bishops of Exeter within whose demesne lands it stood. These 
lands appear in Domesday Book under the name of Trelivel. 
In 1230 Bishop Briwere granted to his burgesses of Penryn 
that they should hold their burgages freely at a yearly rent of 
I2d. by the acre for all service. Bishop Walter de 
Stapeldon secured a market on Thursdays and a fair at the 
Feast of St Thomas. The return to the bishop in 1307 was 
7, 135. 2jd. from the borough and 26, 73. sd. from the forum. 
In 1311 Bishop Stapeldon procured a three days' fair at the 
Feast of St Vitalis. Philip and Mary gave the parliamentary 
franchise to the burgesses in 1553. James I. granted and 
renewed the charter of incorporation, providing a mayor, eleven 



n8 



PENSACOLA PENSION 



aldermen and twelve councillors, markets on Wednesdays and 
Saturdays, and fairs on the ist of May, the 7th of July and the 
2ist of December. The charter having been surrendered, 
James II. by a new charter inter alia confined the parliamentary 
franchise to members of the corporation. This proviso however 
was soon disregarded, the franchise being freely exercised by all 
the inhabitants paying scot and lot. An attempt to deprive 
the borough of its members, owing to corrupt practices, was 
defeated by the House of Lords in 1827. The act of 1832 
extended the franchise to Falmouth in spite of the rivalry 
existing between the two boroughs, which one of the sitting 
members asserted was so great that no Penryn man was ever 
known to marry a Falmouth woman. In 1885 the united 
borough was deprived of one of its members. The corporation 
of Penryn was remodelled in 1835, the aldermen being reduced 
to four. Its foreign trade, which dates from the i4th century, 
is considerable. The extra-parochial collegiate church of 
Glasney, founded by Bishop Bronescombe in 1265, had a revenue 
at the time of its suppression under the act of 1 545 of 2 2 1 , 1 8s. 4d. 

See Victoria County History, Cornwall; T. C. Peter, Glasney 
Collegiate Church. 

PENSACOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of 
Escambia county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the 
state, on Pensacola Bay, about 6m. (n m. by channel) N. of the 
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 17,747; (191) 22,982. It ranks 
second in size among the cities of Florida. The city is served 
by the Louisville & Nashville and the Pensacola, Alabama & 
Tennessee railways, and by steamers to West Indian, European 
and United States ports. The harbour 1 is the most important 
deep-water harbour south of Hampton Roads. The narrow 
entrance is easily navigable and is defended by Fort Pickens on 
the west end of Santa Rosa Island, with a great sea-wall on the 
Gulf side (completed in 1909), Fort McReeon a small peninsula 
directly opposite, and Fort Barrancas on the mainland imme- 
diately north-east of Fort McRee. On the mainland i m. east of 
Fort Barrancas are a United States Naval Station, consisting of a 
yard (84 acres enclosed) with shops, a steel floating dry dock and 
marine barracks; and a reservation (1800 acres) on which are a 
naval hospital, a naval magazine, two timber ponds, a national 
cemetery, and the two villages of Warrington andWoolsey, 
with a population of about 1500, mostly employes of the yard. 
The city's principal public buildings are the state armoury, 
the Federal building, and the city hall. The mean annual 
temperature is about 72 F., and breezes from the Gulf temper 
the heat. Pensacola is a shipping point for lumber, naval 
stores, tobacco, phosphate rock, fish, cotton and cotton-seed 
oil, meal and cake, and is one of the principal markets in the 
United States for naval stores. In 1895 the foreign exports 
were valued at $3,196,609, in 1897 at $8,436,679, and in 1909 
at $20,971,670; the imports in 1909 were valued at $1,479,017. 
The important factor in this vast development has been the 
Louisville & Nashville railway, which after 1895 built extensive 
warehouses and docks at Pensacola. There are excellent coaling 
docks good coal is brought hither from Alabama and a grain 
elevator. Among the manufactures are sashes, doors and 
blinds, whiting, fertilizers, rosin and turpentine, and drugs. 

Pensacola Bay may have been visited by Ponce de Leon in 
1513 and by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528. In 1540 Maldonado, 
the commander of the fleet that brought De Soto to the Florida 
coast, entered the harbour, which he named Puerta d'Auchusi, 
and on his recommendation De Soto designated it as a basis 
of supplies for his expedition into the interior. In 15 59 a perma- 
nent settlement was attempted by Tristan de Luna, who renamed 
the harbour Santa Maria, but two years later this settlement 
was abandoned. In 1696 another settlement was made by 
Don Andres d'Arriola, who built Fort San Carlos near the site 
of the present Fort Barrancas, and seems to have named the 
place Pensacola. In 1719, Spain and France, being at war, 
Pensacola was captured by Sieur de Bienville, the French 

1 In 1881 the United States government began to improve the 
harbour by dredging, and in June 1909 the depth of the channel, 
for a minimum width of about 300 ft., was 30 ft. at mean low water. 



governor of Louisiana. Later in the same year it was succes- 
sively re-taken by a Spanish force from Havana and recaptured 
by Bienville, who burned the town and destroyed the fort. 
In 1723, three years after the close of hostilities, Bienville 
relinquished possession. The Spanish then transferred their 
settlement to the west end of Santa Rosa Island, but after a 
destructive hurricane in 1754 they returned to the mainland. 
In 1763, when the Floridas were ceded to Great Britain, Pensa- 
cola became the seat of administration for West Florida and 
most of the Spanish inhabitants removed to Mexico and Cuba. 
During the War of American Independence the town was a 
place of refuge for many Loyalists from the northern colonies. 
On the 9th of May 1781 it was captured by Don Bernardo de 
Galvez, the Spanish governor at New Orleans. Most of the 
English inhabitants left, but trade remained in the hands of 
English merchants. During the War of 1812 the British made 
Pensacola the centre of expeditions against the Americans, and 
in 1814 a British fleet entered the harbour to take formal posses- 
sion. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson attacked the town, 
driving back the British. In 1818, on the ground that the 
Spanish encouraged the Seminole Indians in their attacks 
upon the American settlements in the vicinity, Jackson again 
captured Pensacola, and in 1821 Florida was finally transferred 
to the United States. On the i2th of January 1861 the Navy 
Yard was seized by order of the state government, but Fort 
Pickens, defended first by an insignificant force under Lieut. 
Adam J. Slemmer (1828-68) and afterwards by a larger force 
under Lieut. -Colonel Harvey Brown (1796-1874), remained 
in the hands of the Union forces, and on the 8th of May 1862 
the Confederates abandoned Pensacola. Pensacola was chartered 
as a city in 1895. 

PENSHURST, a village in the south-western parliamentary 
division of Kent, England, at the confluence of the Eden and 
Medway, 4^ m. S. W. of Tonbridge. Pop. (1901), 1678. The village 
is remarkable for some old houses, including a timbered house 
of the 1 5th century, and for a noted factory of cricket implements. 
The church, chiefly late Perpendicular, contains a large number 
of monuments of the Sidney family and an effigy of Sir Stephen 
de Penchester, Warden of the Cinque Ports in the time of 
Edward I. Penshurst Place is celebrated as the home of the 
Sidney family. Anciently the residence of Sir Stephen de Pen- 
Chester, Penshurst was granted to Henry VIII. 's chamberlain, Sir 
William Sidney, whose grandson, Sir Philip Sidney, was born 
here in 1554. It passed to Sir Philip's younger brother Robert, 
who in 1618 was created earl of Leicester. On the death 
of the seventh earl in 1743 the estates devolved upon his niece 
Elizabeth, whose only child married Sir Bysshe Shelley of Castle 
Goring. Their son was created a baronet in 1818 as Sir John 
Shelley-Sidney, and his son was created Baron de L'Isle and 
Dudley in 1835. The mansion is quadrangular, and has a fine 
court, chapel and hall (c. 1341) with open timber roof and a 
minstrels' gallery. The various rooms contain an interesting 
collection of portraits, armour and other family relics. The 
praises of the park and the house have been sung in Sir Philip 
Sidney's Arcadia, and by Ben Jonson, Edmund Waller and 
Robert Southey. 

PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, 
to pay), a regular or periodical payment made by private 
employers, corporations or governments, in consideration either 
of past services or of the abolition of a post or office. Such 
a pension takes effect on retirement or when the period of service 
is over. The word is also used in the sense of the payment 
by members of a society in respect of dues. 

United Kingdom. 

In the United Kingdom the majority of persons in the employ 
of the government are entitled to pensions on reaching a certain 
age and after having served the state for a certain minimum 
number of years. That such is the case, and moreover that 
it is usual to define such pensions as being given in consideration 
of past services, has led to the putting forward very generally 
the argument that pensions, whether given by a government or 



PENSION 



by private employers, are in the nature of deferred pay, and that 
holders of posts which carry pensions must therefore be rewarded 
by a remuneration less than the full market rate, by the difference 
of the value of the pension. This view is hardly correct, for 
the object of attaching a pension to a post is not merely to reward 
past services, but to attract continuity of service by the holder 
as well as to enable the employer to dispense with the services 
of the employe without hardship to him should age or infirmity 
render him less efficient. Dissatisfaction had been expressed 
from time to time by members of the English civil service with 
the system in force, viz. that the benefit of long service was 
confined only to survivors, and that no advantage accrued to 
the representatives of those who died in service. This was altered 
by an act of 1909. See Royal Commission on Superannuation 
in the Civil Service: Report and Evidence (1903). For the general 
pensions given by the state to the aged poor see OLD AGE 
PENSIONS. 

Civil Service. In the English civil service the grant of pensions 
on superannuation is regulated by statute, the four principal acts 
being the Superannuation Acts of 1834, 1859, 1887 and 1909. To 
qualify for a pension it is necessary (i) that a civil servant should 
have been admitted to the service with a certificate from the civil 
service commissioners, or hold an office specially exempted from 
this requirement; (2) that he should give his whole time to the 
public service; (3) that he should draw the emoluments of his 
office from public funds exclusively ; (4) that he should have served 
for not less than ten years; (5) that if under the age of 60 years 
he should be certified to be permanently incapable, from infirmity 
of body or mind, of discharging his official duties, or have been 
removed from his office on the ground of his inability to discharge 
his duties efficiently. On retirement on these conditions a 
civil servant is qualified for a pension calculated at one-eightieth 
of his retiring salary (or, in certain cases, of his average salary for 
the last three years) for each complete year of service, subject to 
a maximum of forty-eightieths. Civil servants retiring on the 
ground of ill health after less than ten years' service qualify for 
a gratuity of one month's pay for each year of service. Previous 
to the Superannuation Act of 1909 the pension was calculated at 
the rate of one-sixtieth of the retiring salary for each completed 
year of service, subject to a maximum of forty-sixtieths. This is 
still the rate for those who entered the service previous to the pass- 
ing of the act (September 20, 1909) unless they availed themselves 
of the permission in the act to take advantage of its provisions, 
which were more than a compensation for the lowering of the rate. 
The act gave power to the treasury to grant by way of additional 
allowance to a civil servant who retired after not less than two 
years' service, in addition to his superannuation, a lump sum equal 
to one-thirtieth of his annual salary and emoluments multiplied 
by the number of completed years he has served, so however, that 
such lump sum does not exceed one and a half times his salary, while if 
he retires after attaining the age of sixty-five years, there must be 
deducted from that lump sum one-twentieth for every completed 
year that he has served after attaining that age. In the case of 
those who entered the service before the passing of the act, and 
take advantage of the act, this additional allowance is increased by 
one-half per cent, for each completed year served at the passing of 
the act. The act also provided that where a civil servant died after 
serving five years or upwards, a gratuity equal to his annual salary 
and emoluments might be granted to his legal personal repre- 
sentatives. Where the civil servant attains the age of sixty-five 
this gratuity is reduced by one-twentieth for each completed year 
beyond that age. On the other hand, where the civil servant 
has retired from the service and all the sums received by him at 
his death on account of superannuation are less than his annual 
salary his representatives may receive the difference as a gratuity. 
Provision was also made in the act for granting compensation on 
abolition of office, provided that such compensation does not 
exceed what the recipient might be granted or be entitled to if he 
retired on the ground of ill health. Pensions are also sometimes 
awarded in excess of the scale as a reward for special services, as 
compensation for injury in certain cases, or to holders of pro- 
fessional offices, appointed at an age exceeding that at which 
public service ordinarily begins. In the estimates for civil services 
for the year 19091910, there was provided for non-effective and 
charitable services (as pensions and gratuities in lieu of pensions 
are known as) the sum of 9,625,920; this, however, included an 
item of 8,750,000 for old-age pensions, leaving a sum of 875,920. 
There was charged on the Consolidated Fund, on account of pensions 
and compensation allowance for civil, judicial and other services, 
a sum of 142,767, while the following sums for civil pensions were 
provided in the estimates of the several departments: War Office, 
158,000; Admiralty, 369,800; Customs and Excise, 412,358; 
Inland Revenue, 116,096; Post Office, 649,000; Royal Irish 
Constabulary, 416,500; Dublin Metropolitan Police, 33,646, 
making a total of 2,298,167, or a gross total for civil pensions of 



3,174,087. A return is published annually containing a complete 
list of the various pensions. 

Perpetual or Hereditary Pensions. Perpetual pensions were 
freely granted either to favourites or as a reward for political 
services from the time of Charles II. onwards. Such pensions 
were very frequently attached as " salaries " to places which were 
sinecures, or, just as often, posts which were really necessary were 
grossly overpaid, while the duties were discharged by a deputy 
at a small salary. Prior to the reign of Queen Anne such pensions 
and annuities were charged on the hereditary revenues of the 
sovereign and were held to be binding on the sovereign's successors 
(The Bankers' Case, 1691; State Trials, xiv. 3-43). By I Anne 
c. 7 it was provided that no portion of the hereditary revenues 
could be charged with pensions beyond the life of the reigning 
sovereign. This act did not affect the hereditary revenues of 
Ireland and Scotland, and many persons were quartered, as they 
had been before the act, on the Irish and Scottish revenues who 
could not be provided for in England for example, the duke of 
St Albans, illegitimate son of Charles II., had an Irish pension of 
800 a year; Catherine Sedley, mistress of James II., had an Irish 
pension of 5000 a year; the duchess of Kendall and the countess 
of Darlington, mistresses of George I., had pensions of the united 
annual value of 5000, while Madame de Walmpden, a mistress of 
George II., had a pension of 3000 (Lecky, History of Ireland in 
the Eighteenth Century). These pensions had been granted in every 
conceivable form during the pleasure of the Crown, for the life 
of the sovereign, for terms of years, for the life of the grantee, and 
for several lives in being or in reversion (Erskine May, Constitutional 
History of England). On the accession of George III. and his 
surrender of the hereditary revenues in return for a fixed civil 
list, this civil list became the source from which the pensions were 
paid. The subsequent history of the civil list will be found under 
that heading (CiviL LIST), but it may be here mentioned that the 
three pension lists of England, Scotland and Ireland were con- 
solidated in 1830, and the civil pension list reduced to 75,000, 
the remainder of the pensions being charged on the Consolidated 
Fund. 

In 1887, Charles Bradlaugh, M.P., protested strongly against 
the payment of perpetual pensions, and as a result a Committee of 
the House of Commons inquired into the subject (Report of Select 
Committee on Perpetual Pensions, 248, 1887). An appendix to the 
Report contains a detailed list of all hereditary pensions, pay- 
ments and allowances in existence in 1 88 1, with an explanation 
of the origin in each case and the ground of the original grant; 
there are also shown the pensions, &c., redeemed from time to 
time, and the terms upon which the redemption took place. The 
nature of some of these pensions may be gathered from the follow- 
ing examples: To the duke of Marlborough and his heirs in per- 
petuity, 4000 per annum; this annuity was redeemed in August 
1884 for a sum of 107,780, by the creation of a ten years' annuity 
of 12,796, 175. per annum. By an act of 1806 an annuity of 5000 
per annum was conferred on Lord Nelson and his heirs in perpetuity. 
In 1793 an annuity of 2000 was conferred on Lord Rodney and 
his heirs. All these pensions were for services rendered, and although 
justifiable from that point of view, a preferable policy is pursued 
in the 2Oth century, by parliament voting a lump sum, as in the 
cases of Lord Kitchener in 1902 (50,000) and Lord Cromer in 1907 
50,000). Charles II. granted the office of receiver-general and 
controller of the seals of the court of king's bench and common 
pleas to the duke of Graf ton. This was purchased in 1825 from 
the duke for an annuity of 843, which in turn was commuted in 
1883 for a sum of 22,714, I2s. 8d. To the same duke was given 
the office of the pipe or remembrancer of first-fruits and tenths of 
the clergy. This office was sold by the duke in 1765, and after 
passing through various hands was purchased by one R. Harrison 
in 1798. In 1835 on the loss of certain fees the holder was com- 
pensated by a perpetual pension of 62, 95. 8d. The duke of Grafton 
also possessed an annuity of 6870 in respect of the commutation 
of the dues of butlerage and prisage. To the duke of St Albans 
was granted in 1684 the office of master of the hawks. The sums 
granted by the original patent were: master of hawks, salary, 
391, is. sd.; four falconers at 50 per annum each, 200; provision 
of hawks, 600; provision of pigeons, hens and other meats, 
182, i os. ; total, 1373, iis. 50. This amount was reduced by 
office fees and other deductions to 965, at which amount it stood, 
antii commuted in 1891 for 18,335. To the duke of Richmond 
and his heirs was granted in 1676 a duty of one shilling per ton on 
all coals exported from the Tyne for consumption in England. 
This was redeemed in 1799 for an annuity of 19,000 (chargeable 
on the consolidated fund), which was afterwards redeemed for 
633,333. The duke of Hamilton, as hereditary keeper of the 
palace, Holyrood House, received a perpetual pension of 45, ios., 
and the descendants of the heritable usher of Scotland drew a s&lary 
of 242, ios. The conclusions of the committee were that pensions, 
allowances and payments should not in future be granted in per- 
petuity, on the ground that such grants should be limited to the 
persons actually rendering the services, and that such rewards 
should be defrayed by the generation benefited; that offices with 
salaries and without duties, or with merely nominal duties, ought 



I2O 



PENSION 



to be abolished ; that all existing perpetual pensions and payments 
and all hereditary offices should be abolished : that where no service 
or merely nominal service is rendered by the holder of an hereditary 
office or the original grantee of a pension, the pension or payment 
should in no case continue beyond the life of the present holder 
and that in all cases the method of commutation ought to ensure 
a real and substantial saving to the nation (the existing rate, about 
27 years' purchase, being considered by the committee to be too 
high). These recommendations of the committee were adopted 
by the government and outstanding hereditary pensions were 
gradually commuted, the only ones left outstanding being those to 
Lord Rodney (2000) and to Earl Nelson (5000), both chargeable 
on the consolidated fund. 

Political Pensions. By the Political Offices Pension Act 1869, 
pensions were instituted for those who had held political office. 
For the purposes of the act political offices were divided into three 
classes: (l) those with a yearly salary of not less than 5000; 

(2) those with a salary of less than 5000 and not less than 2000; 

(3) those with a salary of less than 2000 and more than 1000. 
For service in these offices there may be awarded pensions for life 
in the following scale: (i) a first class pension not exceeding 2000 
a year, in respect of not less than four years' service or its equivalent, 
in an office of the first class; (2) a second class pension not exceeding 
1200, in respect of service of not less than six years or its equivalent, 
in an office of the second class; (3) a third class pension not exceed- 
ing 800 a year, in respect of service of not less than ten years in 
an office of the third class. The service need not be continuous, 
and the act makes provision for counting service in lower classes 
as a qualification for pension in a higher class. These pensions 
are limited in number to twelve, but a holder must not receive any 
other pension out of the public revenue, if so, he must inform the 
treasury and surrender it if it exceeds his political pension, or if 
under he must deduct the amount. He may, however, hold office 
while a pensioner, but the pension is not payable during the time he 
holds office. To obtain a political pension, the applicant must file 
a declaration stating the grounds upon which he claims it and that 
his income from other sources is not sufficient to maintain his 
station in life. 

Civil List Pensions. These are pensions granted by the 
sovereign from the civil list upon the recommendation of the first 
lord of the treasury. By I & 2 Viet. c. 2 they are to be granted to 
" such persons only as have just claims on the royal beneficence 
or who by their personal services to the Crown, or by the perform- 
ance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science 
and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious 
consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country." 
A sum of 1200 is allotted each year from the civil list, in addition 
to the pensions already in force. From a Return issued in 1908 
the total of civil list pensions payable in that year amounted to 
24,665. 

Judicial, Municipal, &c. There are certain offices of the exe- 
cutive whose pensions are regulated by particular acts of parliament. 
Judges of the Supreme Court, on completing fifteen years' service 
or becoming permanently incapacitated for duty, whatever their 
length of service, may be granted a pension equal to two-thirds of 
their salary (Judicature Act 1873). The lord chancellor of England 
however short a time he may have held office, receives a pension 
of 5000, but he usually continues to sit as a law lord in the House 
of Lords so also does the lord chancellor of Ireland, who receives 
a pension of 3,692 6s. id. A considerable number of local author- 
ities have obtained special parliamentary powers for the pur- 
pose of superannuating their officials and workmen who have 
reached the age of 60-65. Poor law officers receive superannua- 
tion allowances under the Poor Law Officers Superannuation Acts 
1864-1897. 

Ecclesiastical Pensions. Bishops, deans, canons or incumbents 
who are incapacitated by age or infirmity from the discharge of 
their ecclesiastical duties may receive pensions which are a charge 
upon the revenues of the see or cure vacated. 

Navy pensions were first instituted by William III. in 1693 and 
regularly established by an order in council of Queen Anne in 1700. 
Since then the rate of pensions has undergone various modifications 
and alterations; the full regulations concerning pensions to all 
ranks will be found in the quarterly Navy List, published by the 
authority of the Admiralty. In addition to the ordinary pensions 
there are also good-service pensions, Greenwich Hospital pension 
and pensions for wounds. An officer is entitled to a pension when 
he is retired at the age of 45, or if he retires between the ages of 
40 and 45 at his own request, otherwise he receives only half pay. 
The amount of his pension depends upon his rank, length of service 
and age. The maximum retired pay of an admiral is 850 per 
annum, for which 30 years' service or its equivalent in half-pay 
time- is necessary; he may, in addition, hold a good service pension 
f 3 P er annum. The maximum retired pay of a vice-admiral, 
with 29 years' service is 725; of rear-admirals with 27 years' 
service 600 per annum. Pensions of captains who retire at the 
age of 55, commanders, who retire at 50, and lieutenants who retire 
at 45, range from 200 per annum for 17 years' service to 525 for 
24 years' service. The pensions of other officers are calculated 
in the same way, according to age and length of service. The 



good-service pensions consist of ten pensions of 300 per annum 
for flag-officers, two of which may be held by vice-admirals an'd two 
by rear-admirals; twelve of 150 for captains; two of 200 a year 
and two of 150 a year for engineer officers; three of 100 a year for 
medical officers of the navy; six of 200 a year for general officers 
of the Royal Marines and two of 150 a year for colonels and lieut.- 
colonels of the same. Greenwich Hospital pensions range from 
150 a year for flag officers to 25 a year for warrant officers. All 
seamen and marines who have completed twenty-two years' service 
are entitled to pensions ranging from lod. a day to a maximum of 
is. 2d. a day, according to the number of good-conduct badges, 
together with the good-conduct medal, possessed. Petty officers, 
in addition to the rates of pension allowed them as seamen, are 
allowed for each year's service in the capacity of superior petty 
officer, 155. 2d. a year, and in the capacity of inferior petty officer 
75. yd. a year. Men who are discharged the service on account 
of injuries and wounds or disability attributable to the service are 
pensioned with sums varying from 6d. a day to 2s. a day. Pensions 
are also given to the widows of officers in certain circumstances 
and compassionate allowances made to the children of officers. 
In the Navy estimates for 1908-1909 the amount required for half- 
pay and retired-pay was 868,800, and for pensions, gratuities and 
compassionate allowances 1,334,600, a total of 2,203,400. 

Army. The system of pensions in the British Army is somewhat 
intricate, provision being made for dealing with almost every case 
separately. As a general rule officers can retire after eight years' 
service on a pension of 100 per annum for ten years, provided that 
they take commissions in either the Imperial Yeomanry or Special 
Reserve and attend the annual trainings during that period. The 
other pensions are as follows: 2nd lieutenants, lieutenants, captains 
and majors after 15 years' service (or : 12 years in the West India 
regiment), 120, if 45 years of age 200 ; majors, after 25 years'service, 
200. Royal artillery or royal engineers if commissioned, after 21 
years of age, 300, if 48 years of age, 300 ; lieutenant-colonels, after 
3 years as such, with 15 years' service, 250, with 27 years' service, 
300, with 30 years' service, 365, after term of employment as lieu- 
tenant-colonel commanding a unit, or staff appointment as lieutenant- 
colonel, or after 5 years as lieutenant-colonel cavalry and infantry, 
420. Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, 
450; Colonels, after 5 years as colonel, cavalry and infantry, 420. 
Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, 450, 
after completing the term of command of a regimental district or 
a regiment of foot-guards, or employed in any other capacity for 
three years, 45O-5<x> according to age; Brevet-colonels, with 'the 
substantive rank of lieutenant-colonel, receive, cavalry or infantry, 
420; royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, 450. 
Major-generals retire at the age of 62 with a pension of 700; 
lieutenant-generals at 67 with 850; generals at 67 with 1000. 

Officers whose first permanent commission bears date prior to 
the 1st of January, 1887, retire with a gratuity in lieu of pension. 

Officers of the departmental corps retire either with pensions 
ranging from 1125 yearly to los. daily, or with gratuities ranging 
from 2500 to 1000. 

Warrant officers with 5 years' service as such, and 20 years' total 
service, receive 35. 6d. per diem if discharged from the service on 
account of disability, reduction of establishment or age. On dis- 
charge for any reasons (except misconduct or inefficiency) they 
receive from 33. 6d. to 53. per diem, according to length of service 
and corps. If they have less than 5 years' service as warrant 
officers, but not less than 21 years' total service, they receive at 
least 35. per diem; and if discharged at their own request after 
1 8 years' total service, 2s. 7jd. 

Additional pensions are given at the rate of 6d. per diem for 
gallant conduct, and l^d. to is. per diem for re-employed pensioners 
on completing their second term of employment, with 3d. per diem 
extra if promoted while so serving. Special pensions are also 
granted in exceptional cases. 

For the purposes of pensions, non-commissioned officers are 
divided into four classes, corresponding roughly to quartermaster- 
sergeants, colour-sergeants, sergeants and corporals. 

With not more than 21 years total service, and with the following 
continuous service in one of the above classes, the rates of pensions 
(per diem) are: 



Class. 


12 years' 
Service. 


9 years' 
Service. 


6 years' 
Service. 


3 years' 
Service. 


I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 


s. d. 
2 9 
2 6 

2 3 

i 8 


s. d. 

2 6 

2 3 
2 O 
I 6 


s. d. 
2 3 

2 

i 9 

I 4 


s. d. 

2 O 
' 1 

I 6 
I O 



Privates (Class V.) receive the following pensions: 



21 years' 
Service. 


20 years' 
Service. 


19 years' 
Service. 


1 8 years' 
Service. 


14 to 1 8 years' 
Service. 


is. id. 


is. od. 


i Id. 


lod. 


8d. to lod. 



PENSION 



121 



For service in excess of 21 years, the following amounts are added 
to the pensions enumerated above : 



Classes I. to II I. 
Classes IV. and V. 



For each complete year in excess of 21 years. 



id. per diem to gd. per diem, 
d. per diem to sd. per diem. 



A man promoted to higher rank within one year of his com- 
pleting 21 years' service, receives, on his discharge in the higher rank, 
an extra 3d. per diem, provided that he has completed 25 years' 
service in all. An additional pension of 6d. per diem is awarded 
for gallant conduct, as in the case of warrant officers. 

N.C.O.'s and men disabled through military service are granted 
the following pensions: 



If partially capable of earning a livelihood 


Per diem. 


Class I. to III 
IV 
V 


is. to 33. 
gd. to 2s. 
6d. to is. 6d. 


If totally incapable of earning a livelihood 


Per diem. 


Class I. to III 
IV 


2s. 6d. to 35. 6d. 
2s. od. to 35. od. 


V 


Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. 



Pensions may also be granted to N.C.O.'s and men who are disabled 
by causes other than military service, accprding to circumstances. 

United States. 

In the ordinary sense of the word, pensions in the United 
States are confined to federal judges and officers of the army 
and navy, but the United States " Pension Fund " is so singular 
a feature of the national budget, that it is desirable to give an 
account of the different classes of allowances which are granted. 
In the United States allowances for services in wars prior to the 
4th of March 1861 are called " old war " pensions, and may be 
divided into three classes, viz.,(i) invalid pensions, based upon 
wounds or injuries received, or disease contracted in the course 
of duty, (2) " service " pensions, and (3) land bounties, both 
granted for service irrespective of injuries. 

The first provision made by Congress for pensions was a resolution 
passed on the 26th of August 1776, promising invalid pensions to 
officers and men of the army or navy who lost a limb or were other- 
wise disabled in the War of Independence, at a rate equal to half 
of their monthly pay as officers or soldiers during life or continuance 
of the disability, those not totally disabled to receive an adequate 
monthly pension not to exceed half of their pay. Then followed 
various Acts of Congress enlarging the provisions for invalid pensions 
and extending them to those who had been in the war of 1812, 
and to the widows and children of those who died in the war or from 
wounds received in the war. The act of the 3rd of May 1846, 
provided for the prosecution of the war with Mexico and for pension- 
ing those volunteers wounded or otherwise disabled in service. 
Other acts were subsequently passed making further provision for 
pension on account of service in the Mexican war. The first general 
law granting " service " pensions was not passed until the l8th of 
March 1818, thirty-five years after the termination of the War of 
Independence. Its beneficiaries were required to be in indigent 
circumstances and in need of assistance from their country. Two 
years later Congress became alarmed by reason of the large number 
of claims filed (about 8000), and enacted what was known as the 
" Alarm Act," requiring each applicant for pension and each 
pensioner on the rolls to furnish a schedule of his whole estate and 
income, clothing and bedding excepted. Many pensioners were 
dropped who were possessed of as much as $lo worth of property. 
Numerous acts were, however, passed from time to time liberaliz- 
ing the law or dealing more generously with the survivors of the 
Revolution. Service pensions were not granted to widows of the 
soldiers of this war until 1836, and then only for a period of five 
years and on condition that the marriage of the soldier was prior to 
his last service, and that the soldier's service was not less than six 
months. In 1853, seventy years after the close of the war, the limi- 
tation as to the time of marriage was removed. The rolls in 1901 
contained nine and in 1908 two pensions based upon service in the 
War of Independence. The last survivor was Daniel F. Bakeman, 
who died on the 5th of April 1869, aged 109 years and 6 months. 

The first law granting service pensions on account of the war of 
1812 was passed in 1871, fiftv-six years after the close of the war. 
This act required sixty days' service. Widows were not pension- 
able unless the marriage to the soldier had taken place prior to the 
treaty of peace of I5th February 1815. On gth March 1878, 
sixty-three years after the war, an act was passed reducing the 
requisite period of service to fourteen days and removing the 
limitations as to date of marriage. In 1908 the pension rolls 



contained the names of 471 widows of this war, the last male survivor 
having died in 1905, at the age of 105 years. Service pensions 
were provided for those who served in the Black Hawk war, Creek 
war, Cherokee disturbances and the Seminole war (1832 to 1842), 
on the 27th of July 1892, fifty years after the period embraced in 
the act ; they were granted to those who had served for thirty days 
and were honourably discharged, and to their widows. In 1908 
there were 1820 survivors and 3018 widows, pensioners of the 
Indian wars. Service pensions were granted to the survivors of 
the war with Mexico by an act passed on the 2gth of January 
1887, thirty- nine years after the Guadeloupe-Hildalgo treaty. The 
pensions were granted to those who were honourably discharged 
and to the widows, for service of sixty days, if sixty-two years of 
age, or disabled or dependent. This law was liberalized by the 
acts of the 5th of January 1893, 23rd of April 1900, 6th of February 
1907, and igth of April 1908, increasing the pension to $15 for 
those who have reached the age of seventy years, and to $20 for 
those seventy-five years and over. In 1908 the pension rolls 
contained the names of 2932 survivors and 6914 widows on account 
of service in the Mexican war. To give title to bounty land, service 
must have been for at least fourteen days or in a battle prior to 
3rd March 1855; and if in the navy or regular army, must have 
been in some war in which the United States was engaged. Bounty 
land warrants are issued for 160 acres, and over 70,000,000 acres 
have been granted under the different Bounty Land Acts. 

For services rendered in the Civil War (1861-65) ' n the army 
or navy of the United States, or in their various branches, the law 
provided two distinct systems of pensioning (l) the general laws, 
granting pensions for wounds or injuries received, or disease con- 
tracted in service in the line of duty, the pensions ranging from 
$6 to $100 per month; and (2) the so-called Dependent Pension 
Act and amending acts, granting pensions for permanent disabilities 
regardless of the time and manner of their origin, provided they 
were not the result of vicious habits, the pensions ranging from 
$6 to $12 per month. What is known as the general law for dis- 
abilities incurred in service and in the course of duty was constituted 
in the act of the 1 4th of July 1862, as amended by the act of the 
3rd of March 1873. Under its provisions the following classes of 
persons are entitled to benefit, viz. any officer of the army, navy 
or marine corps, or any enlisted man in the military or naval service 
of the United States, whether regularly mustered or not ; any master 
or any pilot, engineer, sailor or other person not regularly mustered, 
serving upon any gunboat or war- vessel of the United States; any 
acting assistant or contract surgeon; any provost-marshal, deputy 
provost-marshal or enrolling officer; subject to the several con- 
ditions in each particular case prescribed in the law. This law 
also embraces in its provisions the following classes, each class 
being subject to certain specified conditions, viz. widows, children 
under sixteen years of age, dependent parents, and brothers and 
sisters. This act has been the subject of numerous amendments 
along more liberal lines. As an illustration a case may be cited 
where a soldier lost both hands in the service in the course of duty, 
and was discharged in 1862. He is entitled to a pension of $8 
per month from the date of his discharge. Under subsequent 
acts he is entitled to $25 per month from 4th July 1864; $31-25 
from 4th June 1872; $50 from 4th June 1874; $72 from I7th 
June 1878, and $100 from I2th February 1889. 

Under the general law a widow or dependent relative could not 
be pensioned unless the cause of the soldier's death originated in 
service in the line of duty; if it were so shown, a widow might be 
pensioned whether she were rich or poor. Upon the death or 
remarriage of the widow the minor children of the soldier under the 
age of sixteen years become entitled to pension. If the soldier 
died of causes due to his service, and left no widow or minor children, 
his other relatives become entitled, if dependent, in the following 
order, viz; first, the mother; secondly, the father; thirdly, orphan 
sisters and brothers under sixteen years of age, who shall be pen- 
sioned jointly. In 1908 the number of invalids pensioned under 
the general law was 142,044, and the number of widows and depen- 
dent relatives was 8 1, 1 68. 

The so-called Dependent Pension Act was based upon an Act 
of Congress approved 27th June 1890, which was amended on 
9th May 1900. Properly speaking, it might be called " dependent " 
only as regards widows and parents. The main conditions as to 
the soldier or sailor were, ninety days' service, an honourable 
discharge, and a permanent disability from disease or otherwise, 
not the result of his own vicious habits, to such an extent as to 
render him unable to maintain himself by manual labour. The 
rates of pension under this act were $6, $8, $10 and $12 per month. 
Widows became entitled under this law if they married the soldier 
or sailor prior t 27th June 1890, provided they were without 
means of support other than their daily labour, and an actual 
net income not exceeding $250 per year, and had not remarried. 
Claims of children under sixteen years of age were governed by the 
same conditions as applied to claims of widows, except that their 
dependence was presumed, and need not be shown by evidence. 
If a minor child was insane, idiotic or otherwise physically or ment- 
ally helpless, the pension continued during the life of said child 
or during the period of disability. Furtheracts made more liberal 
provisions. That of the 6th of February 1907, granted pensions 



122 



PENSIONARY PENTASTOMIDA 



to persons who had served ninety days or more in the military or 
naval service in the civil war, or sixty days in the Mexican war, 
and were honourably discharged, no other conditions being attached. 
The rate of pension was fixed at $12 per month when sixty-two 
years of age, $15 per month when seventy years of age and $20 
per month when seventy-five years of age. The act of April 
1908, fixed the rate of pension for widows, minor children' under the 
age of sixteen and helpless minors on the roll or afterwards to be 
placed on it at $12 per month, and granted pensions at the same 
rate to the widows of persons who served ninety days or more 
during the civil war, without regard to their pecuniary condition. 
In 1908 there were 140,600 invalids on the roll, and 4294 minor and 
helpless children. In the same year under the act of 1907 there 
were 338,341 dependants, while under the act of 1908, 188,445 
widows were put on the roll. All women employed by competent 
authority as nurses during the Civil War for six months or more, 
who are unable to earn a support, are granted a pension of $12 
per month by an act of the 5th of August 1892. In 1908 
the pension rolls contained the names of 3110 pensioners under 
this act. 

There were on the roll in 1908 en account of the Spanish war, 
11,786 invalids and 3722 dependants. The total amount paid in 
pensions in 1908 on account of that war and the insurrection in 
the Philippine Islands was $3,654,122. The grand total of pen- 
sioners on the roll for all wars was, in 1908, 951,687. 

In addition to pensions, the United States government grants 
the following gratuities: First: If a soldier lost a limb in the 
service, or as a result of his service in line of duty, he is furnished 
with an artificial limb free of cost every three years, or commuta- 
tion therefor, and transportation to and from a place where he 
shall select the artificial limb. Second: An honourably discharged 
soldier or sailor is given preference for appointment to places of 
trust and profit, and preference for retention in all civil service 
positions. Third: There are ten National Soldiers' Homes situ- 
ated at convenient and healthy points in different parts of the 
country, where comfortable quarters, clothing, medical attendance, 
library and amusements of different kinds are provided free of all 
expense; government providing the soldiers free transportation to 
the home, continuing payments of pension while they are members 
of the home, and increasing the same as disabilities increase. 
Fourth: There are thirty homes maintained by the different 
states, which are similar in their purpose to the National Homes, 
the sum of $100 per year being paid by the general government for 
each inmate. Many of these state homes also provide for the wives 
and children of the inmates, so that they need not be separated 
while they are members of such home. Fifth: Schools are estab- 
lished by the different states for the maintenance and education 
of soldiers' orphans until they attain the age of sixteen years. 

From the close of the Civil War in 1865 to 1908, the government of 
the United States paid to its pensioners for that war the sum of 
S3.533. 593. 2 5- The payments on account of all wars for the 
fiscal year ended on the 3Oth of June 1908 were $153,093,086. 
Over $17,000,000 has been paid to surgeons for making medical 
examinations of pensioners and applicants for pensions. The 
total disbursement for pensions from 1790 to 1908 amounted to 
93,75l,lo8,8>9- No other nation or government in all time has 
dealt so liberally with its defenders. 

The money appropriated by Congress for the payment of pensions 
is disbursed by eighteen pension agents established in different 
parts of the country. Pensions are paid quarterly, and the agencies 
are divided into three classes, one of which pays on the 4th of every 
month. 

PENSIONARY, a name given to the leading functionary and 
legal adviser of the principal town corporations of Holland, 
because they received a salary, or pension. At first this official 
was known by the name of " clerk " or " advocate." The 
office originated in Flanders. The earliest " pensionaries " 
in Holland were those of Dort (1468) and of Haarlem (1478). 
The pensionary conducted the legal business of the town, and 
was the secretary of the town council and its representative 
and spokesman at the meetings of the Provincial States. The post 
of pensionary was permanent and his influence was great. 

In the States of the province of Holland pensionary of the 
order of nobles (Ridderschap) was the foremost official of that 
assembly and he was na med until the death of Oldenbarneveldt 
in 1619 the land's advocate, or more shortly, the advocate. 
The importance of the advocate was much increased after the 
outbreak of the revolt in 1572, and still more so during the long 
period 1586-1619 when John van Oldenbarneveldt held the 
office. The advocate drew up and introduced all resolutions, 
concluded debates and counted the votes in the Provincial 
Assembly. When it was not in session he was a permanent 
member of the college of deputed councillors who carried on 
the administration. He was minister of justice and of finance. 



All correspondence passed through his hands, and he was the 
head and the spokesman of the deputation, who represented the 
province in the States General. The conduct of foreign affairs 
in particular was entrusted almost entirely to him. 

After the downfall of Oldenbarneveldt the office of lands'- 
advocate was abolished, and a new post, tenable for five years 
only, was erected in its place with the title of Raad-Pensionaris. 
or Pensionary of the Council, usually called by English writers 
Grand Pensionary. The first holder of this office was Anthony 
Duyck. Jacob Cats and Adrian Pauw, in the days of the 
stadtholders Frederick Henry and William of Orange II. had 
to be content with lessened powers, but in the stadtholderless 
regime 1650-1672 the grand pensionary became even more 
influential than Oldenbarneveldt himself, since there was no 
prince of Orange filling the offices of stadtholder, and of admiral 
and captain-general of the Union. From 1653-1672 John de Witt, 
re-elected twice, made the name of grand pensionary of Holland 
for ever famous during the time of the wars with England. 
The best known of his successors was Anthony Heinsius, who 
held the office from 1688 to his death in 1720. He was the 
intimate friend of William III., and after the decease of the king 
continued to carry out his policy during the stadtholderless 
period that followed. The office was abolished after the conquest 
of Holland by the French in 1795. 

See Robert Fruin, Geschiedenis der Staats-Instellingen in Neder- 
land. The Hague, 1901 ; G. W. Vreede, Inleiding tot eene Gesch. der 
Nederlandsche Diplomatic (Utrecht, 1858). (G. E.) 

PENTAMETER, the name given to the second and shorter 
line of the classical elegaic verse. It is composed of five (vfVTt) 
feet or measures dj/erpa), and is divided into two equal parts 
of two and a half feet each: the second of these parts must be 
dactylic, and the first may be either dactylic or spondaic. The 
first part must never overlap into the second, but there must 
be a break between them. Thus: 



In the best Latin poets, the first foot of each part of the penta- 
meter is a dactyl. The pentameter scarcely exists except in 
conjunction with the hexameter, to which it always succeeds 
in elegaic verse. The invention of the rigidly dactylic form 
was attributed by the Greeks to Archilochus. Schiller described 
the sound and method of the elegaic couplet in two very skilful 
verses, which have been copied in many languages: 

Im Hexameter steigt des Springquells fliissige Saule, 
Im Pentameter drauf fiillt sie melodisch herab. 

The pentameter was always considered to add a melancholy 
air to verse, and it was especially beloved by the Greeks in those 
recitations (fta^^Seirat) to the sound of the flute, which 
formed the earliest melodic performances at Delphi and else- 
where. 

PENTASTOMIDA, or LINGUATULINA, vermiform entoparasitic 
animals, of which the exact zoological position is unknown, 
although they are usually regarded as highly modified degenerate 
Arachnida of the order Acari. 

The body is sub-cylindrical or somewhat convex above, flatter 
below, broad and oval in front and narrowed and elongate behind. 
Its integument is marked by a large number of transverse grooves 
simulating the segmentation of Annelids, and near the anterior 
extremity close to the mouth are two pairs of recurved chitinous 
hooks. The alimentary canal is a simple tube traversing the body 
from end to end, the anus opening at the extremity of its narrowed 
tail-like termination. The nervous system is represented by an 
oesophageal collar and a suboesophageal ganglion, whence paired 
nerves pass outwards to innervate the anterior extremity and 
backwards towards its posterior end. No respiratory or circulatory 
organs are known. The sexes are distinct but dissimilar in size, 
the female being usually much larger than the male. The generative 
organs occupy a large part of the body cavity. In the female the 
ovary is a large unpaired organ from the anterior end of which 
arise two oviducts, and connected with the latter are a pair of 
large so-called copulatory pouches, which perhaps act as receptacula 
seminis. These and the oviducts lie on the anterior half of the 
body; but the oviducts themselves soon unite to form a single 
tube of great length, which runs backwards to its posterior 
extremity, terminating in the genital orifice close to the anus. 



PENTATEUCH PENTECOST 



123 



In the male, on the contrary, this orifice is situated in the anterior 
half of the body, not far behind the mouth. The orifice leads 
into a large pouch lodging a pair of very long penes, which are 
coiled up when not in use. The two testicles, which extend far 
back into the posterior part of the body, are long and tubular. 
Anteriorly their vasa deferentia soon unite into a common duct, 
which opens into the pouch containing the penes. Also com- 
municating with this pouch is a pair of long slender flagelliform 
tubes, of which the function is unknown. 

The structure of the adult Linguatula or Pentastomum, above 
described, does not supply convincing evidence of relationship with 
the Acari. At the same time some Acari, like Eriophyes (Phytoptus) 
and Demodex, have the body elongated and annulated, but in these 
groups the elongation of the body is caudal or post-anal, as is 
attested by the position of the anus far forwards on its ventral 
surface. Again, the adult Pentastomum shows no trace of appen- 
dages, unless the two pairs of chitinous hooks are to be regarded 
as the vestiges of jaws or ambulatory limbs. In the embryo, 
however, what have been regarded as remnants of limbs may be 
seen. 

In the mature stage Pentastomida live in the respiratory 
passages of mammalia, principally in the nasal cavities. The 
remarkable life-history of one species, Linguatula laenioid.es, 
has been worked out in detail and presents a close analogy to 
that of some Cestodes. The adults live in the nose of dogs, 
where they have been known to survive over fifteen months. 
Each female lays a vast number of eggs, about 500,000 being 
the estimated amount. These are expelled along with mucus 
by the sneezing of the host. If they fall on pasture land or 
fodder of any kind and are eaten by any herbivorous animal, 
such as a hare, rabbit, horse, sheep or ox, the active embryos 
or larvae are set free in the alimentary canal of the new host. 





FIG. i. Linguatula taenioides, 
Rud. adult. 



FIG. 2. The same, in the first 
larval stage ; under side, 
o . . . a. Leg-like processes. 



These larvae are minute oval creatures with a comparatively 
short apically fringed caudal prolongation and furnished with two 
pairs of short two-clawed processes, which may represent the limbs 
of anthropods and possibly the two pairs of legs found in Acari of 
the family Eriophyidae. The larva is also armed anteriorly with a 
median piercing probe and a pair of sharp hooks by means of which 
it perforates the walls of the alimentary tract and makes its way 
into the body cavity, lungs or liver. Here it becomes encysted, 
and losing its boring apparatus and claw-bearing processes remains 
for a time quiescent. After a series of moults it passes into the 
second larval stage, somewhat like the parent but differing in having 
ach integumental ring armed with a fringe cf backwardly directed 
short bristles. This sexually immature stage, regarded at one time 
as representing a distinct species and named Linguatula denticulata, 
is reached in about six or seven months and measures from 6 to 
8 mm. in length. In the event of the host escaping being killed 
and eaten it is believed that some of these larvae wander about or 
ultimately make their way to the exterior, possibly through the 
bronchi; nevertheless it seems to be certain that they can only 
reach sexual maturity in the nasal passages of some carnivorous 
animal, and the chance of attaining this environment is afforded 
when the viscera of the host are devoured by some flesh-eating 
mammal. 

The adult female of L. taenioides measures about 4 in. long and 
the male barely one-fourth of that. The adult and immature 
stages are, however, by no means confined respectively to car- 
nivorous and herbivorous species of mammals. The adult stage, 
for example, has been found in the nasal passages of sheep, goats, 



horses and even of man, and the larval stage in the pleural and 
peritoneal cavities of dogs and cats. (R. I. P.) 

PENTATEUCH, the name found as early as in Tertullian and 
Origen corresponding to the Jewish 'Twin 'train ntran (the 
five-fifths of the Torah, or Law), and applied to the first five 
books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Num- 
bers, Deuteronomy). The several books were named by the 
Jews from their initial words, though at least Leviticus, 
Numbers, and Deuteronomy had also titles resembling those 
we use, viz. D'JIS mm, o'lipsn von (Aju/ito-^e/oofoiju, Origen, 
in Eus., H. E. vi. 25), and mm turn. The Pentateuch, 
together with Joshua, Judges and Ruth, with which it is usually 
united in Greek MSS., makes up the Octateuch; the Pentateuch 
and Joshua together have recently been named the Hexateuch. 
On the critical questions arising from the Pentateuch or Hexa- 
teuch, see BIBLE and the articles on the several books. 

PENTECOST, a feast of the Jews, in its original meaning a 
" harvest feast, " as consisting of the first-fruits of human toil 
(Exod. xxiii. 16), extending over the seven weeks which fairly 
correspond with the duration of the Canaanite harvest. Hence 
it was the closing feast of the harvest gladness. 

The agricultural character of this feast clearly reveals its 
Canaanite origin (see HEBREW RELIGION). It does not, however, 
rank equal in importance with the other two agricultural festivals 
of pre-exilian Israel, viz. the Massoth or feast of unleavened 
cakes (which marked the beginning of the corn-harvest), and 
the Aslph (" ingathering," later called succoth, " booths ") 
which marked the close of all the year's ingathering of vegetable 
products. This is clear in the ideal scheme of Ezekiel (xlv. 21 
seq.) in which according to the original text, Pentecost is omitted 
(see Cornill's revised text and his note ad loc.). It is a later hand 
that has inscribed a reference to the " feast of weeks " which 
is found in our Massoretic Hebrew text. Nevertheless occasional 
allusions to this feast, though secondary, are to be found in 
Hebrew literature, e.g. Isa. ix. 3 (2 Heb.) and Ps . iv. 7 (8 Heb.). 

In both the early codes, viz. in Exod. xxiii. 16 (E) and in 
Exod. xxxiv 22 (J, in which the harvest festival is called " feast 
of weeks ") we have only a bare statement that the harvest 
festival took place some weeks after the opening spring festival 
called Ma^oth. It is in Deut. xvi. 9 that we find it explicitly 
stated that seven weeks elapsed between the beginning of the 
corn-harvest (" when thou puttest the sickle to the corn ") 
and the celebration of the harvest festival (JJTdjir). We also 
note the same generous inclusion of the household slaves and of 
the resident alien as well as the fatherless and widow that charac- 
terizes the autumnal festival of " Booths." 

But when we pass to the post-exilian legislation (Lev. xxiii. 
10-21 ; cf. Num. xxviii. 26 seq.) we enter upon a far more detailed 
and specific series of ritual instructions, (i) A special ceremonial 
is described as taking place on " the morrow after the Sabbath," 
i.e. in the week of unleavened cakes. The first-fruits of the 
harvest here take the form of a sheaf which is waved by the 
priest before Yahweh. (2) There is the offering of a male 
lamb of the first year without blemish and also a meal offering 
of fine flour and oil mixed in defined proportions as well as a 
drink-offering of wine of a certain measure. After this " morrow 
after the Sabbath " seven weeks are to be reckoned, and when 
we reach the morrow after the seventh Sabbath fifty days have 
been enumerated. Here we must bear in mind that Hebrew 
numeration always includes the day which is the terminus a quo 
as well as that which is term, ad quern. On this fiftieth day 
two wave-loaves made from the produce of the fields occupied 
by the worshipper (" your habitations ") are offered together 
with seven unblemished lambs of the first year as well as one 
young bullock and two rams as a burnt offering. We have 
further precise details respecting the sin-offering and the peace- 
offerings which were also presented. 1 This elaborate ceremonial 
connected with the wave-offering (developed in the post-exile 
period) took place on the morrow of the seventh Sabbath called 

1 On the critical questions involved in these ritual details of 
Lev. xxiii. 18 as compared with Num. xxviii. 27-30 cf. Driver 
and White in 5. B. 0. T., note on Lev. xxiii. 18. 



124 



PENTELICUS PENZA 



a " day of holy convocation " on which no servile work was to 
be done. It was called a " fiftieth-day feast." Pentecost 
or " Fiftieth " day is only a Greek equivalent of the last name 
(Trevrr/KoffTrj) in the Apocrypha and New Testament. The orthodox 
later Jews reckoned the fifty days from the i6th of Nisan, 
but on this there has been considerable controversy among 
Jews themselves. The orthodox later Jews assumed that 
the Sabbath in Lev. xxiii. n, 15 is the I5th Nisan, or the 
first day of the feast of Massoth. Hitzig maintained that in 
the Hebrew calendar i4th and 2ist Nisan were always Sabbaths, 
and that ist Nisan was always a Sunday, which was the opening 
day of the year. " The morrow after the Sabbath " means, 
according to Hitzig, the day after the weekly Sabbath, viz. 
22nd Nisan. Knobel (Comment, on Leviticus) and Kurtz agree 
with Hitzig's premises but differ from his identification of the 
Sabbath. They identify it with the i4th Nisan. Accordingly 
the " day after " falls on the isth. (See Purves's article, " Pente- 
cost," in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible, and also Ginsburg's article in 
Kitto's Cyclopaedia). Like the other great feasts, it came to be 
celebrated by fixed special sacrifices. The amount of these is 
differently expressed in the earlier and later priestly law (Lev. 
xxiii. 1 8 seq.; Num. xxviii. 26 seq.); the discrepancy was met 
by adding the two lists. The later Jews also extended the 
one day of the feast to two. Further, in accordance with the 
tendency to substitute historical for economic explanations 
of the great feasts, Pentecost came to be regarded as the feast 
commemorative of the Sinaitic legislation. 

To the Christian Church Pentecost acquired a new significance 
through the outpouring of the Spirit (Acts ii.). (See WHIT- 
SUNDAY.) 

It is not easy to find definite parallels to this festival in other 
ancient religious cults. The Akitu festival to Marduk was a 
spring festival at the beginning of the Babylonian year (Nisan). 
It therefore comes near in time to the feast of unleavened cakes 
rather than to the later harvest festival in the month Sivan 
called " feast of weeks." Zimmern indeed connects the Akitu 
festival with that of Purim on the isth Adar (March); see 
K.A.T.* p. 514 seq. Also the Roman Cerealia of April i2th- 
ipth rather correspond to Massoth than to J^a^ir. (O. C. W.) 

PENTELICUS (BptXjjo-o-os, or UevreXiKov 6pos from the 
deme EeirtXTj; mod. Mendeli), a mountain to the N.E. of the 
Athenian plain, height 3640 ft. Its quarries of white marble 
were not regularly worked until after the Persian wars; of this 
material all the chief buildings of Athens were constructed, as 
well as the sculpture with which they were ornamented. The 
ancient quarries are mostly on the south side of the mountain. 
The best modern quarries are on the north side. The top 
of Pentelicus commands a view over the plain of Marathon, 
and from it the Athenian traitors gave the signal to the 
Persians by a flashing shield on the day of the battle. There 
was a statue of Athena on the mountain. 

PENTHEUS, in Greek legend, successor of Cadmus as king 
of Thebes. When Dionysus, with his band of frenzied women 
(Maenads) arrived at Thebes (his native place and the first city 
visited by him in Greece), Pentheus denied his divinity and 
violently opposed the introduction of his rites. His mother 
Agave having joined the revellers on Mount Cithaeron, Pentheus 
followed and climbed a lofty pine to watch the proceedings. 
Being discovered he was torn to pieces by Agave and others, 
who mistook him for some wild beast. His head was carried 
back to Thebes in triumph by his mother. Labdacus and 
Lycurgus, who offered a similar resistance, met with a like 
fearful end. Some identify Pentheus with Dionysus himself 
in his character as the god of the vine, torn to pieces by the 
violence of winter. The fate of Pentheus was the subject of 
lost tragedies by Thespis and Pacuvius. 

See Euripides, Bacchae, passim; Ovid, Metam. iii. 511; Theocritus 
xxvi; Apollodorus iii. 5, 2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca, xliv-xlvi; on 
representations in art see O. Jahn, Pentheus und die Mainaden (1841). 

PENTHIEVRE, COUNTS OF. In the nth and I2th centuries 
the countship of Penthievre in Brittany (dep. of C6tes-du-Nord) 



belonged to a branch of the sovereign house of Brittany. Henry 
d'Avaugour, heir of this dynasty, was dispossessed of the count- 
ship in 1235 by the duke of Brittany, Pierre Mauclerc, who gave 
it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238 
to Hugh of Lusignan, count of La Marche. Duke John I. 
of Brittany, Yolande's brother, seized the countship on her 
death in 1272. In 1337 Joan of Brittany brought Penthievre 
to her husband, Charles de ChUtillon-Blois. In 1437 Nicole de 
Blois, a descendant of this family, married Jean de Brosse, and 
was deprived of Penthievre by the duke of Brittany, Francis II., 
in 1465. The countship, which was restored to Sebastian of 
Luxemburg, heir of the Brasses through his mother, was erected 
for him into a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) 
in 1569, and was afterwards held by the duchess of Mercosur, 
daughter of the first duke of Penthievre, and then by her daughter, 
the duchess of Vendome. The duchess of Vend6me's grandson, 
Louis Joseph, inherited Penthievre in 1669, but it was taken 
from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Anne Marie de 
Bourbon, princess of Conti. In 1696 it was sold to the count 
of Toulouse, whose son bore the title of duke of Penthievre. 
This title passed by inheritance to the house of Orleans. 

PENTHOUSE, a sloping roof attached to a building either 
to serve as a porch or a covering for an arcade, or, if supported 
by walls, as a shed, a " lean-to." In the history of siegecraft, 
the word is particularly applied to the fixed or movable construc- 
tions used to protect the besiegers when mining, working batter- 
ing-rams, catapults, &c., and is thus used to translate Lat. 
vinea and pluteus, and also testudo, the shelter of locked shields 
of the Romans. The Mid. Eng. form of the word is pentis, an 
adaptation of O. Fr. apenlis, Med. Lat. appenditium or appen- 
dicium, a small structure attached to, or dependent on, another 
building, from appendere, to hang on to. The form " pent- 
house " is due to a supposed connexion with " house " and Fr. 
pente, sloping roof. The more correct form " pentice " is now 
frequently used. 

PENTSTEMON, in botany, a genus of plants (nat. order 
Scrophulariaceae), chiefly natives of North America, with 
showy open-tubular flowers. The pentstemon of the florist 
has, however, sprung from P. Hartwegii and P. Cobaea, and 
possibly some others. The plants endure English winters 
unharmed in favoured situations. They are freely multiplied 
by cuttings, selected from the young side shoots, planted early 
in September, and kept in a close cold frame till rooted. They 
winter safely in cold frames, protected by mats or litter during 
frost. They produce seed freely, new kinds being obtained 
by that means. When special varieties are not required true 
from cuttings, the simplest way to raise pentstemons is to sow 
seed in heat (65 F.) early in February, afterwards pricking 
the seedlings out and hardening them off, so as to be ready 
for the open air by the end of May. Plants formerly known 
under the name of Chelone (e.g. C. barbata, C. campanulala) 
are now classed with the pentstemons. 

PENUMBRA (Lat. paene, almost, umbra, a shadow), in astro- 
nomy, the partial shadow of a heavenly body as cast by the sun. 
It is defined by the region in which the light of the sun is partially 
but not wholly cut off through the interception of a dark body. 
(See ECLIPSE.) 

PENZA, a government of eastern Russia, bounded N. by the 
government of Nizhniy-Novgorod, E. by Simbirsk, and S. 
and W. by Saratov and Tambov; area 14,992 sq. m.; pop. 
(est. 1906) 1,699,000. The surface is undulating, with deep 
valleys and ravines, but does not exceed 900 ft. above sea-level. 
It is principally made up of Cretaceous sandstones, sands, marls 
and chalk, covered in the east by Eocene deposits. Chalk, 
potter's clay, peat and iron are the chief mineral products in 
the north. The soil is a black earth, more or less mixed with 
clay and sand; marshes occur in the Krasnoslobodsk district; 
and expanses of sand in the river valleys. There are extensive 
forests in the north, but the south exhibits the characteristic 
features of a steppeland. The government is drained by the 
Moksha, the Sura (both navigable), and the Khoper, belonging 
to the Oka, Volga and Don systems. Timber is floated down 



PENZA PEONAGE 



several smaller streams, while the Moksha and Sura are important 
means of conveyance. The climate is harsh, the average tem- 
perature at the city of Penza being only 38. The popula- 
tion consists principally of Russians, together with Mordvinians, 
Meshcheryaks and Tatars. The Russians profess the Ortho- 
dox Greek faith, and very many, especially in the north, are 
Raskolniks or Nonconformists. The chief occupation is agri- 
culture. The principal crops are rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp, 
potatoes and beetroot. Grain and flour are considerable 
exports. The local authorities have established dep&ts for the 
sale of modern agricultural machinery. There are several 
agricultural and horticultural schools, and two model dairy- 
farms. Cattle breeding and especially horse-breeding are 
comparatively flourishing. Market-gardening is successfully 
carried on, and improved varieties of fruit-trees have been 
introduced through the imperial botanical garden at Penza 
and a private school of gardening in the Gorodishche district. 
Sheep-breeding is especially developed in Chembar and Insar. 
The Mordvinians devote much attention to bee-keeping. The 
forests (22 % of the total area) are a considerable source of wealth, 
especially in Krasnoslobodsk and Gorodishche. The manufac- 
tures are few. Distilleries come first, followed by beet sugar 
and oil mills, with woollen cloth and paper mills, tanneries, 
soap, glass, machinery and iron-works. Trade is limited to 
the export of corn, spirits, timber, hempseed-oil, tallow, hides, 
honey, wax, woollen cloth, potash and cattle, the chief centres 
for trade being Penza, Nizhni-Lomov, Mokshany, Saransk and 
Krasnoslobodsk. 

The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns 
of which are Penza, Gorodishche, Insar, Kerensk, Krasnoslobodsk, 
Mokshany, Narovchat, Nizhni-Lomov, Saransk and Chembar. 
The present government of Penza was formerly inhabited by 
Mordvinians, who had the Mescheryaks on the W. and the Bulgars 
on the N. In the i3th century these populations fell under 
the dominion of the Tatars, with whom they fought against 
Moscow. The Russians founded the town of Mokshany in 
1535. Penza was founded in the beginning of the i;th century, 
the permanent Russian settlement dating as far back as 1666. 
In 1776 it was taken by the rebel Pugashev. The town was 
almost totally destroyed by conflagrations in 1836, 1830 and 1858. 

PENZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name, 492 m. by rail.S.E. from Moscow. It stands on a 
plateau 567 ft. above the sea, at the confluence of the Penza with 
the navigable Sura. Pop. (1897), 61,851. The older parts of 
the town are constructed of wood, but the newer parts are well 
built. The cathedral was erected in 1820-1821. Penza has 
technical schools, public libraries, a museum of antiquities, and 
a theatre which has played some part in the history of the 
Russian stage. The bulk of the inhabitants support themselves 
by agriculture or fishing in the Sura. An imperial botanical 
garden is situated within two miles of the town. Apart from 
paper-mills and steam flour-mills, the manufacturing establish- 
ments are small. There is a trade in corn, oil, tallow, timber and 
spirits, and two fairs where cattle and horses are sold. 

PENZANCE, a municipal borough, market town and seaport 
in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the 
terminus of the Great Western railway, 325 j m. W.S.W. of 
London. Pop. (1901), 13,136. It is finely situated on the 
western shore of Mount's Bay, opposite St Michael's Mount, 
being the westernmost port in England. The site of the old 
town slopes sharply upward from the harbour, to the west of 
which there extends an esplanade and modern residential 
quarter; for Penzance, with its mild climate, is in considerable 
favour as a health resort. The town has no buildings of great 
antiquity, but the public buildings (1867), in Italian style, are 
handsome. By the market house is a statue of Sir Humphry 
Davy, who was born here in 1778. Among institutions there are 
a specially fine public library, museums of geology and natural 
history and antiquities, mining and science schools, the West 
Cornwall Infirmary and a meteorological station. The harbour, 
enclosed within a breakwater, has an area of 24 acres, with 12 to 
16 ft. depth of water, and floating and graving docks. There is a 



large export trade in fish, including that of pilchards to Italy. 
Other exports are tin and copper, granite, serpentine, vegetables 
and china clay. Imports are principally coal, iron and timber. 
Great quantities of early potatoes and vegetables, together with 
flowers and fish, are sent to London and elsewhere. The 
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. 
Area, 355 acres. 

Nearly two miles inland to the north-west is MADRON (an 
urban district with a population of 3486). The church of St 
Maddern is principally Perpendicular, with earlier portions and 
a Norman front. Near the village a " wishing well " of ancient 
fame is seen, and close to it the ruins of a baptistery of extreme 
antiquity. Monoliths and cromlechs are not uncommon in the 
neighbourhood. Three miles north-east is the urban district of 
LUDGVAN (pop. 2274), and to the south is PAUL (6332), which 
includes the village of Newlyn (<?..). 

Penzance (Pensans) was not recognized as a port until the 
days of the Tudors, but its importance as a fishing village dates 
from the I4th century. In 1327 thirty burgesses in Penzance 
and thirteen boats paying 135. yearly are found among the pos- 
sessions of the lords of Alverton, of which manor it formed a 
portion of the demesne lands. The year 1512 marks the begin- 
ning of a new era. Until then St Michael's Mount had been 
regarded as the port of Mounts Bay; but in that year Henry 
VIII. granted the tenants of Penzance whatever profits might 
accrue from the " ankerage, kylage and busselage " of ships 
resorting thither, so long as they should repair and maintain 
the quay and bulwarks for the safeguard of the ships and town. 
Nevertheless thirty years later it is described by Leland as the 
westernmost market town in Cornwall " with no socur for Botes 
or shippes but a forsed Pere or Key." During the war with 
Spain the town was devastated in 1595. The charter of incor- 
poration granted in 1614 states that by the invasion of the 
Spaniards it had been treacherously spoiled and burnt but that 
its strength, prosperity and usefulness for navigation, and the 
acceptable and laudable services of the inhabitants in rebuilding 
and fortifying it, and their enterprise in erecting a pier, have 
moved the king to grant the petition for its incorporation. This 
charter provides for a mayor, eight aldermen and twelve assist- 
ants to constitute the common council, the mayor to be chosen 
by the council from the aldermen, the aldermen to be chosen from 
the assistants, and the assistants from the most sufficient 
and discreet of the inhabitants. It also ratified Henry's grant 
of anchorage, keelage and busselage. In 1663 Penzance was 
constituted a coinage town for tin. It has never enjoyed 
independent parliamentary representation. In 1332 a market 
on Wednesdays and a fair at the Feast of St Peter ad 
Vincula were granted to Alice de Lisle and in 1405 this market 
was ratified and three additional fairs added, viz. at the feasts 
of St Peter in Cathedra and the Conception and Nativity of the 
Blessed Virgin. The charter of 1614 substituted markets on 
Tuesdays and Thursdays for the Wednesday market and added 
two fairs one at Corpus Christi and the other on the Thursday 
before St Andrew. Of the fairs only Corpus Christi remains; 
markets are now held on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday. 
Apart from fishing and shipping, Penzance has never been an 
industrial centre. 

PEONAGE (Span, peon; M. Lat. pedo (pes), primarily a foot- 
soldier, then a day-labourer), a system of agricultural servitude 
common in Spanish America, particularly in Mexico. In the 
early days the Spanish government, with the idea of protecting 
the Indians, exempted them from compulsory military service, 
the payment cf tithes and other taxes, and regulated the system 
of labour; but left them practically at the mercy of the Spanish 
governors. The peons, as the Indian labourers were called, 
were of two kinds: (i) the agricultural workman who was free 
to contract himself, and (2) the criminal labourers who, often for 
slight offences, or more usually for debt, were condemned to 
practical slavery. Though legally peonage is abolished, the 
unfortunate peon is often lured into debt by his employer and 
then kept a slave, the law permitting his forcible detention till he 
has paid his debt to his master. 



126 



PEOPLE PEPE 



PEOPLE, a collective term for persons in general, especially 
as forming the body of persons in a community or nation, the 
" fojk " (the O.E. and Teut. word, cf. Ger. Volk). The earlier 
forms of the word were peple, poeple, puple, &c. ; the present form 
is found as early as the i sth century, but was not established till 
the beginning of the i6th. Old French, from which it was 
adapted, had many of these forms as well as the mod. Fr. peuple. 
The Lat. populus is generally taken to be a reduplication from 
the root pie, fill, seen in plenus, full; plebs, the commons; 
Gr. irXi}0os, multitude. 

PEORI A, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Peoria 
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, on 
the lower end of Lake Peoria, an expansion of the Illinois river, 
and about 150 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (ipoo) 56,100; 
(1910) 66,950. It is served by 13 railways, of which the most 
important are the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, 
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Chicago 
& North-Western. The Illinois river is navigable to its mouth, 
and at La Salle, above Peoria, connects with the Illinois & 
Michigan Canal extending to Chicago. The river is spanned at 
Peoria by two railway bridges and a wagon bridge. The 
residential portion of the city is situated on bluffs overlooking 
Lake Peoria, and the business streets lie on the plain between 
these elevations and the water front. The park system includes 
more than 400 acres; Bradley Park (140 acres), the largest, was 
given to the city by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley (1816-1908) and 
was named in her honour. On a bluff north-east of the city is 
Glen Oak Park (103 acres), modelled after ForestPark, St Louis, 
Missouri; in the south-western part of the city is Madison Park 
(88 acres); and in the lower part of the city is South Park (10 
acres). In the Court House Square there are two monuments in 
honour of the Federal soldiers and sailors of Peoria county who 
perished in the Civil War; in Springdale Cemetery there are two 
similar memorials, one of which (a large granite boulder) is in 
memory of the unknown dead; and in the same cemetery there 
is a monument erected by the state (1906) to mark the grave of 
Thomas Fold (d. 1851), governor of Illinois in 1842-1846. 
Among the principal public buildings and institutions are the 
Peoria Public Library founded in 1855, the City Hall, the Court 
House, the Federal building, St Mary's Cathedral, the Bradley 
Polytechnic Institute (affiliated with the university of Chicago), 
founded in 1896 by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley, who gave it an 
endowment of $2,000,000; Spalding Institute, founded through 
the efforts of John L. Spalding (b. 1840), who was Bishop of tha 
Roman Catholic diocese of Peoria in 1877-1908; an Evangelical 
Lutheran Orphans' Home (1902), an Industrial School for girls 
(1892), Cottage Hospital (1876), St Francis Hospital (1875), a 
Florence Crittenton Home (1002), a Home for the Friendless 
(1876), and a House of the Good Shepherd (1891), and the Guyer 
Memorial (1889), St Joseph's (1892), and John C. Proctor homes 
for the aged and infirm (1907). At Bartonville, a suburb, there 
is a state hospital for the incurable insane. 

In 1900 and in 1905 Peoria ranked second among the cities 
of Illinois in the value of its manufactures. The invested capital 
amounted in 1905 to $22,243,821, and the factory products were 
valued at $60,920,411. The principal industry is the manufac- 
ture of distilled liquors, which were valued in 1905 at $42,170,815. 
Other important manufactures are agricultural implements 
($2,309,962), slaughter-house and meat-packing products 
($1,480,398), glucose, cooperage ($1,287,742), malt liquors 
($887,570), foundry and machine-shop products, strawboard, 
automobiles, brick and stone, and flour and grist mill products. 
Peoria is also an important shipping point for grain and coal. 

Peoria was named from one of the five tribes of the Illinois 
Indians. In 1680 La Salle, the explorer, built Fort Crevecceur, 
on the lake shore bluffs, opposite the present city; this fort, 
however, was destroyed and deserted in the same year by La 
Salle's followers after he had set out to return to Fort Frontenac. 
There is evidence that a French mission was established on or 
near the site of Peoria as early as 171 r; and certainly by 1725 a 
settlement, known as Peoria, and composed of French and 



" breed " traders, trappers and farmers, had been established 
about i m. above the foot of the lake, on its west shore. This 
village was practically deserted during the later years (1781- 
1783) of the War of Independence, and when its inhabitants 
returned after the peace they settled in a village which had been 
established about 1778, on the present site of Peoria, by Jean 
Baptiste Maillet (d. 1801), and was at first called La Ville de 
Maillet. It is probable that Jean Baptiste Point de Saible, 
believed to have been a Santo Domingan negro, and jocularly 
spoken of "as the first white seUler in Chicago," lived in the 
" old village " of Peoria as early as 1773 or six years before he 
settled on the present site of Chicago and again about 1783. 
In November 1812 about half of the town was burned by a 
company of Illinois militia who had been sent thither to build a 
fort, and whose captain asserted that his boats had been fired 
upon at night by the villagers. In the following year a fort, 
named Fort Clark in honour of George Rogers Clark, was erected 
on the site of the old village; it was evacuated in 1818, and soon 
afterwards was burned by the Indians. After the town was 
burned there was no serious attempt to rebuild until 1819. 
Peoria was incorporated as a town in 1835 and was chartered 
as a city in 1845. In 1900 North Peoria was annexed. 

See David McCulloch, Early Days of Peoria and Chicago, an address 
read before the Chicago Historical Society in 1904, and published 
by that society, (n.d.), and " Old Peoria," by the same author, 
in publication No. 6 of the Illinois State Historical Society Trans- 
actions (Springfield, 111. 1901); also Historical Encyclopaedia oj 
Illinois (Chicago, 1900), ed. by Newton Bateman and Paul Selby; 
History of Peoria County, III. (Chicago, 1880); and C. Ballance, 
History of Peoria (Peoria, 1870). 

PEPE, GUGLIELMO (1783-1855), Neapolitan general, was 
born at Squillace in Calabria. He entered the army at an early ' 
age, but in 1799 he took part in the republican movement at 
Naples inspired by the French Revolution; he fought against 
the Bourbon troops under Cardinal Ruffo, was captured and 
exiled to France. He entered Napoleon's army and served with 
distinction in several campaigns, including those in the Nea- 
politan kingdom, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under 
Joachim Murat. After commanding a Neapolitan brigade in the 
Peninsular campaign, Pepe returned to Italy in 1813, with the 
rank of general, to help to reorganize the Neapolitan army. 
When the news of the fall of Napoleon (1814) reached Italy 
Pepe and several other generals tried without success to force 
Murat to grant a constitution as* the only means of saving the 
kingdom from foreign invasion and the return of the Bourbons. 
On Napoleon's escape from Elba (1815) Murat, after some 
hesitation, placed himself on the emperor's side and waged war 
against the Austrians, with Pepe on his staff. After several 
engagements the Neapolitans were forced to retire, and eventually 
agreed to the treaty of Casalanza by which Murat was to abandon 
the kingdom; but the Neapolitan officers retained their rank 
under Ferdinand IV. who now regained the throne of Naples. 
While engaged in suppressing brigandage in the Capitanata, 
Pepe organized the carbonari (q.ii.) into a national militia, and 
was preparing to use them for political purposes. He had hoped 
that the king would end by granting a constitution, but when 
that hope failed he meditated seizing Ferdinand, the emperor 
of Austria, and Metternich, who were expected at Avellino, and 
thus compelling them to liberate Italy (1819). The scheme broke 
down through an accident, but in the following year a military 
rising broke out, the mutineers cheering for the king and the 
constitution. Pepe himself was sent against them, but while 
he was hesitating as to what course he should follow Ferdinand 
promised a constitution (July 1820). A revolt in Sicily having 
been repressed, Pepe was appointed inspector-general of the 
army. In the meanwhile the king, who had no intention of 
respecting the constitution, went to Laibach to confer with the 
sovereigns of the holy alliance assembled there, leaving his son 
as regent. He obtained the loan of an Austrian army with 
which to restore absolute power, while the regent dallied with the 
Liberals. Pepe, who in parliament had declared in favour oi 
deposing the king, now took command of the army and marched 
against the Austrians. He attacked them at Rieti (March 7, 



PEPERINO PEPPER 



127 



1821), but his raw levies were repulsed. The army was gradually 
disbanded, and Pepe spent several years in England, France and 
other countries, publishing a number of books and pamphlets 
of a political character and keeping up his connexion with the 
Carbonari. When in 1848 revolution and war broke out all 
over Italy, Pepe returned to Naples, where a constitution had 
again been proclaimed. He was given command of the Nea- 
politan army which was to co-operate with Piedmont against the 
Austrians, but when he reached Bologna the king, who had already 
changed his mind, recalled him and his troops. Pepe, after 
hesitating between his desire to fight for Italy, and his oath to 
the king, resigned his commission in the Neapolitan service and 
crossed the Po with 2000 volunteers to take part in the campaign. 
After a good deal of fighting in Venetia, he joined Manin in 
Venice and took command of the defending army. When the 
city was forced by hunger to surrender to the Austrians, Pepe and 
Manin were among those excluded from the amnesty; he again 
went into exile and died in Turin in 1855. 

The story of Pepe's life down to 1846 is told in his own interesting 
Memorie (Lugano, 1847), and his Narrative of the Events. . . at 
.Naples in 1820 and 1821 (London, 1821); for the later period of 
his life see the general histories of the Risorgimento, and the bio- 
graphical sketch in vol. ii. of L. Carpi's Risorgimento (Milan, 1886). 

PEPERINO, an Italian name applied to a brown or grey 
volcanic tuff, containing fragments of basalt and limestone, with 
disseminated crystals of augite, mica, magnetite, leucite, &c. 
The typical peperino occurs in the Alban Hills, near Rome, and 
was used by the ancients, under the name of lapis albanus, as a 
building stone and for the basins of fountains. Other tuffs and 
conglomerates in Auvergne and elsewhere are also called peperino. 
The name originally referred to the dark coloured inclusions, 
suggestive of pepper-corns. In English the word has sometimes 
been written peperine. 

PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843-1898), American physician, was 
born in Philadelphia, on the 2ist of August 1843. He was 
educated at the university of Pennsylvania, graduating from 
the academic department in 1862 and from the medical depart- 
ment in 1864. In 1868 he became lecturer on morbid anatomy 
in the same institution, and in 1870 lecturer on clinical medicine. 
From 1876 to 1887 he was professor of clinical medicine, and in 
1887 succeeded Dr Alfred Stille as professor of theory and practice 
of medicine. He was elected provost of the university in 1881, 
resigning that position in 1894. For his services as medical 
director of the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 he was made knight 
commander of St Olaf by the king of Sweden. He founded the 
Philadelphia Medical Times, and was editor of that journal in 
1870-1871. He was known particularly for his contributions 
on the subject of the theory and practice of medicine, and the 
System of Medicine which he edited in 1885-1886 became one 
of the standard textbooks in America. Among his contribu- 
tions to the medical and scientific journals of the day, were 
" Trephining in Cerebral Disease " (1871); " Local Treatment in 
Pulmonary Cavities" (1874); " Catarrhal Irrigation" (1881); 
"Epilepsy " (1883); and " Higher Medical Education: the True 
Interest of the Public and the Profession. " He died on the 28th 
of July 1898 at Pleasanton, California. 

PEPPER, a name applied to several pungent spices known 
respectively as black, white, long, red, or cayenne, Ashanti, 
Jamaica, and melegueta pepper, but derived from at least three 
different natural orders of plants. 

Black pepper is the dried fruit of piper nigrum, a perennial 
climbing shrub indigenous to the forests of Travancore and 
Malabar, from whence it has been introduced into Java, Sumatra, 
Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Philippines, and the 
West Indies. It climbs on tree-trunks by roots in the same way 
as ivy, and from its climbing habit is known as the pepper vine. 
It is one of the earliest spices known to mankind, and for many 
ages formed a staple article of commerce between India and 
Europe. Tribute has been levied in pepper; one of the articles 
demanded in 408 by Alaric as part of the ransom of Rome was 
3000 Ib of pepper. Its exorbitant price during the middle ages 
was one of the inducements which led the Portuguese to seek a 



sea-route to India. The discovery of the passage round the 
Cape of Good Hope led (1498) to a considerable fall in the price, 
and about the same time the cultivation of the plant was ex- 
tended to the western islands of the Malay Archipelago. Pepper, 
however, remained a monopoly of the Portuguese crown as late 
as the i8th century. In Great Britain it was formerly taxed 
very heavily, the impost in 1623 amounting to 55., and as late as 
1823 to 2s. 6d. Ib. 

The largest quantities of pepper are produced in Penang, the 
island of Riouw, and Johore near Singapore Penang affording 
on an average about half of the entire crop. Singapore is the 
great emporium for this spice in the East, the largest proportion 
being shipped thence to Great Britain. The varieties of black 
pepper met with in commerce are known as Malabar, Aleppy 
or Tellicherry, Cochin, Penang, Singapore and Siam. 




Piper nigrum. 

a, Twig with fruit (about i nat. size) ; b, longitudinal section of 
flower much enlarged ; c, section of fruit. 

It owes its pungency to a resin, and its flavour to a volatile oil, 
of which it yields from 1-6 to 2-2%. The oil agrees with oil of 
turpentine in composition as well as in specific gravity and boiling 
point. In polarized light it deviates the ray, in a column 50 mm. 
long, 1-2 to 3-4 to the left. Pepper also contains a yellow crystal- 
line alkaloid, called piperine, to the extent of 2 to 8%. This 
substance has the same empirical formula as morphine, Ci 7 Hi 9 NOs, 
but differs in constitution and properties. It is insoluble in water 
when pure, is devoid of colour, flavour and odour, and may be 
resolved into piperic acid, CijHioOi, and piperidine, C 6 H n N. The 
latter is a liquid colourless alkaloid, boiling at 106 C., has an odour 
of pepper and ammonia, and yields crystallizable salts. A fatty 
oil is found in the pericarp of pepper, and the berries yield on 
incineration from 4-1 to 5-7 of ash. The only use of black pepper 
is as a condiment, but it may be given therapeutically in doses 
of 5 to 20 grains. It has the pharmacological actions of a volatile 
oil. 

In the south-west of India, where the pepper-plant grows wild, 
it is found in rich, moist, leafy soil, in narrow valleys, propagating 
itself by running along the ground and giving off roots into the 
soil. The only method of cultivation adopted by the natives is to 
tie up the end of the vines to the neighbouring trees at distances 
of at least 6 ft., especially to those having a rough bark, in order 
that the roots may easily attach themselves to the surface. The 
underwood is then cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to 
provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are manured 
with a heap of leaves, and the shoots are trained twice a year. In 
localities where the pepper does not grow wild, ground is selected 
which permits of free drainage, but which is not too dry nor liable 
to inundation, and cuttings are planted at about a foot from the 
trees either in the rainy season in June or in the dry season in 
February. Sometimes several cuttings about 18 in. long are 
placed in a basket and buried at the root of the tree, the cuttings 
being made to slope towards the trunk. In October or November 
the young plants are manured with a mixture of leaves and cow- 
dung. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other 
day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants 
bear in the fourth or fifth year, and if raised from cuttings are 



128 



PEPPER-CORNPEPPERMINT 



fruitful for seven years, if from seed for fourteen years. The pepper 
from plants raised from cuttings is said to be superior in quantity 
and quality, and this method is in consequence most frequently 
adopted. Where there are no trees the ground is made into terraces 
and enclosed by a mud wall, and branches of Erythrina indica 
are put into the ground in the rainy season and in the course of a 
year are capable of supporting the young pepper plants. In the 
meantime mango trees are planted, these being preferred as 
supports, since their fruit is not injured by the pepper plant, while 
the Erythrina is killed by it in fourteen or fifteen years. 

In Sumatra the ground is cleared, ploughed, and sown with rice, 
and cuttings of the vine are planted in September, 5 ft. apart each 
way, together with a sapling of quick growth and rough bark. 
The plants are now left for twelve or eighteen months and then 
entirely buried, except a small piece of bent stem, whence new shoots 
arise, three or four of which are allowed to climb the tree near 
which they are planted. These shoots generally yield flowers and 
fruits the next year. Two crops are collected every year, the 
principal one being in December and January and the other in 
July and August, the latter yielding pepper of inferior quality and 
in less quantity. 

Two or three varieties are met with in cultivation; that yielding 
the best kinds has broadly ovate leaves, five to seven in number, 
nerved and stalked. The flower-spikes are opposite the leaves, 
stalked and from 3 to 6 in. long; the fruits are sessile and fleshy. 
A single stem will bear from twenty to thirty of these spikes. The 
harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes 
begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full- 
grown and still hard ; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency, 
and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected in 
bags or baskets and dried in the sun. When dry the pepper is 
put into bags containing from 64 to 128 Ib. In Sumatra the yield 
is estimated at about i| ft per plant per annum. In Malabar each 
vine gives 2 Ib a year up to the fifteenth or twentieth year, or about 
24 ft from each tree, a single tree sometimes supporting eight 
or twelve vines; an acre is calculated to bear 2500 plants, to cost 
about 4 in outlay to bring it into bearing, and to yield a produce 
of 80 when in its best condition. 

White pepper differs only in being prepared from the ripe fruits. 
These, after collection, are kept in the house three days and then 
bruised and washed in a basket with the hand until the stalks 
and pulpy matter are removed, after which the seeds are dried. 
It is, however, sometimes prepared from the dried black pepper 
by removing the dark outer layer. It is less pungent than the 
black but possesses a finer flavour. It is chiefly prepared at the 
island of Riouw, but the finest comes from Tellicherry. 

White pepper affords on an average not more than 1-9% of 
essential oil ; but, according to Cazeneuve, as much as 9 % of piperine, 
and of ash not more than i-i %. 

Long pepper is the fruit-spike of Piper officinarum and P. 
longum, gathered shortly before it reaches maturity and dried. 
The former is a native of the Indian Archipelago, and has oblong- 
ovate, acuminate leaves, which are pinnately veined. The latter 
is indigenous in the hotter provinces of India, Ceylon, Malacca 
and the Malay Islands; it is distinguished from P. officinarum by 
the leaves being cordate at the base and five-veined. 

Long pepper appears to have been known to the ancient Greeks 
and Romans under the name of -nk-ntpi naxp&v; and in the loth 
century mention is made of long pepper, or macropiper, in conjunc- 
tion with black and white peppers. The spice consists of a dense 
spike of minute baccate fruits closely packed around the central 
axis, the spike being about li in. long and J in. thick; as met 
with in commerce they have the appearance of having been limed. 
In Bengal the plants are cultivated by suckers, which are planted 
about 5 ft. apart on dry rich soil on high ground. An English 
acre will yield about 3 maunds (80 ft) the first year, 12 the second, 
and 1 8 the third year; after this time the yield decreases, and the 
roots are therefore grubbed up and sold as pipit mid, under which 
name they are much used as a medicine in India. After the fruit 
is collected, which is usually in January, the stem and leaves die 
down to the ground. Long pepper contains piperine, resin and 
volatile oil and yields about 8% of ash. Penang and Singapore are 
the principal centres in the East for its sale. 

Ashanti or West African pepper is the dried fruit of Piper 
Clusii, a plant widely distributed in tropical Africa, occurring 
most abundantly in the country of the Niam-niam. It differs 
from black pepper in being rather smaller, less wrinkled, and in 
being attenuated into a stalk, like cubebs (the dried unripe fruits 
of P. Citbeba), to which it bears considerable resemblance 
externally. The taste, however, is pungent, exactly like that of 
pepper, and the fruit contains piperine. It was imported from 
the Grain Coast by the merchants of Rouen and Dieppe as early 



as 1364 and was exported from Benin by the Portuguese in 
1485; but, according to Clusius, its importation was forbidden 
by the king of Portugal for fear it should depreciate the value 
of the pepper from India. In tropical Africa it is extensively 
used as a condiment, and it could easily be collected in large 
quantities if- a demand for it should arise. 

Jamaica pepper is the fruit of Pimenta ojjicinalis, an evergreen 
tree of the Myrtle family. It is more correctly termed " pimento" 
or " allspice," as it is not a true pepper. 

Melegueta pepper, known also as " Guinea grains," " grains of 
paradise" (<?..) or " alligator pepper," is the seed of Amomum 
Melegueta, a plant of the ginger family; the seeds are exceedingly 
pungent, and are used as a spice throughout central and northern 
Africa. 

For Cayenne pepper, see that article. 

PEPPER-CORN, the fruit or seed of the pepper plant; hence 
anything very small or insignificant. Pepper-corn rent is a 
merely nominal rent, reserved for the purpose of having the 
tenancy acknowledged by the tenant. Building leases fre- 
quently reserve a pepper-corn as rent for the first few years. 
See RENT. 

PEPPERMINT, an indigenous perennial herb of the natural 
order Labiatae, and genus Mentha (see MINT), the specific name 
being Mentha piperita, is distinguished from other species of the 
genus by its stalked leaves and oblong-obtuse spike-like heads of 
flowers. It is met with, near streams and in wet places, in 
several parts of England and on the European continent, and is 
also extensively cultivated for the sake of its essential oil in 
England, 1 in several parts of continental Europe, and in the 




FIG. I. Mentha piperita. 

a, Flowering branch (about J nat. size); b, flower showing form of 
calyx teeth (enlarged). 

United States. Yet it was only recognized as a distinct species 
late in the I7th century, when Dr Eales discovered it in Hertford- 
shire and pointed it out to Ray, who published it in the second 
edition of his Synopsis stirpium britannicarum (1696). The 
medicinal properties of the plant were speedily recognized and 
it was admitted into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721, under 
the name of Mentha piperitis sapore. 

Two varieties are recognized by growers, the white and the 
black mint. The former has purplish and the latter green stems \ 
the leaves are more coarsely serrated in the white. The black 
is more generally cultivated, probably because it is found to 
yield more oil, but that of the white variety is considered to 
have a more delicate odour, and obtains a higher price. The 
white is the kind chiefly dried for herbalists. The flavour varies 
to a slight extent even with particular plots of land, badly 
drained ground being known to give unfavourable results both 
as to the quantity and quality of the oil. That of the Japanese 

1 Near Mitcham in Surrey, Wisbech in Cambridgeshire, Market 
Deeping in Lincolnshire and Hitchin in Hertfordshire. 



PEPPERRELL 



129 



and Chinese oil also differs slightly from the English, and is thus 
distinguishable by experts. In America the oil is liable to be 
injured in flavour by aromatic weeds which grow freely among 
the crop, the most troublesome of these being Erigeron canadense, 
and Erechthites hieracifolia. When pure the oil is nearly colour- 
less and has an agreeable odour and powerful aromatic taste, 
followed by a sensation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth. 
It has a specific gravity of 0-84 to 0-92, and boils at 365 F. 
Mitcham oil, when examined by polarized light in a column 50 
mm. long, deviates from 14-2 to 10-7 to the left, the American 
4-3. When oil of peppermint is cooled to 4 C. it sometimes 
deposits colourless hexagonal prisms of menthol, Ci H 2 oO, which 
are soluble in alcohol and ether, almost insoluble in water, and 
fusible at 92 F. The oil consists chiefly of menthol and a terpene 
called menthene, CjoHis. Oil of peppermint is often adulter- 
ated with a third part of rectified spirit, which may be detected 
by the milkiness produced when the oil is agitated with water. 
Oil of rosemary and rectified oil of turpentine are sometimes used 
for the same purpose. If the oil contains turpentine it will 
explode with iodine. If quite pure it dissolves in its own weight 

of rectified spirits of wine. Pep- 
permint oil is largely distilled at 
Canton, a considerable quantity 
being sent to Bombay, also a 
large quantity of menthol. The 
species cultivated in the neigh- 
bourhood of Canton, is Mentha 
anensis, var. glabrala. Pepper- 
mint is chiefly cultivated in the 
province of Kiang-si; and accord- 
ing to native statements as much 
as 40 piculs of oil of peppermint 
are sent annually to ports on 
the coast. In Japan also the 
distillation of oil of peppermint 
forms a considerable industry, the 
plant cultivated being M. anensis, 
var. piperascens. The oil, under 
the name of hakka no abura, is 
exported from Hiogo and Ozaka, 
but is said to be frequently adul- 
terated. The menthol is obtained 
by subjecting the oil to a low 
temperature, when it crystallizes 
out and is separated. The two 
varieties of M. anensis just 
named yield much more menthol than M. piperila. It is 
remarkable, however, that the M. anensis, var. javanica, 
growing in Ceylon, has not the flavour of peppermint but that 
of garden mint, while typical form of M. anensis grown in 
Great Britain has an odour so different from peppermint that 
it has to be carefully removed from the field lest it should spoil 
the flavour of the peppermint oil when the herb is distilled. 
M. incana, cultivated near Bombay as a herb, also possesses 
the flavour of peppermint. In the form in which menthol is 
imported it bears some resemblance to Epsom salts, with which 
it is sometimes adulterated. 

The volatile oil of Mentha piperita is a valuable and widely used 
drug. Its chief constituents are menthol and menthene, which is 
a liquid terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two pre- 
parations of this oil, the Aqua menthae piperitae and the Spiritus 
menthae piperitae. The oil has the characters of its class, with 
certain special features. Its local anaesthetic action is exceptionally 
strong. It is also powerfully antiseptic. These two properties 
make it valuable in the relief of toothache and in the treatment 
of carious cavities in the teeth. They also render the drug valuable 
in certain forms of dyspepsia and in colic generally, " soda-mint 
lozenges " being a familiar form. The characteristic anti-spasmodic 
action of the volatile oils is perhaps more marked in this than in 
any other oil, and greatly adds to its power of relieving pains arising 
in the alimentary canal. The volatile oil of spearmint is also 
official in Great Britain and the United States, being given in the 
same doses and for the same purposes as oil of peppermint. It 
is of less value medicinally, not containing any appreciable quantity 
of menthol, the place of which is taken in the oleum menthae mridis 

xxi. 5 




FIG. 2. Mentha anensis, 
var. piperascens. 

a. Flowering branch re- 
duced) ; 6, calyx showing form 
of teeth (enlarged). 



the pharmacopoeia! name by carvone, CioHuO, found in caraway 
oil, and isomeric with thymol. 

The following mode of cultivation of peppermint is adopted 
at Market Deeping. A rich friable soil, retentive of moisture, is 
selected, and the ground is well tilled 8 to 10 in. deep. The 
plants are propagated in the spring, usually in April and May. 
When the young shoots from the crop of the previous year have 
attained a height of about 4 in. they are pulled up and trans- 
planted into new soil. They grow vigorously the first year, and 
throw out numerous stolons on the surface of the ground. After 
the crop has been removed these are allowed to harden or become 
woody, and then farm-yard manure is scattered over the field and 
ploughed in. In this way the stolons are divided into numerous 
pieces, and covered with soil before the frost sets in. If the autumn 
is wet they are liable to become sodden, and rot, and the next 
crop fails. In the spring the fields are dressed with Peruvian guano. 
In new ground the peppermint requires hand-weeding two or three 
times, as the hoe cannot be used without injury to the plants. Moist 
heavy weather in August is apt to cause the foliage to drop off 
and leave the stems almost bare. In these circumstances rust 
(Puccinia menthae) also is liable to attack the plants. This is 
prevented to a certain extent by a rope being drawn across the plants, 
by two men walking in the furrows, so as to remove excessive 
moisture. The average yield of peppermint is about 165 cwt. 
per acre. The first year's crop is always cut with the sickle to 
prevent injury to the stolons. The herb of the second and third 
year is cut with scythes, and then raked by women into loose heaps 
ready for carting. The field is then gleaned by boys, who add 
what they collect to the heaps. The plants rarely yield a fourth 
crop on the same land. The harvest usually commences in the 
beginning or middle of August, or as soon as the plants begin to 
flower, and lasts for six weeks, the stills being kept going night 
and day. The herb is carted direct from the field to the stills, 
which are made of copper, and contain about 5 cwt. of the herb. 
Before putting the peppermint into the still water is poured in to 
a depth of about 2 ft., at which height a false bottom is placed, 
and on this the herb is thrown and trodden down by men. The 
lid, which fits into a water-joint, is then let down by pulleys and 
fastened by two bars, any excess of pressure or temperature being 
indicated by the water that is ejected at the joint. The distillation 
is conducted by the application of direct heat at the lowest pos- 
sible temperature, and is continued for about four and a half hours. 
When this operation is completed, the lid is removed and a rope is 
attached to a hook on the false bottom, which, as well as the herb 
resting on it, is raised bodily by a windlass and the peppermint 
carried away in the empty carts on their return journey to the fields, 
where it is placed in heaps and allowed to rot, being subsequently 
mixed with the manure applied in the autumn as above stated. 
The usual yield of oil, if the season be warm and dry, is said to be 
I oz. from 5 Ib of the fresh flowering herb, but, if wet and unfavour- 
able, the product is barely half that quantity. The yield of a charge 
of the still is estimated at from I ft 12 oz. to 5 ft. The oil improves 
in mellowness even if kept as long as ten or fourteen years. The 
green colour sometimes present in the oil is stated to be due to a 

Quantity of water larger than necessary having been used in the 
istillation; on the other hand, if the herb be left in the still from 
Saturday to Monday, the oil assumes a brown tint. 

In France peppermint is cultivated on damp rich ground at Sens, 
in the department of the Yonne. In Germany it is grown in the 
neighbourhood of Leipzig, where the little town of Colleda produces 
annually as much as 40,000 cwt. of the herb. In the United States 
peppermint is cultivated on a most extensive scale, chiefly in south- 
west Michigan, the west districts of New York state, and Ohio. The 
yield averages from I o to 30 Ib per acre. In Michigan the plant 
was introduced in 1855- 

PEPPERRELL, SIR WILLIAM (1696-1759), American soldier, 
was born in Kittery, Maine, then a part of Massachusetts, on 
the 27th of June 1696. He studied surveying and navigation, 
and joined his father in his ship-building, fishing and general 
trading business, quickly becoming one of the wealthiest and 
most influential men in the province. He was commissioned 
captain (1717), major, lieutenant-colonel, and in 1726 colonel of 
militia. Pepperrell served in the Massachusetts general court 
(1726-1727), and in the governor's council (1727-1759), of 
which for eighteen years he was president. Although not a 
trained lawyer, he was chief justice of the court of common pleas 
from 1730 until his death. In 1745 he was commander-in-chief 
of the New England force of about 4000, which, with the assist- 
ance of a British squadron under Commodore Peter Warren, 
besieged and captured the French fortress of Louisburg, the 
garrison surrendering on the i6th of June and Pepperrell and 
Warren taking possession on the following day. For his services 
Pepperrell, in November 1746, was created a baronet the only 
New Englander so honoured. He was active in raising troops 



130 



PEPPER TREE PEPYS, SAMUEL 



during the " French and Indian War," and received the rank of 
lieutenant-general in February 1 7 59. He died in Kittery , Maine, 
on the 6th of July in the same year. 

See Usher Parsons, Life of Sir William Pepperrell, Bart. (Cam- 
bridge, Mass., 1855), based on the family papers. 

PEPPER TREE, a tree which has no proper connexion with 
the true pepper (Piper), and is really a member of the natural 
order Anacardiaceae, being known botanically as Schinus Molle, 
from the Peruvian name Mulll. It is a native of tropical South 
America and is grown in the open air in the south of Europe. It 
is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments 
linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than 
the rest, and all filled with volatile oil stored in large cells or 
cysts, which are visible to the naked eye and appear like holes 
when the leaf is held up to the light. When the leaves are thrown 
upon the surface of water the resinous or oily fluid escapes with 
such force as violently to agitate them. The flowers are small, 
whitish, arranged in terminal clusters and polygamous or uni- 
sexual, with five sepals, as many petals, ten stamens (as large as 
the petals in the case of the male flower, very small in the female 
flower, but in both springing from a cushion-like disk surrounding 
the base of the three-celled ovary). The style is simple or three- 
cleft, and the fruit a small, globose, pea-like drupe with a bony 
kernel enclosing a single seed. The fleshy portion of the fruit 
has a hot aromatic flavour from the abundance of the resin it 
contains. The resin is used for medicinal purposes by the 
Peruvians, and has similar properties to mastic. The Japan 
pepper tree is Xanthoxylum piperitum the fruits of which have 
also a hot taste. Along the Riviera the tree known as Melia 
Azedarach, or the " Pride of India," is also incorrectly called the 
pepper tree by visitors. 

PEPSIN, an enzyme or ferment obtained by drying the mucous 
lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of a pig, sheep or calf. 
As used in medicine it consists of a light yellow-brown or white 
powder or of pale yellow translucent grains or scales. It is only 
slightly soluble in water and alcohol. Pepsin is used to help 
gastric digestion in old people and in those in whom there is a 
deficient secretion of the gastric juice. It is useful in chronic 
catarrhal conditions of the stomach, the dyspepsia of alcoholism, 
and in gastric ulcer and cancer of the stomach. 

Pepsin digests the albumens but is useless in the digestion of 
fats or carbohydrates. It may also be used to predigest albuminous 
foods. The following is a method of peptonizing beef. Take i ft 
of minced raw lean beef, J pint of water containing 0-2 % of 
hydrochloric acid, place in a jar with 30 grs. of pepsin, set in a warm 
place at 110 F. for 3 hours, stirring occasionally. Then quickly 
boil it. It is usually unnecessary to strain it, as the meat is reduced 
to a fine almost impalpable powder which is readily assimilated. 
Many varieties of proprietary peptonizing tablets are on the market 
and are convenient for the preparation of peptonized milk. The 
following is a method of preparing it. Take a clean glass quart 
bottle, pour in a pint of perfectly fresh cold milk, then add a teacup- 
ful of cold water in which a peptonizing tablet has been dissolved. 
Submerge the bottle in a can of water at 100 F. for from 5 to 10 
minutes, take out the bottle and place on ice to prevent the further 
action of the pepsin. If no ice is convenient bring the milk to a 
boil for the same purpose. If the action of the pepsin be continued 
for a much longer period the milk becomes bitter to the taste from 
the development of excess of peptones. Predigested foods should 
not be used over a long period or the digestive functions of the 
stomach may atrophy from disuse. 

Pancreatic solution, derived from the pancreas of a pig digested 
in alcohol, has the power of converting starch into sugar, and 
albumen and fibrin into peptones. It only acts in an alkaline 
medium and at a temperature under 140 F. If used to peptonize 
milk sodium bicarbonate should be added. Many commercial 
preparations are on the market. Trypsin, the principal ferment 
of the pancreas, also changes proteids into peptones. 

PEPUSCH, JOHN CHRISTOPHER (1667-1752), English 
musician, of German parentage, was born in Berlin. He began 
his study of music at an early age, and about 1700 left Berlin 
and went to England, where he had various engagements, and 
where he went on with his researches into ancient music. He 
composed a number of church services and instrumental pieces, 
besides music for masques and plays, but he is best known in 
connexion with the founding in 1710 of the Academy of Ancient 
Music. In 1713 he was made a Mus.D. of Oxford, and in 1746 



F.R.S. In 1718 he married Margarita de 1'Epine (d. 1746), who, 
as the first Italian to sing in England, was described in 1692 in 
the London Gazette simply as " the Italian woman." Pepusch 
died in London on the 2oth of July 1752. His Treatise on 
Harmony (anonymous ist ed. 1730) is believed to have been an 
embodiment of his rules drafted by his pupil Viscount Paisley, 
afterwards earl of Abercorn. 

PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703), English diarist, was born on 
the 23rd of February 1633. The place of his birth is not known. 
The name was pronounced in the i7th century, and has always 
been pronounced by the family, " Peeps." The family can be 
traced in Cambridgeshire as far back as the reign of Edward I. 
They rose by slow degrees from the class of small copyholders 
and yeoman farmers to the position of gentry. In 1563 they had 
a recognized right to use a coat of arms. John Pepys, Samuel's 
father, was a younger son, who, like other gentlemen in his 
position in that age, went into trade. He was for a time estab- 
lished as a tailor in London, but in 1661 he inherited a small 
estate at Brampton near Huntingdon, where he lived during the 
last years of his life. 

Samuel was fifth child and second son of a large family, all 
of whom he survived. His first school was in Huntingdon, but 
he was afterwaicjs sent to St Paul's in London, where he remained 
till 1650. While at St Paul's he was an eye-witness of the execu- 
tion of King Charles I. On the 2ist of June in that year his 
name was entered as a sizar on the books of Trinity Hall, 
Cambridge, but it was transferred to Magdalene on the ist of 
October. On the sth of March he entered into residence, and 
he remained there till 1654 or 1655. He obtained a Spendluffe 
scholarship a month after entering, and one on Dr John Smith's 
foundation on the i4th of October 1653. \ Nothing is known of 
his university career except that on the 2 ist of October 1653 he 
was publicly admonished with another undergraduate for having 
been ^scandalously overserved with drink."/l\t Cambridge he 
wrote a romance, Love is a Cheat, which he afterwards destroyey 
On the ist of December 1655 he was married at St Margarers 
church, Westminster, to Elizabeth, daughter of Alexander 
Marchant, Sieur de St Michel, a French Huguenot exile from 
Anjou who had married an English lady named Kingsmil). 
Pepys had at this time no independent means, and probably 
relied on his cousins, the Montagues, to provide for him. On the 
26th of March 1658 he was cut for the stone, an event which 
he always kept in memory by a solemn anniversary: In 1659 
he went as secretary with his cousin, Edward Montagu, after- 
wards earl of Sandwich, on a voyage to the Sound. On his 
return he was engaged as a clerk under Mr (afteVwards Sir) 
Edward Downing, one of the four tellers of the exchequer. In 
1660 he accompanied his cousin, who commanded th^ fleet which 
brought King Charles II. back from exile. In that year, by the 
interest of his cousin, he was named " clerk of the acts " in the 
navy office, but was compelled to buy off a competitor, one 
Barlow, by an annuity of 100. 

Pepys was now fairly established in the official career which led 
him to honour. On the ist of January 1660 he had begun his 
second and hidden life as a diarist. It is in that capacity that 
he is of such unique interest. But if his diary had never been 
written, or had been lost, he would still be a notable man, as an 
able official, the author of valuable Memoirs of the Navy (1690), 
an amateur musician and protector of musicians, a gentleman 
who took an enlightened interest in science, and was elected 
president of the Royal Society. To his contemporary diarist, 
John Evelyn, he appeared as " a worthy, industrious and curious 
person." It is true that Andrew Marvel accused him of having 
accumulated a fortune of 40,000 by " illegal wages." But this 
charge, made in a pamphlet called A List of the principal 
Labourers in the great design of Popery and Arbitrary Pou'er, 
was attributed to political animosity. To the world he appeared 
as an honourable and religious man, and so he would seem to have 
been to us if he had not recorded in his diary all those weaknesses 
of character and sins of the flesh which other men are most 
careful to conceal. 

His place of clerk to the Navy Board was equivalent to the 



PEPYS, SAMUEL 



post of permanent under secretary in modern times. It made 
him chief of the secretariat and a member of the administrating 
body of the navy. Chough he was so ignorant of business that 
he did not even know- the multiplication table when he first took 
office, he soon mastered the needful mechanical details by work- 
ing early and late. He had other posts and honours, which 
came to him either as consequential on his clerkship or because 
he was a useful official. On the 23rd of July 1660 he was ap- 
pointed one of the clerks of the privy seal, an office which returned 
him 3 a day in fees. He was made a justice of the peace. In 
1662 he was appointed a younger brother of the Trinity House, 
and was named a commissioner for managing the affairs of 
Tangier, then 'occupied by an English garrison. In 1664 he 
became a member of the corporation of the Royal Fishery, to 
which body he was named treasurer when another official had 
brought the accounts into confusion. In that year he also 
joined the Royal Society. During the naval war with Holland 
(1664-67) he proved himself an indefatigable worker. As sur- 
veyor of the victualling, the whole burden of a most important 
department was thrown on him in addition to his regular duties. 
He in fact organized the department. While the plague was 
raging in London in 1666 he remained at his post when many of 
his colleagues ran away, and he manfully avowed his readiness 
to take the risk of disease, as others of the king's servants faced 
the dangers of war. vHe had now gained the full confidence of the 

, lord high admiral, the duke of York, afterwards King James II. 

V When, on the termination of the war, the navy office was violently 
^attacked in parliament, he was entrusted with its defence. The 
speech which he delivered at the bar of the House of Commons 
on the sth of March 1668 passed for a complete vindication. In 
sober fact the charges of mismanagement were well founded, but 
the fault was not in the officials of the navy office only, and Pepys, 
who was master of the details, had no difficulty in throwing dust 
in the eyes of the House of Commons, which was ignorant. 
Nobody indeed was better acquainted with the defects of the 
office, for in 1668 he drew up for the duke of York two papers of 
inquiry and rebuke, " The Duke's Reflections on the severall 
Members of the Navy Board's Duty " and " The Duke's answer 
to their severall excuses " (Harleian MS. 6003). In 1669 he 
travelled abroad. His success in addressing parliament gave him 
the ambition to become a member of the House of Commons. 
He stood for Aldborough, but the death of his wife, on the loth 
of November 1669, prevented him from conducting his canvass 
in person, and he was not elected. In 1673 he was returned for 
Castle Rising. The validity of his election was questioned by his 
opponent, Mr Offley, and the committee of privilege decided 
against him, but the prorogation of the house prevented further 
action. The no-popery agitation was now growing in strength. 
The duke of York was driven from office by the Test Act, and 
Pepys was accused of " popery," partly on the ground that he 
was said to keep a crucifix and altar in his house, partly because 
he was accused of having converted his wife to Roman Catholi- 
cism. The crucifix story broke down on examination, but there 
is some reason to believe that Mrs Pepys did become a Roman 
Catholic. [Pepys was transferred by the king from the navy 
office to the secretaryship of the admiralty in 1673. In 1679 he 

. was member for Harwich, and in the height of the popish plot 
mania he was- -accused, manifestly because he was a trusted 
servant of the duke of York, of betraying naval secrets to the 
French, but the charges were finally dropped. Pepys was released 
on bail on the I2th of February 1680. In that year he accom- 
panied the king to Newmarket, and took down the narrative of 
his escape after the battle of Worcester. A proposal to make him 
head of King's College, Cambridge, in 1681, came to nothing. 
In 1682 he accompanied the duke of York to Scotland, where the 
uncleanly habits of the people caused him great offence. In 
1683-1684 he was engaged in arranging for the evacuation of 
Tangier. He visited the place and kept a diary of his voyage. 
In 1684 he was elected president of the Royal Society. On the 
accession of King James II. in 1685 he retained his place as 
secretary to the admiralty, to which he had been appointed by 
patent when James resumed the lord high admiralship (June 10, 



1684), and Pepys was in effect minister for the navy. The 
revolution of 1688 ended his official career. He was dismissed 
on the 9th of March 1689, and spent the rest of his life in retire- 
ment, and, except for a brief imprisonment on the charge of 
Jacobite intrigue in 1690, in peace. He died at his house in 
Clapham on the 25th of May 1703. His last years were passed 
in correspondence with his friends, who included Evelyn and 
Dryden, or in arranging his valuable library. It was left on his 
death to his nephew, John Jackson, son of his sister Pauline, and 
in 1724, by the terms of his will, was transferred to Magdalene 
College, Cambridge, where it is still preserved. 

Such was the outward and visible life of Samuel Pepys, the 
public servant whose diligence was rewarded by success. The 
other Pepys, whom Sir Walter Scott called " that curious 
fellow," was revealed in 1825, when his secret diary was partly 
published. The first entry was made on the ist of January 1660, 
the last on the 3ist of May 1669, when the increasing weakness 
of his eyes, which had given him trouble since 1664, compelled 
him to cease writing in the conditions he imposed upon himself. 
If there is in all the literature of the world a book which can be 
called " unique " with strict propriety it is this. Confessions, 
diaries, journals, autobiographies abound, but such a revelation 
of a man's self has not yet been discovered. The diary is a thing 
apart by virtue of three qualities which are rarely found in per- 
fection when separate and nowhere else in combination. It was 
secret; it was full; and it was honest. That Pepys meant it for 
his own eye alone is clear. He wrote it in Shelton's system of 
tachygraphy published in 1641, which he complicated by using 
foreign languages or by varieties of his own invention whenever 
he had to record the passages least fit to be seen by his servants 
or by " all the world." Relying on his cypher he put down what- 
ever he saw, heard, felt or imagined, every motion of his mind, 
every action of his body. And he noted all this, not as he desired 
it to appear to others, but as it v/as to his seeing. The result is 
" a human document " of amazing vitality. The man who displays 
himself to himself in the diary is often odious, greedy, cowardly, 
casuistical, brutal. He tells how he kicked his cook, and blacked 
his wife's eye, and was annoyed when others saw what he had 
done. He notes how he compelled the wives of unfortunate 
men who came to draw their husband's pay at the navy office to 
prostitute themselves; how he took " compliments," that is to 
say gifts, from all who had business to do with the navy office; 
how he got tipsy and suffered from sick headache; how he 
repented, made vows of sobriety, and found casuistical excuses 
for breaking them. The style is as peculiar as the matter 
colloquial, garrulous, racy from simplicity of language, and full 
of the unconscious humour which is never absent from a truthful 
account of the workings of nature in the average sensual man. 
His position enabled him to see much. His complete harmony 
with the animalism and vulgarity of the Restoration makes him 
a valuable witness for his time. To his credit must be put the 
facts that he knew the animalism and vulgarity to be what they 
were; that he had a real love of music and gave help to musicians, 
Cesare Morelli for instance; that though he made money out of 
his places he never allowed bad work to be done for the navy if 
he could help it; that he was a hard worker; and that he had a 
capacity for such acts of kindness and generosity as are com- 
patible with a gross temperament and a pedestrian ambition. 

The diary, written in a very small hand in six volumes, was 
included among his books at Magdalene. On the publication of 
Evelyn's diary in 1818, the then head of Magdalene, the Hon. 
and Rev. George Neville, decided to publish Pepys's. Part of the 
MS. was deciphered by his cousin Lord Grenville. The library 
contained both the short and the long-hand copies of Pepys's 
account of King Charles's adventures, but its books were so little 
known by the curators that this key was overlooked. The MS. 
was deciphered by John Smith, afterwards rector of Baldock 
in Hertfordshire, between 1819 and 1822. The first and partial 
edition, edited by Richard Neville Griffin, 3rd Lord Braybrooke, 
appeared in 1825 in two volumes quarto (London). It attracted 
great attention and was reviewed by Sir Walter Scott in the 
Quarterly for January 1826. A second edition in two octavo 



132 



PEQUOT PERCEVAL 



volumes followed in 1828 (London). A third and enlarged edition 
in five volumes octavo appeared in 1848-1849, and a fourth in 
four in 1854 (London) . In 1875-1879 Dr Minors Bright published 
a still fuller edition in six volumes octavo (London). Many 
portraits of Pepys are known to have been taken and several can 
be traced. One was taken by Savill (1661), another by John 
Hales (1666), now in the National Portrait Gallery. A portrait 
by Sir Peter Lely is in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College, 
Cambridge. Three portraits were taken by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 
of which one belongs to the Royal Society, and another is in the 
Hall of Magdalene. Pepys's only known publication in his life 
was the Memoirs of the Navy, but other writings have been 
attributed to him. 

AUTHORITIES. The standard edition of Pepys's Diary is that 
by H. B. Wheatley, in nine volumes octavo, with a supplementary 
volume of Pepysiana (London, 1893-1899). See also Wheatley's 
Samuel Pepys, and the world he lived in (London, 1880); The Life, 
Journals and Correspondence of Pepys, by J. Smith (London, 1841); 
E. H. Moorhouse, Samuel Pepys, Administrator, Observer, Gossip 
(1909) ; and P. Lubbock, Samuel Pepys (1909). (D. H.) 

PEQUOT, an Algonquian tribe of North-American Indians, a 
branch of the Mohicans. They occupied the coast of Connecticut 
from Niantic river to the Rhode Island boundary. Together 
with their kinsmen, the Mohegans, they formed a powerful and 
warlike people, bitterly hostile to the early settlers. In 1637 the 
Pequots were surprised by the whites at their fort on the Mystic 
river, and suffered so completely a defeat that the tribe was broken 
up, and its remnants took refuge with neighbouring tribes. The 
Pequot country passed under the control of the Mohegans. At 
the height of their power the Pequots numbered, it is estimated, 
some 3000. 

PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive), in psychology, 
the term specially applied to the mental process by which the 
mind becomes conscious of an external object; it is the mental 
completion of a sensation, which would otherwise have nothing 
but a momentary existence coextensive with the duration of the 
stimulus, and is intermediate between sensation and the " ideal 
revival," which can reinstate a perceptual consciousness when 
the object is no longer present. This narrow and precise usage 
of the term" perception " is due to Thomas Reid, whose view has 
been generally adopted in principle by modern psychologists. 
On the other hand some psychologists decline to accept the view 
that the three processes are delimited by sharp lines of cleavage. 
It is held on the one hand that sensation is in fact impossible as a 
purely subjective state without cognition; on the other that 
sensation and perception differ only in degree, perception being 
the more complex. The former view admits, which the latter 
practically denies, the distinction in principle. Among those 
who adopt the second view are E. B. Titchener and William 
James. James (Principles of Psychology, ii. 76) compares 
sensation and perception as " the barer and the richer conscious- 
ness," and says that " beyond the first crude sensation all our 
consciousness is a matter of suggestion, and the various sugges- 
tions shade gradually into each other, being one and all products 
of the same psychological machinery of association." Similarly 
Wundt and Titchener incline to obliterate the distinction between 
perception and ideal revival. Prior to Reid, the word perception 
had a long history in the wider sense of cognition in general. 
Locke and Hume both use it in this sense, and regard thinking as 
that special kind of perception which implies deliberate attention. 
(See PSYCHOLOGY.) 

PERCEVAL, or PERCYVEIXE (Ger. Parzival, FT. Perlesvaus, 
Welsh, Peredur), the hero of a comparatively small, but highly 
important, group of romances, forming part of the Arthurian 
cycle. Originally, the story of Perceval was of the character of a 
folk-tale, and that one of remarkable importance and world-wide 
diffusion. He is represented as the son of a widow, " la dame 
veuve," his father having been slain in tourney, battle or by 
treachery, either immediately before, or shortly after his birth. 
The mother, fearful lest her son should share his father's fate, 
flies to the woods, either alone with one attendant, or with a small 
body of faithful retainers, and there brings up her son in ignorance 
of his name, his parentage and all knightly accomplishments. 



The youth grows up strong, swift-footed and of great personal 
beauty, but, naturally enough, of very limited intelligence. This 
last is one of the most characteristic traits of the Perceval story, 
connecting it alike with the Irish Lay of the Great Fool, and the 
Teutonic Dummling tales. He spends his days chasing the 
beasts of the forest, running them down by sheer speed, or killing 
them with darts (javelots) or bow and arrows, the only weapons 
he knows. 

One day, however, he meets a party of knights in armour; he 
first adores the leader as God, and then takes them to be some 
new and wondrous kind of animal, asking the most naive 
questions as to their armour and equipment. Being told that 
they are knights he determines that he too will be one, and 
returns to his mother announcing his intention of at once setting 
forth into the world to seek for knighthood. Dressed as a 
peasant (or a fool), he departs (his mother, in some versions, 
dying of grief), and comes to the king's court. Of course in the 
romance it is the court of Arthur; probably in the original tale 
it was simply " the king." Here his uncouth behaviour and great 
personal beauty attract general attention, and he is alike mocked 
by Kay, and his future distinction mysteriously foretold. He 
slays a foe of Arthur's, the Red Knight, who has insulted the 
king, and challenged the knights of the court, who, for some 
mysterious reason, are unable to respond to the challenge. 
Dressing himself in the armour of the slain knight, which he has 
great difficulty in handling and eventually puts on over his 
peasant's garb, he sets out on a series of adventures which differ 
greatly in the various versions, but the outcome of which is that 
he becomes a skilful and valiant knight and regains the heritage 
of his father. 

This, the Perceval story proper, has been recognized by 
scholars as a variant of a widespread folk-tale theme, designated 
by J. C. von Hahn as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula, 
which counts among its representatives such heroes as Perseus, 
Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, Siegfried, and, as Alfred Nutt has 
pointed out, Arthur himself. This particular variant appears to 
be of British-Celtic origin, and the most faithful representative 
of the original tale is now very generally held to be the English 
Syr Percyvelle of Galles, a poem preserved in the Thornton 
manuscript. Here the hero is nephew to Arthur on the mother's 
side, and his father, of the same name as himself, is a valiant 
knight of the court. A noticeable feature of the story is the 
uncertainty as to the hero's parentage; the mother is always a 
lady of rank, a queen in her own right, or sister of kings (as a 
rule of the Grail kings) ; bu* the father's rank varies, he is neveV 
a king, more often merely a valiant knight, and in no instance 
does he appear to be of equal rank with his wife. This 
distinguishes the story from that of Lancelot, with which some 
modern scholars have been inclined to identify it; for Lancelot's 
parentage is never in doubt, he is fi s du roi. 

The connexion of the story with Arthur and his court brought 
about a speedy and more important development, the precise 
steps of which are not yet clear: Perceval became the hero of the 
Grail quest, in this ousting Gawain, to whom the adventure 
originally belonged, and the Perceval became merged in the Grail 
tradition. Of the Perceval-Grail romances the oldest from the 
point of view of manuscript preservation is the Perceval or 
ContedelGraaloi Chretien de Troyes. Two manuscripts, indeed, 
the British Museum and Mons texts, preserve a fragment relating 
the birth and infancy of the hero, which appears to represent 
the source at the root alike of Chretien and of the German 
Parzival, but it is only a fragment, and so far no more of the poem 
has been discovered. Chretien left his poem unfinished, and we 
do not know how he intended to complete the adventures of his 
hero; but those writers who undertook the task, Wauchier de 
Denain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Manessier, carried it out with 
such variety of detail, and such a bewildering indifference to 
Chretien's version, that it seems practically certain that there 
must have been, previous to Chretien's work, more than one 
poem dealing with the same theme. The German poet, Wolfram 
von Eschenbach, whose Parzival in parts closely agrees with the 
Perceval and who was long held to be a mere translator of Chretien, 



PERCEVAL, S. PERCH 



133 



differs widely in the setting of his story. He gives an introduction, 
in which the adventures of the father, here a prince of Anjou, 
are related; a conclusion, in which the Swan-Knight, Lohengrin, 
is made Parzival's son; he represents the inhabitants of the 
Grail castle as Templars (Templeisen) ; and makes the Grail itself 
a stone. Finally, he reproaches Chretien with having told the 
story amiss, whereas Kiot, the Provencal, whose version Wolfram 
was following, had told it aright from beginning to end. It is 
certain that Gerbert knew, and used, a Perceval which, if not 
Kiot's poem, must have been closely akin to it; as he too makes 
the Swan-Knighl a descendant of the Grail hero. The probability 
seems to be that the earliest Perceval- Grail romance was com- 
posed at Fescamp, and was coincident with the transformation, 
under the influence of the Saint-Sang legend, of the originally 
Pagan talisman known as the Grail into a Christian relic, and 
that this romance was more or less at the root of all subsequent 
versions. 

Besides the poems, we have also two prose Perceval romances, 
the relative position of which has not yet been satisfactorily deter- 
mined. The first is found in two manuscripts only, the so-called 
" Didot " (from its original possessor M. Firmin-Didot), now in the 
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; the other, and much superior text, 
in the Biblioteca Estense, Modena. In both cases the romance 
follows the prose rendering of Borron's Joseph of Arimathea 
and Merlin, and precedes a Mart Artus, thus forming part of 
a complete cycle. The text shows a curious mingling of sources; 
the real primitive Perceval story, the Enfances, is omitted; he 
grows up in his father's house and goes to court at his wish. 
Later, however, stories which certainly derive from an early 
non-Grail tradition are introduced, and there are references 
which imply a knowledge of the prose Lancelot and of Chr6tien's 
poem. The romance is probably a somewhat late, and not 
very skilful, compilation. The other prose romance, the 
Perlesvaus, is decidedly superior in literary form, but here too 
we have a mingling of old and new elements. The Enfances 
story is omitted, and there are parallels with the German 
Parzival, with Wauchier de Denain and with Gerbert, while 
much is peculiar to the Perlesvaus itself. It is not improbable 
that it represents a free and individual working over of the 
original Fescamp version, and that in its later shape it was 
intended to form, and did at one time form, the Quest section 
of the cyclic redaction of the Arthurian prose romances, being 
dislodged from this position by the Galahad Quite. It is a 
curious fact that the printed editions always give it in conjunc- 
tion with this latter and that the two have also been preserved 
together in a Welsh manuscript translation. We also possess 
in one of the so-called Mabinogi a Welsh version of the tale, 
Peredur, son of Evrawc. This appears to be a free rendering of 
the adventures found in Chretien combined with incidents 
drawn from Welsh tradition. This was at one time claimed as 
the original source of all the Perceval romances, but this theory 
cannot be maintained in face of the fact that the writer gives in 
one place what is practically a literal translation of Chretien's 
text in a passage which there is strong reason to believe was 
borrowed by Chretien from an earlier poem. In order of time 
the Peredur probably ranks latest in the series of Perceval 
romances, which, however, does not detract from its interest as 
a possible representative of genuine Welsh traditions, unknown 
to other writers. 

The value and interest of the Perceval romances stand very 
high, not alone for their intrinsic merit, though that is con- 
siderable Chretien's Perceval, though not his best poem, is a 
favourable specimen of his work, and von Eschenbach's Parzival, 
though less elegant in style, is by far the most humanly interest- 
ing, and at the same time, most deeply spiritual, of the Grail 
romances but also for the interest of the subject matter. The 
Perceval story is an admirable folk-tale, the Grail problem 
is the most fascinating problem of medieval literature; the two 
combined form a romance of quite unique charm and interest. 
This has been practically proved by the extraordinary success 
which has attended Richard Wagner's dramatic re-telling of 
the legend in his Parsifal. The immediate source of this 



version is the poem of Wolfram von Eschenbach, though the 
Grail, of course, is represented in the form of the Christian 
relic, not as the jewel talisman of the Parzival; but the psycho- 
logical reading of the hero's character, the distinctive note of 
von Eschenbach's version, has been adapted by Wagner with 
marvellous skill, and his picture of the hero's mental and spiritual 
development, from extreme simplicity to the wisdom born of 
perfect charity, is most striking and impressive. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. There are early printed editions of the Perceval 
(1530) and of the Perlesvaus (1516 and 1523). The Perceval was 
edited from the Mons text by Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871); Syr 
Percyvelle of Galles, in The Thornton Romances, by Halliwell (1844) 
for the Camden Society. Parzival exists in numerous editions; 
critical texts have been edited by Lachmann (1891), Martin (1903) 
and Leitzmann (1902-1903). For the general reader the most 
useful text is that of Bartsch in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, 
as it includes notes and a glossary. Modern German versions 
are by Simrock (very close to the original) and Hertz (freer, but 
with excellent notes and appendices) ; Eng. trans, by J. L. Weston 
(1894). The " Didot " Perceval was published by Hucher in vol. i. 
of Le Saint Graal (1875-1878) ; an edition of the Modena text has 
also been prepared. Perlesvaus was published by Potvin in vol. i. 
of his edition of Chretien's poem. The Welsh text, with translation, 
has been edited by Canon Williams. A fine translation by Dr 
Sebastian Evans is published in " The Temple Classics," under the 
title of The High History of the Holy Grail. Peredur will be found 
in Alfred Nutt's edition of the Mabinogion (1902). For the critical 
treatment of the subject see The Legend of Sir Perceval (Grimm 
Library, vol. xvii.); Perlesvaus by Nitze (1902); Legends of the 
Wagner Drama by J. L. Weston. (J. L. W.) 

PERCEVAL, SPENCER (1762-1812), prime minister of Eng- 
land from 1809 to 1812, second son of John, and earl of Egmont, 
was born in Audley Square, London, on the ist of November 
1762. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, 
Cambridge, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1786. 
A very able speech in connexion with a famous forgery case 
having drawn attention to his talents, his success was from that 
time rapid, he was soon regarded as the leading counsel on the 
Midland circuit, and in 1796 became a K.C. Entering parlia- 
ment for Northampton in April of that year, he distinguished 
himself by his speeches in support of the administration of Pitt. 
In 1 80 1, on the formation of the Addington administration, he 
was appointed solicitor-general, and in 1802 he became attorney- 
general. An ardent opponent of Catholic Emancipation, he 
delivered in 1807 a speech on the subject which helped to give 
the deathblow to the Grenville administration, upon which he 
became chancellor of the exchequer under the duke of Portland, 
whom in 1809 he succeeded in the premiership. Notwithstand- 
ing that he had the assistance in the cabinet of no statesman 
of the first rank, he succeeded in retaining office till he was shot 
by a man named Bellingham, a bankrupt with a grievance, who 
had vainly applied to him for redress, in the lobby of the House 
of Commons on the i ith of May 1812. Bellingham was certainly 
insane, but the plea was set aside and he was hanged. Perceval 
was a vigorous debater, specially excelling in replies, in which 
his thorough mastery of all the details of his subject gave him 
a great advantage. He married in 1790 and had six sons and 
six daughters; one of the latter married Spencer Horatio Walpole 
(d. 1898), home secretary, and their son Sir Spencer Walpole, 
the well-known historian, published an excellent biography of 
Perceval in 1874. 

See also P. Treherne, Spencer Perceval (1909). 

PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. irp/oj; the last 
word is connected with irepwos, dark-coloured, spotted), a 
fresh- water fish (Perca flumatilis) , generally distributed over 
Europe, northern Asia and North America, and so well known 
as to have been selected for the type of an entire family of spiny- 
rayed fishes, the Percidae, which is represented in European 
fresh-waters by several other fishes such as the pope (Acerina 
cernua) and the pike-perch (Lucioperca) . It inhabits rivers as 
well as lakes, but thrives best in waters with a depth of not 
less than 3 ft.; in large deep lakes it frequently descends to 
depths of 50 fathoms and more. It occurs in Scandinavia as 
far north as the 6gth parallel, but does not extend to Iceland 
or any of the islands north of Europe. In the Alps it ascends to 
an altitude of 4000 ft. 



134 

The shape of its body is well proportioned, but many varia- 
tions occur, some specimens being singularly high-backed, others 
low and long-bodied; sometimes such variations are local, and 
Agassiz and other naturalists at one time thought it possible to 
distinguish two species of the common perch of Europe; there 
are not even sufficient grounds, however, for separating specifi- 
cally the North-American form, which in the majority of ichthyo- 
logical works is described as Perca flavescens. The brilliant and 
striking colours of the perch render it easily recognizable even 
at a distance. A rich greenish-brown with golden reflections 
covers the back and sides, which are ornamented with five or 
seven dark cross-bands. A large black spot occupies the 



PERCH PERCY (FAMILY) 




The Perch, Perca fluviatilis. 

membrane between the last spines of the dorsal fin; and the 
ventral, anal and lower part of the caudal are bright ver- 
milion. In the large peaty lakes of north Germany a beautiful 
variety is not uncommon, in which the golden tinge prevails, 
as in a goldfish. 

The perch is strictly carnivorous and most voracious; it 
wanders about in small shoals within a certain district, playing 
sad havoc among small fishes, and is therefore not to be toler- 
ated in waters where valuable fry is cultivated. Perch of three 
pounds in weight are not infrequently caught in suitable local- 
ities; one of five would now be regarded as an extraordinarily 
large specimen, although in older works we read of individuals 
exceeding even that weight. 

Perch are good, wholesome food, and highly esteemed in inland 
countries where marine fish can be obtained only with difficulty. 
The nearly allied pike-perch is one of the best European food- 
fishes. The perch is exceedingly prolific; it begins to spawn 
when three years old, in April or in the first half of May, deposit- 
ing the ova, which are united by a viscid matter in lengthened or 
net-shaped bands, on water plants. 

PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod 
used for measurement), a bar or rod used for various purposes, as 
e.g. for a navigation mark in shallow waters, for a support on 
which a bird may rest, or for a pole which joins the back with 
the fore part of a wagon or other four-wheeled vehicle. As a 
term of linear measurement, " perch," also " rod " or " pole," 
= i6| ft., 53 yds.; of superficial area, = 3Oj sq. yds.; 160 perches 
= i acre. As a stonemason's measure, a " perch " = i linear 
perch in length by ij ft. in breadth and i ft. in thickness. 

PERCHE, a region of northern France extending over the 
departments of Orne, Eure, Eure-et-Loir and Sarthe. Its 
boundaries are Normandy on the N. and W., Maine on the S.W., 
Vend&mois and Dunois on the S., Beauce on the E. and Thime- 
rais on the N.E. The greater part of the district is occupied 
by a semicircle of heights (from 650 to 1000 ft. in height) stretch- 
ing from Moulins-la-Marche on the north-west to Montmirail 
on the south ; within the basin formed thereby the shape of which 
is defined by the Huisne, an affluent of the Sarthe, lie the chief 
towns Mortagne, Nogent-le-Rotrou and Belleme. Stock-raising 
and dairy-farming are flourishing in the Perche, which is famous 
for the production of a breed of large and powerful horses. 
Cider-apples and pears are grown throughout the district. In 
the middle ages the Perche constituted a countship of which 
Corbon, Mortajgne and Nogent-le-Rotrou were successively the 
capitals. Under the ancien regime it formed, together with 
Maine, a gouvernement of which Mortagne was the capital. 

PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES (1795-1856), American poet, 
philologist and geologist, was born in Kensington parish, Berlin, 
Connecticut, on the isth of September 1795. He graduated 



at Yale in 1815, and in 1820 took the degree of M.D., and started 
practice in Berlin. He contributed verse to the Microscope, 
a semi-weekly paper, founded at New Haven in 1820. 
In this first appeared his best-known poem," " The Suicide," 
which reflects his chronic melancholy, due doubtless to ill-health; 
it was begun in 1816 and finished in 1820, after he had actually 
made two attempts on his own life. In 1823 Percival became 
an editor of the Connecticut Herald at New Haven; and in 1824 
he was in turn an assistant-surgeon and lecturer on chemistry 
at West Point, and an inspector of recruits at the Charlestown 
(Mass.) Navy Yard. He prepared (1826-1831) an English 
edition of Malte-Brun's Geography (published 1834); and in 
1827-1829 read the manuscripts and proof-sheets of Webster's 
Dictionary, giving special attention to scientific words. In 1835- 
1840, with Professor Charles U. Shepard (1804-1886), he made 
a geological survey of Connecticut; his Report (1842) showed 
great learning and much patient research. In 1854 he became 
state geologist of Wisconsin, and in 1855 published one volume 
of his Report; the second he had nearly completed at the time 
of his death, on the 22nd of May 1856, at Hazel Green, Wisconsin. 
See his Poetical Works ( 2 vols., Boston, 1859), with a biographical 
sketch by L. W. Fitch; and Julius H. Ward, Life and Letters of 
James Gates Percival (Boston, 1866). 

PERCY (FAMILY). This family, whose deeds are so prominent 
in -English history, was founded by William de Perci (c. 1030- 
1096), a follower of the Conqueror, who bestowed on him a 
great fief in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The register of Whitby 
Abbey, which he founded anew, and in later days the heralds, 
were responsible for the fabulous origin and pedigree of the 
family which are still current. By Emma, daughter of Hugh de 
Port, a great Hampshire baron, William was father of several 
sons, of whom Alan the eldest succeeded him. His grandson 
William was the last of the house in the direct line, and left two 
sisters and coheiresses, Maud countess of Warwick, who died 
childless, and Agnes. Agnes de Perci had married Josceline, 
styled " brother of the queen " (i.e. Adeliza of Louvain, second 
wife of Henry I.), whose legitimacy has been questioned, and 
from this marriage descended the second house of Percy (which 
name it assumed), till its own extinction in the male line five 
centuries later (1670). By it was brought into the family the 
great Petworth estate in Sussex, which Josceline had obtained 
from his sister, who was holding Arundel and its fief. His son 
Richard (c. 1170-1244) and Richard's nephew William (c. 1183- 
1245) were among the barons who rose in arms against John, 
but the latter made his peace with Henry III., and had his 
lands restored to him. Richard de Percy was one of the twenty- 
five barons appointed to enforce the observance of Magna 
Carta. 

The next important member of the family is William's grandson 
Henry de Percy (c. 1272-1315), whom Edward I., after the deposi- 
tion of John Baliol, appointed governor of Galloway, and who 
was one of his most active agents in the subjugation of Scotland 
till the success of Robert Bruce drove him out of Turnberry 
Castle, and made him withdraw into England. He was rewarded 
by Edward II. with the barren title of earl of Carrick, declared 
to be forfeited by the Scottish hero; and the same king appointed 
him governor of the castles of Bamburgh and Scarborough. 
But in 1309 he himself made his position strong in the north of 
England by purchasing lands from Anthony Bek, bishop of 
Durham, among which was the honour of Alnwick, the principal 
seat of the family ever since. The Percies had chiefly resided 
till then at Spofforth in Yorkshire, and their connexion with 
Northumberland dates from this acquisition. Henry's son, 
another Henry (c. 1299-1352), took part in the league against 
Edward II. 's favourites the Despensers, was in favour with 
Edward III., and obtained from Edward Baliol as king of 
Scotland grants of Lochmaben, Annandale and Moffatdale, 
which he surrendered to the English king for the castle and 
constableship of Jedburgh, or Jedworth, with the forest of Jed- 
worth and some neighbouring towns. A few years later, in fuller 
recompense of the unprofitable gift of Baliol, a grant of 500 
marks a year was made to him out of the old customs at Berwick; 



PERCY (HOTSPUR) 



135 



and in 1346 he did splendid service to his sovereign by defeating 
and taking prisoner David II., king of Scotland, at the battle of 
Neville's Cross. 

To him succeeded another Henry Percy (1322-1368), a feudal 
baron like his predecessors, who fought at Crecy during his 
father's lifetime and whose brother Thomas Percy (1333-1369) 
was bishop of Norwich from 1356-1369. The next head of the 
Percys was Henry's son, another Henry, who was made earl 
of Northumberland at the coronation of Richard II., and whose 
younger brother Thomas (d. 1403) was created earl of Worcester 
in 1397. The ist earl of Northumberland, father of the famous 
Hotspur, Sir Henry Percy (?..), was killed at Bramham Moor 
in 1408, while in arms against the king, and his title and estates 
were forfeited. But, by an act no less gracious than politic, 
Henry V. restored them in 1414 to this earl's grandson, Henry 
(1394-1455), then a prisoner with the Scots, whose liberation 
he had no difficulty in procuring from the duke of Albany during 
the time of James I.'s captivity. From that day the loyalty 
of the family to the house of Lancaster was steadfast and 
undeviating. The 2nd earl died fighting for Henry VI. at 
the first battle of St Albans in 1455; the 3rd, Henry (1421- 
1461), was slain on the bloody field of Towton; the 4th, 
Henry (1446-1489), was killed in quelling an insurrection in the 
time of Henry VII. So strong was the Lancastrian feeling of 
the family that even Sir Ralph Percy (1425-1464), a brother 
of the earl who fell at Towton, though he had actually submitted 
once to Edward IV., turned again, and when he fell at Hedglcy 
Moor in April 1464 consoled himself with the thought that he 
had, as he phrased it, " saved the bird in his bosom." 

No wonder, then, that in Edward IV.'s days the title and 
estates of the family were for a time taken away and given to 
John Neville Lord Montagu, brother of Warwick the king-maker. 
But the north of England was so accustomed to the rule of the 
Percys that in a few years Edward saw the necessity of restoring 
them, and did so even at the cost of alienating still further the 
powerful family of the Nevilles, who were then already on the 
point of rebellion. 

A crisis occurred in the fortunes of the family in the reign of 
Henry VIII. on the death of Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1502- 
1537), whose brothers Sir Thomas and Sir Ingelram Percy, 
much against his will, had taken part in the great insurrection 
called the Pilgrimage of Grace. A thriftless man, of whom it is 
recorded that in his youth he was smitten with the charms of 
Anne Boleyn, but was forced to give her up and marry a woman 
he did not love, he died childless, after selling many of the family 
estates and granting the others to the king. The title was 
forfeited on his death, and was granted by Edward VI. to the 
ambitious John Dudley, earl of Warwick, who was attainted 
in the succeeding reign. It was restored in the days of Queen 
Mary to Thomas Percy (1528-1572), a nephew of the 6th earl, 
who, being a stanch Roman Catholic, was one of the three 
earls who took the lead in the celebrated rising of 1572, and was 
beheaded at York. His brother Henry (c. 1532-1585), who 
succeeded him, was no less unhappy. Involved in Throg- 
morton's conspiracy, he was committed to the Tower of London, 
and was supposed to have shot himself in bed with a pistol 
found beside him; but there were grave suspicions that it had 
been discharged by another hand. His son, Henry (1567-1632), 
the next earl, suffered like his two predecessors for his attachment 
to the religion of his forefathers. The Crown lawyers sought 
in vain to implicate him in the Gunpowder Plot, but he was 
imprisoned for fifteen years in the Tower and compelled to pay 
a fine of 30,000. Algernon (1602-1668), the son who next 
succeeded, was a parliamentary general in the Civil War. At 
length, in 1670, the male line of this illustrious family became 
extinct, at least in the direct line, about five hundred years after 
the marriage of Agnes de Perci with Josceline of Louvain. 

The representation of the earlier Percys had passed away 
through the daughters of Earl Thomas, beheaded in 1572, but 
his earldom of Northumberland (created anew for him in 1557) 
had passed to his brother Henry, under a special remainder, 
and appears to have become extinct in 1670, though persistently 



claimed by James Percy, " the trunk-maker. " The last earl's 
daughter Elizabeth, a great heiress, was mother by Charles 
Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset, of Algernon, 7th duke, who was 
summoned (in error) as Lord Percy in 1722 and created earl of 
Northumberland in 1749. On the duke's death in 1750 his 
earldom of Northumberland passed under a special remainder, 
with the main inheritance of the Percys, to Sir Hugh Smithson, 
bart. (1715-1786), who had married his daughter and eventual 
heiress in 1740, and was created duke of Northumberland and 
Earl Percy in 1766. From this marriage descends the present 
ducal house, which bears the name of Percy in lieu of Smithson, 
and owns vast estates in Northumberland. 

Alnwick Castle, their chief seat, where much state is still kept 
up, has been described by Mr Clark as " probably the finest 
extant example of a Norman castle of this type, having an open 
keep and a complete enceinte." It had been hardly occupied 
and in decay for some two centuries when the present family 
succeeded to it, but was restored by them to its former splendour 
between 1750 and 1786. " Princely Petworth," however, the 
seat of the later Percys, with their ancient Sussex estates and 
those in Yorkshire (Leconfield) and Cumberland (Cockermouth), 
all passed away in 1750 with the earldom of Egremont and 
barony of Cockermouth to Charles Wyndham, nephew of the 
7th duke of Somerset, and these estates are now held by Lord 
Leconfield. The actual representation in blood of the later 
Percys (i.e. from 1572) passed in 1865, on the death of the 
4th duke, to the dukes of Atholl, who in virtue of it are Lords 
Percy, under the writ of 1722, the oldest of the family titles now 
remaining. The ancient London residence of the Percys, 
Northumberland House, Charing Cross, was removed to make 
way for Northumberland Avenue. Above it stood the Percy 
crest, a (blue) lion with stiffly extended tail; but the famous badge 
of the house was the white crescent or half moon " the Half- 
Moone shining all soe faire " of " the Northern Rising " ballad 
with a pair of manacles. Their coat of arms was a blue lion 
rampart on a yellow ground " Jaune o un bleu lyon rampart " 
of the Carlaverock roll, stated, but wrongly, to have been 
derived from the dukes of Louvain and Brabant. With it they 
quartered the " Luces " coat of the Lucys of Cockermouth after 
succeeding to their estates, whence the lines in The Battle of 
Otlerbourne: 

" The Lucetts and the Cressaunts both, 
The Skotts fought them agayne." 

See E. B. De Fonblanque, Annals of the House of Percy (1887), 
and G. Brenan, History of the House of Percy (edited by W. A. 
Lindsay, 1902), both somewhat adulatory and needing critical 
revision; Tate, History of Alnwick (1866); Hartshorne's paper on 
the Percys and their Castles in the Newcastle volume of the Archaeo- 
logical Institute (1852) ; E. A. Freeman, " The Percy Castles " (1875) 
in English Towns and Districts; G. T. Clark, Medieval Military 
Architecture (1884) ; G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage(i8g$), vol. vi. ; 
Bishop Percy, Northumberland Household Book. See also the 
article Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. (J. GA. ; J. H. R.) 

PERCY, SIR HENRY, called HOTSPUR (1364-1403), eldest son 
of Henry, ist earl of Northumberland, was born on the 2oth 
of March 1364. He saw active service when he was fourteen 
at the siege of Berwick. Six years later he was associated with 
his father 'in the wardenship of the eastern march of Scotland, 
and his zeal in border warfare won the name of Hotspur for 
him from his opponents. In 1386 he was sent to Calais, and 
raided French territory, but was shortly afterwards recalled 
to defend England against a naval attack by France. In 
popular story and ballad he is known as one of the heroes of 
Otterburn or Chevy Chase, which is the subject of one of the 
most stirring recitals of Froissart. In the summer of 1388 the 
Scots invaded England by way of Carlisle, sending a small body 
under the earls of Douglas, Mar and Moray to invade Northum- 
berland. The earl of Northumberland remained at Alnwick, 
but sent his sons Sir Henry and Sir Ralph against the enemy. 
In hand-to-hand fighting before the walls of Newcastle, Douglas 
is said to have won Sir Henry's pennon, which he swore to fix 
upon the walls of Dalkeith. The Scots then retreated to Otter- 
burn, where Percy, who was bent on recovering his pennon, 
attacked them on a fine August evening in 1388. Douglas was 



136 



PERCY, T. 



slain in the battle, though not, as is stated by Walsingham, by 
Percy's hand: Henry Percy was captured by Sir John Mont- 
gomery, and his brother Ralph by Sir John Maxwell. Hotspur 
was released on the payment of a heavy ransom, to which 
Richard II. contributed 3000, and in the autumn his term as 
warden of Carlisle and the West March was extended to five 
years. In 1399 together with his father he joined Henry of 
Lancaster. Henry IV. gave the charge of the West March to 
Northumberland, while Henry Percy received the castles of 
Bamburgh, Roxburgh and Berwick, and the wardenship of the 
East March, with a salary of 3000 in peace time and 12,000 in 
war. During the first year of Henry's reign Hotspur further 
was appointed justiciar of North Wales and constable of the 
castles of Chester, Flint, Conway, Denbigh and Carnarvon. 
Henry also gave him a grant of the island of Anglesey, with the 
castle of Beaumaris. William and Rees ap Tudor captured 
Conway Castle on the ist of April 1401, and Percy in company 
with the prince of Wales set out to recover the place, Percy 
providing the funds. In May he reported to the king the 
pacification of Merioneth and Carnarvon, and before the end 
of the month Conway was surrendered to him. Meanwhile he 
wrote demanding arrears of pay, with the threat of resignation 
if the money were not forthcoming, but the king intimated 
that the loss of Conway had been due to his negligence, and only 
sent part of the money. He had the same difficulty in obtaining 
money for his northern charge that he had experienced in 
Wales. 1 Anglesey was taken from him, and he was deprived of 
Roxburgh Castle in favour of his rival, the earl of Westmorland. 
The Scots again invaded England in the autumn of 1402, headed 
by the earl of Douglas and Murdoch Stewart, son of the duke 
of Albany. Northumberland and Hotspur barred their way at 
Millfield, near Wooler, and the Scots were compelled to fight 
at Humbledon, or Homildon Hill, on the I4th of September. 
The English archers were provided with a good target in the 
masses of the Scottish spearmen, and Hotspur was restrained 
from charging by his ally, George Dunbar, earl of March. The 
Scottish army was almost destroyed, while the English loss is 
said to have been five men. Disputes with the king arose over 
the disposal of the Scottish prisoners, Percy insisting on his right 
to hold Douglas as his personal prisoner, and he was summoned 
to court to explain. It is related that when he arrived Henry 
asked for Douglas, and Hotspur demanded in return that 
his brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer, should be allowed to 
ransom himself from Owen Glendower, with whom he was a 
prisoner. High words followed, in the course of which Henry 
called Percy a traitor, struck him on the face, and drew his 
sword on him. Percy is said to have answered this defiance 
with the words, " Not here, but on the field." This was late 
in 1402, and in 1403 Hotspur issued a proclamation in Cheshire 
stating that Richard II. was alive, and summoning the inhabi- 
tants to his standard. He made common cause with his prisoner 
Douglas, and marched south to join forces with Glendower, 
who was now reconciled with Mortimer. He was reinforced 
by his uncle Thomas, earl of Worcester, who, although steward 
to the household of the prince of Wales, joined his family in 
rebellion. The mythical Richard II. was heard of no more, and 
Percy made himself the champion of the young earl of March. 
When he arrived at the Castle Foregate, Shrewsbury, early on 
the 2ist of July, and demanded provisions, he found the king's 
forces had arrived before him. He retired in the direction of 
Whitchurch, and awaited the enemy about 3$ m. from 
Shrewsbury. After a long parley, in which a truce of two days 
was even said to have been agreed on, the Scottish earl ol 
March, fighting on the royal side, forced on the battle in the 
afternoon, the royal right being commanded by the prince ol 
1 The dissatisfaction of the Percys seems to have been chiefly 
due to the money question. Sir J. H. Ramsay (Lancaster ant 
York) estimates that in the four years from 1399 to 1403 they hat 
received from the king the sum of 41,750, which represented z 
very large capital in the I4th century, and they had also receivet 
considerable grants of land. King Henry IV. was about to march 
north himself to look into the real relations between the Percys 
and the Scots, when on the 6th of July 1403 Henry Percy was in 
open rebellion. 



Wales. Hotspur was killed, the earls of Douglas and Worcester, 
Sir Richard Venables of Kinderton, and Sir Richard Vernon 
were captured, and the rebel army dispersed. Worcester, 
Venables and Vernon were executed the next day. Percy's 
body was buried at Whitchurch, but was disinterred two days 
ater to be exhibited in Shrewsbury. The head was cut off, and 
fixed on one of the gates of York. 

See NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF; and PERCY: 
^Family). Also Chronique de la traison et mart de Richard II., 
ed. B. Williams (Eng. Hist. Soc., 1846); J. Creton, Histoire du roy 

Richard II., ed. John Webb, in Archaeologia (xx., 1824) ; and Adam 
of Usk's Chronicon, 1377-1404, ed. E. M. Thompson (1876); the 
authorities are cited in detail in J. H. Wylie's England under 

Venry IV. (1884-1898), and Sir J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and 
York (Oxford, 1892). Holinshed's Chronicle was the chief source 
of Shakespeare's account of Hotspur in Henry IV. 

PERCY, THOMAS (c. 1560-1605), one of the Gunpowder 
Plot conspirators, was a son of Edward Percy of Beverley, who 
was grandson of Henry Percy, 4th earl of Northumberland. 
Though brought up a Protestant, he early became well-affected 
to the Roman Catholics and finally an adherent. He entered 
the service of his cousin, Henry Percy, 9th earl of Northumber- 
and, and was appointed by him constable of Alnwick Castle 
and agent for his northern estates, in which capacity he showed 
himself tyrannical and extortionate. In 1602 he was sent by 
Northumberland to James in Scotland to secure toleration for 
the Roman Catholics and returned announcing favourable 
promises from the king, the extent of which he probably greatly 
exaggerated; and when James, after his succession to the English 
throne, did not immediately abrogate the penal laws, Percy, 
although he had accepted the court appointment of gentleman 
pensioner, professed himself highly indignant and indulged 
himself in thoughts of revenge. Some time in May 1603 Percy 
angrily declared his intention to Catesby of killing the king, 
and in April 1604 he met Catesby with John Wright, Thomas 
Winter and Guy Fawkes, and was then initiated into Catesby's 
gunpowder plot, which met with his zealous approval and 
support. To Percy was allotted the special duty after the 
explosion of seizing the infant prince Charles and riding off 
with him on his saddle to Warwickshire. All the preparations 
being complete, Percy went to Alnwick in October and collected 
3000 of the earl of Northumberland's rents which he intended 
using in furtherance of the plot, returning to London on the ist 
of November. Meanwhile the plot had been revealed through the 
letter to Lord Monteagle on the a6th of October, and it was Percy's 
insistence at the last meeting of the conspirators on the 3rd that 
decided them not to fly but to hazard the attempt. On the 
news of Guy Fawkes's arrest, Percy with the rest of the conspira- 
tors, except Tresham, fled on horseback, taking refuge ulti- 
mately at Holbeche, near Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, where on 
the 8th of November, during the attack of the sheriff's men upon 
the house, he was struck down by a bullet, fighting back to back 
with Catesby, and died two days later. Percy married a sister 
of the conspirator John Wright and left a son Robert and two 
daughters, one of whom is said to have married Robert, the son 
of Catesby. 

PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811), bishop of Dromore, editor 
of the Percy Reliques, was born at Bridgnorth on the i3th of 
April 1729. His father, Arthur Lowe Percy, a grocer, was of 
sufficient means to send his son to Christ Church, Oxford, in 
1746. He graduated in 1750 and proceeded M.A. in 1753. In 
the latter year he was appointed to the vicarage of Easton Maudit, 
Northamptonshire, and three years later was instituted to the 
rectory of Wilby in the same county, benefices which he retained 
until 1782. In 1759 he married Anne, daughter of Barton Gutter- 
ridge. At Easton Maudit most of the literary work for which 
he is now remembered including the Reliques was completed. 
When his name became famous he was made domestic chaplain 
to the duke and duchess of Northumberland, and was tempted 
into the belief that he belonged to the illustrious house of Percy. 
Through his patron's influence he became dean of Carlisle in 

1778 and bishop of Dromore in Ireland in 1782. His wife died 
before him in 1806; the good bishop, blind but otherwise in 



PERDICCAS PERE DAVID'S DEER 



137 



sound health, lived until the 3oth of. September 1811. Both 
were buried in the transept which Percy added to Dromore 
Cathedral. 

Dr Percy's first work was a translation from a Portuguese 
manuscript of a Chinese story, published in 1761. Two years 
later he published Five Pieces of Runic Poetry, translated from 
the Islandic. In 1763 he edited the earl of Surrey's poems with 
an essay on early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon, 
and published a key to the New Testament. His Northern 
Antiquities (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri 
Mallet. His reprint of The Household Book of the Earl of Northum- 
berland in 1512 is of the greatest value for the illustrations of 
domestic life in England at that period. But these works are 
of little estimation when compared with the Reliques of Ancient 
English Poetry (1765). This was based on an old manuscript 
collection of poetry, rescued by Percy in Humphrey Pitt's house 
at Shifnal, Shropshire, from the hands of the housemaid who 
was about to light the fire with it. The manuscript was edited 
in its complete form by J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall 
in 1867-1868. 

See A. C. C. Gaussen, Percy: Prelate and Poet (1908). The 
Reliques has been edited by various hands, notably by H. B. Wheat- 
ley (1876). The fourth edition was by Percy's nephew, Thomas 
Percy (1768-1808), himself a writer of verse. 

PERDICCAS, the name of three kings of Macedonia, who 
reigned respectively c. 700 B.C., c. 454-413 B.C., and 364-359 
B.C., and of one of Alexander the Great's generals, son of Orontes, 
a descendant of the independent princes of the province of 
Orestis. The last named distinguished himself at the conquest 
of Thebes (335 B.C.), and held an important command in the 
Indian campaigns of Alexander. In the settlement made after 
Alexander's death (323) it was finally agreed that Philip Arrhi- 
daeus, an insane son of the great Philip, and Roxana's unborn 
child (if a son) should be recognized as joint kings, Perdiccas 
being appointed, according to one account, guardian and regent, 
according to another, chiliarch under Craterus. He soon showed 
himself intolerant of any rivals, and acting in the name of the 
two kings (for Roxana gave birth to a son, Alexander IV.) 
sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. His 
most loyal supporter was Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia 
and Paphlagonia. These provinces had not yet been conquered 
by the Macedonians, and Antigonus (governor of Phrygia, 
Lycia and Pamphylia) refused to undertake the task at the 
command of Perdiccas. Having been summoned to the royal 
presence to stand his trial for disobedience, Antigonus fled to 
Europe and entered into alliance with Antipater, Craterus and 
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. Perdiccas, leaving the war in Asia 
Minor to Eumenes, marched to attack Ptolemy in Egypt. He 
reached Pelusium, but failed to cross the Nile. A mutiny 
broke out amongst the troops, disheartened by failure and 
exasperated by his severity, and Perdiccas was assassinated by 
some of his officers (321). (E. R. B.) 

See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

PEREDA, JOSE MARfA DE (1833-1906), one of the most 
distinguished of modern Spanish novelists, was born at Polanco 
near Santander on the 6th of February 1833. He was educated 
at the Institute Cintabro of Santander, whence he went in 
1852 to Madrid, where he studied with the vague purpose of 
entering the artillery corps. Abandoning this design after 
three years' trial, he returned home and began his literary career 
by contributing articles to a local journal, La Abeja montanesa 
in 1858. He also wrote much in a weekly paper, El Tio Cayetan, 
and in 1864 he collected his powerful realistic sketches of local life 
and manners under the title of Escenas montanesas. Pereda 
fought against the revolution of 1868 in El Tio Cayetan, writing 
the newspaper almost single-handed. In 1871 he was elected as 
the Carlist deputy for Cabuerniga. In this same year he pub- 
lished a second series of Escenas montafiesas under the title of 
Tipos y.paisajes; and in 1876 appeared Bocetos al temple, 
three tales, in one of which the author describes his disenchanting 
political experiences. The Tipos trashumantes belongs to the 
year 1877, as does El Buey suelto, which was intended as a reply 



to the thesis of Balzac's work, Les Peliles miseres de la vie con- 
jugale. More and more pessimistic as to the political future 
of his country, Pereda took occasion in Don Gonzalo Gonzalez 
de la Gonzalera (1879) to ridicule the Revolution as he had seen 
it at work, and to pour scorn upon the nouveaux riches who 
exploited Liberalism for their personal ends. Two novels by 
his friend P6rez Galdos, Dona Perfecta and Gloria, drew from 
Pereda a reply, De Tal palo tal astilla (1880), in which he endea- 
vours to show that tolerance in religious matters is disastrous 
alike to nations and to individuals. The Esbozos y rasgunos 
(1881) is of lighter material, and is less attractive than El Sabor 
de la Tierruca (1882), a striking piece of landscape which won 
immediate appreciation. New ground was broken in Pedro 
Sdnchez (1883), where Pereda leaves his native province to 
portray the disillusion of a sincere enthusiast who has plunged 
into the political life of the capital. Pereda's masterpiece is 
Sotileza (1884), a vigorous rendering of marine life by an artist 
who perceives and admires the daily heroisms of his fisher-folk. 
It has often been alleged against the author that he confines 
himself to provincial life, to lowly personages and to unrefined 
subjects, and no doubt an anxiety to clear himself from this 
absurd reproach led him to attempt a description of society at 
the capital in La Montdlvez (1888), which is certainly the least 
interesting of his performances. In La Puchera (1889) he 
returned to the marine subjects which he knew and loved best. 
Again, in Peftas arriba (1895), the love of country life is mani- 
fested in the masterly contrast between the healthy, moral 
labour of the fields and the corrupt, squalid life of cities. 
Pereda's fame was now established; the statutes of the Spanish 
Academy, which require members to reside at Madrid, were 
suspended in his favour (1896). But his literary career was 
over. The tragic death of his eldest son, the disastrous cam- 
paign in Cuba and the Philippines, darkened his closing years, 
and his health failed long before his death at Polanco on the 
ist of March 1906. 

Pereda belongs to the native realistic school of Spain, which, 
founded by the unknown author of Lazarillo de Tormes, was 
continued by Meteo Aleman, Cervantes, Quevedo, Castillo 
Sol6rzano and many others. With the single exception of 
Cervantes, however, the picaresque writers are almost entirely 
wanting in the spirit of generous sympathy and tenderness 
which constitutes a great part of Pereda's charm. His realism 
is purely Spanish, as remote from Zola's moroseness as from 
the graceful sentimentality of Pierre Loti. Few 19th-century 
writers possessed the virile temperament of Pereda, and, with 
the single exception of Tolstoy, none kept a moral end more 
steadily in view. This didactic tendency unquestionably 
injures his effects. Moreover, his grim satire occasionally 
degenerates into somewhat truculent caricature, and the exces- 
sive use of dialect and technical terms (which caused him to 
supply Sotileza with a brief vocabulary) is a grave artistic 
blemish. But he saw, knew, understood character; he created 
not only types, but living personages, such as Andre's, Cleto 
and Muergo in Sotileza, Pedro Juan and Pilara in La Puchera; 
and he personified the tumult and calm of the sea with more 
power than Victor Hugo displayed in Les Travailleurs de la 
mer. His descriptive powers were of the highest order, and 
his style, pure of all affectations and embellishments, is of singular 
force and suppleness. With all his limitations, he was as 
original a genius as Spain produced during the igth century. 

(J- F.-K.) 

PERE DAVID'S DEER, the mi-lou of the Chinese, an aberrant 
and strangely mule-like deer (q.v.), the first evidence of whose 
existence was made known in Europe by the Abbe (then Pere) 
David, who in 1865 obtained the skin of a specimen from the 
herd kept at that time in the imperial park at Pekin. This 
skin, with the skull and antlers, was sent to Paris, where it was 
described in 1866 by Professor Milne-Edwards. In lacking a brow- 
tine, and dividing in a regular fork-like manner some distance 
above the burr, the large and cylindrical antlers of this species 
conform to the general structural type characteristic of the 
American deer. The front prong of the main fork, however, 



138 



PEREGRINUS PROTEUS PEREYASLA VI. 



curves somewhat forward and again divides at least once; while 
the hind prong is of great length undivided, and directed back- 
wards in a manner found in no other deer. As regards general 
form, the most distinctive feature is the great relative length 
of the tail, which reaches the hocks, and is donkey-like rather 
than deer-like in form. The head is long and narrow, with a 
prominent ridge for the support of the antlers, moderate-sized 
ears, and a narrow and pointed muzzle. A gland and tuft are 
present on the skin of the outer side of the upper part of the 
hind cannon-bone; but, unlike American deer, there is no gland 
on the inner side of the hock. Another feature by which this 
species differs from the American deer is the conformation of 
the bones of the lower part of the fore-leg, which have the same 
structure as in the red deer group. The coat is of moderate 
length, but the hair on the neck and throat of the old stags is 
elongated to form a mane and fringe. Although new-born 
fawns are spotted, the adults are in the main uniformly coloured; 
the general tint of the coat at all seasons being reddish tawny 
with a more or less marked tendency to grey. It has been 
noticed at Woburn Abbey that the antlers are shed and replaced 
twice a year. 

The true home of this cteer has never been ascertained, and 
probably never will be; all the few known specimens now living 
being kept in confinement the great majority in the duke of 
Bedford's park at Woburn, Bedfordshire. (R. L.*) 

PEREGRINUS PROTEUS (2nd cent. A.D.), Cynic philosopher, 
of Parium in Mysia. At an early age he was suspected of 
parricide, and was obliged to leave his native place. During 
his wanderings he reached Palestine, where he ingratiated him- 
self with the Christian community, and became its virtual head. 
His fanatical zeal and craving for notoriety led to his imprison- 
ment, but the governor of Syria let him go free, to prevent his 
posing as a martyr. He then returned to Parium to claim his 
paternal inheritance, but finding that the circumstances of his 
father's death were ndt yet forgotten, he publicly surrendered 
all claims to the property in favour of the municipality. He 
resumed his wandering life, at first assisted by the Christians, 
but having been detected profaning the rites of the Church, he 
was excommunicated. During a visit to Egypt he made the 
acquaintance of the famous Cynic Agathobulus and joined the 
sect. Meeting with little encouragement, he made his way to 
Rome, whence he was expelled for insulting the emperor Anto- 
ninus Pius. Crossing to Greece, he finally took up his abode 
at Athens. Here he devoted himself to the study and teaching 
of philosophy, and obtained a considerable number of pupils, 
amongst them Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in very favour- 
able terms. But, having given offence by his attacks on Herodes 
Atticus and finding his popularity diminishing, he determined 
to create a sensation. He announced his intention of immolating 
himself on a funeral pyre at the celebration of the Olympian 
games in 165, and actually carried it out. Lucian, who was 
present, has given a full description of the event. 

C. M. Wieland's Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus 
Proteus (Eng. trans., 1796) is an attempt to rehabilitate his char- 
acter. See also Lucian, De morte Peregrini; Aulus Gellius xii. II; 
Ammianus Marcellinus xxix. ; Philostratus, Vit. Soph. ii. I, 33; 
J. Bernays, Lucian und die Kyniker (1875) ; E. Zeller, " Alexander 
und Peregrinus," in his Vortrdge und Abhandlungen, ii. (1877). 

PEREIRE [PEREIRA], GIACOBBO RODRIGUEZ (171.5- 

1780), one of the inventors of deaf-mute language, a, member 
of* a Spanish- Jewish family, was born at Estremadura, Spain, 
on the nth of April 1715. .At the age of eighteen he entered 
a business at Bordeaux. Here he fell in love with a young girl 
who had been dumb from birth, and henceforth devoted himself 
to discover a method of imparting speech to deaf-mutes. His 
first subject was Aaron Baumann, a co-religionist, whom he 
taught to enunciate the letters of the alphabet, and to articulate 
certain ordinary phrases. He next devised a sign alphabet for 
the use of one hand only, and in 1 749 he brought his second 
pupil before the Paris Academy of Sciences, the members of 
which were astonished at the results he had accomplished. 
In 1759 Pereire was made a member of the Royal Society of 
London. He died at Paris on the isth of September 1780. 



PEREKOP, a town of Russia, in the government of Taurida, 
60 m. S.E. of Kherson, on the isthmus which connects the Crimea 
with the Continent, and commanding the once defensive ditch 
and dike which cross from the Black Sea to the Sivash (putrid) 
lagoon. Pop. about 5000. It was formerly an important 
place, with a great transit trade in salt, obtained from salt 
lakes in the immediate neighbourhood. Since the opening of 
the railway route from Kharkov to Simferopol in the Crimea 
Perekop has greatly declined. In ancient times the isthmus 
was crossed (about i m. south of the present town) by a ditch 
which gave the name of Taphros to a Greek settlement. This 
line of defence having fallen into decay, a fort was erected and a 
new ditch and dike constructed in the isth century by the 
Tatar khan of the Crimea, Mengli Ghirai, and by his son and 
successor Sahib Ghirai. The fort, known as Kapu or Or-Kapu, 
became the nucleus of the town. In the middle ages Perekop 
was known as Tuzla. In 1736 it was captured by the Russians 
under Miinnich, and again in 1738 under Lascy (Lacy), who 
blew up the fort and destroyed a great part of the dike. In 
1754 the fort was rebuilt by Krim Ghirei; but the Greek and 
Armenian inhabitants of Perekop formed a new settlement 
at Armyanskiy Bazar (Armenian Market), 3 m. farther south. 
Captured by the Russians in 1771, the town passed into Russian 
possession with the rest of the Crimea in 1783. 

PEREMPTORY, an adjective adapted from the Roman law 
term peremplorium edictum, peremptoria exceptio, a decree or 
plea which put an end to or quashed (Lat. perimere, to destroy) 
an action, hence decisive, final. A similar use is found in English 
law in " peremptory challenge," a challenge to a jury allowed 
to a prisoner without cause shown, or " peremptory mandamus," 
an absolute command. The natural repugnance to a final 
order has given this word in its ordinary usage a sense of objec- 
tionable and intolerant emphasis. 

PEREYASLA VL, a town of Russia, in the government of 
Poltava, 26 m. S.E. of the city of Kiev, at the confluence of 
the Trubezh and the Alta, which reach the Dnieper 5 m. lower 
down at the town's port, the village of Andrushi. Pop. 14,609. 
Besides the town proper there are three considerable suburbs. 
Though founded in 993 by Vladimir the Great of Moscow in 
memory of his signal success over the Turkish Pechenegs, 
Pereyaslavl has now few remains of antiquity. The town has 
a trade in grain, salt, cattle and horses, and some manufactures 
tallow, wax, tobacco, candles and shoes. 

From 1054 Pereyaslavl was the chief town of a separate 
principality. As a southern outpost it often figures in the nth, 
1 2th and i3th centuries, and was plundered by the Mongols 
in 1239. In later times it was one of the centres of the Cossack 
movement; and in 1628 the neighbourhood of the town was the 
scene of the extermination of the Polish forces known as " Tara's 
Night." It was by the Treaty of Pereyaslavl that in 1654 
the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki acknowledged the 
supremacy of Tsar Alexis of Russia. 

PEREYASLAVL (called Zalyeskiy, or " Beyond the Forest," 
to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after which 
it was named), one of the oldest and most interesting cities in 
middle Russia, situated in the government of Vladimir, 45 m. 
N.E. of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks 
of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshcheevo. Pop. 
8662. Pereyaslavl was formerly remarkable for the number 
and importance of its ecclesiastical foundations. Among 
those still standing are the 1 2th-century cathedral, with ancient 
wall-paintings and the graves of Demetrius, son of Alexander 
Nevsky, and other princes, and a church founded by Eudoxia 
(Euphrosyne), wife of Demetrius Donskoi, in the close of 
the I4th century. It is by its extensive cotton manufactures 
that Pereyaslavl is now best known. The fisheries in the 
lake (20 m. sq. in extent and 175 ft. deep) have long been of 
great value. 

Founded in 1152 by Yuryi Dolgoruki, prince of Suzdal, 
Pereyaslavl soon began to play a considerable part in the history 
of the country. From 1193 till* 1302 it had princes of its own; 
and the princes of Moscow, to whom it was at the latter date 



PEREZ, A. PEREZ GALDOS 



139 



beaueathed, kept it (apart from some temporary alienations 
in the I4th century) as part of their patrimony throughout 
the i sth and i6th centuries. Lake Pleshcheevo was the scene 
of Peter the Great's first attempts (1691) at creating a fleet. 

PEREZ, ANTONIO (c. 1540-1611), for some years the favourite 
minister of Philip II. of Spain and afterwards for many more the 
object of his unrelenting hostility, was by birth an Aragonese. 
His reputed father, Gonzalo Perez, an ecclesiastic, has some place 
in history as having been secretary both to Charles V. and to 
Philip II., and in literature as author of a Spanish translation 
of the Odyssey ( La Ulyxea de Homero, Antwerp, 1556). Antonio 
Perez, who was legitimated by an imperial diploma issued at 
Valladolid in 1542, was, however, believed by many to be in 
reality the son of Philip's minister, Ruy Gomez de SUva, prince 
of Eboli, to whom, on the completion of a liberal education at 
home and abroad, he appears at least to have owed his first 
introduction to a diplomatic career. 1 In 1567 he became 
one of the secretaries of state, receiving also about the same 
time the lucrative appointment of protonotary of Sicily, and in 
1573 the death of Ruy Gomez himself made room for Perez's 
promotion to be head of the " despacho universal," or private 
bureau, from which Philip attempted to govern by assiduous 
correspondence the affairs of his vast dominions. Another of 
the king's secretaries at this time, though in a less confidential 
relation, was a friend and contemporary of Perez, named Juan 
de Escovedo, who, however, after the fall of Tunis in 1574, was 
sent off to supersede Juan de Soto as secretary and adviser of 
Don John of Austria, thus leaving Perez without a rival. Some 
time after Don John's appointment to the governorship of the 
Netherlands Perez accidentally became cognisant of his incon- 
veniently ambitious " empresa de Inglaterra," in which he was 
to rescue Mary Queen of Scots, marry her, and so ascend the 
throne of England. The next step might even be against Spain 
itself. This secret scheme the faithful secretary at once carried 
to Philip, who characteristically resolved to meet it by quietly 
removing his brother's aider and abettor. With the king's full 
cognisance, accordingly, Perez, after several unsuccessful 
attempts to poison Escovedo, succeeded in procuring his assas- 
sination in a street of Madrid on the 3ist of March 1578. The 
immediate effect was to raise Perez higher than ever in the royal 
confidence and favour, but, wary though the secretary had been, 
he had not succeeded in obliterating all trace of his connexion 
with the crime, and very soon a prosecution was set on foot by 
the representatives of the murdered man. For a time Philip 
was both willing and able to protect his accomplice, but ulti- 
mately he appears to have listened to those who, whether truly 
or falsely, were continually suggesting that Perez had had 
motives of his own, arising out of his relations with the princess 
of Eboli, for compassing the assassination of Don John's secre- 
tary; be this as it may, from trying to screen Perez the king 
came to be the secret instigator of those who sought his ruin. 
The process, as such matters often have been in Spain, was a 
slow one, and it was not until 1589 that Perez, after more than 
one arrest and imprisonment on a variety of charges, seemed 
on the eve of being convicted and condemned as the murderer 
of Escovedo. At this juncture he succeeded in making his escape 
from prison in Castile into Aragon, where, under the ancient 
" fueros " of the kingdom he could claim a public trial in open 
court, and so bring into requisition the documentary evidence 
he possessed of the king's complicity in the deed. This did not 
suit Philip, who, although he instituted a process in the supreme 
tribunal of Aragon, speedily abandoned it and caused Perez 
to be attacked from another side, the charge of heresy being 
now preferred, arising put of certain reckless and even blasphe- 

1 On the other hand it is suggested that this story of his being 
the son of Gomez was only circulated by Ruy Gomez's wife, Ana 
de Mendoza, as a refutation of the possibility of a supposed amour 
between her and Perez. It is contended by Mignet that this 
intrigue between her and Perez was known to Escovedo, and that 
this accounts for the part played by Perez in Escovedo's murder, 
because Ana had also been Philip's mistress, and Escovedo might 
have made mischief between Philip and Perez. Major Hume 
appears to combine the latter theory with Philip's political objection 
to Escovedo. 



mous expressions Perez had used in connexion with his troubles 
in Castile. But all attempts to remove the accused from the 
civil prison in Saragossa to that of the Inquisition raised popular 
tumults, which in the end led to Perez's escape across the 
Pyrenees, but unfortunately also furnished Philip with a pretext 
for sending an army into Aragon and suppressing the ancient 
" fueros " altogether (1591). From the court of Catherine de 
Bourbon, at Pau, where he was well received, Perez passed to 
that of Henry IV. of France, and both there and in England his 
talents and diplomatic experience, as well as his well-grounded 
enmity to Philip, secured him much popularity. While in 
England he became the " intimate coach-companion and bed- 
companion " of Francis Bacon, and was also much in the society 
of the earl of Essex. The peace of Vervins hi 1598 greatly 
reduced his apparent importance abroad, and Perez now tried 
to obtain the pardon of Philip III., that he might return to his 
native country. His efforts, however, proved vain, and he died 
in comparative obscurity in Paris on the 3rd of November 
1611. 

Perez's earliest publication was a small cjuarto, dedicated to the 
earl of Essex, written and apparently printed in England about 
1594, entitled Pedazos de historia, and professedly published at 
Leon. A Dutch translation appeared in 1594, and in 1598 he pub- 
lished his Relaciones, including the Memorial del hecho de su causa, 
drawn up in 1590, and many of his letters. Much has been done, 
by Mignet (Antonio Perez et Philippe II., 1845; 4th ed., 1874) and 
by Froude (" An Unsolved Historical Riddle," Nineteenth Cent., 
1883) among others, towards the elucidation of various difficult 
points in Perez's somewhat perplexing story. For the murder of 
Escovedo, see Andrew Lang's discussion of it in his Historical 
Mysteries (1904) ; and the Espanoles e ingleses (1903) of Major 
Martin Hume, who had access to various newly discovered MSS. 

PEREZ GALDOS, BENITO (1845- ), was born at Las 
Palmas, in the Canary Islands, on the loth of May 1845. In 
1863 he was sent to Madrid to study law, drifted into literature, 
and was speedily recognized as one of the most promising recruits 
on the Liberal side. Shortly after the Revolution of 1868 he 
abandoned journalism, and employed fiction as the vehicle for 
propagating advanced opinions. His first novel, La Fontana 
de oro, was printed in 1871, and later in the same year appeared 
El Audaz. The reception given to these early essays encouraged 
the writer to adopt novel-writing as a profession. He had al- 
ready determined upon the scheme of his Episodios nacionales, 
a series which might compare with the Comedie humaine. Old 
charters, old letters, old newspapers were collected by him with 
the minuteness of a German archivist; no novelist was ever more 
thoroughly equipped as regards the details of his period. Tra- 
falgar, the first volume of the Episodios nacionales, appeared 
in 1879; the remaining books of this first series are entitled 
La Cort de Carlos IV., El 19 de marzo y el 2 de mayo, BaiUn, 
Napoledn en Chamartin, Zaragoza, Gerona, Cadiz, Juan Martin 
el Empecinado and La Batalla de A r piles. As the titles suffice 
to show, the author's aim was to write the national epic of the 
igth century in prose; and he so completely succeeded that, 
long before the first series ended in 1881, he took rank among 
the foremost novelists of his time. A second series of Episodios 
nacionales, beginning with El Equipaje del rey Jose and ending 
with a tenth volume, Un Faccioso mas y algunas frailes menos, 
was brought to a close in 1883, and was, like its predecessor, 
a monument of industry and exact knowledge, of jrealism 
and romantic conception; and he carried on the Episodios 
nacionales into a fourth series, raising the total of volumes to 
forty. In fecundity and in the power of creating characters, 
Perez Galdos vies with Balzac. Parallel with his immense 
achievement in historical fiction, P6rez Galdos published 
a collection of romances dealing with contemporary life, 
its social problems and religious difficulties. Of these the 
best known, and perhaps the best, are Dona Perfecta (1876); 
Gloria (1877) ; La Familia de Ledn Roch (1878) ; Marianela (1878) ; 
Fortunata y Jacinta (1887); and Angel Guerra (1891). Nor 
does this exhaust his prodigious activity. Besides adapting 
several of his novels for stage purposes, he wrote original dramas 
such as La Loca de la casa (1893), San Quintin (1894), Electra 
(1900) and Mariucha (1904); but his diffuse, exuberant genius 



140 



PERFUMERY 



was scarcely accommodated to the convention of theatrical 
form. Perez Gald6s became a member of the Spanish Academy, 
and was also elected to the Cortes; but it is solely as a ro- 
mancer that his name is familiar wherever Spanish is spoken, 
as a national novelist of fertile talent, and a most happy 
humorist who in his eccentrics and oddities is hardly inferior 
to Dickens. (J- F.-K.) 

PERFUMERY (Lat. per, through, anidfumare, to smoke), the 
preparation of perfumes, or substances which are pleasing to 
the sense of smell. Perfumes may be divided into two classes, the 
first of which includes all primitive or simple odoriferous bodies 
derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, as well as the 
definite chemical compounds specially manufactured, while 
the second comprises the various " bouquets " or " melanges " 
made by blending two or more of the foregoing in varying 
proportions toilet powders, dentifrices, sachets, &c. To the 
former class belong (i) the animal products, ambergris, castor, 
civet, musk; (2) the essential oils (also called attars), mostly 
procured by the distillation of the stems, leaves, flowers and other 
parts of plants; (3) the philicome butters or oils, which are 
either solid or liquid fats charged with odours by the processes 
of inflowering or maceration; (4) the odoriferous gum-resins or 
balsams which exude naturally or from wounds in the trunks of 
various trees and shrubs, such as benzoin, opoponax, Peru, Tolu, 
storax, myrrh; (5) the large number of synthetic perfumes 
which simulate the odour of the natural scents. The second 
class contains the endless combination of tinctures sold under 
fancy names which may or may not afford a clue to their compo- 
sition, such as " comedie francaise," "eau de senteur," " eau de 
Cologne," " lavendre ambree," " blumengeist." In general, 
they are mixtures of a number of perfumes dissolved in alcohol. 
Strictly speaking, most of the perfumes on the market belong to 
the second class, since, in most cases, they are prepared by 
blending various natural or artificial odorous principles. 

Natural Perfumes. The animal perfumes are extremely 
limited in number. Ambergris (q.v.), one of the most important, 
is secreted by the sperm whale; musk (q.v.), the best known 
scent of this class, is secreted by the male musk-deer and other 
animals musk-ox, musk-rat, &c.; civet (q.v.) is a musky scent 
named from the animal which secretes it; and castor or castoreum 
is a somewhat similar secretion of the beaver (q.v.). More 
important are the scents yielded by flowering plants. As a 
general rule fragrant flowers flourish in hot climates, but the more 
delicate perfumes are yielded by plants having a colder habitat ; 
it must be remembered, however, that some costly perfumes 
are obtained from the plants of Ceylon, the East Indies, Mexico 
and Peru. In Europe, Grasse, Cannes and Nice are the centres 
of the natural perfume industry. Cannes is famous for its rose, 
acacia, jasmine and neroli oil; Nlmes for its thyme, rosemary 
and lavender; and Nice for its violets. Citron and orange oil 
come from Sicily; iris and bergamot from Italy; and roses are 
extensively cultivated in Bulgaria, and in European Turkey. 
England is unsurpassed for its lavender and peppermint, which 
flourish at Mitcham and Hitchin. 

The natural sources of the attars or essential oils are the 
different parts of the plants which yield them the wood (lign, 
aloe, santal, cedar), the bark (cinnamon, cascarilla), the leaves 
(patchouli, bay, thyme), the flowers (rose, lavender, orange- 
blossom), the fruit (nutmeg, citron), or the seeds (caraway, 
almond). Some plants yield more than one, such as lemon and 
bergamot. They are mostly obtained by distilling that part 
of the plant in which they are contained with water, or with high- 
pressure or superheated steam; but some few, as those from the 
rind of bergamot (from Citrus bergamia), lemon (citron zeste, 
from C. Limonum), lime (C. Limetta), by " expression." The 
outer layer of the cortex is rasped off from the unripe fruits, 
the raspings placed in a canvas bag, and squeezed in a screw 
or hydraulic press. The attars so obtained are separated from 
the admixed water by a tap-funnel, and are then filtered. 
Certain flowers, such as jasmine, tuberose, violet, cassia, either 
do not yield their attars by distillation at all, or do it so sparingly 
as not to admit of its collection for commercial purposes; and 



sometimes the attar, as in the case of orange (neroli), has an 
odour quite different from that of the fresh blossoms. In these 
cases the odours are secured by the processes of inflowering 
(enfleurage) or by maceration. Both depend upon the remark- 
able property which fats and oils possess of absorbing odours. 
Enfleurage consists in laying the leaves or flowers on plates 
covered with a layer of fat. The flowers are renewed every 
morning, and when the fat has sufficient odour it is scraped off, 
melted and strained. Maceration consists in soaking the flowers 
in heated fat ; in due time they are strained off and replaced by 
fresh ones, as in the enfleurage process. The whole of the 
necessary meltings and heatings of the perfumed greases are 
effected by means of water-baths, whereby the temperature 
is kept from rising too high. For the manufacture of perfumes 
for the handkerchief the greases now known as pomades, butters 
or philocomes are treated with rectified spirit of wine 60 over- 
proof, i.e. containing as much as 95% of absolute alcohol by 
volume, which practically completely abstracts the odour. 

The gum-resins and resins have been employed as perfumes 
from the earliest times. The more important are incense, 
frankincense and myrrh (q.v.). They are largely used in the 
manufacture of perfumes, both for burning as pastilles, ribbon 
of Bruges, incenses, &c., and in tinctures, to which they impart 
their characteristic odours, affording, at the same time, a certain 
fixity to other perfumes of a more fleeting nature when mixed 
with them. 

Synthetic Perfumes. Under this heading are included all 
perfumes in which artificial substances are odorous ingredients. 
Although the earliest perfumes of this class were introduced in 
about the middle of the igth century, the important industry 
which now prevails is to be regarded as dating from the 'seventies 
and 'eighties. Three main lines of development may be dis- 
tinguished: (i) the chance discovery of substances which have 
odours similar to natural perfumes; (2) the elucidation of the 
composition of the natural scents, and the chemical constitution 
of their ingredients, followed by the synthetic preparation of 
the substances so determined; and (3), which may be regarded 
as connected with (2), the extraction and separation of the 
essential oils yielded by less valuable plants, and their reblending 
to form marketable perfumes. 

The first synthetic perfume was the " essence of Mirbane " 
introduced by Collas in about 1850; this substance was the 
nitro-benzene discovered by E. Mitscherlich in 1834. Soon after- 
wards many esters of the fatty acids simulating the odours of 
fruits were introduced; and in 1888 Baur discovered the " arti- 
ficial musks," which are derivatives of s-trinitrobenzene. The 
above are instances of the first line of progress. The second line 
has for early examples the cases of artificial oil of wintergreen, 
which followed Cahour's discovery that the natural oil owed its 
odour, in the main, to methyl salicylate, and of artificial oil of 
bitter almonds which followed the preparation of benzaldehyde 
from benzal chloride in 1868. The synthesis of coumarin, the 
odorous principle of hay and woodruff, by Sir W. H. Perkin in 
1868; of vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla, by F. Tiemann 
and W. Haarmann in 1875; and of ionone, almost identical 
with the natural irone, the odorous principle of violets, by 
Tiemann and P. Kriiger in 1898, are to be regarded as of the 
highest importance. Equally important are the immense 
strides made in the elucidation of the constitution and syntheses 
of the terpenes (q.v.), a group of compounds which are exception- 
ally abundant as odorous principles in the essential oils. 

The present state of our knowledge does not permit a strict 
correlation of odour and chemical constitution. One theory 
regards odour as due to " osmophores," or odour-producing 
groups, in much the same way as colour is associated with 
chromophores. Such osmophores are hydroxyl (OH), aldehyde 
(CHO), ketone (CO), ether (-O-), nitrile (CN), nitro (N0 2 ), &c.; 
we may also notice the isonitrile group (-NG) associated with an 
unpleasant odour, and the iso-thiocyanate group (-NCS) to 
which the mustard oils owe their characteristic smell. The same 
group, however, is not invariably associated with the same odour, 
or even any odour at all, as, for instance, in such closely related 



PERFUMERY 



141 



compounds as the members of a homologous series. For 
example, the lower fatty aldehydes have unpleasant odours, 
those with ten carbon atoms (and also double linkages, which 
in itself may affect odour) form some of the most delicate scents, 
while the higher members are odourless. The absence of odour 
in the higher members may be possibly associated with the low 
volatility exhibited by compounds of high molecular weight. 
Certain osmophores have practically equal effects; for example, 
benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene, benzonitrile, and phenyl azoimide 
have practically identical odours, and among the " artificial 
musks," a nitro group may be replaced by the azoimido group 
without the odour being modified. As a general rule, homologues 
have similar odours, but many exceptions are known. For 
example the methyl and ethyl ethers of /3-naphthol have the 
odour of neroli; on the other hand, of the esters of anthranilic 
acid, the methyl has the odour of orange blossoms, the ethyl 
has a slight odour, and the isobutyl is odourless. The introduc- 
tion of a methyl group into the benzene ring generally involves 
little or no change in odour; but when it (and more especially 
higher alkyl radicals) is introduced into side chains the odour 
may be entirely changed. For example, benzene and its 
homologues have similar odours; phthalide is odourless, but the 
isopropyl and butyl phthalides, in which substitution occurs in 
the side chain, smell of celery. Especially characteristic are 
the derivatives of phenylacetylene. This hydrocarbon is 
distinctly unpleasant; on the other hand, para-ethyl and para- 
methyl phenylacetylene smell of anise. While the triply-linked 
carbon system is generally associated with strong and unpleasant 
odours, the doubly linked system gives pleasant ones. Thus the 
unpleasant phenylacetylene, C 6 H 5 -C:CH, is contrasted with 
styrolene, C e H 6 -CH:CH2, which occurs in storax, and phenyl- 
propiolic aldehyde with cinnamic aldehyde, CeHs-CHiCH-CHO, 
which occurs in cassia and cinnamon. The reduction of a 
double to a single linkage may not destroy odour. Thus 
hydrocinnamic aldehyde, the reduction product of cinnamic 
aldehyde, smells of jasmine and lilac, and melilotin, which occurs 
in yellow melilot (Melilotus officinalis), has the same odour 
(woodruff) as its oxidation product coumarin. The orientation 
of the substituent groups in the benzene nucleus also affects 
odour. In general, the meta compounds are odourless, while 
the ortho and para may have odour. Thus />-methoxyaceto- 
phenone has a pleasant odour, the meta compound is odourless, 
0-aminoacetophenone, o-aminobenzaldehyde, and o-nitrophenol 
have strong odours, while the meta and para bodies are odourless. 
Of the three trinitrobenzenes only the symmetrical form gives 
origin to perfumes. 

The concentration and even the solvent has considerable 
effect on the odour of a substance. Many of the artificial 
principles vanillin, heliotropine, ionone, &c. have very 
different odours in strong and in dilute solution; phenyl acetic 
acid and /3-naphthylamine are odourless when solid, but have 
disagreeable odours when dissolved. Traces of impurities 
often have the effect of making odourless or pleasant- smelling 
compounds quite intolerable. Acetylene as generated from 
calcium carbide, and carbon disulphide prepared from its 
elements are quite intolerable, though when pure they are, at 
least, not unpleasant; artificial benzaldehyde must be very care- 
fully purified before it can be used in the preparation of the more 
delicate scents. In all cases the natural scents are complex 
mixtures of many ingredients, and a variation hi the amount of 
any one may completely alter the scent. Such mixtures would 
be difficult to reproduce economically; the perfumer is content 
with a product having practically an identical odour, with or 
without the natural substance which it is designed to compete 
with. 

We now give an account of the artificial scents, principally 
arranged according to their chemical relations. The fatty esters 
are interesting as providing many of the fruit essences; in fact, by 
appropriate blending, any fruit odour can be reproduced. Their 
use, however, is inhibited by the fact that they irritate the re- 
spiratory organs, producing coughing and headaches. Isobutyl 
carbinol acetic ester (amyl acetate), (CH 3 ) 2 -CH-CH 2 -CH 2 -OC-CH 3 , 
forms when in dilute alcoholic solution the artificial pear oil; a 
similar odour is possessed by isoamyl-n-butyrate, Cs 



-Octyl acetate, C 8 H, 7 -O 2 C-CH 3 , has the odour of oranges. Isoamyl 
propionate, C 6 Hii-OjC-C 2 H 6 , and ethyl-n-butyrate, C 3 H 7 -O 2 C-C 2 H,i ( 
have the odour of pineapple, the latter constituting the artificial 
pineapple oil of commerce. Isoamyl isovalerate, C 6 Hn-O 2 C-C 4 H,, 
is the artificial apple oil. Of the fatty ketones, methyl nonyl 
ketone, CH3-CO-C 9 Hi 9 , which is the scent of oil of rue, and methyl- 
ethyl acetone, CH 3 -CO-CH(CH 3 ) (C 2 H 6 ), which has the odour of 
peppermint, receive commercial application. Of exceptional im- 
portance in the chemistry of perfumes are the unsaturated open 
chain compounds containing at least eight carbon atoms. These 
are chemically considered, along with the related cyclic compounds, 
in the article TERPENES; here we notice their odours and occurrence 
in perfumes. Of the alcohols, /-linalol occurs in oil of lavender, 
bergamot, limet and origanum; d-linalol in coriander; citronellol 
and geraniol in rose, geranium and pelargonium oils. Of the 
aldehydes, citral or geranial has the odour of lemons; citronellal 
is the chief constituent of citronella oil. By condensing citral with 
acetone and treating the product with dilute sulphuric acid, the 
valuable violet substitute ionone results. This substance is a 
hydroaromatic ketone, and closely resembles the natural principle 
irone. By successive treatment with acetic anhydride (to form 
isopulegol), oxidation to isopulegone, and treatment with baryta 
citronellal yields the cyclic compound pulegone, the chief constituent 
of oil of pennyroyal. The olefinic terpenes are generally convertible 
into methyl heptenone, (CH 3 ) 2 C :CH(CH 2 ) 2 -CO-CH 3 , which has been 
synthesized from sodium acetonylacetone and amylene dibromide; 
this ketone occurs in several essential oils, and has the odour of 
rue. For the occurrence of cyclic terpenes in the essential oils 
reference should be made to the table below, which contains the 
names, sources and chief ingredients of the more important essential 
oils. 1 The terpenes are printed in italics, the aliphatic and benzenoid 
compounds in ordinary type. 



Name of Oil. 


Source. 


Constituents. 


Anise 


Pimpinella anisum 


Anethole, estragole. 


Bay . . . 


Pimento, acris 


Eugenol, methyl eugenol, 






chavicol, estragole.twyrcene, 


Bergamot . 


Citrus bergamia 


phellandrene. 
Linalol, linalyl acetate, d- 






limonene, bergaptene. 


Cajaput . 


Melaleuca, sp. 


/- i 
Lineol. 


Cassia . 


Cinnamonum cassia 


Cinnamic aldehyde, cinnamy 1 






acetate. 


Caraway 


Carum carvi 


Carvone, A-limonene. 


Camphor 


Cinnamonum camphor 


A-Pinene, phellandrene, terpi- 






neol, eugenol, safrole. 


Chamomile . 


Anthemis nobilis 


Isobutyl and isoamyl esters 






of angelic and tigh'c acids. 


Cinnamon . 


Cinnamonum Zeylani- 


Cinnamic aldehyde. 




cum 




Clove . . 


Eugenia caryophyllata 


Eugenol. 


Coriander . 


Coriandum sativum 


Linalol. 


Cumin . 
Eucalyptus . 


Cuminum cymium 
Eucalyptus globulus 


Cumic aldehyde, cymene. 
Cineol, A-pinene, and fatty 






aldehydes. 


Fennel . 


Foeniculum vulgare 


Anethole, fenchone, A-pinene. 


Geranium . 


Andropogon schoen- 


Geraniol, citronellol. 




anthus 




Jasmine . 


Jasminum grandi- 


Methyl anthranilate, indol, 




florum 


benzyl alcohol, benzyl ace- 






tate, linalol, linalyl acetate. 


Lavender . 


Lavendula vera 


Linalol, \-linalyl acetate. 


Lemon . 


Citrus limonum 


Limonene, phellandrene, citral. 






citronellal, geranyl acetate, 






linalol. 


Lemon-grass 


Andropogon citratus 


Citral. 


Neroli . . 


Citrus bigardia 


\-Linalol, geraniol, limonene, 






methyl anthranilate. 


Orange . 


Citrus aurantium 


A-Limonene. 


Peppermint. 


Mentha piperita 


Menthol, menthyl acetate and 






valerate. 


Pine-needle . 


Pinus syhestris 


A-Pinene, A-syhestrene. 


Rose . 


Rosa damascena 


Geraniol, \-citronellol. 


Rose. . . 


Pelargonium odoratis 


Geraniol, citronellol. 


Geranium . 


semum 




Rosemary . 


Rosamarinus officina- 


Pinene, camphene, camphor, 




lis 


cineol, borneol. 


Sage . 


Salvia officinalis 


Pinene, cineol, thujone, borneol. 


Sassafras 
Spearmint . 


Sassafras officinalis 
Mentha viridis 


Safrole. 
l-Linalol, \-carvone. 


Star anise . 


Illicium anisatum 


Anethole. 


Tansy 


Tanacetum vulgare 


Thujone. 


Thyme . 


Thymus vulgaris 


Thymol. 


Wormwood . 


Artemisia absinthum 


Thujone and thujyl esters. 


Ylang-ylang 


Cananga odorata 


l-Linalol, geraniol. 


1 See J. B. Cohen, Organic Chemistry, p. 532 ; or J, Parry, Chemistry 


of Perfumes (1908). 



142 



PERGA PERGAMUM 



The chief benzenoid compounds used as perfumes are aldehydes, 
oxyaldehydes, phenols and phenol ethers. Benzaldehyde has the 
odour of almonds, cinnamic aldehyde of cinnamon, and cumin 
aldehyde gives the odour to cumin oil. Of oxyaldehydes salicyl- 
aldehyde gives the odour to spiraea oil, and vanillin is the active 
ingredient of vanilla (q.v.). Anisaldehyde smells like hawthorn, 
and is extensively used under the name aubepine for scenting soaps 
and extracts. Carvacrol and thymol are isomeric methyl propyl 
phenols; both have the odour of thyme. Of phenol ethers eugenol 
(allyl guaiacol) has the odour of cloves, and anethole (allyl phenyl 
methyl ether) is the chief constituent of anise oil, being chiefly used 
in the manufacture of liqueurs. Several piperonyl compounds are 
of commercial importance. The aldehyde, CHs[O] 2 :C6H3'CHO(i, 2 ,4), 
piperonal, has the odour of heliotrope; an allyl derivative, 
safrole CH 2 [O]j:C 6 Hs-CnH 6 (i,2,4), occurs in sassafras, while apiole 
or dimethoxy safrole has the odour of parsley oil. Of other syn- 
thetic perfumes amyl salicylate is used under the names of orchtdee 
or trefol as the basis of many perfumes, in particular of clover 
scents; methyl anthranilate occurs in the natural neroli and other 
oils, and has come into considerable use in the preparation of arti- 
ficial bergamot, neroli, jasmine and other perfumes (the Trolene, 
Marceol and Amanthol of the Aclien Gesellschaft fur Anilin Fabrika- 
tion have this substance as a base); the " artificial _ musks " are 
derivatives of i-trinitrobenzene ; coumarin is the principle of wood- 
ruff; and 0-naphthol methyl ether is used for the preparation of 
artificial neroli. 

The Odophone. The most important element in the perfumer's 
art is the blending of the odorous principles to form a mixture 
which gratifies the sense of smell. Experience is the only guide. 
It is impossible to foretell the odour of a mixture from the odours 
of its components. Septimus Piesse endeavoured to show that 
a certain scale or gamut existed amongst odours as amongst sounds, 
taking the sharp smells to correspond with high notes and the heavy 
smells with low. He illustrated the idea by classifying some fifty 
odours in this manner, making each to correspond with a certain 
note, one-half in each clef, and extending above and below the 
lines. For example, treble clef note E (4th space) corresponds 
with Portugal (orange), note D (ist space below clef) with violet, 
note F (4th space above clef) with ambergris. It is readily noticed 
in practice that ambergris is much sharper in smell (higher), than 
violet, while Portugal is intermediate. He asserted that properly 
to constitute a bouquet the odours to be taken should correspond 
in the gamut like the notes of a musical chord one false note 
among the odours as among the music destroying the harmony. 
Thus on his odophone, santal, geranium, acacia, orange-flower, 
camphor, corresponding with C (bass 2nd line below), C (bass 
2nd space), E (treble 1st line), G (treble 2nd line), C (treble 3rd 
space), constitute the bouquet of chord C. 

Other Branches of Perfumery. As a natural outcome of the 
development of the perfume industry, scented articles for toilet 
and other uses are now manufactured in large quantities. Soaps, 
toilet powders, tooth powders, hair-washes, cosmetics generally, 
and note-paper have provided material on which the perfumer 
works. For the preparation of scented soaps two methods are in 
use; both start with a basis either of fine yellow soap (which owes 
its odour and colour to the presence of resin), or of curd soap (which 
is hard, white and odourless, and is prepared without resin). In 
one process the soap is melted by superheated steam, and while 
still hot and semi-fluid mixed by means of a stirrer of wood with 
iron cross-bar, technically called a " crutch," with the attars and 
colouring matter. It is then removed from the melting pan to 
a rectangular iron mould or box, the sides of which can be removed 
by unscrewing the tie-rods which hold them in position; when 
cold the mass is cut into slabs and bars with a thin brass wire. 
In the other or cold process the soap is first cut into chips or shavings 
by a plane or " chipping machine," then the colouring matters are 
added and thoroughly incorporated by passing the soap between 
rollers; the tinted soap emerges in a continuous sheet but little 
thicker than paper. The perfumes are then added, and after 
standing for about twelve hours the soap is again sent through the 
rolling machine. It is next transferred to a bar-forming machine, 
from which it emerges as a continuous bar almost as hard as wood. 
Soap thus worked contains less than 10% of water; that prepared 
by melting contains 20 and even 30%. The amount of perfume 
added depends upon its nature, and amounts usually to about 
7 or 8%. Thej finest soaps are always manufactured by the cold 
process. 

Toilet Powders are of various sorts. They consist of rice-starch or 
wheat-starch, with powdered orris-root in varying proportions, and 
with or without the addition of zinc oxide, bismuth oxide or French 
chalk. The constituent powders, after the addition of the perfume, 
are thoroughly incorporated and mixed by sifting through a fine 
sieve. Violet powder for the nursery should consist entirely of 
powdered violet root (Iris florentina), from the odour of which the 
powder is named. _It is of a yellowish tint, soft and pleasant to 
the touch. The white common so-called " violet powders " consist 
of starch scented with bergamot, and are in every sense inferior. 

Tooth Powders consist for the most part of mixtures of powdered 
orris-root with precipitated chalk, and some other constituent 
destined to particularize it as to properties or flavour, such as 



charcoal, finely pulverized pumice, quassia, sugar, camphor, &c. 
The perfume of the contained orris-root is modified, if required, by 
the addition of a little of some perfume. Tooth Pastes are formed 
of the same constituents as the powders, and are worked into a 
paste by the addition of a little honey or glucose syrup, which sub- 
stances are usually believed ultimately to have an injurious effect 
on the teeth. 

Perfume Sachets consist either of a powder composed of a mixture 
of vanilla, musk, Tonqua beans, &c., one or other predominating 
as required, contained in an ornamental silk sac; or of some of the 
foregoing substances spread upon card or chamois leather or flannel 
after being made into a paste with mucilage and a little glycerin. 
When dry the card so prepared is daintily covered with various 
parti-coloured silks for sale. Where the ingredients employed in 
their manufacture are of good quality these cards, known as peau 
d'Espagne " sachets, retain their odour unimpaired for years. 

Adulterations. There is, as might be expected, considerable 
scope for the adulteration of the " matieres premieres " employed 
in perfumery. Thus, in the case of musk, the " pods " are fre- 
quently found to be partially emptied of the grain, which has been 
replaced by hide or skin, while the weight has been increased by the 
introduction of lead, &c. In other instances the fraud consists in 
the admixture of refuse grain, from which the odour has been ex- 
hausted with spirit, with dried blood, and similar substances, whilst 
pungency is secured by the addition of ammonium carbonate. 
Attar of rose is diluted with attar of Palnta rosa, a variety of 
geranium of only a quarter or a fifth of the value. The main 
adulterant of all the natural essential oils, however, is castor oil. 
This is a bland neutral body, practically odourless, and completely 
soluble in alcohol; it therefore presents all the requisites for the 
purpose. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See generally, J. C. Sawyer, Odorographia, vol. i. 
(1892), vol. ii. (1894) ; G. W. Askinson, Perfumes (Eng. trans, by Isidor 
Fiirst, 1892); S. Piesse, Art of Perfumery (1891); Paul Hubert, 
Plantes d parfumes (1909); M. Otto, L' Industrie des parfums (1909). 
Synthetic perfumes are treated in detail in C. Deite, Manual of 
Toilet Soap-making (Eng. trans, by S. I. King, 1905), and in E. J. 
Parry, Chemistry of the Essential Oils and Artificial Parfumes (2nd 
ed., 1908). Reference may also be made to T. Koller, Cosmetics 
(1902). The standard works on the essential oils are given in the 
article OILS. G. Cohn, Die Riechsto/e (1904), treats the chemistry, 
and Zwaardemaker, Physiologic des Geruchs (1895), the physiology 
of perfumes. See also the reports and bulletins of Schimmel & Co. 
and Rouse Bertrand et Fils. 

PERGA (mod. Murtana), an ancient city of Pamphylia, 
situated about 8 m. inland, at the junction of a small stream 
(Sari Su) with the Cestrus. It was a centre of native influences 
as contrasted with the Greek, which were predominant in 
Attalia, and it was a great seat of the worship of " Queen " 
Artemis, here represented as a human-headed cone and a purely 
Anatolian nature goddess. There Paul and Barnabas began 
their first mission in Asia Minor (Acts ix. 13). A much 
frequented route into Phrygia and the Maeander valley began at 
Perga, and Alexander made it the starting-point of his invasion 
of inner Asia Minor. Long the metropolis of Pamphylia Secunda, 
it was superseded in Byzantine times by its port, Attalia, which 
became a metropolis in 1084. The extensive ruins all He in 
the plain south of the Acropolis. The walls are well preserved, 
but of late Roman or Byzantine reconstruction. The lines of 
intersecting streets can be easily made out, and there are ruins 
of two sets of baths, two basilicas and a forum. But the most 
notable monument is the theatre, which lies outside the walls 
on the south-west, near the stadium. This is as perfect as those 
of Myra and Patara, but larger than either, and yields the palm 
only to those of Aspendus and Side. Modern Murtana is a large 
village, long under the dominion of the Dere Beys of the Tekke 
Oglu family. 

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie, 
vol. i. (1890); Sir W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire 
(1893). ^ (D. G. H.) 

PERGAMENEOUS (Lat. pergamena, parchment), a technical 
term used of anything of the texture of parchment, as in zoology 
of the wing-covers of insects. 

PERGAMUM, or PERGAMUS (mod. Bergama), an ancient city 
of Teuthrania, a district in Mysia. It is usually named Heprfafiov 
by Greek writers, but Ptolemy has the form Hepyanos. The 
name, which is related to the German burg, is appropriate to the 
situation on a lofty isolated hill in a broad fertile valley, less 
than 15 m. from the mouth of the Calais. According to the 
belief of its inhabitants, the town was founded by Arcadian 
colonists, led by Telephus, son of Heracles. Auge, mother of 



PERGAMUM 



PLATE I. 





THE NORTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES. 



THE SOUTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES. 




THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS, FROM THE NORTH-WEST, AS SET UP IN THE KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN. 

XXI ;. From photographs by W. Titzenthaler, Berlin. 



PLATE II. 



PERGAMUM 




NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, AND WEST SIDES OF THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS. 

Ftom photographs by W. Titzcnthaler, Berlin. 



PERGOLA PERGOLESI, G. B. 



Telephus, was priestess of Athena Alea at Tegea, and daughter 
of Aleus; fleeing from Tegea, she became the wife of Teuthras, 
the eponymous king of Teuthrania, and her son Telephus 
succeeded him. Athena Polias was the patron-goddess of 
Pergamum, and the legend combines the ethnological record of 
the connexion claimed between Arcadia and Pergamum with the 
usual belief that the hero of the city was son of its guardian 
deity, or at least of her priestess. Nothing more is recorded of 
the city till the time of Xenophon, when it was a small fortified 
town on the summit of the hill; but it had been striking coins 
since 420 B.C. at latest. Its importance began under Lysimachus, 
who deposited his treasures, 9000 talents, in this strong fortress 
under the charge of a eunuch, Philetaerus of Tium. In 283 B.C. 
Philetaerus rebelled, Lysimachus died without being able to 
put down the revolt, and Pergamum became the capital of a 
little principality. Partly by clever diplomacy, partly through 
the troubles caused by the Gaulish invasion and by the dissen- 
sions among the rival kings, Philetaerus contrived to keep on 
good terms with his neighbours on all sides (283-263 B.C.). His 
nephew Eumenes (263-241) succeeded him, increased his power, 
and even defeated Antiochus II. of Syria in a pitched battle near 
Sardis. His successor Attalus I. (241-197) won a great battle 
over the Gauls, and assumed the title of king. The other 
Greek kings who aimed at power in Asia Minor were his natural 
enemies, and about 222 reduced Pergamenian power to a very 
low ebb. On the other hand, the influence of the Romans was 
beginning to make itself felt in the East. Attalus prudently 
connected himself with them and shared in their continuous 
success. Pergamum thus became the capital of a considerable 
territory and a centre of art and regal magnificence. The wealth 
of the state and the king's desire to celebrate his victories by 
monuments of art led to the rise of the " Pergamenian school " 
in sculpture. The splendour of Pergamum was at its height 
under Eumenes II. (197-159). He continued true to the Romans 
during their wars with Antiochus and Perseus, and his kingdom 
spread over the greater part of western Asia Minor, including 
Mysia, Lydia, great part of Phrygia, Ionia and Caria. To 
celebrate the great achievement of his reign, the defeat of the 
barbarian Gauls, he built in the agora a vast altar to Zeus 
Soter (see below). He left an infant son, Attalus (III.), and 
a brother, Attalus II. (Philadelphus), who ruled 159-138, and 
was succeeded by his nephew, Attalus III. (Philometor). The 
latter died in 133, and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 
who erected part of it (excluding Great Phrygia, which they 
gave to Mithradates of Pontus) into a province under the name 
of Asia. Pergamum continued to rank for two centuries as the 
capital, and subsequently, with Ephesus and Smyrna, as one of 
the three great cities of the province; and the devotion of its 
former kings to the Roman cause was continued by its citizens, 
who erected on the Acropolis a magnificent temple to Augustus. 
It was the seat of a conventus, including the cities of the Caicus 
valley and some of those in the northern part of the Hermus 
valley. Under the Roman Empire Pergamum was one of the 
chief seats of the worship of Asclepius " the Saviour "; invalids 
came from distant parts of the country to ask advice from the 
god and his priests. The temple and the curative establishment 
of the god were situated outside the city. Pergamum was the 
chief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire, and, in 
W. M. Ramsay's opinion, was for that reason referred to in 
Rev. ii. 13 as the place of " Satan's -throne." It was also an 
early seat of Christianity, and one of the Seven Churches. 
The place, re-fortified by the Byzantines, and still retaining its 
name as Bergama, passed into Moslem hands early in the 
I4th century. The lower town was rebuilt, and in the I7th 
and 1 8th centuries became a chief seat of the great Dere Bey 
family of Kara Osman Oglu (see MANISA), which did not resign 
it to direct Ottoman control until about 1825. It is still an 
administrative and commercial centre of importance, having 
some 20,000 inhabitants. 

Excavations. The site of the ancient city has been the scene 
of extensive excavations promoted by the Berlin museum since 
1878, and directed first by K. Humann and A. Conze, and 



afterwards by W. Dorpfeld. The first impulse to them was given 
in 1873 by the reception in Berlin of certain reliefs, extracted 
by Humann from the walls of Bergama. These were recognized as 
probably parts of the Great Altar of Zeus erected by Eumenes II. 
in 180 B.C. and decorated with a combat of gods and giants, 
symbolic of the struggle between the Pergamene Greeks and the 
Gaulish barbarians. Excavation at the south end of the Acro- 
polis led to the discovery of the Altar itself and the rest of its 
surviving reliefs, which, now restored and mounted in Berlin, 
form one of the glories of that city. In very high relief and 
representing furious action, these sculptures are the finest which 
survive from the Pergamene school, which replaced the repose 
and breadth of earlier schools by excess of emphasis and detail. 
The summit of the Acropolis is crowded with public buildings, 
between the market place, which lies at the southern point, and 
the Royal. Gardens on the north. In the interval are the Zeus 
altar; the great hexastyle Doric temple of Athena flanked by 
the palace on the east, by the theatre and its long terrace on the 
west, and by a library on the north; and a large Corinthian temple 
of Trajan. The residential part of the Greek, and practically 
all the Roman city lay below the Acropolis on ground now 
mostly occupied by modern Bergama; but west of the river 
Selinus, on rising ground facing the Acropolis, are to be seen 
notable remains of a Roman theatre, an amphitheatre and a 
circus. 

See, beside general authorities for Asia Minor, J. Dallaway, 
Constantinople, &c. (1797); W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven 
Churches (1904) ; and especially the publication by the Royal Museum 
of Berlin, Alterthumer von Pergamon (1885 sqq.); "Operations at 
Pergamon 1906-1907," in Athenische Mitteil. (1908), xxxiii. 4; 
G. Leroux, "La Pr6tendue basilique de Pergame " in Butt. Corr. 
Hell. (1909), pp. 238 sqq. (D. G. H.) 

PERGOLA (Lat. pergula, a projecting roof, shed, from pergere, 
to reach forward, project), a term adopted from the Italian 
for an arbour of trellis-work over which are trained creeping 
plants, vines, &c., and especially for a trellis-work covering a 
path, walk or balcony in a garden. 

PERGOLESI (or PERGOLESE), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1710- 
1736), Italian musical composer, was born at Jesi near Ancona 
on the 3rd of January 1710, and after studying music undei 
local masters until he was sixteen was sent by a noble patron 
to complete his education at Naples, where he became a pupil 
of Greco, Durante and Feo for composition and of Domenico de 
Matteis for the violin. His earliest known composition was a 
sacred drama, La Comiersione di S. Guglidmo d'Aquitania, 
between the acts of which was given the comic intermezzo // 
Maestro di musica. These works were performed in 1731, 
probably by fellow pupils, at the monastery of St Agnello 
Maggiore. Through the influence of the prince of Stigliano and 
other patrons, including the duke of Maddaloni, Pergolesi was 
commissioned to write an opera for the court theatre, and in the 
winter of 1731 successfully produced La Sallustia, followed in 
1732 by Ricimero, which was a failure. Both operas had comic 
intermezzi, but in neither case were they successful. After this 
disappointment he abandoned the theatre for a time and wrote 
thirty sonatas for two violins and bass for the prince of Stigliano. 
He was also invited to compose a mass on the occasion of the 
earthquake of 1731, and a second mass, also for two choirs and 
orchestra, is said to have been praised by Leo. In September 
1732 he returned to the stage with a comic opera in Neapolitan 
dialect, Lo Frate inammorato, which was well received; and in 
!733 ne produced a serious opera, II Prigionier, to which the 
celebrated Serva padrona furnished the intermezzi. There 
seems, however, no ground for supposing that this work made 
any noticeable difference to the composer's already established 
reputation as a writer of comic opera. About this time (1733- 
1734) Pergolesi entered the service of the duke of Maddaloni, and 
accompanied him to Rome, where he conducted a mass for five 
voices and orchestra in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina 
(May 1734). There is no foundation for the statement that he 
was appointed maestro di cappella at the Holy House of Loreto; 
he was, in fact, organist of the royal chapel at Naples in 1735. 
The complete failure of L'Olimpiade at Rome in January 1733 



PERGOLESI, M. A. PERIANDER 



144 

is said to have broken his health, and determined him to abandon 
the theatre for the Church; this statement is, however, incom- 
patible with the fact that his comic opera // Flaminio was 
produced in Naples in September of the same year with un- 
doubted success. His ill health was more probably due to his 
notorious profligacy. In 1736 he was sent by the duke of 
Maddaloni to the Capuchin monastery at Pozzuoli, the air of 
the place being considered beneficial to cases of consumption. 
Here he is commonly supposed to have written the celebrated 
Slabat Mater; Paisiello, however, stated that this work was 
written soon after he left the Conservator dei poveri di Gesii 
Cristo in 1729. We may at any rate safely attribute to this 
period the Scherzo fatto ai Cappuccini di Pozzuoli, a musical jest 
of a somewhat indecent nature. He died on the I7th of March 
1736, and was buried in the cathedral of Pozzuoli. 

Pergolesi's posthumous reputation has been exaggerated 
beyond all reason. This was due partly to his early death, and 
largely to the success of La Serva padrona when performed by 
the Bouffons Italiens at Paris in 1752. Charming as this little 
piece undoubtedly is, it is inferior both for music and for humour 
to Pergolesi's three-act comic operas in dialect, which are remem- 
bered now only by the air " Ogni pena piu spietata " from Lo 
Pratt inammorato. As a composer of sacred music Pergolesi is 
effective, but essentially commonplace and superficial, and the 
frivolous style of the Stabat Mater was rightly censured by 
Paisiello and Padre Martini. His best quality is a certain senti- 
mental charm, which is very conspicuous in the cantata L'Orfeo 
and in the genuinely beautiful duets " Se cerca, se dice " and 
" Ne' giorni tuoi felici " of the serious opera L'Olimpiade; 
the latter number was transferred unaltered from his early 
sacred drama S. Guglielmo, and we can thus see that his 
natural talent underwent hardly any development during the 
five years of his musical activity. On the whole, however, 
Pergolesi is in no way superior to his contemporaries of the same 
school, and it is purely accidental that a later age should have 
regarded him as its greatest representative. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most complete life of Pergolesi is that by 
E. Faustini Fasini (Gazzetta musicale di Milano, 3ist of August 
1899, &c., published by Ricordi in book form, 1900); G. Annibaldi's 
// Pergolesi in Pozzuoli, vita iniima (Jesi, 1890) gives some interest- 
ing additional details derived from documents at Jesi, but is cast in 
the form of a romantic novel. H. M. Schletterer's lecture in the 
Sammlung musikalischer Vortrage, edited by Count P. von Walder- 
see, is generally inaccurate and uncritical, but gives a good account 
of later performances of Pergolesi's works in Italy and elsewhere. 
Various portraits are reproduced in the Gazz. mus. di Milano for 
the I4th of December 1899, and in Musica e musicisti, December 
1905. Complete lists of his compositions are given in Eitner's 
Quellen-Lexicon and in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.). (E. J. D.) 

PERGOLESI, MICHAEL ANGELO, an iSth-century Italian 
decorative artist, who worked chiefly in England. Biographical 
details are almost entirely lacking, but like Cipriani he was 
brought, or attracted, to England by Robert Adam after his 
famous continental tour. He worked so extensively for the 
Adams, and his designs are so closely typical of much upon which 
their reputation rests, that it is impossible to doubt his influence 
upon their style. His range, like theirs, was catholic. He 
designed furniture, mantelpieces, ceilings, chandeliers, doors and 
mural ornament with equal felicity, and as an artist in plaster 
work in low relief he was unapproached in his day. He delighted 
in urns and sphinxes and interlaced gryphons, in amorini with 
bows and torches, in trophies of musical instruments and martial 
weapons, and in flowering arabesques which were always graceful 
if sometimes rather thin. The centre panels of his walls and 
ceilings were often occupied by classical and pastoral subjects 
painted by Cipriani, Angelica Kauffmann, Antonio Zucchi, her 
husband, and sometimes by himself. These nymphs and 
amorini, with their disengaged and riant air and classic grace, 
were not infrequently used as copies for painting upon that 
satinwood furniture of the last quarter of the i8th century which 
has never been surpassed for dainty elegance, and for the 
popularity of which Pergolesi was in large measure responsible; 
they were even reproduced in marquetry. Some of this painted 
work was, apparently, executed by his own hand; most of the 



pieces attributed to him are remarkable examples of artistic 
taste and technical skill. His satin-wood table -tops, china 
cabinets and side-tables are the last word in a daintiness which 
here and there perhaps is mere prettiness. Pergolesi likewise 
designed silver plate, and many of his patterns are almost 
instinctively attributed to the brothers Adam by the makers 
and purchasers of modern reproductions. There is, moreover, 
reason to believe that he aided the Adam firm in purely archi- 
tectural work. In' later life Pergolesi appears, like Angelica 
Kauffmann, to have returned to Italy. 

Our chief source of information upon his works is his own publi- 
cation, Designs for Various Ornaments on Seventy Plates, a series 
of folio sheets, without text, published between 1777 and 1801. 

PERI, JACOPO (1561-16 ?), Italian musical composer, 
was born at Florence on the 20th of August 1561, of a noble 
family. After studying under Cristoforo Malvezzi of Lucca, 
he became maestro di cappella, first to Ferdinand, duke of 
Tuscany, and later to Cosmo II. He was an important member 
of the literary and artistic circle which frequented the house of 
Giovanni Bardi, conte de Vernio, where the revival of Greek 
tragedy with its appropriate musical declamation was a favourite 
subject of discussion. With this end in view the poet Ottavio 
Rinuccini supplied a drama with the title of Dafne, to which 
Peri composed music, and this first attempt at opera was per- 
formed privately in 1597 in the Palazzo Corsi at Florence. This 
work was so much admired that in 1600 Rinuccini and Peri 
were commissioned to produce an opera on the occasion of the 
marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di' Medici. This 
work (L' Euridice) attracted a great deal of attention, and the 
type once publicly established, the musical drama was set on 
the road to success by the efforts of other composers and the 
patronage of other courts. Peri himself seems never to have 
followed up bis success with other operas; he became maestro 
di cappella to the duke of Ferrara in 1601, but after the publica- 
tion of his Varie musiche a una, due e tre voci at Florence in 
1609, nothing more is known of him. 

Peri's Dafne (which has entirely disappeared) and Euridice 
(printed at Florence 1600; reprinted Venice 1608 and Florence 
1863) are of the greatest importance not only as being the 
earliest attempts at opera, but as representing the new monodic 
and declamatory style which is the basis of modern music as 
opposed to the contrapuntal methods of Palestrina and his 
contemporaries. Peri's work is of course primitive in the 
extreme, but it is by no means without beauty, and there are 
many scenes in Euridice which show a considerable dramatic 
power. 

PERIANDER (Gr. HtpiavSpos), the second tyrant of Corinth 
(625-585 B.C.). In contrast with his father Cypselus, the founder 
of the dynasty, he is generally represented as a cruel despot, or 
at any rate as having used all possible devices for keeping his 
city in subjection. Among numerous anecdotes the following 
is characteristic. Periander, on being consulted by the tyrant 
Thrasybulus of Miletus as to the best device for maintaining 
himself in power, by way of reply led the messenger through a 
cornfield, and as he walked struck off the tallest and best-grown 
ears (a legend applied to Roman circumstances in Livy i. 54). 
It seems, however, that the prevalent Greek tradition concerning 
him was derived from the versions of the Corinthian aristocracy, 
who had good reasons for giving a prejudiced account, and the 
conflicting character of the various legends further shows that 
their historical value is slight. A careful sifting of the available 
evidence would rather tend to represent Periander as a ruler 
of unusual probity and insight, and the exceptional firmness and 
activity of his government is beyond dispute. His home admin- 
istration was so successful that he was able to dispense with 
direct taxation. He fostered wealth by the steady encourage- 
ment of industry and by drastic legislation against idleness, 
luxury and vice; and the highest prosperity of the Corinthian 
handicrafts may be assigned to the period of his rule (see 
CORINTH). At the same time he sought to check excessive 
accumulation of wealth in individual hands and restricted the 
influx of population into the town. Employment was found 



PERICLES 



145 



for the proletariat in the erection of temples and of public works. 
Periander further appears as a patron of literature, for it was by 
his invitation that the poet Arion came to Corinth to organize 
the dithyramb. He devoted no less attention to the increase 
of Corinthian commerce, which in his days plied busily on both 
eastern and western seas. With this end in view he established 
colonies at Potidaea and Apollonia in Macedonia, at Anactorium 
and Leucas in north-western Greece, and he is said to have 
projected a canal through the Isthmus, In Greece proper he 
conquered Epidaurus, and with the help of his fleet of triremes 
brought the important trading centre of Corcyra under his 
control, while his interest in the Olympian festival is perhaps 
attested by a dedication which may be ascribed to him the 
famous " chest of Cypselus." He cultivated friendly relations 
with the tyrants of Miletus and Mytilene, and maintained a 
connexion with the kings of Lydia, of Egypt and, possibly, of 
Phrygia. In spite of these varied achievements Periander 
never entirely conciliated his subjects, for he could not trust 
himself without a bodyguard. Moreover his family life, accord- 
ing to all accounts, was unfortunate. His sons all died or 
were estranged from him, and the murder of his last remaining 
child Lycophron, the governor of Corcyra, is said to have broken 
his spirit and hastened on his death. 

Periander was reckoned one of the seven sages of Greece, 
and was the reputed author of a collection of maxims ("TirodrJKai.) 
in 2000 verses. The letters ascribed to him by Diogenes Laertius 
are undoubtedly spurious. 

Herodotus iii. 48-53, v. 92; Aristotle, Politics, v. 6, 10-12; 
Heracleides Ponticus in C. Miiller's fFrag. hist, graec. ii. 212; 
Nicolaus Damascenus, ibid., iii. 393; Diogenes Laertius, De vitis 
darorum philosophorum, i. ch. 7. (M. O. B. C.) 

PERICLES (490-429 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was born 
about 490 B.C., the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father 1 
took a prominent part in Athenian politics, and in 479 held high 
command in the Greek squadron which annihilated the remnants 
of Xerxes' fleet at Mycale; through his mother, the niece of 
Cleisthenes, he was connected with the former tyrants of Sicyon 
and the family of the Alcmaeonidae. His early training was 
committed to the ablest and most advanced teachers of the day: 
Damon instructed him in music, Zeno the Eleatic revealed to 
him the powers of dialectic; the philosopher Anaxagoras, who 
lived in close friendship with Pericles, had great influence on 
his cast of thought and was commonly held responsible for that 
calm and undaunted attitude of mind which he preserved in the 
midst of the severest trials. 

The first important recorded act of Pericles falls in 463, when he 
helped to prosecute Cimon on a charge of bribery, after the latter's 
Thasian campaign; but as the accusation could hardly have been 
meant seriously Pericles was perhaps put forward only as a 
lay-figure. Undue prominence has commonly been assigned to 
him in the attack upon ths Areopagus in 462 or 461 (see 
AREOPAGUS, CIMON). The Aristotelian Constitution of Athens 
shows conclusively that Pericles was not the leader of this cam- 
paign, for it expressly attributes the bulk of the reforms to 
Ephialtes (ch. 25), and mentions Ephialtes and Archestratus 
as the authors of the laws which the reactionaries of 404 sought 
to repeal (ch. 35): moreover, it was Ephialtes, 2 not Pericles, on 
whom the Conservatives took revenge as the author of their 
discomfiture. To Ephialtes likewise we must ascribe the 
renunciation of the Spartan alliance and the new league with 
Argos and Thessaly (461). 

Not long after, however, when Ephialtes fell by the dagger, 
Pericles undoubtedly assumed the leading position in the state. 

1 He must have been born before 485-484, in which years his 
father was ostracized. On the other hand, Plutarch describes him 
as vtos Sir, i.e. not yet 30, in 463. 

J The later eminence of Pericles has probably misled historians 
into exaggerating his influence at this time. Even the Const. Ath. 
(ch. 27) says _that Pericles took " some " prerogatives from the 
Areopagus; this looks like a conjecture based on Arist. Pol. ii. 9 
(12), 1273; r/iv 'o> 'Apcltf ird-ycj) /3ouXi)j> 'E^tiXrijs fcciXowe Kal Ilepi/tX^s, 
a passage which really proves nothing. Plutarch, who is clearly 
blinded by Pericles' subsequent brilliance, makes him suddenly burst 
into prominence and hold the highest place for 40 years (i.e. from 
469) ; he degrades Ephialtes into a tool of Pericles. 



The beginning of his ascendancy is marked by an unprecedented 
outward expansion of Athenian power. In continuance of 
Cimon's policy, 200 ships were sent to support the Egyptian 
insurgents against Persia (459)," while detachments operated 
against Cyprus and Phoenicia. At the same time Athens 
embarked on several wars in Greece Proper. An alliance with 
the Megarians, who were being hard pressed by their neighbours 
of Corinth, led to enmity with this latter power, and before long 
Epidaurus and Aegina were drawn into the struggle. On sea 
the Athenians, after two minor engagements, gained a decisive 
victory which enabled them to blockade Aegina. On land 
their general Myronides beat off two Corinthian attacks on 
Megara, which had been further secured by long walls drawn 
between the capital and its port Nisaea, nearly a mile distant. 
In 457 the Athenians and their allies ventured to intercept a 
Spartan force which was returning home from central Greece. 
At Tanagra in Boeotia a pitched battle was fought, in which 
both Pericles and the partisans of Cimon distinguished them- 
selves. The Spartans were successful but did not pursue their 
advantage, and soon afterwards the Athenians, seizing their 
opportunity, sallied forth again, and, after a victory under 
Myronides at Oenophyta, obtained the submission of all Boeotia, 
save Thebes, and of Phocis and Locris. In 455 Tolmides 
ravaged Laconia and secured Naupactus on the Corinthian 
gulf; in 4S4 4 Pericles himself defeated the Sicyonians, and made 
a descent upon Oeniadae at the mouth of the gulf, and in 453 
conducted a cleruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. These years 
mark the zenith of Athenian greatness. Yet the drain on the 
country's strength was severe, and when news arrived in 453 
that the whole of the Egyptian armament, together with a 
reserve fleet, had been destroyed by the Persians, a reaction 
set in, and Cimon, who was recalled on Pericles' motion (but see 
CIMON), was empowered to make peace with Sparta on the basis 
of the status quo. For a while the old anti-Persian policy again 
found favour in Athens, and Cimon led a great expedition against 
Cyprus; but on Cimon's death hostilities were suspended, and a 
lasting arrangement with Persia was brought about. 6 It was 
probably in order to mark the definite conclusion of the Persian 
War and to obtain recognition for Athens' work in punishing 
the Mede that Pericles now 6 proposed a pan-Hellenic congress 
at Athens to consult about the rebuilding of the ruined temples 
and the policing of the seas; but owing to the refusal of Sparta 
the project fell through. 

Pericles may now have hoped to resume his aggressive policy 
in Greece Proper, but the events of the following years completely 
disillusioned him. In 447 an Athenian army, which had marched 
into Boeotia to quell an insurrection, had to surrender in a body 
at Coronea, and the price of their ransom was the evacuation 
of Boeotia. Upon news of this disaster Phocis, Locris and 
Euboea revolted, and the Megarians massacred their Athenian 
garrison, while a Spartan army penetrated into Attica as far as 
Eleusis. In this crisis Pericles induced the Spartan leaders to 
retreat, apparently by means of a bribe, and hastened to re- 
conquer Euboea; but the other land possessions could not be 
recovered, and in a thirty years' truce which was arranged in 
445 Athens definitely renounced her predominance in Greece 
Proper. Pericles' foreign policy henceforward underwent a 
profound change to consolidate the naval supremacy, or to 
extend it by a cautious advance, remained his only ambition. 

3 The chronology of these years down to 449 is not quite certain. 

4 An abortive expedition to reinstate a Thessalian prince probably 
also belongs to this year; there is also evidence that Athens inter- 
fered in a war between Selinus and Segesta in Sicily about this 
time. 

6 The " peace of CalKas " is perhaps a fiction of the 4th century 
orators. All the earlier evidence goes to show that only an informal 
understanding was arrived at, based on the de facto inability of 
either power to cripple the other (see CIMON). 

6 448 seems the most likely date. Before 460 Pericles' influence 
was as yet too small; 460-451 were years of war. After 445 Athens 
was hardly in a position to summon such a congress, and would 
not have sent ip envoys out of 20 to northern and central Greece, 
where she had just lost all her influence; nor is it likely that the 
building of the Parthenon (begun not later than 447) was entered 
on before the congress. 



146 



PERICLES 



While scouting the projects of the extreme Radicals for interfering 
in distant countries, he occasionally made a display of Athens' 
power abroad, as in his expedition to the Black Sea, 1 and 
in the colonization of Thurii, 2 which marks the resumption of a 
Western policy. 

The peaceful development of Athenian power was interrupted 
by the revolt of Samos in 440. Pericles himself led out a fleet 
against the seceders and, after winning a first engagement, 
unwisely divided his armament and allowed one squadron to be 
routed. In a subsequent battle he retrieved this disaster, and 
after a long blockade reduced the town itself. A demand for 
help which the Samians sent to Sparta was rejected at the 
instance of the Corinthians. 

Turning to Pericles' policy towards the members of the 
Delian League, we find that he frankly endeavoured to turn the 
allies into subjects (see DELIAN LEAGUE). A special feature 
of his rule was the sending out of numerous cleruchies (?..), 
which served the double purpose of securing strategic points 
to Athens and converting the needy proletariate of the capital 
into owners of real property. The land was acquired either by 
confiscation from disaffected states or in exchange for a lowering 
of tribute. The chief cleruchies of Pericles are: Thracian 
Chersonese (453-452), Lemnos and Imbros, Andros, Naxos and 
Eretria (before 447); 3 Brea in Thrace (446); Oreus(445); Amisus 
and Astacus in the Black Sea (after 440); Aegina (431). 

In his home policy Pericles carried out more fully Ephialtes' 
project of making the Athenian people truly self-governing. 
His chief innovation was the introduction of payment from the 
public treasury for state service. Chief of all, he provided a 
remuneration of i to 2 obols a day for the jurymen, probably 
in 45i. 4 Similarly he created a"theoricon" fund which enabled 
poor citizens to attend the dramatic representations of the 
Dionysia. To him we may also attribute the 3 obols pay which 
the soldiers received during the Peloponnesian War in addition 
to the old-established provision-money. The archons and 
members of the boule, who certainly received remuneration in 
411, and also some minor magistrates, were perhaps paid for 
the first time by Pericles. In connexion with this system of 
salaries should be mentioned a somewhat reactionary law 
carried by Pericles in 451, by which an Athenian parentage 
on both sides was made an express condition of retaining the 
franchise and with it the right of sitting on paid juries. The 
measure by which the archonship was opened to the third and 
(practically) to the fourth class of citizens (the Zeugitae and 
Thetes) may also be due to Pericles; the date is now known to be 
457 (Const. Ath. 26; and see ARCHON). 

The last years of his life were troubled by a new period of 
storm and stress which called for his highest powers of calculation 
and self-control. A conflict between Corcyra and Corinth, the 
second and third naval powers of Greece, led to the simultaneous 
appearance in Athens of an embassy from either combatant 
(433). Pericles had, as it seems, resumed of late a plan of 
Western expansion by forming alliances with Rhegium and 
Leontini, and the favourable position of Corcyra on the trade- 
route to Sicily and Italy, as well as its powerful fleet, no doubt 
helped to induce him to secure an alliance with that island, 
and so to commit an unfriendly act towards a leading repre- 
sentative of the Peloponnesian League. Pericles now seemed to 
have made up his mind that war with Sparta, the head of that 

1 The date can hardly be fixed ; probably it was after 440. 

2 It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise, 
but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Larapon 
the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect. The oligarch 
Cratinus (in a frag, of the fcirydies) violently attacks the whole 
project. 

These dates are suggested by the decrease of tribute which the 
inscriptions prove for this year. 

4 This' is the date given by the Const. Ath., which also mentions 
a 8ia^j)[</>t<7/^$ TWV SuaurrSav\ (Blass 1 restoration) in frag. c. 1 8. 
The confused story of Philochorus and Plutarch, by which 4760 
citizens were disfranchised or even sold into slavery in 445, when 
an Egyptian prince sent a largess of corn, may refer to a subsequent 
application of Pericles' law, though probably on a much milder 
scale than is here represented. 



League, had become inevitable. In the following spring he 
fastened a quarrel upon Potidaea, a town in Chalcidice, which 
was attached by ancient bonds to Corinth, and in the campaign 
which followed Athenian and Corinthian troops came to blows. 
A further casus belli was provided by a decree forbidding the 
importation of Megarian goods into the Athenian Empire, 6 pre- 
sumably in order to punish Megara for her alliance with Corinth 
(spring 432). The combined complaints of the injured parties 
led Sparta to summon a Peloponnesian congress which decided 
on war against Athens, failing a concession to Megara and 
Corinth (autumn 432). In this crisis Pericles persuaded the 
wavering assembly that compromise was useless, because Sparta 
was resolved to precipitate a war in any case. A further embassy 
calling upon the Athenians to expel the accursed family of the 
Alcmaeonidae, clearly aimed at Pericles himself as its chief 
representative, was left unheeded, and early in 431 hostilities 
began between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies 
(see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). 

At the same time, Pericles was being sorely hampered by his 
adversaries at home. The orthodox Conservatives and some 
democrats who were jealous of his influence, while afraid 
to beard the great statesman himself, combined to assail his 
nearest friends. The sculptor Pheidias (q.v.) was prosecuted on 
two vexatious charges (probably in 433), and before he could 
disprove the second he died under arrest. Anaxagoras was 
threatened with a law against atheists, and felt compelled to 
leave Athens. A scandalous charge against his mistress Aspasia, 
which he defeated by his personal intercession before the court, 
was taken very much to heart by Pericles. His position at 
home scarcely improved during the war. His policy of aban- 
doning the land defence was unpopular with the land-owning 
section of the people, who from the walls of Athens could see 
their own property destroyed by the invaders. At the end of 
the first year of war (early in 430) Pericles 'made a great appeal 
to the pride of his countrymen in his well-known funeral speech. 
But in the ensuing summer, after a terrible outbreak of plague 
had ravaged the crowded city, the people became thoroughly 
demoralized. Pericles led a large squadron to harry the coasts 
of the Peloponnese, but met with little success. On his return 
the Athenians sued for peace, though without success, and a 
speech by Pericles had little effect on their spirits. Late in 430 
they deposed him from his magistracy. In addition to this 
they prosecuted him on a charge of embezzlement, and imposed 
a fine of 50 talents. A revulsion of feeling soon led to his rein- 
statement, apparently with extraordinary powers. But the 
plague, which had carried off two of his sons and a sister, had 
left its mark also on Pericles himself. In the autumn of 429 he 
died 6 and was buried near the Academia, where Pausanias (150 
A.D.) saw his tomb. A slightly idealized portrait of Pericles 
as strategus is preserved to us in the British Museum bust, 
No. 549, which is a good copy of the well-known bronze original 
by Cresilas. 

If we now endeavour to give a general estimate of Pericles' 
character and achievements, it will be well to consider the many 
departments of his activity one by one. In his foreign policy 
Pericles differs from those statesmen of previous generations 
who sought above all the welfare of Greece as a whole. His 
standpoint was at all times purely Athenian. Nor did he com- 
bine great statesmanlike qualities with exceptional ability in the 
field. We may clearly distinguish two periods in his adminis- 
tration of foreign affairs. At first, joining to Cimon's anti- 
Persian ambitions and Themistocles' schemes of Western expan- 
sion a new policy of aggression on the mainland, he endeavoured 
to push forward Athenian power in every direction, and engaged 
himself alike in Greece Proper, in the Levant and in Sicily. 
After Cimon's death he renounced the war against Persia, and 
the collapse of 447-445 had the effect of completing his change 

6 The general impression in Greece was that this decree was the 
proximate cause of the war. Tne scurrilous motives which Aristo- 
phanes suggests for this measure can be entirely disregarded. 

6 His dying boast, that " no Athenian had put on mourning 
through his doing," perhaps refers to his forbearance towards his 
political rivals, whom he refused to ruin by prosecution. 



PERIDOT 



of attitude. Henceforward he repressed all projects of reckless 
enterprise, and confined himself to the gradual expansion and 
consolidation of the empire. It is not quite easy to see why he 
abandoned this successful policy in order to hasten on a war with 
Sparta, and neither the Corcyrean alliance nor the Megarian 
decree seems justified by the facts as known to us, though com- 
mercial motives may have played a part which we cannot now 
gauge. In his adoption of a purely defensive policy at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, he miscalculated the temper 
of the Athenians, whose morale would have been better sustained 
by a greater show of activity. But in the main his policy in 
431-429 was sound, and the disasters of the war cannot fairly 
be laid to his charge. The foundation of cleruchies was an 
admirable device, which in many ways anticipated the colonial 
system of the Romans. 

In .his attitude towards the members of the Delian League 
Pericles likewise maintained a purely Athenian point of view. 
But he could hardly be said seriously to have oppressed the 
subject cities, and technically all the League money was spent 
on League business, for Athena, to whom the chief monuments 
in Athens were reared, was the patron goddess of the League. 
Under Pericles Athens also attained her greatest measure 
of commercial prosperity, and the activity of her traders all 
over the Levant, the Black Sea and the West, is attested not 
only by literary authority, but also by numerous Attic coins, 
vases, &c. 

Pericles' home policy has been much debated since ancient 
times. His chief enactments relate to the payment of citizens 
for State service. These measures have been interpreted as an 
appeal to the baser instincts of the mob, but this assumption is 
entirely out of keeping with all we know of Pericles' general 
attitude towards the people, over whom Thucydides says he 
practically ruled as a king. We must, then, admit that Pericles 
sincerely contemplated the good of his fellow-countrymen, and 
we may believe that he endeavoured to realize that ideal Athens 
which Thucydides sketches in the Funeral Speech an Athens 
where free and intelligent obedience is rendered to an equitable 
code of laws, where merit finds its way to the front, where 
military efficiency is found along with a free development in 
other directions and strangles neither commerce nor art. In 
accordance with this scheme Pericles sought to educate the whole 
community to political wisdom by giving to all an active share 
in the government, and to train their aesthetic tastes by making 
accessible the best drama and music. It was most unfortunate 
that the Peloponnesian War ruined this great project by 
diverting the large supplies of money which were essential 
to it, and confronting the remodelled Athenian democracy, 
before it could dispense with his tutelage, with a series of 
intricate questions of foreign policy which, in view of its in- 
experience, it could hardly have been expected to grapple 
with successfully. 

Pericles also incurred unpopularity because of his rationalism 
in religious matters; yet Athens in his time was becoming ripe 
for the new culture, and would have done better to receive it 
from men of his circle Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras and Melon 
than from the more irresponsible sophists. The influence of 
Aspasia on Athenian thought, though denounced unsparingly 
by most critics, may indeed have been beneficial, inasmuch as 
it tended towards the emancipation of the Attic woman from the 
over-strict tutelage in which she was kept. As a patron of 
art Pericles was a still greater force. His policy in encouraging 
the drama has already been mentioned: among his friends he 
could count three of the greatest Greek writers the poet 
Sophocles and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. 
Pericles likewise is responsible for the epoch-making splendour 
of Attic art in his time, for had he not so fully appreciated and 
given such free scope to the genius of Pheidias, Athens would 
hardly have witnessed the raising Of the Parthenon and other 
glorious structures, and Attic art could not have boasted a 
legion of first-rate sculptors of whom Alcamenes, Agoracritus 
and Paeonius are only the chief names. (See also GREEK ART.) 

Of Pericles' personal characteristics we have a peculiarly full 



and interesting record. He was commonly compared to 
Olympian Zeus, partly because of his serene and dignified 
bearing, partly by reason of the majestic roll of the thundering 
eloquence, with its bold poetical imagery, with which he held 
friend and foe spellbound. The same dignity appeared in the 
grave beauty of his features, though the abnormal height of 
his cranium afforded an opportunity for ridicule of which the 
comedians made full use. In spite of an unusually large crop 
of scandals about him we cannot but believe that he bore an 
honourable character, and his integrity is vouched for by 
Thucydides in such strong terms as to exclude all further 
doubt on the question. 

ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. Our chief source must always remain 
Thucydides (i. and ii. 1-65), whose insight into the character and 
ideals of Pericles places him far above all other authorities. The 
speeches which he puts into his mouth are of special value in dis- 
closing to us Pericles' inmost thoughts and aspirations (i. 140-144; 
" 35~46; 60-64). Thucydides alone shows sympathy with 
Pericles, though, as J. B. Bury points out (Ancient Greek Historians, 
1909, pp. 133 seq.), he was by no means a blind admirer. Of 
other 5th-century sources, Aristophanes is obviously a caricaturist, 
pseudo-Xenophon (de republica Atheniensium) a mere party pam- 
phleteer. Plato, while admiring Pericles' intellect, accuses him of 
pandering to the mob; Aristotle in his Politics and especially in 
the Constitution of Athens, which is valuable in that it gives the 
dates of Pericles' enactments as derived from an official document, 
accepts the same view. Plutarch (Pericles) gives many interesting 
details as to Pericles' personal bearing, home life, and patronage 
of art, literature and philosophy, derived in part from the old 
comic poets, Aristophanes, Cratinus, Eupolis, Hermippus, Plato 
and Teleclides; in part from the contemporary memoirs of Stesim- 
brotus and Ion of Chios. At the same time he reproduces their 
scandalous anecdotes in a quite uncritical spirit, and accepts un- 
questioningly the 4th-century tradition. He quotes Aristotle, 
Heraclides Ponticus, Aeschines Socraticus, Idomeneus of Lampsacus 
and Duris of Samos, and is also indebted through some Alexandrine 
intermediary to Ephorus and Theopompus. Diodorus (xi. and 
xii.), who copied Ephorus, contains nothing of value. 

MODERN WORKS. Historians are agreed that Pericles was one of 
the most powerful personalities of ancient times, and generally 
allow him to have been a man of probity. J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch. 
vols. i. and ii. (Strassburg and Bonn, 1893-1896), and Die attische 
Politik seit Perikles (Leipzig, 1884) takes the most disparaging view; 
E. Abbott, Greek Hist., vol. ii. (London, 1892), and M. Duncker, Gesch. 
d. Altertums, vols. viii., ix. (Leipzig, 1884-1886), are on the whole un- 
favourable; Adolf Schmidt, Das Perikleische Zeitalter (Jena, 1877), 
V. Duruy, History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1892), G. Busolt, 
Griech. Gesch., vol. iii. (Gotha, 1897, 1904), and E. Meyer, Gesch. d. 
Altertums, \o\s. iii. andiv. (Stuttgart, if)Oi),Forschungen,vo].ii. (Halle, 
1899; London, 1902), apportion praise and blame more equally; 
J. B. Bury and E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vols. ii. and iii., 
London, 1869, 1870), A. Holm, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vol. ii., 
London, 1895), W. Lloyd, The Age of Pericles (London, 1875), and 
especially G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, vols. iv. and v. (see also additional 
notes in the edition by J. M. Mitchell and M. Caspari, 1907) take 
a favourable view. For Pericles' buildings, see C. Wachsmuth, 
Gesch. d. Stadt Athen, i. 516-560 (Leipzig, 1874); E. A. Gardner, 
Ancient Athens (London, 1902), for his strategy, H. Delbruck, 
Die Strateg. d. Perikles (Berlin, 1890). See ATHENS: History; 
GREECE : A ncient History; and GREEK ART. (M. O. B. C.) 

PERIDOT, sometimes written peridote, a name applied by 
jewelers to " noble olivine," or that kind of olivine which can 
be used as a gem-stone (see OLIVINE). The word peridot is 
an old trade-term, of unknown origin, used by French jewelers 
and introduced into science by J. R. Hatiy. Peridot is practi- 
cally the same stone as chrysolite (q.v.), though it is convenient 
to restrict that term to transparent olivine of pale yellowish 
green colour, and to apply the term peridot to those kinds which 
are .darker and decidedly green: the colour, which is due to 
the presence of ferrous iron, is never vivid, like that of emerald, 
but is usually some shade of olive-, pistachio- or leek-green. 
Although the stone is sometimes cut en cabochon, and in rose- 
form, the cutting best adapted to display the colour is that of a 
table or a step-cut stone. Unfortunately the hardness of peri- 
dot is only about 6-5, or but little above that of glass, so 
that the polished stone readily suffers abrasion by wear. In 
polishing peridot the final touch is given on a copper wheel 
moistened with sulphuric acid. 

Although olivine has a fairly wide distribution in nature, the 
varieties used as gem-stones are of very limited occurrence. 
Much mystery for a long time surrounded the locality which 



PERIDOTITE PERIER 



yields most of the peridot of commerce but it is now identified 
with the island of St John, or Isle Zeboiget, in the Red Sea, 
where it occurs, as shown by M. J. Couyat, in an altered dunite, 
or olivine rock (Bull soc. franf. min., 1908). This is probably 
the Topaz Isle, Torrdf UK vrja'os, of the ancients. It is generally 
held that the mineral now called topaz was unknown to ancient 
and mediaeval writers, and that their rowa^iov was our peridot. 
Such was probably the Hebrew pitdah, translated topaz in the 
Old Testament. Dr G. F. Kunz has suggested that the peridots 
of modern trade are largely derived from old jewelry. The 
famous shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral contains 
a large peridot, which has commonly been regarded as an emerald. 
It is notable that pebbles of transparent olivine, fit for cutting, 
are found in the United States in Montana, Arizona and New 
Mexico; in consequence of their shape and curiously pitted 
surface they are known as " Job's tears." (F. W. R.*) 

PERIDOTITE, a plutonic holo-crystalline rock composed in 
large part of olivine, and almost or entirely free from feldspar. 
The rocks are the most basic, or least siliceous plutonic rocks, 
and contain much iron oxide and magnesia. Hence they have 
dark colours and a high specific gravity (3-0 and over). They 
weather readily and are changed to serpentine, in which process 
water is absorbed and enters jnto chemical combination with 
the silicates of magnesia and iron. In some peridotites, such 
as the dunites, olivine greatly preponderates over all other 
minerals. It is always in small, rather rounded crystals without 
good crystalline form, and pale green in colour. Most of the 
rocks of this group, however, contain other silicates such as 
augite, hornblende, biotite or rhombic pyroxene, and often 
two or three of these are present. By the various mineral 
combinations different species are produced, e.g. mica-peridot. : te, 
hornblende-peridotite, enstatite-peridotite. Of the accessory 
minerals the commonest are iron oxides and chromite or picotite. 
In some peridotites these form segregations or irregular masses 
which are of importance as sources of the ores of chromium. 
Corundum occurs in small crystals in many North American 
peridotites and platinum and the nickel-iron compound awaruite 
are found in rocks of this class in New Zealand. Red garnet 
(pyrope) characterizes the peridotites of Bohemia. The diamond 
mines of South Africa are situated in pipes or volcanic necks 
occupied by a peridotite breccia which has been called kimber- 
lite. In this rock in addition to diamond the following minerals 
are found, hypersthene, garnet, biotite, pyroxene (chrome- 
diopside), ilmenite, zircon, &c. 

Some peridotites have a granular structure, e.g. the dunites, 
all the crystal grains being of rounded shape and nearly equal 
size; a few are porphyritic with large individuals of diallage, 
augite or hypersthene. Some are banded with parallel bands 
of dissimilar composition, the result probably of fluxion in a 
magma which was not quite homogeneous. The great majority 
of the rocks of this group are poikilitic, that is to say, they 
contain olivine in small rounded crystals embedded in large 
irregular masses of pyroxene or hornblende. The structure 
is not unlike that known as ophitic in the dolerites, and arises 
from the olivine having first separated out of the liquid magma 
while the pyroxene or amphibole succeeded it and caught up 
its crystals. In hand specimens of the rocks the smooth and 
shining cleavage surfaces of hornblende and augite are dotted 
over with dull blackish green spots of olivine; to this appearance 
the name " lustre-mottling " has been given. 

Mica-peridotites are not of frequent occurrence. A well-known 
rock from Kaltes Thai, Harzburg, contains much biotite, deep 
brown in thin section. Other examples are found in India and in 
Arkansas. Poikilitic structure is rarely well developed in this 
group. The " blue-ground " of Kimberley which contains the 
diamonds is a brecciform biotite-hypersthene-peridotite with augite. 
In the north of Scotland, in several places in Sutherland and Ross, 
there are peridotites with silvery yellow green biotite and large 
plates of pale green hornblende: these have been called scyelites. 
In the hornblende-peridotites lustre-mottling is often very striking. 
The amphibole may be colourless tremolite in small prisms, as in 
some varieties of serpentine from the Lizard (Cornwall); or pale 
green hornblende as in scyelite. In both these cases there is some 
probability that the hornblende has developed, partly at least, 
from olivine or augite. In sheared peridotites tremolite and 



actinolite are very frequent. Other rocks contain dark brown 
hornblende, with much olivine; there may also be augite which is 
often intergrown perthitically with the hornblende. Examples 
of this type occur in North Wales, Anglesey, Cornwall, Cortland, 
New York, and many other localities. A well-known peridotite from 
Schriesheimer Tal in the Odenwald has pale brownish green amphibole 
in large crystals filled with small grains of olivine which are mostly 
serpentinized. Very often primary brown hornblende in rocks of 
this type is surrounded by fringes and outgrowths of colourless 
tremolite which has formed as a secondary mineral after olivine. 
Complete pseudomorphs after olivine composed of a matrix of scaly 
talc and chlorite crossed by a network of tremolite needles, are 
also very common in some peridotites, especially those which have 
undergone pressure or shearing: these aggregates are known as 
pilite. 

The peridotites which contain monoclinic pyroxene may be 
divided into two classes, those rich in diallage and those in which 
there is much augite. The diallage-peridotites have been called 
wehrlites; often they show excellent lustre-mottling. Brown or 
green hornblende may surround the diallage, and hypersthene 
may occur also in lamellar intergrowth with it. Some of these 
rocks contain biotite, while a little feldspar (often saussuritic) may 
often be seen in the sections. Rocks of this kind are known in 
Hungary, in the Odenwald and in Silesia. In Skye the pyroxene- 
bearing peridotites usually contain green chrome-diopside (a variety 
of augite distinguished by its pale colour and the presence of a 
small amount of chromium). The augite-peridotites are grouped 
by German petrographers under the picrites, but this term has a 
slightly different signification in the English nomenclature (see 
Pic RITE). 

The enstatite-peridotites are an important group represented 
in many parts of the world. Their rhombic pyroxene is often very 
pale coloured but may then be filled with platy enclosures which 
give it a metallic or bronzy lustre. These rocks have been called 
saxonites or harzburgites. When weathered the enstatite passes 
into platy masses of bastite. Picotite and chromite are common 
accessory minerals and diallage or hornblende may also be present. 
Many of the serpentine rocks of the Lizard (Cornwall) Ayrshire 
and north-western Scotland are of this type. Examples are known 
also from Baste near Harzburg, New York and Maryland, Norway, 
Finland, New Zealand, &c. Often the enstatite crystals are of 
large size and are very conspicuous in the hand specimens. They 
may be porphyritic, or may form a coarsely crystalline matrix 
enclosing innumerable olivine grains, and then lustre-mottling is 
as a rule very well shown. 

The Iherzolites are rocks, first described from Lherz in the 
Pyrenees, consisting of olivine, chrome-diopside and enstatite, and 
accessory picotite or chromite. They are fine-grained, bright 
green in colour, often very fresh, and may be somewhat granulitic. 
The dunites are peridotites, similar to the rock of Dun Mountain, 
New Zealand, composed essentially of olivine in a finely granular 
condition. Many examples of this type are known in different 
parts of the world, usually as local facies of other kinds of peridotite. 
In olivine-basalts of Tertiary age in the Rhine district small nodules 
of green olivine occur frequently. They are of rounded shapes 
and may be a foot in diameter. The structure is granular and 
in addition to olivine they may contain chromite, spinel and 
magnetite, enstatite and chrome-diopside. Some geologists believe 
these to be fragments of dunite detached from masses of that rock 
not exposed at the surface; others consider that they are aggre- 
gations of the early minerals of the basalt magma, which were already 
crystallized before the liquid rock was emitted. 

The great majority of stony or lithoidal meteorites (aerolites) 
are rich in olivine and present many analogies to the terrestrial 
peridotites. Among their minerals are hypersthene (enstatite) augite 
and chrome-diopside, chromite, pyrite and troilite, nickeliferous 
iron and basic plagioclase feldspar. The structure of these meteor- 
ites is described as " chondritic " ; their minerals often occur as 
small rounded grains arranged in radiate clusters; this has very 
rarely been observed in ordinary peridotites. 

Although many peridotites are known in which the constituent 
minerals are excellently preserved, the majority show more or 
less advanced decomposition. The olivine is especially unstable 
and is altered to serpentine, while augite, hornblende and biotite 
are in large measure fresh. In other cases the whole rock is changed 
to an aggregate of secondary products. Most serpentines (q.v.) 
arise in this way. (] S. F.) 

PERIER, CASIMIR PIERRE (1777-1832), French statesman, 
was born at Grenoble on the nth of October 1777, the fourth 
son of a rich banker and manufacturer, Claude Pe'rier (1742- 
1801), in whose house the estates of Dauphiny met in 1788. 
Claude Perier was one of the first directors of the Bank of France; 
of his eight sons, Augustin (1773-1833), Antoine Scipion (1776- 
1821), Casimir Pierre and Camille (1781-1844}, all distinguished 
themselves in industry and in politics. The family removed 
to Paris after the revolution of Thermidor, and Casimir joined 
the army of Italy in 1798. On his father's death he left the 



PERIGEE PERIGUEUX 



149 



army and with his brother Scipion founded a bank in Paris, 
the speculations of which he directed while Scipion occupied 
himself with its administration. He opposed the ruinous 
methods by which the due de Richelieu sought to raise the war 
indemnity demanded by the Allies, in a pamphlet Reflexions 
sur le projet d'emprunt (1817), followed in the same year by 
Dernieres reflexions ... in answer to an inspired article in the 
Moniteur. In the same year he entered the chamber of deputies 
for Paris, taking his seat in the Left Centre with the moderate 
opposition, and making his first speech in defence of the freedom 
of the press. Re-elected for Paris in 1822 and 1824, and in 
1827 for Paris and for Troyes, he elected to represent Troyes, 
and sat for that constituency until his death. Perier's violence 
in debate was not associated with any disloyalty to the monarchy, 
and he held resolutely aloof from the republican conspiracies 
and intrigues which prepared the way for the revolution of 
1830. Under the Martignac ministry there was some prospect 
of a reconciliation with the court, and in January 1829 he was 
nominated a candidate for the presidency of the chamber; but 
in August with the elevation to power of Polignac the truce 
ceased, and on the isth of March 1830 he was one of the 
221 deputies who repudiated the pretensions put forward by 
Charles X. Averse by instinct and by interest to popular revolu- 
tion he nevertheless sat on the provisory commission of five at 
the h6tel-de-ville during the days of July, but he refused to sign 
the declaration of Charles X.'s dethronement. Perier reluctantly 
recognized in the government of Louis Philippe the only alterna- 
tive to the continuance of the Revolution; but he was no favourite 
with the new king, whom he scorned for his truckling to the mob. 
He became president of the chamber of deputies, and sat for 
a few months in the cabinet, though without a portfolio. On 
the fall of the weak and discredited ministry of Laffitte, Casimir 
Perier, who had drifted more and more to the Right, was 
summoned to power (March 13, 1831), and in the short space 
of a year he restored civic order in France and re-established 
her credit in Europe. Paris was in a constant state of disturb- 
ance from March to September, and was only held in check by 
the premier's determination; the workmen's revolt at Lyons 
was suppressed after hard fighting; and at Grenoble, in face of 
the quarrels between the military and the inhabitants, Perier 
declined to make any concession to the townsfolk. The minister 
refused to be dragged into armed intervention in favour of the 
revolutionary government of Warsaw, but his policy of peace 
did not exclude energetic demonstrations in support of French 
interests. He constituted France the protector of Belgium 
by the prompt expedition of the army of the north against the 
Dutch in August 1831; French influence in Italy was asserted 
by the audacious occupation of Ancona (Feb. 23, 1832); and 
the refusal of compensation for injuries to French residents by 
the Portuguese government was followed by a naval demonstra- 
tion at Lisbon. Perier had undertaken the premiership with 
many forebodings, and overwork and anxiety prepared the way 
for disease. In the spring of 1832 during the cholera outbreak 
in Paris, he visited the hospitals in company with the duke of 
Orleans. He fell ill the next day of a violent fever, and died 
six weeks later, on the i6th of May 1832. 

His Opinions et discours were edited by A. Lesieur (2 vpls., 1838) ; 
C. Nicoullaud published in 1894 the first part (Casimir-Perier, 
depute de I' opposition, 1817-1830) of a study of his life and policy; 
and his ministry is exhaustively treated by Thureau-Dangin in 
vols. i. and ii. (1884) of his Histoire de la monarchic dejuillet. 

His elder son, AUGUSTE VICTOR LAURENT CASIMIR PERIER 
(1811-1876), the father of President Casimir-Perier (see CASIMIR- 
PERIER), entered the diplomatic service, being attached suc- 
cessively to the London, Brussels and St Petersburg embassies, 
and in 1843 became minister plenipotentiary at Hanover. 
In 1846 he resigned from the service to enter the legislature 
as deputy for the department of Seine, a constituency which 
he exchanged for Aube after the Revolution of 1848. On the 
establishment of the Second Empire he retired temporarily 
from public life, and devoted himself to economic questions on 
which he published a series of works, notably Les Finances et la 



politique (1863), dealing with the interaction of political in- 
stitutions and finance. He contested Grenoble unsuccessfully 
in 1863 against the imperial candidate, Casimir Royer; and 
failed again for Aube in 1869. In 1871 he was returned by three 
departments to the National Assembly, and elected to sit for 
Aube. He was minister of the interior for a few months in 
1871-1872, and his retirement deprived Thiers of one of the 
strongest elements in his cabinet. He also joined the short- 
lived ministry of May 1873. He consistently opposed all efforts 
in the direction of a monarchical restoration, but on the definite 
constitution of the republic became a life senator, declining 
MacMahon's invitation to form the first cabinet under the new 
constitution. He died in Paris on the 6th of June 1876. 

For the family in general see E. Choulet, La Famille Casimir- 
Perier (Grenoble, 1894). 

PERIGEE (Gr. Kepi, near, 717, the earth), in astronomy that 
point of the moon's orbit or of the sun's apparent orbit at 
which the moon or sun approach nearest to the earth. The 
sun's perigee and the earth's perihelion are so related that they 
differ 180 in longitude, the first being on the line from the earth 
toward the sun, and the second from the sun toward the earth. 
The longitude of the solar perigee is now 101, that of the earth's 
perihelion 281. 

PERIGORD, one of the old provinces of France, formed part 
of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was 
bounded on the N. by Angoumois, on the E. by Limousin and 
Quercy, on the S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and on the W. 
by Bordelais and Saintonge. It is now represented by the 
departments of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. Perigord 
was in two divisions: P6rigord blanc (cap. Perigueux) and 
Perigord noir (cap. Sarlat). In the time of Caesar it formed 
the civitas Petrocoriorum, with Vesunna (Perigueux) as its 
capital. It became later part of Aquitania secunda and formed 
the pagus petragoricus, afterwards the diocese of Perigueux. 
Since the 8th century it had its own counts (see the Histoire 
genealogique of P. Anselme, tome iii.), who were feudatories of 
the dukes of Aquitaine and in the I3th century were the vassals 
of the king of England. In the isth century the county passed 
into the hands of the dukes of Orleans, and in the i6th came 
to the family of d-'Albret, becoming Crown land again on the 
accession of Henry IV. 

See Dessalles, Histoire du Perigord (1888), the Bulletin of the 
Societe historique et archeologique du Perigord (1874 seq.), I'Inventaire 
sommaire dela" Collection de Perigord " in the Bibliotheque nationale 
(1874) ; the Dictionnaire topographique du department de la Dordogne 
by the Vicomte de Gourgues (1873). 

PfiRIGUEUX, a town of south-western France, formerly 
capital of the old province of Perigord, now chief town of the 
department of Dordogne, 79 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the 
railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906), 28,199. 
The town, situated on an eminence on the right bank of the 
Isle, is divided into three parts. On the slope of the hill is 
the medieval town, bordered south-east by the river and on the 
other three sides by esplanades and promenades; to the west 
is the modern town, which stretches to the station; to the south 
of the modern town is the old Roman town or cite, now traversed 
by the railway. 

Three bridges connect Perigueux with the left bank of the 
Isle, where stood Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Hardly 
a trace of this old Gallic town remains, but not far off, on the 
Plateau de la Boissiere, the rampart of the old Roman camp 
can still be traced. On the right bank of the Isle, in the Roman 
city, there have been discovered some baths of the ist or 2nd 
century, supplied by an aqueduct four miles long, which spanned 
the Isle. A circular building, called the " Tower of Vesunna," 
68 ft. in diameter and 89 ft. in height, stands at what was 
formerly the centre of the city, where all the chief streets met. 
It is believed to have been originally the cella or main part of 
a temple, probably dedicated to the tutelary deities of Vesunna. 
Of the amphitheatre there still remain huge fragments of wall 
and vaulting. The building had a diameter of 1312 ft., that 
of the arena being 870 ft. ; and, judging from its construction. 



PERIHELION PEKING DEL VAGA 



must be as old as the 3rd or even the 2nd century. The counts 
of Peiigueux used it for their chateau, and lived in it from the 
1 2th to the end of the I4th century. In 1644 it was given over 
by the town to the Order of the Visitation, and the sisters took 
from it the stones required for the construction of their nunnery. 
The most remarkable, however, of the ruins of the cili is the 
Chateau Barriere, an example of the fortified houses formerly 
common there. Two of its towers date from the 3rd or 4th 
century, and formed part of the fortified enceinte; the highest 
tower is of the loth century; and the part now inhabited is 
of the nth or i2th century, and was formerly used as a burial 
chapel. The bulk of the chateau is of the I2th, and some of 
the windows of the i6th century. 

The chief medieval building in the cili is the church of St 
Etienne, once the cathedral. It dates from the nth and I2th 
centuries, but suffered much injury at the hands of the Pro- 
testants in the religious wars when the tower and two of the 
three cupolas were destroyed. The choir and its cupola were 
skilfully restored in the I7th century. A fine carved wooden 
reredos of the lyth century and a tomb of a bishop of the 
1 2th century are to be seen in the interior. In the medieval 
town, known as Le Puy-St-Front, the most remarkable building 
is the cathedral of St Front, which, till its restoration, or rather 
rebuilding, in the latter half of the igth century when the old 
features were to a great extent lost, was of unique architectural 
value. It bears a striking resemblance to the Byzantine 
churches and to St Mark's at Venice, and according to one theory 
was built from 984 to 1047, contemporaneously with the latter 
(977-1085). It consists of five great cupolas, arranged in the 
form of a Greek cross, and conspicuous from the outside. The 
arms of the cross are 69 ft. in width, and the whole is 184 ft. 
long. These cupolas, 89 ft. high from the keystone to the 
ground, are supported on a vaulted roof with pointed arches 
after the manner characteristic of Byzantine architecture. 
The pointed arches imitated from it prepared the way for the 
introduction of the Gothic style. Adjoining St Front on the 
west are the remains of an old basilica of the 6th century, above 
which rises the belfry, the only one in the Byzantine style now 
extant. It dates from the nth century, and is composed of 
two massive cubes, placed the one above the other in retreat, 
with a circular colonnade surmounted by a dome. To the 
south-west of St Front, the buildings of an old abbey (nth to 
i6th century) surround a cloister dating chiefly from the i3th 
century. Of the fortifications of Puy St Front, the chief relic 
is the Tour Mataguerre (i4th century). 

Perigueux is seat of a bishop, prefect and court of assizes, 
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber 
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its 
educational establishments include a Iyc6e for boys, training 
colleges for both sexes and a school of drawing. The trade of 
the town is in pigs, truffles, flour, brandy, poultry and pies 
known as p&l&s de Pirigord. 

Vesunna was the capital of the Petrocorii, allies of Vercinge- 
torix when Caesar invaded Gaul. The country was afterwards 
occupied by the Romans, who built a second city of Vesunna 
on the right bank of the Isle opposite the site of the Gallic town. 
The barbarian invasion brought this prosperity to a close. St 
Front preached Christianity here in the 4th century and over 
his tomb there was raised a monastery, which became the centre 
of the new town called Le Puy St Front. The cili was pillaged 
by the Saracens about 731, and in 844 the Normans devastated 
both quarters. The new town soon began to rival the old city 
in importance, and it was not until 1240 that the attempts 
of the counts of P6rigord and the bishops to infringe on their 
municipal privileges brought about a treaty of union. During 
the Hundred Years' War, Perigueux was twice attacked by the 
English, who took the citi in 1356; and the whole town was 
ceded to them by the Treaty of Bretigny, but returned to the 
French Crown in the reign of Charles V. The county passed 
by marriage into the hands of Anthony of Bourbon, father 
of Henry IV., and was converted by the latter into royal 
domain. During the Huguenot wars Perigueux was frequently 



a stronghold of the Calvinists, who in 1575 did great 
destruction there, and it also suffered during the troubles of 
the Fronde. 

PERIHELION (Gr. mpi, near, TJXios, sun), in astronomy, the 
point of nearest approach of a body to the sun. (See ORBIT.) 

PERIM, a British island in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at 
the entrance to the Red Sea, and 96 m. W. by S. of Aden. 
Perim is 2 m. from the Arabian shore, is about 3^ m. long with 
an average breadth of over a mile and covers some 7 sq. m. 
There is a good harbour with easy entrance on the south side 
with a depth of water from 25 to 30 ft. It is largely used by 
mercantile vessels as a coaling-station and for taking in stores, 
including fresh water and ice. Perim, the Diodoros island of 
the Periplus, was, in consequence of the French occupation 
of Egypt, garrisoned from 1799 to 1801 by a British force. In 
view of the construction of the Suez Canal and the increasing 
importance of the Red Sea route to India the island was annexed 
to Great Britain in 1857, fortified and placed under the 
charge of the Aden residency. In 1861 a lighthouse was built 
at its eastern end. Submarine cables connect the island with 
Aden, Egypt and Zanzibar. Population, including a garrison 
of 50 sepoys, about 200. 

PERINO DEL VAGA (1500-1547), a painter of the Roman 
school, whose true name was PERINO (or PIERO) BUONACCORSI. 
He was born near Florence on the 28th of June 1500. His 
father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the 
invading army of Charles VIII. His mother dying when he 
was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat; but 
shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife. 
Perino was first apprenticed to a druggist, but soon passed into 
the hands of a mediocre painter, Andrea da Ceri, and, when 
eleven years of age, of Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. Perino rapidly 
surpassed his fellow-pupils, applying himself especially to the 
study of Michelangelo's great cartoon. Another mediocre 
painter, Vaga from Toscanella, undertook to settle the boy in 
Rome, but first set him to work in Toscanella. Perino, when 
he at last reached Rome, was utterly poor, and with no clear 
prospect beyond journey-work for trading decorators. He, 
however, studied with great severity and spirit from Michelangelo 
and the antique, and was eventually entrusted with some of 
the subordinate work undertaken by Raphael in the Vatican. 
He assisted Giovanni da Udine in the stucco and arabesque 
decorations of the loggie of the Vatican, and executed some of 
those small but finely composed scriptural subjects which go 
by the name of " Raphael's Bible " Raphael himself furnishing 
the designs. Perino's examples are: " Abraham about to 
sacrifice Isaac," " Jacob wrestling with the Angel," " Joseph 
and his Brethren," the " Hebrews crossing the Jordan," the 
" Fall and Capture of Jericho," " Joshua commanding the Sun 
to stand still," the " Birth of Christ," " His Baptism " and 
the " Last Supper." Some of these are in bronze-tint, while 
others are in full colour. He also painted, after Raphael's 
drawings, the figures of the planets in the great hall of the 
Appartamenti Borgia. Perino exhibited very uncommon faculty 
in these works and was soon regarded as second only to Giulio 
Romano among the great painter's assistants. To Raphael 
himself he was always exceedingly respectful and attentive, 
and the master loved him almost as a son". He executed many 
other works about Rome, always displaying a certain mixture 
of the Florentine with the Roman style. 

After Raphael's death in 1520 a troublous period ensued for 
Perino, with a plague which ravaged Rome in 1523, and again 
with the sack of that city in 1527. Then he accepted an invita- 
tion to Genoa, where he was employed in decorating the Doria 
Palace, and rapidly founded a quasi-Roman school of art in the 
Ligurian city. He ornamented the palace in a style similar 
to that of Giulio Romano in the Mantuan Palazzo del Te, and 
frescoed historical and mythological subjects in the apartments, 
fanciful and graceful arabesque work, sculptural and architec- 
tural details in short, whatever came to hand. Among the 
principal works are: the " War between the Gods and Giants," 
" Horatius Codes defending the Bridge," and the " Fortitude 



PERINTHUS PERIODICALS 



of Mutius Scaevola." The most important work of all, the 
" Shipwreck of Aeneas," is no longer extant. From Genoa 
Perino twice visited Pisa, and began some painting in the 
cathedral. Finally he returned to Rome, where Paul III. 
allowed him a regular salary till the painter's death. He 
retouched many of the works of Raphael, and laboured hard 
on his own account, undertaking all sorts of jobs, important 
-tJftrivial. Working for any price, he made large gains, but fell 
into mechanical negligence. Perino was engaged in the general 
decoration of the Sala Reale, begun by Paul III., when his health, 
undermined by constant work and as constant irregularities, 
gave way, and he fell down dead on the igth of October 1547. 
He is buried in the Pantheon. 

Perino produced some excellent portraits, and his smaller oil 
pictures combine with the manner of Raphael something of that 
of Adreadel Sarto. Many of his works were engraved, even in 
his own lifetime. Daniele Ricciarelli, Girolamo Siciolante da Ser- 
moneta, Luzio Romano and Marcello Venusti (Mantovano) were 
among his principal assistants. (W. M. R.) 

PERINTHUS (Turk. Eski Eregli, old Heraclea), an ancient 
town of Thrace, on thePropontis, 22m. W. of Selymbria, strongly 
situated on a small peninsula on the bay of that name. It is 
said to have been a Samian colony, founded about 599 B.C. 
According to Tzetzes, its original name was Mygdonia; later 
it was called Heraclea (Heraclea Thraciae, Heraclea Perinthus). 
It is famous chiefly for its stubborn and successful resistance 
to Philip II. of Macedon in 340; at that time it seems to have 
been more important than Byzantium itself. 

PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, irepi, 
round, and 656s, way, road), a circuit or course of time, a cycle; 
particularly the duration of time in which a'planet revolves 
round its sun, or a satellite round its primary, a 'definite or 
indefinite recurring interval of time marked by some special 
or peculiar character, e.g. in history, literature, art, &c.; it is 
so used of a division of geological time. Particular uses of the 
word are for the various phases through which a disease passes, 
the termination or conclusion of. any course of events, the pause 
at the end of a completed sentence, and the mark (.) used to 
signify the same (see PUNCTUATION). 

PERIODICALS, a general term for literary publications 
which appear in numbers or parts at regular intervals of time 
as a rule, weekly, monthly or quarterly. The term strictly 
includes "newspapers" (q.v.), but in the narrower sense usually 
intended it is distinguished as a convenient expression for 
periodical publications which differ from newspapers in not 
being primarily for the circulation of news or information of 
ephemeral interest, and in being issued at longer intervals. In 
modern times the weekly journal has become so much of the 
nature of a newspaper that it seldom can be called a periodical 
in this sense. The present article chiefly deals with publications 
devoted to general literature, literary and critical reviews 
and magazines for the supply of miscellaneous reading. In 
the article SOCIETIES (q.v.) an account is separately given of 
the transactions and proceedings of learned and scientific bodies. 
Year-books, almanacs, directories and other annuals belong to 
a distinct type of publication, and are not referred to here. 

BRITISH 

The first literary periodical in English was the Mercurius librarius, 
or a Faithful Account of all Books and Pamphlets (1680), a mere 
catalogue, published weekly or fortnightly in London, followed 
by Weekly Memorials for the Ingenious (Jan. 16, 16811682 to Jan. 
15, 1683), which was more of the type of the Journal des Savants 
(see under FRANCE below), whence it borrowed many contributions. 
Of the History of Learning (1691) another with the same title came 
out in 1694 only a few numbers appeared, as the conductor, De 
la Crose, started the monthly Works of the Learned (Aug. 1691 to 
April 1692), devoted principally to continental scholarship. The 
monthly Compleat Library (1692 to 1694) was a venture of John 
Dunton; the monthly Memoirs for the Ingenious (1693), edited by 
J. de la Crose, ran for 12 months, and another with the same title 
appeared in the following year, only to enjoy a briefer career. The 
first periodical of merit and influence was the History of the Works 
of the Learned (1699-1712), largely consisting of descriptions of 
foreign books. The Memoirs of Literature, the first English review 
consisting entirely of original matter, published in London from 
1710 to 1714, had for editor Michel de la Roche, a French Protestant 



refugee, who also edited at Amsterdam the Bibliotheque angloise 
(1717-1719), and subsequently Memoires litttraires de la Grande 
Bretagne (1720-1724). Returning to England in 1725, he recom- 
menced his New Memoirs of Literature (1725-1728), a monthly, and 
in 1730 a Literary Journal. Dr Samuel Jebb started Bibliotheca 
literaria (1722-1724), to appear every two months, which dealt 
with medals and antiquities as well as with literature, but only ten 
numbers appeared. The Present State of the Republick of Letters 
was commenced by Andrew Reid in January 1728, and completed 
in December 1736. It contained not only excellent reviews of 
English books but papers from the works of foreigners. Two 
volumes came put each year. It was successful, as also was the 
Historia literaria (1730-1734) of Archibald Bower. 1 The Bee, or 
Universal Weekly Pamphlet (1733-1735) of the unfortunate Eustace 
Budgell, and the Literary Magazine (1735-1736), with which 
Ephraim Chambers had much to do, were short-lived. The 
last named was continued in 1737 as the History of the Works 
of the Learned, and was carried on without intermission until 
1743, when its place was taken by A Literary Journal (Dublin, 
1744-1749), the first review published in Ireland. The Museum 
(1746) of R. Dodsley united the character of a review of books with 
that of a literary magazine. It came out fortnightly to the I2th 
of September 1747. Although England can show nothing like the 
Journal des savants, which has flourished almost without a break 
for two and a half centuries, a nearly complete series of reviews 
of English literature may be made up from 1681 to the present 
day. 

After the close of the first quarter of the 1 8th century the literary 
periodical began to assume more of the style of the modern review, 
and in 1749 the title and the chief features were united in the Monthly 
Review, established by Ralph Griffiths, 2 who conducted it until 
1803, whence it was edited by his son down to 1825. It came to 
an end in 1845. From its commencement the Review dealt with 
science and literature, as well as with literary criticism. It was 
Whig in politics and Nonconformist in theology. The first series 
ran from 1749 to December 1789, 81 vols. ; the second from 1790 
to 1815, 108 vols. ; the third or new series from 1826101 830, 1 5 vols. ; 
and the fourth from 1831 to 1845, 45 vols., when the magazine 
stopped. There is a general index (1749-1789) 3 vols., and another 
(1790-1816), 2 vols. 

The Tory party and the established church were defended in the 
Critical Review (1756-1817), founded by Archibald Hamilton and 
supported by Smollett, Dr Johnson and Robertson. Johnson 
contributed to fifteen numbers of the Literary Magazine (1756-1758). 
The reviews rapidly increased in number towards the end of the 
century. Among the principal were the London Review (1775-1780), 
A NewReview (1782-1786), the English Review (ij8$-i7<)6), incorpor- 
ated in 1797 with the Analytical Review (1788-1799), the Anti- 
Jacobin Review and Magazine (1798-1821), and the British Critic 
( I 793~ I 843), the organ of the High Church party, and first edited 
by Archdeacon Nares and Beloe. 

These periodicals had now become extremely numerous, and 
many of the leading London publishers found it convenient to 
maintain their own particular organs. It is not a _ 
matter of surprise, therefore, that the authority of v"* ** 
the reviews should have fallen somewhat in public estimation. 
The time was ripe for one which should be quite independent 
of the booksellers, and which should also aim at a higher 
standard of excellence. As far back as 1755 Adam Smith, Blair 
and others had produced an Edinburgh Review which only ran to 
two numbers, and in 1773 Gilbert Stuart and William SmeHie 
issued during three years an Edinburgh Magazine and Review. 
To Edinburgh is also due the first high-class critical journal, 
the Edinburgh Review, established in October 1802 by Jeffrey, 
Scott, Horner, Brougham and Sydney Smith. It created a new 
era in periodical criticism, and assumed from the commencement 
a wider range and more elevated tone than any of its predecessors. 
The first editor was Sydney Smith, then Jeffrey for many years, 
and later editors were Macvey Napier, William Empson, Sir G. C. 
Lewis, Henry Reeve and the Hon. Arthur Elliot. Its buff and blue 
coyer was adopted from the colours of the Whig party whose political 
principles it advocated. Among its more famous contributors were 
Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Carlyle, Hazlitt and Macaulay. 
Scott, being dissatisfied with the new review, persuaded John 
Murray, his London publisher, to start its brilliant Tory competitor, 
the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), first edited by William Gifford, 
then by Sir J. T. Coleridge, and subsequently by J. G. Lockhart, 
Rev. Whitwell Elwin, W. M. Macpherson, Sir Wm. Smith, Rowland 
Prothero and G. W. Prothero. Among the contributors in successive 
years were Canning, Scott (who reviewed himself), Robert Southey, 



'Archibald Bower (1686-1766) was educated at Douai, and 
became a Jesuit. He subsequently professed himself a convert to 
the Anglican Church, and published a number of works, but was 
more esteemed for his ability than for his moral character. 

2 The biographers of Goldsmith have made us familiar with the 
name of Griffiths (1720-1803), the prosperous publisher, with his 
diploma of LL.D. granted by an American university, and with the 
quarrels between him and the poet. 



152 



PERIODICALS 



Sir John Barrow, J. Wilson Croker, Isaac Disraeli, A. W. Kinglake, 
Lord Salisbury and W. E. Gladstone. 1 The Westminster Review 
(1824), established by the followers of Jeremy Bentham, advocated 
radical reforms in church, state and legislation. In 1836 it was 
joined to the London Review (1829), founded by Sir William Moles- 
worth, and then bore the name of the London and Westminster 
Review till 1851, when it returned to the original title. Other 
quarterly reviews worth mentioning are the Eclectic Review (1805- 
1868), edited down to 1834 by Josiah Conder (1789-1855) and 
supported by the Dissenters; the British Review (1811-1825; the 
Christian Remembrancer (1819-1868); the Retrospective Review 
(1820-1826, 1828, 1853-1854), for old books; the Foreign Quarterly 
Review (1827-1846), afterwards incorporated with the Westminster; 
the Foreign Review (1828-1829); the Dublin Review (1836), a Roman 
Catholic organ; the Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review (1843- 
1847) ; the Prospective Review (1845-1855), given up to theology and 
literature, previously the Christian Teacher (1835-1844); the North 
British Review (1844-1871); the British Quarterly Review (1845), 
successor to the British and Foreign Review (1835-1844); the New 
Quarterly Review (1852-1861), the Scottish Review (1853-1862), 
published at Glasgow; the Wesleyan London Quarterly Review 
(1853- ); the National Review (1855-1864); the Diplomatic 
Review (1855-1881); the Irish Quarterly Review (1851-1859), 
brought out in Dublin; the Home and Foreign Review (1862-1864); 
the Fine Arts Quarterly Review (1863-1865); the New Quarterly 
Magazine (1873-1880); the Catholic Union Review (1863-1874); 
the Anglican Church Quarterly Review (1875); Mind (1876), dealing 
with mental philosophy; the Modern Review (1880-1884); the 
Scottish Review (1882) ; the Asiatic Quarterly Review (1886; since 1891 
the Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review) ; and the Jewish Quarterly 
Review. 

The monthly reviews include the Christian Observer (1802-1857), 
conducted by members of the established church upon evangelical 
principles, with Zachary Macaulay as the first editor; 
Monthlies. an( j the Monthly Repository (1806-1837), originally 
purely theological, but after coming into the hands of the Rev. 
W. J. Fox made entirely literary and political. The Fortnightly 
Review (1865), edited successively by G. H. Lewes, John Morley, 
T. H. S. Escott, Frank Harris, Oswald Crawfurd and W. L. Courtney, 
was intended as a kind of English Revue des deux mondes. Since 
1866 it has appeared monthly. The Contemporary Review (1866), 
long edited by Sir Percy Bunting, and the Nineteenth Century (1877), 
founded and edited by Sir James Knowles (q.v.), and renamed 
Nineteenth Century and After in 1900, are similar in character, 
consisting of signed articles by men of mark of all opinions upon 
questions of the day. The National Review (1883), edited succes- 
sively by Alfred Austin, W. Earl Hodgson, and L. J. Maxse, is alone 
in taking editorially a pronounced party line in politics as a Conser- 
vative organ. Modern Thought (1879-1884), for the free discussion 
of political, religious and social subjects, and the Modern Review 
(18921894) may also be mentioned. Other monthlies are the 
Indian Magazine (1871); the Irish Monthly (Dublin, 1873); the 
Gaelic Journal (Dublin, 1882); the African Review (1892) and the 
Empire Review (1900). The Monthly Review (1900-1908), edited till 
1904 by Henry Newbolt, was for some years a notable addition to 
the high class literary monthlies. 

The weekly reviews dealing generally with literature, science and 
art are the Literary Gazette (1817-1862), first edited by William 
_. ... Jerdan; the Athenaeum (1828), founded by James Silk 
/es ' Buckingham, but successfully established by C. W. 
Dilke, and long edited in later years by Norman MacColl (1843-1904), 
and afterwards by Mr Vernon Rendall; and the Academy (1869). 
Among those which also include political and social topics, and are 
more particularly dealt with under NEWSPAPERS, may be mentioned, 
the Examiner (1808-1881), the Spectator (1828), the Saturday Review 
(1855), the Scots or National Observer (1888-1897), Outlook (1898), 
Pilot (1900-1903), and Speaker (1890), which became the Nation. 

Soon after the introduction of the literary journal in England, 
one of a more familiar tone was started by the eccentric John Dunton 
in the Athenian Gazette, or Casuistical Mercury, resolving all the most 
Nice and Curious Questions (1689-1690 to 1695-1696), afterwards 
called The Athenian Mercury, a kind of forerunner of Notes and 
Queries, being a penny weekly sheet, with a quarterly critical 
supplement. In the last part the publisher announces that it will 
be continued " as soon as ever the glut of news is a little over." 
Dunton was assisted by Richard Sault and Samuel Wesley. Defoe's 
Review (i_7O4-i7_i3) dealt chiefly with politics and commerce, but the 
introduction in it of what its editor fittingly termed the "scandalous 
club " was another step nearer the papers of Steele and the periodical 
essayists, the first attempts to create an organized popular opinion 
in matters of taste and manners. These little papers, rapidly thrown 
off for a temporary purpose, were destined to form a very important 

1 The centenary of the Edinburgh Review was celebrated in an 
article in October 1902, and that of the Quarterly Review in two 
articles April and July 1909. See also On the Authorship of the First 
Hundred Numbers of the Edinburgh Review (1895), by W. A. Copinger, 
and The First Edinburgh Reviewers in Literary Studies (1879), vol. 
i., by W. Bagehot. 



part of the literature of the i8th century, and in some respects its 
most marked feature. Although the frequenters of the clubs and 
coffee-houses were the persons for whom the essay-papers were 
mainly written, a proof of the increasing refinement of the age is 
to be found in the fact that now for the first time were women 
specially addressed as part of the reading public. The 
Taller was commenced by Richard Steele in 1709, and Tatter, Ac. 
issued thrice a week until 1711. The idea was at once 
extremely popular, and a dozen similar papers were started within 
the year, at least one half bearing colourable imitations of the title. 
Addison contributed to the Taller, and together with Steele estab- 
lished and carried on the Spectator (1710-1714), and subsequently 
the Guardian (1713). The newspaper tax enforced in 1712 dealt 
a hard blow at these. Before this time the daily issue of the Spectator 
had reached 3000 copies; it then fell to 1600; the price was raised 
from a penny to twopence, but the paper came to an end in 1714. 
Dr Drake (Essays illustr. of the Rambler, &c., ii. 490) drew up an 
imperfect list of the essayists, and reckoned that from the Taller 
to Johnson's Rambler, during a period of forty-one years, 106 papers 
of this description were published. Dr Drake continued the list 
down to 1809, and described altogether 221 which had appeared 
within a hundred years. The following is a list of the most consider- 
able, with their dates, founders and chief contributors: 

Taller (April 12, 1709 to Jan. 2, 1710-1711), Steele, Addison, 
Swift, Hughes, &c. ; Spectator (March 1, 1710-1711 to Dec. 20, 1714), 
Addison, Steele, Budgell, Hughes, Grove, Pope, Parnell, Swift, &c. ; 
Guardian (March 12, 1713 to Oct. I, 1713), Steele, Addison, Berkeley, 
Pope, Tickell, Budgell, &c.; Rambler (March 20, 1750 to March 14, 
I75 2 ). Johnson; Adventurer (Nov. 7, 1752 to March 9, 1754), Hawkes- 
worth, Johnson, Bathurst, Warton, Chapone; World (Jan. 4, 1753 
to Dec. 30, 1756), E. Moore, earl of Chesterfield, R. O. Cambridge, 
earl of Orford, Soame Jenyns, &c.; Connoisseur (Tan. 31, 1754 to 
Sept. 30, 1756), Colman,, Thornton, Warton, earl of Cork, &c.; Idler 
(April 15, 1758 to April 5, 1760), Johnson, Sir J. Reynolds and Bennet 
Langton; Bee (Oct. 6, 1759 to Nov. 24, 1759), O. Goldsmith; Mirror 
(Jan. 23, 1779 to May 27, 1780), Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, 
Home, Bannatyne, &c.; Lounger (Feb. 5, 1785 to Jan. 6, 1787), 
Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, Tytler; Observer (1785 to 1790), 
Cumberland ; Looker-on (March 10, 1792 to Feb. 1, 1794), W. Roberts, 
Beresford, Chalmers. 

As from the " pamphlet of news " arose the weekly paper wholly 
devoted to the circulation of news, so from the general newspaper 
was specialized the weekly or monthly review of litera- 
ture, antiquities and science, which, when it included^ 
essay-papers, made up the magazine or miscellaneous ***"' 
repository of matter for information and amusement. Several 
monthly publications had come into existence since 1681, but perhaps 
the first germ of the magazine is to be found in the Gentleman's 
Journal (1691-1694) of Peter Motteux, which, besides, the news of 
the month, contained miscellaneous prose and poetry. Dr Samuel 
Jebb included antiquarian notices as well as literary reviews in 
his Bibliotheca literaria (1722-1724), previously mentioned, but the 
Gentleman's Magazine, founded in 1731, fully established, through 
the tact and energy of the publisher Edward Cave (q.v.), the type 
of the magazine, from that time so marked a feature of English 
periodical literature. The first idea is due to Motteux, from whom 
the title, motto and general plan were borrowed. The chief feature in 
the new venture at first consisted of the analysis of the journals, 



Monthly Intelligencer (1732-1784), which had a long and prosperous 
career. The new magazine closely copied Cave's title, plan and 
aspect, and bitter war was long waged between the two. The rivalry 
was not without benefit to the literary public, as the conductors 
of each used every effort to improve their own review. Cave intro- 
duced the practice of giving engravings, maps and portraits, but 
his greatest success was the addition of Samuel Johnson (q.v.) to 
the regular staff. This took place in 1738, when the latter wrote 
the preface to the volume for that year, observing that the magazine 
had " given rise to almost twenty imitations of it, which are either 
all dead or very little regarded. The plan was also imitated in 
Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The Gentleman's Magazine was 
continued by Cave's brother-in-law, David Henry, afterwards by 
John Nichols and his son. 2 Cave appears to have been the first 



The first series of the Gentleman's Magazine or Trader's Monthly 
Intelligencer, extended from January 1731 to December 1735, 5 vols. ; 
the Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle from January 
1736 to December 1807, vols. 6-77; new series, January 1808 to 
December 1833, vols. 78-103; new series, 1834-1856, 45 vols.; 
new (third) series, 1856-1865, 19 vols.; new (fourth) series, 1866- 
1868, 5 vols. A general index to the first twenty vols. appeared 
' n J 753- S. Ayscough brought out an index to the first fifty-six vols., 
1731-1786 (1789), 2 vols., and one by J. Nichols, 1787-1818 (1821), 
2 vols. A complete list of the plates and woodcuts (1731-1813) was 
published in 1814, and another list (1731-1818), in 1821. The 
Gentleman's Magazine Library, being a classified collection of the chief 
contents of the Gentleman's Magazine, from 1731 to 1868, is now 
being edited by Mr G. L. Gomme (1883, &c., vols. 1-17). 



PERIODICALS 



to use the word magazine in the sense of a periodical of miscellaneous 
literature. The specially antiquarian, biographical and historical 
features, which make this magazine so valuable a store-house for 
information for the period it covers, were dropped in 1868, when 
an " entirely new series," a miscellany of light literature was succes- 
sively edited by Gowing, Joseph Hatton and Joseph Knight. 

Many other magazines were produced in consequence of the success 
of these two. It will be sufficient to mention the following: The 
Scots Magazine (17 39-1817) was the first published in Scotland; from 
1817 to 1826 it was styled the Edinburgh Magazine. The Universal 
Magazine (1747) had a short, if brilliant, career; but the European 
Magazine, founded by James Perry in 1782, lasted down to 1826. 
Of more importance than these, or than the Royal Magazine (1759- 
1771) was the Monthly Magazine (1796-1843), with which Priestley 
and Godwin were originally connected. During thirty years the 
Monthly was conducted by Sir Richard Phillips, under whom it 
became more statistical and scientific than literary. Class magazines 
were represented by the Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine (1800-1825) 
and the Philosophical Magazine (1798), established in London by 
Alexander Tilloch ; the latter at first consisted chiefly of translations 
of scientific articles from the French. The following periodicals, all 
of which date from the l8th century, are still published: the Gospel 
Magazine ( 1 766, with which is incorporated the British Protestant) , the 
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine (1778), Curlis's Botanical Magazine 
(1786), Evangelical Magazine (1793; since 1905 the Evangelical 
British Missionary), the Philosophical Magazine (1798), now known 
as the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine. 

The increased influence of this class of periodical upon public 
opinion was first apparent in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, 
founded in 1817 by the publisher of that name, and carried to a 
high degree of excellence by the contributions of Scott, Lockhart, 
Hogg, Maginn, Syme and John Wilson (" Christopher North "), 
John Gait and Samuel Warren. It has always remained Liberal 
in literature and Conservative in politics. The New Monthly 
Magazine is somewhat earlier in date. It was founded in 1814 
by the London publisher, Colburn, and was edited in turn by 
Campbell, Theodore Hook, Bulwer-Lytton and Ainsworth. Many of 
Carlyle's and Thackeray's pieces first appeared in Fraser's Magazine 
(1830), long famous for its personalities and its gallery of literary 
portraits. The Metropolitan Magazine was started in opposition 
to Fraser, and was first edited by Campbell, who had left its rival. 
It subsequently came into the hands of Captain Marryatt, who 
printed in it many of his sea-tales. The British Magazine (1832 
1849) included religious and ecclesiastical information. From 
Ireland came the Dublin University Magazine (1833). The regular 
price of these magazines was half a crown; the first of the cheaper 
ones was Tail's Edinburgh Magazine (1832-1861) at a shilling. It 
was Radical in politics, and had Roebuck as one of its founders. 
Bentley's Miscellany (18371868) was exclusively devoted to novels, 
light literature and travels. Several of Ainsworth's romances, 
illustrated by Cruikshank, first saw the light in Bentley. The 
Nautical Magazine (1832) was addressed specially to sailors, and 
Colburn's United Service Journal (1829) to both services. The 
Asiatic Journal (1816) dealt with Oriental subjects. 

From 1815 to 1820 a number of low-priced and unwholesome 
periodicals flourished. The Mirror (1823-1849), a two-penny 
illustrated magazine, begun by John Limbird, 1 and 
'*"the Mechanics Magazine (1823) were steps in a better 
"" direction. The political agitation of 1831 led to a further 
popular demand, and a supply of cheap and healthy serials for 
the reading multitude commenced with Chambers's Journal (1832), 
the Penny Magazine (1832-1845) of Charles Knight, and the Saturday 
Magazine (18321844), begun by the Society for Promoting Christian 
Knowledge. The first was published at I Jd. and the last two at id. 
Knight secured the best authors and artists of the day to write for 
and illustrate his magazine, which, though at first a commercial 
success, may have had the reason of its subsequent discontinuance 
in its literary excellence. At the end of 1832 it had reached a sale 
of 200,000 in weekly numbers and monthly parts. It came to an 
end in 1845 and was succeeded by Knight's Penny Magazine 
(1845), which was stopped after six monthly parts. These periodicals 
were followed by a number of penny weeklies of a lower tone, such 
as the Family Herald (1843), the London Journal (1845) and Lloyd's 
Miscellany. In 1850 the sale of the first of them was placed at 
175,000 copies, the second at 170,000, and Lloyd's at 95,000. In 
1846 fourteen penny and three half-penny magazines, twelve social 
journals, and thirty-seven book-serials were produced every week 
in London. A further and permanent improvement in cheap 
weeklies for home reading may be traced from the foundation of 
Howitt's Journal (1847-1849), and more especially Household Words 
(1850), conducted by Charles Dickens, All the Year Round (1859), 
by the same editor, and afterwards by his son, Once A Week (1859), 
and the Leisure Hour (1852). The plan of Notes and Queries (1849), 
for the purpose of inter-communication among those interested in 
special points of literary and antiquarian character, has led to the 



1 John Limbird, to whom even before Chambers or Knight is 
due the carrying out the idea of a cheap and good periodical for the 
people, died on the 3ist of October 1883, without having achieved 
the worldly prosperity of his two followers. 



adoption of similar departments in a great number of newspapers 
and periodicals, and, besides several imitators in England, there 
are now parallel journals in Holland, France, and Italy. 

Shilling monthlies began with Macmillan (1859), the Cornhill 
(1860), first edited by Thackeray, and Temple Bar (1860). St 
James's Magazine (1861), Belgrama (1866), St Paul's (1867-1874), 
London Society (1862), and Tinsley's (1867) were devoted chiefly 
to novels and light reading. Sixpenny illustrated magazines com- 
menced with Good Words (1860) and the Quiver (1861), both religious 
in tendency. In 1882 Fraser changed its name to Longman's 
Magazine, and was popularized and reduced to sixpence. The 
Cornhill followed the same example in 1883, reducing its price to 
sixpence and devoting its pages to light reading. The English 
Illustrated Magazine (1883) was brought out in competition with 
the American Harper's and Century. The Pall Mall Magazine 
followed in 1893. Of the artistic periodicals we may signalize the 
Art Journal (1849), Portfolio (1870), Magazine of Art (1878-1904), 
Studio (1893), Connoisseur (1901), and Burlington (1903). The 
Bookman (1886), for a combination of popular and literary qualities, 
and the Badminton (1895), for sport, also deserve mention. One 
of the most characteristic developments of later journalism was 
the establishment in 1890 of the Review of Reviews by W. T. Stead. 
Meanwhile the number of cheap periodicals increased enormously, 
such as the weekly Tit-bits (1881), and Answers (1888), and profusely 
illustrated magazines appeared, like the Strand (1891), Pearson's 
(1896), or Windsor (1895). Professions and trades now have not 
only their general class-periodicals, but a special review or magazine 
for every section. In 1910 the magazines and reviews published in 
the United Kingdom numbered 2795. Religious periodicals were 
668; 338 were devoted to trade; 361 to sport; 691 represented the 
professional classes; 51 agriculture; and 218 were juvenile periodicals. 
The London monthlies were 797 and the quarterlies 155. 

Indexes to English Periodicals. A large number of periodicals 
do not preserve literary matter of permanent value, but the high- 
class reviews and the archaeological, artistic and scientific magazines 
contain a great mass of valuable facts, so that general and special 
indexes have become necessary to all literary workers. Lists of 
the separate indexes to particular series are given in H. B. Wheatley's 
What is an Index? (1879), W. P. Courtney's Register of National 
Bibliography (1905, 2 vols.), and the List of Books forming the 
Reference Library in the reading room of the British Museum (4th ed. 
1910, 2 vols). 

AUTHORITIES. " Periodicals," in the British Museum catalogue; 
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual,^ by Hy. G. Bohn, (1864); Cat. of 
Periodicals in the Bodl. Lib., pt. i., " English Periodicals " (1878); 
Cat. of the Hope Collection of Early Newspapers and Essayists in the 
Bodl. Lib. (1865) ; Scudder, Cat. of Scientific Serials (1879) ; Andrews, 
Hist, of Brit. Journalism (1859) ; Cucheval Clarigny, Hist, de la Presse 
en Angleterre et aux Etats Unis (1857) ; Madden, Hist, of Irish Period. 
Lit. (1867); J. Grant, The Great Metropolis, ii. 229-327; " Periodical 
Essays of the Age of Anne," in N. American Rev. vol. xlvi.; Drake, 
Essays on the " Spectator," " Taller," &c. (1810-1814); Courthope, 
Addison (" Engl. Men of Letters," 1884); "Forgotten Periodical 
Publications," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 53; 
" Account of Periodical Literary Journals from 1681 to 1749," by 
S. Parkes, in Quart. Journ. ofSc., Lit., &c., xiii. 36, 289 ; see also Notes 
and Queries, 1st series, vol. vi. pp. 327, 435; "Last Century 
Magazines," in Fraser's Mag. Sept. (1876), p. 325; " Periodicals 
during 1712-1732," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 72, 
&c., x. 134; " Catholic Period. Lit.," ib., 5th series, vol. xi. 427, 494; 
" Early Roman Catholic Magazines," ib., 6th series, vol. iii. p. 43, 
&c., iv. 211; Timperley, Ency. of Lit. Anec. (1842); C. Knight, 
The Old Printer and the Modern Press (1854), and Passages of 
a Working Life (1864-1865); Memoir of Robert Chambers (1872); 
the London Cat. of Periodicals, Newspapers, &fc. (1844-1910); The 
Bookseller (February 1867, June and July 1868, August 1874, July 
'879); "On the Unstamped Press," Notes and Queries, 4th series, 




Periodical Literature," Walford's Antiq. Mag. (1887), xi. 179-186, 
xii. 65-74; Catalogue of Magazines &c., reed, at the Melbourne Pub, 
Lib. (1891); "English Periodical Literature," by W. Robertson 
Nicoll, Bookman (1895), vol. i. ; " The Periodical Press, 1865-1895," 
by T. H. S. Escort, Blackwood (1894), pp. 156, 532; "Bibliography 
of Periodical Literature," by F. Campbell, The Library (1898), viu. 
49; " Bibliography of the British Periodical Press," by D. Williams 
in Mitchell's Newspaper Directory (1902), pp. 12-13; " English 
Reviews," by A. Waugh, Critic, vol. 40; " Excursus on Periodical 
Criticism," Saintsbury, History of Criticism (1904), iii. 408-428. 
As regards the treatment of periodicals in libraries see " Helps 
for Cataloguers of Serials," by H. C. Bolton in Boston Bull, of Biblio- 
graphy (1897); " Co-operative lists of periodicals," Library Journal, 
(1899), xxiv. 29-32, " Union List of Periodicals in Chicago Libraries," 
Public Libraries, Chicago (1900), v. 60; " Care of Periodicals 
in a Library," by F. R. Jackson, Public Libraries, Chicago (1906), vol. 
xi. Complete lists of current British periodicals are included in 
Mitchell's Newspaper Press Directory, Street's Newspaper Directory, 
and Willing's Press Guide, and a select list and other information 
are given in the Literary Year Book. 



154 



PERIODICALS 



UNITED STATES 

The two earliest American miscellanies were produced almost 
simultaneously. Spurred by the success of the Gentleman's Magazine 
in England Benjamin Franklin founded the General Magazine 
(1741) at Philadelphia, but it expired after six monthly numbers 
had appeared. Franklin's rival, Andrew Bradford, forestalled 
him by three days with the American Magazine (1741) edited by 
John Webbe, which ran only to two numbers. Further attempts at 
Philadelphia in 1757 and 1769 to revive periodicals with the same 
name were both fruitless. The other pre-revolutionary magazines 
were the Boston American Magazine (17431747), i n imitation of 
the London Magazine; the Boston Weekly Magazine (1743); the 
Christian History (1743-1744); the New York Independent Reflector 
(1752-1754); the Boston New England Magazine (1758-1760), a 
collection of fugitive pieces; the Boston Royal American Magazine 
(1774-1775); and the Pennsylvania Magazine (1775-1776), founded 
by Robert Aitken, with the help of Thomas Paine. The Columbian 
Magazine (1786-1790) was continued as the Universal Asylum 
(1790-1792). Matthew Carey brought out the American Museum 
in 1787, and it lasted until 1792. Among the other magazines which 
ran out a brief existence before the end of the century was the 
Philadelphia Political Censor or Monthly Review (I79&-I797) edited 
by William Cobbett. One of the most successful was the Farmer's 
Weekly Museum (1790-1799), supported by perhaps the most 
brilliant staff of writers American periodical literature had yet 
been able to show, and edited by Joseph Dennie, who in 1801 began 
the publication of the Portfolio, carried on to 1827 at Philadelphia. 
For five years it was a weekly miscellany in quarto, and afterwards 
an octavo monthly; it was the first American serial which could 
boast of so long an existence. Charles Brockden Brown established 
the New York Monthly Magazine (1799), which, changing its title 
to The American Review, was continued to 1802. Brown founded 
at Philadelphia the Literary Magazine (1803-1808); he and Dennie 
may be considered as having been the first American professional 
men of letters. The Anthology Club was established at Boston in 
1803 by Phineas Adams for the cultivation of literature and the 
discussion of philosophy. Ticknor, Everett and Bigelow were 
among the members, and were contributors to the organ of the club, 
the monthly Anthology and Boston Review (1803-1811), the fore- 
runner of the North American Review. In the year 1810 Thomas 
(Printing in America, ii. 292) informs us that 27 periodicals were 
issued in the United States. The first serious rival of the Portfolio 
was the Analectic Magazine (1813-1820), founded at Philadelphia 
by Moses Thomas, with the literary assistance of W. Irving (for 
some time the editor), Paulding, and the ornithologist Wilson. In 
spite of a large subscription list it came to an end on account of 
the costly style of its production. The first southern serial was 
the Monthly Register (1805) of Charleston. New York possessed 
no periodical worthy of the city until 1824, when the Atlantic 
Magazine appeared, which changed its name shortly afterwards 
to the New York Monthly Review, and was supported by R. C. Sands 
and W. C. Bryant. N. P. Willis was one of the editors of the New 
York Mirror (1823-1842). Between 1840 and iS^oGraham's Magazine 
was the leading popular miscellany in the country, reaching at 
one time a circulation of about 35,000 copies. The first western 
periodical was the Illinois Monthly Magazine (1830-1832), published, 
owned, edited and almost entirely written by James Hall, who 
followed with his Western Monthly Magazine (1833 1836), produced 
in a similar manner. In 1833 the novelist C. F. Hoffman founded 
at New York the Knickerbocker (1833-1860), which soon passed 
under the control of Timothy Flint and became extremely successful, 
most of the leading native writers of the next twenty years having 
been contributors. Equally popular was Putnam's Monthly Magazine 
(1853-1857,1867-1869). It wasrevivedin 1906-1910. TheZ>io/(i84O- 
1844), Boston, the organ of the transcendentalists, was first edited 
by Margaret Fuller, and subsequently by R. W. Emerson and G. 
Ripley. Other magazines were the American Monthly Magazine 
(1833-1838), the Southern Literary Messenger (1834), Richmond, the 
Gentleman's Magazine (1837-1840), and the International Magazine 
(1850-1852), edited by R. W. Gnswold. The Yale Literary Magazine 
dated from 1836. The Merchants' Magazine was united in 1871 with 
the Commercial and Financial Chronicle. First in order of date 
among the current monthly magazines comes the New York Harper's 
New Monthly M agazine (i 850) . theearliest existing illustrated American 
serial, then the Boston Atlantic Monthly (1857), with which was 
incorporated the Galaxy (1866) in 1878, famous for its editors Lowell, 
Howells and T. B. Aldrich, and its contributors O. W. Holmes, 
Longfellow, Whittier and others. Next came Lippincotfs Magazine 
(1868) from Philadelphia, and the Cosmopolitan (1886) and Scribner's 
Monthly (1870, known as the Century Illustrated Magazine since 
1881) from New York. These were followed by Scribner's Magazine 
(1887), the New England Magazine (1889), the Illustrated Review of 
Reviews (1890), McClure's Magazine (1893), the Bookman (1895), the 
World's Work (1902), the American Magazine (1906) succeeding 
Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, and Munsey's Magazine (1889). 
All are illustrated, and three in particular, the Century, Scribner's 
and Harper's, carried the art of wood-engraving to a high standard 
of excellence. 

The first attempt to carry on an American review was made by 
Robert Walsh in 1811 at Philadelphia with the quarterly American 



Review of History and Politics, which lasted only a couple of years. 
Still more brief was the existence of the General Repository and 
Review (1812), brought out at Cambridge by Andrews Norton with 
the help of the professors of the university, but of which only four 
numbers appeared. Niles's Weekly Register (1811-1848) was 
political, historical and literary. The North American Review, the 
oldest and most famous of all the American reviews, dates from 1815, 
and was founded by William Tudor, a member of the previously 
mentioned Anthology Club. After two years' control Tudor handed 
over the review to the club, then styled the North American Club, 
whose most active members were E. T. Channing, R. H. Dana and 
Jared Sparks. In 1819 E. Everett became the editor; his brother 
Alexander acquired the property in 1829. The roll of contributors 
numbers almost every American writer of note. Since 1879 it has 
been published monthly (except in Sept. ioo6-Sept. 1907, when itap- 
peared semi-monthly). The American Quarterly Review (1827-1837), 
established at Philadelphia by Robert Walsh, came to an end on 
his departure for Europe. The Southern Quarterly Review (1828- 
1832), conducted by H. Legare, S. Elliot and G. W. Simms in defence 
of the politics and finance of the South, enjoyed a shorter career. 
It was resuscitated in 1842, and lived another thirteen years. These 
two were followed by the Democratic Review (1838-1852), the American 
Review (1845-1849), afterwards the American Whig Review (1850- 
1 852) , the Massachusetts Quarterly Review ( 1 847- 1 850) , and a few more. 
The New Englander (1843-1892), the Biblical Repertory and Princeton 
Review (1825), the National Quarterly Review (1860) and the New 
York International Review (1874-1883), may also be mentioned. 
The critical weeklies of the past include the New York Literary 
Gazette (1834-1835, 1839), De Bow's Review (1846), the Literary 
World (1847-1853), the Criterion (1855-1856), the Round Table 
(1863-1864), the Citizen (1864-1873), and Appleton's Journal (1869). 
The leading current monthlies include the New York Forum (1886), 
Arena (1890), Current Literature (1888), and Bookman, the Chicago 
Dial (1880), and the Greenwich, Connecticut, Literary Collector. 
Foremost among the weeklies comes the New York Nation (1865). 
Religious periodicals have been extremely numerous in the United 
States. The earliest was the Theological Magazine (1796-1798). 
The Christian Examiner dates from 1824 and lasted down to 1870. 
The Panoplist (1805) changed its name to the Missionary Herald, 
representing the American Board of Missions. The Methodist 
Magazine dates from 1818 and the Christian Disciple from 1813. 
The American Biblical Respositpry (1831-1850), a quarterly, was 
united with the Andover Bibliotheca Sacra (1843) and with the 
Theological Eclectic (1865). Brownson's Quarterly Review began 
as the Boston Quarterly Review in 1838, and did much to introduce 
to American readers the works of the modern French philosophical 
school. Other serials of this class are the Protestant Episcopal 
Quarterly Review (1854), the Presbyterian Magazine (1851-1860), 
the Catholic World (1865), the Southern Review (1867), the New 
Jerusalem Magazine (1827), American Baptist Magazine (1817), the 
Church Review (1848), the Christian Review (1836), the Vniversalist 
Quarterly (1844). Current religious quarterlies are the Chicago 
American Journal of Theology and the Oberlin Bibliotheca Sacra. 
The Chicago Biblical World is published monthly. 

Among historical periodicals may be numbered the American 
Register (1806-1811), Stryker's American Register (1848-1851), 
Edwards's American Quarterly Register (1829-1843), the New 
England Historical and Genealogical Register (1847), Folsom's 
Historical Magazine (1857), the New York Genealogical Record 
(1869), and the Magazine of American History (1877). There is also 
the Lancaster, Pennsylvania, American Historical Review, issued 
quarterly. 

Many serial publications have been almost entirely made up of 
extracts from English sources. Perhaps the earliest example is 
to be found in Select Views of Literature (1811-1812). The Eclectic 
Magazine (1844) and Littell's Living Age (1844) may be mentioned. 

In 1817 America possessed only one scientific periodical, the 
Journal of Mineralogy. Professor Silliman established the journal 
known by his name in 1818. Since that time the American Journal 
of Science has enjoyed unceasing favour. The special periodicals 
of the day are very numerous. Among the most representative 
are: the Popular Science Monthly, New York; the monthly Boston 
Journal of Education; the quarterly American Journal of Mathe- 
matics, Baltimore ; the monthly Gassier' s Magazine (1891), New York; 
the monthly American Engineer (1893), New York; the monthly 
House and Garden, Philadelphia; the monthly Aslrophysical Journal, 
commenced as Sidereal Messenger (1882), Chicago; the monthly 
American Chemical Journal, Baltimore; the monthly American 
Naturalist, Boston; the monthly American Journal of the Medical 
Sciences, Philadelphia; the monthly Outing, New York; the weekly 
American Agriculturist, New York; the quarterly Metaphysical 
Magazine (1895) New York; the bi-monthly American Journal of 
Sociology, Chicago; the bi-monthly A merican Law Review, St Louis; 
the monthly Banker's Magazine, New York; the quarterly American 
Journal of Philology (1880), Baltimore; the monthly Library Journal 
(1876), New York; the monthly Public Libraries, Chicago; the 
weekly Scientific American, New York; the quarterly American 
Journal of Archaeology (1885), New York. 

The number of periodicals devoted to light literature and to female 
readers has been, and still remains, extremely large. The earliest 



PERIODICALS 



155 



in the latter class was the Lady's Magazine (1792) of Philadelphia. 
The Lowell Offering (lB+i) was written by factory girls of Lowell 
(q.v.), Mass. Godey's Lady's Book was long popular, and the Ladies 
Home Journal (1883) and the Woman's Home Companion (1893) are 
now current. Children's -magazines originated with the Young 
Misses' Magazine (1806) of Brooklyn; the New York St Nicholas 
(monthly) and the Boston Youth's Companion (weekly) are promi- 
nent juveniles. 

The total of American periodicals mentioned in the Guide by H. 
O. Severance and C. H. Walsh (1909, Ann Arbor), is 5136 for the 
year 1908. 

AUTHORITIES. The eighth volume of the Tenth Report of the 
United States Census (1884) contains a statistical report on the 
newspaper and periodical press of America by S. N. D. North. 
See also Cucheval Clarigny, Histoire de la presse en Angleterre et 
aux Stats Unis (1857); H. Stevens, Catalogue of American Books 
in the Library of the British Museum (1866), and American Books 
with Tails to 'em (1873); I. Thomas, History of Printing in America 
(Albany, 1874); J- Nichol, American Literature (1882); " Check List 
of American Magazines," in Library Journ., xiv. 373; G. P. Rowell 
& Co.'s American Newspaper Directory (New York); A. R. Spofford, 
Book for all Readers (1900); F. W. Faxon's Check list of American 
and English Periodicals (Boston, 1908). Many American libraries 
co-operate in issuing joint or union lists of periodicals. See list 
of these as well as lists of special indexes in A. B. Kroeger's Guide 
to Reference Books (2nd ed., Boston, 1908). 

Indexes to Periodicals. The contents of English and American 
periodicals of the last loo years are indexed in the following publica- 
tions: W. F. Poole's Index to Periodical Literature (1802-1881, 
revised ed., Boston, 1891); 1st supplement, 1882-1887, by W. F. 
Poole and W. I. Fletcher, 1888; 2nd supplement, 1887-1892, by 
W. I. Fletcher, 1893; 3rd supplement, 1892-1896, by W. I. Fletcher 
and F. O. Poole, 1898; 4th supplement, 1897-1902, 1902; 5th supple- 
ment, 1902-1907, 1908; Poole's Index, abridged edition, by W. I. 
Fletcher and M. Poole (Boston, 1901); ist supplement, 1900-1904 
(Boston, 1905) ; The Co-operative Index to Periodicals (1885-1894, ed. 
W. I. Fletcher, 1886-1894); The Annual Literary Index, including 
Periodicals, ed. by W. I. Fletcher and R. R. Bowker (New York, 
10 vols., 1892-1907) ; "Index of Periodicals for 1890," &c. (Review of 
Reviews), by Miss Hetherington (13 vols., 1891-1902) ; Q. P. Indexes; 
Cotgreave's Contents Subject Index to General and Periodical Literature 
(1900) ; Cumulative Index to a Selected list of Periodicals, begun in the 
Cleveland Public Library in 1896 and 1897 by W. H. Brett, merged 
in 1903 with the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature (8 vols., 
1901-1908, ed. by A. L. Guthrie, Minneapolis, U.S.) ; Magazine Subject 
Index, by F. W. Faxon (Boston, 1908), continued quarterly in Bulletin 
of Bibliography, which in 1907 began a magazine subject index; 
Eclectic Library Catalogue (Minneapolis, 1908), issued quarterly. 

CANADA 

Canadian periodicals have reached a higher standard than in 
any other British self-governing colony. Like that of South 
Africa, the press is bi-lingual. The first Canadian review, the 
Quebec Magazine (1791-1793), was published quarterly in French 
and English. It was followed by the British American Register 
(Quebec, 1803), L'Abeille canadienne (Montreal, 1818), edited by 
H. Meziere, the Canadian Magazine (Montreal, 1823-1825), the 
Canadian Review (Montreal, 1824-1826), La Bibliothcque canadienne 
(Montreal, 1825-1830), continued as L'Observateur (1830-1831), 
and the Magasin du Bas-Canada (Montreal, 1832). The three 
latter were edited by Michel Bibaud. The Literary Garland 
(Montreal, 18381850), edited by John Gibson, was for some time 
the only English magazine published in Canada. Later magazines 
were L'Echo du cabinet du lecture paroissial (Montreal, 1859), 15 
vols.; Le Foyer ca.nad.ien (Quebec, 1863-1866), one of the most 
interesting French-Canadian reviews; La Revue canadienne, which 
was started at Montreal in 1864, and contained the best writings 
of contemporary French-Canadian litterateurs ; La Revue de Montreal 
(1877-1881), edited by the abbe T. A. Chandonnet; the Canadian 
Journal (Toronto), commenced in 1852 under Henry Youle Hind 
and continued by Daniel Wilson; L'Abeille (Quebec, 1848-1881), 
and the Canadian Monthly (Toronto, 1872-1882). The Bystander 
(Toronto, 1880-1883), was edited by Goldwin Smith. Le Canada 
fran$ais (Quebec, 1888-1891), edited by the staff of the Laval 
University, and Canadiana (1889-1890), were important historical 
and literary reviews. Contemporary magazines are the Canadian 
Magazine (1893), the Westminster, both produced at Toronto, 
La Nouvelle- France (Quebec), the Canada Monthly (London, Ontario), 
and the University Magazine, edited by Professor Macphail, of the 
McGill University. 

See H. I. Morgan, Bibliotheca canadensis (1867), " Canadian 
Magazines, ' by G. Stewart, Canadian Monthly, vol. xvii.; " Periodi- 
cal Literature in Canada," by J. M. Oxley, North Am. Rev. (1888); 
P. Gagnon, Essai de bibliographie canadienne (1895), and S. E. 
Dawson, Prose Writers of Canada (1901). 
SOUTH AFRICA 

The earliest magazine was the South African Journal, issued by 
the poet Pringle and John Fairbairn in 1824. It was followed by 
the South African Quarterly Journal (1829-1834), the Cape of Good 
Hope Literary Gazette (1830-1833), edited by A. J. Jardine, the Cape 



of Good Hope Literary Magazine (1847-1848), edited by J. L. Fitz- 
patrick, and the Eastern Province Monthly Magazine, published at 
Grahamstown in 1857-1858. A Dutch periodical called Elpis, alge- 
meen tijdschrift voor Zuid Afrika (1857-1861) appealed to the farming 
community. The Eastern Province Magazine was issued at Port 
Elizabeth in 1861-1862, and the South African Magazine appeared 
in 1867-1868. The Orange Free State Magazine, the only English 
magazine published at Bloemfontein, was issued in 1877-1878; 
and the E. P. Magazine was published at Grahamstown in 1892- 
1897. The Cape Monthly Magazine, the most important of the 
periodicals, was issued from 1857 to 1862, and was again continued 
under the editorship of Professor Noble from 1870 to 1881. The 
Cape Illustrated Magazine (1890-1899) was edited by Professor 
J. Gill. In Durban the Present Century was started in 1903, and 
the Natal Magazine was issued at Pietermaritzburg in 1877. The 
weekly New Era (1904-1905) was succeeded by the South African 
Magazine (1906-1907); both were edited by C. H. Crane. The 
African Monthly (Grahamstown, 1907) and the State of South Africa 
(Cape Town, 1909) are monthly reviews, while the South African 
Railway Magazine (1907) is of wider interest than its name denotes. 

See S. Mendelssohn, South African Bibliography (2 vols., 1910); 
and P. E. Lewin, Catalogue of tlie Port Elizabeth Library (2 vols., 
1906). 

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 

New South Wales. The Australian Magazine was published 
monthly at Sydney in 1821-1822. This was followed by the 
South Asian Register (1827), the Australian Quarterly Journal 
(1828), edited by the Rev. P. N. Wilton, the New South Wales 
Magazine (1833), the New South Wales Literary, Political and 
Commercial Advertiser (1835), edited by the eccentric Dr Lhotsky, 
Tegg's Monthly Magazine (1836), the Australian Magazine (1838), 
the New South Wales Magazine (1843), the Australian Penny Journal 
(1848) and many others. The Sydney University Magazine (1855), 
again published in 1878-1879, and continued as the Sydney Uni- 
versity Review, is the first magazine of a high literary standard. 
The Sydney Magazine of Science and Art (1857) and the Month 
(1857) were short-lived. Of later magazines the Australian (1878- 
1881), Aurora australis (1868), and the Sydney Magazine (1878), 
were the most noteworthy. Of contemporary magazines Dalgety's 
Review is mainly agricultural, the Australian Magazine (1909) and 
the Lone Hand (1907) are popular, and the Science of Man is an 
anthropological review. 

See Australasian Bibliography (Sydney, 1893); G. B. Barton, 
Literature of N. S. W. (1866); E. A. Petherick, Catalogue of Books 
Relating to Australasia (1899). 

Victoria. The Port Phillip Magazine (1843) must be regarded 
as the first literary venture in Victoria. This was followed by the 
Australia Felix Magazine (1849), and the Australasian Quarterly 
Reprint (1850-1851) both published at Geelong, the Illustrated 
Australian Magazine (1850-1852), the Australian Gold-Digger's 
Monthly Magazine (1852-1853), edited by James Bonwick, and the 
Melbourne Monthly Magazine (1855-1856). The Journal of Austral- 
asia (1856-1858), the Australian Monthly Magazine (1865-1867), 
which contained contributions from Marcus Clarke and was con- 
tinued as the Colonial Monthly (1867-1869), the Melbourne Review 
(1876-1885) and the Victorian Review (1879-1886) may also be 
mentioned. The Imperial Review, apparently the work of one pen, 
has been published since 1879; the Pastoralists' Review appeals 
more especially to the agricultural community. A Library Record 
of Australasia was published in 1901-1902. An Australian edition 
of the Review of Reviews is published at Melbourne. 

See " Some Magazines of Early Victoria," in the Library Record 
of Australasia, Nos. 2-4 (1901). 

South Australia. The South Australian Magazine was issued 
monthly in 1841-1843, the Adelaide Magazine (1845), the Adelaide 
Miscellany (1848-1849), and the Wanderer in 1853. The South 
Australian Twopenny Magazine was published at Plymouth, 
England, in 1839, and the South Australian Miscellany and New 
Zealand Review at London in the same year. 

See T. Gill, Bibliography of South Australia (1886). 

Tasmania. The first magazine was Murray's Austral-Asiatic 
Review, published at Hobart in 1828. The Hobart Town Magazine 
appeared in 1833-1834, and tne Van Diemen's Land Monthly 
Magazine in 1835. 

New Zealand. The New Zealand Magazine, a quarterly, was 
published at Wellington in 1850. In 1857 appeared the New 
Zealand Quarterly Review, of little local interest, followed by Chap- 
man's New Zealand Monthly Magazine (1862), the Southern Monthly 
Magazine (1863), the Delphic Oracle (1866-1870), the Stoic (1871), 
the Dunedin Review (1885), the Literary Magazine (1885), the four 
latter being written by J. G. S. Grant, an eccentric genius, the 
Monthly Review (1888-1890), the New Zealand Illustrated Magazine 
(18991905), chiefly devoted to the light literature of New Zealand 
subjects, the Maori Record (1905-1907), and the Red Funnel, pub- 
lished since 1905. 

See T. M. Hocken, Bibliography of New Zealand (1909). 
WEST INDIES AND BRITISH CROWN COLONIES 

In Jamaica the Columbian Magazine was founded at Kingston 
in 1796 and ceased publication in 1800. Two volumes werfc 



i 5 6 



PERIODICALS 



published of a New Jamaica Magazine which was started about 179? 
The Jamaica Magazine (1812-1813), the Jamaica Monthly Magazin 
(1844-1848), and the Victoria Quarterly (1889-1892), which con 
tained many valuable articles on the West Indies, were othe 
magazines. The West Indian Quarterly was published at George 
town, British Guiana, from 1885 to 1888. At Georgetown wa 
also published the well-known Timehri (1882-1898) which containec 
many important historical articles. In Trinidad the Trinidac 
Monthly Magazine was started in 1871, and the Union Magazin 
in 1892. 

_ Malta had a Malta Penny Magazine in 1839-1841, and the Revut 
historiffue et litteraire was founded in Mauritius in 1887. Manj 
magazines dealing with the colonies have been published in England 
such as the Colonial Magazine (1840-1843). 
See F. Cundall, Bibliographia Jamaicensis (1902-1908). 

INDIA AND CEYLON 

Calcutta. The first Indian periodical was the Asiatick Mis 
cellany (Calcutta, 1785-1789), probably edited by F. Gladwin 
The Calcutta Monthly Register was published in 1790, and the Cal- 
cutta Monthly Journal from 1798 to 1841. Among other early 
Calcutta magazines were the Asiatic Observer (1823-1824), the 
Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1824-1827), and the Royal Sporting 
Magazine (1833-1838). The Calcutta Literary Gazette was publishec 
in 1830-1834, and the Calcutta Review, still the most important 
serial of the Indian Empire, first appeared in 1846 under the editor- 
ship of Sir J. W. Kaye. 

Bombay. The Bombay Magazine was started in 1811 and lastec 
but a short time. The Bombay Quarterly Magazine (1851-1853] 
gave place to the Bombay Quarterly Review, issued in 1855. 

Madras. Madras had a Journal of Literature and Science anc 
the Oriental Magazine and Indian Hurkuru (1819). The Indian 
Antiquary was started at Bombay in 1872 and still continues. Ol 
. other contemporary magazines the Hindustan Review (Allahabad), 
the Modern Review (Calcutta), the Indian Review (Madras), the 
Madras Review, a quarterly first published in 1895, and the Calcutta 
University Magazine (1894), are important. 

Ceylon. In Ceylon the Religious and Theological Magazine 
was started at Colombo in 1833, the Colombo Magazine in 1839, 
the Ceylon Magazine in 1840, and the Investigator at Kandy in 1841. 
Of contemporary magazines the Tropical Agriculturist was started 
in 1881, the Ceylon Literary Register (1886-1896), afterwards the 
Monthly Literary Register and the Ceylon National Review in 1893. In 
Burma the quarterly Buddhism appeared in 1904. Singapore 
had a Journal of the Indian Archipelago from 1847 to 1859, and the 
Chinese Repository (1832-1851) was edited at Carton by Morrison. 
See " Periodical Literature in India," in Dark Blue (1872-1873). 

FRANCE 

We owe the literary journal to France, where it soon attained 
to a degree of importance unapproached in any other country. 
The first idea may be traced in the Bureau d'adresse (1633-1642) of 
Theophraste Renaudot, giving the proceedings of his conferences 
upon literary and scientific matters. About the year 1663 
Mezeray obtained a privilege for a regular literary periodical, which 
came to nothing, and it was left to Denis de Sallo. counsellor of 
the parliament of Paris and a man of rare merit and learning, to 
actually carry the project into effect. The first number of the 
Journal des savants appeared on the 5th of January 1665, under 
the assumed name of the sieur d'Hedouville. The prospectus 
promised to give an account of the chief books published throughout 
Europe, obituary notices, a review of the progress of science, 
besides legal and ecclesiastical information and other matters of 
interest to cultivated persons. The criticisms, however, wounded 
alike authors and the clergy, and the journal was suppressed after 
a career of three months. Colbert, seeing the public utility of such 
a periodical, ordered the abbe Gallois, a contributor of De Sallo's, 
to re-establish it, an event which took place on the 4th of January 
1666. It lingered nine years under the new editor, who was re- 
placed in 1675 by the abbe de la Roque, and the latter in his turn 
by the president Cousin, in 1686. From 1701 commenced a new 
era for the Journal, which was then acquired by the chancellor de 
Fontchartram for the state and placed under the direction of a 
commission of learned men. Just before the Revolution it de- 
veloped tresh activity, but the troubles of 1792 caused it to be 
discontinued until 1796, when it again failed to appear after twelve 
numbers had been issued. In 1816 it was definitely re-established 
and replaced under government patronage, remaining subject 
to the chancellor or garde-des-sceaux until 1857, when it was trans- 
ferred to the control of the minister of public instruction. Since 
1903 the organization of the publication has changed. The state 
subsidy having been withdrawn, the Institute voted a yearly 
subscription of 10,000 francs and nominated a commission of five 
members, one for each section, who managed the Journal. Since 
1909, however, the various sections have left to the Academic des 
inscriptions et Belles Lettres the entire direction of the Journal 
while still paying the annual subsidy. It now restricts itself to 
publishing contributions relating to antiquities and the middle 
ages and Oriental studies. 



Louis Auguste de Bourbon, sovereign prince of Dombes, having 
transferred his parliament to Treyoux, set up a printing press, and 
was persuaded by two Jesuits, Michel le Tellier and Philippe Lalle- 
ritan, to establish the Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des sciences 
et des arts (1701-1767), more familiarly known as the Journal des 
Trevoux, long the best-informed and best-written journal in France. 
One feature of its career was its constant appeal for the literary 
assistance of outsiders. It was continued in a more popular style 
as Journal des sciences et des beaux-arts (1768-1775) by the abbe 
Aubert and by the brothers Castilhon (1776-1778), and as Journal 
de litlerature, des sciences, et des arts (1779-1782) by the abbe 
Grosier. 

The first legal periodical was the Journal du palais (1672) of Claude 
Blondeau and Gabriel Gueret, and the first devoted to medicine the 
Nouvelles decouvertes dans toutes les parties de la medecine (1670) 
of Nicolas de Blegny, frequently spoken of as a charlatan, a term 
which sometimes means simply a man of many ideas. Religious 
periodicals date from 1680, and the Journal ecdesiastique of the abbe 
de la Roque, to whom is also due the first medical journal (1683). 
The prototype of the historico-literary periodical may be discovered 
in La Clef du cabinet des princes de V Europe (1704-1706), familiarly 
known as Journal de Verdun, and carried on under various titles 
down to 1794. 

Literary criticism was no more free than political discussion, and 
no person was allowed to trespass either upon the domain of the 
Journal des savants or that of the Mercure de France (see NEWS- 
PAPERS) without the payment of heavy subsidies. This was the 
origin of the clandestine press of Holland, and it was that country 
which for the next hundred years supplied the ablest periodical 
criticism from the pens of French Protestant refugees. During that 
period thirty-one journals of the first class proceeded from these 
sources. From its commencement the Journal des savants was 
pirated in Holland, and for ten years a kind of joint issue made up 
with the Journal des Trevoux appeared at Amsterdam. From 1764 
to 1775 miscellaneous articles from different French and English 
reviews were added to this reprint. Bayle, a born journalist and 
the most able critic of the day, conceived the plan of the Nouvelles 
de la repubhque des lettres (1684-1718), which at once became 
entirely successful and obtained for him during the three years of 
his control the dictatorship of the world of letters. He was succeeded 
as editor by La Roque, Barrin, Bernard and Leclerc. Bayle's 
method was followed in an equally meritorious periodical, the 
Histotre des ouvrages des Savants (1687-1704) of H. Basnage de 
Beauval. Another continuator of Bayle was Jean Leclerc, one of 
the most learned and acute critics of the i8th century, who carried 
on three reviews the Bibliotheque universelle et historique (1686- 
1693), the Bibliotheque choisie (1703-1713), and the Bibliotheque 
ancienne et moderne (1714-1727). They form one series, and, 
besides valuable estimates of new books, include original disserta- 
Uons, articles and biographies like our modern learned magazines 
I he Journal litteraire (1713-1722, 1729-1736) was founded by a 
society of young men, who made it a rule to discuss their con- 
tributions in common. Specially devoted to English literature were 
the Bibhotheque anglaise (1716-1728), the Memoires litteraires de 
la Grande Bretagne (1720-1724), the Bibliotheque britannique 
^733- l 734), and the Journal britannique (1750-1757) of Maty, 1 
who took for his principle, " pour penser avec liberte il faut Denser 
seul. One of these Dutch-printed reviews was L'Europe savante 
(1718-1720), founded chiefly by Themiseul de Saint-Hyacinthe, 
with the intention of placing each separate department under the 
care of a specialist. The Bibliotheque germanique (1720-1740) 
was established by Jacques Lenfant to do for northern Europe 
what the Bibhotheque britannique did for England. It was followed 
jy the Nouvelle bibliotheque germanique (1746-1759). The Biblio- 
heque raisonnee des ouvrages des savants (1728-1758) was supple- 
mentary to Leclerc, and was succeeded by the Bibliotheque des 
sciences et des beaux-arts (1754-1780). Nearly all of the preceding 
were produced either at Amsterdam or Rotterdam, and, although 
out of place in a precise geographical arrangement, really belong 
o France by the close ties of language and of blood. 

Taking up the exact chronological order again, we find the 

uccess of the English essay-papers led to their prompt introduction 

the Continent. An incomplete translation of the Spectator was 

published at Amsterdam in 1714, and many volumes of extracts 

rom the Taller, Spectator and Guardian were issued in France 

early in the i8th century. Marivaux brought out a Spectateur 

Franfais (1722), which was coldly received; it was followed by 

ourteen or fifteen others, under the titles of La Spectatrice (1728- 

730), Le Radoteur (1775), Le Babillard (1778-1779), &c. Of a 

imilar character was Le Pour et le centre (1723-1740) of the abbe 

Prevost, which contained anecdotes and criticism, with special 

eterence to Great Britain. Throughout the i8th century, in France 

a V- n England, a favourite literary method was to write of social 

ubjects under the assumed character of a foreigner, generally an 



Matthew Maty, M.D., born in Holland, 1718, died principal 
branan of the British Museum, 1776. He settled in England in 
740, published several books, and wrote the preface to Gibbon's 
rst work, Etude de la litterature. 



PERIODICALS 



157 



Oriental, with the title of Turkish Spy, Lettres chinoises, &c. These 
productions were usually issued in periodical form, and, besides 
an immense amount of worthless tittle-tattle, contain some valuable 
matter. 

During the first half of the century France has little of impor- 
tance to show in periodical literature. The Nouvelles eccUsiasliqu.es 
(1728-1803) were first printed and circulated secretly by the Jansen- 
ists in opposition to the Constitution unigenitus. The Jesuits 
retaliated with the Supplement des nouvelles ecclesiastiques (1734- 
1748). The promising title may have had something to do with 
the temporary success of the Memoires secrets de la republique des 
letlres (1744-1748) of the marquis d'Argens. In the Observations 
sur les ecrits modernes (1735-1743) Desfontaines held the gates of 
Philistia for eight years against the Encyclopaedists, and even the 
redoubtable Voltaire himself. It was continued by the Jugements 
sur quelques outrages nouveaux (1744-1745). The name of Freron, 
perhaps the most vigorous enemy Voltaire ever encountered, was 
long connected with Lettres sur quelques ecrits de ce temps (1749- 
1754), followed by L'Annee litteraire (1754-1790). Among the 
contributors of Freron was another manufacturer of criticism, the 
abb6 de la Porte, who, having quarrelled with his confrere, founded 
Observations sur la litterature moderne (1749-1752) and L'Observateur 
litteraire (1758-1761). 

A number of special organs came into existence about this period. 
The first, treating of agriculture and domestic economy, was the 
Journal tconomique (1751-1772); a Journal de commerce was 
founded in 1759; periodical biography may be first seen in the 
Necrologe des hommes celebres de France (1764-1782); the political 
economists established the Ephemerides du citoyen in 1765; the first 
Journal d'education was founded in 1768, and the Courrier de la 
mode in the same year ; the theatre had its first organ in the Journal 
des theatres (1770); in the same year were produced a Journal de 
musique and the Encyclopedic militaire; the sister service was 
supplied with a Journal de marine in 1778. We have already 
noticed several journals specially devoted to one or other foreign 
literature. It was left to Freron, Grimm, Provost and others in 
1754 to extend the idea to all foreign productions, and the Journal 
etranger (1754-1762) was founded for this purpose. The Gazette 
litteraire (1764-1766), which had Voltaire, Diderot and Saint- 
Lambert among its editors, was intended to swamp the small fry 
by criticism; the Journal des dames (1759-1778) was of a light 
magazine class; and the Journal de monsieur (1776-1783) had three 
phases of existence, and died after extending to thirty volumes. 
The Memoires secrets pour servir a I'histoire de la republique des 
lettres (1762-1787), better known as Memoires de Bachaumont, from 
the name of their founder, furnish a minute account of the social 
and literary history for a period of twenty-six years. Of a similar 
character was the Correspondance litteraire secrete (1774-1793), to 
which Metra was the chief contributor. L'Esprit des Journaux 
(1772-1818) forms an important literary and historical collection, 
which is rarely to be found complete. 

The movement of ideas at the close of the century may best be 
traced in the Annales politiques, civiles, et litteraires (1777-1792) 
of Linguet. The Decade philosophique (year V., or 1796/1797), 
founded by Ginguen6, is the first periodical of the magazine class 
which appeared after the storms of the Revolution. It was a kind 
of resurrection of good taste; under the empire it formed the sole 
refuge of the opposition. By a decree of the 1 7th of January 1800 
the consulate reduced the number of Parisian journals to thirteen, 
of which the Decade was one; all the others, with the exception 
of those dealing solely with science, art, commerce and advertise- 
ments, were suppressed. A report addressed to Bonaparte by 
FieVee 1 in the year XI. (1802/1803) furnishes a list of fifty-one of 
these periodicals. In the year XIII. (1804/1805) only seven non- 
political serials were permitted to appear. 

Between 1815 and 1819 there was a constant struggle between 
freedom of thought on the one hand and the censure, the police 
and the law officers on the other. This oppression led to the 
device of " semi-periodical " publications, of which La Minerve 
franc,aise (1818-1820) is an instance. It was the Satire Menippee of 
the Restoration, and was brought out four times a year at irregular 
intervals. Of the same class was the Bibliotheque historique (1818- 
1820), another anti-royalist organ. The censure was re-established 
in 1820 and abolished in 1828 with the monopoly. It has always 
seemed impossible to carry on successfully in France a review upon 
the lines of those which have become so numerous and important 
in England. The Revue britannique (1825-1901) had, however, a long 
career. The short-lived Revue franfaise (1828-1830), founded by 
Guizot, Remusat, De Broglie, and the doctrinaires, was an attempt in 
this direction. The well-known Revue des deux mondes was estab- 
lished in 1829 by Segur-Dupeyron and Mauroy, but it ceased to 
appear at the end of the year, and its actual existence dates from 
its acquisition in 1831 by Francois Buloz, 2 a masterful editor, 

1 The novelist and publicist Joseph Fi6v6e (1767-1839), known 
for his relations with Napoleon I., has been made the subject for 
a study by Sainte-Beuve (Causeries, v. 172). 

J This remarkable man (1804-1877) began life as a shepherd. 
Educated through the charity of M. Naville, he came to Paris as 



under whose energetic management it soon achieved a world-wide 
reputation. The most distinguished names in French literature 
have been among its contributors, for whom it has been styled the 
" vestibule of the Academy." It was preceded by a few months 
by the Revue de Paris (1829-18^.5), founded by Viron, who intro- 
duced the novel to periodical literature. In 1834 this was pur- 
chased by Buloz, and brought out concurrently with his other 
Revue. While the former was exclusively literary and artistic, the 
latter dealt more with philosophy. The Revue independante (1841- 
1848) was founded by Pierre Leroux, George Sand and Viardot for 
the democracy. The times of the consulate and the empire were the 
subjects dealt with by the Revue de I'empire (1842-1848). In Le 
Correspondant (1843), established by Montalembert and De Falloux, 
the Catholics and Legitimists had a valuable supporter. The 
Revue contemporaine (1852), founded by the comte de Belval as a 
royalist organ, had joined to it in 1856 the Athenaeum frangais. 
The Revue germanique (1858) exchanged its exclusive name and 
character in 1865 to the Revue moderne. The Revue europeenne 
(1859) was at first subventioned like the Revue contemporaine, 
from which it soon withdrew government favour. The Revue 
nationale (1860) appeared quarterly, and succeeded to the Magazin 
de librairie (1858). 

The number of French periodicals, reviews and magazines has 
enormously increased, not only in Paris but in the provinces. In 
Paris the number of periodicals published in 1883 was 1379; at the 
end of 1908 there were more than 3500 of all kinds. The chief 
current periodicals may be mentioned in the following order. The 
list includes a few no longer published. 

Archaeology. Revue archeologique (1860), bi-monthly; Ami 
des monuments (1887); Bulletin de numismatique (1891); Revue 
biblique (1892); L'Annee epigraphique (1880) a sort of supplement 
to the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum; Cellica (1903) common to 
France and England ; Gazette numismatique frangaise (1897) ; Revue 
semitique d'epigraphie et d'histoire ancienne (1893); Bulletin monu- 
mental, bi-monthly; L' Intermediate, weekly, the French " Notes 
and Queries," devoted to literary and antiquarian questions. 

Astronomy. Annuaire astronomique et meteorologique (1901); 
Bulletin astronomique (1884), formerly published under the title 
Bulletin des sciences mathematiques et astronomiques. 

Bibliography. Annales de bibliographie tUologique (1888); Le 
bibliographe moderne, (1897); Bibliographie anatomique (1893); 
Bibliographie scientifique frangaise (1902) ; Bulletin des bibliotheques 
et des archives (1884) ; Bulletin des livres relatifs a VAmtrique (1899) ; 
Courrier des bibliotheques (1910) ; Repertoire methodique de I'histoire 
moderne et contemporaine de la France (1898); Repertoire methodique 
du moyen Age frangais (1894); Revue bibliographique et critique des 
langues et litteratures romanes (1889); Revue des bibliotheques (1891); 
Polybiblion : revue bibliographique universelle, monthly ; Revue 
gene-rale de bibliographie frangaise, bi-monthly. 

Children's Magazines. L' Ami de la jeunesse; Le Jeudi de 
la jeunesse, weekly. 

Fashions. La Mode illustree; Les Modes, monthly. 

Fine Arts. Les Arts (1902); Gazette des beaux-arts (1859), 
monthly, with Chronique des arts; Revue de I' art ancien et moderne 
(1897) monthly; L' Art decoralif, monthly, Art et decoration, monthly; 
L'Art pour tous, monthly; La Decoration, monthly; L' Architecture 
journal of the Soc. centrale des Architectes francais, weekly; 
L'Art (1875) is no longer published. 

Geography and Colonies. Bulletin de geographic historique; 
Annales de geographic (1891), with useful quarterly bibliography; 
Nouvelles geographiques supplement to the Tour du monde (1891); 
La Vie coloniale (1902); La Geographic, monthly, published by the 
Soc. de Geographic (1900); Revue de geographic, monthly; Revue 
g6ographique international, monthly. 

History. For long the chief organs for history and archaeology 
were the Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes (1835), appearing every 
two months and dealing with the middle ages, and the Cabinet 
historique (1855), a monthly devoted to MSS. and unprinted docu- 
ments. The Revue historique (1876) appears bi-monthly; there is 
also the Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine. 

Law and Jurisprudence. Annales de droit commercial (1877) ; 
Revue alg&rienne et tunisienne de legislation et de jurisprudence 
(1885); Revue du droit public et de la science politique (1894); Revue 
generate du droit international public (1894). 

Literary Reviews. The Revue des deux mondes and the Corre- 
spondant have already been mentioned. One of the first of European 
weekly reviews is the Revue critique (1866). The Revue politique 
et litteraire, successor to the Revue des cours litteraires (1863) and 
known as the Revue bleue, also appears weekly. Others of interest 
are : Antee, revue mensuelle de litterature (1904) ; L'Art et la vie (1892) ; 
Cosmopolis (1896); L'Ermitage (1890); Le Mercure de France, serie 
moderne (1890), a magazine greatly valued in literary circles; La 
Revue de Paris, fortnightly (1894), and the Nouvelle Revue (1879) 



a compositor, and by translating from the English earned sufficient 
to purchase the moribund Revue des deux mondes, which acquired 
its subsequent position in srjite of the tyrannical editorial behaviour 
of the proprietor. Buloz is said to have eventually enjoyed an 
income of 365,000 francs from the Revue. 



i 5 8 



PERIODICALS 



both serious rivals of the Revue des deux mondes; Revue franchise 
d'Edimbourg (1897); Revue germanique (1905); Le Livre (1880), 
dealing with bibliography and literary history, and La Revue latine 
(1902), no longer published; La Revue, monthly. 

Mathematics. Intermediaire des mathematiciens (1894); Bulletin 
des sciences mathematiques (1896); Revue de mathematiques speciales 
(1890) ; Journal de mathematiques pures et appliquees, quarterly. 

Medicine. Revue de medecine (1881); Annales de I'Ecole de 
plein exercise de medicine et de pharmacie de Marseille (1891); La 
Chronique medecale (1893); Revue de gynecologic, bi-monthly; La 
Semaine medicale, weekly; Journal d' hygiene, monthly. 

Military. Revue des troupes coloniales, monthly; La Revue 
d'infantrie, monthly. 

Music. Musica (1902); Revue d'histoire et de critique musicale 
(1901); Annales de la musique; Le Menestral, weekly. 

Philology. L'Annee linguistique (1901-1902) ; Bulletin dela societe 
des parlers de France (1893); Bulletin des humanites franfais (1894); 
Bulletin hispanique (1899); Bulletin italien (1901); Lou-Gai-Sabe- 
Antoulongio prouvencfllo (1905); Le Maitre phonetique (1886); Le 
Moyen Age (1888) ; Revue de la renaissance (1901) ; Revue de metrique 
et de versification (1894-1895) ; Revue des etudes grecques (1888) ; Revue 
des etudes rabelaisiennes (1903) ; Revue des parlers populaires (1902) ; 
Revue des patois (1887); Revue hispanique (1894); Revue celtique, 
quarterly; Revue de philologie franc_aise et de litterature. 

Philosophy and Psychology. Revue philosophique (1876), 
monthly; Annales des sciences psychiques (1891); L'Annee philo- 
sophique (1890), critical and analytical review of all philosophical 
works appearing during the year; L'Annee psychologique (1894); 
Journal de psychologie nor male et pathologie (1904) ; Bulletin de 
I'institul general de psychologie (1903); Revue de I'hypnotisme et de 
la psychologie physiologique (1900); Revue de metaphysique et de 
morale (1893); Revue de philosophic (1900); Revue de psychiatric 
(1897). 

Physics and Chemistry. Bulletin des sciences physiques ^(1888); 
L'Eclairage electrique (1894) ; Le Radium (1904) ; Revue generate des 
sciences pures et appliquees (1890); Revue pratique de V electricite 
(1892). 

Popular and Family Reviews. A travers le monde (1898); 
Femina (1901); Je sais tout (1905); La Lecture moderne (1901); La 
Revue hebdomadaire (1892) ; Les Lectures pour tous (1898) ; Man 
bonheur (1902); La Vie heureuse (1902). 

Science (General). La Nature, weekly; Revue scientifique (1863), 
weekly; La Science franc,aise, monthly. Science (Applied): Les 
inventions illustrees, weekly; Revue industrielle, weekly. Science 
(Natural) : Archives de biologie; Journal de botanique (1887) ; L'Annee 
biologique (1895); Revue des sciences naturelles de I'ouest (1891); 
Revue generale de botanique (1889) ; La Pisciculture pratique (1895). 
Science (Political, Sociological and Statistical): Annales economiques 
(founded as La France commerciale in 1885); L'Annee sociologique 
(1896-1897); Bulletin de I'office du travail (1894); Bulletin de I'office 
international du travail (1902) ; Le Mouvement socialiste international 
bi-monthly (1899); Notices et comptes rendus de I'office du travail 
(1892); L Orient et I'abeille du Bosphore (1889); Revue politique et 
parlementaire (1894); Revue international de sociologie, monthly. 

SPORTS. L'Aerophile(i89z) ; L' Aeronautique (1902) ; L' Aerostation 
(1904); La Vie au grand air (1898) ; La Vie automobile (1901); Revue 
de I'aeronautique (1888). 

AUTHORITIES. The subject of French periodicals has been 
exhaustively treated in the valuable works of Eugene Hatin 
Histoire de la presse en France (8 vols., 1859-1861), Les Gazettes de 
HoUande et la presse clandestine aux 77" et 18 siecles (1865), and 
Bibliographic de la presse periodique franchise (1866). See also 
Catalogue de I'histoire de France (n vols., 1853-1879), V. Gebe, 
Catalogue des journaux, &c., publics a Paris (1879); Brunet, Manuel 
du libraire, avec supplement (8 vols., 1860-1880); F. Mege, Les 
Journaux et ecrits periodiques de la Basse Auvergne (1869); Bulletin 
des sommaires des journaux (1888); D. Jordell, Repertoire biblio- 
graphique des principals revues franchises (3 vols., 1897-1899, 
1898-1900), indexes about 350 periodicals; Annuaire de la presse 
franchise et du monde politique (1909-1910); Le Soudier, Annuaire 
des journaux, revues et publications periodiques parus a Paris jusqu'en 
IQOQ (1910). For lists of general indexes consult Stein, Manuel de 
bibliographie generale (1897), pp. 637-710. 

GERMANY 

The earliest trace of the literary journal in Germany is to be 
found in the Erbauliche Mpnatsunterredungen (1663) of the poet 
Johann Rist and in the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670- 
1704) of the Academia naturae curiosorum Leopoldina-Carolina, 
the first scientific annual, uniting the features of the Journal des 
savants and of the Philosophical Transactions. D. G. Morhof, 
the author of the well-known Polyhistor, conceived the idea of a 
monthly serial to be devoted to the history of modern books and 
learning, which came to nothing. While professor of morals at 
Leipzig, Otto Mencke planned the Acta eruditorum, with a view 
to make known, by means of analyses, extracts and reviews, the 
new works produced throughout Europe. In 1680 he travelled in 
England and Holland in order to obtain literary assistance, and 



the first number appeared in 1682, under the title of Acta erudi- 
torum lipsiensium, and, like its successors, was written in Latin. 
Among the contributors to subsequent numbers were Leibnitz, 
Seckendorf and Cellarius. A volume came out each year, with 
supplements. After editing about thirty volumes Mencke died, 
leaving the publication to his son, and the Acta remained in the 
possession of the family down to 1745, when they extended to 117 
volumes, which form an extremely valuable history of the learning 
of the period. A selection of the dissertations and articles was pub- 
lished at Venice in 7 vols. 410 (1740). The Acta soon had imitators. 
The Ephemerides litterariae (1686) came out at Hamburg in Latin 
and French. The Nova litteraria maris Balthici et Septenlrionis 
(1698-1708) was more especially devoted to north Germany and the 
universities of Kiel, Rostock and Dorpat. Supplementary to the 
preceding was the Nova litteraria Germaniae collecta Hamburgi 
(1703-1709), which from 1707 widened its field of view to the whole 
of Europe. At Leipzig was produced the Teutsche acta eruditorum 
(1712), an excellent periodical, edited by J. G. Rabener and C. G. 
Jocher, and continued from 1740 to 1758 as Zuverldssige Nachrichten. 
It included portraits. 

The brilliant and enterprising Christian Thomasius brought out 
periodically, in dialogue form, his Monatsgesprache (1688-1690), 
written by himself in the vernacular, to defend his novel theories 
against the alarmed pedantry of Germany, and, together with 
Strahl, Buddeus and others, Obseryationes selectae ad rem litterariam 
spectantes (1700), written in Latin. W. E. Tenzel also published 
Monatliche Unterredungen (1689-1698), continued from 1704 as 
Curieuse Bibliothek, and treating various subjects in dialogue form. 
After the death of Tenzel the Bibliothek was carried on under differ- 
ent titles by C. Woltereck, J. G. Krause and others, down to 1721. 
Of much greater importance than these was the Monatlicher Auszug 
(1701), supported by J. G. Eccard and Leibnitz. Another periodical 
on Thomasius's plan was Neue Unterredungen (1702), edited by 
N. H. Gundling. The Gundlingiana of the latter person, published 
at Halle (1715-1732), and written partly in Latin and partly in 
German by the editor, contained a miscellaneous collection of 
juridical, historical and theological observations and dissertations. 

Nearly all departments of learning possessed their several special 
periodical organs about the close of the I7th or the beginning of 
the 1 8th century. The Anni franciscanorum (1680) was edited 
by the Jesuit Stiller; and J. S. Adami published, between 1690 
and 1713, certain theological repertories under the name of Deliciae. 
Historical journalism was first represented by Electa juris publici 
(1709), philology by Neue acerra philologica (1715-1723), philosophy 
by the Acta philosophorum (1715-1727), medicine by Der patriotische 
Medikus (1725), music by Der musikalische Patriot (1725), and edu- 
cation by Die Matrone (1728). Reference has already been made to 
the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670-1704); the Monatliche 
Erzahlungen (1689) was also devoted to natural science. 

Down to the early part of the l8th century Halle and Leipzig 
were the headquarters of literary journalism in Germany. Other 
centres began to feel the need of similar organs of opinion. Hamburg 
had its Niedersdchsische neue Zeitungen, styled from 1731 Nieder- 
sdchsische Nachrichten, which came to an end in 1736, and Mecklen- 
burg owned in 1710 its Neuer Vorrath, besides others brought out 
at Rostock. Prussia owes the foundation of its literary periodicals 
to G. P. Schulze and M. Lilienthal, the former of whom began with 
Gelehrtes Preussen (1722), continued under different titles down to 
1729; the latter helped with- the Erlautertes Preussen (1724), and 
was the sole editor of the Acta borussica (1730-1732). Pomerania 
and Silesia also had their special periodicals in the first quarter of 
the i8th century. Francqnia commenced with Nova litteraria, 
and Hesse with the Kurze Historic, both in 1725. In south Germany 
appeared the Wiirttembergische Nebenstunden (1718), and the Par- 
nassus boicus, first published at Munich in 1722. The Frankfurter 
gelehrte Zeitungen was founded in 1736 by S. T. Hocker, and existed 
down to 1790. Austria owned Das merkwiirdige Wien. 

In 1715 the Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen was founded by 
J. G. Krause at Leipzig and carried on by various editors down to 
1797. It was the first attempt to apply the form of the weekly 
political journal to learned subjects, and was imitated in the Ver- 
mischte Bibliothek (1718-1720) and the Bibliotheca novissima (1718- 
1721), both founded by J. G. Francke in Halle. Shortly after the 
foundation of the university of Gottingen appeared Zeitungen von 
gelehrten Sachsen (1739), still famous as the Gottingische gelehrte 
Anzeigen, which during its long and influential career has been 
conducted by professors of that university, and among others by 
Halier, Heyne and Eichhorn. 

Influenced by a close study of English writers, the two Swiss, 
Bodmer and Breitinger, established Die Discurse der Maler (1721), 
and by paying more attention to the matter of works reviewed than 
to their manner, commenced a critical method new to Germany. 
The system was attacked by Gottsched, who, educated in the French 
school, erred in the opposite direction. The struggle between 
the two parties gave fresh life to the literature of the country 
but German criticism of the higher sort can only be said really to 
begin with Lessing. The Berlin publisher Nicolai founded the 
Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften, and afterwards handed it 
over to C. F. Weisse in order to give his whole energy to the Briefe, 
die neueste Literatur betreffend (1759-1765), carried on by the help 



PERIODICALS 



of Leasing, Mendelssohn and Abbt. To Nicolai is also due the 
Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek (1765-1806), which embraced a much 
wider field and soon became extremely influential. Herder founded 
the Kritische Wdlder in 1766. Der deutsche Merkur (1773-1789, 
revived 1790-1810) of Wieland was the solitary representative of 
the French school of criticism. A new era in German periodical 
literature began when Bertuch brought out at Jena in 1785 the 
Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, to which the leading writers of the 
country were contributors. On being transferred to Halle in i8od 
it was replaced by the Jenaische allgemeine Literaturzeitung, founded 
by Eichstadt. Both reviews enjoyed a prosperous career down to 
the year 1848. 

At the beginning of the igth century we find the Erlanger Literatur- 
zeitung (1799-1810), which had replaced a Gelehrte Zeitung (1746); 
the Leipziger Literaturzeitung (1800-1834); the Heidelbergische 
Jahrbucher der Lileratur (1808-1872); and the Wiener Literatur- 
zeitung (1813-1816), followed by the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur 
(1818-1848), both of which received government support and 
resembled the English Quarterly Review in their conservative 
politics and high literary tone. Hermes, founded at Leipzig in 
1819 by W. T. Krug, was distinguished for its erudition, and came 
out down to 1831. One of the most remarkable periodicals of this 
class was the Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftliche Kritik (1827-1846), 
first published by Cotta. The Hallische Jahrbucher (1838-1842) 
was founded by Ruge and Echtermeyer, and supported by the 
government. The Repertorium der gesammten deutschen Literatur, 
established by Gersdorf in 1834, and known after 1843 as the 
Leipziger Repertorium der deutschen und auslandischen Literatur, 
existed to 1860. Buchner founded the Literarische Zeitung at Berlin 
in 1834. It was continued by Brandes down to 1849. The political 
troubles of 1848 and 1849 were most disastrous to the welfare of 
the literary and miscellaneous periodicals. Gersdorf's Repertorium, 
the Gelehrte Anzeigen of Gottingen and of Munich, -and the Heidel- 
bergische Jahrbucher were the sole survivors. The Allgemeine 
Mpnatschrift fur Literatur^ (1850), conducted after 1851 by Droysen, 
Nitzf,ch and others, continued only down to 1854; the Literansches 
Centralblatt (1850) is still published. The Blatter fur literarische 
Unterhaltung sprang out of the Literarisches Wochenblatt (1818), 
founded by Kotzebue; after 1865 it was edited by R. Gottschall 
with considerable success. Many of the literary journals did not 
disdain to occupy themselves with the fashions, but the first 
periodical of any merit specially devoted to the subject was the 
Bazar (1855). The first to popularize science was Natur (1852). 
The Hausbldtter (1855), a bi-monthly magazine, was extremely 
successful. The Salon (1868) followed more closely the type of the 
English magazine. About this period arose a great number of 
weekly serials for popular reading, known as " Sonntagsblatter," 
of which the Gartenlaube (1858) and Daheim (1864) are surviving 
examples. 

In course of time a large number of similar publications were 
issued, some illustrated, for instance: Illustrierte Zeitung (Leipzig, 
1843), Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung (1892), Die Woche (1899) 
the last the most widely circulated of the kind, 500,000 being 
printed. 

At a somewhat earlier date commenced a long series of weekly and 
monthly periodicals of a more solid character, of which the following 
list indicates the more important in chronological order: Die 
Grenzboten (1862), weekly; the Deutsches Museum (1851-1857), of 
Prutz and Frenzel; Berliner Revue (1855-1873); Westermanns 
Monatshefte (1856), monthly; Unsere Zeit (1857-1891), beginning 
as a kind of supplement to Brockhaus's Corner sationslexikon; 
Preussische Jahrbucher (1858), monthly; Deutsches Magazin (1861- 
1863); Die Gegenwart (1873), weekly; Konservative Monatsschrift 
(1873), preceded by the Volksblatt fur Stadt und Land (1843); 
Deutsche Rundschau (1874), fortnightly, conducted upon the method 
of the Revue des deux mondes; Deutsche Revue (1876), monthly; 
Nord und Sud (1877), monthly; Das Echo (1882), weekly; Die 
Zukunft (1882), weekly; Die neue Zeit (1883), weekly; Reclams 
Universum (1884), weekly; Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte 
(1889), monthly; Die deutsche Rundschau (1890), monthly; Die 
Wahrheit (1893-1897); Kritik (1894-1902); Die Umschau (1897), 
weekly; Das literarische Echo (1898), fortnightly; Kynast (1898- 
1899), known later as Deutsche Zeitschrift (1899-1903) and Iduna 
(1903-1906); Der Turmer (1898), monthly; Die Warte (1900), weekly ; 
Deutschland (1902-1907); Deutsche Monatsschrift (1902-1907); 
Hochland (1903), monthly; Charon (1904), monthly; Suddeutsche 
Monatshefte (1904); Der Deutsche (1905-1908); Deutsche Kultur 
(1905-1908); Arena (1906), monthly; Das Blaubuch (1906), weekly; 
Eckart (1906), monthly; Die Standarte (1906), weekly; Marz (1907), 
fortnightly; Morgen (1907), weekly; Neue Revue (1907), weekly; 
Internationale Wochenschrift fur Wissenschaft, Kunst, und Technik 
(1907), weekly supplement to the Miinchener allgemeine Zeitung; 
Wissen (1907), weekly; Unsere Zeit (1907), monthly; Hyperion 
(1908), bi-monthly; Xenien (1908), monthly; Das neue Jahrhundert 
(1909), monthly; Die Tat (1909), monthly. 

Periodicals have been specialized in Germany to an extent 
perhaps unequalled in any other country. No subject of human 
interest is now without one or indeed several organs. Full details 
of these serials are supplied by a special class of periodical with 
which every department of science, art and literature in German- 



speaking countries is equipped, the Jahresberichte and Bibliographien, 
which give each year a full account of the literature of the subject 
with which they are concerned. The chief of these are : 

Bibliography and Librarianship : Bibliographic des Buck- und 
Bibliothekswesens (1905); Chemistry: Jahresbericht iiber die Fort- 
schritte der Chemie (1847); Classical Archaeology and Philology: 
Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissen- 
schaft (1873); Education: Jahrbuch der padagogischen Literatur 
(1901); Geography: Geographisches Jahrbuch (1874); Bibliotheca 
geographica (1891); History: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen- 
schaft (1878); Fine Arts: Internationale Bibliographic der Kunst- 
ivissenschaft (1902); Law and Political Economy: Uebersicht der 
gesamten stoats- und rechtswissenschaftlichen Literatur (1868) ; 
Jurisprudentia Germaniae (1905); Bibliographic des burgerlichen 
Rechts (1888); Bibliographie der Sozialwissenschaften (1905); Biblio- 
graphie fur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1903) ; Bibliographie 
fur Volkswirtschaftslehre und Rechtswissenschaft (1906); Literature 
and Languages: Bibliographie der vergleichenden Literatur geschichte 
('903); Jahresberichte fur neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte (1890); 
Jahresbericht uber die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen 
Philologie (1879); Uebersicht iiber die auf dem Gebiete der englischen 
Philologie erschienenen Biicher, Schnften, und Aufsatze (1878); 
Kritischer Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der romanischen Philo- 
logie (1875); Bibliographie fur romanische Philologie Supl. zur 
Zeitschr. f. roman. Philologie (1875) ; Orientalische Bibliographie 
(1888); Mathematics: Jahrbuch uber die Fortschritte der Mathematik 
(1869) ; Medicine and Surgery: Jahresbericht iiber die Leistungen und 
Fortschritte der gesamten Medizin (1866); Jahresbericht iiber die 
Leistungen auf dem Gebiete der Veterinarmedizin (1881); Military: 
Jahresbericht iiber Verdnderungen und Fortschritte im Militdrwesen 
(1874); Jahresbericht uber die Leistungen und Fortschritte auf dem 
Gebiete des Militarsanitatswesens (1873); Natural Science: Naturae 
noyitates (1879), fortnightly; Bibliographie der deutschen natur- 
wissenschaftlichen Literatur (1901); Bibliographia zoologica (1896); 
Zoolugischer Jahresbericht (1879); Justs botanischer Jahresbericht 
(1873); Die Fortschritte der Physik (1847); Technicology: Repertorium 
der technischen Journalliteratur (1874); Theology: Theologischer 
Jahresbericht ( 1 88 1 ) ; Bibliographie der Kirchengeschtchtlichen Literatw 
(1877). 

AUSTRIA 

The most notable periodicals of a general character have been 
the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur (1818-1848) and the Oester- 
reichische Revue (1863-1867). Among current examples the follow- 
ing may be mentioned: Heimgarten (1877), monthly; Oesterreichisch- 
Ungarische Revue (1886), monthly; Allgemeines Literaturblatt (1892), 
fortnightly; Die Kultur (1899), quarterly; Deutsche Arbeit (1900), 
monthly; Oesterreichische Rundschau (1904), fortnightly; Die 
Karpathen (1907); fortnightly. 

There were in Austria 22 literary and 41 special periodicals in 
1848, and no literary and 413 special periodicals in 1873 (see the 
statistical inquiry of Dr Johann Winckler, D'e period. Presse Oester- 
reichs, 1875). In 1905 the total number had increased to 806, of 
which 564. were published in Vienna. 

According to the Deutscher Zeitschriften-Katalog (1874), 2219 
periodicals were published in Austria, Germany and Switzerland 
in 1874 in the German language. In 1905 the number of periodicals 
in German-speaking countries was 5066, of which 4019 appeared in 
Germany (in Berlin alone 1107) 806 in Austria and 218 in Switzer- 
land (Borsenblatt fur den deutschen Buchhandel, 1909, No. 124). 

AUTHORITIES. -C. Juncker, Schediasma de ephemeridibus erudi- 
torum (Leipzig, 1692); H. Kurz, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur 
(Leipzig, 1852); R. Prutz, Geschichte des deutschen Journalismus 
(1845) vol. i., unfortunately it does not go beyond 1713) ; H. Wuttke, 
Die deutschen Zeitschriften (1875); P. E. Richter, Verzeichnis der 
Periodica im Besitze der k. off. Bibl. zu Dresden (1880) ; Generalkatalog 
der laufenden periodischen Druckschriften an den oesterr. Univer- 
sitdts- und Studienbibliotheken hrsg. von F. Grassauer (Vienna, 
1898) ; Konigliche Bibliothek zu Berlin, Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der 
laufenden Zeitschriften (1908); Systematisches Verzeichnis der laufen- 
den Zeitschriften (1908); Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der laufenden 
Zeitschriften, welche von der K. Hof- und Staatsbibliothek Munchen 
und einer Anzahl anderer Bibliotheken Bayern gehalten vierden 
(Munchen, 1909); Kiirschner, Jahrbuch der Presse (1902); Sperlings 
Zeitschriften Adressbuch (Stuttgart, 1910); Bibliographisches Reper- 
torium, Berlin: Walzel-Houben, Zeitschriften der Romantik (1904); 
Houben, Zeitschriften des jungen Deutschlands (1906); Luck, Die 
deutsche Fachpresse (Tubingen, 1908). The Bibliographie der 
deutschen Zeitschriftenliteratur, edited by F. Dieterich, which has 
appeared annually since 1896, describes about 1300 periodicals 
(mostly scientific) by subjects and titles; from 1900 it has been 
supplemented by Bibliographie der deutschen Recensionen, which 
indexes notices and reviews in over 1000 serials each year, chiefly 
scientific and technical. 

SWITZERLAND 

The Nova litteraria helvetica (1703-1715) of Zurich is the earliest 
literary periodical which Switzerland can show. From 1728 to 
1734 a Bibliotheque italique, and towards the end of the century the 
Bibliotheque britannique (17961815), dealing with agriculture, 
literature, and science, in three separate series, were published 
at Geneva. The latter was followed by the leading periodical 



i6o 



PERIODICALS 



of French-speaking Switzerland, the Bibliotheque universelle (1816), 
which has also had a scientific and a literary series. The Revue 
suisse (1838) was produced at Neuchatel. These two have been 
amalgamated and appear as the Bibliotheque universette et revue 
suisse. La Suisse rpmande (1885) only lasted twelve months. 
Theologie et philosophic (1868-1872), an account of foreign literature 
on those subjects, was continued as Revue de theologie et de philoso- 
phic (1873) at Lausanne. Among current serials may be mentioned 
Archives de psychologie de la Suisse romande (1901) edited by Flournoy 
and Claparede; Jahresverzeichnis der schweizerischen Universitats- 
schriften (1897-1898); Untersuchungen zur neueren Sprach- und 
Literaturgeschichte (1903); Zwingliana: Mitteilungen zur Ceschichte 
Zwingli und der Reformation (1897). 

ITALY 

Prompted by M. A. Ricci, Francesco Nazzari, the future cardinal, 
established in 1668 the Giornale de' letterati upon the plan of the 
French Journal des savants. His collaborateurs each agreed to 
undertake the criticism of a separate literature while Nazzari re- 
tained the general editorship and the analysis of the French books. 
The journal was continued to 1675, and another series was carried 
on to 1769. Bacchini brought out at Parma (1688-1690) and at 
Modena (1692-1697) a periodical with a similar title. A much better 
known Giornale was that of Apostolo Zeno, founded with the help 
of Maffei and Muratori (1710), continued after 1718 by Pietro Zeno, 
and after 1728 by Mastraca and Paitoni. Another Giornale, to 
which Fabroni contributed, was published at Pisa from 1771 onwards. 
The Gatteria di Minerva was-first published at Venice in 1696. One 
of the many merits of the antiquary Lami was his connexion with 
the Novelle letterarie (1740-1770), founded by him, and after the 
first two years almost entirely written by him. Its learning and 
impartiality gave it much authority. The Frusta letteraria (1763- 
1 7(>S) was brought out at Venice by Giuseppe Baretti under the 
pseudonym of Aristarco Scannabue. The next that deserve mention 
are the Giornale enciclopedico (1806) of Naples, followed by the 
Progresso delle scienze (1833-1848) and the Museo di scienze e 
lelteratura of the same city, and the Giornale arcadico (1819) of 
Rome. Among the contributors to the Poligrafo (1811) of Milan 
were Monti, Perticari, and some of the first names in Italian litera- 
ture. The Biblioteca ital-iana (1816-1840) was founded at Milan 
by the favour of the Austrian government, and the editorship was 
offered to and declined by Ugp Foscolo. It rendered service to 
Italian literature by its opposition to the Della-Cruscan tyranny. 
Another Milanese serial was the Conciliatore (1818-1820), which 
although it only lived two years, will be remembered for the en- 
deavours made by Silvio Pellico, Camillo Ugoni and its other con- 
tributors to introduce a more dignified and courageous method of 
criticism. After its suppression and the falling off in interest of 
the Biblioteca italiana the next of any merit to appear was the 
Antologia, a monthly periodical brought out at Florence in 1820 
by Gino Capponi and Giampetro Vieusseux, but suppressed in 
1833 on account of an epigram of Tommaseo, a principal writer. 
Some striking papers were contributed by Giuseppe Mazzini. 
Naples had in 1832 Il^Progresso of Carlo Trpya, helped by Tommaseo 
and Centofanti, and Palermo owned the Giornale di statistica (1834), 
suppressed eight years later. The Archivio storico, consisting of 
reprints of documents with historical dissertations, dates from 1842, 
and was founded by Vieusseux and Gino Capponi. The Civilla 
cattolica (1850), fortnightly, is still the organ of the Jesuits. The 
Rivista contemporanea (1852) was founded at Turin in emulation 
of the French Revue des deux mondes, which ha? been the type 
followed by so many continental periodicals. The Politecnico 
(1839) of Milan was suppressed in 1844 and revived in 1859. The 
Nuova antologia (1866) soon acquired a well-deserved reputation 
as a high-class review and magazine; its rival, the Rivista europea, 
being the special organ of the Florentine men of letters. The 
Rassegna settimanale was a weekly political and literary review, 
which after eight years of existence gave place to a daily newspaper, 
the Rassegna. The Archivio trenlino (1882) was the organ of 
" Italia Irredenta." The Rassegna nazionale, conducted by the 
marchese Manfredo di Passanp, a chief of the moderate clerical 
party, the Nuova rivista of Turin, the Fanfulla della Domenica, and 
the Gazzetta letteraria may also be mentioned. 

Some of the following are still published: Annali di matematica 
(1867); Annuario di giurisprudenza (1883); Archivio di statistica 
(1876); Archivio storico lombardo (1874); Archivio veneto (1871); 
Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari; Archivio per la 
zoologia; II Bibliofilo; II Filangieri (1876); La Natura (1884); 
Nuovo giornale botanico (1869) ; Giornale degli eruditi (1883) ; Giornale 
difilologia romanza; Nuova rivista Internazionale (1879) ; La Rassegna 
italiana (1881); Revue Internationale (1883). In more recent years 
a great expansion has been witnessed. Local reviews have largely 
increased, as well as those devoted to history, science and university 
undertakings. Among representative serials are the following 
Archaeology: Museo italiano di antichita classica (1885) with atlas 
in folio; Oriens christianus (1901); Nuovo bolleltino di archeologia 
cristiana, quarterly at Rome (1895). Bibliography: Rivista delle 
biblioteche e degli archivi (1888), published monthly at Rome and 
Florence, the official organ of librarians and archivists; Giornale 



della libreria della tippgrafia (1888), supplement to the Bibliografia 
italiana; Bollettino di bibliografia e stor^a delle scienze matematiche 
(1898); La Bibliofilia (1899), Florence, monthly; Raccolta Vinciana 
(1904). Philology: Bollettino difilologia classica (1894); Giornale 
italiano di filologia e linguistica classica (1886); Studi di filologia 
romanza (1885) ; Studi italiani difilologia classica (1893) ; Bessarione, 
bi-monthly. No class has developed more usefully than the his- 
torical, among them being: Bollettino dell' instituto storico italiano 
(1886) ; Nuovo archivio veneto (1890) ; Rivista di storia antica e scienze 
affini (1895); Rivista storica italiana (1884). New literary and 
scientific reviews are: L'Alighieri, rivista di cose dantesche (1889); 
Giornale dantesco (1894); Giornale storico della letter atur a italiana 
(1883); Studi di letteratura italiana (1899); Studi medievali (1904); 
L' Arcadia, periodico mensile di scienze, lettere, ed arti (1889); 
Periodico di matematica per I'insegnamento secondario (1885); 
Rivista di matematica (1891); Rivista philosofica (1899); Rivista 
d' Italia, monthly at Rome. Fine Arts: L'Arte, monthly; Arte 
italiana, monthly; Rassegna d'arte, monthly. 

AUTHORITIES. See G. Ottino, La Stampa periodica in Italia 
(Milan, 1875); Raccolta dei periodici presentata all' esposizione in 
Milano (1881); A. Roux, La Litterature contemporaine en Italie 
(1871-1883), Paris, 1883. 

BELGIUM 

The Journal encyclopedique (1756-1793) founded by P. Rousseau, 
made Liege a propagandist centre for the philosophical party. 
In the same city, was also first established L Esprit des journaux 
(1772-1818), styled by Sainte-Beuve " cette considerable et ex- 
cellente collection," but " journal voleur et compilateur." The 
Journal historique et litteraire (1788-1790) was founded at Luxem- 
burg by the Jesuit De Feller; having been suppressed there, it was 
transferred to Liege, and subsequently to Maestricht. It is one of 
the most curious of the Belgian periodicals of the l8th century, 
and contains most precious materials for the national history. A 
complete set is very rare and much sought after. The Revue beige 
(1835-1843), in spite of the support of the best writers of the kingdom, 
as well as its successor the Revue de Liege (1844-1847), the Tresor 
national (1842-1843), published at Brussels, and the Revue de Belgique 
(1846-1851) were all short-lived. The Revue deBruxelles (1837-1848), 
supported by the nobility and the clergy, had a longer career. 
The Revue nationale was the champion of Liberalism, and came 
to an end in 1847. The Messager des sciences historiques (1833), 
at Ghent, was in repute on account of its .historical and antiquarian 
character. The Revue catholique, the organ of the professors of 
the university of Louyain, began in 1846 a controversy with the 
Journal historique et litteraire of Kersten (1834) upon the origin 
of human knowledge, which lasted for many years and excited 
great attention. The Annales des \travaux publics (1843), the 
Bulletin de I'industrie (1842), the Journal des beaux-arts (1858), 
and the Catholic Precis historiques (1852), the Protestant Chretien 
(1850), are other examples. The Revue trimestrielle was 



founded at Brussels by Van Bemmel in 1854. The Athenaeum 
beige (1868) did not last long. 

Among current periodicals in. French are the following Biblio- 
graphy: Bulletin bibliographique et pedagogique du musee beige 
(1897); La Revue des bibliothbques et archives de Belgique (1903); 
Le Glaneur litteraire, musical et bibliographic (1901); Archives des 
arts et de la bibliographic de Belgique (Tables 1833-1853 and 1875- 
1894). Philosophy and ecclesiastical history: Revue neo-schola- 
stique publiee par la societe philosophique de Louvain (1894); Revue 
d'histmre eccUsiastique (1900), the organ of the Catholic university of 
Louvain; Revue benedictine (1884); Analecles pour seruir a I'histoire 
eccUsiastique de la Belgique, 2 e seYie (1881-1904) and 3" sdrie 
1905); with an Annexe for Cartularies. Science: Archives inter- 
nationales de physiologic (1902), published by L6on Fredericq; La 
Cellule, recueil de cytologie et d'histologie generale (1884); Le Museon 
(1882); Le Mpuvement geographique (1884); Le Musee beige (1897); 
Revue chirurgicale beige et du nord de la France (1901). Annales des 
mines belgiques appears quarterly, and L'Art moderne weekly at 
Brussels. 

Among Flemish serials may be mentioned the Nederduitsche 
Letteroefeningen (1834) ; the Belgisch Museum (1836-1846), edited by 
Willems; the Broederhand, which did not appear after 1846; the 
Taalverbund of Antwerp; the Kunst- en Letterblad (1840-1843); and 
the Vlaemsche Rederyker (1844). Current Flemish periodicals in- 
clude: Onze kunst ge'illustreea maandschrift voor beeldende kunst 
(1900); Averbode's weekblad Godsdienst huisgezin mpedertaal (1907); 
De Raadselbode talk van den vlamschen raadselliefhebber (1901); 
Rechtskundig tijdschrift voor vlamsch Belgie (1901). 

It has been calculated that in 1860 there were 51 periodicals 
aublished in Belgium. In 1884 the number had increased to 412, 
and in 1908 to 1701. 

See U. Capitaine, Recherches sur les journaux et les ecrits periodiques 
liegeois (1850); Releve de tous les ecrits periodiques qui se publient 
dans le royaume de Belgique (1875); Catalogue des journaux, revues, 
et publications periodiques de la Belgique (1910); Revue bibliogra- 
phique beige. 

HOLLAND 

The first serial written in Dutch was the Boekzaal van Europa 
(1692-1708, and 1715-1748), which had several changes of name 



PERIODICALS 



161 



during its long life. The next of any note was the Republijk der 
Geleerden (1710-1748). The English Spectator was imitated by 
J. van Effen in his Misanthrope (1711-1712), written in French, 
and in the Hollandsche Spectator (1731-1735), in Dutch. An im- 
portant serial was the long-lived Vaderlandsche Letteroefeningen 
(1761). The Algemeene Kunst en Letterbode (1788) was long the 
leading review of Holland; in 1860 it was joined to the Nederlandsch 
Spectator (1855). Of those founded in the igth century may be 
mentioned the Rccensent (1803), and Nieuwe Recensent; the Neder- 
landsch Museum (1835); the Tijdstroom (1857); the Tijdspiegel, a 
literary journal of Protestant tendency; the Theologisch Tijdschrift 
(1867), the organ of the Leiden school of theology; and the Dietsche 
Warande, a Roman Catholic review devoted to the national anti- 
quities. Colonial interests have been cared for by the Tijdschrift 
voor nederlandsch Indie (1848). Current periodicals are Hollandsche 
revue, monthly; De Gids (1837), monthly; De nieuwe Gids (1886), 
monthly; De Architect, bi-monthly; Caecilia (for music); Tijdschrift 
voor Strafrecht; Museum, for philology (1893), monthly; Tijdschrift 
voor nederlandsche tool en letterkunde; Nederlandsch Archievenblad; 
De Paleograaf; Elseviers ge'illustreerd Maandschrift, monthly; Croat 
Nederland, monthly. 

DENMARK 

Early in the i8th century Denmark had the Nye Tidender(i^2o), 
continued down to 1836 under the name of Danskliteraturtidende. 
The Minerva (1785) of Rahbek was carried on to 1819, and the 
Skandinavisk Museum (1798-1803) was revived by the Litteratur- 
Selskabs Skrifter (1805). These were followed by the Laerde Efter- 
retninger (1799-1810), afterwards styled Litteratur-Tidende (1811- 
1836), the Athene (1813-1817), and Historisk Tidsskrift (1840). 
In more modern times appeared Tidsskrift for Litteratur oe Kritik 
(1832-1842, 1843); Maanedsskrift for Litteratur (1829-1838); Nord 
og Syd (1848-1849) of Goldschmidt, succeeded by Ude og Hjemme, 
and the Dansk Maanedsskrift (1858) of Steenstrup, with signed 
historical and literary articles. One of the most noteworthy 
Scandinavian periodicals has been the Nordisk Universitets Tids- 
skrift (18541864), a bond of union between the universities of 
Christiania, Upsala, Lund and Copenhagen. Current periodicals 
are: Studier fra Sprog- og Oldtidsforskning (1891), quarterly; Danske 
Magazin, yearly; Nyt Tidsskrift for Mathematik, monthly; Theologisk 
Tidsskrift, monthly; Nationaldkonomisk Tidsskrift, bi-monthly; 
Dansk bogfortegnelse, bi-monthly for bibliography; Athenaeum finsk; 
Tilskueren, monthly; Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed (archae- 
ology) quarterly. 

Iceland has had the Islenzk Sagnablod (1817-1826), Ny Fjelagsrit 
(1841-1873), and Gefn (1870-1873). Skirnir (1831), which absorbed 
in 1905 Timarit hins islenska Bokmentafelags (1880-1904), is still 
published. 

NORWAY 

The first trace of the serial form of publication to be found in 
Norway is in the Ugentlige korte Afhandlinger (1760-1761), " Weekly 
Short Treatises," of Bishop Fr. Nannestad, consisting of moral and 
theological essays. The Maanedlige Afhandlinger (1762), " Monthly 
Treatises," was supported by several writers and devoted chiefly to 
rural economy. These two were fojlowed by Politik og Historie 
(1807-1810); Saga (1816-1820), a quarterly review edited by J. S. 
Munch; Den norske Tilskuer (1817-1821), a miscellany brought out 
at Bergen; Hermoder (1821-1827), a weekly aesthetic journal; Iduna, 
(1822-1 823), of the same kind but .of less value; Vidar (1832-1834), a 
weekly scientific and literary review; Nor (1840-1846), of the same 
type; Norsk Tidsskrift for Videnskab og Litteratur (1847-1855); 
Illustreret Nyhedsblad (1851-1866). "Illustrated News"; Norsk 
Maanedsskrift (1856-1860), " Monthly Review for Norway," devoted 
to history and philology; and Norden (1866), a literary and scientific 
review. Popular serials date from the Shilling Magazin (1835), 
which first introduced wood-engraving. Representative current 
periodicals are: Samtiden, monthly; Elektroteknisk tidsskrift; nordisk 
musik-revue, fortnightly; Naturen; Norsk havetidende, monthly; 
Urd; Norvegia. 

SWEDEN 

The Swenska Argus (1733-1734) of Olof Dalin is the first contri- 
bution of Sweden to periodical literature. The next were the Tid- 
ningar om den Lardas Arbeten (1742) and the Larda Tidningar. The 
patriotic journalist C. C. Gjorwell established about twenty literary 
periodicals of which the most important was the Swenska Mercurius 
(1755-1789). Atterbom and some fellow-students founded about 
1810 a society for the deliverance of the country from French 
pedantry, which with this end carried on a periodical entitled 
Phosphorot (1810-1813), to propagate the opinions of Schlegel and 
Schelling. The Svensk Literatur-Tidning (1813-1825) of Palmblad 
and the Polyfem (1810-1812) had the same objects. Among later 
periodicals we may mention Skandia (1833-1837); Literaturbladet 
(1838-1840); Stdllningar och Forhallanden (1838) of Crusenstolpe, 
a monthly review of Scandinavian history; Tidskrift for Litteratur 
(1850); Norsk Tidsskrift (1852), weekly, Forr och Nu; and the Revue 
suidoise (1858) of Kramer, written in French. Among the monthlies 
which now appear are the following: Social Tidskrift, Nordisk 
Tidskrijt and Ord och Bild. 
xxi. 6 



SPAIN 

Spain owes her intellectual emancipation to the monk Benito 
Feyjoo, who in 1726 produced a volume of dissertations somewhat 
after the fashion of the Spectator, but on graver subjects, entitled 
Teatro critico, which was continued down to 1739. His Cartas 
eniditas (1742-1760) were also issued periodically. The earliest 
critical serial, the Diario de los literates (1737-1742), kept up at 
the expense of Philip V., did not long survive court favour. Other 
periodicals which appeared in the 1 8th century were Maner's Mer curio 
(1738); the Diario noticioso (1758-1781); El Pensador (1762-1767) 
of Joseph Clavijo y Fajardo; El Belianis literario (1765), satirical 
in character; the Semanario eruditp (1778-1791), a clumsy collection 
of documents; El Correo literario de la Europa (1781-1782); El 
Censor (1781); the valuable Memorial literario (1784-1808); El 
Correo literario (1786-1791), devoted to literature and science; 
and the special organs El Correo mercantil (1792-1798) and El 
Semanario de agricultural (1797-1805). In the igth century were 
Variedades de ciencias, literatura, y artes (1803-1805), among whose 
contributors have been the distinguished names of Quintana, Moratin 
and Antillon; Misceldnea de comercio (1819); and Diario general 
de las ciencias medicas. The Spanish refugees in London published 
Ocios de espanoles refugiados (1823-1826) and Misceldnea hispano- 
americana (1824-1828), and at Paris Misceldnea escojida americana 
(1826). The Cronica cientifica y liter aria (1817-1820) was afterwards 
transformed into a daily newspaper. Subsequently to the extinc- 
tion of El Censor (1820-1823) there was nothing of any .value until 
the Cartas espanolas (1832), since known as the Revista espanola 
(1832-1836) and as the Revista de Madrid (1838). Upon the death 
of Ferdinand VII. periodicals had a new opening; in 1836 there were 
published sixteen journals devoted to science and art. The fashion 
of illustrated serials was introduced in the Semanario pintoresco 
espanol (1836-1857), noticeable for its biographies and descriptions 
of Spanish monuments. El Panorama (1839-1841) was another 
literary periodical with engravings. Of later date have been the 
Revista iberica (1861-1863), conducted by Sanz del Rio; La America 
(1857-1870), specially devoted to American subjects and edited 
by the brothers Asquerino; Revista de Cataluna, published at 
Barcelona; Revista de Espana; Revista contempordnea; Espafia 
mpderna (1889), and Revista critica (1895). Current special perio- 
dicals are: Euskal-erria, revista bascongada (1880, San Sebastian); 
Monumenta historica societatis Jesu (1894); El Progreso matematico, 
afterwards Revista de matematicas puras y aplicadas (1891); Revista 
de bibliografia Catalano (Catalunya, Baleares, Rosselo, Valencia, 
1901); La Naturaleza, fortnightly; La Energia electrica, fortnightly; 
Revista minera, weekly; Revista de medicina, weekly; Bibliografia 
espanola, fortnightly; La Lectura; Espana y America, monthly. 

See E. Hartzenbusch, Periodicos de Madrid (1876); Lapeyre, 
Catalogo-tarifa de los periodicos, revistas, y ilustraciones en Espana 
(1882) ; Georges le Gentil, Les Revues litteraires de I'Espagne pendant 
la premiere moitie du XIX' sikcle (Paris, 1909). 

PORTUGAL 

Portugal could long boast of only one review, the Jornal enci- 
clopedico (17791806), which had many interruptions; then came 
the Jornal de Coimbra (1812-1820); the Panorama (1836-1857), 
founded by Herculano; the Revista universal lisbonense (1841-1853), 
established by Castilho; the Instituto (1853) of Coimbra; the Archivo 
pittoresco (1857) of Lisbon; and the Jornal do sociedade dos amigos 
das letteras. In 1868 a review called Vox femenina, and con- 
ducted by women, was established at Lisbon. Current periodicals 
include: O Archeologo portuguks (1895); Jornal de sciencias mathe- 
maticas et astronomicas (1877); Revista lusitana, Archivo de estudos 
philologicos e ethnologicos relatives a Portugal (1887); Ta-ssi-Yang- 
Kup, Archives e annaes de extreme oriente portuguez (1899); Portugal 
artistico, fortnightly; Revista militar; Arte musical, fortnightly; 
Boletim do agricultor, monthly; Archivo historico portuguez, monthly. 

GREECE 

The periodical literature of modern Greece commences with 
'O A6-xios 'Ep/jtjs, brought out at Vienna in 1811 by Anthimos Gazi 
and continued to 1821. In Aegina the M-yivaia appeared in 1831, 
edited by Mustoxidis; and at Corfu, in Greek, Italian and English, 
the 'AcfloXoTla (1834). After the return of King Otho in 1833 a 
literary review called *Ip was commenced. Le Spectateur de 
I Orient, in French, pleaded the national cause before Europe for 
three years from 1853. A military journal was published at Athens 
in 1855, and two years later the archaeological periodical con- 
ducted by Pittakis and Rangabes. For many years Uavb&pa 
(1850-1872), edited by Rangabes and Paparrigopoulos, was the 
leading serial. <j>tw dealt with natural science, the TewiroftK& with 
agriculture, and 'Itpoiu'rittwv with theology. 'Eflvwdv v<u>tiriaTiiuu>v 
(1831) and *iXoXo7is <r{i\\oyos Hapi/oo-aij (1863) appear annually, 
and 'AflTjca (1899) quarterly. 

See A. R. Rangabe, Hist, litteraire de la Grece moderne (Paris, 
1879); R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur (1876). 

RUSSIA 

The historian Gerhard Friedrich Mtiller made the first attempt 
to establish periodical literature in Russia in his Yejem'yesyatchniya 



162 



PERIOECI PERIPATETICS 



Sotchineniya (1755-1764), or " Monthly Works." In 1759 Sumara- 
kov founded the Trudolyubivaya PtchelA, or " Industrious Bee," 
giving translations from the Spectator, and, for the first time, critical 
essays. Karamsin brought out in 1802 the V'yestnik Evropi, an 
important review with Liberal tendencies. The Conservative 
Rusikoi V'yestnik (1808) was revived at Moscow in 1856 by Kattkoy. 
The two last named are still published each month. The romantic 
school was supported by Sin Otetchestva (1812), " Son of the Father- 
land," united in 1825 to the Severnoi Arkhiv (1822), which dwindled 



, 

and came to an end soon after 1839. ^ ne ^ l ^ e most successful 
Russian reviews has been the Bibhoteka dl'ya Tchtenia (1834) or 
" Library of Reading." The Russkaya Missl, " Russian Thought," 
published in Moscow, represented the Slavophil party. The 
following are some representative periodicals of the day: Zurnal 
ministersva narodnago prosyescenija, monthly ; Baltische Monatsschrift 
(1860), monthly; V'yestnik vospitania (for education) ; Mir iskusstra 
(for fine art); Russkpie bogatstvo (for literature); Russki arkhiv 
(archives) ; Mir Boji, monthly ; Istorichesky v'yestnik (history) ; 
Russkaia starina (archaeology). In Finland Suomi (1841), written 
in Swedish, is still published. 

OTHER COUNTRIES 

Bohemia has the Casopis musea krdlovstvi ceskeho (1827), quarterly, 
founded by Palacky; NaSe doba, monthly; Cechische Revue (1907) 
quarterly. Hungary can show the Ungarisches Magazin (1781-1787, 
1791), published at Pressburg, and the Magyar Muzeum (1788). 
The Tudomdnyos gyujelemeny (1817-1841) and the Figyelmezo 
(1837-1843) deserve mention. Uj Magyar Muzeum was a scientific 
magazine, and the Budapesti Szemle (1857) of a more general 
character. Among current Hungarian periodicals are: Magyar 
Konyvszemle (1876), and Magyar Nyomddszat. 'Before the revolution 
of 1830 Poland had the Pamietmk Warszawski of Lach Szyrma. 
Among other Polish reviews may be mentioned the Dziennik Liter- 
acki of Lemberg; the Biblioteka Warszawska (1841), monthly; 
Przeglad Polski (1866), monthly; Przewodnik naukowy i literacki 
(1873), monthly; Przewodnik bibliograficzny (1878), monthly; 
Przeglad powzechny (1884), monthly. Rumania commenced with 
the Magasinal istorica pentru Dacia (1845), containing valuable 
historical documents; and Moldavia with Dacia Uteraria (1840) 
and Archiva Romanesca (1841). Rumania now has the Convorbiri 
liter are (1868), monthly, and Romanul, revista literara illustrata 
septem&nald. The best literary review Servia has had was the 
Wila, edited by Novakovic. 

Japan now possesses native periodicals of the European type, 
01 which the following are representative examples: Fudzoku-Gaho 
(native customs) ; The Kokka (art) ; Toyo-Gakugei-Zasshi (science) ; 
Jogaku-Zasshi (domestic economy) ; Tetsugaku-Zasshi (philosophy) ; 
Keizai-Zasshi (political economy) ; Taiyo (literature). 

GENERAL INDEXES TO PERIODICALS. The most complete collec- 
tion of periodicals in all languages ever brought together is that 
preserved in the British Museum, and the excerpt from the printed 
catalogue of the library, entitled Periodical Publications (London, 
1899-1900, 2nd ed. 6 parts folio, with index), includes journals, 
reviews, magazines and other works issued periodically, with the 
exception of transactions and proceedings of learned societies and 
of British and Colonial newspapers later than 1700. The titles 
of these periodicals, which number about 23,000, are arranged under 
the town or place of their publication. 

The Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews, the Revue des deux mondes, 
the Revue historique, Deutsche Rundschau and others issue from 
time to time general indexes of their contents, while the periodical 
literature of special departments of study and research are noted 
in the various Jahresberichte published in Germany, and indexed 
monthly in such English and American magazines as the Engineering 
Magazine, the Geographical Journal, English Historical Review, 
American Historical Review, Economic Journal (for political economy), 
Library Journal and Library Association Record (for bibliography) 
and the Educational Review. The Cat. of Scientific Papers ( 1 800- 
1900) of the Royal Society (1867-1908), and the Repertorium der 
teckn. Journ. Literatur (1879-1899) of the German Patent Office, 
are specimens of indexes of special periodicals. There are also 
annual indexes such as those in the Zoological Record and Annales 
de geographie. Complete lists are given by A. B. Kroeger (Guide 
to Reference Books, 1908) and Stein (Manuel de bibliographic generale, 
1897). See also Bibliography of Books reviewed in American 
Periodicals, by G. F. Danforth (1902-1903); Book Review Digest 
(1906), &c. ; H. C. Bolton's Cat. of Scientific and Technical Periodi- 
cals 1665-189^, Smithsonian Inst. (2nd ed., 1897); Harrison's Int. 
Cat. of Scientific Lit. (1903-1904); S. H. Scudder s Cat. of Scientific 
Serials, 1633-1876 (Camb. [Harvard Univ.] 1876) -Cat. of Periodicals 
(English and Foreign) in Bod. Lib., 1878-1880- Bibliotheque Na- 
tionale, Lisle des periodiques etrangers(iSf)6). A useful select list, 
including all languages, is J. D. Brown's Classified List of Current 
Periodicals (1904). (H. R. T.) 

PERIOECI (veploiKoi, those who dwell around, in the neigh- 
bourhood), in ancient Laconia the class intermediate between 
the Spartan citizens and the serfs or helots (q.v.). Ephorus 
says (Strabo viii. 364 seq.) that they were the original Achaean 
inhabitants of the country, that for the first generation after 



the Dorian invasion they shared in the franchise of the in- 
vaders, but that this was afterwards taken from them and 
they were reduced to a subject condition and forced to pay 
tribute. The term, however, came to denote not a nationality 
but a political status, and though the main body of the perioeci 
may have been Achaean in origin, yet they afterwards included 
Arcadians on the northern frontier of Laconia, Dorians, especially 
in Cythera and in Messenia, and lonians in Cynuria. They 
inhabited a large number of settlements, varying in size from 
important towns like Gythium to insignificant hamlets (Iso- 
crates xii. 179); the names of these, so far as they are known, 
have been collected by Clinton (Fasti hellenici, 2nd ed. i. 401 sqq.). 
They possessed personal freedom and some measure of communal 
independence, but were apparently under the immediate super- 
vision of Spartan harmosts (governors) and subject to the 
general control of the ephors, though Isocrates is probably 
going too far in saying (xii. 181) that the ephors might put to 
death without trial as many of the perioeci as they pleased. 
Certain it is that they were excluded not merely from all Spartan 
offices of state, but even from the assembly, that they were 
absolutely subject to Spartan orders, and that, owing to the 
absence of any legal right of marriage (tTnyania) the gulf between 
the two classes was impassable. They were also obliged to 
pay the "royal tribute, "perhaps a rent for domain-land which 
they occupied, and to render military service. This last burden 
grew heavier as time went on; 500x3 Spartiates and 5000 perioec 
hoplites fought at Plataea in 479 B.C., but the steady decrease 
in the number of the Spartiates necessitated the increasing 
employment of the perioeci. Perioeci might serve as petty 
officers or even rise to divisional commands, especially in the 
fleet, but seemingly they were never set over Spartiates. Yet 
except at the beginning of the 4th century the perioeci were, 
so far as we can judge, fairly contented, and only two of their 
cities joined the insurgent helots in 464 B.C. (Thuc. i. 101). 
The reason of this was that, though the land which they cultivated 
was very unproductive, yet the prohibition which shut out every 
Spartiate from manufacture and commerce left the industry 
and trade of Laconia entirely in the hands of the perioeci. 
Unlike the Spartiates they might, and did, possess gold and silver 
and the iron and steel wares from the mines on Mt Taygetus, 
the shoes and woollen stuffs of Amyclae, and the import and 
export trade of Laconia and Messenia probably enabled some 
at least of them to live in an ease and comfort unknown to their 
Spartan lords. 

See G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii., ch. 6 ; C. O. Miiller, Dorians 
(Eng. trans.), bk. iii., ch. 2; A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek Constitutional 
History, p. 78 sqq. ; G. Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng. 
trans.) p. 35 sqq. ; G. F. Schomann, Antiquities of Greece (Eng. trans.) 
p. 201 sqq. ; G. Busolt, Die griech. Staats- und Rechtsaltertilmer , 84; 
Griech. Geschichte, i. 528 seq. (2nd ed.) ; V. Thumser, Lehrbuch der 
griech. Staatsaltertumer (6th ed.), 19; B. Niese, Nachrichten von 
der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Goltingen, Phil. -Hist. Klasse, 
(1906), 101 sqq. (M. N. T.) 

PERIPATETICS (from Gr. TepnraTftV, to walk about), the 
name given in antiquity to the followers of Aristotle (q.v.), either 
from his habit of walking up and down as he lectured to his 
pupils, or from the mpiwaTos (covered walk) of the Lyceum. 

Aristotle's immediate successors, 1 Theophrastus and Eudemus 
of Rhodes, were diligent scholars rather than original thinkers. 
They made no innovations upon the main doctrines of their 
master, and their industry is chiefly directed to supplementing 
his works in minor particulars. Thus they amplified rheo- 
the Aristotelian logic by the theory of the hypo- phrastus. 
thetical and disjunctive syllogism, and added to the first figure 
of the categorical syllogism the five moods out of which the 
fourth figure was afterwards constructed. The impulse towards 
natural science and the systematizing of empirical details which 
distinguished Aristotle from Plato was shared by Theophrastus 
(q.v.). The same turn for detail is observable in his ethics, 
where, to judge from the imperfect evidence of the Characters, 
he elaborated still farther Aristotle's portraiture of the virtues 

1 See Gellius, Noct. Alt. xiii. 5, for the story of how Aristotle 
chose Theophrastus as his successor 



PERIPATUS 



163 



and their relative vices. In his doctrine of virtue the distinctive 
Peripatetic position regarding the importance of external goods 
was defended by him with emphasis against the assaults of 
the Stoics. He appears to have laid even more stress on this 
point than Aristotle himself, being doubtless led to do so, 
partly by the heat of controversy and partly by the importance 
which leisure and freedom from harassing cares naturally 
assumed to a man of his studious temperament. The meta- 
physical a-Kopiai of Theophrastus which have come down to 
us show that he was fully alive to the difficulties that beset 
many of the Aristotelian definitions. But we are ignorant how 
he proposed to meet his own criticisms; and they do not appear 
to have suggested to him an actual departure from his master's 
doctrine, much less any radical transformation of it. In the 
difficulties which he raises we may perhaps detect a leaning 
towards a naturalistic interpretation. The tendency of Eudemus, 
on the other hand, is more towards the theological 
or Platonic side of Aristotle's philosophy. The 
Eudemian Ethics (which, with the possible exception of 
the three books common to this treatise and the Nicomachean 
Ethics, there need be no hesitation in ascribing to Eudemus) 
expressly identify Aristotle's ultimate ethical ideal of fccopia 
with the knowledge and contemplation of God. And this 
supplies Eudemus with a standard for the determination of 
the mean by reason, which Aristotle demanded, but himself 
left vague. Whatever furthers us in our progress towards a 
knowledge of God is good; every hindrance is evil. The same 
spirit may be traced in the author of the chapters which appear 
as- an appendix to book i. of Aristotle's Metaphysics. They 
have been attributed to Pasicles, the nephew of Eudemus. 
For the rest, Eudemus shows even less philosophical indepen- 
dence than Theophrastus. Among the Peripatetics of the first 
generation who had been personal disciples of Aristotle, the 
other chief names are those of Aristoxenus (q.v.) of Tarentum 
and Dicaearchus (q.v. ) of Messene. Aristoxenus, who had 
formerly belonged to the Pythagorean school, maintained the 
position, already combated by . Plato in the Phaedo, that the 
soul is to be regarded as nothing more than the harmony of the 
body. Dicaearchus agreed with his friend in this naturalistic 
rendering of the Aristotelian entelechy, and is recorded to have 
argued formally against the immortality of the soul. 

The naturalistic tendency of the school reached its full 
expression in Strato of Lampsacus, the most independent, and 
probably the ablest, of the earlier Peripatetics. His 
Lampsacus system is based upon th formal denial of a trans- 
cendent deity. Cicero attributes to him the saying 
that he did not require the aid of the gods in the construction 
of the universe; in other words, he reduced the formation of 
the world to the operation of natural forces. We have evidence 
that he did not substitute an immanent world-soul for Aristotle's 
extra-mundane deity; he recognized nothing beyond natural 
necessity. He was at issue, however, with the atomistic 
materialism of Democritus in regard to its twin assumptions of 
absolute atoms and infinite space. His own speculations led 
him rather to lay stress on the qualitative aspect of the world. 
The true explanation of things was to be found, according to 
Strato, in the forces which produced their attributes, and he 
followed Aristotle in deducing all phenomena from the funda- 
mental attributes or elements of heat and cold. His psycho- 
logical doctrine explained all the functions of the soul as modes 
of motion, and denied any separation of the reason from the 
faculties of sense-perception. He appealed in this connexion 
to the statement of Aristotle that we are unable to think without 
a sense-image. 

The successors of Strato in the headship of the Lyceum were 
Lyco, Aristo of Ceos, Critolaus (<?..), Diodorus of Tyre, and 
Erymneus, who brings the philosophic succession down to about 
100 B.C. Other Peripatetics belonging to this period are Hiero- 
nymus of Rhodes, Prytanis and Phormio of Ephesus, the 
delirus senex who attempted to instruct Hannibal in the art 
of war (Cic. De oral. ii. 18). Sotion, Hermippus and Satyrus 
were historians rather than philosophers. Heraclides Lembus, 



Agatharchides and Antisthenes of Rhodes are names to us and 
nothing more. The fact is that, after Strato, the Peripatetic 
school has no thinker of any note for about 200 years. 

Early in the ist century B.C. all the philosophic schools began 
to be invaded by a spirit of eclecticism. This was partly 
due to the influence of the practical Roman spirit. This in- 
fluence is illustrated by the proconsul Lucius Gellius Publicola 
(about 70 B.C.), who proposed to the representatives of the schools 
in Athens that he should help them to settle their differences 
(Cic. De leg. i. 20). This atmosphere of indifference imper- 
ceptibly influenced the attitude of the contending schools to one 
another, and we find various movements towards unity in the 
views of Boethus the Stoic, Panaetius and Antiochus of Ascalon, 
founder of the so-called " Fifth Academy." Meanwhile the 
Peripatetic school may be said to have taken a new departure 
and a new lease of life. The impulse was due to Andronicus 
of Rhodes. His critical edition of Aristotle indicated to the 
later Peripatetics the direction in which they could 
profitably work, and the school devoted itself hence- 
forth almost exclusively to the writing of commentaries on 
Aristotle, e.g. those of Boethus of Sidon, Aristo of Alexandria, 
Staseas, Cratippus, and Nicolaus of Damascus. The most 
interesting Peripatetic work of the period is the treatise De 
mundo, which is a good example within the Peripatetic 
school of the eclectic tendency which was then in the air. The 
admixture of Stoic elements is so great that some critics have 
attributed the work to a Stoic author; but the writer's 
Peripateticism seems to be the more fundamental constituent 
of his doctrine. 

Our knowledge of the Peripatetic school during the first 
two centuries of the Christian era is very fragmentary; but 
those of its representatives of whom anything is known con- 
fined themselves entirely to commenting upon the different 
treatises of Aristotle. Thus Alexander of Aegae, the teacher 
of Nero, commented on the Categories and the De caelo. 
In the and century Aspasius (q.v.) and Adrastus of Aphro- 
disias wrote numerous commentaries. The latter also treated 
of the order of the Aristotelian writings in a separate 
work. Somewhat later, Herminus, Achaicus and Sosigenes 
commented on the logical treatises. Aristocles of Messene, 
the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias, was the author of a 
complete critical history of Greek philosophy. This second 
phase of the activity of the school closes with the comprehensive 
labours of Alexander of Aphrodisias (Scholarch, c. 200), the 
exegete par excellence, called sometimes the second Aristotle. 
Alexander's interpretation proceeds throughout upon the natur- 
alistic lines which have already become familiar to 
us. Aristotle had maintained that the individual 
alone is real, and had nevertheless asserted that the 
universal is the proper object of knowledge. Alexander seeks 
consistency by holding to the first position alone. The individual 
is prior to the universal, he says, not only " for us," but also 
in itself, and universals are abstractions which have merely a 
subjective existence in the intelligence which abstracts them. 
Even the deity must be brought under the conception of 
individual substance. Such an interpretation enables us to 
understand how it was possible, at a later date, for Aristotle 
to be regarded as the father of Nominalism. Form, Alexander 
proceeds, is everywhere indivisible from matter. Hence the soul 
is inseparable from the body whose soul or form it is. Reason 
or intellect is bound up with the other faculties. Alexander's 
commentaries formed the foundation - of the Arabian and 
Scholastic study of Aristotle. Soon after Alexander's death 
the Peripatetic school was merged, like all others, in Neo- 
platonism (q.v.). 

PERIPATUS, a genus of animals belonging to the air-breathing 
division of the phylum Arthropoda. It differs, however, from 
all other Arthropoda in such important respects that a special 
class, equivalent in rank to the old-established Arthropod classes, 
had been created for its sole occupancy. This class has been 
named the Prototracheata or Onychophora (see ARTHROPODA), 
and may be most appropriately placed in the system in the 



164 



PERIPATUS 



neighbourhood of the Myriapoda, though it must not be forgotten 
that it differs from the Myriapoda more than the Myriapoda 
differ from other Arthropoda, and that in some respects it 
presents features which recall the segmented worms (Annelida). 
The genus has a wide distribution (see below), but it has not 
been found in Europe or in North America. There is but little 
variety of structure in the genus, and the species are limited in 
number. They live beneath the bark of trees, in the crevices of 
rock and of rotten stumps of trees, and beneath stones. They 
require a moist atmosphere, and are exceedingly susceptible to 
drought. They avoid light, and are therefore rarely seen. They 
move slowly, picking their course by means of their antennae. 
When irritated they eject with considerable force the contents 
of their slime reservoirs by means of the sudden contraction of 
the muscular body- wall. The slime, which appears to be harm- 
less, is extremely sticky, but it easily comes away from the skin 
of the animal itself. Locomotion is effected by means of the 
legs, with the body fully extended. Hutton describes his 
specimens as sucking the juices of flies, which they had stuck 
down with their slime, and they have been observed in captivity 
to devour the entrails which have been removed from their 
fellows, and to eat raw sheep's liver. They move their mouths in 
a suctorial manner, tearing the food with their jaws. They have 
the power of extruding their jaws from the mouth, and of working 
them alternately backwards and forwards. They are viviparous; 
the young are fully formed at birth, and differ from the adult 
only in size and colour. The mother does not appear to pay any 
special attention to her offspring, which wander away and get 
their own living. It has lately been stated that some of the 
Australian species are normally oviparous, but this has not 
been fully proved. Sexual differences are not strongly marked, 
and are sometimes absent. There does not appear to be 
any true copulation. In some species the male deposits 
small oval spermatophores indiscriminately on any part of 
the body of the female. It seems probable that in such 
cases the spermatozoa make their way from the adherent 
spermatophore through the body-wall into the body, and 
so by traversing the tissues reach the ovary. In other 
species which possess receptacula seminis it is probable that 
fertilization is effected once only in early life before any ova 
. pass into the uterus. 

External Features. The anterior part of the body may be called 
the head, though it is not sharply marked off from the rest of the 
body (fig. i). The head carries three pairs of appendages, a pair 
of simple eyes, and a ventrally placed mouth. The body is elon- 
gated and vermiform; it bears a number of paired appendages, 
each terminating in a pair of claws, and all very much alike. The 
number varies in the different species. The anus is always at the 



called the buccal cavity, and is surrounded by an annular tumid 
lip, raised into papilliform ridges and bearing a few spines (fig. 2). 
Within the buccal cavity are the two jaws. They are short, stump- 
like, muscular structures, armed at their free extremities by a pair 
of cutting blades or claws, and are placed one on each side of the 
mouth. In the median line of the buccal cavity in front is placed 
a thick muscular protuberance, which may be called the tongue, 
though attached to the dorsal instead of to the ventral wall of the 
mouth (fig. 2). The tongue 
bears a row of small, chiti- 
nous teeth. The jaw-claws 
(figs. 3 and 4), which resemble 
in all essential points the 
claws borne by the feet, and, 
like these, are thickenings of 
the cuticle, are sickle-shaped. 
They have their convex edge 
directed forwards, and their 
concave, or cutting edge, 
turned backwards. The inner 
cutting plate (fig. 3) usually 
bears a number of cutting 
teeth. The oral papillae are 
placed at the sides of the 
head (fig. 2). The ducts of 
the slime-glands open at 
their free end. They possess 
two main rings of projecting 
tissue, and their extremities 
bear papillae irregularly 
arranged. The ambulatory 
appendages vary in number. 
There are seventeen pairs in 
P. capensis and eighteen in P. 
balfouri, while in P. jamai- 
censis the number varies 
from twenty-nine to forty-three. They consist of two main divisions, 
which we may call the leg and the foot (fig. 5). The leg (/) has the 
form of a truncated cone, the broad end of which is attached to 




(After Sedgwick.) 

FIG. 2. Ventral view of the head of 

P. capensis. 

ant, Antennae; or.p, Oral papillae; 
F.I, First leg; T, Tongue. 






I 



(After Sedgwick.) 

FlG. I. Peripatus capensis, drawn from life. Life size. 

posterior end of the body, and the generative opening is on the 
ventral surface, just in front of the anus; it may be between the 
legs of the penultimate pair, or between the legs of the last pair, 
or it may be subterminal. The colour varies considerably in the 
different species, and even in different individuals of the same 
species. The skin has a velvety appearance, and is thrown into 
a number of transverse ridges, along which wart-like papillae are 
placed. These papillae, which are found everywhere, are the 
primary papillae; they are covered with small, scale-like projections 
called secondary papillae, and are specially developed on the dorsal 
surface, less so on the ventral. Each papilla carries at its extremity 
a well-marked spine. Among the primary papillae smaller accessory 
papillae are sometimes present. 

The appendages of the head are the antennae, the jaws and the 
oral papillae. The mouth is at the hinder end of a depression 



(After BalJour.) (After Balfour.) 

FIG. 3. Inner jaw-claw of FIG. 4. Outer jaw-claw of 

P. capensis. P. capensis. 

the ventro-lateral wall of the body, of which it is a prolongation. 
It is marked by a number of rings of papillae placed transversely 
to its long axis, the dorsal of which are pigmented like the dorsal 
surface of the body, and the ventral like the ventral surface. At the 
narrow distal end of the leg there are on the ventral surface three or 

four (rarely five) spiniferous 

pads, each of which is con- 
tinued dorsally into a row of 

papillae. The foot is attached 

to the distal end of the leg. 

It is slightly narrower at its 

attached extremity than at 

its free end. It bears two 

sickle-shaped claws, and at 

its distal end three (rarely 

four) papillae. The part of 

the foot which carries the 

claws is especially retractile, 

and is generally found more 

or less telescoped into the 

proximal part. The legs of 
the fourth and fifth pairs differ 
from the others in the fact that 
the third pad (counting from the 
distal end of the leg) carries the 
opening of the enlarged nephridia 
of these segments. In some species FIG. 5. Ventral view of last 
certain of the legs bear on their leg of a male P. capensis. 
ventral sides furrows with tumid lips f t Foot ; /, leg ; *, spinifer- 
and lined by smooth non-tuberculate cms pads. The white papilla 
epithelium ; they are called coxal o f the proximal part of this 
organs, and it appears that they can l eg is characteristic of the 
be everted. The males are generally ma i e o f this species, 
rather smaller and less numerous 

than the females. In those species in which the number of legs 
varies the male has a smaller number of legs than the female. 




PERIPATUS 



165 



Breeding. As already stated, Peripatus is viviparous. The 
Australasian species come nearest to laying eggs, inasmuch as the 
eggs are large, full of yolk, and enclosed in a shell ; but development 
normally takes place in the uterus, though abnormally, incompletely 
developed eggs are extruded. The uterus always contains several 
young, which are usually at different stages of development and 
are born at different times of the year. In most of the African 
species, however, the embryos of the uterus are almost of the same 
age and are born at a definite season. The young of P. capensis 
are born in April and May. They are almost colourless at birth, 
excepting the antennae, which are green, and their length is 10 to 
15 mm. A large female will produce thirty to forty young in one 
year. The period of gestation is thirteen months, that is to say, 
the ova pass into the oviducts about one month before the young 
of the preceding year are born. 

Anatomy. The alimentary canal (fig. 6). The buccal cavity, 
as explained above, is a secondary formation around the true 

mouth, which is at its dorsal 
posterior end. It contains the 
tongue and the jaws, which have 
already been described, and into 
the hind end of it there open 
ventrally by a median opening 
the salivary glands. The mouth 
leads into a muscular pharynx, 
which is connected by a short 
oesophagus with the stomach . The 
stomach forms by far the largest 
part of the alimentary canal. It 
is a dilated soft-walled tube, and 
leads behind into the short narrow 
rectum, which opens at the anus. 
There are no glands opening into 
the alimentary canal. The central 
nervous system, the anterior part 
of which is shown in fig. 7, is of the 
" rope-ladder " type, and the ven- 
tral cords meet over the rectum. 
The cuticle is a thin layer, of 
which the spines, jaws and claws 
are special developments. Its 
surface is not, however, smooth, 
but is everywhere, with the ex- 
ception of the perioral region, 
raised into minute secondary 




pe... 



(After Balfour.) 

FIG. 6. Peripatus capensis dis- 
sected so as to show the ali- 
mentary canal, slime glands and 
salivary glands. The dissection 
is viewed from the ventral side, 
and the lips (L) have been cut 
through in the middle line behind 
and pulled outwards so as to 
expose the jaws (;'), which have 
been turned outwards, and the 
tongue (T) bearing a median 
row of chitinous teeth, which 
branches behind into two. The 
muscular pharynx, extending back 
into the space between the first 
and second pairs of legs, is 
followed by a short tubular oeso- 
phagus. The latter opens into 
the large stomach with plicated 
walls, extending almost to the hind 
end of the animal. The stomach 
at its point of junction with the 
rectum presents an S-shaped ven- 
tro-dorsal curve. 

A, Anus; at, antenna; F.I, F.2, 
first and second feet; j, jaws; 
L, lips; oe, oesophagus; or.p, 
oral papilla; ph, pharynx; R, 
rectum; s.d, salivary duct; 
s.g, salivary gland; sl.d, slime 
reservoir; sl.g, portion of tub- 
ules of slime gland ; st, stomach ; 
T, tongue in roof of mouth. 




CO 

(After Balfour.) 

FIG. 7. Brain and anterior 
part of the ventral nerve-cords 
of Peripatus capensis enlarged 
and viewed from the ventral 
surface. 

ate, Antennary nerves; co, 
commissures between ventral 
cords; d, ventral appendages 
of brain; E, eye; en, nerves 
passing outwards from ventral 
cord; F.g.i, ganglionic en- 
largements from which nerves 
to feet pass ofi;jn, nerves to 
jaws; org, ganglionic enlarge- 
ment from which nerves to 
oral papillae pass off; orn, 
nerves to oral papillae; pc, 
posterior lobe of brain; pn, 
nerves to feet; sy, sym- 
pathetic nerves. 



papillae, which in most instances bear at their free extremity a 
somewhat prominent spine. The epidermis, placed immediately 
within the cuticle, is composed of a single row of cells. The 
pigment which gives the characteristic colour to the skin is 
deposited in the protoplasm of the outer ends of the cells in the 
form of small granules. Beneath the epidermis is a thin cutis, 
which is followed by the muscular layers (external circular and 
internal longitudinal). The muscular fibres of the jaws are 
transversely striated, the other muscles are unstriated. 

The apertures of the tracheal system are placed in the depressions 
between the papillae or ridges of the skin. Each of them leads 
into a tube, which may be called the tracheal pit (fig. 8) ; the walls 




... tr.a 



(After Balfour.) 

FlG. 8. Section through a tracheal pit and diverging bundles 
of tracheal tubes taken transversely to the long axis of the body. 
tr. Tracheae, showing rudimentary spiral fibre; tr.c, Cells resembling 
those lining the tracheal pits, which occur at intervals along the 
course of the tracheae; tr.o, Tracheal stigma; tr.p, Trachea! pit. 
of this are formed of epithelial cells, bounded towards the lumen of 
the pit by a very delicate cuticular membrane continuous with 
the cuticle covering the surface of the body. Internally it expands 
in the transverse plane, and from the expanded portion the tracheal 
tubes arise in diverging bundles. The tracheae are minute tubes 
exhibiting a faint transverse striation which is probably the indication 
of a spiral fibre. They appear to branch, but only exceptionally. 
The tracheal apertures are diffused over the surface of the body, 
but are especially developed in certain regions. 

The vascular system consists of a dorsal tubular heart with 
paired ostia leading into it from the pericardium, of the peri- 
cardium, and the various other divisions of the perivisceral cavity 
(fig. 12, D). As in all Arthropoda, the perivisceral cavity is a 
haemocoele, i.e. contains blood, and forms part of the vascular 
system. It is divided by septa into chambers (fig. 12, D), of which 
the most important are the central chamber containing the ali- 
mentary canal and the dorsal chamber or pericardium. Nephridia 
are present in all the legs. In all of them (except the first three) 
the following parts may be recognized (fig. 9) : (i) a vesicular portion 




FlG. 9. Nephridium from the ninth pair of legs of P. capensis. 



o.s. External opening of segmen- 

tal organ. 
p.f, I nternal opening of nephrid- 



s.c.i, s.c.2, s.c.j, s.c.4, Successive 
regions of coiled portion of 
nephridium. 



ium into the body cavity s.o.t, Third portion of nephridium 



(lateral compartment). 
s, Vesicle of segmental organ. 



broken off at p.f from the in- 
ternal vesicle, which is not 
shown. 



(s) opening to the exterior on the ventral surface of the legs by a 
narrow passage (s.d) ; (2) a coiled portion, which is again subdivided 
into several sections (s.c); (3) a section with closely-packed nuclei 
ending by a somewhat enlarged opening (p.f); (4) the terminal 
portion, which consists of a thin-walled vesicle. The nephridia 
of the first three pairs of legs are smaller than the rest, consisting 
only of a vesicle and duct. The fourth and fifth pairs are larger 
than those behind, and are in other respects peculiar; for instance, 
they open on the third pad (counting from the distal end of the 



i66 



PERIPATUS 



leg), and the external vesicular portion is not dilated. The external 
opening of the other nephridia is placed at the outer end of a trans- 
verse groove at the base of the legs. The salivary glands are the 
modified nephridia of the segment of the oral papillae. 

The male generative organs (fig. 10) consist of a pair of testes 
(te), a pair of seminal vesicles (ti), vasa deferentia (v.d.), and acces- 
sory glandular tubules (/). All the above parts lie in the central 




P" 



( (After Balfour.) 
FIG. 10. Male Generative Organs of Peripatus capensis. Dorsal view. 

p, Common duct into which vasa 

deferentia open. 

te, Testes. v, Seminal vesicles. 
v.c, Nerve-cord. 
v.d, Vas deferens. 



a.g, Enlarged crural glands of last 

pair of legs. 

F. 10, 17, Last pair of legs. 
/, Small accessory glandular 

tubes. 



compartment of the body cavity. The ovaries consist of a pair of 
tubes closely applied together, and continued posteriorly into the 
oviducts. Each oviduct, after a short course, becomes dilated 
into the uterus. The two uteri join behind and open to the exterior 
by a median opening. The ovaries always contain spermatozoa, 
some of which project through the ovarian wall into the body 
cavity. Spermatozoa are not found in the uterus and ovi- 
ducts, and it appears probable, as we have said, that they 
reach the ovary directly by boring through the skin and 
traversing the body cavity. In all the species except the 
African species there is a globular receptaculum seminis 
opening by two short ducts close together into the oviduct, 
and in the neotropical species there is in addition a small 
receptaculum ovorum, with extremely thin walls, opening 
into the oviduct by a short duct just in front of the recep- 
taculum seminis. The epithelium of the latter structure is 
clothed with actively moving cilia. There appear to be 
present in most, if not all, of the legs some accessory 
glandular structures opening just externally to the nephridia. 
They are called the crural glands: 



The development has been worked out in P. capensis, to which 
species the following description refers. The segmentation is 
peculiar, and leads to the formation of a solid gastrula, consisting 
of a cortex of ectoderm nuclei surrounding a central endodermal 
mass, which is exposed at one point the blastopore. The enteron 
arises as a space in the endoderm, and an opacity the primitive 
streak appears at the hind end of the blastopore (fig. 11, B). 
The elongation of the embryo is accompanied by an elongation of 
the blastopore, which soon becomes dumb-bell shaped (fig. II, C). 
At the same time the mesoblastic somites (embryonic segments 
of mesoderm) make their appearance in pairs at the hind end, and 
gradually travel forwards on each side of the blastopore to the 
front end, where the somites of the anterior pair soon meet in 
front of the blastopore (fig. II, D). Meanwhile the narrow middle 
part of the blastopore has closed by a fusion of its lips, so that the 
blastopore is represented by two openings, the future mouth and 
anus. A primitive groove makes its appearance behind the blasto- 
pore (fig. ii, D). At this stage the hind end of the body becomes 
curved ventrally into a spiral (fig. II, E), and at the same time 
the appendages appear as hollow processes of the body-wall, a 
mesoblastic somite being prolonged into each of them. The first 
to appear are the antennae, into which the praeoral somites are 
prolonged. The remainder appear from before backwards in regular 
order, viz. jaw, oral papillae, legs 117. The full number of somites 
and their appendages is not, however, completed until a later stage. 
The nervous system is formed as an annular thickening of ectoderm 
passing in front of the mouth and behind the anus, and lying on 
each side of the blastopore along the lines of the somites. The 
praeoral part of this thickening, which gives rise to the cerebral 
ganglia, becomes pitted inwards on each side (fig. II, F, e.g.). 
These pits are eventually closed, and form the hollow ventral 
appendages of the suprapharyngeal ganglia of the adult (fig. 7, d). 
The lips are formed as folds of the side wall of the body, extending 
from the praeoral lobes to just behind the jaw (fig. II, F, L). 
They enclose the jaws (j), mouth (M), and opening of the salivary 
glands (o.s), and so give rise to the buccal cavity. The embryo has 
now lost its spiral curvature, and becomes completely doubled 
upon itself, the hind end being in contact with the mouth (fig. 
n, G). It remains in this position until birth. The just-born 
young are from 10 to 15 mm. in length, and have green antennae, 
but the rest of the body is either quite white or of a reddish colour. 
This red colour differs from the colour of the adult in being soluble 
in spirit. The mesoblastic somites are paired sacs formed from the 
anterior lateral portions of the primitive streak (fig. n, C). As 
they are formed they become placed in pairs on each side of the 




D 



Development. Peripatus is found in Africa, in Austral- 
asia, in South America and the West Indies, in New 
Britain, and in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The 
species found in these various localities are closely similar 
in their anatomical characters, the principal differences 
relating to the structure of the female generative organs 
and to the number of the legs. They, however, differ in 
the most striking manner in the structure of the ovum 
and the early development. In all the Australasian 
species the egg is large and heavily charged with food- 
yolk, and is surrounded by a tough membrane. In the 
Cape species the eggs are smaller, though still of con- 
siderable size; the yolk is much less developed, and the 
egg membrane is thinner though dense. In the New Britain 
species the egg is still smaller (-1 mm.), and there is a 
large trophic vesicle. In the neotropical species the egg is 
minute, and almost entirely devoid of yolk. The unsegmented 
uterine ovum of P. novae zealandiae measures 1-5 mm. in length 
by -8 mm. in breadth; that of P. capensis is -56 mm. in length: 
and that of P. trinidadensis -04 mm. in diameter. In corre- 
spondence with these differences in the ovum there are differences 
in the early development, though the later stages are closely 
similar. 



(After Sedgwick.) 

FIG. ii. A Series of Embryos of P. capensis. The hind end of 
embryos B, C, D is uppermost in the figures, the primitive streak is the 
white patch behind the blastopore. 



A, Gastrula stage, ventral view, 

showing blastopore. 

B, Older gastrula stage, ventral 

view, snowing elongated blasto- 
pore and primitive streak. 

C, Ventral view of embryo with 

three pairs of mesoblastic 
somites, dumb-bell shaped blas- 
topore and primitive streak. 
Ventral view of embryo, in 
which the blastopore has com- 
pletely closed in its middle 
portion. The anterior pair 



of somites have moved to the 
fr6nt end of the body. 

E, side view of later embryo. 

At, Antenna; d, dorsal pro- 
jection; p.s., praeoral somite. 

F, Ventral view of head of embryo, 

intermediate between E and 
G. At, Antennae; c.g, cerebral 
groove; _;, jaws; j.s. swelling at 
base of jaws ; L, lips ;M , mouth ; 
or.p, oral papillae; o.s, opening 
of salivary gland. 

G, side view of older embryo. 



blastopore. The somites of the first pair eventually obtain 
a position entirely in front of the blastopore (Fig. n, D). 
They form the somites of the praeoral lobes. The full comple- 
ment of somites is acquired at about the stage of fig. n, E. 
The relations of the mesoblastic somites are shown in fig. 12, A, 
which represents a transverse section taken between the mouth 
and anus of an embryo of the stage of fig. ii, D. The his- 
tory of these somites is an exceedingly interesting one, and 
may be described shortly as follows: They divide into two 
parts a ventral part which extends into the appendage, and 
a dorsal part (fig. 12, B). Each of the ventral parts acquires 
an opening to the exterior, just outside the nerve-cord, 



PERIPATUS 



167 



and becomes entirely transformed into a nephridium (fig. 12, 
D, 2'). The dorsal part shifts dorsalwards and diminishes rela- 
tively in size (fig. 12, C). Its fate differs in the different parts 
of the body. In the anterior somites it dwindles and disappears, 
but in the posterior part it unites with the dorsal divisions of con- 
tiguous somites of the same side, and forms a tube the generative 
tube (fig. 12, D, 2). The last section of this tube retains its con- 
nexion with the ventral portion of the somite, and so acquires an 
external opening, which is at first lateral, but soon shifts to the 
middle line, and fuses with its fellow, to form the single generative 
opening. The praeoral somite develops the rudiment of a nephri- 
dium, but eventually entirely disappears. The jaw somite also 
disappears; the oral papilli somite forms ventrally the salivary 
glands, which are thus serially homologous with nephridia. The 
various divisions of the perivisceral cavity develop as a series of 



though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda, 
are found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very 
important additional reason for uniting Peripatus with it. Peri- 
patus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such impor- 
tant respects from all the old-established Arthropod classes, 
that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called 
Prototracheata or Onychophora, has had, as we have seen, to 
be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other 
Arthropoda is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it 
presents, but in part to the presence of the following peculiar 
features: (i) the number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures; 
(2) the restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the dis- 
position of the generative organs; (4) the texture of the 
skin; and (5) the simplicity and similarity of all the 
segments of the body behind the head. The Annelidan 
affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a 
manner by the thinness of the cuticle, the dermo- 
muscular body-wall, the hollow appendages, that, as 
already stated, many of the earlier zoologists who 
examined Peripatus placed it among the segmented 
worms; and the discovery that there is some solid 
morphological basis for this determination constitutes 
one of the most interesting points of the recent work 
on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (i) the 
paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind 
the first two (Saenger, Balfour); (2) the presence of 
cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true 
that neither of these features is absolutely distinctive 
of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with 
the Annelidan disposition of the chief systems of 
organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main 
vascular trunk or heart, they may be considered as 
indicating affinities in that direction. 

(After Sedgwick.) isgia2-- "*S3!i3S> 

, .. . , , n .. , SYNOPSIS OF SPECIES. 

FIG. 12. A series of diagrams of transverse sections through Pertpatus embryos \crt_j-j -r i 

to show the relations of the coelom at successive stages. PERIPATUS (Guilding). Soft-bodied vermiform animals, 

, . , . , with one pair of ringed antennae, one- pair of laws, one 

A, Early stage; no trace of the vascular space; endoderm and ectoderm in pair Q{ , papi i la * and a varying number of claw- 

contact. bearing ambulatory legs. Dorsal surface arched and more 

B, Endoderm has separated from the dorsal and ventral ectoderm. The dar kl y pigmented thin the flat ventral surface. Skin 
somite is represented as having divided on the left side into a dorsal and transversely ridged and ^set by wart-like spiniferous 
ventral portion. papillae. Mouth anterior, ventral ; anus posterior, terminal. 

C.The haemocoele (3) has become divided up into a number of spaces, the 5 e ^ eradve ope ning single, median, ventral and posterior, 
arrangement of which is unimportant. The dorsal part of the somite has Qne ; r of si , e Brain , whh tw ventra , 

travelled dorsalwards, and now constitutes a small space (triangular in hollow appendages . vent r a l cords widely divaricated, 
section) just dorsal to the gut. The ventral portion (2) has assumed a without c&ct ganglia. Alimentary canal simple, un- 
tubuar character, and has acquired an external opening. The internal co; , ed Se g m entally arranged paired nephridia are present, 
vesicle is already indicated, and is shown in the diagram by the thinner Bod cavi u continuous with the va ^ u i ar sys tem, and 
back line: I, gut; 2, somite; 2', nephridial part of coelom ; 3, haemocoele; doe / not CO mmunicate with the paired nephridia. Heart 
3', part of haemocoele which wi 1 form the heart the part of the tubul with aired ostia _ Respiration by means of 
haemocoele on each side of this will form the pericardium; 4, nerve-cord; tracheae . Dioecious; males smaller and generally less 
4, slime glands. ,._., TU i 4- A numerous than females. Generative glands tubular, con- 

D represents the conditions at the time of birth. The coelom is represented tinuous wkh the ducts viviparous Young born fully 
surrounded^ by ji^thiidc j)jack line, except in the part which forms the dcveloped . Distribution: Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, and 

the Gaboon), New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania, New 




internal vesicle of the nephridium. 

spaces between the ectoderm and edoderm, and later in the meso- 
derm. The mesoderm seems to be formed entirely from the 
proliferation of the cells of the mesoblastic somites. It thus appears 
that in Peripatus the coelom does not develop a perivisceral portion, 
but gives rise only to the renal and reproductive organs. 

The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by L. Guilding, 
who first obtained specimens of it from St Vincent in the 
Antilles. He regarded it as a mollusc, being no doubt deceived 
by the slug-like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens 
were subsequently obtained from other parts of the neotropical 
region, and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal 
was variously assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Anne- 
lida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system, as a primitive 
member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874 
by H. N. Moseley, who discovered the tracheae. Peripatus 
is an Arthropod, as shown by (i) the presence of appendages 
modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia per- 
forating the wall of heart and putting its cavity in communication 
with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular body cavity 
and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a 
perivisceral section of the coelom. Finally, the tracheae, 



Britain, South and Central America and the West Indies, the 
Malay Peninsula Jand in Sumatra ?]. 

The genus Peripatus, so far as adult conformation is concerned, 
is a very homogeneous one. It is true, as was pointed out by 
Sedgwick, that the species from the same part of the world re- 
semble one another more closely than they do species from other 
regions, but recent researches have shown that the line between 
them cannot be so sharply drawn as was at first supposed, and 
it is certainly not desirable in the present state of our knowledge 
to divide them into generic or subgeneric groups, as has been 
done by some zoologists. (The following genera have been pro- 
posed: Peripatus for the neotropical species, Peripatoides for the 
Australasian, Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus for the African, 
Paraperipalus for the New Britain, Eoperipatus for the Malayan 
species, and Ooperipatus for the supposed oviparous species of 
Australia and New Zealand.) The colour is highly variable in 
species from all regions; it is perhaps more constant in the species 
from the neotropical region than in those from elsewhere. The 
number of legs tends to be variable whenever it exceeds 19 
praegenital pairs; when the number is less than that it is usually, 
though not always, constant. More constant points of difference 
are the form of the jaws, the position of the generative orifice, 
the presence of a receptaculum seminis and a receptaculum ovorum, 
the arrangement of the primary papillae on the distal end of the 
feet,' and above all the early development. 

South African Species. With three spinous pads on the legs, 



i68 



PERIPATUS 



and feet with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one 
on the posterior side; outer jaw with one minor tooth at the base 
of the main tooth, inner jaw with no interval between the large 
tooth and the series of small ones ; last fully developed leg of the 
male with enlarged crural gland opening on a large papilla placed 
on its ventral surface; coxal organs absent; the nephridial open- 
ings of the 4th and 5th pairs of legs are placed in the proximal 
spinous pad. Genital opening subterminal, behind the last pair 
of fully developed legs; oviduct without receptacula seminis or 
receptacula ovorum ; the terminal unpaired portion of vas deferens 
short. Ova of considerable size, but with only a small quantity 
of yolk. The embryos in the uterus are all nearly of the same 
age, except for a month or two before birth, when two broods 
overlap. 

The following species are aberrant in respect of these characters: 
Peripatus (Opisthopatus) cinctipes, Purcell (Cape Colony and Natal), 
presents a few Australasian features; there is a small receptaculum 
seminis on each oviduct, some of the legs are provided with well- 
developed coxal organs, the feet have one anterior, one posterior 
and one dorsal papilla, and the successive difference in the ages of 
the embryos in the uterus, though nothing like that found in the 
neotropical species, is slightly greater than that found in othe 
investigated African species. Several pairs of legs in the middle 
region of the body are provided with enlarged crural glands which 
open on a large papilla. Male with four accessory glands, opening 
on each side of and behind the genital aperture. P. tholloni, Bouvier, 
(Equatorial West Africa [Gaboon]), shows some neotropical features; 
there are 24 to 25 pairs of legs, the genital opening is between the 
penultimate legs, and though there are only three spinous pads 
the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are proximal to the 
3rd pad, coxal organs are present, and the jaws are of the neo- 
tropical type ; the oviducts have receptacula seminis. The following 
South African species may be mentioned: P. capensis (Grube), 
with 17 (rarely 18) pairs of claw-bearing legs; P. balfouri (Sedgw.) 
with 18 (rarely 19) pairs; P. moseleyi (Wood-M.), with 20 to 24 
pairs. 

Australasian Species. With 14, 15 or 1 6 pairs of claw-bearing 
ambulatory legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial 
opening of the 4th and 5th legs on the proximal pad; feet with one 
anterior, one posterior and one dorsal primary papilla; inner jaw 
without diastema, outer with or without a minor tooth. Last leg 
of the male with or without a large white papilla on its ventral 
surface for the opening of a gland, and marked papillae for the 
crural glands are sometimes present on other legs of the male; 
well-developed coxal glands absent. Genital opening between the 
legs of the last pair; oviducts with receptacula seminis, without 
receptacula ovorum; the terminal portion of the vas deferens long 
and complicated ; the accessory male glands open between the genital 
aperture and the anus, near the latter. Ova large and heavily 
charged with yolk, and provided with a stoutish shell. The uterus 
appears to contain embryos of different ages. Specimens are 
recorded from West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, 
Victoria and New Zealand. The Australasian species are in some 
confusion. The number of claw-bearing legs varies from 14 to 
16 pairs, but the number most often found is 15. Whether the 
number varies in the same species is not clear. There appears to 
be evidence that some species are occasionally or normally oviparous, 
and in the supposed oviparous species the oviduct opens at the end 
of a papilla called from its supposed function an ovipositor, but 
the oviparity has not yet been certainly proved as a normal occur- 
rence. Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti 
(Saenger), P. msignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimacu- 
latus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means 
certain that future research will maintain these. Mr I. J.Fletcher, 
indeed, is of opinion that the Australian forms are all varieties of 
one species, P. leuckarti. 

Neotropical Species. With three to five spinous pads on the legs, 
nephridial opening of the 4th a_nd 5th legs usually proximal to 
the 3rd pad, and feet either with two primary papillae on the 
anterior side and one on the posterior, or with two on the anterior 
and two on the posterior; outer jaw with small minor tooth or 
teeth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with diastema. A 
variable number of posterior legs of the males anterior to the 
genital opening with one or two large papillae carrying the open- 
ings of the crural glands; well-developed coxal organs present 
on most of the lejjs. The primary papillae usually divided into 
two portions. Genital opening between the legs of the penultimate 
pair; oviduct provided with receptacula seminis and ovorum; 
unpaired part of vas deferens long and complicated; accessory 
organs of male opening at the sides of the anus. Ova minute, 
with little food-yolk; embryos in the uterus at very different stage's 
of development. The number of legs usually if not always variable 
in the same species; the usual number is 28 to 32 pairs, but in some 
species 40 to 43 pairs are found. The neotropical species appear 
to fall into two groups: (i) the so-called Andean species, viz. those 
which inhabit the high plateaus or Pacific slope of the Andes; in 
these there are 4 (sometimes 5) pedal papillae, and the nephridial 
openings of the_4th and 5th legs are on the third pad; and (2) the 
Caribbean species, viz. the remaining neotropical species, in which 
there are 3 papillae on the foot and the nephridial openings of the 



4th and 5th legs are between the 3rd and 4th pads. The Andean 
species are P. eisenii (Wh.), P. tuberculatus (Bouv.), P. lankesteri 
(Bouv.), P. quitensis (Schm.), P. corradi (Cam.), P. cameranoi 
(Bouv.) and P. balzani (Cam.). Of the remaining species, which 
are the majority, may be mentioned P. edwardsii (Blanch), P. 
jamaicensis (Gr. and Cock.), P. trinidadensis (Sedgw.), P. torquatus 
(Ken.), P. im thurmi (Scl.). 

New Britain Peripatus. With 22 to 24 pairs of claw-bearing 
legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of 
legs 4 and 5 (sometimes of 6 also) on the proximal pad; feet with 
one primary papilla on the anterior, one on the posterior side, 
and one on the dorsal side (median or submedian) ; outer jaw with 
a minor tooth, inner jaw without diastema; crural glands absent; 
well-developed coxal organs absent. Genital opening subterminal 
behind the last pair of legs; oviduct with receptaculum seminis, 
without receptaculum ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens very 
short ; accessory glands two, opening medianly and dorsally. Ova 
small; -i mm. in diameter, with little yolk, and the embryos pro- 
vided with large trophic vesicles (Willey). Embryos in the uterus 
of very different ages, and probably born all the year round. One 
species only known, P. novae britanniae (Willey). 

Sumatran Peripatus. Peripatus with 24 pairs of ambulatory 
legs, and four spinous pads on the legs. The primary papillae of 
the neotropical character with conical bases. Generative opening 
between the legs of the penultimate pair. Feet with onfy two 
papillae. Single species. P. sumalranus (Sedgw.). The existence 
of this species is doubtful. 

Peripatus from the Malay Peninsula. With 23 to 25 pairs of 
claw-bearing legs, four spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial open- 
ings of legs 4 and 5 in the middle of the proximal pad or on its 
proximal side; feet with two primary papillae, one anterior and 
one posterior; outer jaw with two, inner jaw with two or three minor 
teeth at the base of the main tooth, separated by a diastema from 
the row of small teeth; crural glands present in the male only, in the 
two pairs of legs preceding the generative opening; coxal glands 
present. Genital opening between the penultimate legs; oviduct 
with receptacula seminis and ovorum ; unpaired part of vas deferens 
long; male accessory glands two, opening medianly between the 
legs of the last pair. Ova large, with much yolk and thick mem- 
brane, like those of Australasian species; embryos with slit-like 
blastopore and of very different ages in the same uterus, probably 
born all the year round. The species are P. weldoni (Evans), 
P. horsti (Evans) and P. butleri (Evans). It will thus be seen 
that the Malay species, while resembling the neotropical species 
in the generative organs, differ from these in many features of the 
legs and feet, in the important characters furnished by the size and 
structure of the ovum, and by their early development. 

AUTHORITIES. F. M. Balfour, " The Anatomy and Development 
of P. capensis" posthumous memoir, edited by H. N. Moseley 
and A. Sedgwick, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. vol. xxiii. (1883) ; E. L. 
Bouvier, " Sur 1'organisation du Peripatus tholloni, Bouv.," Cpmptes 
rendus, cxxvi. 1358-1361 (1898); "Contributions a 1'histoire des 
Peripates Americains," Ann. de la societe entomologique de France, 
Ixviii. 385-450 (1899); " puelques observations sur les qnycho- 
phores du musee britannique, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliii. 
367 (1900); A. Dendy, "On the Oviparous Species of Onycho- 
phorea," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xlv. 362 (1902); R. Evans, "On 
Onychpphora from the Siamese Malay States," Quart. Journ. Mic. 
-S. xliv. 473 (1901), and " On the Development of Ooperipatus," 
ibid. xlv. i (1901); J. J. Fletcher, "On the Specific Identity 
of the Australian Peripatus, usually supposed to be P. leuckarti, 
Saenger," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, x. 172 (1895); E. 
Gaffron, " Beitrage z. Anat. u. Physiol. v. Peripatus," Th. i 
and 2, Zool. Beitrage (Schneider), i. 33, 145; L. Guilding, " Mol- 
lusca caribbaeana: an account* of a new genus of Mollusca," 
Zool. Journ. ii. 443, pi. 14 (1826); reprinted in Isis, xxi. 158, 
pi. ii. (1828); H. N. Moseley, "On the Structure and Develop- 
ment of Peripatus capensis," Phil. Trans. (1874); R. I. Pocock, 
" Contributions to our Knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna of the 
West IndieV' pt. 2, Malacopoda, &c., Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv. 
518; W. F. Purcell, " On the South African Species of Peripatus," 
&c., Annals of the South African Museum, i. 331 (1898-1899); 
and "Anatomy of Opisthopatus cinctipes," ibid. vol. ii. (1900); 
W. L. Sclater, " On the Early Stages of the Development of a 
South American Species of Peripatus," Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci. 
xxviii. 343-361 (1888); A. Sedgwick, "A Monograph of the De- 
velopment of Peripatus capensis " (originally published in various 
papers in the Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1885-1888); Studies from the 
Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, iv. 1-146 (1889); 
" A Monograph of the Species and Distribution of the Genus 
Peripatus, Guilding," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. 431494 
(1888); L. Sheldon, "On the Development of Peripatus novae 
zealandiae," pts. I and 2, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. and xxix. 
(1888 and 1889). The memoirs quoted by Sclater, Sedgwick and 
Sheldon are all reprinted in vol. iv. of the Studies from the Mor- 
phological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, vol. iv. (Cambridge 
University Press, 1889). T. Steel, " Observations on Peripatus," 
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, p. 94 (1896); A. Willey, "The 
Anatomy and Development of P. novae britanniae," Zoological 
Results, pt. i, pp. 1-52 (Cambridge, 1898). (A. SE.*; 



PERIPTERAL PERISSODACTYLA 



169 



PERIPTERAL (Gr. Trepi, round, and irrtpbv, a wing), in 
architecture, the term applied to a temple or other structure 
where the columns of the front portico are returned along its 
sides as wings at the distance of one or two intercolumniations 
from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples 
were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian (see 
TEMPLE). 

PERISSODACTYLA (i.e. odd-toed), the name proposed by 
Sir R. Owen for that division of ungulate mammals in which 
the toe corresponding to the middle (third) digit of the human 
hand and foot is symmetrical in itself, and larger than those 
on either side (when such are present). The Perissodactyla 
have been brigaded with the Artiodactyla (q.v.) to form the 
typical group of the ungulates, under the name of Diplarthra, 
or Ungulata Vera, and the features distinguishing the combined 
group from the less specialized members of the order Ungulata 
will be found under the heading of that order. 

The following are the leading characteristics by means of 
which the sub-order Perissodactyla is distinguished from the 
Artiodactyla. The cheek-teeth (premolars and molars) form a 




FIG. i. Bones of Right Fore-Foot of existing Perissodactyla. 

A, Tapir (Tapirus indicus), X \. 

B, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis) , X&. 

C, Horse (Equus caballus), X i. 

U, ulna; R, radius; c, cuneiform ; /, lunar; i, scaphoid; , unciform; 
m, magnum; td, trapezoid; tm, trapezium. 

continuous series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged 
or complex crowns the posterior premolars usually resembling 
the molars in structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly 
bilobed. Dorso-lumbar vertebrae never fewer than twenty- 
two, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal bones 
expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with a 
third trochanter. The middle or third digit on both fore and hind 
feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself, 
the free border of the terminal phalanx being evenly rounded 
(see fig. i). This may be the only functional toe, or the second 
and fourth may be subequally developed on each side. In 
the tapirs and many extinct forms the fifth toe also remains 
on the fore-h'mb, but its presence does not interfere with the 
symmetrical arrangement of the remainder of the foot on each 
side of the median line of the third or middle digit. The astraga- 
lus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation into the tibia, 
but its lower surface is flattened and unites to a much greater 
extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is of 
comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyles. In 
existing forms the calcaneum does not articulate with the 
lower end of the fibula. The stomach is simple, the caecum 
large and capacious, the placenta diffused, and the teats inguinal. 
The Perissodactyla may be divided into the four following 
sections, namely the extinct Titanotheroidea, the Hippoidea, 
represented by the horse tribe and their ancestors, the Tapiroidea, 



typified by the tapirs, and the Rhinocerotoidea, which includes 
the modern rhinoceroses and their forerunners. 

1. Titanotheres. In the Titanotheroidea the dentition may be 
expressed by the formula t|;,^g, c\, p^, m\. There is usually 
a short gap between the canine and first premolar; the upper 
molars are short-crowned and transitional between the bunodont 
(tubercular) and selenodont (crescentic) types, with two outer 
concave tubercles and two inner conical ones; while the lower 
molars are crescentic, with three lobes in the last of the series. 
The skull is elongated, with the orbit not separated from the tem- 
poral fossa and the nasals, which may or may not carry horns, 
reaching at least as far forwards as the union of the premaxillae. 
The post-glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the 
skull are large, and there is an alisphenoid canal. There are four 
functional toes in front and three behind; while the calcaneum, 
unlike that of the other three groups, articulates with the fibula. 
The group is represented by the families Palaeosyopidae and Titano- 
theriidae in the Tertiary deposits of North America. Both families 
are described under the heading TITANOTHERHDAE. 

2. Horse Group. In the Hippoidea there is generally the full 
series of 44 teeth, but the first premolar, which is always small, is 
often deciduous or even absent in the lower or in both jaws. 
The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines tend to become 
isolated, so as in the more specialized forms to occupy a more or 
less midway position in a longer or shorter gap between the incisors 
and premolars. In the upper molars the two outer columns or 
tubercles of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an 
outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests, 
the connexion between the crests and the wall being slight or im- 
perfect, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. Each 
of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. In the earlier 
forms the cheek-teeth are low-crowned, but in the higher types 
they become high-crowned. The number of front toes ranges 
from four to one, and of hind ones from three to one. The post- 
glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the skull 
are large; the second of these being always distinct. Nasals long, 
normally without traces of horns. 

The section is divisible into the families Equidae and Palaeo- 
theriidae, of which the latter is extinct. 

In the Equidae the premolars are generally | or J. In the earlier 
short-crowned forms these teeth are unlike the molars, and the 
first of the series is separated by a gap from the second. In the 
high-crowned types, as well as in some of the intermediate ones, 
they become molar-like, and roots are not developed in the whole 
cheek-series till late. Orbit in higher forms closed by bone; and 
ridges of lower cheek-teeth terminating in large loops.. Front 
toes 4, 3 or i, hind; 3 or i. (See EQUIDAE and HORSE.) 

In the Palaeotheriidae the premolars may be | or |, and are 
generally molar-like, while the first (when present) is always close 
to the second; all the cheek-teeth short-crowned and rooted, with 
or without cement. Outer walls of upper cheek-teeth W-shaped, 
and transverse crests oblique. Orbit open behind; and ridges of 
lower cheek-teeth generally terminating in small loops. Feet 
always 3-toed. (See PALAEOTHERIUM.) 

3. Tapir Group. In the Tapiroidea the dentition may be either 
the full 44, or lack the first premolar in the lower or in both jaws. 
The incisors are chisel-shaped; and (unlike the early Hippoidea) 
there is no gap between the first premolar, when present, and the 
second. The upper cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without 
cement, and show distinct traces of the primitive tubercles ; the two 
outer columns form a more or less complete external wall, connected 
with the inner ones by a pair of nearly straight transverse crests ; 
and the premolars are originally simpler than the molars. Lower 
cheek-teeth with two straight transverse ridges. Nasals long in 
early, but shorter in later forms, hornless; orbit open behind. 
Front toes, 4; hind toes, 3. 

This group is also divided into two families, the Tapiridae and 
Lophiodontidae, the latter extinct. 

In the Tapiridae the dentition may be reduced below the typical 
44 by the loss of the first lower premolar. Hinder premolars 
either simple or molar-like. Outer columns of upper molars similar, 
the hinder ones not flattened; ridges of lower molars oblique or 
directly transverse, a third ridge to the last molar in the earlier 
forms. The Lophiodontidae, which date from the Eocene, come 
very close to Hyracotherium in the horse-line; and it is solely on 
the authority of American palaeontologists that the division of 
these early forms into equoids and tapiroids is attempted. In North 
America the earliest representative of the group is Systemodon of 
the Lower Eocene, in which all the upper premolars are quite 
simple; while the molars are of a type which would readily develop 
into that of the modern tapirs, both outer columns being conical 
and of equal size. The absence of a gap between the lower canine 
and first premolar and between the latter and the following tooth 
is regarded as an essentially tapir-like feature. Lophiodochoerus 
apparently represents this stage in the European Lower Eocene; 
Isectolophus, of the American Middle Eocene, represents a distinct 
advance, the last upper premolar becoming molar-like, while a 
second species from the Upper Eocene is still more advanced ; the 
third lobe is, however, retained in the last lower molar. In the 



IJO 



PERISSODACTYLA 



Oligocene of both hemispheres appears Protapirus, which ranges 
well into the Miocene, and is essentially a tapir, having lost the third 
lobe of the last lower molar, and being in process of acquiring 
molar-like upper premolars, although none of these teeth have two 
complete inner columns. Finally, Tapirus itself, in which the last 
three upper premolars, makes its appearance in the Upper Miocene, 
and continues till the present day. The characters of the genus 
may be expressed as follows in a more detailed manner. 

The dentition is S> c i. p\,m\, total 42. Of the upper incisors 
the first and second are nearly equal, with short, broad crowns, 
the third is large and conical, considerably larger than the canine, 
which is separated from it by an interval. Lower incisors diminish- 
ing in size from the first to the third ; the canine, which is in contact 
with the third incisor, large and conical, working against (and 
behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both jaws there is 
a long space between the canines and the commencement of the 
teeth of the cheek-series, which are all in contact. First upper 
premolar with a triangular crown narrow in front owing to the 
absence of the anterior inner column. The other upper premolars 
and molars all formed on the same plan and of nearly the same 
size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider transversely 
than from before backwards, each having four columns, connected 
by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior. The first 
lower premolar compressed in front ; the others composed of a single 
pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and posterior basal 
ridge. Skull elevated and compressed ; with the orbit and temporal 
fossa widely continuous, there being no true post-orbital process 
from the frontal bone. Nasal apertures very large, and extending 
high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated, 
triangular and pointed in front. Vertebrae: cervical, 7; dorsal, 18; 
lumbar, 5; sacral, 6; caudal about 12. Limbs short and stout. 
Fore-feet with four toes, having distinct hoofs: the first toe being 
absent, the third the longest, the second and fourth nearly equal, and 
the fifth the shortest and scarcely reaching the ground in the 
ordinary standing position. Hind-feet with the typical perisso- 
dactyle arrangement of three toes the middle one being the 
largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose and upper lip 
elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis, near 
the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather small. 
Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin 
thick and but scantily covered with hair. Tapirs are common 
to the Malay countries and tropical America; two species from 
the latter area differ from the rest in having a vertical bony 
partition to the nasal septum, and are hence subgenerically or 
generically separated as Tapirella (Elasmognathus) (see TAPIR). 
Nearly related is the extinct family Lophiodontidae (inclusive of 
the American Helalelidae), in which both the upper and lower 
first premolar may be absent, while the upper molars present a 
more rhinoceros-like form, owing to the lateral compression and 
consequent lengthening of the outer columns, of which the hinder 
is bent somewhat inwards and is more or less concave externally, 
thus forming a more complete outer wall. In America the family 
is represented by Heptodon, of the Middle Eocene, which differs 
from the early members of the tapir-stock in having a long gap 
between the lower canine and first premolar; the dentition is com- 
plete, and the upper premolars are simple. The next stage is 
Helaletes, also of Middle Eocene age, in which the first lower pre- 
molar has disappeared, and the last two upper premolars have 
become molar-like. Finally, in the Oligocene Colodon the last 
three upper premolars are like the molars, and the first pair of 
lower incisors is lost. In Europe the group is represented by the 
long-known and typical genus Lophiodon with three premolars 
in each jaw, of which the upper are simpler than the molars. The 
genus is especially characteristic of the Middle and Upper Eocene, 
and some of the species attained the size of a rhinoceros. 

4. Rhinoceros Group. The last section of the Perissodactyla is 
that of the Rhinocerotoidea, represented by the modern rhinoce- 
roses and their extinct allies. In this group the incisors and canines 
are very variable in number and form; the lower canine being 
separated by only a short gap from the outer incisor (when present), 
but by a long one from the first premolar, which is in contact with 
the second. The second and third premolars, which are always 
present, are large and molar-like; the whole of these teeth being 
essentially of the lophodont type of Lophiodon, but the last upper 
molars assume a more or less triangular form, with an oblique outer 
wall, and there are certain complications in the structure of all 
these teeth in the more specialized types (fig. 2). The lower cheek- 
teeth have, unlike those of the Tapiroidea, crescentic ridges, which 
have not the loops at their extremities characteristic of the advanced 
Hippoidea; the last lower molar has no third lobe. The facial 
portion of the skull is generally shorter than the cranial ; the orbit is 
freely open behind; and the premaxillae tend to be reduced and 
fused with the nasals. Front toes, 3 or 4; hind toes, 3. 

The most primitive group is that of the American Hyracodontidae, 
represented in the Oligocene by Hyrachyus, Hyracodon and Triplo- 
pus. With the exception of the first lower premolar, the dentition 
is complete; the incisors being normal, but the canine rudimen- 
tary, and the last upper molar distinctly triangular. The upper 
molars have a crista and a crochet (fig. 2). The skull is high, 
with the facial and cranial portions approximately equal. There 



are only three front toes, and the limbs are long and adapted for 
running. 

In the Amynodontidae, represented by the North American 
Middle Eocene Amynodon and Metamynodon, the premolars may 
be either J or , making the total number of teeth either 44 or 40. 
The incisors tend to become latera 1 , the canines are enlarged, and 
the last upper molar is sub-quadrangular. The upper molars 
have a crista but no crochet (fig. 2). As in the last family, the 
post-glenoid process of the skull is broad; the whole skull being 
depressed with a shortened facial portion. The fore-foot is five- 
toed and spreading; indicating that the members of the family 
were swamp-dwelling animals. 

Finally, we have the family Rhinocerotidae, which includes the 
existing representatives of the group. In this family the dentition 
has undergone considerable reduction, and may be represented 
inclusive of all the variations, by the formula i }^ c j-^ 
P 43*or2 "* ! The first upper incisor, when present, has an 
antero-posteriorly elongated crown, but the second is small; when 
fully developed, the lower canine is a large forwardly directed 
tusk-like tooth with sharp cutting-edges, and biting against the 
first upper incisor. The third upper molar is triangular, and most 
of the teeth of the upper cheek-series may have both crochet and 
crista (fig. 2). The post-glenoid process is small, and the facial 
and cranial portions of the skull are approximately of equal length. 
Usually there are three, but occasionally four front toes; and the 
limb-bones are short. 

A large number of representatives of the group are known from 
both the Old and the New World; specialization displaying itself 
in the later ones in the development of dermal horns over the nasal 
bones, either in laterally placed pairs as in some of the early forms, 
or in the median line, either single or double. In North America 
rhinoceroses became extinct before the close of the Pliocene 
period; but in the Old World, although their geographical distri- 
bution has become greatly restricted, at least five well-marked 
species survive. The group is unknown in South America. 

As regards the dentition of the existing species, the cheek-series 
consists of the four premolars and three molars above and below, 
all in contact and closely resembling each other, except the first, 
which is much smaller than the rest and often deciduous; the 




2 ' 2 

FIG. 2. Grinding Surface of moderately worn Right Upper 

Second Molars of Rhinoceros. 
A, Rhinoceros unicornis. B, Rhinoceros sondaicus. 

1 , Anterior surface. 6, Postero-internal pillar or 

2, Posterior surface. column. 

3, Internal surface. 7, Anterior valley. 

4, External surface (wall or 8, Median valley. 

dorsum). 9, Posterior valley. 

5, Antero-internal pillar or 10, Accessory valley. 

column. ii, Crista. 

12, Crochet. 

others gradually increasing in size up to the penultimate. The 
upper molars present a characteristic pattern of crown, having 
a much-developed flat or more or less sinuous outer wall, and two 
transverse ridges running obliquely inwards and backwards from 
it, terminating internally in conical eminences or columns, and 
enclosing a deep valley between. The posterior valley is formed 
behind the posterior transverse ridge, and is bounded externally 
by a backward continuation of the outer wall and behind by the 
cingulum. The anterior valley is formed in the same manner, but 
is much smaller. The middle valley is often intersected by vertical 
" crista " and " crochet " plates projecting into it from the anterior 
surface of the posterior transverse ridge or from the wall, the 
development of which is a useful guide in discriminating species, 
especially those known only by teeth and bones. The depressions 
between the ridges are not filled up* with cement. As stated above, 
the lower molars have the crown formed by a pair of crescents; 
the last having no third lobe. 

The head is Targe, and the skull elongated, and elevated posteriorly 
into a transverse occipital crest. No post-orbital processes or 
any separation between orbits and temporal ' fossae. Nasal 
bones large and stout, co-ossified, and standing out freely above 
the premaxillae, from which they are separated by a deep and 
wide fissure; the latter small, generally not meeting in the middle 
line in front, often rudimentary. Tympanics small, not forming 
a bulla. Brain-cavity small for the size of the skull. Vertebrae: 
cervical, 7; dorsal. 19-20; lumbar, 3;' sacral, 4; caudal, about 22. 



PERISTYLE PERITONITIS 



171 



Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three completely developed 
toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each foot. Teats two, 
inguinal. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, promi- 
nent, placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species 
thrown into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. One or two 
median horns on the face. When one is present it is situated 
over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the hinder one is 
over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more or less conical 
form and usually recurved, and often grow to a great length 
(three or even four feet), are composed of a solid mass of hardened 
epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal papillae. 
The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct horny fibre, 
like a thick hair, and the whole is cemented together by an inter- 
mediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces between 
the papillae. It results from this that the horn has the appearance 
of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly growing part 
at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the softer intermediate 
substance; but the fibres differ from true hairs in growing from a 
free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular involution of 
the same. Considerable difference of opinion exists with regard 
to the best classification of the family, some authorities including 
most of the species in the typical genus Rhinoceros, while others 
recognize quite a number of sub-families and still more genera. 
Here the family is divided into two groups Rhinocerolinae and 
Elasmotheriinae, the latter including only Elasmotherium, and the 
former all the rest. In the Lower Oligocene of Europe we have 
Ronzotherium and in that of America Leptaceratherium (Trigonias), 
which were primitive species with persistent upper canines and 
three-toed fore-feet. Possibly they belonged to the Amynodonlidae, 
but they may have been related to the Upper Oligocene Dicera- 
therium, in which the nasal bones formed a transverse pair; this 
genus being common to Europe and North America. Caenopus 
is an allied American type. Hornless rhinoceroses, with five front- 
toes, ranging from the Oligocene to the Lower Pliocene in Europe, 
represent the genus Aceratherium, which may also occur in America, 
as it certainly does in India. With the short-skulled, short-footed, 
three-toed and generally horned rhinoceroses ranging in Europe 
and America from the Lower Miocene to the Lower Pliocene, typified 
by the European R. goldfursi and R. brachypus, we may consider 
the genus Rhinoceros to commence; these species constituting the 
subgenus Teleoccras. The living R. (Dicerorhinus) sumatrensis of 
south-eastern Asia indicates another subgenus, represented in the 
European Miocene by R. sansaniensis and in the Indian Pliocene 
by R, platyrhinus, in which two horns are combined with the 
presence of upper incisors and lower canines. Next we have the 
living African species, representing the subgenus Diceros, in which 
there are two horns but no front teeth. To this group belongs the 
extinct European and Asiatic woolly rhinoceros, Rhinoceros (Diceros) 
antiquitatis, of Pleistocene age, of which the frozen bodies are 
sometimes found in Siberia, and R. (D.) pachygnathus of the 
Lower Pliocene of Greece. Finally the Great Indian rhinoceros 
R. unicornis, the Javan R. sondaicus, and the Lower Pliocene Indian 
R. sivalensis and R. palaeindicus, represent Rhinoceros proper, 
in which front teeth are present, but there is only one horn. (See 
RHINOCEROS.) 

The subfamily Elasmotheriinae is represented only by the huge 
E. sibircum of the Siberian Pleistocene, in which the premolars 
were reduced to f while front-teeth were probably wanting, and 
the cheek teeth developed tall crowns, without roots, but with 
cement in the valleys, and the enamel of the central parts curiously 
crimped. A hump on the forehead probably indicates the existence 
of a large frontal horn. 

LITERATURE. J. L. Wortman and C. Earle, " Ancestors of the 
Tapir from the Lower Miocene of Dakota," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v. 
art. II. (1893); H. F. Osborn, " Phylogeny of the Rhinoceroses of 
Europe," op. cit. vol. xiii. art. 19 (1900) ; O. Thomas, " Notes on 
the Type Specimen of Rhinoceros lasiotis, with Remarks on the 
Generic Position of the Living Species of Rhinoceros," Proc. 
Zoo/. Soc. (London, 1901). (R. L.*) 

PERISTYLE (Gr. irept, round, and orCXos, column), in archi- 
tecture, a range of columns (whether rectangular or circular on 
plan) in one or two rows, enclosing the sanctuary of a temple; 
the term is also applied to the same feature when built round 
the court in which the temple is situated and in Roman houses 
to the court in the rear, round which the private rooms of the 
family were arranged, which were entered from the covered 
colonnade round the court. 

PERITONITIS, inflammation of the peritoneum the serous 
membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities and 
gives a covering to their viscera. It may exist in an acute or 
a chronic form, and may be either localized or diffused. 

Acute peritonitis may be brought on, like other inflammations, 
by exposure to wet or cold, or in connexion with injury to, or 
disease of, some abdominal organ, or with general feebleness 
of health. It is an occasional result of hernia and of obstruction 



of the bowels, of wounds penetrating the abdomen, of the perfora- 
tion of viscera, as in ulcer of the stomach, and of the intestine 
in typhoid fever, of the bursting of abscesses or cysts into the 
abdominal cavity, and also of the extensions of inflammatory 
action from some abdominal or pelvic organ, such as the appendix, 
the uterus, or bladder. At first localized, it may afterwards 
become general. The changes effected in the peritoneum are 
similar to those undergone by other serous membranes when 
inflamed. Thus, there are congestion; exudation of lymph in 
greater or less abundance, at first greyish and soft, thereafter 
yellow, becoming tough and causing the folds of the intestine 
to adhere together; effusion of fluid, either clear, turbid, bloody 
or purulent. The tough, plastic lymph connecting adjacent 
folds of intestine is sometimes drawn out like spun-glass by the 
movements of the intestines, forming bands and loops through 
or beneath which a piece of bowel may become fatally snared. 

The symptoms of acute peritonitis usually begin by a shivering 
fit or rigor, together with vomiting, and with pain in the 
abdomen of a peculiarly severe and sickening character, accom- 
panied with extreme tenderness, so that pressure, even of the 
bed-clothes, causes aggravation of suffering. The patient lies 
on the back with the knees drawn up so as to relax the abdominal 
muscles; the breathing becomes rapid and shallow, and is 
performed by movements of the chest only, the abdominal 
muscles remaining quiescent unlike what takes place in 
healthy respiration. The abdomen becomes swollen by flatulent 
distension of the intestines,' which increases the distress. There 
is usually constipation. The skin is hot, although there may be 
perspiration; the pulse is small, hard and wiry; the urine is 
scanty and high coloured, and is passed with pain. The face is 
pinched and anxious. These symptoms may pass off in a day 
or two; if they do not the case is apt to go on to a fatal termina- 
tion. In such event the abdomen becomes more distended; 
hiccough, and the vomiting of brown or blood-coloured matter 
occur; the temperature falls, the face becomes cold and clammy; 
the pulse is exceedingly rapid and feeble, and death takes place 
from collapse, the mental faculties remaining clear till the close. 
When the peritonitis is due to perforation- as may happen in the 
case of gastric ulcer or of ulcers of typhoid fever, or in the giving 
way of a loop of strangulated bowel the above-mentioned 
symptoms and the fatal collapse may all take place in from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. The puerperal form of this disease, 
which comes on within a day or two after childbirth, is often 
rapidly fatal. The actual cause of death is the absorption of 
the poisonous inflammatory products which have been poured 
out into the peritoneal cavity, as well as of the toxic fluids which 
have remained stagnant in the paralysed bowel. 

Perhaps the commonest cause of septic peritonitis is the 
escape of micro-organisms (bacillus coli) from the ulcerated, 
mortified or inflamed appendix (see APPENDICITIS). A genera- 
tion or so ago deaths from this cause were generally placed under 
the single heading of " peritonitis," but at the present time the 
primary disease is shown upon the certificate which too often 
runs thus: appendicitis five days, acute peritonitis two days. 

Chronic peritonitis may occur as a result of the acute attack, 
or as a tuberculous disease. In the former case, the gravest 
symptoms having subsided, some abdominal pain continues, 
and there is considerable swelling of the abdomen, corresponding 
to a thickening of the peritoneum, and to the presence of fluid 
in the peritoneal cavity. This kind of peritonitis may also 
develop slowly without there having been any preceding acute 
attack. There is a gradual loss of strength and flesh. The 
disease is essentially a chronic one; it is not usually fatal. 

Tuberculous peritonitis occurs either alone or in association 
with tuberculous disease of a joint or of the lungs. The chief 
symptoms are abdominal discomfort, or pain, and distension of' 
the bowels. The patient may suffer from either constipation or 
diarrhoea, or each alternately. Along with these local mani- 
festations there may exist the usual phenomena of tuberculous 
disease, viz. high, fever, with rapid emaciation and loss of 
strength. But some cases of tuberculous peritonitis present 
symptoms which are not only obscure, but actually misleading. 



172 

There may be no abdominal distension, and no pain or tender- 
ness. The patient may lie quietly in bed, flat on his back, 
with the legs down straight, and he may have no marked 
elevation of temperature. There may be no vomiting and no 
constipation or diarrhoea: In some cases, the neighbouring 
coils of intestine having been glued together, a collection of 
serous fluid takes its place in the midst of the mass, and, being 
walled in by the adhesions, forms a rounded tumour, dull on 
percussion, but not tender or painful. Such cases, especially 
when occurring in women, are apt to be mistaken for cystic disease 
of the ovary. 

As regards the treatment of acute peritonitis, the first thing that 
the surgeon has to do is to assure himself that the disease is not 
due to some cause which itself should be dealt with, to a septic 
disease of appendix or Fallopian tube, for instance, or to a toxic 
condition of the uterus, the result, perhaps, of a criminal or innocent 
abortion, or to a perforated ulcer of stomach or intestine. In many 
obscure cases the safest treatment is likely to be afforded by an 
exploratory abdominal section. If the medical attendant has 
made up his mind that the question of exploration is not to be 
entertained a decision which should be arrived at only after most 
deliberate consultation the best thing will be to apply fomenta- 
tions to the abdomen, and to administer small and repeated doses 
of morphia by the skin J or J grain repeated every hour or 
so until the physiological effect is produced. As regards other 
drugs, it may be a question as to whether calomel or Epsom salts 
should be given. As regards food, the only thing that can be 
safely recommended is a little hot water taken in sips. A bed- 
cradle should be placed over the patient in order to keep the 
weight of the bed-clothes from the abdomen. (E. O.*) 

PERIZONIUS (or ACCINCTUS), the name of JAKOB VOORBROEK 
(1651-1715), Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appin- 
gedam in Groningen on the 26th of October 1651. He was the 
son of Anton Perizonius (1626-1672), the author of a once well- 
known treatise, De ratione sludii theologici. Having studied 
at the university of Utrecht, he was appointed in 1682 to the 
chair of eloquence and history at Franeker through the influence 
of J. G. Graevius and Nicolas Heinsius. In 1693 he was pro- 
moted to the corresponding chair at Leiden, where he died on 
the 6th of April 1715. The numerous works of Perizonius 
entitle him to a very high place among the scholars of his age. 
Special interest attaches to his edition of the Minerva of Francisco 
Sanchez or Sanctiusof Salamanca (ist ed., is87;ed. C. L. Bauer, 
1793-1801), one of the last developments of the study of Latin 
grammar in its pre-scientific stage, when the phenomena of 
language were still regarded as for the most part disconnected, 
conventional or fortuitous. Mention should also be made of 
his Animadversiones historicae (1685), which may be said to 
have laid the foundations of historical criticism, and of his 
treatises on the Roman republic, alluded to by Niebuhr as 
marking the beginning of that new era of historical study with 
which his own name is so closely associated. 

The article on Perizonius in Van der Aa's Biographisch Woorden- 
boek der Nederlanden contains full biographical and bibliographical 
particulars; see also F. A. Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's Allge- 
meine Encyklopadie. 

PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, 
Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely), an 
assertion upon an oath duly administered in a judicial pro- 
ceeding before a competent court of the truth of some matter of 
fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding, 
which assertion the assertor does not believe to be true when he 
makes it, or on which he knows himself to be ignorant (Stephen, 
Digest of the Criminal Law, art. 135). In the early stages of 
legal history perjury seems to have been regarded rather as a 
sin than as a crime, and so subject only to supernatural penalties. 
The injury caused by a false oath was supposed to be done not 
so much to society as to the Divine Being in whose name the 
oath was taken (see OATH). In Roman law, even in the time of 
the empire, the perjurer fell simply under divine reprobation, 
and was not dealt with as a criminal, except where he had been 
bribed to withhold true or give false evidence, or where the oath 
was by the genius of the emperor. In the latter case punishment 
was no doubt inflicted more for the insult to the emperor than for 
the perjury. False testimony leading to the conviction of a 



PERIZONIUS PERJURY 



person for a crime punishable with death constituted the offence 
of homicide rather than of perjury. In England, perjury, as 
being a sin, was originally a matter of ecclesiastical cognisance. 
At a later period, when it had become a crime, the jurisdiction of 
the spiritual courts became gradually confined to such perjury as 
was committed in ecclesiastical proceedings, and did not extend 
to perjury committed in a temporal court. The only perjury 
which was for a long time noticed at common law was the perjury 
of jurors. Attaint of jurors (see ATTAINT, WRIT OF) who were 
originally rather in the position of witnesses than of judges of 
fact, incidentally subjected them to punishment for perjury. 
Criminal jurisdiction over perjury by persons other than jurors 
seems to have been first assumed by the Star Chamber, acting 
under the powers supposed to have been conferred by an act 
of Henry VII. (1487). After the abolition of the Star Chamber 
by the Long Parliament in 1641 and the gradual diminution of 
the authority of the spiritual courts, perjury (whether in the 
strict sense of the word or the taking of a false oath in non-judicial 
proceedings) practically fell entirely within the jurisdiction of 
the ordinary criminal tribunals. At common law only a false 
oath in judicial proceedings is perjury. But by statute the 
penalties of perjury have been extended to extra-judicial matters 
e.g. false declarations made for the purpose of procuring marriage 
(The Marriage and Registration Act 1856), and false affidavits 
under the Bills of Sale Act 1878. False affirmation by a person 
permitted by law to affirm is perjury (The Evidence Further 
Amendment Act 1869; The Evidence Amendment Act 1870). 

In order to support an indictment for perjury the prosecution 
must prove the authority to administer the oath, the occasion 
of administering it, the taking of the oath, the substance of the 
oath, the materiality of the matter sworn, the falsity of the 
matter sworn, and the corrupt intention of the defendant. 
The indictment must allege that the perjury was wilful and 
corrupt, and must set out the false statement or statements 
on which perjury is assigned, subject to the provisions of the 
Prosecutions for Perjury Act 1749 (which also applies to subor- 
nation of perjury). By that act it is sufficient to set out the 
substance of the offence, without setting forth the bill, answer, 
&c., or any part of the record and without setting forth the 
commission or authority of the court before whom the perjury 
was committed. The matter sworn to must be one of fact and 
not of mere belief or opinion. It is not homicide, as in Roman 
law, to procure the death of another by false evidence, but the 
Criminal Code, ss. 118, 164, proposed to make such an offence 
a substantive crime of greater gravity than ordinary perjury, 
and punishable by penal servitude for life. It is a rule of evi- 
dence, founded upon obvious reasons, that the testimony of 
a single witness is insufficient to convict on a charge of perjury. 
There must be corroboration of his evidence in some material 
particular. Perjury is a common law misdemeanour, not triable 
at quarter-sessions. Most persons in a judicial position have 
the right of directing the prosecution of any witness, if it appears 
to them that he has been guilty of perjury (The Criminal Pro- 
cedure Act 1851). The provisions of the Vexatious Indictments 
Act 1859 extend to perjury and subornation of perjury. By that 
Act no indictment for either of such offences can be preferred 
unless the prosecutor or accused is bound by recognisance, or 
the accused is in custody, or the consent of a judge is obtained, 
or (in the case of perjury) a prosecution is directed under the 
act of 1851. 

Subornation of perjury is procuring a person to commit a per- 
jury which he actually commits in consequence of such procure- 
ment. If the person attempted to be suborned do not take the 
oath, the person inciting him, though not guilty of subornation, 
is liable to fine and corporal punishment. Perjury and suborna- 
tion of perjury are punishable at common law with fine and 
imprisonment. By the combined operation of the Perjury 
Act 1728 and later statutes, the punishment at present appears 
to be penal servitude for any term, or imprisonment with or 
without hard labour for a term not exceeding seven years 
(see Stephen, Digest, art. 148). The punishment at common law 
was whipping, imprisonment, fine and pillory. 



PERKIN PERLEBERG 



Perjury or prevarication committed before a committee of 
either House of Parliament may be dealt with as a contempt 
or breach of privilege as well as by prosecution. As to 
false oaths not perjury, it is a misdemeanor at common 
law, punishable by fine and imprisonment, to swear falsely 
before any person authorized to administer an oath upon a 
matter of common concern, under such circumstances that the 
false swearing, if committed in judicial proceedings, would have 
amounted to perjury. There are some cases of making false 
declarations which are punishable on summary conviction, 
e.g. certain declarations under the Registration of Births and 
Deaths Act 1874, and the Customs Consolidation Act 1876. 

In Scotland the law, as a general rule, agrees with that of England. 
Perjury may be- committed by a party on reference to oath as 
well as by a witness. A witness making a false affirmation is 
guilty of perjury (The Affirmation [Scotland] Act, 1865). The acts 
of 1851 and 1859 do not extend to Scotland. The trial, though 
usually by the court of justiciary, may be by the court of session 
if the perjury is committed in the course of an action before that 
court. The punishment is penal servitude or imprisonment at the 
discretion of the court. Formerly a person convicted of perjury 
was disabled from giving evidence in future; this disability was 
abolished by the Evidence (Scotland) Act 1852. 

In the United States the common law has been extended by most 
states to embrace false affirmations and false evidence in proceedings 
not judicial. Perjury in a United States court is dealt with by an 
act of Congress of the 3rd of March 1825, by which the maximum 
punishment for perjury or subornation of perjury is a fine of $2000 
or imprisonment for not more than five years. Jurisdiction to 
punish perjury committed in the state courts belongs to the states, 
as the Federal Constitution did not give it to the Federal gov- 
ernment. Statutory provisions founded upon the English act of 
1749, have been adopted in some states. In the states which have 
not adopted such provisions, the indictment must set out the offence 
with the particularity necessary at common law. 

On the continent of Europe perjury is also regarded as an offence 
of gravity punishable by imprisonment for varying periods. In 
Germany, as in England, it was at one time a matter for the spiritual 
courts. In Austria it is treated as a form of fraud, and the punish- 
ment is proportioned to the estimated amount of damage done to 
the party aggrieved. In France the term perjury (parjure) is 
specifically applied only to the making of false oaths by parties 
in a civil suit. 

PERKIN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1838-1907), English 
chemist, was born in London on the I2th of March 1838. From 
an early age he determined to adopt chemistry as his profession, 
although his father, who was a builder, would have preferred 
him to be an architect. Attending the City of London School 
he devoted all his spare time to chemistry, and on leaving, 
in 1853, entered the Royal College of Chemistry, then under the 
direction of A. W. Hofmann, in whose own research laboratory 
he was in the course of a year or two promoted to be an assistant. 
Devoting his evenings to private investigstions in a rough 
laboratory fitted up at his home, Perkin was fired by some remarks 
of Hofmann's to undertake the artificial production of quinine. 
In this attempt he was unsuccessful, but the observations he 
made in the course of his experiments induced him, early in 
1856, to try the effect of treating aniline sulphate with bichro- 
mate of potash. The result was a precipitate, aniline black, 
from which he obtained the colouring matter subsequently known 
as aniline blue or mauve. He lost no time in bringing this 
substance before the managers of Pullar's dye-works, Perth, 
and they expressed a favourable opinion of it, if only it should 
not prove too expensive in use. Thus encouraged, he took out 
a patent for his process, and leaving the College of Chemistry, 
a boy of eighteen, he proceeded, with the aid of his father and 
brother, to erect works at Greenford Green, near Harrow, for 
the manufacture of the newly discovered colouring matter, and 
by the end of 1857 the works were in operation. That date 
may therefore be reckoned as that of the foundation of the coal- 
tar colour industry, which has since attained such important 
dimensions in Germany, however, rather than in England, 
the country where it originated. Perkin also had a large share 
in the introduction of artificial alizarin (q.v.), the red dye of the 
madder root. C. Graebe and C. T. Liebermann in 1868 pre- 
pared that substance synthetically from anthracene, but their 
process was not practicable on a large scale, and it was left to 
him to patent a method that was commercially valuable. This 



he did in 1869, thus securing for the Greenford Green works a 
monopoly of alizarin manufacture for several years. About 
the same time he also carried out a series of investigations into 
kindred substances, such as anthrapurpurin. About 1874 he 
abandoned the manufacture of coal-tar colours and devoted 
himself exclusively to research in pure chemistry, and among 
the discoveries he made in this field was that of the reaction 
known by his name, depending on the condensation of aldehydes 
with fatty acids (see CINNAMIC ACID). Later still he engaged 
in the study of the relations between chemical constitution and 
rotation of the plane of polarization in a magnetic field, and 
enunciated a law expressing the variation of such rotation 
in bodies belonging to homologous series. For this work he 
was in 1889 awarded a Davy medal by the Royal Society, 
which ten years previously had bestowed upon him a Royal 
medal in recognition of his investigations in the coal-tar colours. 
The Chemical Society, of which he became secretary in 1869 
and president in 1883, presented him with its Longstaff medal 
in 1889, and in 1890 he received the Albert medal of the Society 
of Arts. In 1906 an international celebration of the fiftieth 
anniversary of his invention of mauve was held in London, 
and in the same year he was made a knight. He died near 
Harrow on the I4th of July 1907. 

His eldest son, WILLIAM HENRY PERKIN, who was born at 
Sudbury, near Harrow, on the i7th of June 1860, and was 
educated at the City of London School, the Royal College of 
Science, and the universities of Wiirzburg and Munich, became 
professor of chemistry at the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, 
in 1887, and professor of organic chemistry at Owens College, 
Manchester, in 1892. His chief researches deal with the poly- 
methylene compounds, the alkaloids, in particular hydrastine 
and berberine, and the camphors and terpenes (q.v.). He 
received the Davy medal from the Royal Society in 1904. 

PERKINS, CHARLES CALLAHAN (1823-1886), American 
artist and author, was born in Boston and educated at Harvard, 
subsequently studying art in Rome and Paris. Returning 
to Boston, he helped to found the Museum of Fine Arts, of 
which he was honorary director, and for many years he played 
a leading part in artistic circles as a cultured critic and writer. 
His chief publications were Tuscan Sculptors (1864) and Italian 
Sculptors (1868) replaced in 1883 by The Historical Handbook 
of Italian Sculptors Art in Education (1870), and Sepulchral 
Monuments in Italy (1885). 

PERKINS, JACOB (1766-1849), American inventor and 
physicist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766, and 
was apprenticed to a goldsmith. He soon made himself known 
by a variety of useful mechanical inventions, and in 1818 came 
over to England with a plan for engraving bank-notes on steel, 
which ultimately proved a signal success, and was carried out 
by Perkins in partnership with the English engraver Heath. 
His chief contribution to physics lay in the experiments by 
which he proved the compressibility of water and measured 
it by a piezometer of his own invention (see Phil. Trans. ,1820, 
1826). He retired in 1834, and died in London on the 3oth of 
July 1849. 

His second son, ANGIER MARCH PERKINS (i799?-i88i), also 
born at Newburyport, went to England in 1827, and was the 
author of a system of warming buildings by means of high- 
pressure steam. His grandson, LOFTUS PERKINS (1834-1891), 
most of whose life was spent in England, experimented with the 
application to steam engines of steam at very high pressures, 
constructing in 1880 a yacht, the " Anthracite," whose engines 
worked with a pressure of 500 Ib to the sq. in. 

PERLEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Brandenburg, on the Stepenitz, 6 m. N.E. from Wittenberge 
by the railway to Neustrelitz. Pop. (1905), 9502. It contains 
a fine Gothic Evangelical church, a Roman Catholic church, 
a synagogue and several schools, and has a town-hall, dating 
from the I5th century, and a Roland column. Its chief manu- 
factures are machinery, soap, blacking and clogs. 

See Hopfner, Perleberger Reimchronik. Perleberg ton 1200 bis 
1700 (Perleberg, 1876). 



174 



PERLES PERM 



PERLES, JOSEPH (1835-1894), Jewish rabbi, was born in 
Hungary in 1835, and died at Munich in 1894. He was one 
of the first rabbis trained at the new type of seminary (Breslau). 
Perles' most important essays were on folk-lore and custom. 
There is much that is striking and original in his history of 
marriage (Die jiidische Hochzeit in nachbiblischer Zeit, 1860), and 
of mourning customs (Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten im nachbiblischen 
Judenthum, 1861), his contributions to the sources of the Arabian 
Nights (Zur rabbinischen Sprach-und Sagenkunde, 1873), and his 
notes on rabbinic antiquities (Beilrage zur rabbinischen Sprach- 
und Altertumskunde, 1893). Perles' essays are rich in suggestive- 
ness, and have been the starting-point of much fruitful research. 
He also wrote an essay on Nachmanides, and a biography and 
critical appreciation of Rashba (1863). (I. A.) 

PERLITE, or PEARLSTONE, a glassy volcanic rock which, when 
struck with a hammer, breaks up into small rounded masses 
that often have a pearly lustre. The reason for this peculiarity 
is obvious in microscopic sections of the rock, for many small 
cracks may be seen traversing the glassy substance. These 
mostly take a circular course, and often occur in groups, one 
within another. The circular cracks bound the little spheres 
into which the rock falls when it is struck, and the concentric 
fissures are the cause of the pearly lustre, by the reflection of 
light from enclosed films of air. Longer straight cracks run 
across the sections separating areas in which the circular fissures 
preponderate. By decomposition the fissures may be occupied 
by deposits of limonite, which make them more obvious, or by 
other secondary minerals. The glass itself often undergoes 
change along the cracks by becoming finely crystalline or 
devitrified, dull in appearance and slightly opaque in section. 
In polarized light the perlitic glass is usually quite isotropic, 
but sometimes the internal part of some of the spheres has a 
slight double refraction which is apparently due to strain. The 
glass found on the waste-heaps of glass-furnaces is sometimes 
very coarsely perlitic. 

Perlitic structure is not confined to glass, but may be seen 
also in that variety of opal which is called hyalite. This forms 
small transparent rounded masses like drops of gum, and in 
microscopic section exhibits concentric systems of cracks. 
Hyalite, like perlitic obsidian, is amorphous or non-crystalline. 
It is easy to imitate perlitic structure by taking a little Canada 
balsam and heating it on a slip of glass till most of the volatile 
matters are driven out; then drop it in a basin of cold water 
and typical perlitic structure will be produced. The reason is 
apparently the sudden contraction when the mass is chilled. 
In the glaze on tiles and china rounded or polygonal systems 
of cracks may often be seen which somewhat resemble perlitic 
structure but are less perfect and regular. Many rocks which 
are cryptocrystalline or felsitic, and not glassy, have perfect 
perlitic structure, and it seems probable that these were originally 
vitreous obsidians or pitchstones and have in process of time 
been changed to a finely crystalline state by devitrification. 
Occasionally in olivine and quartz rounded cracks not unlike 
perlitic structure may be observed. 

Many perlitic rocks contain well-developed crystals of quartz, 
feldspar, augite or magnetite, &c., usually more or less corroded 
or rounded, and in the fine glassy base minute crystallites cfften 
abound. Some of the rocks have the resinous lustre and the 
high percentages of combined water which distinguish the 
pitchstones; others are bright and fresh obsidians, and nearly 
all the older examples are dull, cryptocrystalline felsites. 
According to their chemical compositions they range from very 
acid rhyolites to trachytes and andesites, and the dark basaltic 
glasses or tachylytes are sometimes highly perlitic. It is prob- 
able that most perlites are of intrusive origin, and the general 
absence of steam cavities in these rocks would support this 
conclusion, but some perlitic Hungarian rhyolites are believed 
to be lavas. 

Very well known rocks of this kind are found in Meissen, Saxony, 
as dikes of greenish and brownish pitchstone. Other examples 
are furnished by the Tertiary igneous rocks of Hungary (Tokai, &c.), 
the Euganean Hills (Italy) and Ponza Island (in the Mediterranean). 

In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass 



varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange may often be 
seen labelled Marekanite. They have long been known to geologists 
and are found at Ockotsk, Siberia, in association with a large mass 
of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies are, in fact, the more 
coherent portions of a perlite; the rest of the rock falls down in a 
fine powder, setting free* the glassy spheres. They are subject 
to considerable internal strain, as is shown by the fact that when 
struck with a hammer or sliced with a lapidary's saw they often 
burst into fragments. Their behaviour in this respect closely 
resembles the balls of rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which are 
called Prince Rupert's drops. In their natural condition the 
marekanite spheres are doubly refracting, but when they have 
been heated and very slowly cooled they lose this property and 
no longer exhibit any tendency to sudden disintegration. 

In Great Britain Tertiary vitreous rocks are not common, but 
the pitchstone which forms the Scuir of Eigg is a dark andesitic 
porphyry with perlitic structure in its glassy matrix. A better 
example, however, is provided by a perlitic dacitic pitchstone 
porphyry that occurs near the Tay Bridge in Fifeshire. The 
tachylytic basalt dikes of Mull are occasionally highly perlitic. At 
Sandy Braes in Antrim a perlitic obsidian has been found, and the Lea 
Rock, near Wellington in Shropshire, is a devitrified obsidian which 
shows perlitic cracks and the remains of spherulites. (J. S. F.) 

PERM, a government of east Russia, bounded S. by the 
governments of Orenburg and Ufa, W. by Vyatka, N.W. by 
Vologda, and E. by Tobolsk (Siberia). It has an area of 128,173 
sq. m. Though administratively it belongs entirely to Russia in 
Europe, its eastern part (about 57, coo sq. m.) is situated in. 
Siberia, in the basin of the Ob. The government is traversed 
from north to south by the Ural Mountains, 30 to 45 m. in width, 
thickly clothed with forests, and deeply excavated by rivers. 
The highest summits do not rise above 3600 ft. in the northern 
section of the range (the Vogulian Ural) ; in the central portion, 
between 59 and 60 30' N., they once or twice exceed 5000 ft. 
(Denezhkin, 5360 ft.) ; but the chain soon sinks towards the south, 
where it barely attains an elevation of 3000 ft. Where the great 
Siberian road crosses it the highest point is 1400 ft. 

The government is very well drained by rivers belonging to the 
Pechora, Tobol (affluent of the Ob) and Kama systems. The 
Pechora itself rises in the northern corner of the government, and 
its tributary the Volosnitsa is separated by a distance of less than 
3 m. from the navigable Vogulka, a tributary of the Kama, a 
circumstance of some commercial importance. The chief river 
of Perm, is however, the Kama, whose navigable tributaries the 
Chusovaya, Sylva and Kolva are important channels for the 
export of heavy iron goods to Russia. The government is 
dotted with a great number of lakes of comparatively trifling size, 
their total area being 730 sq. m., and with marshes, which are 
extensive in the hilly tracts of the north. Granites, diorites, 
porphyries, serpentines and Laurentian gneisses and limestones, 
containing iron, copper and zinc ores, constitute the main axis 
of the Ural chain; their western slope is covered by a narrow strip 
of Huronian crystalline slates, which disappear in the east under 
the Post-Tertiary deposits of the Siberian lowlands, while on the 
west narrow strips of Silurian limestones, quartzites and slates, 
and separate islands of Devonian deposits, appear on the surface. 
These in their turn are overlain with Carboniferous clays and 
sandstones, containing Coal Measures in several isolated basins. 
The Permian deposits extend as a regular strip, parallel to the 
main ridge, over these last, and are covered with the so-called 
" variegated marls," which are considered as Triassic, and appear 
only in the western corner of the territory. 

Perm is the chief mining region of Russia, owing to its wealth 
in iron, silver, platinum, copper, nickel, lead, chrome ore, 
manganese and auriferous alluvial deposits. Many rare metals, 
such as iridium, osmium, rhodium and ruthenium, are found 
along with the above, as also a great variety of precious stones, 
such as diamonds, sapphires, jaspers, tourmalines, beryls, 
phenacites, chrysoberyls, emeralds, aquamarines, topazes, 
amethysts, jades, malachite. Salt-springs occur in the west ; 
and the mineral waters, though still little known, are worthy 
of mention. No less than 70 % of the total area is occupied with 
forest; but the forests are distributed very unequally, covering 
95% of the area in the north and only 25% in the south-east. 
Firs, the pine, cedar, larch, birch, alder and lime are the most 
common; the oak appears only in the south-west. The flora of 



PERM PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC 



Perm presents a mixture of Siberian and Russian species, several 
of which have their north-eastern or south-western limits within 
the government. The climate is severe, the average temperature 
at different places being as follows: 





Lat. N. 


Altitude. 


Yearly 
Average. 


January 
Average. 


July 
Average. 






Ft. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


Bogoslovsk 


59 45' 


630 


29-3 


3-o 


62-6 


Usolye (Kama) 


59 25' 


300 


34-0 


4-5 


63-8 


Nizhniy-Tagilsk 
Ekaterinburg . 


57 55' 
56 48' 


590 
890 


33-1 
32-9 


2-0 

2-5 


64-9 
63-5 



The estimated population in 1906 was 3,487,10x3, and consists 
chiefly of Great Russians, besides Bashkirs (including Meshcher- 
yaks and Teptyars), Permyaks or Permians, Tatars, Cheremisses, 
Syryenians, Votyaks and Voguls. Agriculture is the general occu- 
pation; rye, oats, barley and hemp are raised in all parts, and 
wheat, millet, buckwheat, potatoes and flax in the south. Cattle- 
breeding is specially developed in the south-east among the 
Bashkirs, who have large numbers of horses. Mining is develop- 
ing steadily though slowly. The ironworks employ nearly 
200,000 hands (12,000 being in the Imperial ironworks), and their 
aggregate output reaches an estimated value of 6,000,000 
annually. The annual production of gold is valued at nearly 
half a million sterling, and of platinum at approximately a quarter 
of a million, the output of platinum being equal to 95% of the 
world's total output. Coal and coke to the extent of 300,000 
to 500,000 tons, salt to 300,000 tons, asbestos and other minerals 
are also obtained. The first place among the manufacturing 
industries is taken by flour-mills. The cutting of precious stones 
is extensively carried on throughout the villages on the eastern 
slope of the Ural Mountains, the chief market for them being at 
Ekaterinburg. An active trade, greatly favoured by the easy 
communication of the chief centres of the mining industry with 
the market of Nizhniy Novgorod on the one side and with the 
network of Siberian rivers on the other, is carried on in metals 
and metal wares, minerals, timber and wooden wares, tallow, 
skins, cattle, furs, corn and linseed. Large caravans descend the 
affluents of the Kama every spring, and reach the fairs of Laishev 
and Nizhniy Novgorod, or descend the Volga to Samara and 
Astrakhan; while Ekaterinburg is an important centre for the 
trade with Siberia. The fairs at Irbit, second in importance only 
to that of Nizhniy Novgorod, and Ivanov (in the district of 
Shadrinsk) are centres for supplying Siberia with groceries and 
manufactured wares, as also for the purchase of tea, of furs for 
Russia, and of corn and cattle for the mining districts. The chief 
commercial centres are Ekaterinburg, Irbit, Perm, Kamyshlov, 
Shadrinsk and Cherdyn. 

Perm is more largely provided with educational institutions 
and primary schools than most of the governments of central 
Russia. Besides the ecclesiastical seminary at Perm there is a 
mining school at Ekaterinburg. The Perm zemstw or provincial 
council is one of the most active in Russia in promoting the spread 
of education and agricultural knowledge among the peasants. 

The government is intersected by a railway from Perm east- 
wards across the Urals, and thence southwards along their 
eastern slope to Ekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk (main Siberian 
trunk line) and Tyumen; also by a railway from Perm to Kotlas, 
at the head of the Northern Dvina. 

History. Remains of palaeolithic man, everywhere very scarce 
in Russia, have not yet been discovered in the upper basins of the 
Kama and Ob, with the exception, perhaps, of a single human 
skull found in a cavern on the Chanva (basin of Kama), together 
with a skull of Ursus spelaeus. Neolithic remains are met with in 
immense quantities on both Ural slopes. Still larger quantities 
of implements belonging to an early Finnish, or rather Ugrian, 
civilization are found everywhere in the basin of the Kama. 
Herodotus speaks of the richness of this country inhabited by 
the Ugrians, who kept up a brisk traffic with the Greek colony 
of Olbia near the mouth of the Dnieper, and with the Bosporus 
by way of the Sea of Azov and the Volga. The precise period 
at which the Ugrians left the district for the southern steppes 



of Russia (the Lebedia of Constantine Porphyrogenitus) is not 
known. In the 9th century, if not earlier, the Norsemen were 
acquainted with the country as Bjarmeland, and Byzantine 
annalists knew it as Permia. Nestor describes it as a territory 
of the Perm or Permians, a Finnish people. 

The Russians penetrated into this region at an early date. In 
the nth century Novgorod levied tribute from the Finnish 
inhabitants, and undertook the colonization of the country, 
which in the treaties of the i3th century is dealt with as a 
separate territory of Novgorod. In 1471 the Novgorod colonies 
in Perm were annexed to Moscow, which in the following year 
erected a fort to protect the Russian settlers and tradesmen 
against the Voguls, Ostiaks and Samoyedes. The mineral 
wealth of the country attracted the attention of the Moscow 
princes, and in the end of the isth century Ivan III. sent two 
Germans to search for ores; these they succeeded in finding south 
of the upper Pechora. The Stroganovs in the i6th century 
founded the first salt- and ironworks, built forts, and colonized 
the Ural region. The rapidly-growing trade with Siberia gave 
a new impulse to the development of the country. This trade 
had its centres at Perm and Solikamsk, and later at Irbit. 

(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 

PERM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the 
same name, stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great 
highway to Siberia, 1130 m. by rail and river N.E. from Moscow. 
Pop. (1879), 32,350; (1897), 45,403. During summer it has 
regular steam communication with Kazan, 605 m. distant, and 
it is connected by rail (311 m.) with Ekaterinburg on the east 
side of the Urals. The town is mostly built of wood, with 
broad streets and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect, 
especially when compared with Ekaterinburg. It is the seat of a 
bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has an ecclesiastical 
seminary and a military school, besides several scientific 
institutions (the Ural society of natural sciences, archives 
committee, technical society), and a scientific museum. Its 
industries develop but slowly, the chief works being ship-building 
yards, tanneries, chemical works, saw-mills, brickfields, copper 
foundries, machinery works, soap and candle factories and rope- 
works. The government has a manufactory of steel guns and 
munitions of war in the immediate neighbourhood of the town. 

The present site of Perm was occupied, as early as 1568, by a 
settlement named Brukhanovo, founded by one of the 
Stroganovs; this settlement seems to have received the name 
of Perm in the i7th century. A copperworks was founded in 
the immediate neighbourhood in 1723, and in 1781 it received 
officially the name of Perm, and became an administrative centre 
both for the country and for the mining region. 

PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC, the ratio of the magnetic 
induction or flux-density in any medium to the inducing magnetic 
force. In the C.G.S. electromagnetic system of units the 
permeability is regarded as a pure number, and its value in 
empty space is taken as unity. The permeability of a metal 
belonging to the ferromagnetic class iron, nickel, cobalt and 
some of their alloys is a function of the magnetic force, and 
also depends upon the previous magnetic history of the specimen. 
As the force increases from zero the permeability of a given 
specimen rises to a maximum, which may amount to several 
thousands, and then gradually falls off, tending to become unity 
when the force is increased without limit. Every other sub- 
stance has a constant permeability, which differs from unity only 
by a very small fraction; if the substance is paramagnetic, its 
permeability is a little greater than i ; if diamagnetic, a little less. 
The conception of permeability (Lat. per, through, and meare, to 
wander), is due to Faraday, who spoke of it as " conducting 
power for magnetism " (Experimental Researches, xxvi.), and the 
term now in use was introduced by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) , 
in 1872, having been suggested by a hydrokinetic analogy 
(Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, xxxi., xlii.). 
It is generally of importance that the iron employed in the 
construction of electrical machinery should possess high 
permeability under the magnetic force to which it is to be 
subjected. (See ELECTROMAGNETISM and MAGNETISM.) 



PERMEAMETER PERMIAN 



PERMEAMETER, an instrument for rapidly measuring the 
permeability of a sample of iron or steel with sufficient accuracy 
for many commercial purposes. The name was first applied 
by S. P. Thompson to an apparatus devised by himself in 1890, 
which indicates the mechanical force required to detach one end 
of the sample, arranged as the core of a straight electromagnet, 
from an iron yoke of special form; when this force is known, the 
permeability can be easily calculated. (See MAGNETISM.) 

PERMIAN, in geology, the youngest and uppermost system of 
strata of the Palaeozoic series, situated above the Carboniferous 
and below the Trias. The term " Permian " (derived from the 



Permian Period 

Hypothetical distribution 
of Ljuld * Sea 




Russian province of Perm, where the rocks are extensively 
developed) was introduced in 1841 by Sir R. I. Murchison. In 
England the series of red sandstones, conglomerates, breccias 
and marls which overlie the Coal Measures were at one time 
grouped together in one great formation as the " New Red 
Sandstone," in contradistinction to the Old Red Sandstone 
below the Carboniferous: they were likewise known as the 
Poikttitic series (from Gr. irowiXos, mottled) from their mottled 
or variegated colour. They are now divided into two systems 
or groups of formations; the lower portion being included in the 
Palaeozoic series under the name Permian, the upper portion 
being relegated to the Mesozoic series and termed Trias. In 
Germany the name Dyas was proposed by J. Marcou for the rocks 
of this age on account of the twofold nature of the series in 
Thuringia, Saxony, &c. The intimate stratigraphical relation- 
ship that exists in many quarters between the Permian rocks 
and the Carboniferous beds, and the practical difficulties in the 
way of drawing a satisfactory base-line to the system, have led 
to the adoption of the term Permo-carboniferoits in South 
Africa, southern Asia, America, Australia and Russia, for strata 
upon this horizon: C. W. von Giimbel used " Post-carbon " in 
this sense. In a similar manner Permo-triassic has been 
employed in cases where a stratigraphical passage from rocks with 
Permian fossils to others bearing a Triassic fauna is apparent. 

The Permian system in England consists of the following sub- 
divisions : 

W. of England. E. of England. 
Red sandstones, clays, and 

gypsum . 
Magnesian limestone . 

Marl slate 

Red and variegated sandstone "j 
Reddish-brown and purple 
sandstones and marls, with 
calcareous conglomerates 
and breccias of volcanic 
rocks 

From the thicknesses here given it is evident that the Permian 
rocks have a very different development on the two sides of England. 
On the east side, from the coast of Northumberland southwards 
to the plains of the Trent, they consist chiefly of a great central 
mass of limestone. But on the west side of the Pennine Chain, 
and extending southwards into the central counties, the calcareous 



3. Upper ... 
2. Middle.. 



I. Lower . 



600 ft. 50-100 ft. 



10-30 



600 " 



3000 " 100-250 " 



zone disappears, and we have a great accumulation of red, arenaceous 
and gravelly rocks. 

The lower subdivision attains its greatest development in the 
vale of the Eden, where it consists of brick-red sandstones, the 
Penrith sandstone series, with some beds of calcareous conglomerate 
or breccia, locally known as " brockram," derived from the waste 
of the Carboniferous Limestone. These red rocks extend across 
the Solway into the valleys of the Nith and Annan, in the south 
of Scotland, where they lie unconformably on the Lower Silurian 
rocks. Their breccias consist of fragments of the adjacent Silurian 
greywackes and shales, but near Dumfries some calcareous breccias 
or " brockrams " occur. These brecciated masses have evidently 
accumulated in small lakes or narrow fiords. Much farther south, 
in Staffordshire, and in the districts of the Clent and Abberley 
Hills, the brecciated conglomerates in the Permian series attain a 
thickness of 400 ft. They have been shown by Sir A. C. Ramsay 
to consist in large measure of volcanic rocks, grits, slates and lime- 
stones, which can be identified with rocks on the borders of Wales. 
Some of the stones are 3 ft. in diameter and show distinct striation. 
The same writer pointed out that these Permian drift-beds cannot be 
distinguished by any essential character from modern glacial drifts ; 
on the other hand, W. W. King and others have opposed this view. 
The middle subdivision is the chief repository of fossils in the 
Permian system. Its strata are not red, but consist of a lower 
zone of hard brown shale with occasional thin limestone bands 
(Marl Slate) and an upper thick mass of dolomite (Magnesian 
Limestone). The latter is the chief feature in the Permian develop- 
ment of the east of England. It corresponds with the Zechstein 
of Germany, as the Marl Slate does with the Kupfer-schiefer. It 
is a very variable rock in its lithological characters, being sometimes 
dull, earthy, fine-grained and fossiliferous, in other places quite 
crystalline, and composed of globular, reniform, botryoidal, or 
other irregular concretions of crystalline and frequently internally 
radiated dolomite. Though the Magnesian Limestone runs as a 
thick persistent zone down the east of England, it is represented 
on the Lancashire and Cheshire side by bright red and variegated 
sandstone covered by a thin group of red marls, with numerous 
thin courses of Hmestone, containing Schizodus, Bakevettia and 
other characteristic fossils of the Magnesian Limestone. 

Concerning the rocks classed as Permian in the central counties 
of England there exists some doubt, for recent work tends to show 
that the lower parts are clearly related to the Carboniferous rocks 
by their fossils ; while there is little evidence to warrant the exclusion 
of the higher beds from the Trias. Similarly in south Devon, 
where red sandstones and coarse breccias are well exposed, it has 
been found difficult to say whether the series should be regarded 
as Triassic or Permian, though the prevailing tendency is to retain 
them in the latter system. 

The " Dyas " type of the system is found in enormous masses 
of strata flanking the Harz Mountains, and also in the Rhine 
provinces, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria and Bohemia. In general 
terms it may be said that in this region there is a lower sandy and 
conglomeratic subdivision with an upper one more calcareous; 
the former is known as the Rothliegende, the latter as the Zechstein 
group. On the south side of the Harz Mountains the following 
subdivisions are recognized: 

(" Anhydrite, gypsum, rock-salt, dolomite, marl, fetid 
TT I shale and limestone. The amorphous gypsum is the 

I chief member of this group; the limestone is some- 

L times full of bitumen. 

[ Dolomite (Haupt-dolomit), crystalline granular 
Middle -j (Rauchwacke) , and fine powdery (Asche) with gypsum 

I at bottom. 

iZechstein-limestone, an argillaceous, thin-bedded 
compact limestone 15 to 90 ft. thick. 
Kupfer-schiefer, a black bituminous copper-bearing 
shale, not more than 2 ft. thick, often much less, 
but very constant. 
Zechstein-conglomerate and calcareous sandstone. 
(Red sandstones (Kreuznach beds), red shales 
(Monsig beds) with sheets of melaphyre tuff, and 
quartz-porphyry-conglomerate (Wadern, Oberhof, 
Sotern and Tambach beds). 

Sandstones and glomerates (Tholayer beds) on 
black shales with poor coal seams and clay iron- 
stones (Lebach and Goldlauter beds). 

Lower -\ Sandstones and shales with seams of coal on red 
and grey sandstones and shales with impure 
limestones (Cusel beds, including Manebach beds, 
upper, and Gehren beds, lower). 
The name Rothliegende or Rothtodtliegende (red-dead-layer) was 
given by the miners because their ores disappeared in the red 
rocks below the copper-bearing Kupfer-schiefer. The Kupfer- 
schiefer, although so thin, has been worked in the Mansfeld district 
for a long period; it contains abundant remains of fish (Palaeoniscus, 
Platysomus) and plants (Uttmannia). The beds of rock-salt in the 
German Zechstein are of the greatest importance; at Sperenberg 
near Berlin it has been penetrated to a depth of 4000 ft. 
Associated with the salt, gypsum and anhydrite are numerous 



PERMIAN 



177 



potassium and magnesium salts, including carnallite, kieserite 
and polyhalite, which are exploited at Stassfurt and are the only 
important potassium deposits known. Permian rocks of the 
Rothliegende type are scattered over a wide area in France, 
where the lower beds are usually conformable with the Coal Measures. 
In the upper beds occur the bituminous or " Boghead " shale of 
Autun. In Russia strata of this age cover an enormous area, in 
the Ural region, in the governments of Perm, Kasan, Kostroma, 
and in Armenia. The Russian Permian shows no sharp division 
into two series; the two types of deposit tend to be more mixed 
and include in addition some deposits of the more open sea. The 
general sequence begins with the Artinsk beds, sandy and marly or 
conglomeratic beds in close connexion with the Carboniferous, 
overlain by the Kungur limestones and dolomites; these are followed 
by red fresh-water sandstones, over which comes an important 
series of copper-bearing sandstones and conglomerates. Above 
this, in Kostroma, Vyatka and Kasan there is a calcareous and 
dolomitic series, the so-called " Russian Zechstein " with marine 
fossils; the uppermost beds are red marls, with few fresh-water 
fossils, the Tartarian beds. 

The character of the fossils in the Permian of the Mediterranean 
and south-east Europe well exemplified in the deposits of Sicily 
together with their more generally calcareous nature, indicate 
a more open sea and more stable marine conditions than obtained 
farther north. This sea is traceable across south-east Russia 
into the middle of Asia, through Turkestan and Persia, into the 
Salt Range of India, where the Productus limestone may be taken 
as representative of the normal marine plan of Permian times. 
Southwards, however, of the Nerbudda River another and quite 
distinct continental assemblage of deposits holds the ground, 
viz. the lower portion of the great fresh-water Gondwana system. 
The coarse Tatchir conglomerates at the base are succeeded by the 
sandstones and shales of the Karharbari group, with numerous 
coal seams, and these in turn are followed by the Damuda series 
(upwards of 10,000 ft.) of similar rocks, with ironstones and very 
valuable coal seams. All these strata are characterized by the 
presence of the Glossopteris flora. A similar succession of beds has 
been recorded in north-west Afghanistan. In close relationship 
with the lower members of the Indian Gondwana series, both as 
regards fossil contents and lithological characters, are the lower 
Karoo beds of South Africa (Dwyka conglomerate, Ecca shales and 
mudstones, Beaufort beds and Kimberley shales), also the coal- 
bearing beds of the Transvaal; the Permo-carboniferous rocks of 
Australia (including the rich coal measures of Newcastle, the Greta 
coal measures and marine beds, upper and lower, of New South 
Wales; those of Tasmania, the Bowen River beds of Queensland, 
and the Bacchus Marsh glacial beds of Victoria), and similar rocks 
in New Zealand (Maitai formation, south island ; Dun Mountain lime- 
stone and Rimutaka beds of the north island) and South America. 
In North America Permian rocks occur in the east in Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Maryland and Ohio (" Upper Barren Measures "), 
and in Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, where they succeed 
the Carboniferous rocks very regularly. West of the Mississippi, 
in Texas (7000 ft., including the Wichita beds, Clear Fork and 
Double Mountain beds), Kansas and Nebraska, the Permian is 
more extensive and on the whole is more readily separable from the 
Carboniferous. Here the lower beds are marine and contain many 
limestones and dolomites; the higher beds are mainly red sand- 



stones and marls with gypsum; in Texas it is of interest to note 
the occurrence of copper-stained strata. These upper " Red Beds " 
are often not clearly distinguishable from the Trias. 

Life of the Permian Period. The records of the plants and animals 
of this period are comparatively meagre. The plants show that 
a gradual change from the Carboniferous types was in progress. 
Two floral regions are clearly indicated, a northern and a southern. 
In the latter, which may be regarded as conterminous with the 
continent of Gondwana, the Lepidodendrons, Sigillarias, Catamites, 
&c., of the Coal Measures gave place to a distinct flora, named from 
the prevalence of Glossopteris, the Glossopteris (tongue-fern) flora. 
Traces of this southern flora have been found in northern Russia. 
Gangamopteris, Callipteris, Taeniopteris, Schizopteris, Walchia, 
Voltzia, Uttmannia, Saportea, Baiera are characteristic Permian 
genera. Among the larger animals amphibians occupied a promi- 
nent position, their footprints being very common in the sandstones; 
they include numerous Labyrinthodonts, Archegosaurus, Stereo- 
rachis, Branchiosaurus. At this time the true reptiles began to 
leave their remains in the rocks; many highly interesting forms are 
known Palaeohatleria, Proterosaurus, Stereosternum ; others having 
certain mammalian characteristics include Pareiosaurus, Cynognathus, 
Dicynodon. Among the fishes may be mentioned Platysontus, 
Palaeoniscus, Amblypterus, Pleuracanthus. Turning to the inverte- 
brates, undoubtedly the most interesting feature is gradual intro- 
duction into the Cephalopoda of the ammonite-like forms such 
as Medlicottia, Waagenoceras, Popanoceras, in place of the more 
simple lobed goniatites of the Carboniferous. Brachiopods 
(Productus horridus, Bakevellia tumida), Bryozoa and corals were 
by no means scarce in the more open Permian seas. Schizodus 
Schlolheimii, Strophalosia Goldfussi, Myophoria, Leimyalind, Bellero- 
phon are characteristic Permian molluscs. The last of the trilobites 
appears in the Permian of North America. 

The evidence so far obtained indicates that in Permian times 
much of the land in the northern hemisphere was near the general 
sea-level, and that conditions of considerable aridity prevaijed 
which involved the repeated isolation and evaporation of marine 
lagoons and land-locked seas. South of this region in Europe and 
Asia there extended an open " Mediterranean " sea, the " Tethys " 
of E. Suess; while over an enormous area in the southern hemisphere 
a great land area was spread, " Gondwana land," the land of the 
Glossopteris flora. At many points in this vast tract, as we have 
seen, coarse conglomeratic deposits, Talchir, Dwyka, Bacchus 
Marsh, &c., indicate profound glacial conditions, which some have 
thought were present also in Britain, Germany and elsewhere 
in the north. Moderate earth movements were taking place in 
North America, where the Appalachian and Ouachita mountains 
were in course of elevation, and in Europe this was a time of great 
volcanic activity. In the Saal region volcanic rocks in the lower 
Rothliegende have been penetrated for noo ft. without reaching 
the bottom, and elsewhere in central Europe great sheets of con- 
temporaneous quartz porphyry, granite porphyry, melaphyre and 
porphyrite are abundant with their corresponding tuffs. Melaphyres 
and tuffs appear in the Vosges, which in the south of France are 
enormous masses of melaphyre and quartz porphyry. Basic lavas 
and tuffs diabase, pierite, olivine basalt and andesite tuffs were 
erupted from many small vents in Ayrshire and the Nith basin, 
and basic lavas occur also in Devonshire. Volcanic rocks occur 
also in New Zealand, Sumatra and the Transvaal. 



Table of Permian Strata, showing approximate correlations. 



Stages. 


Britain. 


Saxony, 
Thuringia, 
Bohemia. 


Basin of the 
Saar. 


Alps. 


Russia. 


India. 


North America. 












Bellerophon 


Tartarian 


tic M 


j~ 


j 





Thuringian 


Marls and 
gypsum. 
Magnesian 
limestone. 
Marl slate. 


Salt beds of 
Stassfurt. 
Zechstein lime- 
stones. 
Kupfer-schiefer. 


d 
I 

1 
N 


Upper red 
sandstones, 
breccias and 
conglomerates. 


limestone. 
Dolomites 
and shales 
of Neumarkt 
Sandstones 


Marls. 
Cephalopod 
beds of 
Armenia. 
Copper- 


muda grou 
ones. Da 
3 limestone 


1 . 

.sl 


E 
1 


I dl 

IK 

Kansas. .H-- 
Kiger *>- g 












of Groden. 


bearing 


nj in 3 . 

Q i tJ q 


< 


1. 


stage. .Si wji . 




T X -0 


d 






Red sandstones 






in Ural 


111 


> 


u 


Salt Fork "2 m"o 
stage -^ 5 'S 


Punjabian 
or 
Saxonian 


conglomerate 
rls doubtful 
iod. 
i Scotland ar 


eruptive rocl 


Weissliegendes. 
Tambach beds. 
Oberhof beds. 
Goldlauter 
beds. 


lothliegendes 


with eruptive 
rocks. 
The beds of 
Kreuznach, 
Wadern, 
Sotern, 


Verrucano. 


lestones. 


region. 
Limestones 
and dolo- 
mites of 
Kostroma 
(Russian 


larbari group 
Productus 
Range. Pro 
tone of Chiti 


^ 

OJ 

|.2 
11 


e 

1 

1 


Q 1 

O . b OJ 

u..g |2 




8" 1 8. a 


en 

a 






Tholey. 




c 


Zechstein). 


V 3 "3 n 


tSa 


vt 


2-^g-S 


Artinskian 
(marine) 


.2-3 

I"i3 ' 

c 2 -- u 


03UBJOC 


Manebach 
beds. 
Brandschiefer 


CJ 

-o 
c 
p 


Lebach beds. 
Cusel beds. 


6 

c 

a 


g 
c 

"3 

in 
3 


Artinsk 
sandstones. 
Beds of 


* 2(/5.5 


H. 

j.S 


ue serie 


Wellington U c 8 
beds. & 
Marion 


or 
Autunian 
(continental) 


llll 


ontem 


beds of Wessig. 
Gehren beds. 
Braunau beds 


tc 
.Si 

15 
o 






> 




Novaya 
Zemblya and 
Spitzbergen. 


.b|! 


0< 

-w 

rt 


C3 
M 
09 


ij^uo. ij d5 
Chase 2"S 5 
stage. 3.8 g 




i S Q 


u 


of Bohemia. 


- 















L ^ 



i 7 8 



PERNAMBUCO PERNE 



REFERENCES. The literature dealing with the Permian and 
Permo-Carboniferous is very extensive; H. B. Geinitz, J. Marcou, 
Sir R. I. Murchison, Sir A. C. Ramsay, H. Potonie, R. Zeiller, 
O. Feistmantel, E. A. Newell, Arber, A. C. Seward, F. Bischoff, 
C. Ochsensius, E. Mojsisovics, V. Amalitzky, F. Noetling, C. Diener, 
A. Tschneryschew, A. Karpinsky, W. Waagen, H. F. and W. T. 
Blanford, G. H. Girty and very many others have made important 
contributions to the subject. Numerous references will be found 
in Sir A. Geikie, Textbook of Geology, 4th ed., and in the annual 
Geological Literature of the Geological Society of London. See 
also an interesting summary by C. Schuchert, " The Russian 
Carboniferous and Permian compared with those of India and 
America," Amer. Journ. Sci. (1906), ^th series, vol. xxii. pp. 29 seq. 
and a general account of the system in Lethaea geognostica, Th. I. 
Bd. II., F. Freeh and others (Stuttgart 1897-1902). H. Everding, 
" Zur GeologiederdeutschenZechsteinsalze," Kgl. geolog. Landesanst. 
(Berlin, 1907) gives a full account of the salt and potassium-bearing 
beds. a- A. H.) 

PERNAMBUCO, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded N. 
by Ceara and Parahyba, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Alagoas and 
Bahia, and W. by Piauhy. Area, 49,573 sq. m.; pop. (1900), 
1,178,150. It comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone, 
a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the 
terraces and slopes between the two. Its surface is much broken 
by the remains of the ancient plateau which has been worn down 
by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped 
mountains, called chapadas, capped in places by horizontal 
layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the 
boundary lines with three states the Serras dos Irmaos and 
Vermelha with Piauhy, the Serra do Araripe with Ceara, and the 
Serra dos Cariris Velhos with Parahyba. The coastal zone is 
low, well-wooded and fertile. It has a hot, humid climate, 
relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. This 
region is locally known as the mattas (forests). The middle zone, 
called the caatinga or agreste region, has a drier climate and 
lighter vegetation. The inland region, called the sertao, is high, 
stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts 
(sdccas). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool 
nights, and is considered healthy, though the daily change tends 
to provoke bronchial, catarrhal and inflammatory diseases. 
There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March 
to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The rivers 
of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing 
southward to the Sao Francisco River, and several large streams 
in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former 
are the Moxoto, Ema, Pajehu, Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista 
and Pontal, and are dry channels the greater part of the year. 
The largest of the coastal rivers are the Goyanna, which is formed 
by the confluence of the Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim, 
and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-east part of 
the state; the Capibaribe, which has its source in the Serra de 
Jacarara and flows eastward to the Atlantic at Recife with a 
course of nearly 300 m. ; the Ipojuca, which rises in the Serra de 
Aldeia Velha and reaches the coast south of Recife; theSerinhaen 
and the Una. A large tributary of the last the Rio Jacuhipe, 
forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas. 

Pernambuco is chiefly agricultural, the lowlands being devoted 
to sugar and fruit, with coffee in some of the more elevated 
localities, the agreste region to cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, 
beans and stock, and the sertao to grazing and in some localities 
to cotton. Sugar, molasses, rum (aguardente or cachaqa), 
tobacco and fruit are largely exported. Coco-nuts, cacao, 
bananas, mangoes and other tropical fruits are produced in 
profusion, but the production of foodstuffs (beans, Indian corn, 
mandioca, &c.) is not sufficient for local consumption. Manga- 
beira rubber is collected to a limited extent, and piassava fibre 
is an artide of export. Orchids are also collected for export in 
the districts of Garanhuns and Timbauba. Cotton-weaving and 
cigar-making are the principal manufacturing industries, after 
the large engenhos devoted to the manufacture of sugar and rum. 
The rail ways of the state are the Recife and Sao Francisco (77 m.), 
Central de Pernambuco (132 m.) andSulde Pernambuco (120 m.) 
all government properties leased to the Great Western of 
Brazil Railway Co., Ltd., since 1901. Besides these there are the 
line from Recife to Limoeiro and Timbauba (112 m.), with an 



extension from Timbauba to Pilar (24 m.). All these lines 
concentrate at the port of Recife. The capital of the state is 
Recife, commonly known among foreigners as Pernambuco. 
There are a number of large towns in the state, but the census 
returns include their populations in those of the municipios 
(communes) to which they belong. The most important are: 
Bezerros (17,484), Bom Jardim (40,160), Brejo da Madre de 
Deus (13,655), a town of the higher agreste region, Cabo (13,337), 
Caruaru (17,844), Escada (9331), Garanhuns (32,788, covering 
six towns and villages), Gloria de Goyta (24,554), Goyanna, 
Limoeiro (21,576), Olinda (8080), the old colonial capital and 
episcopal see, Rio Formosa (6080), Timbauba (9514) and 
Victoria (32,422). 

Pernambuco was first settled in 1526 by Christovao Jacques 
who founded a settlement on the Rio Iguarassu that was after- 
wards abandoned. The first permanent settlement was made 
by Duarte Coelho Pereira at Olinda in 1530, and four years later 
he was granted a capitania of 50 leagues extending from the mouth 
of the Sao Francisco northward to that of the Iguarassu. Adjacent 
to this grant on the north was the capitania of Itamaraca, 
granted to Pero Lopes de Souza, which covered the remainder 
of the present state. The capitania of Pernambuco was ably 
governed and took an active part in the expulsion of the French 
from the trading posts established along the coast northward to 
Maranhao, and in establishing Portuguese colonies in ' their 
places. In 1630 Pernambuco was occupied by the Dutch and 
continued under their rule until 1654. Although an active 
guerrilla warfare was waged against the Dutch during a large part 
of that period, they did much to promote the agricultural and 
commercial interests of the colony, especially under the wise 
administration of Maurice of Nassau. In 1817 Pernambuco was 
the scene of a revolutionary outbreak, which resulted in the 
separation of the present states of Alagoas and Rio Grande do 
Norte, Ceara and Parahyba having been detached in 1799. 
There'was another insurrection in 1822 when the Portuguese 
captain-general, Luiz de Rego, and his garrison was expelled, and 
in 1824 dissatisfaction with the arbitrary proceedings of Dom 
Pedro I. at Rio de Janeiro led to a separatist revolution for the 
formation of a new state, to be called the Federacao do Equador. 
There was another outbreak in 1831 and frequent disorders down 
to 1 848, when they culminated in another unsuccessful revolution. 
The population of the Pernambuco sertao has always been noted 
for its turbulent, lawless character, due partly to distance from 
the coast where the bulk of the population is concentrated, 
partly to difficult means of communication, and partly to the 
fact that this remote region has long been the refuge of criminals 
from the coast towns. 

PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin), a 
seaport and watering-place of western Russia, in the' government 
of Livonia, 155 m. N. of Riga, on the left bank of the Pernau or 
Pernova, which about half a mile farther down enters the Bay 
of Pernau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. Pop., 12,856. 
The harbour is usually free from ice from the end of April to the 
middle of December. 

Founded on the right side of the river in 1255 by one of the 
bishops of Oesel, Pernau soon became a flourishing place. In 
the i6th century it was occupied in succession by the Swedes, 
the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1599 the Poles 
transferred the town to the left side of the river; and in 1642 
the Swedes, who had been in possession since 1617, strengthened 
it with regular fortifications. In 1710 it was taken by the 
Russians, and the fortress is now demolished. 

PERNE, ANDREW (c. 1510-1589), vice-chancellor of Cam- 
bridge University and dean of Ely, born about 1591, was son of 
John Perne of East Bilney, Norfolk. He was educated at St 
John's college, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1539, B.D. in 
1547 and D.D, in 1552. He was elected fellow of Queens' in 
1540, and vice-president in 1551, and was five times vice- 
chancellor; but he owes his notoriety to his remarkable versatility, 
and, like the vicar of Bray, he was always faithful to the national 
religion, whatever it might be. In April 1547 he advocated 
Catholic doctrines, but recanted two months later, and his 



PERONNE PERPENDICULAR PERIOD 



179 



Protestant faith was strengthened during Edward VI. 's reign; 
he was appointed a royal chaplain and canon of Windsor. Soon 
after Mary's accession, however, he perceived the error of his 
ways and was made master of Peterhouse in 1554 and dean of 
Ely in 1557. He preached the sermon in 1556 when the bodies 
of Bucer and Fagius were disinterred and burnt for heresy, and 
also in 1560 when these proceedings were reversed and the dead 
heretics were rehabilitated. In Elizabeth's reign he subscribed 
the Thirty-nine Articles, denounced the pope and tried to 
convert Abbot Feckenham to Protestantism; and in 1584 
Whitgift in vain recommended him for a bishopric. He died 
on the 26th of April 1589. He was selected as the type of 
Anglican prelate by the authors of the Martin Mar-prelate 
tracts and other Puritans, who nicknamed him " Old Andrew 
Turncoat," " Andrew Ambo," " Old Father Palinode." Cam- 
bridge wits, it was said, translated " perno " by " I turn, I rat, 
I change often "; and a coat that had often been turned was 
said to have been " perned." (A. F. P.) 

P&RONNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- 
dissement of the department of Somme, on the right bank of 
the Somme at its confluence with the Cologne, 35 m. E. by N. 
of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906), 3698. The church of St Jean 
(1509-1525) was greatly damaged during the bombardment of 
1870-71, but has since been restored. The castle of Peronne 
still retains four large conical-roofed towers dating from the 
middle ages, one of which is said to have been the prison of 
Louis XI. in 1468, when he w^s forced to agree to the " Treaty 
of Peronne." Peronne has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first 
instance and a communal college. Its trade and industry are 
of little importance. 

The Prankish kings had a villa at Peronne, which ClovisII. 
gave to Erchinoaldus, mayor of the palace. The latter founded 
a monastery here, and raised in honour of St Fursy a collegiate 
church, which was a wealthy establishment until the Revolution; 
it is the burial-place of Charles the Simple, who died of starvation 
in a dungeon in Peronne, into which he had been thrown by the 
count of Vermandois (929). After the death of Philip of Alsace, 
Peronne, which he had inherited through his wife, escheated to 
the French Crown in the reign of Philip Augustus, from whom in 
1209 it received a charter. By the treaty of Arras (1435) it 
was given to the Burgundians; bought back by Louis XI., it 
passed again into the hands of Charles the Bold in 1465. On 
the death of Charles, however, in 1477, Louis XI. resumed 
possession. In 1536 the emperor Charles V. besieged Peronne, 
but without success; in its defence a woman called Marie Foure 
greatly distinguished herself. A statue of her stands in the town; 
and the anniversary of the raising of the siege is still celebrated 
annually. It was the first town after Paris at which the League 
was proclaimed in 1577. Peronne's greatest misfortunes 
occurred during the Franco-German War. It was invested on 
the 27th of December 1870, and bombarded from the 28th to 
the gth of the following January, upon which date, on account of 
the sufferings of the civil population, among whom small-pox 
had broken out, it was compelled to capitulate. 

PEROVSKITE, or PEROFSKITE, a mineral consisting of calcium 
titanate, CaTiOs, usually with a small proportion of the calcium 
replaced by iron. The crystals found in schistose rocks have 
the form of cubes, which are sometimes modified on the edges 
and corners by numerous small planes; on the other hand, the 
crystals occurring as an accessory constituent of eruptive rocks 
are octahedral in form and microscopic in size. Although 
geometrically cubic, the crystals are always doubly refracting, 
and they sometimes show evidence of complex mimetic twinning; 
their structure as shown in polarized light is very similar to 
that of the mineral boracite, and they are therefore described as 
pseudo-cubic. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces 
of the cube. The colour varies from pale yellow to blackish- 
brown and the lustre is adamantine to metallic; the crystals are 
transparent to opaque. The index of refraction is high, the 
hardness 55 and the specific gravity 4-0. The mineral was 
discovered at Achmatovsk near Zlatonst in the Urals by G. 
Rose in 1839, and named in honour of Count L. A. Perovsky; 



at this locality large cubes occur with calcite and magnetite in 
a chlorite-schist. Similar crystals are also found in talc-schist 
at Zermatt in Switzerland. The microscopic octahedral 
crystals are characteristic of melilite basalt and nepheline 
basalt; they have also been found in peridotite and serpen- 
tine. (L. J. S.) 

PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEWART (1823-1904), English 
bishop, was born, of Huguenot ancestry, at Burdwan, Bengal, 
on the i3th of March 1823. He was educated at Norwich and 
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, bcoming a fellow in 1849. 
After holding a chair in King's College, London, he was appointed 
vice-principal at St David's College, Lampeter (1862-1872). 
In 1868 he was Hulsean lecturer, taking as his subject Immor- 
tality. He was elected canon of Llandaff in 1869, dean of Peter- 
borough 1878, and in 1891 succeeded Henry Philpott as bishop 
of Worcester. Perowne was a good Hebrew scholar of the old 
type and sat on the Old Testament Revision Committee. He 
is best remembered as the general editor of the Cambridge 
Bible for Schools and Colleges. His chief works were a Com- 
mentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vols., 1864-1868) and a life of 
Bishop Thirlwall (1877-1878). He resigned his see in 1901, and 
died on the 6th of November 1904. 

PEROZ (Peirozes, Priscus, fr. 33; Perozes, Procop. Pers. i. 3 
and Agath. iv. 27; the modern form of the name is Feroz, Firuz, 
cf. FIRUZABAD), Sassanid king of Persia, A.D. 457-484, son of 
Yazdegerd II. He rebelled against his brother Homizd III., 
and in 459 defeated and killed him with the help of the Ephtha- 
lites, or White Huns, who had invaded Bactria. He also killed 
most of his other relatives, and persecuted the Christians. But 
he favoured the introduction of Nestorianism, in opposition to 
the orthodox creed of Byzantium. With the Romans he main- 
tained peace, but he tried to keep down the Ephthalites, who 
began to conquer eastern Iran. The Romans supported him 
with subsidies; but all his wars were disastrous. Once he was 
himself taken prisoner and had to give his son Kavadh as hostage 
till after two years he was able to pay a heavy ransom. Then 
he broke the treaty again and advanced with a large army. 
But he lost his way in the eastern desert and perished with 
his whole army (484). The Ephthalites invaded and plun- 
dered Persia for two years, till at last a noble Persian from 
the old family of Karen, Zarmihr (or Sokhra), restored some 
degree of order. He raised Balash, a brother of Peroz, to the 
throne. (ED. M.) 

PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, the term given by Thomas 
Rickman to the third period of Gothic architecture in England, 
in consequence of the great predominance of perpendicular lines. 
In the later examples of the Decorated period the omission of 
the circles in the tracery had led to the employment of curves 
of double curvature which developed into flamboyant tracery, 
and the introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction 
in the contrary direction. The mullions of the windows (which 
are sometimes of immense size, so as to give greater space for 
the stained glass) are carried up into the arch mould of the 
windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional 
mullions. The buttresses and wall surface are likewise divided 
up into vertical panels. The doorways are frequently enclosed 
within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrils 
being fitted with quatrefoils or tracery. Inside the church the 
triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and 
greater importance is given to the clerestory windows which 
constitute the finest features in the churches of this period. The 
mouldings are flatter and less effective than those of the earlier 
periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction 
of large elliptical hollows. The finest features of this period are 
the magnificent timber roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall 
(1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall. 

The earliest examples of the Perpendicular period, dating 
from 1360, are found at Gloucester, where the masons of the 
cathedral would seem to have been far in advance of those in 
other towns. Among other buildings of note are the choir and 
tower of York Cathedral (1389-1407); the nave and western 
transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378-1411), and the tower 



i8o 



PERPENT PERPETUAL MOTION 



(towards the end of the isth century); New College, Oxford 
(1380-1386); the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1381-1391); 
the nave and aisles of Winchester Cathedral (1399-1419); the 
transept and tower of Merton College, Oxford (1424-1450); 
Manchester Cathedral (1422); the central tower of Gloucester 
Cathedral (1454-1457), and that of Magdalen College, Oxford 
(1475-1480). To those examples should be added the towers 
at Wrexham, Coventry, Evesham, and St Mary's at Taunton, 
the first being of exceptional magnificence. 

PERPENT, or PARPENT STONES, in architecture, bond or 
" through stones," the biarbvoi. of the Greeks and Romans, long 
stones going right through walls, and tying them together from 
face to face. The O. Fr. parpain, modern parpaing, from which 
this word is derived, is obscure in origin. It may be from a 
supposed Lat. perpago, perpaginis, formed like compago, a 
joint, from the root of pangere, to fasten, and meaning " some- 
thing fastened together," or from some popular corruption 
of Lat. perpendiculum, plummet or plumb-line (pir or pendere, 
to hang), referring to the smooth perpendicular faces of the 
stone. 

PERPETUAL MOTION, or PERPETUUM MOBILE, in its usual 
significance, not simply a machine which will go on moving for 
ever, but a machine which, once set in motion, will go on doing 
useful work without drawing on any external source of energy, or a 
machine which in every complete cycle of its operation will give 
forth more energy than it has absorbed. Briefly, a perpetual 
motion usually means a machine which will create energy. 

The earlier seekers after the " perpetuum mobile " did not 
always appreciate the exact nature of their quest; for we find 
among their ideals a clock that would periodically rewind itself, 
and thus go without human interference as long as its machinery 
would last. The energy created by such a machine would 
simply be the work done in overcoming the friction of its parts, 
so that its projectors might be held merely to have been ignorant 
of the laws of friction and of the dynamic theory of heat. Most 
of the perpetual motionists, however, had more practical views, 
and explicitly declared the object of their inventions to be the 
doing of useful work, such as raising water, grinding corn, and 
so on. Like the exact quadrature of the circle, the transmuta- 
tion of metals and other famous problems of antiquity, the 
perpetual motion has now become a venerable paradox. Still, 
like these others, it retains a great historical interest. Just as 
some of the most interesting branches of modern pure mathe- 
matics sprang from the problem of squaring the circle, as 
the researches of the alchemists developed into the science of 
modern chemistry, so, as the result of the vain search after the 
perpetual motion, there grew up the greatest of all the general- 
izations of physical science, the principle of the conservation of 
energy. 

There was a time when the problem of the perpetual motion 
was one worthy of the attention of a philosopher. Before that 
analysis of the action of ordinary machines which led to the laws 
of dynamics, and the discussion of the dynamical interdependence 
of natural phenomena which accompanied the establishment of 
the dynamical theory of heat, there was nothing plainly unreason- 
able in the idea that work might be done by the mere concatena- 
tion of machinery. It had not then been proved that energy is 
uncreatable and indestructible in the ordinary course of nature; 
even now that proof has only been given by induction from long 
observation of facts. There was a time when wise men believed 
that a spirit, whose maintenance would cost nothing, could by 
magic art be summoned from the deep to do his master's work; 
and it was just as reasonable to suppose that a structure of wood, 
brass and iron could be found to work under like conditions. 
The disproof is in both cases alike. No such spirit has ever 
existed, save in the imagination of his describer, and no such 
machine has ever been known to act, save in the fancy of its 
inventor. 

The principle of the conservation of energy, which in one 
sense is simply denial of the possibility of a perpetual motion, 
rests on facts drawn from every branch of physical science; and, 
although its full establishment only dates from the middle of the 



1 9th century, yet so numerous are the cases in which it has been 
tested, so various the deductions from it that have been proved 
to accord with experience, that it is now regarded as one of the 
best-established laws of nature. Consequently, on any one who 
calls it in question is thrown the burden of proving his case. If 
any machine were produced whose source of energy could not at 
once be traced, a man of science (complete freedom of investi- 
gation being supposed) would in the first place try to trace its 
power to some hidden source of a kind already known ; or in the 
last resort he would seek for a source of energy of a new kind and 
give it a new name. Any assertion of creation of energy by 
means of a mere machine would have to be authenticated in 
many instances, and established by long investigation, before it 
could be received in modern science. The case is precisely as 
with the law of gravitation; if any apparent exception to this 
were observed in the case of some heavenly body, astronomers, 
instead of denying the law, would immediately seek to explain 
the occurrence by a wider application of it, say by including in 
their calculations the effect of some disturbing body hitherto 
neglected. If a man likes to indulge the notion that, after all, 
an exception to the law of the conservation of energy may be 
found, and, provided he submits his idea to the test of experiment 
at his own charges without annoying his neighbours, all that can 
be said is that he is engaged in an unpromising enterprise. The 
case is otherwise with the projector who comes forward with 
some machine which claims by the mere ingenuity of its contri- 
vance to multiply the energy supplied to it from some of the 
ordinary sources of nature and sets to work to pester scientific 
men to examine his supposed discovery, or attempts therewith 
to induce the credulous to waste their money. This is by far 
the largest class of perpetual-motion-mongers nowadays. The 
interest of such cases is that attaching to the morbid anatomy 
of the human mind. Perhaps the most striking feature about 
them is the woful sameness of the symptoms of their madness. 
As a body perpetual-motion seekers are ambitious, lovers of the 
short path to wealth and fame, but wholly superficial. Their 
inventions are very rarely characterized even by mechanical 
ingenuity.. Sometimes indeed the inventor has simply bewildered 
himself by the complexity of his device; but in most cases the 
machines of the perpetual motionist are of child-like simplicity, 
remarkable only for the extraordinary assertions of the inventor 
concerning them. Wealth of ideas there is none; simply asser- 
tions that such and such a machine solves the problem, although 
an identical contrivance has been shown to do no such thing by 
the brutal test of standing still in the hands of many previous 
inventors. Hosts of the seekers for the perpetual motion have 
attacked their insoluble problem with less than a schoolboy's 
share of the requisite knowledge; and their confidence as a rule 
is in proportion to their ignorance. Very often they get no 
further than a mere prospectus, on the strength of which they 
claim some imaginary reward, or offer their precious discovery 
for sale; sometimes they get the length of a model which wants 
only the last perfection (already in the inventor's brain) to 
solve the great problem; sometimes fraud is made to supply the 
motive power which their real or pretended efforts have failed to 
discover. 

It was no doubt the barefaced fallacy of most of the plans for 
perpetual motion that led the majority of scientific men to 
conclude at a very early date that the " perpetuum mobile '.' 
was an impossibility. We find the Paris Academy of Sciences 
refusing, as early as 1775, to receive schemes for the perpetual 
motion, which they class with solutions of the duplication of the 
cube, the trisection of an angle and the quadrature of the circle. 
Stevinus and Leibnitz seem to have regarded its impossibility as 
axiomatic; and Newton at the beginning of his Principle, states, 
so far as ordinary mechanics are concerned, a principle which 
virtually amounts to the same thing. 

The famous proof of P. De la Hire simply refers to some of 
the more common gravitational perpetual motions. The truth 
is, as we have said already, that, if proof is to be given, or 
considered necessary, it must proceed by induction from all 
physical phenomena. 



PERPETUAL MOTION 



181 




FIG. 



It would serve no useful purpose here to give an exhaustive 
historical account ' of the vagaries of mankind in pursuit of the 
" perpetuum mobile." The reader may refer to Henry Dircks's 
Perpeluum Mobile (2 vols., 1861 and 1870), from which, for 
the most Dart, we select the following facts. 

By far the most numerous class of perpetual motions is that 
which seeks to utilize the action of gravity upon rigid solids. We 
have not read of any actual proposal of the kind, but the most 
obvious thing to imagine in this way would be to procure some 
substance which intercepts gravitational attraction. If this could 
be had, then, by introducing a plate of it underneath a body while 
it was raised, we could elevate the body without doing work; 
then, removing the plate, we could allow the body to fall and do 
work; eccentrics or other imposing device being added to move 
the gravitation intercepter, behold a perpetual motion complete ! 
The great difficulty is that no one has found the proper material 
for an intercepter. 

Fig. I represents one of the most ancient and oftenest-repeated 
of gravitational perpetual motions. The idea is that the balls 

rolling in the compartments 
between the felloe and the rim 
of the wheel will, on the whole, 
so comport themselves that the 
moment about the centre of 
those on the descending side 
exceeds the moment of those on 
the ascending side. Endless 
devices, such as curved spokes, 
levers with elbow-joints, eccen- 
trics, &c., have been proposed 
for effecting this impossibility. 
The student of dynamics at 
once convinces himself that no 
machinery can effect any such 
result; because if we give the 
wheel a complete turn, so that 
each ball returns to its original 
position, the whole work done by the ball will, at the most, 
equal that done on it. We know that if the laws of motion be 
true, in each step the kinetic energy given to the whole system of 
wheel and balls is equal to that taken from the potential energy 
of the balls less what is dissipated in the form of heat by frictional 
forces, or vice versa, if the wheel and balls be losing kinetic 
energy save that the friction in both cases leads to dissipation. 
So that, whatever the system may lose, it can, after it is left to itself, 
never gain energy during its motion. 

The two most famous perpetual motions of history, viz. the 
wheels of the marquis of Worcester (d. 1667) and of Councillor 
Orffyraeus, were probably of this type. The marquis of Worcester 
gives the following account of his machine in his Century of Inventions 
(art. 56) : 

" To provide and make that all the Weights of the descending side 
of a Wheel shall be perpetually further from the Centre than those 
of the. mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to one side 
as the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen but tried before 
the late king (of blessed memory) in the Tower, by my directions, 
two Extraordinary Embassadors accompanying His Majesty, and 
the Duke of Richmond, and Duke Hamilton, with most of the Court, 
attending him. The Wheel was 14. Foot over, and 40. Weights of 
50. pounds apiece. Sir William Balfore, then Lieutenant of the 
Tower, can justify it, with several others. They all saw that no 
sooner these great Weights passed the Diameter-line of the lower 
side, but they hung a foot further from the Centre, nor no sooner 
passed the Diameter-line of the upper side but they hung a foot 
nearer. Be pleased to judge the consequence." 

1 We may here notice, so far as more recent times are concerned, 
the claim of an American enthusiast, who, having worked a Hampson 
plant for liquefying air, stated that 3 ft of liquid air sufficed to 
liquefy ten, and of these ten seven could be employed as a source 
of motive power, whilst the remaining three could be utilized in the 
production of another 10 ft of the liquid gas. There was thus 
available an inexhaustible supply of energy ! The absurdity of 
the proposition is obvious to any one acquainted with the laws 
of thermodynamics. Of more interest is the radium clock devised 
by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. This consists of a vacuum vessel from 
the top of which depends a short tube containing a fragment of a 
radioactive substance. At the lower end of this tube there are 
two gold leaves as in an electroscope. Fused into the sides of the 
vacuum vessel at points where the extended gold leaves touch 
the glass are two platinum wires, the outer ends of which are 
earthed. The " clock " acts as follows. The radio-active substance 
emits a preponderating number of positively electrified particles, 
so that the leaves become charged and hence extended. On contact 
with the wires fused into the vessel, this charge is conducted away 
and the leaves fall together. The process is then repeated, and 
will continue until all the energy of the radium has been dissipated. 
This period is extremely long, for 1000 years must elapse before 
even half the radium has disappeared. [ED.] 



Orffyraeus (whose real name was Johann Ernst Elias Bessler) 
(1680-1745) also obtained distinguished patronage for his invention. 
His last wheel, for he appears to have constructed more than one, 
was 12 ft. in diameter and I ft. 2 in. broad; it consisted of a 
light framework of wood, covered in with oilcloth so that the 
interior was concealed, and was mounted on an axle which had no 
visible connexion with any external mover. It was examined 
and approved^f by the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, in whose castle 
at Weissenstem it is said to have gone for eight weeks in a sealed 
room. The most remarkable thing about this machine is that it 
evidently imposed upon the mathematician W. T. 'sGravesande, 
who wrote a letter to Newton giving an account of his examination 
of Orffyraeus's wheel undertaken at the request of the landgrave, 
wherein he professes himself dissatisfied with the proofs theretofore 
given of vhe impossibility of perpetual motion, and indicates his 
opinion that the invention of Orffyraeus is worthy of investigation. 
He himself, however, was not allowed to examine the interior of 
the wheel. The inventor seems to have destroyed it himself. One 
story is that he did so on account of difficulties with the landgrave's 
government as to a licence for it; another that he was annoyed at 
the examination by 'sGravesande, and wrote on the wall of the room 
containing the fragments of his model that he had destroyed it 
because of the impertinent curiosity of 'sGravesande. 

The overbalancing wheel perpetual motion seems to be as old as 
the I3th century. Dircks quotes an account of an invention by 
Wilars de Honecort, an architect whose sketchbook is still preserved 
in the Ecoles des Chartes at Paris. De Honecort says, Many a 
time have skilful _ workmen tried to contrive a wheel that shall 
turn of itself ; here is a way to do it by means of an uneven number of 
mallets, or by quicksilver." He thereupon gives a rude sketch 
of a wheel with mallets jointed to its circumference. It would 
appear from some of the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci that he 
had worked with similar notions. 

Another scheme of the perpetual motionist is a water-wheel 
which shall feed its own mill-stream. This notion is probably 
as old as the first miller who experienced the difficulty of a dry 
season. One form is figured in the Mathematical Magic (1648) of 
Bishop Wilkins (1614-1672) ; the essential part of it is the water- 
screw of Archimedes, which appears in many of the earlier machines 

of this class. Some of the later ones dispense with even the 
subtlety of the water-screw, and boldly represent a water-wheel 
pumping the water upon its own buckets. 

Perpetual motions founded on the hydrostatical paradox are not 
uncommon; Denis Papin exposes one of these in the Philosophical 
Transactions for 1685. The most naive 

of these devices is that illustrated in fig. 2, 

the idea of which is that the larger 

quantity of water in the wider part of the 

vessel weighing more will overbalance the 

smaller quantity in the narrower part, so 

that the water will run over at C, and so 

on continually. 

Capillary attraction has also been a 
'avourite field for the vain quest; for, if 
}y capillary action fluids can be made to 

disobey the law of never rising above 

their own level, what so easy as thus to 
sroduce a continual ascent and overflow, 

and thus perpetual motion? Various schemes of this kind, in- 
volving an endless band which should raise more water by its 

capillary action on one side than on the other, have been proposed. 

The most celebrated is that of Sir William Congreve (1772-1828). 
FG (fig. 3) is an inclined plane over pulleys; at the top and bottom 

travels an endless band of sponge, abed, and over this again an 

endless band of heavy weights jointed together. The whole stands 

over the surface of still water. The capillary action raises the 

water in ab, whereas the 

same thing cannot hap- 
pen in the part ad, since 

the weights squeeze the 

water out. Hence, inch 

for inch, ab is heavier 

than ad; but we know 

that if ab were only just 

as heavy inch for inch 

as ad there would be 

equilibrium, if the heavy 

chain be also uniform; 

therefore the extra 

weight of ab will cause 

the chain to move round 

in the direction of the 

arrow, and this will go 

on continually. 

The more recondite 

vehicles of energy, such as electricity and magnetism, are more 

seldom drawn upon by perpetual-motion inventors than might 

perhaps be expected. William Gilbert, in his treatise De 

Magnete, alludes to some of them, and Bishop Wilkins mentions 

among others a machine " wherein a loadstone is so disposed 




FIG. 2. 




182 



PERPETUITY PERPIGNAN 




that it shall draw unto it on a reclined plane a bullet of steel, 
which, still, as it ascends near to the loadstone, may be contrived 
to fall through some hole in the plane and so to return unto 
the place whence at first it began to move, and being there, 
the loadstone will again attract it upwards, till, coming to this 
hole, it will fall down again, and so the motion shall be perpetual." 
The fact that screens do exist whereby electrical and magnetic 
action can be cut off would seem to open a door for the perpetual- 
motion seeker. Unfortunately the bringing up and removing of 
these screens involves in all cases just that gain or loss of work which 
is demanded by the law of the conservation of energy. A shoemaker 
of Linlithgow called Spence pretended that he had found a black 
substance which intercepted magnetic attraction and repulsion, 
and he produced two machines which were moved, as he asserted, 
by the agency of permanent magnets, thanks to the black substance. 
The fraud was speedily exposed, but it is worthy of remark that 
Sir David Brewster thought the thing worth mentioning in a letter 
to the Annales de chimie (1818), wherein he states " that Mr Playfair 
and Captain Kater have inspected both of these machines and are 
satisfied that they resolve the problem of perpetual motion." 

The present writer once was sent an elaborate drawing of a 
locomotive engine which was to be worked by the agency of per- 
manent magnets. He forgets the details, but it was not so simple 
as the plan represented in fig. 4, where 
M and N are permanent magnets, whose 
attraction is " screened " by the wooden 
blocks A and B from the upper left and 
lower right quadrants of the soft iron 
wheel \V, which consequently is attracted 
round in the same direction by both M 
and N, and thus goes on for ever. 

One more page from this chapter of the 
book of human folly; the author is the 
famous Jean Bernoulli the elder. We 
N translate his Latin, as far as possible, into 
modern phraseology. In the first place 
we must premise the following (see fig. 5). 
(l) If there be two fluids of different 
densities whose densities are in the ratio 
of G to L, the height of equiponderating 
cylinders on equal bases will be in the inverse ratio of L to G. 
(2) Accordingly, if the height AC of one fluid, contained in the vase 
AD, be in this ratio to the height EF of the other liquid, which is 
in a tube open at both ends, the liquids so placed will remain at 
rest. (3) Wherefore, if AC be to EF in a greater ratio than L 
to G, the liquid in the tube will ascend; or if the tube be not 
sufficiently long the liquid will overflow at the orifice E (this 
follows from hydrostatic principles). (4) It is possible to have two 
liquids of different density that will mix. (5) It is possible to 
have a filter, colander, or other separator, by means of which the 
lighter liquid mixed with the heavier may be separated again 
therefrom. 

Construction. These things being presupposed (says Bernoulli), 
I thus construct a perpetual motion. Let there be taken in any 
(if you please, in equal) quantities two 
liquids of different densities mixed 
together (which may be had by hyp. 4), 
and let the ratio of their densities be 
first determined, and be the heavier to 
the lighter as G to L, then with the 
mixture let the vase AD be filled up 
to A. This done let the tube EF, open 
at both ends, be taken of such a length 
that AC: EF>2L:G+L; let the lower 
orifice F of this tube be stopped, or 
rather covered with the filter or other 
material separating the lighter liquid 
from the heavier (which may also be 
had by hyp. 5); now let the tube thus 
prepared be immersed to the bottom of 
the vessel CD ; I say that the liquid will 
continually ascend through the orifice 
F of the tube and overflow by the 
orifice E upon the liquid below. 

Demonstration. Because the orifice 
F of the tube is covered by the filter 



FIG. 4. 




FIG. 5. 



(by constr.) which separates the lighter liquid from the heavier, 
it follows that, if the tube be immersed to the bottom of the 
vessel, the lighter liquid alone which is mixed with the heavier 
ought to rise through the filter into the tube, and that, too, higher 
than the surface of the surrounding liquid (by hyp. 2), so that 
AC:EF = 2L: G+L; but since by constr. AC: EF>2L: G+L 
it necessarily follows (by hyp. 3) that the lighter liquid will flow 
over by the orifice E into the vessel below, and there will meet the 
heavier and be again mixed with it; and it will then penetrate 
the filter, again ascend the tube, and be a second time driven 
through the upper orifice. Thus, therefore, will the flow be con- 
tinued for ever. Q E D. 

Bernoulli then proceeds to apply this theory to explain the per- 
petual rise of water to the mountains, and its flow in rivers to the 



sea, which others had falsely attributed to capillary action his 
idea being that it was an effect of the different densities of salt and 
fresh water. 

One really is at a loss with Bernoulli's wonderful theory, whether 
to admire most the conscientious statement of the hypothesis, the 
prim logic of the demonstration, so carefully cut according to the 
pattern of the ancients, or the weighty superstructure built on so 
frail a foundation. Most of our perpetual motions were clearly 
the result of too little learning; surely this one was the product 
of too much. (G. CH.) 

PERPETUITY (Lat. perpeluus, continuous), the state of being 
perpetual or continuing for an indefinite time; in law the tying-up 
of an estate for a lengthened period, for the purpose of preventing 
or restricting alienation. As being opposed to the interest of 
the state and individual effort, the creation of perpetuities has 
been considerably curtailed, and the rule against perpetuities in 
the United Kingdom now forbids the making of an executory 
interest unless beginning within the period of any fixed number of 
existing lives and an additional period of twenty-one years (with 
a few months added, if necessary, for the period of gestation). 
The rule applies to dispositions of personal property (see 
ACCUMULATION) as well as of real property. There are certain 
exceptions to the rule, as in the case of limitations in mortmain 
and to charitable uses, and also in the case of a perpetuity created 
by act of parliament (e.g. the estate of Blenheim, settled on 
the duke of Marlborough, and Strathfieldsaye on the duke of 
Wellington). In the United States the English common-law rule 
against perpetuities obtains in many of the states; in others it 
has been replaced or reinforced by statutory rules (see Gray on 
Alienation, 42). Charities may be established in perpetuity, 
and provision may be made for an accumulation of the funds for a 
reasonable time, e.g. for 100 years (Woodru/ v. Marsh, 63 Conn. 
Rep. 125; 38 Amer. St. Rep. 346). The general tendency of 
American legislation is to favour tying up estates to a greater 
extent than was formerly approved. 

PERPIGNAN, a town of south-western France, capital of the 
department of Pyr6nees-Orientales, on the right bank of the TSt,- 
7 m. from the Mediterranean and 42 m. S. by W. of Narbor.ne 
by rail. 'Pop. (1906), town, 32,683; commune, 38,898. The 
north-west quarter of the town is traversed by the Basse, a 
tributary of the Tet, while to the south it is overlooked by a 
citadel enclosing a castle (i3th century) of the kings of Majorca. 
The chapel is remarkable as being a mixture of the Romanesque, 
Pointed and Moorish styles. The ramparts surrounding the 
citadel are the work of Louis XI., Charles V. and Vauban. The 
sculptures and caryatides still to be seen on the gateway of the 
citadel were placed there by the duke of Alva. The cathedral 
of St Jean was begun in 1324 and finished in 1509. The most 
noteworthy feature in the building is an immense reredos of 
white marble (early X7th century) by Bartholomew Soler of 
Barcelona. 

In the north of the town commanding the gateway of Notre- 
Dame (1481) there stands a curious machicolated stronghold 
known as the Castillet (i4th and i'sth centuries), now used as a 
prison. The buildings of the old university (i8th century) 
contain the library and the museum, the latter possessing the 
first photographic proofs executed by Daguerre and a collection 
of sculptures and paintings. Statues of Francois Arago, the 
astronomer, and Hyacinthe Rigoud, the painter, stand in the 
squares named after them. 

Perpignan is a fortified place of the first class, and seat of a 
prefect, a bishop and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first 
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a branch of 
the Bank of France, a communal college for boys, a school of 
music and training colleges for both sexes. The higher tribunal 
of Andovic sits at Perpignan. Trade is in wine, iron, wool, oil, 
corks and leather. 

Perpignan dates at least from the roth century. In the nth 
and i2th centuries it was a capital of the counts of Roussillon, 
from whom it passed in 1172 to the kings of Aragon. Philip the 
Bold, king of France, died there in 1285, as he was returning from 
an unsuccessful expedition into Aragon. At that time it belonged 
to the kingdom of Majorca, and its sovereigns resided there 
until, in 1344, that small state reverted to the possession of the 



PERQUISITE PERRON, P. C. 



183 



kings of Aragon, who in 1349 founded a university at Perpignan. 
When Louis XI. occupied Roussillon as security for money 
advanced by him to the king of Aragon, Perpignan resisted the 
French arms for a considerable time, and only yielded through 
stress of famine (March 15, 1475). Roussillon was restored to 
Aragon by Charles VIII. and Perpignan was again besieged in 
1542 .under Francis I., but without success. Later on, however, 
the inhabitants, angered by the tyranny and cruelty of the 
Spanish governor, surrendered the town to Louis XIII. The 
citadel held out until the gth of September 1642, and the place 
has ever since belonged to France, to which it was formally ceded 
by the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). In 1602 the bishopric of 
Elne was transferred to Perpignan. 

See P. Vibal, Perpignan depuis les origines jusqu' a nos jours 
(Paris, 1898). 

PERQUISITE (Lat. perquisitum, that which has been acquired 
by careful search; perquirere, to search diligently), a term properly 
used of the profits which accrue to the holder of an office over and 
above the regular emoluments; also, in law, the casual profits, 
such as accrue by heriots, fines, reliefs, &c., to a lord of a manor 
above the yearly revenue from the copyholds. The word is 
used generally of the casual profits allowed by custom to 
servants or other employes from superfluous articles which the 
employer has enjoyed the use of or which are supposed not to be 
needed. 

PERRAULT, CHARLES (1628-1703), French author, was 
born in Paris on the i2th of January 1628. His father, Pierre 
Perrault, was a barrister, all of whose four sons were men of some 
distinction: Claude (1613-1688), the second, was by profession 
a physician, but became the architect of the Louvre, and trans- 
lated Vitruvius (1673). Charles was brought up at the College de 
Beauvais, until he chose to quarrel with his masters, after which 
he was allowed to follow his own bent in the way of study. He 
took his degree of licencie en droit at Orleans in 1651, and was 
almost immediately called to the Paris bar, where, however, he 
practised for a very short time. In 1654 his brother became 
receiver-general of Paris, and made Charles his clerk. After 
nearly ten years of this employment he was, in 1663, chosen by 
Colbert as his secretary to assist and advise him in matters 
relating to the arts and sciences, not forgetting literature. He 
was controller-general of the department of public works, member 
of the commission that afterwards developed into the Academic 
des inscriptions, and in 1671 he was admitted to the Academic 
franQaise. Perrault justified his election in several ways. One 
was the orderly arrangement of the business affairs of the 
Academy, another was the suggestion of the custom of holding 
public seances for the reception of candidates. Colbert's death in 
1683 put an end to Perrault's official career, and he then gave 
himself up to literature, beginning with Saint Paulin eveque de 
Nole, aiiec une epitre chretienne sur la penitence, et une ode aux 
nouveaux convertis. The famous dispute of the ancients and 
moderns arose from a poem on the Siecle de Louis le Grand (1687), 
read before the Academy by Perrault, on which. Boileau com- 
mented in violent terms. Perrault had ideas and a will of his 
own, and he published (4 vols., 1688-1696) his Paralleledes 
anciens et des modernes. The controversy that followed in its 
train raged hotly in France, passed thence to England, and in 
the days of Antoine Houdart de la Motte and Fenelon broke 
out again in the country of its origin. As far as Perrault is 
concerned he was inferior to his adversaries in learning, but 
decidedly superior to them in wit and politeness. 

It is not known what drew Perrault to the composition of the 
only works of his which are still read, but the taste for fairy 
stories and Oriental tales at court is noticed by Mme de Sevigne 
in 1676, and at the end of the i7th century gave rise to the fairy 
stories of Mile L'Heritier de Villaudon, whose Bigarrures ingeni- 
euses appeared in 1696, of Mme d'Aulnoy and others, while 
Antoine Galland's translation of the Thousand-and-One Nights 
belongs to the early years of the i8th century. The first of 
Perrault's contes, Griselidis, which is in verse, appeared in 1691, 
and was reprinted with Peau d'dne and Les Souhaits ridicules, 
also in verse, in a Recueil de pieces curieuses published at the 



Hague in 1694. But Perrault was no poet, and the merit of 
these pieces is entirely obscured by that of the prose tales, La 
Belle au bois dormant, Petit chaperon rouge, La Barbe bleue, Le 
Chat botte, Les Fees, Cendrillon, Riquet a la houppe and Le Petit 
poucet, which appeared in a volume with 1697 on the title-page, 
and with the general title of Histoires ou contes du temps passe 
avec des moralites. The frontispiece contained a placard with 
the inscription, Contes de ma mere I'oie. In 1876 Paul Lacroix 
attributed the stories to the authorship of Perrault's son, P. 
Darmancour, who signed the dedication, and was then, according 
to Lacroix, nineteen years old. Andrew Lang has suggested 
that the son was a child, not a young man of nineteen, that he 
really wrote down the stories as he heard them, and that they 
were then edited by his father. This supposition would explain 
the mixture of naivete and satire in the text. Perrault's other 
works include his Memoires (in which he was assisted by his 
brother Claude), giving much valuable information on Colbert's- 
ministry; an Eneide travestie written in collaboration with his 
two brothers, and Les Hommes illujtres qui ont paru en France 
pendant ce siecle (2 vols., 1696-1700). He died on the i6th of 
May 1703, in Paris. His son, Perrault d'Arma-Court, was the 
author of a well-known book, Contes des fees, containing the 
story of Cinderella, &c. 

Except the tales, Perrault's works have not recently been re- 
printed. Of these there are many modern editions, e.g. by Paul 
Lacroix (1876), and by A. Lefebvre (" Nouvelle collection Jannet," 
1875); also Perrault's Popular Tales (Oxford, 1888), which contains 
the French text edited by Andrew Lang, with an introduction, 
and an examination of the sources of each story. See also 
Hippolyte Rigault, Hist, de la querelle des anciens et des modernes 
(1856). 

PERRERS (or DE WINDSOR), ALICE (d. 1400), mistress of 
the English king Edward III., belonged probably to the Hert- 
fordshire family of Ferrers, although it is also stated that she 
was of more humble birth. Before 1366 she had entered the 
service of Edward's queen, Philippa, and she appears later as 
the wife of Sir William de Windsor, deputy of Ireland (d. 1384). 
Her intimacy with the king began about 1366, and during the 
next few years she received from him several grants of land 
and gifts of jewels. Not content with the great influence which 
she obtained over Edward, Alice interfered in the proceedings 
of the courts of law to secure sentences in favour of her friends, 
or of those who had purchased her favour; actions which induced 
the parliament of 1376 to forbid all women from practising 
in the law courts. Alice was banished, but John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, allowed her to return to court after the death 
of Edward the Black Prince in June 1376, and the parliament 
of 1377 reversed the sentence against her. Again attempting 
to pervert the course of justice, she was tried by the peers and 
banished after the death of Edward III. in June 1377; but this 
sentence was annulled two years later, and Alice regained some 
influence at court. Her time, however, was mainly spent in 
lawsuits, one being with William of Wykeham, bishop of 
Winchester, and another with her dead husband's nephew and 
heir, John de Windsor. 

PERRON, PIERRE CUILLIER (1755-1834), French military 
adventurer in India, whose name was originally Pierre Cuillier, 
was born in 1755 at Chateau du Loire in France, the son of a 
cloth merchant. In 1780 he went out to India as a sailor on a 
French frigate, deserted on the Malabar coast, and made his 
way to upper India, where he enlisted in the rana of Gohad's 
corps under a Scotsman named Sangster. In 1790 he took 
service under De Boigne, and was appointed to the command 
of his second brigade. In 1795 he assisted to win the battle 
of Kardla against the nizam of Hyderabad, and on De Boigne's 
retirement became commander-in-chief of Sindhia's army. 
At the battle of Malpura (1800) he defeated the Rajput forces. 
After the defeat of Ujjain (1801) he refused to send his troops 
to the aid of Sindhia. His treachery on this occasion shook his 
position, and on the outbreak of war between Sindhia and the 
British in 1803 Perron was superseded and fled to the British 
camp. In the battles of Delhi, Laswari and Assaye, Perron's 
battalions were completely destroyed by Lord Lake and 






184 



PERRON PERRY, M. C. 



Sir Arthur Wellesley. He returned to France with a large 
fortune, and died in 1834. 

See H. Compton, European Military Adventurers of Hindustan 
(1892). 

PERRON (a French word meaning properly a " large stone," 
Ital. petrone, from Lat. petra, Fr. pierre, stone), in architecture, 
a term applied to a raised platform reached by steps in front of 
the entrance to a building. The grand flight of external steps 
entering the mansions of the medieval nobility or high officials 
was considered in itself a mark of jurisdiction, as it is said that 
sentence was there pronounced against criminals, who were 
afterwards executed at the foot of the steps as at the Giant's 
Stairs of the Doge's palace at Venice. 

PERRONE, GIOVANNI (1794-1876), Italian theologian, was 
bora at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He studied theology at 
Turin, and in his twenty-first year went to Rome, where he 
joined the Society of Jesus. In 1816 he was sent as professor 
of theology to Orvieto, and in 1823 was appointed to a similar 
post in the Collegium Romanum. From Ferrara, where he was 
rector of the Jesuit College after 1830, he returned to his teaching 
work in Rome, being made head of his old college in 1850. He 
took a leading part in the discussions which led up to the promul- 
gation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), and 
in 1869 was prominent on the Ultramontane side in the Vatican 
Council. His numerous dogmatic works are characteristic 
of orthodox modern Roman theology. They include Praelec- 
tiones theologicae (9 vols., Rome, 1835 sqq.), Praelectiones 
theologicae in compendium redactae (4 vols., Rome, 1845), 
// Hermesianismo (Rome, 1838), // Protestantismo e la regola 
difede (3 vols., 1853), De divinitate D. N. Jesu Christi (3 vols., 
Turin, 1870). He died on the 26th of August 1876. 

PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1527-1592), lord deputy of Ireland, 
was the son of Mary Berkley, who afterwards married Thomas 
Perrot, a Pembrokeshire gentleman. He was generally reputed 
to be a son of Henry VIII., and was attached to the household 
of William Paulet, ist marquess of Winchester. He was in this 
way brought to the notice of Henry VIII., who died, however, 
before fulfilling his promises of advancement, but Perrot was 
knighted at the coronation of Edward VI. During Mary's 
reign he suffered a short imprisonment on the charge of harbour- 
ing his uncle, Robert Perrot, and other heretics. In spite of 
his Protestantism he received the castle and lordship of Carew 
in Pembrokeshire, and at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign 
he was entrusted with the naval defence of South Wales. In 
1570 Perrot reluctantlyaccepted the newly created post of lord 
president of Munster. He landed at Waterford in February 
of the next year, and energetically set about the reduction of 
the province. In the course of two years he hunted down James 
Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, whose submission he received in 1572. 
Perrot resented the reinstatement of Gerald Fitzgerald, I5th 
earl of Desmond, and after vainly seeking his own recall left 
Ireland without leave in July 1573, and presenting himself at 
court was allowed to resign his office, in which he was succeeded 
by Sir William Drury. He returned to his Welsh home, where 
he was fully occupied with his duties as vice-admiral of the 
Welsh seas and a member of the council of the marches. Al- 
though in 1578 he was accused by the deputy-admiral, Richard 
Vaughan, of tyranny, subversion of justice and of dealings with 
the pirates, he evidently retained the royal confidence, for he was 
made commissioner for piracy in Pembrokeshire in 15 78, and in 
the next year was put in command of a squadron charged to 
intercept Spanish ships on the Irish coast. 

The recall of Arthur Grey, Lord Grey de Wilton, in 1582, left 
vacant the office of lord deputy of Ireland, and Perrot was 
appointed to it early in 1584. Sir John Norris became lord 
president of Munster and Sir Richard Bingham went to Con- 
naught. Perrot's chief instructions concerned the plantation 
of Munster, where the confiscated estates, some 600,000 acres 
in extent, of the earl of Desmond were to be given to English 
landlords at a nominal rent, provided that they brought with 
them English farmers and labourers. Before he had had time 
to embark on this enterprise he heard that the Highland clans 



of Maclean and MacDonnell were raiding Ulster at the invitation 
of Sorley Boy MacDonnell, the Scoto-Irish constable of Dunluce 
Castle. He marched into Ulster, but Sorley Boy escaped him, 
and crossed to Scotland, only to return later with reinforcements. 
The lord deputy was roundly abused by Elizabeth for under- 
taking " a rash, unadvised journey," but Sorley Boy was 
reduced to submission in 1586. In 1585 Perrot succeeded in 
completing the " composition of Connaught," a scheme for a 
contract between Elizabeth and the landholders of the province 
by which the queen should receive a small quitrent. During 
his career as lord deputy he had established peace, and had 
deserved well of Elizabeth. But a rash and violent temper, 
coupled with unsparing criticism, not to say abuse, of his 
associates, had made him numerous enemies. A hastily con- 
ceived plan for the conversion of the revenues of St Patrick's 
Cathedral, Dublin, to provide funds for the erection of two 
colleges, led to a violent quarrel with Adam Loftus, archbishop 
of Armagh. Perrot had interfered in Bingham's government 
of Connaught, and in May 1587 he actually struck Sir Nicholas 
Bagenal, the knight marshal, in the council chamber. Elizabeth 
decided to supersede him in January 1 588, but it was only six 
months later that his successor, Sir William Fitzwilliam, arrived 
in Dublin. After his return to England his enemies continued 
to work for his ruin, and a forged letter purporting to be from 
him to Philip II. of Spain gave colour to an accusation of 
treasonable correspondence with the queen's enemies, but when 
he was tried before a special commission in 1592 the charge of 
high treason was chiefly based on his alleged contemptuous 
remarks about Elizabeth. He was found guilty, but died in the 
Tower in September 1592. Elizabeth was said to have intended 
his pardon. 

A life of Sir John Perrot from a MS. dating from the end of 
Elizabeth's reign was printed in 1728. Sir James Perrot (1571- 
1637), writer and politician, was his illegitimate son. 

PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794-1858), American 
naval officer, was born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the 
toth of April 1794. He became a midshipman in 1809, and 
served successively in the schooner " Revenge " (then com- 
manded by his brother, Oliver H. Perry) and the frigate 
" President." In 1813 he became a lieutenant, and during the 
War of 1812 served in the frigate " United States " (which, when 
abandoned by Perry, was blockaded in the harbour of New 
London, Connecticut), the " President " and the " Chippewa." 
Soon after the war Perry was assigned to the Brooklyn (New 
York) navy yard, where he served till 1819. He became a 
commander in 1826, and during 1826-1830 was in the recruiting 
service at Boston, where he took a leading part in organizing the 
first naval apprentice system of the United States navy. He was 
promoted in 1837 to the rank of captain (then the highest actual 
rank in the United States navy), and in 1838-1840 commanded 
the " Fulton II.," the first American steam war vessel. He also 
planned the " Missouri " and the " Mississippi," the first steam 
frigates of the United States navy, and was in command of the 
Brooklyn navy yard from June 1841 until March 1843, when he 
assumed command of a squadron sent to the African coast by 
the United States, under the Webster-Ashburton treaty, to aid 
in suppressing the slave trade. This command of a squadron 
entitled him to the honorary rank of commodore. On the 23rd 
of October 1846, during the Mexican War, Perry, in command of 
the steam vessels " Vixen " and " McLane," and four schooners, 
attacked and captured Frontera, at the mouth of the Tobasco 
river, then pushed on up the river and (on the 24th) captured 
the town of Tobasco, thereby cutting off Mexico from Yucatan. 
He relieved Commodore David Conner at Vera Cruz on the 2ist 
of March 1847, and after a two days' bombardment by a battery 
landed from the ships the city wall was breached sufficiently 
to admit the entrance of troops. 

Commodore Perry's distinctive achievement, however, was 
his negotiation in 1854 of the treaty between the United States 
and Japan, which opened Japan to the influences of western 
civilization. Perry sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of 
November 1852, in the "Mississippi." He reached Hong- Kong 



PERRY, O. H. PERSEPOLIS 



185 



on the 7th of April and on the 8th of July dropped anchor off 
the city of Uraga, on the western shore of the Bay of Yedo with 
the " Susquehanna," his flagship, the " Mississippi," and the 
sloops-of-war " Saratoga " and " Plymouth." On the i4th ol 
July, accompanied by his officers and escorted by a body o: 
armed marines and sailors (in all about 300 men), he went ashore 
and presented to commissioners especially appointed by the 
shogun to receive them, President Fillmore's letters to the em- 
peror, and his own credentials. A few days later the American 
fleet sailed for Hong-Kong with the understanding that Perry 
would return in the following spring to receive the emperor's 
reply. On the nth of February, accordingly, he reappeared in 
the Bay of Yedo with his fleet this time composed of the 
" Susquehanna," " Powhatan " and " Mississippi," and the 
sailing vessels " Vandalia," " Lexington "and "Southampton," 
and despite the protests of the Japanese selected an anchorage 
about 1 2 m. farther up the bay, nearly opposite the present site 
of Yokohama, and within about 10 m. of Yedo (Tokyo). Here, 
on the 3 1 st of March 1854, was concluded the first treaty (ratified 
at Simoda, on the 2ist of February 1855, and proclaimed on the 
zand of June following) between the United States and Japan. 
The more important articles of this treaty provided that the port 
of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu, and the port of Hakodate, 
in the principality of Matsmai, were constituted as ports for 
the reception of American ships, where they could buy such 
supplies as they needed; that Japanese vessels should assist 
American vessels driven ashore on the coasts of Japan, and that 
the crews of such vessels should be properly cared for at one of 
the two treaty ports; that shipwrecked and other American 
citizens in Japan should be as free as in other countries, within 
certain prescribed limits; that ships of the United States should 
be permitted to trade at the two treaty ports under temporary 
regulations prescribed by the Japanese, that American ships 
should use only the ports named, except under stress of weather, 
and that privileges granted to other nations thereafter must also 
be extended to the United States. Commodore Perry died in 
New York City on the 4th of March 1858. 

A complete and readable account of this expedition, and its 
results, scientific as well as political, compiled from the journals 
and reports of Commodore Perry and his officers, was published by 
the United States government under the title, Narrative of the 
Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan 
(3 vols., Washington, 1856). The first volume of this work, con- 
taining Commodore Perry's narrative, was also published separately. 
A brief biography of Perry is included in Charles Morris^ Heroes 
of the Navy in America (Philadelphia and London, 1907). See also 
William E. Griffis's Matthew Calbraith Perry, a Typical American 
Naval Officer (Boston, 1887). 

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819), American naval 
officer, was born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the 
23rd of August 1785. He entered the navy as midshipman 
(1799) with his father, Christopher Raymond Perry (1761-1818), 
a captain in the navy, and saw service against the Barbary 
pirates. At the beginning of the War of 1812 he was in 
command of a flotilla at Newport, but was transferred (Feb. 
1813) to the Lakes. He served with Commodore Chauncey, 
and then was sent from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where he 
took up the chief command at the end of March 1813. With 
the help of a strong detachment of officers and men from the 
Atlantic coast he equipped a squadron consisting of one brig, 
six fine schooners and one sloop. Other vessels were laid down 
at Presque Isle (now Erie), where he concentrated the Lake 
Erie fleet in July. When Captain Perry appeared off Amherst- 
burg, where Captain Robert Heriot Barclay (d. 183 7), the 
British commander, was lying with his squadron, he had a 
very marked superiority. Captain Barclay, after a hot en- 
gagement the Battle of Lake Erie in which Captain Perry's 
flagship the " Lawrence," a brig, was so severely shattered 
that he had to leave her, was completely defeated. Perry com- 
manded the " Java " in the Mediterranean expedition of 1815- 
1816, and he died at Port of Spain in Trinidad on the 23rd of 
August 1819, of yellow fever contracted on the coast of Brazil. 

See O. H. Lyman, Commodore 0. H. Perry and the War on the 
Lakes (New York, 1905). 



PERRY, a city and the county-seat of Noble county, Okla- 
homa, U.S.A., 30 m. N. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3351 
(399 negroes); (1910) 3133. Perry is served by the Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe railway and by the St Louis & San Francisco 
system. It is the commercial centre of a large agricultural and 
stock-raising region, which produces cotton and grain. Perry 
was settled in 1889. 

PERRY (from Fr. poire, from poire, a pear), an alcoholic 
beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of pears. 
The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of 
CIDER (q.ii.). 

PERRYVILLE, a town of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 
about 10 m. W. of Danville. Pop. (1910), 407. Here on the 
8th of October 1863 General Braxton Bragg, in command of the 
Confederate army of the Mississippi of about 16,000 men, with 
which he had invaded Kentucky, faced about in his slow retreat 
across the state and gave battle to the Union army of the 
Ohio of about 40,000 (of whom only about 22,000 were actually 
engaged) commanded by Major-General Don Carlos Buell. 
Bragg's order to attack was disregarded by Major-General 
Leonidas Polk, who preferred adopting the " defensive-offensive " 
rather than engage all of Buell's force. Bragg himself came on 
the field about 10 a.m. and repeated his orders for an attack, but 
it was 2 p.m. before there was an actual engagement. Then 
after much delay on Folk's part the Confederate army joined 
battle with McCook's corps. The Confederate lines were broken 
and driven back through Perryville, where caissons, ammunition 
wagons and 140 officers and men were captured. Darkness had 
now come on, and in the night Bragg withdrew. His losses 
were reported as 510 killed, 2635 wounded and 251 missing. 
The Union loss was 845 killed, 2851 wounded and 515 captured 
or missing. The battle was drawn tactically, but strategically 
it was a Union victory and it virtually closed Bragg's unsuc- 
cessful Kentucky campaign, which is sometimes called the 
PerryviJle campaign. 

PERSEPOLIS, an ancient city of Persia, situated some 40 m. 
N.E. of Shiraz, not far from where the small river Pulwar flows 
into the Kur (Kyrus). The site is marked by a large terrace 
with its east side leaning on Kuhi Rahmet (" the Mount of 
Grace "). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall, 
varying in height with the slope of the ground from 14 to 41 ft. ; 
on the west side a magnificent double stair, of very easy steps, 
leads to the top. On this terrace are the ruins of a number of 
colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the 
adjacent mountain. The stones were laid without mortar, and 
many of them are still in situ. Especially striking are the huge 
pillars, of which a number still stand erect. Several of the 
buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that in 
some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed. 1 
These ruins, for which the name Kizil minare or Chihil menare 
(" the forty columns or minarets "), can be traced back to the 
i3th century, are now known as Takhti Jamshid (" the throne 
of Jamshid "). That they represent the Persepolis captured 
and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great has been beyond 
dispute at least since the time of Pietro della Valle. 2 

Behind Takhti Jamshid are three sepulchres hewn out of the 
rock in the hillside, the facades, one of which is incomplete, 
being richly ornamented with reliefs. About 8 m. N.N.E., on 
the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of 
rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable 
height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians 
call this place Nakshi Rustam (" the picture of Rustam ") from 
the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to 
be a representation of the mythical hero Rustam. That the 

Cf. J. Chardin, E. Kaempfer, C. Niebuhr and W. Ouseley. 
SJiebuhr's drawings, though good, are, for the purposes of the archi- 
tectural student, inferior to the great work of C. Texier, and still 
more to that of E. Flandin and P. Coste. Good sketches, chiefly 
after Flandin, are given by C. Kossowicz, Inscriptions palaeo- 
persicae (St Petersburg, 1872). In addition to these we have 
:he photographic plates in F. Stolze's Persepolis (2 vols., Berlin, 
1882). 

Lettera XV. (ed. Brighton, 1843), ii. 246 seq. 



i86 



PERSEPOLIS 



occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from 
the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly 
declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis, 
concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of 
a rock, and could only be reached by means of an apparatus 
of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of 
Persians kings, either that their remains were brought " to the 
Persians," or that they died there. 1 Now we know that Cyrus was 
buried at Pasargadae (q.v.) and if there is any truth in the 
statement that the body of Cambyses was brought home " to the 
Persians " his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside 
that of his father. In order to identify the graves of Persepolis we 
must bear in mind that Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for 
a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the 
kings buried at Nakshi Rustam are probably, besides Darius, 
Xerxes I., Artaxerxes I. and Darius II. Xerxes II., who reigned 
for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid 
a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus (Secy- 
dianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid 
would then belong to Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes III. The 
unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses, who reigned at the 
longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III. 
(Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have 
been brought " to the Persians " 2 (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 12). 
Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the 
village of Hajjiabad, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above 
Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was 
still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the 
then existing city of Istakhr. 

Since Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae, which moreover is 
mentioned in Ctesias as his own city, 3 and since, to judge from 
the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with 
Darius I., it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre 
passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis 
became the capital 4 (see PERSIA: Ancient History, V. 2) of Persia 
proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire, 
a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from con- 
venient, and the real capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana. 
This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted 
with the city until it was taken and plundered by Alexander 
the Great. Ctesias must certainly have known of it, and it is 
possible that he may have named it simply Hkpaai, after the 
people, as is undoubtedly done by certain writers of a somewhat 
later date. 5 But whether the city really bore the name of the 
people and the country is another question. And it is extremely 
hazardous to assume, with Sir H. Rawlinson and J. Oppert, that 
the words and Parsa, " in this Persia," which occur in an inscrip- 
tion on the gateway built by Xerxes (D. 1. 14), signify " in this 
city of Parsa," and consequently prove that the name of the 
city is identical with the name of the country. The form 
Persepolis (with a play on irepffis, destruction) appears first 
in Cleitarchus, one of the earliest, but unfortunately one of the 
most imaginative annalists of the exploits of Alexander. 

It has been universally admitted that " the palaces " or "the 
palace " (TO. ^acriXeia) burned down by Alexander are those now in 
ruins at Takhti Jamshid. From Stolze's investigations it appears 
that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident 
traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by 
Diodorus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars 
with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the 

1 This statement is not made in Ctesias (or rather in the extracts 
of Photius) about Darius II., which is probably accidental; in the 
case of Sogdianus, who as a usurper was not deemed worthy of 
honourable burial, there is a good reason for the omission. 

* Arrian, iii. 22, I. 

'Cf. also in particular Plutarch, Artax.m., where Pasargadae 
is distinctly looked on as the sacred cradle of the dynasty. 

4 The story of Aelian (H. A. i. 59), who makes Cyrus build his 
royal palace in Persepolis, deserves no attention. 

'So Arrian (iii. 18, I, 10), or rather his best authority, King 
Ptolemy. So, again, the Babylonian Berossus, shortly after 
Alexander. See Clemens Alex., Admon. ad gentes, c. 5, where, with 
Georg Hoffmann (Pers. Martyrer, 137), xal is to be inserted before 
s, and this to be understood ?.s the name of the metropolis. 



mountain on the east.* There is, however, one formidable 
difficulty. Diodorus says that the rock at the back of the palace 
containing the royal sepulchres is so steep that the bodies could 
be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances. 
This is not true of the graves behind Takhti Jamshid, to which, as 
F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other 
hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Nakshi Rustam. Stolze 
accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis 
stood close by Nakshi Rustam, and has sunk in course of time 
to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be 
concealed. The vast ruins, however, of Takhti Jamshid, and 
the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be 
anything else than the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Per- 
sians had no such thing, at least in the time of Darius and 
Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period 
knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, which 
it attributed to the fabulous queen Humai (Khumai) the grave 
of Cyras at Murgab, the building at Hajjiabad, and those on 
the great terrace. 7 It is safest therefore to identify these last 
with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus, 
who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with his usual 
recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind the 
palaces with those of Nakshi Rustam; indeed he appears to 
imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place. 

In 316 B.C. Persepolis was still the capital of Persis as a 
province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq., 
46 ; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about 
316). The city must have gradually declined in the course of 
time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witness 
to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the 
country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighbour- 
hood. About A.D. 200 we find there the city Istakhr (properly 
Slakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundations 
of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr 
acquired special importance as the centre of priestly wisdom and 
orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings have covered the face of the 
rocks in this neighbourhood, and in part even the Achaemenian 
ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves 
have built largely here, although never on the same scale of 
magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew 
as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done about Persepolis 
and this in spite of the fact that for four hundred years the 
Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the 
empire. 

At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate 
resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable impor- 
tance in the ist century of Islam (see CALIPHATE), although its 
greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis Shiraz. 
In the loth century Istakhr had become an utterly insignificant 
place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native 
(c. 950), and of Mukaddasi (c. 985). During the following cen- 
turies Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to 
exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages 
till the frightful devastations of the i8th century; and even now 
it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The " castle 
of Istakhr " played a conspicuous part several times during the 
Mahommedan period as a strong fortress. It was the middle- 
most and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the 
valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or north-west 
of Nakshi Rustam. We learn from Oriental writers that one 
of the Buyid (Buwaihid) sultans in the loth century of the 
Flight constructed the great cisterns, which may yet be seen, 
and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and 
E. Flandin. W. Ouseley points out that this castle was still 
used in the i6th century, at least as a state prison. But when 
Pietro della Valle was there in 1621 it was already in ruins. 

3 The name of this mountain too, /3a<nXife opoj, is identical with 
Shahkuh, which is at least tolerably well established by W. Ouseley 
(ii. 417) as a synonym of Kuhi rahntet. 

7 See especially Hamza Isp., 38;Tabari, i. 690, 816 (cf. T. Noldeke, 
Geschichte der Perser . . . aus . . . fabari, p. 8). The ruins at 
Takhti Jamshid are alluded to as the work of Humai, in connexion 
with an event which occurred shortly after A.D. 200. 



PERSEUS PERSIA 



187 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Flandin and P. Coste, Voyage en Perse 
(1843-1847); F. Stolze, Die Achaemenidischen und Sassanidischen 
Denkmaler und Inschriften von Persepolis, &c. (1882) ; G. Perrot 
and C. Chipiez, Hisloire de I' art dans I antiquite,v. (1890). See also 
DARIUS; PERSIA: Ancient History; and CALIPHATE. 

(TH. N.; A. H. S.) 

PERSEUS, in Greek legend, son of Danae and Zeus. When 
Perseus was grown to manhood Polydectes, king of Seriphus, 
cast his eye on Danae; and, in order to rid himself of the son, 
exacted of him a promise that he would bring him the head 
of the Gorgon Medusa. The Gorgons dwelt with their sisters 
the Graeae (the grey women) by the great ocean, far away in 
the west. Guided by Hermes and Athena, Perseus came to 
the Graeae. They were three hags, with but one eye and one 
tooth between them. Perseus stole the eye and the tooth, and 
would not restore them till the Graeae had guided him to the 
Nymphs, from whom he received the winged sandals, a wallet 
(ici/Stcrw, resembling a gamekeeper's bag) and the helmet of 
Hades, which rendered him invisible. Thus equipped and armed 
by Hermes with a sharp sword like a sickle, he came upon the 
Gorgons as they slept, and cut off Medusa's head, while with 
averted eyes he looked at her reflection which Athena showed 
him in the mirror 'of her shield. Perseus put the Gorgon's head 
in his wallet and fled, pursued by Medusa's sisters, to Ethiopia, 
where he delivered and married Andromeda (q.v.). With her he 
returned to Seriphus in time to rescue his mother and Dictys 
from Polydectes, whom he turned to stone with all his court 
by showing them the Gorgon's head. The island itself was 
turned to stone, and the very frogs of Seriphus (so ran the 
proverb) were dumb (Aelian, Nat. anim. iii. 37). Perseus then 
gave the head of Medusa to Athena, and, with Danae and Andro- 
meda, hastened to Argos to see his grandfather, Acrisius, once 
more. But before his arrival Acrisius, fearing the oracle, had 
fled to Larissa in Thessaly. Thither Perseus followed him, and 
at some funeral games held in honour of the king of that country 
unwittingly slew his grandfather by the throw of a quoit, which 
struck him on the foot. Ashamed to return to Argos, Perseus 
gave his kingdom to Megapenthes (Acrisius's nephew), and 
received from him Tiryns in exchange. There he reigned and 
founded Mideia and Mycenae, and became the ancestor of the 
Persides, amongst whom were Eurystheus and Heracles. 

The legend of Perseus was localized in various places. Italy 
claimed that the chest containing Danae and Perseus drifted 
ashore on the Italian coast (Virgil, Aen. vii. 372, 410). The 
Persian kings were said to have been descended from Perses a 
son of Perseus, and, according to Pausanias of Damascus, 1 he 
taught the Persians to worship fire, and founded the Magian 
priesthood. His cult was transferred to the kings of Pontus, 
for on coins of Amisus he is represented with the features of 
Mithradates Eupator. Like Andromeda, Hesione, the daughter 
of Laomedon, king of Troy, was rescued by Heracles from a sea- 
monster, and both stories have been interpreted of the sun 
slaying the darkness, Andromeda and Hesione being the moon, 
which the darkness is about to devour. In one version of the 
story of Hesione, Heracles is said to have spent three days, like 
Jonah, in the belly of the beast, and it is noteworthy that the 
Greek representations of Andromeda's monster were the models 
for Jonah's fish in early Christian art. Its bones and Andro- 
meda's chains were shown on a rock at Joppa. Perseus appears 
on coins of Pontus and Cappadocia, and of Tarsus in Cilicia, 
which he was said to have founded. The legend of St George 
was influenced by the traditions current regarding Perseus in 
Syria and Asia Minor. 

For the slaying of the Medusa, see F. H. Knatz, Quomodo Persei 
fabulam artifices graeci et romani tractaverint (1893) ; and, on the 
whole story, E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-1896). 

PERSEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern 
hemisphere, called after the Greek legendary hero, it is mentioned 
by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); 

1 Author of a history of Antioch ; he is quoted by John Malalas, 
Chronographia, pp._37~38, ed. Bonn (1831). Nothing further is 
. W. " 



known of him (see C 
iv. 467). 



Muller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, 



Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe catalogued 29 stars, Hevelius 46. 
The most important member of this constellation is (3 Persei 
or Algol (q.v.), a famous variable star. Q Persei is a triple star, 
composed of one 4th magnitude star and two of the loth magni- 
tude; p Persei is an irregular variable, with a range in magnitude 
of 3-4 to 4-1. Nova Persei is a " new " star discovered in 1887 
and subsequently recognized on Harvard plates by Mrs Fleming 
in 1895; another new star was discovered by Anderson on the 
2ist of February 1901, which, after increasing in magnitude, 
gradually became fainter and ultimately disappeared. There 
is a nebula surrounding Nova Persei (1901) which was photo- 
graphed at Yerkes observatory in September 1901 ; a pair of 
star clusters, appearing as a bright patch in the Milky Way; 
and the meteoric swarm named the Perseids, which appear in 
August and have their radiant in Perseus. (See METEOR.) 

PERSEUS OF MACEDONIA (b. c. 212 B.C.), the last king of 
Macedonia, eldest son of Philip V. He had his brother 
Demetrius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179. 
War broke out with Rome in 171 B.C. when P. Licinius Crassus 
was sent to' attack him. Perseus defeated Crassus at Callinicus 
in Thessaly, but in 168 he was annihilated at Pydna by L. 
Aemilius Paulus. He was led in triumph through Rome, and 
died in captivity at Alba Fucens. (See MACEDONIA.) 

PERSHORE, a market town in the Evesham parliamentary 
division of Worcestershire, England, 1.13 m.W.N.W.of London 
and 7 S.E. of Worcester by the Great Western railway. Pop. 
(1901), 3348. The station is 15 m. from the town. Market 
gardening and fruit-growing (especially plums) are carried on 
and agricultural implements are manufactured. The churches 
of the two parishes of Holy Cross and St Andrew face one another 
across a road. Holy Cross is a remnant of a mitred abbey of 
Benedictines, said to have been founded about 970 by King 
Edgar, on the site of a Mercian religious settlement. There 
remain only the fine Early English choir, with Decorated addi- 
tions, the Norman south transept and the majestic Decorated 
tower; while slight fragments of a Norman nave are seen. 

PERSIA, a kingdom of western Asia, bounded on the N. by 
the Caspian Sea and the Russian Transcaucasian and Trans- 
caspian territories, on the E. by Afghanistan and Baluchistan, 
on the S. by the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and on the 
W. by Turkish territory. Long before the Christian era the 
satrapies of Darius comprehended roughly an immense range 
of territory, from the Mediterranean to the Indus and from the 
Caucasian chain and Jaxartes to the Persian Gulf and Arabian 
Ocean. In the I7th and i8th centuries A.D. the conquests of 
'Abbas and Nadir kept up these boundaries more or less on the 
east, but failed to secure them on the west, and were limited to 
the Caucasus and Oxus on the north. Persia of the present day 
is not only, in the matter of geographical definition, far from the 
vast empire of Sacred Writ and remote history, but it is not 
even the less extensive dominion of the Safawi kings and Nadir 
Shah. It may be said, however, to comprise now quite as much 
settled and consolidated territory as at any period of its political 
existence of which we can speak with authority. 

Boundaries. The region of Ararat presents a good starting 
point for the definition of the western and northern frontiers 

of Persia. A line 20 m. in length from a point 

ii_ A o / -XT j o / Western 

on the river Aras, in 39 45 N. and 44 40 E. to Frontier. 

Mt Ararat, in the south-westerly direction, divides 
Persia from Russia. Southwards from Mt Ararat the Perso- 
Turkish frontier extends about 700 m. to the mouth of the 
Shatt el Arab in the Persian Gulf in 30 N. and 48 40' E., 
but is undefined with the exception of the western boundary of 
the little district of Kotur. A mixed commission was appointed 
in 1843 for the settlement of the Perso-Turkish frontier. The 
labours of this commission resulted in the Erzerum treaty of 
1847, by which both powers abandoned some lands and agreed 
to appoint commissioners to define the frontier. The com- 
missioners met in 1849, 1850 and 1851 at Bagdad and Muhamrah 
without arriving at any result. In 1851 Lord Palmerston 
proposed that the general line of frontier should be traced by the 
agents of Turkey and Persia at Constantinople, assisted by the 



PERSIA 



[BOUNDARIES 



commissioners, in conformity with the treaty of Erzerum, 
leaving doubtful localities to be settled in future. The Russian 
government agreed to this proposal, and the work of surveying 
the country from Mt Ararat to the Persian Gulf was then 
undertaken. When this was done the preparation of a map, 
embracing territory 700 m. in length by 20 to 40 m. broad, was 



unsettled, and disputes have frequently arisen between the 
Turkish and Persian governments with regard to their respective 
claims to land (Hertslet, Persian Treaties). In the autumn 
of 1907 Turkish troops occupied not only "doubtful localities" 
but also adjoining lands which were indisputably Persian 
territory. The want of a determined line of demarcation 



English Miles 

100 ty> oo 




3 



Railways ------ ...... Roads ......... 

Capital! of Proolncet .............. _. 

Boundary delimited ...... 

Boundary undelimlted ..... 

Deserts ______ +KiXZ> Swampt- 



50 



put in hand, and this work lasted from November 1857 till 
March 1865, when the Porte was informed in May of that year 
that " in the opinion of the mediating Powers, the future line 
of boundary between the respective dominions of the sultan and 
the shah was to be found within the limits traced on the map; 
that the two Mahommedan governments should themselves 
mark out the line; and that in the event of any differences 
arising between them in regard to any particular locality, the 
points in dispute should be referred to the decision of the govern- 
ments of England and Russia." This boundary has remained 



between the two countries may have political advantages, but 
is inconvenient to the geographer and most unfavourable to 
the cause of order and good government. 

From the point on the Aras River 20 m. north-east of Mt 
Ararat, the river forms the northern boundary down to 48 E. 
The frontier line then runs about 35 m. in a south- 
easterly direction through the Moghan steppe to frontier. 
Pilsowar on the Bulgharu River and then south with 
a bend to the west to the Astara River and the port of Astara in 
38 27' N. and 48 53' E. From Astara eastwards the boundary 



PHYSICAL FEATURES] 



PERSIA 



189 



is formed by the shore of the Caspian until it touches the Bay of 
Hassan Kul north of As arabad. East of the Caspian Sea and 
beginning at Has an Kuli Bay the river Atrek serves as the 
frontier as far as Chat. It then extends east and south-east 
to Serrakhs on the Tejen River in 36 40' N. and 61 20' E. The 
distance from Mt Ararat to Serrakhs in a straight line is 
about 930 m. The -frontier from Mt Ararat to Astara was 
defined by the treaty of Turkmanchai (Feb. 22, 1828), and a 
convention of the 8th of July 1893. The frontier east of the 
Caspian was defined by the Akhal-Khorasan Boundary Conven- 
tion of the 2ist of December 1881 and the frontier convention 
of the 8th of July 1893. 

The eastern frontier extends from Serrakhs to near Gwetter 
on the Arabian Sea in 25 N. and 61 30' E., a distance of about 
800 m. From Serrakhs to near Kuhsan the boundary 
is formed b X the Tejen River (called Hari Rud, or 
river of Herat, in its upper course); it then runs 
almost due south to the border of Seistan in 31 N., and then 
through Seistan follows the line fixed by Sir Frederick Gold- 
smid's and Sir Henry McMahon's commissions in 1872 and 
1903-1905 to Kuh i Malik Siah. From this point to the sea the 
frontier separates Persian territory from British Baluchistan 
and runs south-east to Kuhak and then south-west to Gwetter. 
This last section was determined by Sir Frederick Goldsmid's 
commission in 1871. 

The southern boundary is the coast line of the Arabian Sea 
and the Persian Gulf from Gwetter to the mouth of the Shatt 
el Arab, a distance of about 870 m., comprised 
between 48 40' E. and 61 30' E. The islands situated 
close to the northern shore of the Persian Gulf are 
Persian territory; they are, from east to west, Hormuz (Ormus), 
Larak, Kishm, Hengam, Furur, Kish (Kais), Hindarabi, 
Shaikh-Shu'aib, Jebrin, Kharak, Kharaku (Khorgu). 

Physical Geography. Modern Persia occupies the western and 
larger half of the great Iranian plateau which, rising to a height of 
from 4000 to 8000 ft. between the valleys of the Indus and Tigris, 
covers more than a million square miles. Taking the Kuren Dagh 
or Kopet Dagh to form the northern scarp of this plateau east of 
the Caspian, we find a prolongation of it in the highlands north of 
the political frontier on the Aras, and even in the Caucasus itself. 
On the north-west Persia is united by the highlands of Armenia to 
the mountains of Asia Minor; on the north-west the Paropamisus 
and Hindu Kush connect it with the Himalayas. The lines of 
boundary on the western and eastern faces are to be traced amid 
high ranges of mountains broken here and there by deserts and 
valleys. These ranges lie for the most part north-east and south- 
east, as do those in the interior, with a marked exception between 
Teheran and Bujnurd, and in Baluchistan, where they lie rather 
north-east and south-west, or, in the latter case, sometimes east 
and west. The real lowlands are the tracts near the sea-coast 
belonging to the forest-clad provinces of the Caspian in the north 
and the shores of the Persian Gulf below Basra and elsewhere. 
The Persians have no special names for the great ranges. Mountains 
and valleys are known only by local names which frequently cover 
but a few miles. Even the name Elburz, which European geo- 
graphers apply to the chains and ranges that extend for a length 
of over 500 m. from Azerbaijan in the west to Khorasan in the east, 
stands with the Persians only for the 60 or 70 m. of mountains 
north and north-east of Teheran, including the cone of Demavend. 
The great central range, which extends, almost unbroken, for nearly 
800 m. from Azerbaijan in the north-west to Baluchistan in the 
south-east, may aptly be called the Central Range. It has many 
peaks 9000 to 10,000 ft. in height, and some of its summits rise to 
an elevation of 11,000 ft. and near Kerman of nearly 13,000 ft. 
(Kuh-i-Jupar). The valleys and plains west of the Central Range, 
as for instance those of Mahallat, Joshekan, Isfahan, Sirjan, have 
an elevation of 5000 to 6500 ft.; those within the range, as Jasp, 
Ardahal, So, Pariz, are about 1000 ft. higher; and those east of it 
slope from an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. down to the depressions of 
the central plateau which, east of Kum, are not more than 2600 ft. 
and east of Kerman 1500 to 1700 ft. above the sea-level. Some 
of the ranges west of the Central Range, which form the highlands 
of Kurdistan, Luristan, Bakhtiari and Fars, and are parallel to 
it, end near the Persian Gulf ; others follow the Central Range, and 
take a direction to the east at some point between Kerman and the 
sea on the western frontier of Baluchistan. Some of these western 
ranges rise to considerable elevations; those forming the Turko- 
Persian frontier west of the lake of Urmia have peaks 11,000 ft. 
in height, while the Sahand, east of the lake and south of ^Tabriz, 
has an elevation of 12,000 ft. Farther south, the Takht-i-Bilkis, 
in the Afshar district, rises to 11,200 ft., the Elvend (ancient 



Orontes), near Hamadan, to ll,,6op. The Shuturun Kuh, south of 
Burujird, is over 11,000 ft. in height, the Shahan Kuh, Kuh-i- 
Gerra, Zardeh Kuh and Kuh-i-Karan (by some writers called 
Kuh-i-Rang), all in the Bakhtiari country west of Isfahan, _ are 
12,800 to 13,000 ft. in height; and the Kuh-i-Dina (by some writers 
wrongly called Kuh-i-Dinar) has an elevation of over 14,000 ft. 
Still farther south, towards Kerman, there are several peaks (Bid- 
Khan, Lalehzar, Shah-Kuh, Jamal Bariz, &c.) which rise to an eleva- 
tion of 13,000 ft. or more, and the Kuh-i-Hazar, south of Kerman . 
is 14,700 ft. in height. Beginning near Ardebil in Azerbaijan, 
where the cone of Savelan rises to an elevation of 15,792 ft. (Russian 
trigonometrical survey), and ending in Khorasan, the great Elburz 
range presents on its southern, or inward, face a more or less abrupt 
scarp rising above immense gravel slopes, and reaches in some of 
its summits a height of nearly 13,000 ft. ; and the peak of Demavend, 
north-west of Teheran, has a height of at least 18,000 ft. There 
are several important ranges in Khorasan, and one of them, the 
Binalud, west of Meshed and north of Nishapur, has several peaks 
of 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height. In south-eastern Persia the Kuh- 
i-Basman, a dormant volcano, 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height, in the 
Basman district, and the Kuh-i-Taftan, i.e. the hot or burning 
mountain (also called Kuh-i-Nushadar from the " sal ammoniac, ' 
nushadar, found on its slopes), an active triple-peaked volcano in 
the Sarhad district and 12,681 ft. in height (Captain Jennings), are 
notable features. 

Taking the area of Persia at 628,000 sq. m. the drainage may 
thus be distributed: (i) into the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf, 
135,000 sq. m.; (2) into the Caspian, 100,000; (3) into D/., 
the Seistan depression, 43,000; (4) into the Urmia 
Lake, 20,000; (5) into the interior of Persia, 330,000. The first 
district comprises most of the south-western provinces and the 
whole of the coast region as far east as Gwetter; the second relates 
to the tracts west, south and east of the southern part of the Caspian 
Sea. The tracts south of the Caspian are not more than 20 to 50 _m. 
wide; those on the west widen out to a depth of 250 m., meeting 
the watershed of the Tigris on the one side and that ofthe Euphrates 
and Lake Van on the other, and embracing between the two the 
basin of Lake Urmia. On the east the watershed of the Caspian 
gradually increases in breadth, the foot of the scarp extending 
considerably to the north of the south-eastern angle of that sea, 
three degrees east of which it turns to the south-east, parallel^ to 
the axis of the Kopet Dagh. The third drainage area comprises 
Persian Seistan with part of the Helmund (Hilmend) basin and a 
considerable tract adjoining it on the west. The fourth is a com- 
paratively small area on the western frontier containing the basin 
of Lake Urmia, shut off from the rest of the inland drainage, and 
the fifth area takes in a part of Baluchistan, most of Kerman, 
a part of Fars, all Yezd, Isfahan, Kashan, Kum, Irak, Khamseh, 
Kazvin, Teheran, Samnan, Damghan, Shahrud, Khorasan and the 
central desert regions. 

Four rivers belonging essentially to Persia, in reference to the 
Caspian watershed, are the Seafid Rud or Kizil Uzain on the south- 
west, the Herhaz on the south and the Gurgan and Atrek at the 
south-eastern corner of that inland sea. The Seafid Rud rises 
in Persian Kurdistan in about 35 50' N. and 46 45' E., a few 
miles from, Senendij. It has a very tortuous course of nearly 
500 m., for the distance from its source to the Caspian, 57 m. east 
of Resht, is only 210 m. in a straight line. The Kizil Uzain takes 
up some important affluents and is called Seafid Rud from the point 
where it breaks through the Elburz to the sea, a distance of 70 m. 
It drains 25,000 to 30,000 sq. m. of the country. The Herhaz, 
though not important in length of course or drainage, also, like the 
Seafid Rud, breaks through the Elburz range from the inner southern 
scarp to the north. It rises on the slopes of the Kasil Kuh, a peak 
12,000 ft. in height within the Elburz, and about 25 m. north of 
Teheran, flows easterly through the Lar plateau, where it is known 
as the Lar River, and takes up several affluents; turns to the north- 
east at the foot of Demavend, leaving that mountain to the 
left, and flows due north past Amol to the Caspian. Its length is 
about 120 m. The Gurgan rises on the Armutlu plateau in Khorasan 
east of Astarabad, and enters the Caspian in 37 4' N., north- 
west of Astarabad, after a course of about 200 m. The Atrek 
rises a few miles from Kuchan and enters the Caspian at the Bay 
of Hassan Kuli in 37 21' N., after a course of about 300 m. 
From the sea to the Russian frontier post of Chat the river forms 
the frontier between Persia and the Russian Transcaspian region. 

The drainage of the rivers which have no outlet to the sea and 
form inland lakes and swamps (kavir) may be estimated at 350,000 
sq. m., including the drainage of Lake Urmia, which is about 
20,000 sq. m. Fourteen rivers flow into the lake: the Aji Chai, 
Safi Chai, Murdi Chai and Jaghatu from the east, the Tatau (Tataya) 
from the south, and nine smaller rivers from the west. During 
heavy rains and when the snows on the hills melt, thousands of 
streams flow from all directions into the innumerable depressions 
of inner Persia, or help to swell the perennial rivers which have no 
outlet to the sea. These latter are few in number, and some of 
them barely suffice for purposes of agricultural irrigation, and in 
summer dwindle down to small rills. The perennial streams 
which help to form the kavirs (salt swamps) east of Kum _ and 
Kashan are the Hableh-rud, rising east of Demavend, the Jajrud, 



PERSIA 



[PHYSICAL .FEATURES 



rising north of Teheran, the Kend and Kerej rivers, rising north- 
west of Teheran, the Shureh-rud (also called Abhar-rud), rising 
near Sultanieh on the road between Kazvin and Tabriz, and the 
Kara-su, which rises near Hamadan and is joined by the Zarin- 
rud (also known as Do-ab), the Reza Chai (also called Mazdakan- 
rud), the Jehrud River and the Kum-rud. The river of Isfahan, 
Zendeh-rud, i.e. " the great river " (from Persian zendeh [Pehleyi, 
zendek], great), but now generally known as Zayendeh-rud, i.e. 
" the life-giving river," flows into the Gavkhani or Gavkhaneh 
' swamp, east of Isfahan. In Pars the Kur with its affluents forms 
the lake of Bakhtegan (also known as Lake of Niriz), and in its 
lower course, is generally called Bandamir (made famous by 
Thomas Moore) from the band (dam) constructed by the Amir 
(prince) Asad-ed-dowleh in the loth century. (" Note on the 
Kur River in Pars," Proc. Royal Geog. Soc., London, 1891.) The 
rivers flowing into the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea diminish in 
importance from west to east. There are first the Diyala and 
Kerkheh flowing into the Tigris from the hills of Kurdistan; the 
Ab i Diz and Karun which unite below Shushter, and reach the Shatt 
el Arab at Muhamrah; and the Jarahi and Tab, which with the 
Karun form "the delta of Persian Arabistan, the most extensive 
and fertile plain in Persia." There are many streams which though 
fordable at most seasons (some of them are often quite dry) are 
unfordable during the rains. Two of these may be mentioned 
here, viz. the Mand and the Minab, which St John (loc. oil. p. 9) 
considered as being " of far more importance than the maps would 
lead the observer to suppose." The former, after a run of over 
300 m. from its sources in the hills west of Shiraz, debouches at 
Khor-i-Ziaret about 6p m. south of Bushire. It is mentioned by 
the old Arab and Persian geographers as the Sitakan (in some MSS. 
misspelt Sakkan), and is the Sitakos of Arrian and the Sitioganus 
of Pliny. In its upper course it is now known as the Kara-aghach 
(Wych-elm) River (cf. " Notes on the River Mand in Southern 
Persia," Royal Geog. Soc., London, December 1883). The Minab 
has two outlets into the Persian Gulf, one the Khor-i-Minab, a 
salt-water creek into which the river overflows during the rains, 
about 30 m. east of Bander Abbasi, the other the true Minab, at 
Khagun, some miles south of the creek. It rises in the hills about 
too m. north of Bander Abbasi, and has a considerable drainage. 
Its bed near the town of Minab (15 m. from the coast) is nearly 
a mile in width, and during the rains the water covers the whole 
bed, rendering it quite unfordable. During ordinary weather, 
in March 1884, the water flowing past the town was 100 yds. in 
width and 2 ft. deep (Preece, Proc. Royal Geog. Soc., January 1885). 
In ordinary seasons very little water of the river runs into its original 
bed, being diverted into canals, &c. The creek, the Anamis of 
Nearchus, is navigable nearly all through the year as far as 
Shahbander, the custom-house, about 7 m. inland, for vessels of 
20 tons burden. 

" The great desert region of Persia," writes Le Strange (Lands 
of the Eastern Caliphate, 1905), " stretches right across the high 
Desert plateau of Iran going from north-west to south-east, 
and dividing; the fertile provinces of the land into two 
groups; for the desert is continuous from the southern base of the 
Elburz mountains, that to the north overlook the Caspian, to the 
arid ranges of Makran, which border the Persian Gulf. Thus it 
measures nearly 800 m. in length, but the breadth varies consider- 
ably; for in shape this immense area of drought is somewhat that 
of an hour-glass with a narrow neck, measuring only some TOO m. 
across, dividing Kerman from Seistan, while both north and south 
of this the breadth expands and in places reaches to over 200 m. 
At the present day the desert, as a whole, is known as the Lflt or 
Dasht-i-Lut; the saline swamps and the dry salt area being more 
particularly known as the Dasht-i-Kavir, the term Kavir being 
also occasionally applied to the desert as a whole." 

A three-wire telegraph line on iron posts, completed in March 
1907, passes through this region, and it is the unenviable lot of 
some Englishmen stationed at Bam and Nusretabad Ispi (Isbidh 
of medieval Arab geographers) on the confines of the desert regu- 
larly to inspect and test it. Of the northerly Great Kavir Dr 
Tietze thought that it was composed of a complex of isolated salt 
swamps separated by sand-dunes, low ridges of limestone and 
gypsum, perhaps also by volcanic rocks (Jahrbuch k. k. geolog. 
Reichsanstalt, Vienna, 1877). Dr Sven Hedin explored the northern 
part of the Great Desert in 1906. (A. H.-S.) 

Geology. Persia consists of a central region covered by 
Quaternary deposits and bordered on the north, west and south 
by a raised rim composed of older rocks. These older rocks also 
form the isolated ranges which rise through the Quaternary deposits 
of the central area. 

In northern Persia the rocks of the elevated rim are thrown into 
folds which form a curve round the southern shore of the Caspian. 
The mountain ranges of Khorasan show the western portion of a 
second curve of folding which is probably continued into the Hindu 
Kush. In the western rim of Persia the folds run from north-west 
to south-east, and in the south these folds appear to curve gradually 
eastward, following the trend of the coast. The folds in the central 
Persian chains run from north-west to south-east, parallel to those 
of the western border. It is seldom that the old crystalline rocks, 
which form the floor upon which the sedimentary strata were 



deposited, are exposed to view. Gneiss, granite and crystalline 
schist, however, are found in the Elburz and in some of the central 
ranges; and similar rocks form a large part of the Zagros. Some 
of these rocks are probably Archean, but some appear to be meta- 
morphosed sedimentary deposits of later date. The oldest beds 
in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Upper Devonian. 
They are well developed in the Elburz range, where they attain 
a thickness of some 9000 to 10,000 ft., and they have been found 
also in some 01 the central ranges and in the Bakhtiari Mountains. 
In the Elburz range the Devonian is succeeded by a series of lime- 
stones with Productus. The greater part of the series belongs to 
the Carboniferous, but the upper beds are probably of Permian 
age. The limestones are followed by sandstones and shales with 
occasional seams of coal. The plants which have been found in 
these beds indicate a Rhaetic or Liassic age. The Middle and 
Upper Jurassic form a considerable portion of the Elburz and have 
yielded marine fossils belonging to several different horizons. 
The Cretaceous system is very widely spread in Persia. It is one 
of the most conspicuous formations in the Zagros and in the central 
ranges, and probably forms a large part of the plateau, beneath 
the Quaternary deposits. The most prominent member of the 
series is a massive limestone containing Hippurites and belonging 
to the upper division of the system. The Tertiary deposits include 
nummulitic limestone (Eocene); a series of limestones, sandstones 
and conglomerates, with marine Miocene fossils; and red marls, 
clays and sandstones with rock-salt and gypsum, believed to belong 
to the Upper Miocene. In the Elburz there is a considerable 
deposit of palagonite tuff which appears to be of Oligocene age. 
The nummulitic limestone takes part in the formation of the 
mountain chains. The Miocene deposits generally lie at the foot 
of the chains, or in the valleys; but occasionally they are found at 
higher levels. Pliocene deposits cover a considerable area near 
the coast. Both in the Elburz range and near the Baluchistan 
frontier there are numerous recent volcanoes. Some of these 
seem to be extinct, but several continue to emit vapours and 
gases. Demavend in the Elburz and Kuh-i-Taftan on the Balu- 
chistan frontier are among the best-known. (P. LA.) 

See W. K. Loftus, " On the Geology of Portions of the Turko- 
Persian Frontier, and of the Districts adjoining," Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. vol. xi. pp. 247-344, pi- i*. (London, 1855) ; W. T. Blanford, 
Eastern Persia, vol. ii. (Zoology and Geology) (London, 1876); C. L. 
Griesbach, Field-notes: No. 5, to accompany a Geological Sketch 
Map of Afghanistan and North-Eastern Khorasan, Rec. Geol. 
Surv. India, xx. 93-103 (1887), with map; A. F. Stahl, " Zur Geologic 
von Persien," Peterm. Mitt., Erganzungsheft 122 (1897); J. de 
Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse, vol. lii. (completed 1905, Paris). 
A summary by H. Douville of the principal geological results of 
de Morgan's expedition will be found in Bull. soc. geol. France, 
4th series, vol. iv. pp. 539-553- 

Climate. For the rainfall on the watershed of the Persian Gulf 
there are two places of observation, Bushire and Jask; at the first 
it is a little in excess of that of inner Persia, while at the second it 
is very much less. The rainfall on the Caspian watershed greatly 
exceeds that of inner Persia; at Astarabad and Ashurada, in the 
south-eastern corner of the Caspian, it is about 50 % more ; and 
at Resht and Lenkoran, in the south-western corner, it is four and 
five times that of the adjoining districts across the ridges to the 
south. With the exception of the Caspian watershed and that of 
the Urmia basin, the country has probably in no part a yearly 
rainfall exceeding 13 or 14 in., and throughout the greater part of 
central and south-eastern Persia the yearly rainfall probably does 
not exceed 6 in. The following mean values of the rainfall at 
Teheran have been derived from observations taken by the writer 
during 1892-1907: 



Mean . - 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


Total for 
Year. 

9-86 in. 


in. 
1-76 


in. 
1-17 


in. 

1-87 


in. 

1-41 


in. 
50 


in. 
06 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


in. 
5 


in. 
5 


in. 
06 


in. 
32 


in. 
1-35 


in. - 
1-26 



Good harvests depend on the rainfall from October to April, 
and on an amount of snow sufficient to cover the crops during 
frosts. During normal winters in Teheran and surrounding dis- 
tricts the rainfall amounts to 9 or 10 in., with 3 to 4 of snow, but 
in the winter 1898-1899 it was only 5J in., with only I in. of snow; 
and in 1899-1900 the harvests were in consequence exceptionally 
bad, and large quantities of wheat and flour had to be brought 
from the provinces and even from Russia at high freights, causing 
the price of bread at Teheran to rise 200%. The first table on p. 191 
shows the mean annual rainfall in inches at fifteen stations in and 
near Persia. 

The prevailing winds throughout Persia and the Persian Gulf 
are the north-west and south-east owing partly to the position of 
the Black Sea and Mediterranean and of the Arabian Sea, and partly 



FAUNA AND FLORA] 



PERSIA 



191 



to the bearing of the axes of the great mountain chains. A dry 
and warm wind comes down from the snowy Elburz to Gilan in 
December and January, and much resembles the fohn of the Alps 
(Dr Tholozan, " Sur les vents du Nord de la Perse et sur le foehn 
du Guilan," Comptes rendus, Acad. d. Sciences, March 1882). 











"o o 






Station. 


Lat. N. 


Long. 
E. 


Alti- 
tude. 


ll 


Year. 


Authority. 










O 












Feet. 


Years. 






Lenkoran 
Resht . . 


38 46' 

37 17' 


48 51' 
49 35' 


-60 

-50 


2 


46-82 


Supan. 1 
British Consul. 2 


Ashurada 


36 54' 


53 55' 


-80 


19 


17-17 


Supan. 1 


Astarabad 


36 51; 


54 25' 


-40 


7 


16-28 


Symons. 3 


Meshed . 




59 36' 


3180 


9 


9-33 


British Consul. 4 


Quetta . 


30 n' 


67 3' 


5500 


19 


10-09 


Supan. 1 


Kalat. . . 


28 53' 


66 28' 


6500 


15 


8-98 





Maskat . . 


23 29' 


58 33' 





3 


6-13 




Jask . . . 


25 39' 


57 46' 





10 


3-24 


English Telegraph. 6 


Bushire . 


28 59' 


50 49 





19 


13-36 


Supan. 1 


Isfahan . 


32 37' 


Si 4 


5370 


7 


5-44 


English Telegraph. 6 


Teheran 


35 4i' 


51 25' 


3810 


15 


9-86 


The writer. 


Urmia (Sair). 


37 28' 


45 8 ? 


6225 


i 


21-51 


Symons. 3 


Bagdad . 


33 19' 


44 26' 





7 


10-59 


Supan. 1 


Merv 


37 35' 


6i 5 o' 


700 


i 


6-36 


Symons. 3 



Observations for temperature have been taken for many years 
at the stations of the lado-European Telegraph and for a few years 
at the British consulate in Meshed, and the monthly and annual 
means shown in the following table have been derived from the 
indications of maximum and minimum thermometers in degrees 
Fahrenheit. 



Frequently when the temperature in the shade at Bushire is not 
more than 85 or 90, and the great humidity of the air causes 
much bodily discomfort, life is almost pleasant 12 or 20 m. inland 
with a temperature of over 1 00. 

Fauna. Mr W. T. Blanford has described with great care and 
minuteness the zoology of Persia. In company with 
Major St John, R.E., he made a large collection of 
the vertebrate fauna in a journey from Gwetter to 
Teheran in 1872. Having added to this a previous 
collection made by the same officer with the assist- 
ance of a native from Calcutta, he had before him 
the principal materials for his work. Before com- 
mencing his analysis he adverted to his prede- 
cessors in the same field, i.e. Gmelin (whose travels 
were published in 1774-1784), Olivier (1807), Pallas 
(1811), Menetries (1832), Belanger (1834), Eichwald 
(1834-1841), AucherEloy (1851), Loftus, Count Key- 
serling, Kokschy, Chesney, the Hon. C. Murray, De 
Filippi (1865), Hume (1873), and Professor Strauch 
of St Petersburg. All of these had, more or less, 
contributed something to the knowledge of the 
subject, whether as writers or as collectors, or in 
both capacities, and to all the due meed of credit was 
assigned. Blanford divided Persia into five zoological 
provinces: (i) the Persian plateau, or from the Kopet 
Dagh southwards to nearly 28 N. lat., including all 
Khprasan to the Perso-Afghan border, its western 
limit being indicated by a long line to the north- 
west from near Shiraz, taking in the whole upper 
country to the Russian frontier and the Elburz ; (2) the 
provinces south and south-west of the Caspian; 
(3) a narrow strip of wooded country south-west of the Zagros 
range, from the Diyala River in Turkey in Asia to Shiraz; (4) 
the Persian side of the Shatt-el-Arab, and Aralictan, east of 
the Tigris; and (5) the shores of the Persian Gulf and Baluchistan. 
The fauna of the Persian plateau he described as " Palaearctic, 
with a great prevalence of desert forms; or, perhaps more correctly, 



Station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


July- 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 




Dec. 


Year. 


Highest 
observed. 


Lowest 
observed. 


Difference 
between 
Extremes. 


Meshed 
Teheran . . . 
Tabriz 6 . . . 
Kashan ' . 


H 
17 
35 


34 
38 
25 
36 


49 
48 

39 

43 


59 
5i 
54 
60 


68 
71 
63 
74 


76 

Hi 

74 
83 


78 
84 
79 
90 


70 
81 
81 

85 


67 
73 
73 

77 


55 
64 
62 
68 


48 
53 
48 
53 


40 
43 
34 
42 


56-3 
60-4 

54-1 
62-2 


91 
Hi 

99 

"3 

TO^ 


15 
3 
-18 

9 


76 

1 08 
117 
104 


Abadeh' . . . 
Dehbid' . . . 
Shiraz 10 . . . 
Kazerun u 
Borazjuan B . 
Bushire 


4i 
27 
48 
Si 

55 

58 


41 
30 
47 
50 

57 
60 


47 
38 
55 
52 
66 

65 


56 

45 

63 
67 
80 

74 


68 
57 
73 

84 

94 
82 


75 
65 
80 

93 
97 

86 


79 
69 

85 
95 

100 

90 


75 
65 
81 

94 
99 
90 


71 
61 

76 
87 
92 

87 


59 
52 
67 
79 

83 

80 


55 
43 
55 
70 
72 
7i 


46 
36 
49 
56 
64 
62 


59-5 
49-0 
65-0 
73'2 
80-0 

75-4 


96 
91 
H3 
no 
117 
109 


~ 3 
H 
-19 

21 

36 
48 
41 


109 
82 
no 
92 
74 
69 
68 



Very few hygrometrical observations have been taken, and 
only those of the British residency at Bushire are more or less 
trustworthy, and have been regularly registered for a number of 
years. In inner Persia the air is exceptionally dry, and in many 
districts polished steel may be exposed in the open during a great 
part of the year without becoming tarnished. Along the shores 
of the Caspian, particularly in Gilan and Mazandaran, and of the 
Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Shatt el Arab down to Bander 
Abbasi, the air during a great part of the year contains much 
moisture dry- and wet-bulb thermometers at times indicating the 
same temperature and at nights there are heavy falls of dew. In 
Gilan and Mazandaran the air contains much moisture up to con- 
siderable elevations and as far as 30 to 40 m. away from the sea; 
but along the Persian Gulf, where vegetation is very scanty, stations 
only a few miles away from the coast and hot more than 20 or 
30 ft. above the sea-level have a comparatively dry climate. 

1 Dr A. Supan, " Die Vertheilung des Niederschlag's auf der 
festen Erdoberflache," Pet. MM., Suppl. 124 (1898). 
* Consular report (Gilan, 1897). 

3 Symons's Monthly Meteorological Mag. (Dec. 1893). 

4 1899-1907. 

6 Observations taken at the telegraph stations, and kindly 
communicated by Mr R. C. Barker, C.I.E., director of the Indo- 
European Telegraph Department in Persia. Those for Isfahan 



385' N.; 4 6i8'E. 


altitude 4423 ft 


j . O 


;5i2 7 ', 






3190 


8 3il8' 


;5238', 






, 6200 


9 30 37' 


; 53 10' , 






, 8000 


10 29 , 


;5232', 






5000 . 


11 2g 3/ 


* ^1 dV 






, 2800 


* 29 15' 


551 3''- 






100 , 



as being of the desert type with Palaearctic species in the more 
fertile regions." In the Caspian provinces he found the fauna, 
on the whole, Palaearctic also, " most of the animals being identical 
with those of south-eastern Europe." But some were essentially 
indigenous, and he observed " a singular character given to the 
fauna by the presence of certain Eastern forms, unknown in other 
parts of Persia, such as the tiger, a remarkable deer of the Indo- 
Malayan group, allied to Cervus axis, and a pit viper (Halys)." 
Including the oak-forests of Shiraz with the wooded slopes of the 
Zagros, he found in his third division that, however little known 
was the tract, it appeared to contain, like the second, " a Palaearctic 
fauna with a few peculiar species." As to Persian Mesopotamia, 
he considered its fauna to belong to the same Palaearctic region 
as Syria, but could scarcely speak with confidence on its character- 
istic forms. The fifth and last division, Baluchistan and the shores 
of the Persian Gulf, presented, however, in the animals common to 
the Persian highland " for the most part desert types, whilst the 
characteristic Palaearctic species almost entirely disappear, their 
place being taken by Indian or Indo-African forms." The Persian 
Gulf Arab, though not equal to the pure Arabian, is a very service- 
able animal, and has always a value in the Indian market. Among 
others the wandering Turkish tribes in Fars have the credit of 
possessing good steeds. The Turkoman horse of Khorasan and the 
Atak is a large, bony and clumsy-looking quadruped, with marvel- 
lous power and endurance. Colonel C. E. Stewart stated that the 
Khorasan camel is celebrated for its size and strength, that it has 
very long hair, and bears cold and exposure far better than the 
ordinary Arabian or Persian camel, and that, while the ordinary 
Persian camel only carries a load of some 320 ft and an Indian 
camel one of some 400 ft, the Khorasan camel will carry from 600 
to 700 ft. The best animals, he notes, are a cross between the 
Bactrian or two-humped and the Arabian or one-humped camel. 
Sheep, goats, dogs and cats are good of their kind ; but not all the 
last are the beautiful creatures which, bearing the name of the 



192 



PERSIA 



[POPULATION 



country, have arrived at such distinction in Europe. Nor are 
these to be obtained, as supposed, at Angora in Asia Minor. Van 
or Isfahan is a more likely habitat. The cat at the first place, 
called by the Turks " Van kedisi," has a certain local reputation. 
Among the wild animals are the lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, brown 
bear, hyena, hog, badger, porcupine, pole-cat, weasel, marten, 
wolf, jackal, fox, hare, wild ass, wild sheep, wild cat, mountain- 
goat, gazelle and deer. The tiger is peculiar to the Caspian pro- 
vinces. Lovett says they are plentiful in Astrabad; he measured 
two specimens, one 10 ft. 8 in., the other 8 ft. 10 in. from the tip 
of the nose to the end of the tail. Lynxes and bears were to be 
found in the same vicinity, and the wild pig was both numerous 
and destructive. 

According to Blanford there are about four hundred known 
species of birds in Persia. The game birds have admirable repre- 
sentatives in the pheasant, " karkavul " (Phasianus colchicus, L.) ; 
snowcock or royal partridge, " kebk-i-dari " (Tetraogallus Caspius, 
Gmel.); black partridge, " durraj " (Francolinus vulgaris, Steph.); 
red-legged partridge, " kebk " (Caccabis chukar. Gray) ; sand- 
partridge or seesee, " tihu " (Ammoperdix bonhami, Gray); Indian 
grey partridge, " jirufti " (Ortygorms ponticerianus , Gmel.); quail, 
' belderjin " (Coturnix communis, Bonn.); sandgrouse, " siyah- 
sineh " (Pterocles arenarius. Pall.) ; bustard, " hubareh " (Otis 
tetrax, L. and O. McQueenii, Gray); woodcock, snipe, pigeon, 
many kinds of goose, duck, &c. The flamingo comes up from 
the south as far north as the neighbourhood of Teheran ; the stork 
abounds. Poultry is good and plentiful. A large kind of fowl 
known as " Lari (from the province Lar, in southern Persia) is 
said to be a descendant of fowls brought to Persia by the Portu- 
guese in the i6th century. 

The fish principally caught along the southern shore of the 
Caspian are the sturgeon, " sagmahi," dogfish (Acipenser ruthenus 
and A. huso); sheat-fish or silure, " simm," " summ " (Silurus 
giants) ; salmon, " azad mahi " (Salmo solar) ; trout, " maseh " 
(Salmo trutta) ; carp, " kupur " (Cyprinus ballerus and C. carpio) ; 
bream," subulu " (Abramisbrama); pike-perch, " mahisafid"(.Perai 
lucioperca or Lucioperca sandra). There is also a herring which 
frequents only the southern half of the Caspian, not passing over 
the shallow part of the sea which extends from Baku eastwards. 
As it was first observed near the mouth of the river Kur it has been 
named Clupea Kurensis. Fish are scarce in inner Persia; salmon 
trout and mud-trout are plentiful in some of the mountain streams. 
Many underground canals are frequented by carp and roach. The 
silure has also been observed in some streams which flow into the 
Urmia lake, and in Kurdistan. 

Flora. In the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad on 
the Caspian, from the shore to an altitude of about 3000 ft. on the 
northern slopes of the great mountain range which separates those 
provinces from the highlands of Persia, the flora is similar to that 
of Grisebach's " mediterranean region." At higher altitudes many 
forms of a more northern flora appear. As we approach inner 
Persia the flora rapidly makes place to " steppe vegetation " in 
the plains, while the mediterranean flora predominates in the hills. 
The steppe vegetation extends in the south to the outer range of 
the hills which separate inner Persia from the Persian Gulf and the 
Indian Ocean. Beyond this outer range and along the shore of 
the sea the flora is that of the " Sahara region," which extends 
eastwards to Sind. 

Generally speaking, everywhere, excepting in the northern 
lowlands and in a few favoured spots in the hilly districts, the vege- 
tation is scanty. In inner Persia the hills and plains are bare of 
trees, and steppe and desert predominate. The date-palm thrives 
well as far north as Tabbas in latitude 33 36' and at an altitude 
of 2000 ft. and in the south extensive date-groves, producing ex- 
cellent fruit, exist at altitudes of 2000 to 5000 ft. The olive is 
cultivated at Rudbar south of Resht in Gilan, and a few isolated 
olive-trees have been observed in central and southern Persia. 

Of fruits the variety is great, and nearly all the fruits of Europe 
are well represented. The common, yet excellent melons, water- 
melons, grapes, apricots, cherries, plums, apples, are within the 
reach of the poorest. Less common and picked fruits are expensive, 
particularly so when cost of transport has to be considered; for 
instance, a good orange costs 2d. or 3d. in Teheran, while in Mazan- 
daran (only 100 m. distant), whence the oranges are brought, it 
costs Jd. Some fruits are famous and vie in excellence with any 
that European orchards produce; such are the peaches of Tabriz 
and Meshed, the sugar melons of Kashan and Isfahan, the apples 
of Demavend, pears of Natanz, figs of Kermanshah, &c. The 
strawberry was brought to Persia about 1859, and is much culti- 
vated in the gardens of Teheran and neighbourhood ; the raspberry 
was introduced at about the same time, but is not much appreci- 
ated. Currants and gooseberries are now also grown. The common 
vegetables also are plentiful and cheap, but only a few, such as 
the broad-bean, egg-plant (Solanum melongena), onion, carrot, 
beetroot, black turnip, are appreciated by the natives, who gener- 
ally do not take kindly to newly-introduced varieties. The potato, 
although successfully cultivated in Persia since about 1780, has not 
yet found favour, and the same may be said of the tomato, asparagus, 
celery and others. Flowers are abundant, but it is only since 
the beginning of Nasr ed din Shah's reign (1848), when European 



gardeners were employed in Persia, that they were rationally 
cultivated. Nearly all the European garden flowers, even the 
rarer ones, can now be seen not only in the parks and gardens of 
the rich and well-to-do but in many unpretentious courtyards 
with only a few square yards of surface. 

Population. In 1881 the present writer estimated the popula- 
tion of Persia at 7,653,600; 1,963,800 urban, 3,780,000 rural and 
1,909,800 wandering (" Bevolkerung der Erde," p. 28; Ency. Brit. 
9th ed. p. 628); and, allowing for an increase of about i% 
per annum the population for 1910 may be estimated at 10 
millions. No statistics whatever being kept, nothing precise 
is known of the movement of the population. During the ninth 
decade of the igth century many Persian subjects emigrated, 
and many Persian villages were deserted and fell to ruins; since 
then a small immigration has set in and new villages have been 
founded. Persians say that the females exceed the males by 
10 to 20%, but wherever the present writer has been able 
to obtain trustworthy information he found the excess to be 
less than 2%. Of the deaths in any place the only check 
obtainable is from the public body-washers, but many corpses 
are buried without the aid of the public body- washers; and the 
population of the place not being accurately known, the number 
of deaths, however correct, is useless for statistical purposes. 
Medical men have stated that the number of deaths, in times 
when there are no epidemics, amounts to 19 or 20 per thousand, 
and the number of births to 25 to 40 per thousand. 

The prices of the staple articles of food and all necessaries of 
life have risen considerably since 1880, and, particularly in the 
large cities, are now very high. As salaries and wages have not 
increased at the same rate, many of the upper classes and officials 
are not so well off as formerly. By dismissing their servants in 
order to reduce expenditure, they have thrown great numbers of 
men out of employment, while many labourers and workmen are 
living very poorly and often suffer want. Tradesmen are less 
affected, because they can sell the articles which they manufacture 
at values which are more in proportion with the increased prices 
of food. In 1880 a labourer earning 25 krans, or i sterling a 
month, could afford to keep a family; by 1908, in krans, he earned 
double what he did in 1880, but his wage, expressed in sterling, was 
the same, and wherever the prices of food have risen more than his 
wages he could not afford to keep a family. In many districts 
and cities the number of births is therefore reduced, while at the 
same time the mortality, in consequence of bad and often insufficient 
food, is considerably increased. 

The description of the Persian character by C. J. Wills, in his 
In the Land oj the Lion and Sun (1883), is still worth quoting: 

" The character of the Persian is that of an easy-going man with 
a wish to make things pleasant generally. He is hospitable, 
obliging, and specially well disposed to the foreigner. His home 
virtues are many: he is very kind and indulgent to his children 
and, as a son, his respect for both parents is excessive, developed 
in a greater degree to his father, in whose presence he will rarely 
sit, and whom he is in the habit of addressing and speaking of as 
' master.' The full stream of his love and reverence is reserved for 
his mother; he never leaves her to starve, and her wishes are laws 
to him. The mother is always the most important member of the 
household, and the grandmother is treated with veneration. The 
presence of the mother-in-law is coveted by their sons-in-law, who 
look on them as the guardians of the virtue of their wives. The 
paternal uncle is a much nearer tie than with us; while men look 
on their first cousins on the father's side as their most natural 
wives. 

' Black slaves and men-nurses or ' lallahs ' are much respected ; 
the ' dayah ' or wet nurse is looked on as a second mother and 
usually provided for for life. Persians are very kind to their 
servants; a master will often be addressed by his servant as his 
father, and the servant will protect his master's property as he 
would his own. A servant is invariably spoken to as bacha ' 
(child). The servants expect that their master will never allow 
them to be wronged. The slaves in Persia have a good time; well 
fed, well clothed, _ treated as spoiled children, given the lightest 
work, and often given in marriage to a favourite son or taken as 
' segah ' or concubine by the master himself, slaves have the cer- 
tainty of a well-cared-for old age. They are looked on as con- 
fidential servants, are entrusted with large sums of money, and the 
conduct of the most important affairs; and seldom abuse their 
trust. _ The greatest punishment to an untrustworthy slave is to 
give him his liberty and let him earn his living. They vary in 
colour and value : th_e ' Habashi ' or Abyssinian is the most valued ; 
the Suhali or Somali, next in blackness, is next in price; the Bom- 
bassi, or coal-black negro of the interior, being of much less price, 
and usually only used as a cook. The prices of slaves in Shira2 
are, a good Habashi girl of twelve to fourteen 40, a good Somali 



COSTUME] 



PERSIA 



same age, half as much; while a Bombassi is to be got for 14, being 
chosen merely for physical strength. They are never sold, save on 
importation, though at times they are given away. ... I have 
never seen a Persian unkind to his own horse or his slave, and when 
overtaken by poverty he will first sell his shirt, then his slave. 

" In commercial morality, a Persian merchant will compare not 
unfavourably with the European generally. . . . To the poor, 
Persians are unostentatiously generous; most of the rich have 
regular pensioners, old servants, or poor relations who live on their 
bounty ; and though there are no workhouses, there are in ordinary 
times no deaths from starvation; and charity, though not organized, 
is general. . . . Procrastination is the attribute of all Persians, 
' to-morrow ' being ever the answer to any proposition, and the 
' to-morrow ' means indefinite delay. A great dislike is shown 
generally to a written contract binding the parties to a fixed date ; 
and, as a rule, on breaking it the Persian always appeals for and 
expects delay and indefinite days of grace. . . . 

" Persians are clean in their persons, washing themselves and 
their garments frequently. The Persian always makes the best of 
his appearance; he is very neat in his dress, and is particular as 
to the sit of his hat and the cut of his coat. All Persians are fond 
of animals, and do not treat them badly when their own property. 

" Cruelty is not a Persian vice; torture and punishments of an 
unusual and painful nature being part of their judicial system. 
There are no vindictive punishments, such as a solitary confinement, 
penal servitude for long terms of years, &c. Seldom, indeed, is 
a man imprisoned more than twelve months, the rule being that 
there is a general jail delivery at the New Year. Royal clemency 
is frequently shown, often, perhaps, with want of judgment." 

Costume. The costume of the Persians may be shortly described 
as fitted to their active habits. The men invariably wear an un- 
starched shirt of cotton, sewn with white silk, often, particularly 
in the south of Persia, elaborately embroidered about the neck. 
It fastens in front by a flap, having two small buttons or knots at 
the left shoulder, and seldom comes below the hips. It has no 
collar, and the sleeves are loose. The lower orders often have it 
dyed blue ; but the servant and upper classes always prefer a white 
shirt. Silk shirts are now seldom seen on men. Among the very 
religious during the mourning month (" Muharram ") the shirt is 
at times dyed black. The " zir-jamah," or trousers, 1 are of cloth 
among the higher classes, particularly those of the military order, 
who affect a garment of a tightness approaching that worn by 
Europeans. The ordinary " zir-jamah " are of white, blue or red 
cotton, very loose, and are exactly similar to the pyjamas worn 
by Europeans in India. They are held up by a thin cord of red or 
green silk or cotton round the waist, and the labouring classes, 
when engaged in heavy or dirty work, or when running, generally 
tuck the end of these garments under the cord, which leaves their 
legs bare and free to the middle of the thigh. The amplitude of 
this part of his attire enables the Persian to sit without discomfort 
on his heels; chairs are only used by the rich, great or Europeanized. 
Over the shirt and " zir-jamah " comes the " arkhalik," generally 
of quilted chintz or print, a closely-fitting garment, collarless, with 
tight sleeves to the elbow, whence, to the wrist, are a number 
of little metal buttons, fastened in winter, but not in summer. 
Above this is the " kamarchin," a tunic of coloured calico, cloth, 
Kashmir or Kerman shawl, silk, satin or velvet (gold embroidered, 
or otherwise), according to the time of the year and the purse and 
position of the wearer. This, like the " arkhalik," is open in front, 
and shows the shirt. It sometimes has a small standing collar, 
and is double-breasted. It has a pocket-hole on either side, giving 
access to the pockets, which are always in the " arkhalik," where 
also is the breast-pocket in which watch, money, jewels, and seals 
are kept. The length of the " kamarchin " denotes the class of 
the wearer. The military and official classes and the various 
servants wear it short, to the knee, while fops and sharpers wear 
it even shorter. Priests, merchants, villagers, especially about 
Shiraz, townsmen, shopkeepers, doctors and lawyers wear it very 
long, often nearly to the heels. Over the " kamarchin " is worn 
the " kulijah," or coat. This is, as a rule, cast off in summer, save 
on formal occasions, and is often borne by a servant, or carried over 
the shoulder by the owner. It is of cloth, shawl or camel-hair 
cloth, and is lined with silk or cloth, flannel or fur. It has, like 
the Turkish frockcoat, a very loose sleeve, with many plaits behind. 
It has lapels, as with us, and is trimmed with gold lace, shawl or 
fur, or is worn quite plain. It has a roll collar and false pockets. 

Besides these garments there are others: the long " jubba," or 
cloth cloak, worn by " mirzas " (secretaries), government employes 
of high rank, as ministers, farmers of taxes, courtiers, physicians, 
priests; the "abba," or camel-hair cloak of the Arab, worn by 
travellers, priests and horsemen; the " pustin," or Afghan skin- 
cloak, used by travellers and the sick or aged; the " nimtan," or 
common sheepskin jacket, with short sleeves, used by shopkeepers 
and the lower class of servants, grooms, &c., in winter; the " ya- 
panjah," or woollen Kurdish cloak, a kind of felt, having a shaggy 
side, of immense thickness, worn generally by shepherds, who use 
it as greatcoat, bed and bedding. There is also the felt coat of the 

1 Zir jamah are loose trousers and also drawers worn under the 
shalvar, or tight trousers. 

xxi. 7 



villager, very warm and inexpensive, the cost being from 5 to 15' 
krans (a kran= lod.). The " kamarband," or girdle, is also charac- 
teristic of class. It is made of muslin, shawl or cotton cloth among 
the priests, merchants, bazaar people, the secretary class and the 
more aged government employes. In it are carried, by literati and 
merchants, the pen-case and a roll of paper; its voluminous folds 
are used as pockets; by the bazaar people and villagers, porters 
and merchants' servants, a small sheath knife is struck in it; while 
by " farrashes," the carpet-spreader class, a large " khanjar," or 
curved dagger, with a heavy ivory handle, is carried. The headgear 
is very distinctive. The turban worn by priests is generally white, 
consisting of many yards of muslin. When the wearers are " saiyid " 
of the Prophet, a green 2 turban is worn, also a " kamarband " of 
green muslin, or shawl or cotton cloth. Merchants generally wear 
a turban of muslin embroidered in colours, or of a yellow pattern 
on straw-coloured muslin, or of calico, or shawl. The distinctive 
mark of the courtier, military, and upper servant class is the belt, 
generally of black varnished leather with a brass clasp; princes and 
courtiers often replace this clasp by a huge round ornament of cut 
stones. The " kulah," or hat, is of cloth or sheepskin on a frame 
of pasteboard. The fashions in hats change yearly. The Isfahan 
merchant and the Armenian at times wear the hat very tall. (The 
waist of the Persian is generally small, and he is very proud of 
his fine figure and broad shoulders.) 

The hair is generally shaved at the crown, or the entire head is 
shaved, a " kakul," or long thin lock, being sometimes left, often 
2 ft. long, from the middle of the crown. This is to enable the 
prophet Mahomet to draw up the believer into paradise. The 
lower orders generally, have the hair over the temporal bone long, 
and brought in two long locks turning backwards behind the ear, 
termed " zulf ."; the beaux and youths are constantly twisting 
and combing these. The rest of the head is shaven. Long hair, 
however, is going out of fashion in Persia, and the more civilized 
affect the cropped hair worn by Europeans, and even have a parting 
in it. The chin is never shaved, save by " beauty men," or 
" kashangs," though often clipped, while the moustache is usually 
left long. At forty a man generally lets his beard grow its full 
length, and cherishes it much ; part of a Persian's religious exercises 
is the combing of his beard. Socks, knitted principally at Isfahan, 
are worn; they are only about 2 in. long in the leg. The rich, 
however, wear them longer. They are of white cotton in summer 
and coloured worsted in winter. Villagers only wear socks on state 
occasions. Shoes are of many patterns. The " urussi," or Russian 
shoe is the most common; next, the " kafsh " or slipper of various 
kinds. The heel is folded down and remains so. The priests wear 
a peculiar heavy shoe, with an ivory or wooden lining at the heel. 
Green shoes of shagreen are common at Isfahan. Blacking is un- 
known to Persians generally. Boots are only used by horsemen, 
and are then worn much too large for ease. Those worn by couriers 
often come up the thigh. With boots are worn " shalwars," or 
baggy riding breeches, very loose, .and tied by a string at the ankle; 
a sort of kilt is worn by couriers. Pocket-handkerchiefs are seldom 
used, save by the rich or the Teheranis. Most Persians wear a 
" shab kulah," or night hat, a loose baggy cap of shawl or quilted 
material, often embroidered by the ladies. 

Arms are usually carried only by tribesmen. The natives of the 
south of Persia and servants carry a " kammah," or dirk. The 
soldiery, on or off duty, always carry one of these or their side- 
arms, sometimes both. They hack but never thrust with them. 
On the road the carrying of weapons is necessary. 

The costume of the women has undergone considerable change 
in the last century. It is now, when carried to the extreme of 
fashion, highly indecent and must be very uncomfortable. The 
garment doing duty as a chemise is called a " pirahan "; it is, with 
the lower orders, of white or blue calico, and comes down to the 
middle of the thigh, leaving the leg nude. Among the upper classes 
it is frequently of silk. At Shiraz it is often of fine cotton, and 
elaborately ornamented with black embroidery. With the rich it is 
often of gauze, and much embroidered with gold thread, pearls, &c. 
The head is usually covered with a " char-kadd," or large square 
of embroidered silk or cotton, folded so as to display the corners, 
and fastened under the chin by a brooch. It is often of consider- 
able value, being of Kashmir shawl, embroidered gauze, &c. A 
" jika," a jewelled feather-like ornament, is often worn at the side 
of the head, while the front hair, cut to a level with the mouth, is 
brought up in love-locks on either cheek. Beneath the " char- 
kadd " is generally a small kerchief of dark material, only the edge 
of 'which is visible. The ends of the " char-kadd " cover the 
shoulders, but the gauze " pirahan " is quite transparent. A pro- 
fusion of jewellery is worn of the most solid description, none hollow; 
silver is worn only by the very poor, coral only by negresses. Neck- 
laces and bracelets are much affected, and chains with scent-caskets 
attached, while the arms are covered with clanking glass bangles 
called " alangu," some twenty even of these being on one arm. 
Jewelled " bazubands," containing talismans, are often worn on the 
upper arm, while among the lower orders and south Persian or Arab 
women nose-rings are not uncommon, and bangles or anklets of beads. 



* Green turbans are now rarely seen ; the colour is generally dark 
blue, or black. 



194 



PERSIA 



[POLITICAL DIVISIONS 



The face on important occasions is usually much painted, save 
by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. The colour is very freely 
applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the 
neck smeared with white, while the eyelashes are marked round 
with " kuhl." This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and 
almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and 
painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are 
painted on the chin and cheek; even spangles are stuck at times on 
the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and 
in villages, and is seen among the upper classes. The hair, though 
generally hidden by the " char-kadd," is at times exposed and 
plaited into innumerable little tails of great length, while a coquettish 
little skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn. 
False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant 
and never cut ; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with 
indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair 
hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown 
ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark 
complexion termed " namak " (salt) is the highest native idea of 
beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands. 
The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any 
kind is worn. 

A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having 
tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer, 
and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very 
short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high 
heel; in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest 
of the costume is composed of the " tumbun " or " shalvar," short 
skirts of great width, held by a running string the v outer one being 
usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold 
lace, or, among the poor, of loud-patterned chintz or print. Beneath 
are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in 
texture from silk and satin to print. The whole is very short, 
among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In 
winter an over-mantle like the " kulijah," or coat of the man, with 
short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings 
are now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies 
always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South 
Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so 
fashionable as Persian embroideries (" naksh "), occupied a girl 
from childhood to marriage in making; they are all sewing in 
elaborate patterns of great beauty, worked on muslin in silk. The 
outdoor costume of the Persian women is quite another thing. 
Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil per- 
forated for two inches square with minute holes, the feet thrust 
into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecogniz- 
able, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is 
the same; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect is similar. 

As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled; 
when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women, 
and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It is a strange 
custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girls as boys, and 
little boys as girls, till they reach the age of seven or eight years; 
this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow oftener to 
avert the evil eye. 

Towns. The principal cities of Persia with their populations 
as estimated in 1908 are: Teheran (280,000); Tabriz (200,000); 
Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kerman, Resht, Shiraz 
(60,000); Barfurush, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Ker- 
manshah (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35,000); Birjend, 
Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan 
(25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardistan, Astarabad, 
Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Damghan, 
Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan, 
Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzevar, Samnan, Shahrud, 
Shushter (10,000 to 20,000). 

Political and Administrative Divisions. The empire of Persia, 
officially known as Mamalik i Mahruseh i Iran, " the protected 
kingdoms of Persia," is divided into a number of provinces, 
which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces 
and districts, are called mamlikat, " kingdom," when smaller, 
vilayat and ayalat, and are ruled by governors-general and 
governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown. 
These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats, 
districts, sub-districts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mahal, and 
towns, cities, parishes and villages, shehr, kassabeh, mahalleh, 
dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other function- 
aries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All 
governors are called hakim, or hukmran, but those of large 
provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes firman- 
firma. A governor of a small district is a zabit; a deputy- 
governor is called naib el hukumeh, or naib el ayaleh; an adminis- 
trative division is a kalamro, or hukumat. Until recently the 



principal governorships were conferred upon the shah's sons, 
brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now many of them 
are held by men who have little if any connexion with the royal 
family. Also, the governors are now, as a rule, resident in their 
provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. There are 
also some small districts or dependencies generally held in fief, 
luryitl, by princes or high functionaries who take the revenues 
in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c., and either them- 
selves govern or appoint others to do so. 

Every town has a mayor, or chief magistrate, called beglerbegi, 
" lord of lords," kalantar, " the greater," and sometimes darogha, 
" overseer," or chief of police; every ward or parish, mahalleh, 
of a town and every village has a head-man called ked khoda, 
" house-lord." These officers are responsible to the governor 
for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their towns, 
parishes and villages. In the important provinces and sub- 
provinces the governors are assisted by a man of experience, to 
whom the accounts and details of the government are entrusted. 
This person, called viziar, or paishkar, is often nominated by the 
shah, and his functions in the provincial government are similar 
to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and com- 
prise very extended administrative powers, including at times 
the command of the military forces in his province. Among the 
nomads a different system of titles prevails, the chiefs who are 
responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of their 
tribes and clans being known as ilkhani, ilbegi,(both meaning 
" tribe-lord," but the latter being considered an inferior title 
to the former), khan, mis, amir, mir, shaikh, tushmal, &c. 

The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing heredi- 
tary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for one 
year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not often 
occur that an official holds the same government for longer than 
that period, while it happens rarely that a province is governed 
by the same person for two or three years. This was not so 
formerly, when not infrequently an official, generally a near 
relation of the shah, held the same governorship for five, ten 
or even more years. The governorship of the province of 
Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of 1906, being 
always held by the Valiahd, " heir apparent," or crown prince. 

The political divisions of Persia, provinces, sub- provinces, dis- 
tricts, &c., ruled by hakims number over 200 (cf. the statement in 
Noldeke's Geschichle des ArtacKsir Papakan, " after Alexander's 
death there were in Iran 240 local governors "), but the adminis- 
trative divisions, hukumat, or kalamro, with governors appointed 
by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have been 
under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there were twenty- 
nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 1875 twenty- 
nine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 thirty-five, 
as follows : 

(a) Provinces: 

1. Arabistan and Bakhtiari. 14. Kamseh. 

2. Astarabad and Gurgan. 15. Khar. 

3. Azerbaijan. 16. Khorasan. 

4. Pars. 17. Kum. 

5. Gerrus. 18. Kurdistan. 

6. Gilan and Talish. 19. Luristan and Burujird. 

7. Hamadan. 20. Mazandaran. 

8. Irak.Gulpaigan, Khunsar, 21. Nehavend, Malayir and 

Kamcreh, Kezzaz, Fera- Tusirkhan. 

kan. 22. Savah. 

9. Isfahan. 23. Samnan and Damghan. 

10. Kashan. 24. Shahrud and Bostam. 

11. Kazvin. 25. Teheran. 

12. Kerman and Baluchistan. 26. Zerend and Bagdadi 

13. Kermanshah. Shahsevens. 
(b) Dependencies, or Fiefs: 

1. Asadabad. 6. Natanz. 

2. Dcmavend. 7. Talikan. 

3. Firuzkuh. 8. Tarom Ulia. 

4. Josehekan. 9. Kharakan. 

5. Kangaver. 

Roads. With the exception of five short roads, having an aggre- 
gate length of less than 900 m., all the roads of the country are 
mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the dry 
season, but totally unfit for continuous wheeled traffic during all 
seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause much 
damage to goods and the animals carrying them. There are a 
few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Teheran 
leading from the city to royal palaces, but not of any commercial 



POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS] 



PERSIA 



195 



importance. The five exceptions are- (i) Resht-Kazvin-Teheran, 
227m.; (2) Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m. ; (3) Teheran-Kum-Sultanabad, 
160 m. ; (4) Meshed-Kuchan-Askabad, 150 m. ; 30 of which are on 
Russian territory; (5) Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m. The first of these 
roads consists of two sections: Resht-Kazvin, 135 m., and Kazvin- 
Teheran, 92 m. The first section was constructed in 1897-1899 
by a Russian company, in virtue of a concession which the Persian 
government granted in 1893; and the second section was con- 
structed in 1878-1879 by the Persian government at a cost of 
about 20,000, ceded to the concessionnaire of the first section in 
1896, and repaired and partly reconstructed by the Russian company 
in 1898-1899. Both sections were officially opened to traffic in 
August 1899. The capital of the company is 3,200,000 roubles 
(341,330), of which 1,700,000 is in shares taken by the public, and 
1,500,000 in debentures taken by the Russian government, which 
also guarantees 5 % on the shares. About two-thirds of the capital 
has been expended on construction. The company's income is 
derived from tolls levied on vehicles and animals using the road. 
These tolls were at first very high but were reduced by 15% in 
1904, and by another 10% in 1909. If all the trade between Russia 
and Teheran were to pass over this road, the tolls would no doubt 
pay a fair dividend on the capital, but much of it goes by way of the 
Teheran-Meshed-i-Sar route, which is much shorter and has no tolls. 
The second road, Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m., was constructed by the 
same Russian company in 1903. The third road, Teheran-Kum- 
Sultanabad, 160 m., also consists of two sections: the first, Teheran- 
Kum, 92 m., the other, Kum-Sultanabad, 68 m. The first section 
was constructed by the Persian government in 1883 at a cost of 
about 12,000, purchased by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 
for 10,000, and reconstructed at a cost of about 45,000. The 
second section formed part of the " Ahvaz road concession " which 
was obtained by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 with the 
object of connecting Teheran with Ahvaz on the Karun by a direct 
cart road via Sultanabad, Burujird, Khorremabad (Luristan), 
Dizful and Shushter. The concession was ceded to Messrs Lynch, 
of London, " The Persian Road and Transport Company," in 1903. 
The fourth cart-road, Meshed Askabad, 120 m. to the Persian 
frontier, was constructed by the Persian government in 1889-1892 
in accordance with art. y. of the Khorasan Boundary Convention 
between Russia and Persia of December 1881. The Persian section 
cost 13,000. The fifth road, Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m., is the old 
mule track provided with some bridges, and improved by freeing 
it of boulders and stones, &c., at a total cost of 5500. The con- 
cession for this road was obtained in 1897 by the Bakhtiari chiefs and 
ceded to Messrs Lynch, of London, who advanced the necessary 
capital at 6% interest and later formed the Persian Road and 
Transport Company. The road was opened for traffic in the 
autumn of 1900. The revenue is derived from tolls levied on animals 
passing with loads. The tolls collected in 1907 amounted to 3100. 

Railways. Persia possesses only 8 m. of railway and 6J m. of 
tramway, both worked by a Belgian company. The railway consists 
of a single line,_one-metre gauge, from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim, 
south of Teheran, and of two branch lines which connect the main 
line with some limestone quarries in the hills south-east of the city. 
The tramway also is a single line of one-metre gauge, and runs 
through some of the principal streets of Teheran. The length 
of the main railway line is si m., that of the branches 2\. The 
main line was opened in 1888, the branches were constructed in 
1893, and the tramway started in 1889. The capital now invested 
in this enterprise, and largely subscribed for by Russian capitalists, 
amounts to 320,000. There are also ordinary shares to the amount 
of 200,000 put down in the company's annual balance-sheets as 
of no value. The general opinion is that if Russian capitalists had 
not been interested in the enterprise the company would have 
liquidated long ago. (On railways in Persia, the many concessions 
granted by the Persian government, and only one having a result, 
ch. xviii. of Lord Curzon's Persia [i. 613-639], and on the Belgian 
enterprise, Lorini's La Persia, economica [pp. 157-158] may be 
consulted.) 

Posts. Down to 1874 the postal system was in the hands of an 
official called chaparchi bashi, who was the head farmer of the post, 
or chapars, and letters and small parcels were conveyed by him and 
his agents at high and arbitrary rates and without any responsibility. 
The establishment of a regular post was one of the results of the 
shah Nasr-ed-din's first visit to Europe (1873). Two officials of 
the Austrian postal department having been engaged in 1874, an 
experiment of a post office upon European lines was made in the 
following year with a postal delivery in the capital and some of the 
neighbouring villages where the European legations have their 
summer quarters. In the beginning of 1876 a regular weekly post 
was established between Teheran, Tabriz and Julfa (Russo-Persian 
frontier) and Resht. Other lines, connecting all the principal 
cities with the capital, were opened shortly afterwards, and on the 
1st of September 1877 Persia joined the international postal union 
with the rates of 2jd. per j oz. for letters, id. for post-cards, Jd. per 
2 oz. for newspapers, &c., between Persia and any union country. 
The inland rates were a little less. There are now between Persia 
and foreign countries a bi-weekly service via Russia (Resht-Baku, 
Tabriz-Tiflis) and a weekly service via India (Bushire-Bombay). 
On the inland lines, with the exception of that between Teheran 



and Tabriz, the service is weekly. There are reported to be 140 
post offices. Statistics as to the number of letters, post-cards, 
newspapers, &c., conveyed are kept but not published; and since 
1885, when a liberal-minded director communicated those for the 
year 1884-1885 to the present writer, no others, although many 
times promised, have been obtained. In the year 1884-1885 there 
were conveyed 1,368,835 letters, 2050 post-cards, 7455 samples, 
and 173,995 parcels, having a value of 304,720; and the receipts 
exceeded the expenditure by 466. Since then the traffic has much 
increased, and the excess of receipts over expenditure in the year 
1898-1899 was reported to have been 10,000, but was probably more 
than that, for the minister of posts farmed the department for 
12,000 per annum. The farm system was abolished in 1901 and 
in the following year the post office was joined to the customs 
department worked by Belgian officials. Under the most favourable 
conditions letters from London via Russia are delivered at Tabriz 
in 9 days, at Teheran in 10, at Isfahan in 14, and at Shiraz in 18 days; 
and via India,_at Bushire in 26 days, at Shiraz in 31, at Isfahan in 36, 
and at Teheran in 40 days; but during the winter letters between 
London and Teheran sometimes take a month. In the interior 
the mails are conveyed on horseback, and, being packed in badly- 
made soft leather bags, are frequently damaged through careless 
packing and wet. The first Persian postage stamps were issued in 
1875 and roughly printed in Persia. Since then there have been 
numerous issues, many practically bogus ones for collectors. 
Authentic specimens of the early ones are much valued by stamp 
collectors. (For information on the postal system of Persia, see 
G. Riederer, Aus Persien, Vienna, 1882; Fr. Schueller, Die 
persische Post und die Postwerthzeichen von Persien, Vienna, 1893.) 

Telegraphs. The first line of telegraphs from Teheran to 
Sultameh, about 160 m. on the road to Tabriz was constructed 
in 1859. In the following year it was continued to Tabriz, and in 
1863 to Julfa on the Russian frontier. With the object of establish- 
ing a direct telegraphic communication between England and 
India, by connecting the European and Indian systems by a land 
line through Persia from Bagdad then the most easterly Turkish 
telegraphic station to Bushire and by a cable from Bushire east- 
wards, a telegraphic convention was concluded in the same year 
between the British and Persian governments, and a one-wire 
line on wooden posts from the Turkish frontier, near Bagdad, 
to Bushire via Kermanshah, Hamadan, Teheran, Isfahan and 
Shiraz, was constructed at the cost and under the supervision 
of the British government. In 1865 a new convention, providing 
for a second wire, was concluded, and for some years messages 
between Europe and India were transmitted either via Constanti- 
nople, Bagdad, Teheran, Bushire, or via Russia, Tiflis, Tabriz, 
Teheran, Bushire. An alternative line between Bagdad and India 
was created by the construction of a land line to Fao, at the head 
of the Persian Gulf, and the laying of a cable thence to Bushire. 
The service was very inefficient, ancf messages between England and 
India took several days and sometimes weeks to reach their desti- 
nation. In 1869 Messrs Siemens of Berlin, in virtue of concessions 
obtained in the year before and later disposed of to the Indo-European 
Telegraph Company, Ltd. who also took over Reuter's cable from 
Lowestoft to Emden (274 knots) constructed a two-wire line on 
iron posts through Germany and Russia, and in Persia from Julfa 
to Teheran. This line was opened on the 3lst of January 1870. 
The British government then handed the Bagdad-Teheran section, 
which had become unnecessary for international through traffic 
between Europe and India, over to the Persian government, and 
changed its Teheran-Bushire line into one of two wires on iron 
posts. In 1873, according to a convention signed December 1872, 
a third wire was added to the line, and there was then a three-wire 
line on iron posts (439 m. Indo-European Telegraph Company, 
675 m. Indian government) from Julfa to Bushire. In August 
1901 a convention was concluded between the British and Persian 
governments for a three-wire line on iron posts from Kashan (a 
station on the Teheran-Bushire line) to Baluchistan via Yezd, 
Kerman and Bam (805 m.). The construction of this " Central 
Persia line," as it is known officially, was begun in December 1902 
and completed^ in March 1907. The section Kashan-Isfahan of 
the old Teheran-Bushire was then taken up and Isafahan was 
connected with the Central Persia line by a two-wire line from 
Ardistan, 71 m. south-east from Kashan. One of the three wires 
between Isfahan and Bushire was also taken up, and there are now 
a five-wire line from Teheran to Ardistan (224$ m.), a three- wire 
line from Ardistan to the Baluchistan frontier (734 m.) and a two- 
wire line from Ardistan to Bushire (497 m.). These lines, as 
well as that of the Indo-European Telegraph Company from Julfa 
to Teheran, are worked throughout by an English staff and may 
be classed among the finest and most efficient in the world. The 
central line is continued through Baluchistan to Karachi, and from 
Bushire messages go by cable (laid in 1864) to Jask, and thence 
either by cable or by land to Karachi, Bombay, &c. The telegraphic 
convention between the British and Persian governments has 
again been renewed, and is in force until 1925; and the concessions 
to the company were prolonged to the same year by the Russian 
government in March 1900. In addition to these lines, Persia 
possesses 4191 m. of single-wire lines on wooden poles belonging 
to the Persian government and worked by a Persian staff; the 



196 



PERSIA 



[MANUFACTURES 



Teheran-Meshed line (555 m.), however, is looked after by an 
English inspector and two English clerics at Meshed, and since 
1885 the Indian government has aljowed a sum not exceeding 
20,000 rupees per annum for its maintenance; and the Meshed 
Seistan line, 523 m., is looked after by twelve Russian inspectors 
and clerks. The Persian lines are farmed out for 1,800,000 krans 
(about 36,000) per annum and no statistics are published. There 
are in all 131 stations. Statistics of the traffic on the Indo-European 
line are given in the administration reports of the Indo-European 
telegraph department, published by government, and from them 
the figures in the following table have been obtained : 



... 


Traffic over Lines 
between London 
and Karachi. 


Earnings in 
thousands of 
Pounds. 


Net Profits of the 
Government Dept. 


Number of 
Messages 
transmitted. 


Government 
Department. 


Id 


Total 
amount. 
Rupees. 


S| 

fo 

If 


1887-1888 
1892-1893 
1897-1898 
1902-1903 
1905-1906 
1906-1907 


83,031 
117,500 
146,988 
178,250 
211,003 
259.355 


74 
84 
1 06 
in 

"3 

1 08 


IOO 

116 

H5 
155 
157 
149 


198,381 
437,668 
758,172 
589-571 
774-368 
458,559 


1-75 
V8o 

6-57 
4-50 
5-39 
3'9 



Manufactures, &c. The handbook on Persian art published by 
Colonel Murdoch Smith, R.E., in 1876, with reference to the col- 
lection purchased and sent home by him for the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, has an instructive account of the more common manu- 
factures of the country. They are classified under the respective 
heads of " porcelain and earthenware," "tiles," " arms and armour," 
" textile fabrics," " needlework and embroidery," " metal-work,^' 
" wood carving and mosaic-painting," " manuscripts," " enamel," 
" jewelry " and " musical instruments." Specimens of the greater 
number are not only to be procured in England, but are almost 
familiar to the ordinary Londoner. It need scarcely be said that 
tiles have rather increased in value than deteriorated in the eyes 
of the connoisseur, that the ornamentation of metal-work, wood 
carving and inlaying, gem and seal engraving, are exquisite of their 
kind, and that the carpets manufactured by skilled workmen, when 
left to themselves and their native patterns, are to a great extent 
unrivalled. Of the above-mentioned articles, carpets, shawls, 
woollen and cotton fabrics and silk stuffs are the more important. 
Carpets may be divided into three categories: (l) Kali, with a pile, 
and cut like plush; (2) gilim, smooth; (3) nimads, felts. Only the 
two first are exported. The Kali and its smaller sizes, called 
Kalicheh (in Europe, rugs), are chiefly made in Ferahan, Sultanabad 
(Irak), Khorasan, Kurdistan, Karadagh, Yezd, Kerman, and among 
the nomad tribes of southern Persia. From the two first-mentioned 
localities, where a British firm has been established for many 
years, great quantities, valued in some years at 100,000, find their 
way to European and American markets, while rugs to the value 
of 30,000 per annum are exported from the Persian Gulf ports. Of 
the second kind, gilim (used in Europe for curtains, hangings, and 
chair-covers), considerable quantities are exported from Shushter 
and Kurdistan. The value of the carpets exported during the year 
1906^-1907 was close upon 900,000, Turkey taking 613,300, 
Rtissia 196,700, United States 40,600, Great Britain 20,700, 
Egypt 18,500 and India 5400. Shawls are manufactured in 
Kerman and Meshed, and form an article of export, principally to 
Turkey. Woollen fabrics are manufactured in many districts, but 
are not exported in any great quantity. Coarse cotton stuffs, 
chiefly of the kind called Kerbaz, used in their natural colour, or 
dyed blue with indigo, are manufactured in all districts but not 
exported ; cottons, called Kalamkar, which are made in Manchester 
and block-printed in colours at Isfahan and Kumishah, find their 
way to foreign markets, principally Russian. Of silk fabrics 
manufactured in Persia, principally in Khorasan, Kashan and 
Yezd, about 100,000 worth per annum is exported to Turkey, 
Russia and India. In the environs of Kashan and in Fars, chiefly 
at Maimand, much rose-water is made, and a considerable quantity 
of it is exported by way of Bushire to India and Java. Many 
attempts have been made to start manufactures, supported by 
foreign capital and conducted by foreigners, but nearly all have 
resulted in loss. In 1879 the Persian government was induced to 
spend 30,000 on the erection of a gas factory in Teheran, but 
work was soon stopped for want of good coal. A few years later 
a Persian bought the factory and plant for 10,000, and made them 
over in 1891 to the Compagnie generale pour 1'eclairage et le hauffage 
en Perse, which after bringing out much additional plant, and 
wasting much capital in trying for some years in vain to make 

food and cheap gas out of bad and dear coal, closed the factory, 
n 1891 another Belgian company, Societe anonyme des verreries 
rationales de Perse, opened a glass factory in Teheran, but the 
difficulty of obtaining the raw material cheaply and in large quanti- 
ties was too great to make it a paying concern, and the factory 



had to be closed. A third Belgian company, Societe anonyme 
pour la fabrication du sucre en Perse, with a large capital, then 
came to Persia, and began making beetroot sugar in the winter of 
1895. But, like the gas and glass companies, it found the cost of 
the raw material and the incidental expenses too great, and ceased 
its operations in 1899. In 1890 a Russian company started a match 
factory near Teheran with an initial outlay, it is said, of about 
20,000, but could not successfully compete with Austrian and 
Swedish matches and ceased operations very soon. A Persian 
gentleman erected a cotton-spinning factory at Teheran in 1894 
with expensive machinery; it turned out some excellent yarn but 
could not compete in price with imported yarns. 

Agricultural Products. Wheat, barley and rice are grown in all 
districts, the two former up to considerable altitudes (8000 ft.), the 
last wherever the water supply is abundant, and in inner Persia 
generally along rivers; and all three are largely exported. The 
most important rice-growing districts which produce more than 
they require for local consumption and supply other districts, or 
export great quantities, are Astarabad, Mazandaran, Gilan, Veramin, 
(near Teheran). Lenjan (near Isfahan), and some localities in Fars 
and Azerbaijan. Peas, beans, lentils, gram, maize, millet, are also 
universally cultivated, and exported Trom the Persian Gulf ports 
to India and the Arabian coast. The export of rice amounted to 
52,200 tons in 1906-1907, and was valued at 472,550. The 
Persian fruit is excellent and abundant, and large quantities, princi- 
pally dried and called khushkbar (dry fruit), as quinces, peaches, 
apricots, plums (of several kinds), raisins, figs, almonds, pistachios, 
walnuts and dates (the last only from the south), as well as oranges 
(only from the Caspian provinces), are exported. The fruit exported 
during 1906-1907 had a value of 1,019,000. Nothing is being 
done to improve the vine, and the Persian wines, until recently of 
world-wide reputation, are yearly getting thinner and poorer. 
The phylloxera has done much damage. The naturalist S. G. 
Gmelin, who explored the southern shores of the Caspian in 1771, 
observed that the wines of Gilan were made from the wild grape. 
Cotton is largely grown, principally in the central districts and 
Khorasan, and some qualities are excellent and command high 
prices in the European markets; 18,400 tons of raw cotton, valued 
at 838,787, were exported to Russia in 1906-1907. Good hemp 
grows wild in Mazandaran. Tobacco of two kinds, one the tumbaku 
(Nicotiana persica, Lindl.), for water pipes, the other the tutun 
(Nicotiana rustica, L.), for ordinary pipes and cigarettes, is much 
cultivated. The tumbaku for export is chiefly produced in the 
central districts round about Isfahan and near Kashan, while the 
tumbaku of Shiraz, Fessa, and Darab in Fars, considered the best 
in Persia, is not much appreciated abroad. Tutun is cultivated 
in Azerbaijan, near Urmia and other places near the Turkish frontier, 
in Kurdistan, and, since 1875, in the district of Resht.in Gilan. About 
1885 the quantity of tobacco exported amounted to between 4000 
and 5000 tons. In 1906-1907 only 1820 tons, valued at 42,000, 
were exported. The cultivation of poppy for opium greatly 
increased after 1880, and it was estimated in 1900 that the annual 
produce of opium amounted to over 1000 tons, of which about 
two-fifths was consumed and smoked in the country. The principal 
opium-producing districts are those of Shiraz, Isfahan, Yezd, 
Kerman, Khorasan, Burujird and Kermanshah. While the quantity 
consumed in the country is now probably the same, the quantity 
exported is much less: 239 tons, valued at 237,270 in 1906-1907. 
The value of the silk produced in Persia in the 'sixties was 
1,000,000 per annum, and decreased in consequence of silk-worm 
disease to 30,000, in 1890. The quantity produced has since 
then steadily increased and its yearly value is estimated at half a 
million. Cocoons and raw silk valued at 316,140 were exported 
in 1906-1907. Of oil-yielding plants the castor-oil plant, sesame, 
linseed and olive are cultivated, the last only in a small district 
south of and near Resht. Very little oil is exported. The potato, 
not yet a staple article of fooa, tomatoes, celery, cauliflower, arti- 
chokes and other vegetables are now much more grown than formerly, 
chiefly in consequence of the great influx of Europeans, who are 
the principal consumers. 

Among the valuable vegetable products forming articles of 
export are various gums and dyes, the most important being 
gum tragacanth, which exudes from the astragalus plant in the 
hilly region from Kurdistan in the north-west to Kerman in the 
south-east. Other gums are gum-ammoniac, asafetida, galbanum, 
sagapanum, sarcocolla and opoponax. In 1906-1907, 3310 tons of 
various gums of a value of 300,000 were exported. Of dye-stuffs 
there are produced henna (Lawsonia inermis) principally grown at 
Khabis near Kerman, woad and madder; a small quantity of 
indigo is grown near Dizful and Shushter. The export of dyes in 
1906-1907 was 985 tons, valued at 32,326. 

Horses, mules and donkeys, formerly exported in great numbers, 
are at present not very abundant, and their prices have risen 
much since 1880. Some nomad tribes who owned many brood 
mares, and yearly sold hundreds of horses, now hardly possess suffi- 
cient animals for their own requirements. The scarcity of animals, 
as well as the dearness of fodder, is one of the causes of the dearness 
of transport, and freights have risen on the most frequented roads 
from 3d. per ton-mile in 1880 to iod., and even I3d., per ton-mile. 

The prices of staple articles of food rose steadily from 1880 and 



COMMERCE] 



PERSIA 



197 



reached a maximum in 1900 and 1901, as will be seen from the 


following table : 




Average 


Price, April 


Price, June 




Price, 1880. 


1900. 


1908. 




s. d. 


i. d. 


s. d. 


Wheat, per kharvar . . 


22 6 


IO2 O 


32 o 


(649 Ib) 








Rice 


56 3 


64 o 


64 o 


Bread, ordinary, per 








mann (6J Ib) . . 


3-60 


9-60 


3-84 


Meat,mutton(per mann) 


i 2-40 


2 9-60 


i 5-28 


Cheese ,, 


I 6 


2 4-80 


I O 


Clarified butter 


2 3 


4 9-60 


5 4'8o 


Milk 


4-50 


9-60 


7-68 


Eggs, per 100. . 


i 6 


3 7-2 


3 2-40 



Forests and Timber. Timber from the forests of Mazandaran 
and Gilan has been a valuable article of export for many years, 
and since about 1870 large quantities of boxwood have also been 
exported thence; in some years the value of the timber and box- 
wood exported has exceeded 50,000. This value represented 
about 200,000 box trees and quite as many others. Much timber 
is also used for charcoal-burning, and occasionally large parts of 
forest are burned by the people in order to obtain clearings for 
the cultivation of rice. The destruction of the forests by timber- 
cutters and charcoal-burners has been allowed to go on unchecked, 
no plantations have been laid out, and nothing has been done 
for forest conservation. Indiscriminate cutting has occasionally 
been confined within certain bounds, but such restrictions were 
generally either of short duration or made for the convenience and 
profit of local governors. The oak forests of Kurdistan, Luristan 
and the Bakhtiari district are also being rapidly thinned. A small 
step in the right direction was made in 1900 by engaging the services 
of an official of the Prussian forest department, but unfortunately, 
beyond sending him to inspect the Mazandaran forests belonging 
to the Crown, and employing him to lay out a small plantation in 
the Jajrud valley, east of Teheran, nothing was done. The monopoly 
for cutting and exporting the timber of the Mazandaran forests is 
leased to European firms, principally for box and oak. Boxwood 
has become scarce. There are many kinds of good timber-yielding 
trees, the best known being alder (Alnus glutinosa, Wild., A. barbata, 
A. cordifolia, Ten.), ash (Fraxinus excelsior, L.), beech (Fagus 
sylvatica), elm (Ulmus campestris, U. effusa, U. pedunculata) , 
wych-elm (Ulmus montana), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, L.), 
juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. communis, J. sabina), maple (Acer 
insigne, Boiss., A. campestre, A. pseudo-platanus, L.), oak (Quercus 
ballota, Q. castaneaefolia, Q. sessiliflora, Q. pedunculata), wamut, 
nettle tree (Celtis australis, L.), Siberian elm (Zelkova crenata, 
Spach.), and various kinds of poplar. Pipe-sticks, from the wild 
cherry tree, are exported to Turkey. 

Fisheries. Fish is a staple food along the shores of the Persian 
Gulf, but the Crown derives no revenue from fisheries there. The 
fisheries of the Caspian littoral are leased to a Russian firm (since 
1868), and most of the fish goes to Russia (31,120 tons, value 
556,125, in 1906-1907). The fish principally caught are sturgeon, 
giving caviare, sheat fish or silure, salmon, carp, bream and perch. 

Minerals and Mining. Persia possesses considerable mineral 
riches, but the absence of cheap and easy means of transport, and 
the scarcity of fuel and water which prevails almost everywhere, 
make any exploitation on a remunerative scale impossible, and the 
attempts which have been made to work mines with European 
capital and under European superintendence have been financially 
unsuccessful. Deposits of rich ores of copper, lead, iron, manganese, 
zinc, nickel, cobalt, &c., abound. A few mines are worked by 
natives in a primitive, systemless manner, and without any great 
outlay of capital. There are turquoise mines near Nishapur (for 
description of mines, manner of working, &c., see A. Houtum- 
Schindler, Report on tire Turquoise Mines in Khorasan, F. O. Reports, 
1884, and " Die Gegend zwischen Sabzwar und Meschhed," Jahrbuch 
k. k. geol. R. A. Wien, vol. xxxvi. ; also E. Tielze, Verhandl. 
k. k. geol. R. A., 1884, p. 93); several copper mines in Khorasan, 
Samnan, Azerbaijan and Kerman; some of lead, two considerably 
argentiferous, in Khorasan, Tudarvar (near Samnan), Anguran, 
Afshar (both west of Zenjan), and Kerman; two of iron at Mesula 
in Gilan and Nur in Mazandaran; two of orpiment in Afshar and 
near Urmia ; one of cobalt at Kamsar (near Kashan) ; one of alum 
in Tarom (near Kazvin) ; and a number of coal in the Lar district, 
north-east of Teheran, and at Hiv and Abyek, north-west of Teheran. 
There are also many quarries of rock-salt, gypsum, lime and some of 
marble, alabaster, soapstone, &c. The annual revenue of the 
government from the leases, rents and royalties of mines does 
not amount to more than 15,000, and about 6000 of this amount 
is derived from the turquoise mines near Nishapur. As the rents 
and royalties, excepting those on the turquoise mines, amount to 
about one-fifth of the net proceeds, it may be estimated that the 
value of the annual output does not exceed 50,000, while the 
intrinsic value of the ores, particularly those of lead, iron, cobalt 
and nickel, which have not yet been touched can be estimated at 



millions. There are also some very rich coal seams in eastern 
Persia, far away on the fringe of the desert, and under existing 
conditions quite valueless. The richest deposits of nickel, cobalt 
and antimony ores are also situated in localities where there is little 
water and the nearest useful fuel some hundred miles away. 
Auriferous alluvial strata have been discovered in various localities, 
but everywhere the scarcity of water has been a bar to their being 
exploited with profit. A rich naphtha-bearing zone stretches 
from the Luristan hills near Kermanshah down to the Persian Gulf. 
Competent engineers and specialists have declared that borings 
in the Bakhtiari hills, west of Shushter, would give excellent results, 
but the difficult hilly country and the total absence of roads, as well 
as the antipathy of the inhabitants of the district, would make 
the transport and establishment of the necessary plant a most 
difficult matter. A British syndicate has been boring at several 
places in the zone since 1903. 

Commerce. The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz, 
Teheran, Resht, Meshed and Yezd; the principal ports Bander 
Abbasi, Lingah, Bushire and Muhamrah on the Persian Gulf, and 
Astara, Enzeli, Meshed i Sar and Bander i Gez on the Caspian. 

Until 1899 all the customs were farmed out (1898-1899 for 
300,000), but in March of that year the farm system was abolished 
in the two provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and, the 
experiment there proving successful, in all other provinces in the 
following year. At the same time a uniform duty of 5 % ad valorem 
was established. In October 1901 a treaty fixing a tariff and re- 
serving " the most favoured nation " treatment for the countries 
already enjoying it was concluded between Persia and Russia. 
It was ratified in December 1902 and came into force on the 1 4th 
of February 1903. The commercial treaty with Great Britain, 
concluded in 1857, provided for the " most favoured nation " 
treatment, but nevertheless a new treaty under which the duties 
levied on British imports would be the same as on Russian 
imports was made with Great Britain a few days before the new 
tariff came into force and was ratified in May. 

For the value of imports and exports previous to 1901 the only 
statistics available were the figures given in consular reports, which 
were not always correct. In 1897 it was estimated that the value of 
the imports from and exports to Great Britain, including India, 
amounted to 3,250,000. About a quarter of this trade passed 
over the western frontier of Persia, while three-quarters passed 
through the Persian Gulf ports. The value of the trade between 
Russia and Persia was then about 3,500,000. Since 1901 detailed 
statistics have been published by the customs department, and 
according to them the values of the imports and exports in thousands 
of pounds sterling for the six years 1901-1907 were as follows: 





Imports. 


Exports. 


Total. 


1901-1902 
1902-1903 
1903-1904 
1904-1905 
1905-1906 

1906-1907 


5429 
4970 
7000 
5832 
6441 
7982 


2738 
3388 
4632 
4132 
4886 

6544 


8,167 
8,358 
11,632 

9.964 
n,327 
14-526 



The imports and exports during the year 1906-1907 (total value 
14,526,234) were distributed as follows (values in thousands 
sterling) : 

Russia ..... 8292 

Great Britain . . .3128 

Turkey ..... 1335 

France ..... 700 

Austria ..... 277 

Afghanistan . . . 203 

Germany . . . . 182 

China ..... 142 



U.S. America 
Italy .... 
Egypt . . . 
Netherlands 
Belgium 
Switzerland 
Sweden . 
Other countries . 



65 
41 
37 
24 

22 

8 
i 



14-526 



While the value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia in 
1906-1907 was almost the same as in 1897, that of the trade with 
Russia had increased from 3$ millions to 8J or 137 %. The 
average yearly value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia 
during the six years was 2,952,185 (imports 2,435,016, exports 
517,169) ; between Russia and Persia 6,475,866 (imports 3,350,072, 
exports 3,125,794). The average values of the trade with other coun- 
tries were: France 666,000, Austria 246,000, Germany 124,000, 
Italy 79,ooo,United States of America 52,ooo,Netherlands 39,000. 

The principal imports into Persia in approximate order of value 
are cottons, sugar, tea, woollens, cotton yarn, petroleum, stuffs 
of wool and cotton mixed, wool, hardware, ironmongery, matches, 
iron and steel, dyes, rice, spices and glassware. The principal 
exports are fruits (dried and fresh), carpets, cotton, fish, rice, gums, 
wool, opium, silk cocoons, skins, live animals, silks, cottons, wheat, 
barley, drugs and tobacco. 

Shipping and Navigation. Shipping under the Persian flag is 
restricted to vessels belonging to the Persian Gulf ports. Some 
of the larger craft, which are called baglah, and vary from 50 to 
300 tons, carry merchandise to and from Bombay, the Malabar 



PERSIA 



[CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 



coast, Zanzibar, &c. ; while the smaller vessels, called bagarah, 
and mostly under 20 tons, are employed in the coasting trade and 
the pearl-fisheries on the Arabian coast. It is estimated that the 
four principal ports and the many smaller ones (as Mashur, Hindian, 
Zaidin, Bander, Dilam, Rig, Kongan, Taheri, Kishm, Hormuz, &c.) 
possess at least 100 baglahs and several hundred bagarahs, besides a 
large number of small boats. The following figures from the 
commercial statistics published by the Persian Customs Department 
show the total shipping at the four principal Persian Gulf ports, 
Bushire, Bander Lingah, Bander Abbasi and Muhamrah during 
the years 1904-1907. 





1904-1905. 


1905-1906. 


1906-1907. 


British . . . 
Persian . 
Russian 
Arabian. 
Turkish 
French . 
German. 

Total . . 


Tons. 
671,386 

36,797 
24,121 
22,487 

3.176 
2,901 


Tons. 

827,539 
25,069 
29,182 
16,749 
3,877 
57 


Tons. 
826,594 

6,425 
40,616 
7.932 
5.005 

52,935 


760,868 


902,986 


939.507 



The British shipping amounted to 89-2 % of the total shipping 
at the four ports during the years 1904-1907. There was no 
German shipping in the gulf before 1906, but in the first year of 
its appearance (1906-1907), its tonnage at the gulf ports was 
almost as much as that of all other nations with the exception of 
Great Britain. 

The shipping of 1906-1907 was distributed among the four ports 
as follows : 

Bushire . . . 354,798 tons. Bander Abbasi . 245,746 tons. 
Bander Lingah 155,720 Muhamrah . . 183,243 

Bander Lingah being the port where most of the pearls obtained 
on the Arabian coast of the gulf are brought to and exported from, 
has more native shipping (all sailing vessels) than the other ports. 

All the shipping on the Caspian is under the Russian flag 1 and 
no returns of the arrivals and departures of vessels at the Persian 
ports were published before 1906. According to the statistics 
of the customs department the shipping of the Persian ports 
amounted in 1906-1907 to 650,727 tons. The shipping at the 
principal Persian ports on the Caspian in the year 1906-1907 was: 
Astara 137,935 tons; Enzeli 202,132 tons; Meshed i Sar 90,799 
tons; Bander-i-Gez 56,135 tons. Two or three flat-bottomed sailing 
vessels navigate the lake of Urmia in north-western Persia, carrying 
merchandise, principally agricultural produce, from the western and 
south-western shores to the eastern for the supply of Tabriz. The 
navigation is a state monopoly, leased out for 250 per annum. 

Coinage, Weights and Measures. The monetary unit is the kran, 
a silver coin, formerly weighing 28 nakhods (88 grains), then reduced 
to 26 nakhods (77 grains), and now weighing only 24 nakhods (71 
grains) or somewhat less. Before the new coinage came into use 
(1877) the proportion of pure silver was from 92 to 95%; 
subsequently the proportion was for some time 90%; now it is 
about 89^%. In consequence of this depreciation of the coin- 
age and the fall in the price of silver, partly also in consequence 
of exchange transactions by banks, the value of the kran has 
since 1895 rarely been more than 4-8od., or half what it was in 
1874, and fell to less than 4d. in 1905. In 1874 the kran was worth 
a franc; in June 1908 the exchange for a i bill on London was 
50 krans which gives the value of i kran as 4$d. Taking this 
value of the kran, the values of the various nickel and silver coins 
in circulation work out as : 



Nickel Coins. 

Shahi = 2 pul . . o-24d. 
Two shahis = 4 pul . o-48d. 



Silver Coins. 

Five shahis = 1 kran . i-2od. 
Ten shahis = j kran . 2-4od. 
One kran = 20 shahis = 

40 pul .... 4-8od. 
Two krans .... 9-6od. 

In 1899 from 80 to 83 copper shahis (weighing about ft) were 
being given for one silver kran. This was owing to the depreciation 
of the copper coinage from 1896 onwards, consequent upon there 
being an excess of coinage due to the excessive quantities formerly 
put in circulation from the mint. Accordingly the government 
in 1900 replaced the copper by a nickel coinage (face value of nickel 
coin in circulation end of 1907, 4,000,000 krans). Accounts are 

1 By article v. of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813, confirmed by article 
viii. of the Treaty of Turkmanchai of 1828, it was declared that 
Russia alone should have the right of maintaining vessels of war 
on the Caspian, and that no other Power should fly the military 
flag on that sea; and by a decision of the council of the Russian 
Empire, published on the 24th of November 1869, the establishment 
of companies for the navigation of the Caspian, except by Russian 
subjects, and the purchase of shares of such companies by foreigners 
were prohibited. (State Papers, vol. Ixiii. 925.) 



640 miskals = 6-49 Ib 


720 


= 7-30 




1000 


= 10-14 




1280 


= 12-98 




2560 


= 25-96 




840 


= 8-52 




720 


= 116-80 




kharvar = ioo Tabriz mans 



kept in dinars, formerly a gold piece, now an imaginary coin T ^ 5 j 
of a kran. Ten thousand dinars are equal to one toman (a word 
meaning ten thousand), or 10 krans silver, and 50 dinars are one 
shahi. 

Gold coins are: }, J, I, 2, 5, and 10 toman pieces, but they are 
not in circulation as current money because of their ever-varying 
value in silver krans, which depends upon the exchange on London. 
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into 
24 nakhods (2-96 grains), a nakhod being further subdivided into 
4 gandum (-74 grains). Larger weights, again, are the sir (16 miskals) 
and the abbasi, wakkeh, or kervankeh (5 sir). Most articles are 
bought and sold by a weight called batman, or man, of which there 
are several kinds, the principal being: 

Man-i-Tabriz = 8 abbasis 

Man-i-Noh abbasi =9 abbasis 

Man-i-Kohneh (the old man) 

Man-i-Shah = 2 Tabriz mans 

Man-i-Rey = 4 _ 

Man-i- Bander abbasi 

Man-i-Hashemi = 16 mans of 
Corn, straw, coal, &c., are sold by kharvar = 
= 649 Ib. 

The unit of measure is the zar or gez, of which, as in the case of 
the man, there are several variants. 40-95 in. is the most common 
length for the zar, but in Azerbaijan the length is 44-09 in. Long 
distances are calculated in farsakhs, a farsakh being equal to 6000 
zar. Probably the zar in this measure =40-95 in., which makes 
the farsakh 3-87 m., but the other length of the zar is sometimes 
used, when the farsakh becomes 4-17 m. Areas are measured in 
jeribs of from 1000 to 1066 square zar of 40-95 in., the surface unit 
thus being from 1294 to 1379 sq. yds. 

Constitution and Government. Up to the year 1906 the govern- 
ment of Persia was an absolute monarchy, and resembled in its 
principal features that of the Ottoman Empire, with the excep- 
tion, however, that the monarch was not the religious head 
of the community. The powers of the Shah (Shahanshah, 2 or 
" king of kings ") over his subjects and their property were 
absolute, but only in so far as they were not opposed to the shar', 
or " divine law," which consists of the doctrines of the Mahom- 
medan religion, as laid down in the Koran, the oral commentaries 
and sayings of the Prophet, and the interpretations by his 
successors and the high priesthood. In 1905, however, the 
people began to demand judicial reforms, and in 1906 cried out 
for representative institutions and a constitution. By a rescript 
dated the sth of August Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah gave his assent 
to the formation of a national council {Majlis i shora i milli), 
to be composed of the representatives of the various classes: 
princes, clergy, members of the Kajar family and tribe chiefs 
and nobles, landowners, agriculturists, merchants and trades- 
men. By an ordinance of the loth of September the number of 
members was fixed at 162 (60 for Teheran, 102 for the provinces) 
to be raised to 200 if necessary, and elections were held soon 
after. Electors must be males and Persian subjects of not less 
than 25 years of age and of good repute. Landowners must 
possess land of at least 1000 tomans ( 200) in value, merchants 
and tradesmen must have a fixed and well-known place of 
business or shop with an annual value of not less than the 
average values in the localities where they are established. 
Soldiers and persons convicted of any criminal offence are not 
entitled to vote. The qualifications for membership are know- 
ledge of the Persian language and ability to read and write it and 
good repute in the constituency. No person can be elected who 
is an alien, is under the age of 30 years or over the age of 70 years, 
is in the employ of the government, is in the active service of 
the army or navy, has been convicted of any criminal offence, or 
is a bankrupt. 

On the 7th of October the national council, or as many mem- 
bers of it as could be got together, was welcomed by the shah 
and elected a president. This was considered as the inaugura- 
tion and formal opening of parliament. An ordinance signed 

* We see this title in its old Persian form, Khshayathiya Khshaya- 
thiy, in the cuneiform inscriptions; as BacnXeco? Baai\i> on the 
coins of the Arsacides, and as the Pahlavi Malkan Malka on the 
coins and in the inscriptions of the Sassanians. With the Mahom- 
medan conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sassanians the title 
was abolished ; it was in use for a short time during the loth century, 
having been granted to Shah Ismail Samani by the Caliph Motadid 
A.D. 900; it appeared again on coins of Nadir Shah, 1736-1747, and 
was assumed by the present dynasty, the Kajars, in 1 799. 



RELIGION] 



PERSIA 



199 



by Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah, Mahommed Ali Mirza (his successor) 
and the grand vizir, on the 3Oth of December 1906, deals with 
the rescript of the 5th of August, states the powers and duties 
of the national council and makes provision for the regulation 
of its general procedure by the council itself. The members 
have immunity from prosecution except with the knowledge of 
the national council. The publicity of their proceedings except 
under conditions accepted by the council is secured. Ministers, 
or their delegates may appear and speak in the national council 
and are responsible to that body, which also has special control 
of financial affairs and internal administration. Its sanction 
is required for all territorial changes, for the alienation of state 
property, for the granting of concessions, for the contracting 
of loans, for the construction of roads and railways, for the 
ratification of treaties, &c. There was to be a senate of 60 
members of whom 30 were to be appointed to represent the shah 
and 30 to be elected on behalf of the national council, 15 of each 
class being from Teheran and 15 from the provinces (the senate, 
however, was not immediately formed). 

By a rescript dated February 2, 1907, Mahommed Ali Shah 
confirmed the ordinance of the 3oth of December, and on the 
8th of October 1907 he signed the final revised constitution, and 
took the oath which it prescribes on the i2th of November in 
the presence of the national council. 

In accordance with the constitution the shah must belong to 
the Shiah faith, and his successor must be his eldest son, or next 
male in succession, whose mother was a Kajar princess. The 
shah's civil list amounts to 500,000 tomans (100,000). 

The executive government is carried on under a cabinet 
composed of seven or eight vizirs (ministers), of whom one, 
besides holding a portfolio, is vizir azam, prime minister. The 
vizirs are the ministers of the interior, foreign affairs, war, 
justice, finance, commerce, education, public works. 

Until 1906 the shah was assisted in the task of government by 
the sadr azam (grand vizir), a number of vizirs, ministers or heads 
of departments somewhat on European lines, and a " grand council 
of state," composed of some ministers and other members nomin- 
ated by the shah himself as occasion required. Many of the 
" ministers " would have been considered in Europe merely as 
chiefs of departments of a ministry, as, for instance, the minister 
for Crown buildings, that for Crown domains, the minister of cere- 
monies, those for arsenals, army accounts, &c. ; also an accumulation 
of several offices without any connexion between their functions, 
in the hands of a single person, was frequently a characteristic 
departure from the European model. The ministers were not 
responsible to the Crown in a way that ministers of a European 
government are; they rarely took any initiative, and generally 
referred their affairs to the grand vizir or to the shah for final 
decision. 

There were twenty-seven vizirs (ministers), but only some of 
them were consulted on affairs of state. The departments that 
had a vizir at their head were the following: court, ceremonies, 
shah's secretarial department, interior, correspondence between 
court and governors, revenue accounts and budget, finance, treasury, 
outstanding accounts, foreign affairs, war, army accounts, military 
stores, arsenals, justice, commerce, mines and industries, agri- 
culture and Crown domains, Crown buildings, public works, public 
instruction, telegraphs, posts, mint, religious endowments and 
pensions, customs, press. In addition to these twenty-seven 
vizirs with portfolios, there were some titulary vizirs at court, 
like Vizir i Huzur i Humayun (minister of the imperial presence), 
Vizir i makhsus (extraordinary minister), &c., and a number in the 
provinces assisting the governors in the same way as the grand 
vizir assists the shah. Most of these ministers were abolished 
under the new constitution, and the heads of subsidiary depart- 
ments are entitled mudir or rais, and are placed under the responsible 
ministers. 

Religion. About 9,000,000 of the population are Mahom- 
medans of the Shiah faith, and 800,000 or 900,000, principally 
Kurds in north-western Persia, are said to belong to the other 
great branch of Islam, the Sunni, which differs from the former 
in religious doctrine and historical belief, and is the state religion 
of the Turkish Empire and other Mahommedan countries. Other 
religions are represented in Persia by about 80,000 to 90,000 
Christians (Armenians, Nestorians, Greek Orthodox and Roman 
Catholics, Protestants), 36,000 Jews, and 9000 Zoroastrians. 

Society in Persia, being based almost exclusively on religious 
law, is much as it was in Biblical times among the Jews, with this 



difference, however, that there exists no sacerdotal caste. In 
Persia any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting 
its laws may act as a priest (mullah), and as soon as such a priest 
becomes known for his just interpretation of the shar' and his 
superior knowledge of the traditions and articles of faith, he 
becomes a mujtahid, literally meaning " one who strives " (to 
acquire knowledge), and is a chief priest. The mullahs are 
referred to in questions concerning religious law, hold religious 
assemblies, preach in mosques, teach in colleges, and are appointed 
by the government as judges, head-preachers, &c. Thus the 
dignitaries, whose character seems to us specially a religious one, 
are in reality doctors, or expounders and interpreters of the law, 
and officiating ministers charged with the ordinary accomplish- 
ment of certain ceremonies, which every other Mussulman, 
" true believer," has an equal right to fulfil. Formerly there 
were only four or five mujtahids in Persia, now there are many, 
sometimes several in one city Teheran, for instance, has ten; 
but there are only a few whose decisions are accepted as final 
and without appeal. The highest authority of all is vested in 
the mujtahid who resides at Kerbela, or Nejef, near Bagdad, 
and is considered by many Shi'ites as the vicegerent of the 
Prophet and representative of the imam. The shah and the 
government have no voice whatever in the matter of appointing 
mullahs or mujtahids, but frequently appoint sheikhs-ul-islam 
and cadis, and occasionally chief priests of mosques that receive 
important subsidies out of government funds. The chief priest 
of the principal mosque of a city, the masjid i jami', is called 
imam juma', and he, or a representative appointed by him, reads 
the khutba, " Friday oration," and also preaches. The reader 
of the khutba is also called khatib. The leader of the prayers 
in a mosque is the pishnamaz, and the crier to prayers is the 
mu'azzin. Many priests are appointed guardians of shrines 
and tombs of members of the Prophet's family (imams and 
imamzadehs) and are responsible for the proper administration 
of the property and funds with which the establishments are 
endowed. The guardian of a shrine is called mutavali, or, if 
the shrine is an important one with much property and many 
attendants, mulavali-bashi, and is not necessarily an ecclesiastic, 
for instance, the guardianship of the great shrine of Imam Reza 
in Meshed is generally given to a high court functionary or 
minister as a reward for long services to the state. In the 
precincts of a great shrine a malefactor finds a safe refuge 
from his pursuers and is lodged and fed, and from the security 
of his retreat he can arrange the ransom which is to purchase 
his immunity when he comes out. 

Formerly all cases, civil and criminal, were referred to the 
clergy, and until the i7th century the clergy were subordinate to 
a kind of chief pontiff, named sadr-us-sodur, who possessed a 
very extended jurisdiction, nominated the judges, and managed 
all the religious endowments of the mosques, colleges, shrines, &c. 
Shah Safi (1629-1642), in order to diminish the influence of the 
clergy, appointed two such pontiffs, one for the court and nobility 
the other for the people. Nadir Shah (1736-1747) abolished 
these offices altogether, and seized most of the endowments of the 
ecclesiastical establishments in order to pay his troops, and, the 
lands appropriated by him not having been restored, the clergy 
have never regained the power they once possessed. Many 
members of the clergy, particularly those of the higher ranks, 
have very liberal ideas and are in favour of progress and reforms 
so long as they are not against the shar', or divine law; but, 
unfortunately, they form the minority. 

The Armenians of Persia, in so far as regards their ecclesiastical 
state, are divided into the two dioceses of Azerbaijan and Isfahan, 
and, since the late troubles in Turkey, which caused many to 
take refuge in Persia, are said to number over 50,000. About 
three-fifths of this number belong to the diocese of Azerbaijan, 
with a bishop at Tabriz, and reside in the cities of Tabriz, Khoi, 
Selmas, Urmia and Maragha, and in about thirty villages close 
to the north-western frontier; the other two-fifths, under the 
diocese of Isfahan, with a bishop in Julfa, reside in Teheran, 
Hamadan, Julfa, Shiraz, Bushire, Resht, Enzeli and other towns, 
and in some villages in the districts of Chahar Mahal, Feridan, 
Barbarud, Kamareh, Kazaz, Kharakan, &c. Many Persian 
Armenians are engaged in trade and commerce, and some of 



200 



PERSIA 



[EDUCATION : ARMY 



their merchants dispose of much capital, but the bulk live on the 
proceeds of agriculture and are poor. 

The Nestorians in Persia, all living in cities and villages close to 
the Turkish frontier, numbered about 25,000 to 30,000 but many 
of them, some say half, together with two or three bishops, recently 
went over to the Greek Orthodox (Russian) Church, in consequence 
of the unsatisfactory protection afforded them by their patriarch, 
who resides in Mosul. These latter are now cared for by an archi- 
mandrite of Russian nationality and some Russian priests. 

The Greek Orthodox Catholics are represented by Russians, who re- 
side in northern Persia ; they have a church at the Russian legation 
in Teheran, and another at the Russian consulate in Tabriz. 

The Roman Catholics in Persia, Europeans and natives (mostly 
Armenians), number about three or four thousand, and have 
churches in Teheran, Julfa and Azerbaijan, served by members of 
the French Lazarist Mission. They also have some orphanages, 
schools and medical dispensaries, under the care of sisters of charity 
of St Vincent de Paul. 

The Protestants, Europeans and natives (converted Armenians 
and Nestorians), number about 6500. The religious missions 
ministering to their spiritual welfare are: (l) The board of foreign 
missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, 
which has six establishments in Persia: Urmia since 1835, Teheran 
since 1872, Tabriz since 1873, Ramadan since 1880, Resht since 
1902 and Kazvin since 1903. The establishments of Tabriz and 
Urmia form the Western Persia Mission, those of Teheran, Hamadan, 
Resht and Kazvin the Eastern Persia Mission. The former mission 
has 24 churches, 1 18 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries; the latter 
has 4 churches, 1 1 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries. (2) The 
Church Missionary Society, established in Persia since 1869. In June 
1908 it had 4 places of worship (Julfa, Yezd, Kerman, Shiraz), 
5 schools (Julfa, Isfahan, Yezd, Kerman and Shiraz). There are 
also hospitals and dispensaries for men and women at Julfa, Isfahan, 
Yezd and Kerman. The hospitals at Julfa and Isfahan have ac- 
commodation for 100 patients each, and are sometimes full to 
overflowing; the dispensaries are generally overcrowded. The 
establishment of the Church Missionary Society is under the care 
of a bishop, who resides at Julfa and is under the bishop of London. 
(3) The Anglican mission, which was established by Dr Benson, 
archbishop of Canterbury, and has its work among the Nestorians 
in Azerbaijan. (4) The London Society for promoting Christianity 
among the Jews, which was established at Teheran in 1876, and 
at Isfahan and Hamadan in 1889. It has in Teheran a church 
and a school, at Isfahan a school and at Hamadan a small school. 
(5) The British and Foreign Bible Society has been represented 
at Isfahan since 1879. 

The Jews in Persia number about 36,000, and are found in nearly 
all cities of the country, but communities with synagogues and 
priests exist only in the larger cities like Teheran, Isfahan, Yezd, 
Shiraz, Hamadan, &c. 

The Zoroastrians , commonly called " gabrs," numbering about 
9000, reside principally in the cities and villages of Yezd and Ker- 
man, and only three or four hundred live in Teheran, Kashan, 
Isfahan and Shiraz, some engaged in trade and commerce, but 
most of them employed in agricultural work and gardening. Their 
interests are attended to by a delegate who is appointed by the 
Bombay Parsis and resides at Teheran. 

The non-Mussulman Persian subjects, particularly those in the 
provinces, were formerly much persecuted, but since 1873, when 
Nasru 'd-DIn Shah returned to Persia from his first journey to Europe 
they have been treated more liberally. In cities where many non- 
Mussulman subjects reside a special official is appointed to protect 
them; and the ministry of justice has a special section to look 
after them and see that they are protected against fanaticism and 
injustice. 

Instruction. Primary schools, maktab (where Persian and a 
little Arabic, sufficient for reading the Koran, and sometimes 
also a little arithmetic, are taught to boys between the ages 
of seven and twelve), are very numerous. These schools are 
private establishments, and are under no supervision whatever. 
The payment for tuition varies 'from fourpence or fivepence to 
tenpence a month for each child. Colleges, madrasah (where 
young men are instructed, fed, and frequently also lodged 
gratuitously), exist in nearly every town. Most of them are 
attached to mosques, and the teachers are members of the clergy, 
and receive fixed salaries out of the college funds. The students 
are instructed in Arabic and Persian literature, religion, inter- 
pretation of the Koran, Mussulman law, logic, rhetoric, philo- 
sophy and other subjects necessary for admittance to the clergy, 
for doctors of law, &c., while modern sciences are neglected. 
Families who have means and do not desire their children to 
become members of the clergy, employ private tutors, and 
several have latterly obtained the services of English and French 
professors to educate their children, while others send their 
boys to school in England, France, Germany and Russia. At 



the beginning of Nasru'd-Din Shah's reign, a public school on 
the lines of a French lycee was opened in Teheran, principally 
with the object of educating officers for the army, but also of 
introducing a knowledge of Western science and languages, 
and a ministry of public instruction was created at the same 
time. Military and civilian teachers were obtained from Europe, 
and the state granted a large sum of money for the support- of 
the establishment. The tuition is gratuitous, and the pupils 
are clothed and partly fed at government expense. Some 
years later a similar school, but on a much smaller scale, was 
opened in Tabriz. After a time the annual grant for the support 
of these two schools was reduced, and during the years 1890-1908 
amounted to only 5000. The average number of pupils was 
about 250, and until the beginning of 1899 these two schools 
were the only establishments under the supervision of the 
minister of public instruction. Soon after his accession in 
1896 Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah expressed a desire that something 
more should be done for public instruction, and in the following 
year a number of Persian notables formed a committee and 
opened some schools in Teheran and other places in the beginning 
of 1898. A year later the new schools, until then private estab- 
lishments, were placed under the minister of public instruction. 
The new schools at Teheran have from 1000 to 1400 pupils. 

A German school with an annual grant of 2400 from Persia and 
of 1000 from Germany was opened at Teheran in 1907. There 
is also established a French school under the auspices of the Alliance 
Francaise. Much has been and is being done for education by the 
Armenians and the Protestant and Roman Catholic missions in 
Persia, and a large percentage of the pupils is composed of Mussul- 
mans. The Alliance Israelite has opened a school in Teheran. 
In 1907 the American Protestant mission had 129 schools with 
3423 pupils, the English Protestant missions had 5 schools with 
425 pupils, the Roman Catholic mission (Lazaristes) had 3 schools 
with 400 pupils, and the Armenians had 4 schools and 646 pupils. 
All these schools are supported by voluntary subscriptions and 
donations, and instruct both boys and girls. 

Army. Persia had no regular army until 1807, when some 
regiments of regular infantry (sarbaz) were embodied and drilled 
by the first French military mission to Persia under General 
Gardane. Since then seven other military missions (two British, 
two French, two Austrian, and one Russian) have come to Persia 
at the request of the Persian government, and many officers 
and non-commissioned officers, and even civilians, of various 
nationalities, have been engaged as army instructors. The 
last serious attempt to reorganize the Persian army was made in 
1879, when the second Austrian mission formed the " Austrian 
corps " of seven new battalions of 800 men each. These new 
battalions were disbanded in 1882. The Russian mission of 
1879 has been the most successful, and the so-called " Cossack 
brigade " which it formed has always been commanded by 
Russian officers. The brigade has a strength of about 1800 men 
and costs 50,000 per annum. The total annual expenditure 
for the army amounts to about a third of the total revenues of 
the government. 

According to statistics published for 1905 the Persian army has 
an effective force of about 91,000 men, but the number of men 
actually serving with the colours does not exceed 35,000: 

Artillery 5309 

Irregular cavalry . . 14,957 

Infantry, 79 battalions of 400-1000 men each . . 63,865 
Cossack brigade, artillery, horse and foot . . . 1800 

Road and frontier guards, horse and foot . . . 54^3 

Total 91,334 

Navy. The Persian government possesses nine steamers. 
One is the "Nasru 'd-Din," an old yacht of about 120 tons, 
presented in the 'seventies by the emperor of Russia, and 
stationed at Enzeli, the port of Resht. The others, all employed 
in the customs service in the Persian Gulf, are the following: 
The " Persepolis," built 1884, 600 tons, 450 h.p., with three 75 
cm. and one 8| cm. Krupp. The " Susa," built 1884, 
36 tons, with one Krupp. An old Belgian yacht " Sehka," 
purchased 1903 and renamed " Muzafferi," with two Hotchkiss 
guns. Five launches built in the Royal Indian Marine Docks, 
Bombay, in 1905, at a cost of 60,000 rupees each, of about 80 
tons. 



JUSTICE: FINANCE] 



PERSIA 



2OI 



Justice. By the theory of a Mahommedan state there should 
be no other courts of justice except those established for the ad- 
ministration of the shar', the " divine or written law," but in 
Persia there is another judicature, which is called 'urf and repre- 
sents the " customary " or " known and unwritten law." Justice, 
therefore, is administered by the shah and his representatives 
according; to one law and by the clergy according to another, but 
the decisions of the former must not be opposed to the fundamental 
doctrines of Islam. The shah's representatives for the adminis- 
tration of justice are the governors and other officers already 
mentioned. The officials charged with the administration of 
justice according to the shar' are judges, called sheikh-ul-islam and 
kazi (kadhi, kadi or cadi of Arabs and Turks), members of the clergy 
appointed by the government and receiving a fixed salary, but 
some cities are without regular appointed judges and the title of 
cadi is almost obsolete; decisions according to the shar' are given 
by all members of the clergy, ranging from ignorant mullahs of 
little villages and cantons to learned mujtahids of the great cities. 
If the parties to the suit are dissatisfied with the judgment, they 
may appeal to a priest who stands higher in public estimation, or 
one of the parties may induce a higher authority by bribery to 
quash the judgment of the first. Unfortunately, many members 
of the clergy are corrupt, but the mujtahids, as a rule are honest 
and entirely trustworthy. The functions of the representatives of 
the shar' are now limited to civil cases, while all criminal cases 
are referred to the 'urf, which, however, also takes cognizance of 
civil disputes, should the parties desire it. 

In criminal cases the dispensation of justice is always summary, 
and, when the offence is small, the whole procedure, including the 
examination of witnesses and criminal, as well as the decision 
and the punishment, a bastinado, is a matter of some minutes. 
For commercial cases, not paying a bill in time, bankruptcies, &c., 
a kind of jurisdiction is exercised by the minister of commerce, 
or a board of merchants, but the decisions of the minister, or those 
of the board, are rarely final. In Teheran the board of merchants 
is presided over by the malik ut tujjar, " King of Merchants," in 
the provincial cities by a person called malik amin, and muin of 
merchants. 

After his second journey to Europe in 1878 Nasru'd-DIn Shah 
desired to organize a police for the whole of Persia on the European 
system, but only a small body of police, in the capital and its 
immediate neighbourhood, was created in 1879. Its strength is 
60 mounted policemen and 190 foot, with 1 1 superior and 40 
subaltern officers. 

There is also a " Tribunal of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs," 
presided over at Teheran by an official of the foreign office, and in 
the provincial cities by the karguzars, " agents," of that depart- 
ment. The functions of this tribunal are to inquire into and judge 
differences and suits between Persian subjects and foreigners, and 
it is stipulated in the treaty of Turkmanchai, which is the basis 
of all existing treaties between Persia and other countries, that 
" such differences and suits shall only be examined and judgment 
given in the presence of the dragoman of the mission or consulate 
(of the foreign subject), and that, once judicially concluded, such 
suits shall not give cause to a second inquiry. If, however, cir- 
cumstances should be of a nature to require a second inquiry, it 
shall not take place without previous notice given to the minister, 
or the charge d'affaires, or the consul, and in this case the business 
shall only be proceeded with at the supreme chancery of the shah 
at Tabriz or Teheran, likewise in the presence of a dragoman of 
the mission, or of the consulate." (Article vii.) 

A foreign subject implicated in a criminal suit cannot be pursued 
or molested in any way unless there exist full proofs of his having 
taken part in the crime imputed to him, and should he be duly 
convicted of the crime, he is handed over to his legation, which 
either sends him back to his own country to undergo the punish- 
ment established by law, or, according to more recent usage, punishes 
him in Persia by fine, imprisonment, &c. In this respect the 
powers of the foreign representatives in Persia, now numbering 
ten (Great Britain, Russia, France, Turkey, Austria-Hungary, 
Germany, United States of America, Italy, Belgium and 'the 
Netherlands) vary considerably, some having the power of con- 
demning a criminal to death, while others cannot do more than 
fine and imprison for short periods. Suits, civil and criminal, 
between foreign subjects are altogether out of Persian jurisdiction, 
and are judged by the representatives of the foreign powers 
accredited to Persia. 

In 1889, after Nasru 'd-Din Shah's return from his third visit to 
Europe, the council of state was instructed to compile a code of 
law for the regulation of justice. A beginning was made by order- 
ing the translation of the Code Napoleon, the Indian Mahommedan 
code, and the Code Napoleon as modified for Algeria; but nothing 
further was done. 

Finance. The fixed revenues of Persia are derived from (i) 
regular taxation (maliat) composed of taxes on lands, flocks, herds, 
shopkeepers, artisans and trade; (2) revenues from Crown lands; 
(3) customs; (4) rents and leases of state monopolies. There is 
also a kind of irregular revenue derived from public requisitions, 
presents, fines, confiscations, &c., nowadays not producing much. 
The land tax, which varies according to localities, is paid in money 



and kind, and should amount on an average to about 25% of the 
yield of the soil. The taxation on flocks and herds exists either as 
a supplementary method of land taxation, or as a contribution of 
a certain sum per animal, and the tax on shopkeepers, artisans and 
trades sometimes takes the form of a poll-tax, sometimes that of 
an impost on the profits of the trades. The revenue from Crown 
lands consists of a certain proportion of the produce, and also 
varies much according to localities. Until March 1899 all the 
customs were farmed out, but since then they have been organized 
on European principles, with the help of Belgian officials. By 
treaties with Russia and Great Britain, concluded in 1001 and 1903 
respectively, the 5% duty fixed by the Turkmanchai treaty was 
abolished, and an equitable tariff was established. The revenues 
from rents and leases of state monopolies are derived from posts, 
telegraphs, mines, mint, forests, banks, fisheries, factories, &c., 
and amount to about 110,000 per annum. 

The total revenue of Persia, from all sources, amounted in 1876 
to 58,700,000 krans, in 1884 to 50,800,000, in 1890 to 60,000,000; 
and in 1907-1908 to about 80,000,000 krans. This would seem to 
show a steady increase, but when we consider that the value of 
the kran in 1876 was nearly Sfo d., and has fallen in consequence 
of the great depreciation of silver to only 4! d., the total revenue 
really decreased from 1,950,000 in 1876 to 1,600,000 in 1907- 
1908. Out of the actual total revenue 500,000 is represented by 
customs and 110,000 by rents and leases of state monopolies, 
leaving 990,000 for maliat and revenues of Crown lands. In 
1876 the two latter items amounted to about 1,600,000, while 
the two former were only 350,000 instead of 610,000 in 1907 
1908. While the prices in krans of agricultural produce, and hence 
the profits of the landowners and the wages and profits of artisans 
and tradesmen, were in 1907-1908 more than double what they 
were in 1876, the maliat, the backbone of the revenue, has hardly 
increased at all, being 50,000,000 krans (1,000,000) against 
43,200,000 krans (1,600,000) in 1876, and showing a decrease of 
over 37% in sterling money. A new assessment of the maliat, 
based upon the present value of the produce of lands and actual 
profits of artisans and tradesmen, has frequently been spoken of, 
and government, aided by a strong minister of the interior and an 
able minister of finance, ought to have no difficulty in raising the 
maliat to its proper level and the total revenues of the country 
to about two millions sterling. 

Until 1888 the yearly expenditure was less than the yearly 
income, but subsequently the revenues were not sufficient to cover 
the expenditure, and many payments fell in arrear in spite of empty- 
ing the treasury of its reserve and contracting numerous loans. 

In May 1892 the Persian government concluded a contract with 
the Imperial Bank of Persia, established by British royal charter 
in 1889, for a loan of 500,000 at 6%, repayable in the course of 
forty years, and guaranteed by the customs of Fars and the Persian 
Gulf ports. The produce of this loan served for the payment of 
an indemnity to the Imperial Tobacco Corporation, which began 
in 1890 and had to cease its operations in January 1892. In 
January 1900 the Persian government, in order to pay the arrears 
and start afresh with a clear balance-sheet, contracted a loan 
through the Banque des Pre"ts de Perse, a Russian institution 
connected with the Russian state bank, and established in 1890. 
This loan was for 22j million roubles (2,400,000) at 5% interest, 
guaranteed by all the Persian customs with the exception of those 
of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and repayable in the course 
of seventy-five years. In the contract, which was signed at St 
Petersburg at the end of January 1900, the Persian government 
undertook to redeem all its former foreign obligations (the 1892 
loan) out of the proceeds of the new loan, and not to contract any 
other foreign loan before the redemption of the new loan without 
the consent of the Russian bank. The loan was at 86f, less if 
for commission and charges, the Persian government thus receiving 
85% of the nominal capital, or 2,040,000. The bonds enjoy 
the full guarantee of the Russian government. The yearly charge 
for interest and amortization, about 124,000, is to be paid in two 
half-yearly instalments, and in the event of default the Russian 
bank will have the right to exercise effective control of the customs 
with a maximum number of twenty-five European employes. 
When the contract for the new loan was concluded, the liabilities 
of the Persian government for the balance of the 1892 loan (about 
435,000), temporary loans from various banks, arrears of pays 
and salaries, and other debts, amounted to over 1,500,000, so 
that not much margin was left. The shah's visit to Europe in the 
same year cost the exchequer about 180,000. In March 1902 the 
Russian bank agreed to grant a further loan of 10 million roubles 
on the same conditions as those of the first loan, and the whole 
amount was paid by the end of the year, but another visit of the 
shah to Europe and reckless expenditure at home made the position 
worse than before. After November 1903 the expenditure was 
reduced, and the new customs tariff which came into force on the 
I4th of February 1903 increased the revenue by nearly 200,000 
per annum; it was thought that the expenditure would not exceed 
the receipts, even if the shah undertook a third voyage in Europe 
(which he did in 1905). However, in November 1907, when_the 
national assembly or council demanded a budget and made inquiries 
as to the financial position, it was found that the expenditure for 



2O2 

some years past had been half a million sterling per annum in excess 
of the receipts and that considerable sums were owing to banks 
and commercial firms who had lent money. Most of the money 
borrowed is at 12 to 15% interest. 

Banking. It was only in 1888 that a European bank (the New 
Oriental Bank Corporation, Limited) established itself in Persia 
and modern ideas of banking were introduced into the country. 
Until then the banking was done by the native money-changers 
(sarrafs) and some merchants foreign and native who occasion- 
ally undertook special outside transactions. In 1889 the shah 
granted a concession to Baron Julius de Reuter for the formation 
of a state bank with the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes 
not exceeding 800,000 without special assent of the Persian 
government on the basis of the local currency, the silver kran. 
With the title of " The Imperial Bank of Persia " the bank was 
formed in the autumn of the same year, and incorporated by royal 
charter granted by Queen Victoria and dated the 2nd of September 
1889. The authorized capital was four millions sterling, but the 
bank started with a capital of one million, and began its business 
in Persia in October 1889. In April 1890 it took over the Persian 
business of the New Oriental Bank Corporation, soon afterwards 
opened branches and agencies at the principal towns, and issued 
notes in the same year. During the first two years the bank re- 
mitted the greater part of its capital to Persia at the then prevailing 
exchange, and received for every pound sterling 32 to 34 krans; 
but in consequence of the great fall in silver in 1893 and 1894, 
the exchange rose to 50 krans per pound sterling and more, and the 
bank's capital employed in Persia being reduced in value by more 
than one-third 100 krans, which at the beginning represented 
3, then being worth only 2 or less the original capital of one 
million sterling was reduced to 650,000 in December 1894. The 
bank has made steady progress in spite of innumerable difficulties, 
and paid a fair dividend to its shareholders. In his paper on 
" Banking in Persia " (Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1891), 
Mr Joseph Rabino pointed out the great difficulties which make 
the easy distribution of funds that is, the providing them when 
and where required a matter of impossibility in Persia, and gives 
this fact as the reason why the Imperial Bank of Persia has local 
issues of notes, payable at the issuing branches only, " for, in a 
country like Persia, where movements of specie are so costly, slow 
and difficult as to become impracticable except on a small scale, 
the danger of issuing notes payable at more than one place is 
obvious. On the 2oth of September 1907 the value of the notes 
in circulation was 395,000, and the bank held 550,000 deposits 
in Persia. 

In 1889 the shah also granted a concession to Jaques de Poliakov 
of St Petersburg for the establishment of a " Joan bank," or, as 
the original concession said, " mont-de-piete," with exclusive 
rights of holding public auctions. A company was formed in the 
same year and started business at Teheran in 1890 as the " Banque 
des PrSts de Perse." After confining its operations for some years 
to ordinary pawnbroking, without profits, it obtained the aid of 
the Russian State Bank, acquired large premises in Teheran, made 
advances to the Persian government (since 1898), and in January 
1900 and March 1902 financed the loans of 2,400,000 and l ,000,000 
to Persia. It has branches at Tabriz, Resht, Mesheol and other 
places. 

Various Armenian firms, one with branches at many places in 
Persia and Russia, also do banking business, while various European 
firms at Tabriz, Teheran, Isfahan, Shiraz and Bushire, facilitate 
remittances between Europe and Persia. 

The chief business of the native sarrafs (money-changers, bankers, 
&c.) is to discount bills at high rates, hardly ever less than 12%, 
and remit money from place to place in Persia for a commission 
amounting to from I to 5, or even 6% on each transaction; and 
in spite of the European banks giving lower rates of discount and 
remitting money at par, the majority of the people and mercantile 
classes still deal with the natives. For advances with good security 
a native sarraf charges at least 12% interest per annum; as the 
security diminishes in value the rate of interest increases, and 
transactions at 10% a month, or more than 120% per annum, 
are not infrequent. A Persian who obtains an advance of money 
at less than 12 % considers that he gets money " for nothing." 

(A. H.-S.) 

HISTORY 

A. Ancient, to the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty. 

I. The Name. "Persia," in the strict significance of the 
word, denotes the country inhabited by the people designated 
as Persians, i.e. the district known in antiquity as Persis (q.v.), 
the modern Pars. Custom, however, has extended the name to 
the whole Iranian plateau; and it is in this sense that the term 
Persia is here employed. 

II. Ancient Ethnography. In historical times we find the 
major portion of Iran occupied by peoples of Indo-European 
origin, terming themselves Aryans (Arya; Zend, Airya) and 
their language Aryan so in the inscriptions of Darius the 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 






same name, which is used by the consanguineous tribes of 
India who were their nearest relations. The whole country 
is designated Ariana (Zend, Airyana) " the land Descent 
of the Aryans " the original of the Middle-Persian of the 
Eran and the modern Iran; the Greek geo- Iranians. 
graphers Eratosthenes and Strabo were in error when they 
limited the name to the eastern districts of Iran. Thus the 
name of Iranians is understood to comprehend all these people 
of Aryan nationality. 

Besides the Iranians, numerous tribes of alien origin were 
found in Iran. In Baluchistan, even yet, we find side by side 
with the eponymous Iranian inhabitants, who 
only penetrated thither a few centuries ago, t 
ethnologically and philologically distinct race of 
the Brahui, who are probably connected with the Dravidians 
of India. In them we may trace the original population of 
these districts; and to the same original population may be 
assigned the tribes here settled in antiquity: the Paricanii and 
Gedrosii (Gadrosii), and the Myci (Herod, iii. 93, vii. 68; the 
Maka of Darius, the modern Mekran), to whom the name 
" Aethiopians " is also occasionally applied (Herod, iii. 94, vii. 
70). In Media the Greek geographers mention a people of 
Anariacae (Strabo xi. 508, 514; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 48; Ptolem. 
vi. 25; in Polyb. v. 44. 9, 'Aciapa/cai), i.e. " Non-Aryans." To 
these the Tapuri, Amardi, Caspii, and especially the Cadusii or 
Gelae situated in Ghilan on the Caspian probably belonged. 
Presumably they were also related to the tribes of Armenia and 
the Caucasus. In the chains of Zagros we find, in Babylonian 
and Assyrian times, no trace of Iranians; but partly Semitic 
peoples the Gutaeans, Lulubaeans, &c. partly tribes that 
we can refer to no known ethnological group, e.g. the Cossaei 
(see below), and in Elymais or Susiana the Elymaeans 
(Elamites). 

That the Iranians must have come from the East to their 
later home, is sufficiently proved by their close relationship to 
the Indians, in conjunction with whom they pre- Iranians 
viously formed a single people, bearing the name and Aryan 
Arya. Their residence must have lain chiefly in l" dlans - 
the great steppe which stretches north of the Black Sea and 
the Caspian, through South Russia, to Turan (Turkestan) 
and the Oxus and Jaxartes. For here we continually discover 
traces of Iranian nationality. The names and words of the 
Scythians (Scoloti) in South Russia, which Herodotus has 
preserved, are for the most part perfectly transparent Iranian 
formations, identified by Zeuss and Mullenhoff ; among them are 
many proper names in Aria-(A.pto-) and aspa (-horse-aoTros; 
Zend, aspa). The predatory tribes of Turan (e.g. the Massa- 
getae) seem to have belonged to the same stock. These 
tribes are distinguished by the Iranian peasants as Daha (Gr. 
Adat), "enemies," "robbers"; by the Persians as Sacae; and 
by the Greeks generally as Scythians. 

From the region of the steppes the Aryans must have pene- 
trated into the cultivable land of Eastern Iran: thence one part 
spread over the district of the Indus, then on again to the Ganges; 
another moved westward to Zagros and the borders of the 
Semitic world. 

The date of this migration cannot yet be determined with 
certainty. We know only that the Aryans of India- already 
occupied the Punjab in the Vedic era, c. 1600 B.C. i^rioti 
On the other hand, about the same period a number of the 
of names, undoubtedly Iranian, made their appear- Iranian 
ance in Western Asia, (cf. Edward Meyer, " Zur M '*"" 
altesten Geschichte der Iranier," in Zeilschrift fur vergleichende 
Sprochforsckung, 1907). In the cuneiform letters from Tell 
el-Amarna in Egypt (1400 B.C.), we find among the princelings 
of Syria and Palestine names like Artamanya, Arzawiya, Shu- 
wardata, a name terminating in -warzana, &c.; while the kings 
of Mitanni on the Euphrates are Artalama, Shutarna, Arta- 
shumara, and Dushralta names too numerous and too genuinely 
Iranian to allow of the hypothesis of coincidence. Later still, 
in the Assyrian inscriptions we occasionally meet with Iranian 
names borne by North-Syrian princes e.g. Kundaspi and 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



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203 



Kustaspi ( = Hystaspis). Their subjects, on the contrary, 
speak absolutely different tongues: for the attempts to explain 
the languages of the Cossaeans, Mitannians, and Arzapians as 
Indo-European (Iranian) have ended in failure (cf. Blomfield 
in the American Journal of Philology, xxv. p. i sqq.). 

It appears, then, that towards the middle of the second 
millennium before Christ, the Iranians made a great forward 
movement to the West, and that certain of their princes at first, 
probably in the role of mercenary leaders reached Mesopotamia 
and Syria and there founded principab'ties of their own, much as 
did the Germans under the Roman Empire, the Normans, 
Turks, &c. With this we may probably connect the well-known 
fact that it was about this very period (1700 B.C. approximately) 
that the horse made its appearance in Babylonia, Egypt and 
Greece, where for centuries subsequently its use was confined to 
war and the war-chariot. Before this it was as foreign to the 
Babylonians, even in the time of Khammurabi, as to the Egyp- 
tians under the Xllth Dynasty. On the other hand, it had 
been familiar to the Aryans from time immemorial: indeed they 
have always been peculiarly a people of riders. Thus it is 
quite conceivable that they brought it with them into Western 
Asia: and the quarter from which it came is sufficiently indicated 
by the fact that the Babylonians write the word " horse " with 
a group of signs denoting "ass of the East." 

Of the Assyrian kings, Shalmaneser (Salmanassar) II. was 
the first to take the field against the Medes in 836 B.C., and from 
that period onwards they are frequently mentioned in the 
Assyrian annals. Sargon penetrated farthest, receiving in 
7 1 S B.C. the tribute of numerous Median town-princes. He gives 
a list of their names, twenty-three of which are preserved either 
wholly or in part, and almost all are unmistakably Iranian; 
as is also the case with those preserved by Esar^haddon 
(Assarhaddon) and elsewhere. 

The Medes, then, were an Iranian nation, already occupying 
in the gth century B.C. their later home in the centre of the 
Median highland. On the other hand, among their neighbours 
in Zagros and the north corresponding to the Anariacae 
(Non-Aryans) of the Greeks Iranian names are at best isolated 
phenomena. With other Iranian tribes the Assyrians never 
came in contact: for the oft-repeated assertion, that the Parsua, 
so prominent in their annals, were the Persians or the Parthians, 
is quite untenable. The Parsua of the Assyrians are located 
south of Lake Urmia, and can hardly have been Iranians. 

None the less, the Assyrian statements with regard to the 
Medes demonstrate that the Iranians must have reached the 
west of Iran before 900 B.C. It is probable that at this period 
the Persians also were domiciled in their later home, even 
though we have no direct evidence to adduce. If this reasoning 
is correct, the Iranian immigration must be assigned to the 
first half of the second pre-Christian millennium. 

The Aryans of Iran are divided into numerous tribes; these, 
again, being subdivided into minor tribes and clans. The 
Tribes principal, according to the inscriptions of Darius 
of the which closely agree with Herodotus are the 
Iranians, following, several of them being also enumerated 
in the Avesta: 

1. The Medes (Mada) in the north-west (see MEDIA). 

2. The Persians (Parsa) in the south (see PERSIS). To these 
belong the Carmanians and the Utians (Yutiya), who are mentioned 
expressly by Darius as inhabiting a district in Persis (Beh. III. 40). 

3. The Hyrcanians (Varkdna in Darius, Zend Vehrkdna) on the 
eastern corner of the Caspian, in the fertile district of Astarabad. 

4. The Parthians (Parthyaei; Pers. Parthava) in Khorasan (see 
PARTHIA). 

5. The Arians ("AptToi, Pers. Haraiva), in the vicinity of the 
river Arius (Heri-rud) , which derived its name from them. This 
name, which survives in the modern Herat, has of course no 
connexion with that of the Aryans. 

6. The Drangians (Zaranka in Darius, Sarangians in Herod, 
iii. 93, 117, vii. 67), situated south of the Arians, in the north-west 
of Afghanistan (Arachosia} by the western affluents of Lake Hamun, 
and extending to the present Seistan. 

7. Arachotians (Pers. Haramati) , in the district of the Helmand 
and its tributaries, round Kandahar. They are mentioned in the 
lists of Darius, also by the Greeks after Alexander. In Herodotus 
their place is taken by the Pactyans, whose name survives to the 



present day in the word Pushtu, with which the Afghans denote 
their language (Herod, iii. 102, iv. 44, vii. 67, 85). Probably it was 
the old tribal name; Arachosia being the local designation. The 
Thamanaeans, who appear in Herodotus (iii. 93, 117), must be 
classed with them. 

8. The Bactrians (Pers. Bdkhtri), on the northern declivity of 
the Hindu Kush, as far as the Oxus. Their capital was Bactra, 
the modern Balkh (see BACTRIA). 

9. The Sogdians (Pers. Sugudu), in the mountainous district 
between the Oxus and Jaxartes. 

10. The Chorasmians (Khwarizmians, Pers. Uvarazmiya), in 
the great oasis of Khiva, which still bears the name Khwarizm. 
They stretched far into the midst of the nomadic tribes. 

11. The Margians (Pers. Margu), on the river Margus (Murghab) ; 
chiefly inhabiting the oasis of Merv, which has preserved their name. 
Darius mentions the district of Margu but, like Herodotus, omits 
them from his list of peoples; so that ethnographically they are 
perhaps to be assigned to the Arians. 

12. The Sagartians (Pers. Asagarta) ; according to Herodotus 
(vii. 85), a nomadic tribe of horsemen; speaking, as he expressly 
declares, the Persian language. Hence he describes them (i. 125) 
as a subordinate nomad clan of the Persians. They, with the 
Drangians, Utians and Myci, formed a single satrapy (Herod, 
iii. 93). Ptolemy (vi. 2, 6) speaks of Sagartians in the Eastern 
Zagros in Media. 

13. We have already touched on the nomadic peoples (Daha, 
Dahans) of Iranian nationality, who occupied the steppes of 
Turkestan as far as the Sarmatians and Scythians of South Russia. 
That these were conscious of their Aryan origin is proved by the 
names Ariantas and Ariapeithes borne by Scythian (Scolot) kings 
(Herod, iv. 76, 87). Still they were never counted as a portion of 
Iran or the Iranians. To the settled peasantry, these nomads of 
the steppe were always " the enemy " (dana, daha, Ad<u, Dahae). 
Side by side with this name we find " Turan " and " Turanian "; 
a designation applied both by the later Persians and by modern 
writers to this region. The origin of the word is obscure, derived 
perhaps from an obsolete tribal name. It has no connexion what- 
ever with the much later " Turks," who penetrated thither in the 
6th century after Christ. Though found neither in the inscriptions 
of Darius nor in the Greek authors, the name Turan must never- 
theless be of great antiquity; for not merely is it repeatedly found 
in the Avesta, under the form Turn, but it occurs already in a 
hymn, which, without doubt, originates from Zoroaster himself, 
and in which " the Turanian Fryana " and his descendants are 
commemorated as faithful adherents of the prophet (Yasna, 46, 62). 

The dividing line between Iranian and Indian is drawn by 
the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of the Indus 
district. The valley of the Kabul (Copheri) is already occupied 
by Indian tribes, especially the Gandarians; and the Satagydae 
(Pers. Thatagu) there resident were presumably also of Indian 
stock. The non-Aryan population of Iran itself has been 
discussed above. Of its other neighbours, we must here mention 
the Sacae, a warlike equestrian people in the mountains of the 
pamir plateau and northward; who are probably of Mongol 
origin. Herodotus relates that the Persians distinguished " all 
the Scythians " i.e. all the northern nomads as Sacae; and 
this statement is confirmed by the inscriptions of Darius. The 
Babylonians employ the name Gimiri (i.e. Cimmerians) in the 
same sense. 

III. Civilization and Religion of the Iranians. In the period 
when the ancestors of Indian and Iranian alike still formed 
a single nation that of the Aryans they developed 
a very marked character, which can still be distinctly 
traced, not only in their language, but also in their 
religion and in many views common to both peoples. A great 
number of gods Asura, Mithras, the Dragon-slayer Vereth- 
raghna (the Indra of the Indians), the Water-shoot Apam napat 
(the lightning), &c. date from this era. So, too, fire-worship, 
especially of the sacrificial flame; the preparation of the intoxicat- 
ing soma, which fills man with divine strength and uplifts him 
to the gods; the injunction to " good thoughts and good works," 
imposed on the pious by Veda and Avesta alike: the belief in 
an unwavering order (rta) a law controlling gods and men and 
dominating them all; yet with this, a belief in the power of 
magical formulae (mantra), exclamations and prayers, to whose 
compulsion not merely demons (the evil spirits of deception 
druti) but even the gods (daeva) must submit; and, lastly, the 
institution of a priesthood of fire-kindlers (athravan), who are 
at once the repositories of all sacral traditions and the mediators 
in all intercourse between earth and heaven. The transition, 
moreover, to settled life and agriculture belongs to the Aryan 



204 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



" 



period; and to it may be traced the peculiar sancitity of the 
cow in India and Persia. For the cow is the animal which 
voluntarily yields nourishment to man and aids him in his 
daily labours, and on it depends the industry of the peasant 
as contrasted with the wild desert brigand to whom the cow is 
unknown. 

Very numerous are the legends common to both nations. 
These, in part, are rooted in the primeval Indo-European days, 
though their ultimate form dates only from the Aryan epoch. 
Foremost among them is the myth relating the battle of a sun- 
god (Ind. Trita, generally replaced by Indra, Iran. Thraetona) 
against a fearful serpent (Ind. Ahi, Iran. Azhi; known moreover 
as Vrtra) : also, the legend of Yama, the first man, son of Vivas- 
vant, who, after a long and'blessed life in the happy years of the 
beginning, was seized by death and now rules in the kingdom 
of the departed. Then come a host of other tales of old-world 
heroes; as the " Glorious One " (Ind. Sushrava, Pers. Husrava, 
Chosrau or Chosroes), or the Son who goes on a journey to seek 
his father, and, unknown, meets his end at his hands. 

These legends have lived and flourished in Iran at every period 
of itsjiistory; and neither the religion of Zoroaster, nor yet Islam, 
has availed to suppress them. Zoroastrianism at 
least in that form in which it became the dominant 
creed of the Iranians legitimized not only the old 
gods, but the old heroes also; and transformed them into pious 
helpers and servants of Ahuramazda; while the creator of the 
great national epic of Persia, Firdousi ^.0.935-1020), displayed 
astonishing skill in combining the ancient tradition with Islam. 
Through his poem, this tradition is perfectly familiar to every 
Persian at the present day; and the primitive features of tales, 
whose origin must be dated 4000 years ago, are still preserved 
with fidelity. This tenacity of the Saga stands in the sharpest 
contrast with the fact that the historical memory of the Persian 
is extremely defective. Even the glories of the Achaemenid 
Empire faded rapidly, and all but completely, from recollection; 
so also the conquest of Alexander, and the Hellenistic and 
Parthian eras. In Firdousi, the legendary princes are followed, 
almost without a break, by Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid 
dynasty: the intervening episode of Darius and Alexander 
is not drawn from native tradition, but borrowed from Greek 
literature (the Alexander-romance of the Pseudo-Callisthenes) 
in precisely the same way as among the nations of the Christian 
East in the middle ages. 1 

Needless to say, however, this long period saw the Saga much 
recast and expanded. Many new characters Siyawush, Rus- 
tam, &c. have swelled the original list: among them is King 
Gushtasp (Vishtaspa). the patron of Zoroaster, who was known 
from the poems of the prophet and is placed at the close of the 
legendary age. The old gods and mythical figures reappear 
as heroes and kings, and their battles are fought no longer in 
heaven but upon earth, where they are localized for the most 
part in the east of Iran. In other words, the war of the gods 
has degenerated to the war between Iranian civilization and 
the Turanians. Only the evil serpent Azhi Dahaka (Azhdahak) 
is domiciled by the Avesta in Babylon (Baivri) and depicted 
on the model of Babylonian gods and demons: he is a king in 
human form with a serpent growing from either shoulder and 
feeding on the brains of men. In these traits are engrained 
the general conditions of history and culture, under which the 
Iranians lived: on the one hand, the contrast between Iranian 
and Turanian; on the other, the dominating position of Babylon, 
which influenced most strongly the civilization and religion of 
Iran. It is idle, however, to read definite historical events into 
such traits, or to attempt, with some scholars, to convert them 
into history itself. We cannot deduce from them a conquest of 
Iran from Babylon: for the Babylonians never set foot in Iran, 
and even the Assyrians merely conquered the western portion 
of Media. Nor yet can we make the favourite assumption of 
a great empire in Bactria. On the contrary, it is historically 

1 The fundamental work on the history of the Iranian Saga is 
Noldeke., Das iranische Nationalepos 1896 (reprinted from the 
Grundriss der iran. Philologie, ii.). 



evident that before the Achaemenids there were in Bactria 
only small local principalities of which Vishtaspa 's was one: 
and it is possible that the primeval empire of the Saga is only a 
reflection of the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires of reality, 
whose existence legend dates back to the beginning of the world, 
simply because legend is pervaded by the assumption that the 
conditions obtaining in the present are the natural conditions, 
and, as such, valid for all time. 

Closely connected as are the Mythology and Religion of 
Indian and Iranian, no less clearly marked is the fundamental 
difference of intellectual and moral standpoint, , 

' Difference 

which has led the two nations into opposite paths between the 
of history and culture. The tendency to religious Iranian ana 
thought and to a speculative philosophy, compre- taataa 
bending the world as a whole, is shared by both and *"*""' 
is doubtless an inheritance from the Aryan period. But with 
the Indians this speculation leads to the complete abolition of 
all barriers between God and man, to a mystic pantheism, and to 
absorption in the universal Ego, in contrast with which the world 
becomes an unsubstantial phantasm and sinks into nothingness. 
For the Iranian, on the contrary, practical life, the real world, 
and with them the moral commandment, fill the foreground. 
The new gods created by Iran are ethical powers; those of India, 
abstractions of worship (brahman) or of philosophy (atman). 
These fundamental features of Iranian sentiment encounter 
us not only in the doctrine of Zoroaster and the confessions of 
Darius, but also in that magnificent product of the Persia of 
Islam the Sufi mysticism. This is pantheistic, like the Brahman 
philosophy. But the pantheism of the Persian is always positive, 
affirming the world and life, taking joy in them, and seeking 
its ideal in union with a creative god: the pantheism of the 
Indian is negative denying world and life, and descrying its 
ideal in the cessation of existence. 

This contrast in intellectual and religious life must have 
developed very early. Probably, in the remote past violent 
religious disputes and feuds broke out : for otherwise it is almost 
inexplicable that the old Indo-European word, which in India, 
also, denotes the gods deva should be applied by the Iranians 
to the malignant demons or devils (daeva; mod. diii); while 
they denote the gods by the name bhaga. Conversely the 
Asuras, whose name in Iran is the title of the supreme god 
(ahura, aura), have in India degenerated to evil spirits. It is 
of great importance that among the Slavonic peoples the same 
word bogu distinguishes the deity; since this points to ancient 
cultural influences on which we have yet no more precise informa- 
tion. Otherwise, the name is only found among the Phrygians, 
who, according to Hesychius, called the Heaven-god (Zeus) 
Bagaeus; there, however, it may have been borrowed from the 
Persians. We possess no other evidence for these events; the 
only document we possess for the history of Iranian religion is 
the sacred writing, containing the doctrines of the prophet who 
gave that religion a new form. This is the Avesta, the Bible of 
the modern Parsee, which comprises the revelation of Zoroaster. 

As to the home and time of Zoroaster, the Parsee tradition 
yields us no sort of information which could possibly be of his- 
torical service. Its contents, even if they go back _ 
to lost parts of the Avesta, are merely a late patch- ' 
work, based on the legendary tradition and devoid of historical 
foundation. The attempts of West (Pahlavi Texts Translated, 
vol. v.) to turn to historical account the statements of the 
Bundahish and other Parsee books, which date Zoroaster at 
258 years before Alexander, are, in the present writer's opinion, 
a complete failure. Jackson (Zoroaster, the Prophet oj Ancient 
Iran, 1901) sides with West. The Greek theory, which rele- 
gates Zoroaster to the mists of antiquity, or even to the period 
of the fabulous Ninus and Semiramis, is equally valueless. 
Even the statement that he came from the north-west of Media 
(the later Atropatene), and his mother from Rai (Rhagae) in 
eastern Media, must be considered as problematic in the extreme. 
Our only trustworthy information is to be gleaned from his own 
testimony and from the history of his religion. And here we 
may take it as certain that the scene of his activity was laid in 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



205 



the east of Iran, in Bactria and its neighbouring regions. The 
contrast there existing between peasant and nomad is of vital 
consequence for the whole position of his creed. Among the 
adherents whom he gained was numbered, as already mentioned, 
a Turanian, one Fryana and his household. The west of Iran 
is scarcely ever regarded in the Avesta, while the districts and 
rivers of the east are often named. The language, even, is 
markedly different from the Persian; and the fire-priests are 
not styled Magians as in Persia the word indeed never occurs 
in the Avesta, except in a single late passage but athravan, 
identical with the athanan of India (irvpaidoi, " fire-kindlers," 
in Strabo xv. 733). Thus it cannot be doubted that the king 
Vishtaspa, who received Zoroaster's doctrine and protected 
him, must have ruled in eastern Iran: though strangely enough 
scholars can still be found to identify him with the homonymous 
Persian Hystaspes, the father of Darius. The possibility that 
Zoroaster himself was not a native of East Iran, but had immi- 
grated thither (from Rhagae?), is of course always to be con- 
sidered; and this theory has been used to explain the pheno- 
menon that the Gathas, of his own composition, are written in 
a different dialect from the rest of the Avesta. On this 
hypothesis, the former would be his mother-tongue: the latter 
the speech of eastern Iran. 

This district is again indicated as the starting-point of Zoro- 
astrianism, by the fact that dead bodies are not embalmed and 
then interred, as was usual, for instance, in Persia, but cast 
out to the dogs and birds (cf. Herod, i. 140), a practice, as is 
well known, strictly enjoined in the Avesta, ruthlessly executed 
under the Sassanids, and followed to the present day by the 
Parsees. The motive of this, indeed, is to be found in the 
sanctity of Earth, which must not be polluted by a corpse; but 
its origin is evidently to be traced in a barbaric custom of 
nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes who leave the dead to lie on the 
steppe; and we know from Greek sources that this custom was 
widely diffused among the tribes of eastern Iran. 

The next clue towards determining the period of Zoroaster 
is, that Darius I. and all his successors, as proved by their 
inscriptions and by Greek testimony, were zealous adherents of 
the pure word of Zoroastrianism; which consequently must 
already have been accepted in the west of Iran. That Cyrus 
too owned allegiance to the creed, cannot be doubted by an 
unprejudiced mind, although in the dearth of contemporary 
monuments we possess no proof at first hand. The Assyrian 
inscriptions demonstrate, however, that Zoroaster's teaching 
was dominant in Media two centuries before Cyrus. For in 
the list of Median princes, to which we have already referred, 
are two bearing the name of Mazdaka evidently after the god 
Mazda. Now this name was the invention of Zoroaster himself; 
and he who names himself after Mazda thereby makes a con- 
fession of faith in the religion of Zoroaster whose followers, 
as we know, termed themselves Mazdayasna, " worshippers of 
Mazda." 

Thus, if the doctrine of Zoroaster predominated in Media 
in 714 B.C., obviously his appearance in the role of prophet 
must have been much earlier. A more definite date cannot be 
deduced from the evidence at our disposal, but his era may 
safely be placed as far back as 1000 B.C. 

The religion which Zoroaster preached was the creation of a 
single man, who, having pondered long and deeply the problems 
of existence and the world, propounded the solution he found as 
a divine revelation. Naturally he starts from the old views, and 
is indebted to them for many of his tenets and ideas; but out of 
this material he builds a uniform system which bears throughout 
the impress of his own intellect. In this world, two groups of 
powers confront each other in a truceless war, the powers of Good, 
of Light, of creative Strength, of Life and of Truth, and the powers of 
Evil, of Darkness, Destruction, Death and Deceit. In the van 
of the first stands the Holy Spirit (spenta mainyu) or the " Great 
Wisdom " Mazdao. His helpers and vassals are the six powers of 
Good Thought (vohu mano, 'Quarts'), of Right Order (asha, Ind. 
rta, Pers. arta, " lawfulness "), of the Excellent Kingdom (khshathra 
vairya), of Holy Character (spenta armaiti), of Health (haurvatat) , 
and of Immortality (ameretat). These are comprised under the 
general title of " undying holy ones " (amesha spenta, amshaspand) ; 
and a host of subordinate angels (yazata) are ranked with them. 



The powers of evil are in all points the opposite of the good ; at their 
head being the Evil Spirit (angra mainyu, Ahriman). These evil 
demons are identical with the old gods of the popular faith the 
devas (div) while Mazdao bears the name Ahura, above discussed; 
whence Ahuramazda (Ormuzd). 

From this it will be manifest that the figures of Zoroaster's 
religion are purely abstractions; the concrete gods of vulgar belief 
being set aside. All those who do not belong to the devils (devas), 
might be recognized as inferior servants of Ahuramazda: chief 
among them being the Sun-god Mithras (see MITHRAS) ; the goddess 
of vegetation and fertility, especially of the Oxus-stream, Anahita 
Ardvisura (Anaitis); and the Dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Gr. 
Artagnes), with the god of the intoxicating Haoma (the Indian 
Soma). In the religion of the people, these divinities always 
survived ; and the popularity of Mithras is evinced by the numerous 
Aryan proper names thence derived (Mithradates, &c.). The 
educated community who had embraced the pure doctrine in its 
completeness scarcely recognized them, and the inscriptions of 
Darius ignore them. Only once he speaks of " the gods of the 
clans," and once of " the other gods which there are." Not till 
the time of Artaxerxes II. were Mithra and Anaitis received into 
the official religion of the Persian kings. But they always played 
a leading part in the propaganda of the Persian cults in the West. 

Only one element in the old Aryan belief was preserved by Zoro- 
aster in all its sanctity: that of Fire the purest manifestation of 
Ahuramazda and the powers of Good. Thus fire-altars were every- 
where erected; and, to the prophet also, the Fire-kindlers (athravan) 
were the ministers and priests of the true religion and the inter- 
mediaries between God and man; at last in the popular mind, 
Zoroastrianism was identified with Fire-worship pure and simple, 
inadequate though the term in reality is, as a description of its 
essentials. 

Midway in this opposition of the powers of Good and Evil, man 
is placed. He has to choose on which side he will stand : he is called 
to serve the powers of Good : his duty lies in speaking the truth 
and combating the lie. And this is fulfilled when he obeys the com- 
mands of law and the true order; when he tends his cattle and 
fields, in contrast with the lawless and predatory nomad (Dahae) ; 
when he wars on all harmful and evil creatures, and on the devil- 
worshippers; when he keeps free from pollution the pure creations 
of Ahuramazda fire foremost, but also earth and water; and, 
above all, when he practises the Good and True in thought, word 
and work. And as his deeds are, so shall be his fate and his future ' 
lot on the Day of Judgment; when he must cross the Bridge Cinvat, 
which, according to his works, will either guide him to the Paradise 
of Ahuramazda or precipitate him to the Hell of Ahriman. Obvi- 
ously, it was through this preaching of a judgment to come and a 
direct moral responsibility of the individual man, that, like Mahomet 
among the Arabs, Zoroaster and his disciples gained their adherents 
and exercised their greatest influence. 

In this creed of Zoroastrianism three important points are 
especially to be emphasized : for on them depend its peculiar charac- 
teristics and historical significance : 

1. The abstractions which it preaches are not products of meta- 
physical speculation, as in India, but rather the ethical forces 
which dominate human life. They impose a duty upon man, and 
enjoin on him a positive line of action a definite activity in the 
world. And this world he is not to eschew, like the Brahman and 
the Buddhist, but to work in it, enjoying existence and life to the 
full. Thus a man's birthday is counted the highest festival (Herod, 
i- 133) ; and thus the joie de vivre, rich banquets and carousals are 
not rejected by the Persian as godless and worldly, but are even 
prescribed by his religion. To create offspring and people the world 
with servants of Ahuramazda is the duty of every true believer. 1 

2. This religion grew up in the midst of a settled peasant popu- 
lation, whose mode of life and views it regards as the natural 
disposition of things. Consequently, it is at once a product of, 
and a main factor in civilization; and is thereby sharply differ- 
entiated from the Israelite religion, with whose moral precepts 
it otherwise coincides so frequently. 

3. The preaching of Zoroaster is directed to each individual 
man, and requires of him that he shall choose his position with 
regard to the fundamental problems of life and religion. Thus, 
even though it arose from national views, in its essence it is not 
national (as, for instance, the Israelite creed), but individualistic, 
and at the same time universal. From the first, it aims at propa- 
ganda ; and the nationality of the convert is a matter of indifference. 
So Zoroaster himself converted the Turanian Fryana with his kindred 
(see above) ; and the same tendency to proselytize alien peoples sur- 
vived in his religion. Zoroastrianism, in fact, is the first creed to 
work by missions or to lay claim to universality of acceptance. 
It was, however, only natural that its adherents should be won, first 
and chiefly, among the countrymen of the prophet, and its further 
success in gaining over all the Iranian tribes gave it a national 
stamp. So the Susan translation of Darius' Behistun inscription 



1 These ideas are strongly exposed in a polemic against the 
Christians contained in an official edict of the Persian creed to the 
Armenians by Mihr Narseh, the vizier of Yazdegerd II. (about 
A.D. 450), preserved by the Armenian historian, Elishe. 



206 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



terms Ahuramazda " the gcxl of the Aryans." Thus the creed 
became a powerful factor in the development of an united Iranian 
nationality. 

That a religion, which lays its chief stress upon moral precepts, 
may readily develop into casuistry and external formalism, with an 
infinity of minute prescriptions, injunctions on purity and the like, is 
well known. In the Avesta all these recur ad nauseam, so much so 
that the primitive spirit of the religion is stifled beneath them, 
as the doctrine of the ancient prophets was stifled in Judaism and 
the Talmud. The Sassanid Empire, indeed, is completely dominated 
by this formalism and ritualism; but the earlier testimony of Darius 
in his inscriptions and the statements in Herodotus enable us still 
to recognize the original healthy life of a religion capable of awaken- 
ing the enthusiastic devotion of the inner man. Its formal character 
naturally germinated in the priesthood (Herod, i. 140; cf. Strabo 
xv - 733> &c.). The priests diligently practise all the precepts of 
their ritual e.g. the extermination of noxious animals, and the 
exposure of corpses to the dogs and birds, that earth may not be 
polluted by their presence. They have advice for every contingency 
in life, and can say with precision when a man has been defileu, and 
how he may be cleansed again; they possess an endless stock of 
formulae for prayer, and of sentences which serve for protection 
against evil spirits and may be turned to purposes of magic. 

How the doctrine overspread the whole of Iran, we do not know. 
In the West, among the Medes and Persians, the guardianship 
_. and ministry of Zoroastrianism is vested in an exclusive 

' . priesthood the Magians. Whence this name unknown 

magians. ag a i rea( jy mentioned, to the Avesta took its rise, we 
have no knowledge. Herodotus (i. 101) includes the Magians in 
his list of Median tribes; and it is probable that they and their 
teaching reached the Persians from Media. At all events, they 
play here not merely the r61e of the " Fire-kindlers " (athravan) 
in the Avesta, but are become an hereditary sacerdotal caste, acting 
an important part in the state advisers and spiritual guides to 
the king, and so forth. With them the ritualism and magical 
character, above mentioned, are fully developed. In the narrations 
of Herodotus, they interpret dreams and predict the future; and in 
Greece, from the time of Herodotus and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 387) 
onward, the word Magian connotes a magician-priest. 

See further, ZOROASTER and works there quoted. 

IV. Beginnings of History. A connected chain of historical 
evidence begins with the time when under Shalmaneser (Sal- 
Assyrian manassar II.), the Assyrians in 836 B.C. began for 
Conquest the first time to penetrate farther into the moun- 
ot Media, tains of the east; and there, in addition to several 
non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes. These 
wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyrian 
power in these regions attained its zenith under Sargon 
(q.v.), who (715 B.C.) led into .exile the Median chief Dayuku 
(see DEIOCES), a vassal of the Minni (Mannaeans), with all 
his family, and subjected the princes of Media as far as the 
mountain of Bikni (Elburz) and the border of the great desert. 
At that time twenty-eight Median "town-lords" paid tribute 
to Nineveh; two years later, (713 B.C.) no fewer than forty-six. 
Sargon's successors, down to Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.), 
maintained and even augmented their suzerainty over Media, 
in spite of repeated attempts to throw off the yoke in conjunc- 
tion with the Mannaeans, the Saparda, the Cimmerians who 
had penetrated into the Armenian mountains and others. 
Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal, on which the extant 
Assyrian annals are silent, can an independent Median Empire 
have arisen. 

As to the history of this empire, we have an ancient account 
in Herodotus, which, with a large 'admixture of the legendary, 
The still contains numerous historical elements, and a 

Median completely fanciful account from Ctesias, preserved 
Empire. ; n Diodorus (ii. 32 sqq.) and much used by later 
writers. In the latter Nineveh is destroyed by the Mede Arbaces 
and the Babylonian Belesys about 880 B.C., a period when the 
Assyrians were just beginning to lay the foundations of their 
power. Arbaces is then followed by a long list of Median kings, 
all of them fabulous. On the other hand, according to Herodotus 
the Medes revolt from Assyria about 710 B.C., that is to say, 
at the exact time when they were subdued by Sargon. Deioces 
founds the monarchy; his son Phraortes begins the work of 
conquest; and his son Cyaxares is first overwhelmed by the 
Scythians, then captures Nineveh, and raises Media to a great 
power. A little supplementary information may be gleaned 
from the inscriptions of King Nabonidus of Babylon (555-539) 



and from a few allusions in the Old Testament. Of the Median 
Empire itself we do not possess a single monument. Consequently 
its history still lies in complete obscurity (cf. MEDIA; DEIOCES; 
PHRAORTES; CYAXARES). 

The beginnings of the Median monarchy can scarcely go farther 
back than 640 B.C. To ah 1 appearance, the insurrection against 
Assyria must have proceeded from the desert tribe of the 
Manda, mentioned by Sargon: for Nabonidus invariably de- 
scribes the Median kings as " kings of the Manda." According 
to the account of Herodotus, the dynasty was derived from 
Deioces, the captive of Sargon, whose descendants may have 
found refuge in the desert. The first historical king would 
seem to have been Phraortes, who probably succeeded in 
subduing the small local princes of Media and in rendering 
himself independent of Assyria. Further development was 
arrested by the Scythian invasion described by Herodotus. 
We know from Zephaniah and Jeremiah that these northern 
barbarians, in 626 B.C., overran and harried Syria and Palestine 
(cf. CYAXARES; JEWS). With these inroads of the Cimmerians 
and Scythians (see SCYTHIA), we must doubtless connect the 
great ethnographical revolution in the north of anterior Asia; 
the Indo-European Armenians (Haik), displacing the old Alaro- 
dians (Urartu, Ararat), in the country which has since borne 
their name; and the entry of the Cappadocians first mentioned 
in the Persian period into the east of Asia Minor. The Scythian 
invasion evidently contributed largely to the enfeeblement of 
the Assyrian Empire: for in the same year the Chaldaean Nabo- 
polassar founded the New-Babylonian empire; and in 606 B.C. 
Cyaxares captured and destroyed Nineveh and the other 
Assyrian cities. Syria and the south he abandoned to Nabo- 
polassar and his son Nebuchadrezzar; while, on the other hand, 
Assyria proper, east of the Tigris, the north of Mesopotamia 
with the town of Harran (Carrhae) and the mountains of Armenia 
were annexed by the Medes. Cappadocia also fell before 
Cyaxares; in a war with the Lydian Empire the decisive battle 
was broken off by the celebrated eclipse of the sun on the z8th 
of May 585 B.C., foretold by Thales (Herod, i. 74). After this a 
peace was arranged by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon and Syen- 
nesis of Cilicia, recognizing the Halys as the borderh'ne. To the 
east, the Median Empire extended far over Iran, even the 
Persians owning its sway. Ecbatana (q.v.) became the capital. 

Of the states which arose out of the shattered Assyrian Empire 
(Media, Babylon, Egypt, Cilicia and Lydia), Media was by far 
the strongest. In Babylon the kings feared, and the exiled 
Jews hoped, an attack from the Medes (cf. Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.; 
Jer. 1., li.); and Nebuchadrezzar sought by every means 
great fortifications, canals and so forth to secure his empire 
against the menace from the north. He succeeded in maintain- 
ing the status quo practically unimpaired, additional security 
being found in intermarriage between the two dynasties. In 
this state of equilibrium the great powers of Anterior Asia 
remained during the first half of the 6th century. 

V. The Persian Empire of the Achaemenids. The balance, 
however, was disturbed in 553 B.C., when the Persian Cyrus, 
king of Anshan in Elam (Susiana), revolted against conquest* 
his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, and of Cyrus 
three years later defeated him at Pasargadae (q.v.). 1 aaa 
Shortly afterwards Astyages was taken prisoner, Cawl> y se *- 
Ecbatana reduced, and the Median Empire replaced by the 
Persian. The Persian tribes were welded by Cyrus into a single 
nation, and now became the foremost people in the world (see 
PERSIS and CYRUS). At first Nabonidus of Babylon hailed 
the fall of the Medes with delight and utilized the opportunity 
by occupying Harran (Carrhae). But before long he recognized 
the danger threatened from that quarter. Cyrus and his 
Persians paid little heed 'to the treaties which the Median king 
had concluded with the other powers; and the result was a 
great coalition against him, embracing Nabonidus of Babylon, 
Amasis of Egypt, Croesus of Lydia, and the Spartans, whose 
highly efficient army seemed to the Oriental states of great value. 
In the spring of 546 B.C., Croesus opened the attack. Cyrus 
1 See further, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA: v. History. 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



207 



flung himself upon him, beat him at Pteria in Cappadocia and 
pursued him to Lydia. A second victory followed on the 
banks of the Pactolus; by the autumn of 546 Sardis had already 
fallen and the Persian power advanced at a bound to the Medi- 
terranean. In the course of the next few years the Greek 
littoral towns were reduced, as also the Carians and Lycians. 
The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the 
Persian suzerainty. In 539 Nabonidus was defeated and Baby- 
lon occupied, while, with the Chaldean Empire, Syria and Pales- 
tine also became Persian (see JEWS). The east of Iran was 
further subdued, and, after Cyrus met his end (528 B.C.) in a 
war against the eastern Nomads (Dahae, Massagetae), his son 
Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B.C.). Cyprus and the Greek 
islands on the coast of Asia Minor also submitted, Samos being 
taken by Darius. On the other hand, an expedition by Cam- 
byses against the Ethiopian kingdom of Napata and Meroe 
came to grief in Nubia. The usurpation of Smerdis (522-521 
B.C.) and his death at the hands of Darius was the signal for 
numerous insurrections in Babylon, Susiana, Persis, Media, 
Armenia and many of the Eastern provinces. But, within 
two years (521-519), they were all crushed by Darius and his 
generals. 

The causes of this astonishing success, which, in the brief space 
of a single generation, raised a previously obscure and secluded 
tribe to the mastery of the whole Orient, can only be 
partially discerned from the evidence at our disposal, 
nour, The decisive factor was of course their military superi- 
ority. The chief weapon of the Persians, as of all Iranians, was the 
bow, which accordingly the king himself holds in his portraits, 
e.g. on the Behistun rock and the coins (darics). In addition 
to the bow, the Persians carried short lances and short daggers. 
But it was not by these weapons, nor by hand to hand fighting, 
that the Persian victories were won. They .overwhelmed their 
enemy under a hail of arrows, and never allowed him to come to 
close quarters. While the infantry kneeled to shoot, the cavalry 
swarmed round the hostile squadrons, threw their lines into con- 
fusion, and completed their discomfiture by a vigorous pursuit. 
In a charge the infantry also might employ lance and dagger; 
but the essential point was that the archers should be mobile and 
their use of the bow unhampered. 

Consequently, only a few distinguished warriors wore shirts of 
mail. For purposes of defence the rank and file merely carried 
a light hide-covered shield ; which the infantry, in shooting, planted 
before them as a sort of barrier against the enemy's missiles. Thus 
the Persian army was lost, if heavy-armed hoplites succeeded in 
gaining their lines. In spite of all their bravery, they succumbed 
to the Greek phalanx, when once the generalship of a Miltiades 
or a Pausanias had brought matters to a hand to hand conflict; 
and it was with justice that the Greeks Aeschylus, for instance 
viewed their battles against the Persian as a contest between 
spear and bow. None the less, till Marathon the Persians were 
successful in discomfiting every enemy before he could close, whether 
that enemy consisted of similarly accoutred bowmen (as the Medes), 
of cavalry armed with the lance (as the Lydians), or of heavily 
armoured warriors (as the Babylonians, Egyptians and Greeks). 

To all this should be added the superiority of their leaders; 
Cyrus especially must have been an exceedingly able general. 
Obviously, also, he must have understood the art of organizing his 
people and arousing the feeling of nationality and the courage of 
self-sacrifice. In his time the Persians were a strong manly 
peasantry, domiciled in a healthy climate and habituated to all 
hardships a point repeatedly emphasized, in the tales preserved 
by Herodotus, as the cause of their successes (e.g. Herod, ix. 122). 
Herodotus, however, also records (i. 135) that the Persians were 
" of all mankind the readiest to adopt foreign customs, good or 
bad," a sentence which is equally applicable to the Romans, and 
which in the case of both nations goes far to explain, not merely 
their successes, but also the character of their empires. 

The fundamental features of the imperial organization must 
have been due to Cyrus himself. Darius followed in his steps 
Organiza- and completed the vast structure. His r61e, indeed, 
tioa et was peculiarly that of supplementing and perfecting 
Darius. t jj e work of his great predecessor. The organization 
of the empire is planned throughout on broad, free lines; there 
is nothing mean and timorous in it. The great god Ahuramazda, 
whom king and people alike acknowledge, has given them domi- 
nion "over this earth afar, over many peoples and tongues;" 
and the consciousness is strong in them that they are masters 
of the world. Thus their sovereign styles himself " the king of 
kings " and " the king of the lands " that is to say, of the 



whole civilized world. For the provinces remaining unsubdued 
on the extreme frontiers to the west, the north and the east are 
in their view almost negligible quantities. And far removed 
as the Persians are from disavowing their proud sense of nation- 
ality (" a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan 
stock " says Darius of himself in the inscription on his tomb) 
yet equally vivid is the feeling that they rule the whole civilized 
world, that their task is to reduce it to unity, and that by the 
will of Ahuramazda they are pledged to govern it aright. 

This is most clearly seen in the treatment of the subject 
races. In contrast with the Assyrians and the Romans the 
Persians invariably conducted their wars with great 
humanity. The vanquished kings were honourably Natiws. 
dealt with, the enemy's towns were spared, except 
when grave offences and insurrections, as at Miletus and 
Athens, rendered punishment imperative; and their inhabitants 
were treated with mildness. Like Cyrus, all his successors 
welcomed members of the conquered nationalities to their 
service, employed them as administrators or generals and made 
them grants of land: and this not only in the case of Medes, 
but also of Armenians, Lydians, Jews and Greeks. The whole 
population of the empire was alike bound to military service. 
The subject-contingents stood side by side with the native 
Persian troops; and the garrisons in Egypt, for instance 
were composed of the most varied nationalities. 

Among the subject races the Medes particularly stood high 
in favour. Darius in his inscriptions always names them imme- 
diately after the Persians. They were the predecessors of the 
Persians in the empire and the more civilized people. Their 
institutions, court ceremonial and dress were ail adopted by 
the Achaemenids. Thus the tribal distinctions began to recede, 
and the ground was prepared for that amalgamation of the 
Iranians into a single, uniform nation, which under the Sassanids 
was completely perfected at least for west of Iran. 

The lion's share, indeed, falls to the dominant race itself. 
The inhabitants of Persis proper from which the eastern tribes 
of Carmanians, Utians, &c., were excluded and 
formed into a separate satrapy pay no taxes. 
Instead, they bring the best of their possessions 
(e.g. a particularly fine fruit) as a gift to their king 
on festival days; peasants meeting him on his excursions 
do the same (Plut. Artax. 4. 5; Dinon ap. Aelian. var. 
hist. 1.31; Xen. Cyr. viii. 5, 21. 7, r). In recompense for this, 
he distributes on his return rich presents to every Persian 
man and woman the women of Pasargadae, who are members 
of Cyrus's tribe, each receiving a piece of gold (Nic. Dam. fr. 
66. Plut. Alex. 69). In relation to his Persians, he is always the 
people's king. At his accession he is consecrated in the temple 
of a warrior-goddess (Anaitis ?) at Pasargadae, and partakes 
of the simple meal of the old peasant days a mess of figs, tere- 
binths and sour milk (Plut. Artax. 3). The Persians swear 
allegiance to him and pray to Ahuramazda for his life and the 
welfare of the people, while he vows to protect them against 
every attack, and to judge and govern them as did his fathers 
before him (Herod, i. 132; Xen. Cyr. xviii. 5, 25, 27). For helpers 
he has at his side the " law-bearers " (dalabara Dan. iii. 2, and in 
Babyl. documents; cf. Herod, iii. 31, v. 25, vii. 194; Esther 
i. 13, &c.). These the Persian judges are nominated by the 
king for life, and generally bequeath their office to their sons. 
The royal decision is based on consultation with the great ones 
of his people: and such is the case with his officials and governors 
everywhere (cf. the Book of Ezra). 

Every Persian able to bear arms is bound to serve the king 
the great landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot. 
The noble and well-to-do, who need not till their fields in person, 
are pledged to appear at court as frequently as possible. Their 
children are brought up in company with the princes " at the 
gates of the king," instructed in the handling of arms, in riding 
and hunting, and introduced to the service of the state and the 
knowledge of the law, as well as the commandments of religion. 
Then such as prove their worth are called to high office and 
rewarded, generally with grants of land. 



The 
Persians. 



208 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



The highest rank was held by the descendants of the six great 
families, whose heads stood by Darius at the killing of the 
Magian. The Greeks class them and the king together, under 
the name of " the seven Persians." These enjoyed the right of 
entering the presence unannounced, and possessed princely 
estates in the provinces. Besides these, however, numbers of 
other Persians were despatched to the provinces, settled there, 
and endowed with lands. There existed, in fact, under the 
Achaemenids a strong colonizing movement, diffused through 
the whole empire; traces of this policy occur more especially in 
Armenia, Cappadocia and Lycia, but also in the rest of Asia 
Minor, and not rarely in Syria and Egypt. These colonists 
formed the nucleus of the provincial military levy, and were a 
tower of strength to the Persian dominion. They composed, 
moreover, the Persian council, and vice-regal household of the 
Satraps, exactly as the Persians of the home-country composed 
that of the king. 

Though the world-empire of Persia was thus deeply impressed 
by a national character, care was nevertheless exercised that 
the general duties and interests of the subject races should 
receive due consideration. We find their representatives, 
side by side with the Persians, occupying every sort of position 
in the regal and vice-regal courts. They take their part in the 
councils of the satraps, precisely as they do in military service 
(cf. the evidence of Ezra); and they, too, are rewarded by 
bounties and estates. To wield a peaceful authority over all 
the subjects of the empire, to reward merit, and to punish 
transgression such is the highest task of king and officials. 

On his native soil Cyrus built himself a town, with a palace 
and a tomb, in the district of Pasargadae (now the ruins of 
Murghab). This Darius replaced by a new capital, 
R y *deaces deeper in the centre of the country, which bore the 
'name " Persian " (Parsa), the Persepolis (q.v.) of 
the later Greeks. But the district of Persis was too remote to 
be the administrative centre of a world-empire. The natural 
centre lay, rather, in the ancient fertile tract on the lower Tigris 
and Euphrates. The actual capital of the empire was therefore 
Susa, where Darius I. and Artaxerxes II. erected their magnifi- 
cent palaces. The winter months the kings chiefly spent in 
Babylon: the hot summer, in the cooler situation of Ecbatana, 
where Darius and Xerxes built a residence on Mt Elvend, south 
of the city. From a palace of Artaxerxes II. in Ecbatana itself, 
the fragments of a few inscribed columns (now in the possession 
of Mr Lindo Myers and published by Evetts in the Zeitschr. f. 
Assyr. V.) have been preserved. To Persis and Persepolis the 
kings paid only occasional visits especially at their coronations. 

Within the empire, the two great civilized states incorporated 
by Cyrus and Cambyses, Babylon and Egypt, occupied a position 
of their own. After his defeat of Nabonidus, Cyrus 
P roclaimed himself " King of Babel "; and the same 
title was born by Cambyses, Smerdis and Darius. 
So, in Egypt, Cambyses adopted in full the titles of the Pharaohs. 
In this we may trace a desire to conciliate the native population, 
with the object of maintaining the fiction that the old state still 
continued. Darius went still farther. He encouraged the 
efforts of the Egyptian priesthood in every way, built temples, 
and enacted new laws in continuance of the old order. In 
Babylon his procedure was presumably similar, though here 
we possess no local evidence. But he lived to see that his policy 
had missed its goal. In 486 B.C. Egypt revolted and was only 
reduced by Xerxes in 484. It was this, probably, that induced 
him in 484 to renounce his title of " king of Babel," and to 
remove from its temple the golden statue of Bel-Marduk (Mero- 
dach), whose hands the king was bound to clasp on the first day 
of each year. This proceeding led to two insurrections in 
Babylon (probably in 484 and 479 B.C.), which were speedily 
repressed. After that the " kingship of Babel " was definitely 
abolished. In Egypt the Persian kings still retained the style 
of the Pharaohs; but we hear no more of concessions to the 
priesthood or to the old institutions, and, apart from the great 
oasis of el-Kharga, no more temples were erected (see EGYPT: 
History). 



At the head of the court and the imperial administration 
stands the commandant of the body-guard the ten thousand 
" Immortals," often depicted in the sculptures of The vizier 
Persepolis with lances surmounted by golden apples, and other 
This grandee, whom the Greeks termed " Chiliarch," OtOclOt. 
corresponds to the modern vizier. In addition to him, we 
find seven councillors (Ezra vii. 14; cf. Esther i. 14). Among 
the other officials, the " Eye of the King " is frequently 
mentioned. To him was entrusted the control of the whole 
empire and the superintendence of all officials. 

The orders of the court were issued in a very simple form of the 
cuneiform script, probably invented by the Medes. This comprised 
36 signs, almost all of which denote single sounds. In 
the royal inscriptions, a translation into Susan (Elam- 
itic) and Babylonian was always appended to the Languages. 
Persian text. In Egypt one in hieroglyphics was added, as 
in the inscriptions of the Suez canal; in the Grecian provinces, 
another in Greek (e.g. the inscription of Darius on the Bos- 
porus, Herod, iv. 37, cf. iv. 91). The cuneiform script could 
only be written on stone or clay. Thus there has been discovered 
in Babylon a copy of the Behistun (q.v.) inscription preserved on 
a block of dolerite (Weissbach, Babylonische Miscellen. p. 24). 
For administrative purposes, however, it would seem that this 
inconvenient material was not employed; its place being taken 
by skins (50ep<u, parchment), the use of which was adopted 
from the western peoples of the empire. On these were further 
written the journals and records kept at the court (cf. Diod. ii. 
22, 32; Ezra iv. 15, v. 17, vi. 2; Esther vi. I, ii. 23). With such 
materials the cuneiform script could not be used; instead, the 
Persian language was written in Aramaic characters, a method 
which later led to the so-called Pahlavi, i.e. Parthian script. This 
mode of writing was obviously alone employed in the state-services 
since Darius I.; and so may be explained the fact that, under the 
Achaemenids, the Persian language rapidly declined, and, in the 
inscriptions of Artaxerxes III., only appears in an extremely 
neglected guise (see CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS, ALPHABET). 

Side by side with the Persian, the Aramaic, which had long been 
widely diffused as the speech of commerce, enjoyed currency in 
all the western half of the empire as a second dominant language. 
Thus all deeds, enactments and records designed for these provinces 
were furnished with an official Aramaic version (Ezra iv. 7). Numer- 
ous documents in this tongue, dating from the Persian period, 
have been discovered in Egypt (cf. Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic 
Papyri discovered at Assuan 1906), and the coins minted by the 
satraps and generals usually bear an Aramaic inscription. (So, 
also, a lion-weight from Abydos, in the British Museum.) The 
Demotic in Egypt was employed in private documents alone. 
Only in the Hellenic provinces of the empire Greek replaced 
Aramaic (cf. the letter to Pausanias in Thuc. i. 120: an edict to 
Gadatas in Magnesia, Cousin et Deschamps, Bulletin de cprresp. 
hellenique xii. 530, Dittenberger, Sylloge 2; so, also, on coins) a 
clear proof that the Persians had already begun to recognize the 
independent and important position of Greek civilization. 1 

Darius I. divided the Persian Empire into twenty great pro- 
vinces, satrapies, with a " guardian of the country " (khshathra- 
pavan; see SATRAP) at the head of each. A list is 
preserved in Herodotus (iii. 89 sqq.); but the boun- satrapies 
daries were frequently changed. Each satrapy was 
again subdivided into several minor governorships. The satrap 
is the head of the whole administration of his province. He 
levies the taxes, controls the legal procedure, is responsible for 
the security of roads and property, and superintends the subor- 
dinate districts. The heads of the great military centres of the 
empire and the commandants of the royal fortresses are outside 
his jurisdiction: yet the satraps are entitled to a body of troops 
of their own, a privilege which they used to the full, especially 
in later periods. The satrap is held in his position as a subject 
by the controlling machinery of the empire, especially the " Eye 
of the King"; by the council of Persians in his province with 

1 For the editions of the Persian inscriptions see BEHISTUN. 
For the Persian documents, Ed. Meyer Entslehung des Judentums, 
p. 19 sqq. The hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Suez Canal are pub- 
lished in the Recueti de trav. d'eeyptol. et d'assyriol. vols. vii. ix. 
xi. xiii; the private documents from Babylonia and Nippur, by 
Strassmaier, Babyl. Urkunden, and Hilprecht and Clay, Babyl. 
Exped. of Univ. of Pennsylvania, vols. ix. x. Numerous Jewish docu- 
ments in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine (Sayce and 
Cowley, Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan, 1906), among them an 
official complaint of the Jewish colony settled at Elephantine, 
addressed to the Persian satrap of Judaea, in 408 B.C., which throws 
a new light on many passages in Ezra and Nehemiah, published by 
Sachan in Abhandlungen der berl. Akademie, 1907. 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



209 



whom he is bound to debate all matters of importance; and by 
the army: while in the hands of the messengers (Pers. aaravSat. 
or ayyapoi. a Babylonian word: see ANGARIA) the government 
despatches travel " swifter than the crane " along the great 
imperial highways, which are all provided with regular postal 
stations (cf. the description of the route from Susa to Sardis in 
Herod, v. 52). 

Within the satrapies the subject races and communities 
occupied a tolerably independent position; for instance, the 
Subject Jews, under their elders and priests, who were even 
Cvmmua!- able to convene a popular assembly in Jerusalem 
ties. ( c f. the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah). Obviously 

also, they enjoyed, as a rule, the privilege of deciding law-suits 
among themselves; their general situation being similar to that 
of the Christian nationalities under the Ottomans, or to that of 
many tribes in the Russian Empire at the present day. The 
pressure of despotism was manifest, not so much in that the 
king and his officials consistently interfered in individual cases, 
but that they did so on isolated and arbitrary occasions, and 
then swept aside the privileges of the subject, who was impotent 
to resist. 

For the rest, the subject population falls into a number of 
distinct groups. In the desert (as among the Arabian and 
Turanian nomads), in wild and sequestered mountains (as in 
Zagros in north Media, and Mysia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia and 
Bithynia in Asia Minor), and also in many Iranian tribes, the 
old tribal constitution, with the chieftain as its head, was left 
intact even under the imperial suzerainty. The great majority 
of the civilized provinces were subdivided into local administra- 
tive districts governed by officials of the king and his satraps. 
These the Greeks named Win], " peoples." Within these, 
again, there might lie large town settlements whose internal 
affairs were controlled by the elders or the officials of the com- 
munity: as, for instance, Babylon, Jerusalem, the Egyptian 
cities, Tarsus, Sardis and others. On the same footing were 
the spiritual principalities, with their great temple-property; 
as Bambyce in Syria, the two Comanas in Cappadocia, and so 
forth. Besides these, however, vast districts were either con- 
verted into royal domains (irapaSfKroi) with great parks and 
hunting grounds under royal supervision, or else bestowed by 
the king on Persians or deserving members of the subject-races 
(the " benefactors") as their personal property. Many of these 
estates formed respectable principalities: e.g. those of the 
house of Otanes in Cappadocia, of Hydarnes in Armenia, 
Pharnabazus in Phrygia, Demaratus in Teuthrania, Themis- 
tocles in Magnesia and Lampsacus. They were absolute private 
property, handed down from father to son for centuries, and 
in the Hellenistic period not rarely became independent king- 
doms. These potentates were styled by the Greeks Swacrrai 
or iibvapxoi- 

The last class, quite distinct from all these organizations, 
was formed by the city-states (ir6Xs) with an independent 
constitution whether a monarchy (as in Phoenicia), 
an aristocracy (as in Lycia), or a republic with council 
and popular assembly (as in the Greek towns). 
The essential point was that they enjoyed a separate legalized 
organization (autonomy). This was only to be seen in the 
extreme western provinces of the empire among the Phoeni- 
cians, Greeks and Lycians, whose cities were essentially distinct 
from those of the east; which, indeed, to Greek eyes, were only 
great villages (woMoiroXeis). It is readily intelligible that 
their character should have proved practically incomprehensible 
to the Persians, with whom they came into perpetual collision. 
These sought, as a rule, to cope with the difficulty by transferring 
the government to individual persons who enjoyed their confi- 
dence: the " tyrants " of the Greek towns. Mardonius, alone, 
after his suppression of the Ionic revolt which had originated 
with these very tyrants made an attempt to govern them by 
the assistance of the democracy (492 B.C.). 

The provinces of the Persian Empire differed as materially in 
economy as in organization. In the extreme west, a money currency 
in its most highly developed form that of coinage minted by 



the state, or an autonomous community had developed since the 
7th century among the Lydians and Greeks. In the commerce 
main portion, however, of the Oriental world Egypt, ana Finance. 
Syria, Phoenicia and Babylonia the old mode 
of commerce was still in vogue, conducted by means of gold 
and silver bars, weighed at each transaction. Indeed, a money 
currency only began to make headway in these districts in the 
4th century B.C. In the eastern provinces, on the other hand, the 
primitive method of exchange by barter still held the field. Only 
in the auriferous and civilized frontier districts of India (the 
Punjab) did a system of coinage find early acceptance. There 
Persian and Attic money was widely distributed, and imitations 
of it struck, in the fifth and fourth pre-Christian centuries. 

Thus the empire was compelled to grapple with all these varied 
conditions and to reconcile them as best it might. At the court, 
" natural economy " was still the rule. The officials and Oriental 
troops received payment in kind. They were fed " by the table 
of the king," from which 15,000 men daily drew their sustenance 
(cf. Heraclides of Cyme in Athen. iv. 145 B, &c.) and were rewarded 
by gifts and assignments of land. The Greek mercenaries, on the 
contrary, had to be paid in currency; nor could the satraps of the 
west dispense with hard cash. The king, again, needed the precious 
metals, not merely for bounties and rewards, but for important 
enterprises in which money payment was imperative. Conse- 
quently, the royal revenues and taxes were paid partly in the 
precious metals, partly in natural produce horses and cattle, 
grain, clothing and its materials, furniture and all articles of 
industry (cf. Theopomp. fr. 124, 125, &c.). The satraps, also, in 
addition to money payments, levied contributions " for their table," 
at which the officials ate (Nehem. v. 14). 

The precious metals brought in by the tribute were collected in 
the great treasure-houses at Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and 
Ecbatana, where gigantic masses of silver and, more Money and 
especially, of gold, were stored in bullion or partially coinage 
wrought into vessels (Herod, iii. 96; Strabo xv. 731, 
735 ; Arrian iii. 16, &c.) ; exactly as is the case to-day in the shah's 
treasure-chamber (Curzon, Persia, ii. 484). It is also observable 
that the conjunction of payments in kind and money taxes still 
exists. The province of Khorasan, for instance, with some half 
million inhabitants, paid in 1885 154,000 in gold, and in addition 
natural produce to the value of 43,000 (Curzon, op. cit. i. 181, 
ii. 380). When the king required money he minted as much as 
was necessary. A reform in the coinage was effected by Darius, 
who struck the Daric (Pers. Zariq, i.e. " piece of gold " ; the word 
has nothing to do \vith the name of Darius), a gold piece of 130 
grains (value about. 235.); this being equivalent to 20 silver pieces 
(" Median shekels," aiy\oi.) of 86-5 grains (value according to the 
then rate of silver 13$ silver to i gold about is. ad.). The 
coining of gold was the exclusive prerogative of the king; silver 
could be coined by the satraps, generals, independent communities 
and dynasts. 

The extent of the Persian Empire was, in essentials, defined 
by the great conquests of Cyrus and Cambyses. Darius was 
no more a conquistador than Augustus. Rather, 
the task he set himself was to round off the empire policy" 
and secure its borders: and for this purpose in Asia 
Minor and Armenia he subdued the mountain-tribes and 
advanced the frontier as far as the Caucasus; Colchis alone 
remaining an independent kingdom under the imperial 
suzerainty. So, too, he annexed the Indus valley and the 
auriferous hill-country of Kafiristan and Cashmir (KaoTuoi or 
KaoTrapoi, Herod, iii. 93, vii. 67, 86; Steph. Byz.), as well as 
the Dardae in Dardistan on the Indus (Ctesias, Ind. fr. 12. 
70, &c.). From this point he directed several campaigns 
against the Amyrgian Sacae, on the Pamir Plateau and 
northwards, whom he enumerates in his list of subject races, 
and whose mounted archers formed a main division of the 
armies despatched against the Greeks. It was obviously an 
attempt to take the nomads of the Turanian steppe in the 
rear and to reduce them to quiescence, which led to his 
unfortunate expedition against the Scythians of the Russian 
steppes (c. 512 B.C.; cf. DARIUS). 

Side by side, however, with these wars, we can read, even in 
the scanty tradition at our disposal, a consistent effort to further 
the great civilizing mission imposed on the empire. In the 
district of Herat, Darius established a great water-basin, designed 
to facilitate the cultivation of the steppe (Herod, iii. 117). He 
had the course of the Indus explored by the Carian captain 
Scylax (q.v.) of Caryanda, who then navigated the Indian Ocean 
back to Suez (Herod, iv. 44) and wrote an account of his voyage 
in Greek. The desire to create a direct communication between 
the seclusion of Persis and the commerce of the world is evident 



210 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



in his foundation of several harbours, described by Nearchus, 
on the Persian coast. But this design is still more patent in 
his completion of a great canal, already begun by Necho, from 
the Nile to Suez, along which several monuments of Darius have 
been preserved. Thus it was possible, as says the remnant of an 
hieroglyphic inscription there discovered, " for ships to sail 
direct from the Nile to Persia, over Saba." In the time of Hero- 
dotus the canal was in constant use (ii. 158, iv. 39): afterwards, 
when Egypt regained her independence, it decayed, till restored 
by the second Ptolemy. Even the circumnavigation of Africa was 
attempted under Xerxes (Herod, iv. 43). 

It has already been mentioned, that, in his efforts to conciliate 
the Egyptians, Darius placed his chief reliance on the priest- 
hood: and the same tendency runs throughout the imperial 
policy toward the conquered races. Thus Cyrus himself gave 
the exiled Jews in Babylon permission to return and rebuild Jeru- 
salem. Darius allowed the restoration of the Temple; and 
Artaxerxes I., by the protection accorded to Ezra and Nehemiah, 
made the foundation of Judaism possible (see JEWS: 19 sqq.). 
Analogously in an edict, of which a later copy is preserved in an 
inscription (see above), Darius commands Gadatas, the governor 
of a domain (irapaSttaoi) in Magnesia on the Maeander, to 
observe scrupulously the privileges of the Apollo-sanctuary. 
With all the Greek oracles even those in the mother-country 
the Persians were on the best of terms. And since these might 
reasonably expect an enormous extension of their influence from 
the establishment of a Persian dominion, we find them all 
zealously medizing during the expedition of Xerxes. 

For the development of the Asiatic religions, the Persian Empire 
was of prime importance. The definite erection of a single, vast, 
world-empire cost them their original connexion with 
Religion. the gtate and com pelled them in future to address 
themselves, not to the community at large, but to individuals, to 
promise, not political success nor the independence of the people, 
but the welfare of the man. Thus they became at once universal 
and capable of extension by propaganda ; and, with this, of entering 
into keen competition one with the other. These traits are most 
clearly marked in Judaism; but, after the Achaemenid period, 
they are common to all Oriental creeds, though our information 
as to most is scanty in the extreme. 

In this competition of religions that of Iran played a most 
spirited part. The Persian kings none more so than Darius, 
whose religious convictions are enshrined in his inscriptions 
and, with the kings, their people, were ardent professors of the 
pure doctrine of Zoroaster; and the Persians settled in the provinces 
diffused his creed throughout the whole empire. Thus a strong 
Persian propagandism arose especially in Armenia and Cappadocia, 
where the religion took deep root among the people, but also in 
Lydia and Lycia. In the process, however, important modifications 
were introduced. In contrast with Judaism, Zoroastrianism did 
not enter the lists against all gods save its own, but found no 
difficulty in recognizing them as subordinate powers helpers 
and servants of Ahuramazda. Consequently, the foreign creeds 
often reacted upon the Persian. In Cappadocia, Aramaic inscriptions 
have been discovered (1900), in which the indigenous god, there 
termed Bel the king, recognizes the " Mazdayasnian Religion " 
(Din Mazdayasnish) -i.e. the religion of Ahuramazda personified 
as a woman as his sister and wife (Lidzbarski, Ephem. f. semit. 
Epigr. i. 59 sqq.). 

The gorgeous cult of the gods of civilization (especially of Baby- 
lon), with their host of temples, images and festivals, exercised a 
corresponding influence on the mother-country. Moreover, the 
unadulterated doctrine of Zoroaster could no more become a per- 
manent popular religion than can Christianity. For the masses 
can make little of abstractions and an omnipotent, omnipresent 
deity ; they need concrete divine powers, standing nearer to them- 
selves and their lot. Thus the old figures of the Aryan folk-religion 
return to the foreground, there to be amalgamated with the Baby- 
lonian divinities. The goddess of springs and streams (of the Oxus 
in particular) and of all fertility Aravisura Anahita, Anaitis 
is endowed with the form of the Babylonian Ishtar and Belit. 
She is now depicted as a beautiful and strong woman, with prominent 
breasts, a golden crown of stars and golden raiment. She is wor- 
shipped as the goddess of generation and all sexual life (cf. Herod. 
i. 131, where the names of Mithras and Anaitis are interchanged); 
and religious prostitution is transferred to her service (Strabo xi. 
532, xii. 559). At her side stands the sun-god Mithras, who is re- 
presented as a young and victorious hero. Both deities occupy 
the very first rank in the popular creed; while to the theologian 
they are the most potent of the good powers Mithras being the 
herald and propagator of the service of Light and the mediator 
betwixt man and Ahuramazda, who now fades more into the 
background. Thus, in the subsequent period, the Persian religion 



appears purely as the religion of Mithras. The festival of Mithras 
is the chief festival of the empire, at which the king drinks and 
is drunken, and dances the national dance (Ctes. fr. 55 ; Duris fr. 
13). This development culminated under Artaxerxes II., who, 
according to Berossus (fr. 16 ap. Clem. Alex. prot. i. 5, 65), first 
erected statues to Anaitis in Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactria, Susa, 
Babylon, Damascus and Sardis. The truth of this account is 
proved by the fact that Artaxerxes II. and. Artaxerxes III. are the 
only Achaemenids who, in their inscriptions, invoke Anaitis and 
Mithra side by side with Ahuramazda. Other gods, who come 
into prominence, are the dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Artagnes) 
and the Good Thought (Vohumano, Omanos) ; and even the Sacaean 
festival is adopted from Babylon (Berossus fr. 3; Ctes. fr. 16; 
Strabo xi. 512, &c.). The chief centres of the Persian cults in the 
west were the district of Acilisene in Armenia (Strabo xi. 532, &c.), 
the town of Zela in Cappadocia (Strabo xii. 559), and several cities 
in Lydia. 

The position of the Persian monarchy as a world-empire is 
characteristically emphasized in the buildings of Darius and Xerxes 
in Persepolis and Susa. The peculiarly national basis, . . 

still recognizable in Cyrus's architecture at Pasargadae, 
recedes into insignificance. The royal edifices and sculptures are 
dependent, mainly, on Babylonian models, but, at the same time, 
we can trace in them the influence of Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor; 
the last in the rock-sepulchres. All these elements are combined 
into an organic unity, which achieved the greatest creations that 
Oriental architecture has found possible. Nevertheless, the result 
is not a national art, but the art of a world-empire; and it is obvious 
that foreign craftsmen must have been active in the royal services ; 
among them, the Greek sculptor Telephanes of Phocaea (Pliny 
xxxiv. 68). So, with the collapse of the empire, the imperial art 
vanishes also: and when, some 500 years later, a new art arose 
under the Sassanids, whose achievements stand to those of Achae- 
menid art in much the same relation as the achievements of the 
two dynasties to each other, we discover only isolated reminiscences 
of its predecessor. 

For the organization and character of the Persian Empire, see 
Barnabas Brisson, De regie Persarum principatu libri Hi. (1590); 
Heeren, Ideen uber Politik, Handel tind Verkehr der alien Well, i. , 
G. Rawlinson, History of Herodotus, ii. 555 sqq.; Five Eastern Mon- 
archies, iii. ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, iii. On the 
Satrapies, cf. Krumbholz, De Asiae minoris satrapiis persicis 
(1883). See also MITHRAS. 

3. History of the Achaemenian Empire. The history of the 
Persian Empire was often written by the Greeks. The most 
ancient work preserved is that of Herodotus (q.v.), who supplies 
rich and valuable materials for the period ending in 479 B.C. 
These materials are drawn partly from sound tradition, partly 
from original knowledge as in the account of the satrapies 
and their distribution, the royal highway, the nations in Xerxes' 
army and their equipment. They also contain much that is 
admittedly fabulous: for instance, the stories of Cyrus and Croe- 
sus, the conquest of Babylon, &c. Forty years later (c. 390 B.C.), 
the physician Ctesias of Cnidus, who for 17 years (414-398 B.C.) 
remained in the service of the Great King, composed a great 
work on the Persian history, known to us from an extract in 
Photius and numerous fragments. Ctesias (q.v.) possesses a 
more precise acquaintance with Persian views and institutions 
than Herodotus; and, where he deals with matters that came 
under his own cognisance, he gives much useful information. 
For the early period, on the other hand, he only proves how 
rapidly the tradition had degenerated since Herodotus; and here 
his narrations can only be utilized in isolated cases, and that 
with the greatest caution. Of more value was the great work of 
Dinon of Colophon (c. 340), which we know from numerous 
excellent fragments; and on the same level may be placed a few 
statements from Heraclides of Cyme, which afford specially 
important evidence on Persian institutions. To these must be 
added the testimony of the other Greek historians (Thucydides, 
Ephorus, Theopompus, &c., with the histories of Alexander), and, 
before all, that of Xenophon in the Anabasis and Hellenica. 
The Cyropaedia is a didactic romance, written with a view to 
Greek institutions and rarely preserving genuine information 
on the Persian Empire. Of Oriental sources, only the contem- 
porary books of Ezra and Nehemiah are of much importance: 
also, a few statements in the much later Esther romance. Beros- 
sus's history of Babylon contained much valuable and trust- 
worthy information, but next to nothing has survived. That 
the native tradition almost entirely forgot the Achaemenid 
Empire, has been mentioned above. For a more detailed account 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] PERSIA 

of these sources see separate articles on HERODOTUS, &c.; EZRA; 
and NEHEMIAH. 

Of modern accounts see especially Th. Noldeke, Aufsdtze zur 
persischen Geschichte (1887). The works of Marquart, Unter- 
suchungen zur Geschichte von Eran (2 pts., 1896-1905), abound in 
daring theories and must be used with caution. On the chronology, 
cf. Eduard Meyer, Forschungen zur alien Geschichte, ii. 

The external history of the empire is treated under the 
individual kings (see also history sections of 



211 



List of the 
Kings. 



articles GREECE; EGYPT; &c.). 
follows: 



The order is as 



CYRUS (558-528); conquered the Medes in 550; king of Babylon 
from 538. 

CAMBYSES (528-521). 

SMERDIS (521). 

DARIUS I. (521-485). 

XERXES I. (485-465). 

ARTAXERXES I. (465-425). 

(XERXES II. and Secydianus or Sogdianus, 425-424.) 

DARIUS II. Nothus (424-404). 

ARTAXERXES II. (404-359). 

ARTAXERXES III. Ochus (359-338). 

ARSES (338-336). 

DARIUS III. (33^330). 

The chronology is exactly verified by the Ptolemaic canon, by 
numerous Babylonian and a few Egyptian documents, and by the 
evidence of the Greeks. The present article gives only a brief 
conspectus of the main events in the history of the empire. 

Though, unlike Cyrus and Cambyses, Darius made no new 
expeditions of conquest, yet a great empire, which is not bounded 
The Wars by another equally great, but touches on many small 
against tribes and independent communities, is inevitably 
Greece. driven to expansion. We have already seen that the 
attempt of Darius to control the predatory nomads in the north 
led to his expedition against the Scythians; this, again, led to 
the incorporation of Thrace and Macedonia, whose king Perdiccas 
submitted. And since a great portion of the Mediterranean 
coast-line belonged to the empire, further complications resulted 
automatically. In contrast with the Greeks Carthage took the 
part of Persia. Darius, indeed, numbers the city under the 
name of Karka among his dominions: as also the Maxyans 
(Maciya) on the Syrtes (Andreas, Verhandl. d. xiii. oriental. 
Congresses, Hamburg, 1902, p. 97). But, above all, the Greek 
cities with their endless feuds and violent internal factions, were 
incessant in their appeals for intervention. Nevertheless, 
Darius left European Greece to itself, till the support accorded 
to the Ionian and Carian insurgents by Athens and Eretria 
(499 B.C.) made war inevitable. But not only the expeditions 
of Mardonius (492) and Datis (490), but even the carefully 
prepared campaign of Xerxes, in conjunction with Carthage, 
completely -failed (480-479). On the fields of Marathon and 
Plataea, the Persian archers succumbed to the Greek phalanx 
of hoplites; but the actual decision was effected by Themistocles, 
who had meanwhile created the Athenian fleet which at Salamis 
proved its superiority over the Perso-Phoenician armada, and 
thus precluded beforehand the success of the land-forces. 

The wreck of Xerxes' expedition is the turning-point in the 
history of the Persian Empire. The superiority of the Greeks 
was so pronounced that the Persians never found courage to 
repeat their attack. On the contrary, in 466 B.C. their army 
and fleet were again defeated by Cimon on the Eurymedon, the 
sequel being that the Greek provinces on the Asiatic coast, with 
all the Thracian possessions, were lost. In itself, indeed, this 
loss was of no great significance to such a vast empire; and the 
attempts of Athens to annex Cyprus and conquer the Nile 
valley, in alliance with the revolted Egyptians, ended in failure. 
Athens, in fact, had not sufficient strength to undertake a serious 
invasion of the empire or an extensive scheme of conquest. 
Her struggles with the other Hellenic states constrained her, by 
the peace of Callias (448), definitely to renounce the Persian 
war; to abandon Cyprus and Egypt to the king; and to content 
herself with his promise not that he would surrender the littoral 
towns, but that he would abstain from an armed attack upon 
them. The really decisive point was, rather, that the disasters 
of Salamis and Plataea definitely shattered the offensive power 



of the empire; that the centre of gravity in the world's history 
had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the Aegean Sea; and 
that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their courage 
they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior 
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to 
subdue by their own strength. 

Thus the great empire was reduced to immobility and stagna- 
tion a process which was assisted by the deteriorating influences 
of civilization and world -dominion upon the character latemal 
of the ruling race. True, the Persians continued state of the 
to produce brave and honourable men. But the Empire. 
influences of the harem, the eunuchs, and similar Rebellions. 
court officials, made appalling progress, and men of energy began 
to find the temptations of power stronger than their patriotism 
and devotion to the king. Thus the satraps aspired to inde- 
pendence, not merely owing to unjust treatment, but also to 
avarice or favourable conditions. As early as 465 B.C., Xerxes 
was assassinated by his powerful vizier (chiliarch) Artabanus, 
who attempted to seize the reins of empire in fact, if not in name. 
A similar instance may be found in Bagoas (q.ti.), after the 
murder of Artaxerxes III. (338 B.C.). To these factors must 
be added the degeneration of the royal line a degeneration 
inevitable in Oriental states. Kings like Xerxes and more 
especially Artaxerxes I. and Artaxerxes II., so far from being 
gloomy despots, were good-natured potentates, but weak, 
capricious and readily accessible to personal influences. The 
only really brutal tyrants were Darius II., who was completely 
dominated by his bloodthirsty wife Parysatis, and Artaxerxes 
III. who, though he shed rivers of blood and all but exterminated 
his whole family, was successful in once more uniting the empire, 
which under the feeble sway of his father had been threatened 
with dissolution. 

The upshot of these conditions was, that the empire never 
again undertook an important enterprise, but neglected more 
and more its great civilizing mission. In considering, however, 
the subsequent disorders and wars, it must be borne in mind 
that they affected only individual portions of the empire, and 
only on isolated occasions involved more extensive areas in 
long and serious strife. To most of the provinces the Achae- 
menid dominion was synonymous with two centuries of peace 
and order. Naturally, however, the wild tribes of the mountains 
and deserts, who could be curbed only by strict imperial control, 
asserted their independence and harassed the neighbouring 
provinces. Among these tribes were the Carduchians in Zagros, 
the Cossaeans and Uxians in the interior of Elam, the Cadusians 
and other non-Aryan tribes in northern Media, the Pisidians, 
Isaurians and Lycaonians in the Taurus, and the Mysians in 
Olympus. All efforts to restore order in these districts were 
fruitless; and when the kings removed their court to Ecbatana, 
they were actually obliged to purchase a free passage from the 
mountain tribes (Strabo xi. 524; Arrian iii. 17, i). The 
kings (e.g. Artaxerxes II.) repeatedly took the field in great force 
against the Cadusians, but unsuccessfully. When, in 400 B.C., 
Xenophon marched with the mercenaries of Cyrus from the 
Tigris to the Black Sea, the authority of the king was non- 
existent north of Armenia, and the tribes of the Pontic moun- 
tains, with the Greek cities on the coast, were completely inde- 
pendent. In Paphlagonia, the native dynasts founded a power- 
ful though short-lived kingdom, and the chieftains of the 
Bithynians were absolutely their own masters. The frontier 
provinces of India were also lost. Egypt, which had already 
revolted under Libyan princes in the years 486-484, and again 
with Athenian help in 460-454, finally asserted its independence 
in 404. Henceforward the native dynasties repelled every 
attack, till they succumbed once more before Artaxerxes III. 
and Mentor of Rhodes. 

In the other civilized countries, indeed, the old passion for 
freedom had been completely obliterated; and after the days 
of Darius I. apart from the Greek, Lycian and Phoenician 
towns not a single people in all these provinces dreamed of 
shaking off the foreign dominion. All the more clearly, then, 
was the inner weakness of the empire revealed by the revolts 



212 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom quite 
contrary to the original imperial organization which entrusted 
the provincial military commands to the satraps, who began 
to receive great masses of Greek mercenaries into their service. 
Under Artaxerxes I. and Darius II., these insurrections were 
still rare. But when the revolt of the younger Cyrus against 
his brother (401 B.C.) had demonstrated the surprising ease and 
rapidity with which a courageous army could penetrate into 
the heart of the empire when the whole force of that empire 
had proved powerless, not only to prevent some 12,000 Greek 
troops, completely surrounded, cut off from their communica- 
tions, and deprived through treachery of their leaders, from 
escaping to the coast, but even to make a serious attack on 
them then, indeed, the imperial impotence became manifest. 
After that, revolts of the satraps in Asia Minor and Syria were 
of everyday occurrence, and the task of suppressing them was 
complicated by the foreign wars which the empire had to sustain 
against Greece and Egypt. 

At this very period, however, the foreign policy of the empire 
gained a brilliant success. The collapse of the Athenian power 
Later Wars before Syracuse (413 B.C.) induced Darius II. to 
with the order his satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus, 
Greets. in Asia Minor, to collect the tribute overdue from 
Peace of th e Greek cities. In alliance with Sparta (see 
Aatakidas. p ELOPONNESIAN WAR), Persia intervened in the 
conflict against Athens, and it was Persian gold that made it 
possible for Lysander to complete her overthrow (404 B.C.). 
True, war with Sparta followed immediately, over the division 
of the spoils, and the campaigns of the Spartan generals in Asia 
Minor (399-395) were all the more dangerous as they gave 
occasion to numerous rebellions. But Persia joined the Greek 
league against Sparta, and in 394 Pharnabazus and Conon 
annihilated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Cnidus. Thus the 
Spartan power of offence was crippled; and the upshot of the 
long-protracted war was that Sparta ruefully returned to the 
Persian alliance, and by the Peace of Antalcidas (q.v.), concluded 
with the king in 387 B.C., not only renounced all claims to the 
Asiatic possessions, but officially proclaimed the Persian 
suzerainty over Greece. Ninety years after Salamis and 
Plataea, the goal for which Xerxes had striven was actually 
attained, and the king's will was law in Greece. In the following 
decades, no Hellenic state ventured to violate the king's peace, 
and all the feuds that followed centred round the efforts of the 
combatants Sparta, Thebes, Athens and Argos to draw the 
royal powers to their side (see GREECE: Ancient History). 

But, for these successes, the empire had to thank the internecine 
strife of its Greek opponents, rather than its own strength. Its 
feebleness, when thrown on its own resources, is evident from 
the fact that, during the next years, it failed both to reconquer 
Egypt and to suppress completely King Evagoras of Salamis 
in Cyprus. The satrap revolts, moreover, assumed more and 
more formidable proportions, and the Greek states began once 
more to tamper with them. Thus the reign of Artaxerxes II. 
ended, in 359 B.C., with a complete dissolution of the imperial 
authority in the west. His successor, Artaxerxes Ochus, 
succeeded yet again in restoring the empire hi its full extent. 
In 355 B.C., he spoke the fatal word, which, a second or rather 
a third time, demolished the essentially unsound power of 
Athens. In 343 he reduced Egypt, and his generals Mentor 
and Memnon, with his vizier Bagoas (q.i>.), crushed once and for 
all the resistance in Asia Minor. At his death in 338, immedi- 
ately before the final catastrophe, the empire to all appearances 
was more powerful and more firmly established than it had been 
since the days of Xerxes. 

These successes, however, were won only by means of Greek 
armies and Greek generals. And simultaneously the Greek 
Progress civilization diffused by mercenaries, traders, artists, 
of Greet prostitutes and slaves, advanced in ever greater 
influence. f orce j n Asia Minor and Phoenicia we can clearly 
trace the progress of Hellenism (q.v.), especially by the coinage. 
The stamp is cut by Greek hands and the Greek tongue pre- 
dominates more and more in the inscription. We can see that 






the victory of Greek civilization had long been prepared on 
every side. But the vital point is that the absolute superiority 
of the Hellene was recognized as incontestable on both hands. 
The Persian sought to protect himself against danger, by employ- 
ing Greeks in the national service and turning Greek policy to 
the interests of the empire. In the Greek world itself the dis- 
grace that a people, called to universal dominion and capable 
of wielding it, should be dependent on the mandate of an im- 
potent Asiatic monarchy, was keenly felt by all who were not 
yet absorbed in the rivalry of city with city. The spokesman 
of this national sentiment was Isocrates; but numerous other 
writers gave expression to it, notably, the historian Callisthenes 
of Olynthus. Union between Greeks, voluntary or compulsory, 
and an offensive war against Persia, was the programme they 
propounded. 

Nor was the time for its fulfilment far distant. The new power 
which now rose to the first rank, created by Philip of Macedon, 
had no engrained tendency inimical to the Persian 
Empire. Its immediate programme was rather 
Macedonian expansion, at the expense of Thrace 
and Illyria, and the subjection of the Balkan Peninsula. But, 
in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek states, it was 
bound to make use of the tendencies which aimed at the unifica- 
tion of Greece for the struggle against Persia: and this ideal 
demand it dared not reject. 

Thus the conflict became inevitable. In 340, Artaxerxes III. 
and his satraps supported the Greek towns in Thrace Perinthus 
and Byzantium against Macedonian aggression; in 338 he 
concluded an alliance with Demosthenes. When Philip, after 
the victory of Chaeronea, had founded the league of Corinth 
(337) embracing the whole of Greece, he accepted the national 
programme, and in 336 despatched his army to Asia Minor. 
That he never entertained the thought of conquering the whole 
Persian Empire is certain. Presumably, his ambitions would 
have been satisfied with the liberation of the Greek cities, and, 
perhaps, the subjection of Asia Minor as far as the Taurus. 
With this his dominion would have attained much the same 
compass as later under Lysimachus; farther than this the 
boldest hopes of Isocrates never went. 

But Philip's assassination in 336 fundamentally altered the 
situation. In the person of his son, the throne was occupied 
by a soldier and statesman of genius, saturated with Greek 
culture and Greek thought, and intolerant of every goal but the 
highest. To conquer the whole world for Hellenic civilization 
by the aid of Macedonian spears, and to reduce the whole earth 
to unity, was the task that this heir of Heracles and Achilles' 
saw before him. This idea of universal conquest was with him 
a conception much stronger developed than that which had 
inspired the Achaemenid rulers, and he entered on the project 
with full consciousness in the strictest sense of the phrase. In 
fact, if we are to understand Alexander aright, it is fatal to forget 
that he was overtaken by death, not at the end of his career, but 
at the beginning, at the age of thirty-three. 

VI. The Macedonian Dominion. How Alexander conquered 
Persia, and how he framed his world-empire, 1 cannot be related 
here. The essential fact, however, is that after the 
victory of Gaugamela (Oct. i, 331 B.C.) and, still 
more completely, after the assassination of Darius 
avenged according to the Persian laws, on the perpetrators 
Alexander regarded himself as the legitimate head of the Persian 
Empire, and therefore adopted the dress and ceremonial of the 
Persian kings. 

With the capture of the capitals, the Persian war was at an 
end, and the atonement for the expedition of Xerxes was com- 
plete a truth symbolically expressed in the burning of the palace 
at Persepolis. Now began the world-conquest. For an universal 
empire, however, the forces of Macedonia and Greece were 
insufficient; the monarch of a world-empire could not be bound 
by the limitations imposed on the tribal king of Macedon or the 
general of a league of Hellenic republics. He must stand as 

1 See ALEXANDER THE GREAT; MACEDONIAN EMPIRE; HELLEN- 
ISM (for later results). 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



213 



an autocrat, above them and above the law, realizing the 
theoretical doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, as the true king, 
who is a god among men, bound no more than Zeus by a law, 
because " himself he is the law." Thus the divine kingship of 
Alexander derives in direct line, not from the Oriental polities 
which (Egypt apart) know nothing of royal apotheosis but 
from these Hellenic theories of the state. Henceforward it 
becomes the form of every absolute monarchy in a civilized land, 
being formally mitigated only in Christian states by the assump- 
tion that the king is not God, but king " by the grace of God." 
The expedition of 332 B.C. to the shrine of Ammon was a pre- 
liminary to this procedure, which, in 324, was sealed by his 
official elevation to divine rank in all the republics of Greece. 
To this corresponds the fact that, instead of acting on the 
doctrines of Aristotle and Callisthenes, and treating the 
Macedonians and Greeks as masters, the Asiatics as servants, 
Alexander had impartial recourse to the powers of all his subjects 
and strove to amalgamate them. In the Persians particularly 
he sought a second pillar for his world-empire. Therefore, as 
early as 330 B.C., he drafted 30,000 young Persians, educated 
them in Greek customs, and trained them to war on the Mace- 
donian model. The Indian campaign showed that his Mace- 
donian troops were in fact inadequate to the conquest of the 
world, and in the summer of 326 they compelled him to turn 
back from the banks of the Hyphasis. On his return to Persia, 
he consummated at Susa (Feb. 324 B.C.) the union of Persian 
and Macedonian by the great marriage-feast, at which all his 
superior officers, with some 10,000 more Macedonians, were 
wedded to Persian wives. The Macedonian veterans were then 
disbanded, and the Persians taken into his army. Simultane- 
ously, at the Olympian festival of 324, the command was issued 
to all the cities of Greece to recognize him as god and to receive 
the exiles home. 1 In 323 B.C. the preparations for the circum- 
navigation and subjection of Arabia were complete: the next 
enterprise being the conquest of the West, and the battle for 
Hellenic culture against Carthage and the Italian tribes. At 
that point Alexander died in Babylon on the i3th of June 
323 B.C. 

Alexander left no heir. Consequently, his death not only 
ended the scheme of universal conquest, but led to an immediate 
The Macedonian reaction. The army, which was con- 

Kinzdoms sidered as the representative of the people, took 
of the over the government under the direction of its 
Diadochi. g enera i s _ xhe Persian wives were practically all 
discarded and the Persian satraps removed at least from all 
important provinces. But the attempt to maintain the empire 
in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately 
there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by 
the generals (diadochi), for the inheritance of the great king. 2 
It was soon obvious that the eastern rulers, at all events, could 
not dispense with the native element. Peucestas, the governor 
of Persis, there played the role of Alexander and won the Persians 
completely to his side; for which he was dismissed by Antigonus 
in 315 (Diod. xix. 48). A similar position was attained by 
Seleucus the only one of the diadochi, who had not divorced 
his Persian wife, Apama in Babylonia, which he governed 
from 319 to 316 and regained in the autumn of 312. While 
Antigonus, who, since 315, had striven to win the kingdom of 
Alexander for himself was detained by the war with his rivals 
in the west, Seleucus, with Babylon as his headquarters, con- 
quered the whole of Iran as far as the Indus. In northern 
Media alone, which lay outside the main scene of operations 
and had only been partially subject to the later Achaemenids, 
the Persian satrap Atropates, appointed by Alexander, main- 
tained his independence and bequeathed his province to his 
successors. His name is borne by north Media to the present 
day Atropatene, modern Azerbaijan or Adherbeijan (see 
MEDIA). So, too, in Armenia the Persian dynasty of the 

1 The discussion of these events by Hogarth " The Deification 
of Alexander the Great," in the English Historical Review, ii. 
(1887), is quite unsatisfactory. 

2 See PTOLEMIES; SELEUCID DYNASTY. 



Hydarnids held its ground; and to these must be added, in the 
east of Asia Minor, the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia, 
founded c. 301, by the Persians Mithradates I. and Ariarathes I. 
These states were fragments of the Achaemenid Empire, which 
had safely transferred themselves to the Hellenistic state-system. 

The annexation of Iran by Seleucus Nicator led to a war for 
the countries on the Indian frontier; his opponent being Sandra - 
cottus or Chandragupta Maurya (q.v.), the founder seleuaui. 
of the great Indian Empire of Maurya (Palimbothra). Nicator, and 
The result was that Seleucus abandoned to the Aat 'ci'"* 1 - 
Indian king, not merely the Indian provinces, but even the 
frontier districts west of the Indus (Strabo xv. 689-724), 
receiving as compensation 500 elephants, with other presents 
(Appian, Syr. 55; Justin xv. 4; Plut. Alex. 62; Athen. i. 18 D.). 
His next expedition was to the west to assist Lysimachus, 
Ptolemy and Cassander in the overthrow of Antigonus. 

The battle of Ipsus, in 301, gave him Syria and the east of 
Asia Minor; and from then he resided at the Syrian town of 
Antiochia on the Orontes. Shortly afterwards he handed over 
the provinces east of the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, who, 
in the following years, till 282, exercised in the East a very 
energetic and beneficial activity, which continued the work of 
his father and gave the new empire and the Oriental Hellenistic 
civilization their form. In order to protect his conquests 
Alexander had founded several cities in Bactria, Sogdiana and 
India, in which he settled his veterans. On his death, these 
revolted and endeavoured to return to Greece, but were attacked 
and cut to pieces by Pithon (Diod. xviii. 7). Of areek 
the other Greek towns in Asia scarcely any were Towns in 
founded by Alexander himself, though the plan lraa ' 
adopted by his successors of securing their dominions by building 
Greek cities may perhaps be due to him (cf. Polyb. x. 27). 
Most of these new cities were based on older settlements; but 
the essential point is, that they were peopled by Greek and 
Macedonian colonists, and enjoyed civic independence with 
laws, officials, councils and assemblies of their own, in other 
words, an autonomous communal constitution, under the 
suzerainty of the empire. A portion, moreover, of the surround- 
ing land was assigned to them. Thus a great number of the 
country districts the Wvrj above mentioned were transformed 
into municipal corporations, and thereby withdrawn from the 
immediate government of the king and his officials (satraps 
or strategi), though still subject to their control, except in the 
cases where they received unconditional freedom and so ranked 
as " confederates." The native population of these villages 
and rural districts, at first, had no civic rights, but were governed 
by the foreign settlers. Soon, however, the two elements began 
to coalesce ; in the Seleucid Empire, the process seems generally 
' to have been both rapid and complete. Thus the cities became 
the main factors in the diffusion of Hellenism, the Greek language 
and the Greek civilization over all Asia as far as the Indus. 
At the same time they were the centres of commerce and 
industrial life: and this, in conjunction with the royal favour, 
and the privileges accorded them, continually drew new settlers 
(especially Jews), and many of them developed into great and 
flourishing towns (see further under HELLENISM). 

Shortly after his conquest of Babylonia, Seleucus had founded 
a new capital, Seleucia (q.v.), on the Tigris: his intention being 
at once to displace the ancient Babylon from its former central 
position, and to replace it by a Greek city. This was followed 
by a series of other foundations in Mesopotamia, Babylonia and 
Susiana (Elam). " Media," says Polybius (x. 27), " was en- 
circled by a sequence of Greek towns, designed as a barrier 
against the barbarians." Among those mentioned are: Rhagae 
(Rai), which Seleucus metamorphosed into a Hellenic city, 
Europus, Laodicea, Apamea and Heraclea (Strabo xi. 525; 
Plin. vi. 43: cf. MEDIA). To these must be added Achaea in 
Parthia, and, farther to the east, Alexandria Arion in Aria, 
the modern Herat: also Antiochia Margiana (Strabo xi. 514, 516; 
Plin. 46, 93), now Merv, and many others. Further, Alexandria 
in Aradrosia, near Kandahar, and the towns founded by 
Alexander on the Hindu-Kush and in Sogdiana. 



214 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



Thus an active Hellenic life soon arose in the East; and Greek 
settlers must have come in numbers and founded new cities, 
which afterwards formed the basis of the Graeco-Bactrian 
kingdom. Antiochus's general Demodamas crossed the Jaxartes 
and set up an altar to the Didymaean Apollo (Plin. vi. 49). 
Another general, Patrocles, took up the investigation of the 
Caspian, already begun by Alexander. In contrast with the 
better knowledge of an older period, he came to the conclusion 
that the Caspian was connected with the ocean, and that it was 
possible to reach India on ship-board by that route (Strabo 
ii. 74, xi. 518; Plin. vi. 38). A project of Seleucus to connect 
the Caspian with the Sea of Azov by means of a canal is men- 
tioned by Pliny (vi. 31). To Patrocles is due the information 
that an active commerce in Indian wares was carried on with 
the shores of the Black Sea, via the Caspian (Strabo xi. 509). 

While Hellenism was thus gaining a firm footing in all the 
East, the native population remained absolutely passive. Apart 
The Persian horn the rude mountain tribes, no national resis- 
Reiigion tance was dreamed of for centuries. The Iranians 
under quietly accepted the foreign yoke, and the higher 
Greek Rule. c i asses adopted the external forms of the alien 
civilization (cf. the dedication of a Bactrian, Hyspasines, son 
of Mithroaxes, in the inventory of the temple of Apollo in 
Delos, Dittenberger, Sylloge, 588, 1. 109) even though they were 
unable to renounce their innate characteristics. Eratosthenes, 
for instance, speaks (ap. Strabo i. 66) in high terms of the 
Iranians (Ariani), ranking them (as well as the Indians, Romans 
and Carthaginians) on a level with the Greeks, as regards their 
capacity for adopting city civilization. The later Parsee 
tradition contends that Alexander burned the sacred books 
of Zoroaster, the Avesta, and that only a few fragments were 
saved and afterwards reconstructed by the Arsacids and 
Sassanids. This is absolutely unhistorical. The Persian 
religion was never attacked by the Macedonians and Greeks. 
Under their dominion, on the contrary, it expanded with great 
vigour, not only in the west (Armenia, north Syria and Asia 
Minor, where it was the official religion of the kings of Pontus 
and Cappadocia), but also in the east, in the countries of the 
Indian frontier. That the popular gods Mithras, Anaitis, &c. 
had come to the forefront has already been mentioned. This 
propagandism, however, was void of all national character, 
and ran on precisely the same lines as the propagandism of 
the Syrian, Jewish and Egyptian cults. Only in Persia itself, 
so far as we can judge from a few scanty traces, the national 
character of the religion seems to have survived among the 
people side by side with the memory of their old imperial 
position. 

In 282 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and 
annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 281 he 
, ^ ^ i was assassinated in crossing to Europe, and his son 

Independent . . 

Kingdoms Antiochus I. was left supreme over the whole empire. 
to Hactria From that time onward the Seleucid Empire was 
and never at rest. Its gigantic extent, from the Aegean 

Parthia. to tne j nc i US) everywhere offered points of attack 
to the enemy. The Lagidae, especially, with their much more 
compact and effective empire, employed every means to weaken 
their Asiatic rivals; and auxiliaries were found in the minor 
states on the frontier Atropatene, Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus 
and Bithynia, the Galatians, Pergamum, Rhodes and other 
Greek states. Moreover, the promotion of Greek civilization 
and city life had created numerous local centres, with separate 
interests and centrifugal tendencies, struggling to attain com- 
plete independence, and perpetually forcing new concessions 
from the empire. Thus the Seleucid kings, courageous as many 
of them were, were always battling for existence (see SELEUCID 
DYNASTY). 

These disturbances severely affected the borders of Iran. 
While the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus II. Theos (264-247), 
was being harried by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and the king's 
attention was wholly engaged in the defence of the western 
provinces, the Greeks revolted in Bactria, under their governor 
Diodotus (?..). Obviously, it was principally the need of 



protection against the nomadic tribes which led to the founda- 
tion of an independent kingdom; and Diodotus soon attained 
considerable power over the provinces north of the Hindu-Rush. 
In other provinces, too, insurrection broke out (Strabo xi. 575, 
Justin xli. 4); and Arsaces, a chief of the Parni or Aparni an 
Iranian nomad tribe (therefore often called Dahan Scythians), 
inhabiting the steppe east of the Caspian made himself master 
of the district of Parthia (q.v.) in 248 B.C. He and his brother 
Tiridates (q.v.) were the founders of the Parthian kingdom, which, 
however, was confined within very modest limits during the 
following decades. Seleucus II. Callinicus (247-226) successfully 
encountered Arsaces (or Tiridates), and even expelled him 
(c. 238) ; but new risings recalled Seleucus to Syria, and Arsaces 
was enabled to return to Parthia. 

Greater success attended Antiochus III., the Great (222-187). 
At the beginning of his reign (220) he subdued, with the help 
of his minister Hermias, an insurrection of the Antiochus 
satrap Molon of Media, who had assumed the royal ///., the 
title and was supported by his brother Alexander, Oreat. 
satrap of Persis (Polyb. v. 40 sqq.). He further seized the 
opportunity of extorting an advantageous peace from King 
Artabazanes of Atropatene, who had considerably extended his 
power (Polyb. v. 55). After waging an unsuccessful war with 
Ptolemy IV. for the conquest of Coele-Syria, but suppressing 
the revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former 
provinces of the empire in that quarter, Antiochus led a great 
expedition into the East, designing to restore the imperial 
authority in its full extent. He first removed (211) the Armenian 
king Xerxes by treachery (Polyb. viii. 25; John of Antioch, 
fr. 53), and appointed two governors, Artaxias and Zariadris, 
in his place (Strabo xi. 531). During the next year he reduced 
the affairs of Media to order (Polyb. x. 27); he then conducted 
a successful campaign against Arsaces of Parthia (209), and 
against Euthydemus (q.v.) of Bactria (208-206), who had over- 
thrown the dynasty of Diodotus (Polyb. x. 28 sqq., 48 sqq., 
xi. 34; Justin xli. 5). In spite of his successes he concluded 
peace with both kingdoms, rightly considering that it would 
be impossible to retain these remote frontier provinces per- 
manently. He next renewed his old friendship with the Indian 
king Sophagasenus (Subhagasena), and received from him 150 
elephants (206 B.C.). Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in the 
valley of the Etymander (Helmand), he marched to Carmania 
and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia he 
re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a 
voyage from the mouth of the Tigris, through the Arabian gulf 
to the flourishing mercantile town of Gerrha in Arabia (now 
Bahrein) (Polyb. xiii. 9). 

Shortly afterwards, however, his successful campaign against 
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes led to a war with Rome in which the 
power of the Seleucid Empire was shattered (190 B.C.), Decay of the 
Asia Minor lost, and the king compelled to pay a Seleucid 
heavy contribution to Rome for a long term of years. Empire. 
In order to raise money he plundered a wealthy temple of Bel in 
Elam, but was killed by the inhabitants, 187 B.C. (Diod. xxviii. 3, 
xxix. 15; Strabo xvi. 744; Justin xxxii. 2; S. Jerome (Hierony- 
mus) on Dan. xi. 19; Euseb. Chron. i. 253). The consequence of 
this enfeeblement of the empire was that the governors of Armenia 
asserted their independence. Artaxias founded the kingdom 
of Great Armenia; Zariadris, that of Sophene on the Euphrates 
and the sources of the Tigris (Strabo xi. 531). In other districts, 
also, rebellions occurred; and in the east, Euthydemus and his 
successors (Deipetrius, Eucratidas, &c.) began the conquest. of 
the Indus region and the Iranian borderland (Arachosia, Aria). 
(See BACTRIA; EUTHYDEMUS; EUCRATIDAS; DEMETRIUS; 
MENANDER.) 

But the energetic Seleucids fought desperately against their 
fate. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-163) restored once more the 
Eastern dominion, defeated Artaxias of Armenia (Appian, Syr. 
45; Diod. xxxi. i7a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. -40), restored several 
towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His attempt, 
however, to plunder the sanctuary of Anaitis failed (Polyb. xxxi. 
n; cf. Maccab. i. 6, ii. i, 13; App. Syr. 66). Persis, also, and 



HISTORY; ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



215 



Media were still subject to him. But after his death at Tabae 
in Persis (163 B.C.; cf. Polyb. xxxi. n; Maccab. i. 6, ii. g; Jos. 
Ant. Jud. xii. 9, i), the Romans took advantage of the dynastic 
broils to destroy the Seleucid Empire. They reduced its army 
and fleet, and favoured every rebellion: among others, that of 
the Jews. In spite of all, Demetrius I. Soter (161-150) succeeded 
in suppressing (159) a revolt of Timarchus of Miletus, governor 
of Babylon, who had occupied Media, assumed the title of 
" great king," and had been recognized by the Romans (Appian, 
Syr. 45-47; Trogus, Prol. 34; Diod. xxxi. 27 A: cf. the coins of 
Timarchus). 1 

VII. The Parthian Empire of the Arsacids. Meanwhile, in 
the east, the Arsacids had begun their expansion. Phraates I. 
(c. 175-170) subdued the Mardians in Elburz. His brother 
Mithradates I. (c. 170-138) had to sustain a difficult war with 
Eucratides of Bactria, but eventually succeeded in wresting 
MHhra- from him a few districts on the Turanian frontier. 
dates I. and Indeed, he penetrated as far as, and farther than, the 
Phraates n. Indus ( Diod xxxiii lg . Or os. v. 4, 16). In the west 
he conquered Media, and thence subdued Babylonia. He further 
reduced the Elymaeans, sacked their temple in the mountains, 
and captured the Greek city of Seleucia on the Hedyphon (Strabo 
xvi. 744; Justin xli. 6). The Seleucids, meanwhile, were harassed 
by aggravated disorders and insurrections. Nevertheless, in 
140, Demetrius II. Nicator took the field in order to save the 
east, but was defeated and captured. Shortly afterwards 
Mithradates I. died. His son Phraates II. (c. 138-127) was 
attacked in 130 by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, the brother of 
Demetrius II., on which the Parthian king released the latter. 
Antiochus pressed successfully on, and once more recovered 
Babylonia, but in 129 was defeated in Media and fell in a 
desperate struggle. With this battle the Seleucid dominion over 
the countries east of the Euphrates was definitely lost. The 
Babylonian towns, especially Seleucia (q.v.), were handed over 
by Phraates to his favourite, the Hyrcanian Himerus, who 
punished them severely for their resistance. 

During these wars great changes had taken place in eastern 
Iran. In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the Chinese call Yue-chi 
MHhra- anc * tne Greeks Scythians, forced their way into 
dates n. and Sogdiana, and, in 139, conquered Bactria (Strabo 
his Sue- xi. 571; Justin xlii. i; Trog. Prol. 41; see BACTRIA). 
cessors. From Bactria they tried to advance farther into 
Iran and India. Entering into an alliance with Antiochus 
VII., they assailed the Parthian Empire. Phraates II. 
marched to encounter him, but was himself defeated and 
slain, and his country ravaged far and wide. His successor 
Artabanus I. (c. 127-124), the uncle of Phraates, also fell 
in battle against the Tocharians, the principal Scythian 
tribe (Justin xlii. i, 2; Jos. Ant. jr. 66); but his son Mith- 
radates II., surnamed "The Great" (c. 124-88), defeated the 
Scythians and restored for a while the power of the Arsacids. 
He also defeated Artavasdes, the king of Great Armenia; his 
son Tigranes, a hostage in the hands of the Parthians, was only 
redeemed by the cession of 70 valleys (Strabo xi. 532). When 
Tigranes attempted to seize Cappadocia, and the Roman praetor 
P. Cornelius Sulla advanced against him, Mithradates in 92 B.C. 
concluded the first treaty between Parthia and Rome (Plut. 
Sulla, v.; Liv. epit. 70). The dynastic troubles of the Seleucids 
in Syria gave him an opportunity for successful intervention 
(Jos. Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, 4; 14, 3). Shortly afterwards he died; 
and, with his death, the Arsacid power collapsed for the second 
time. The possession of the western provinces and the dominant 
position in western Asia passed to the Armenian Tigranes (?..), 
who wrested from the Parthians Mesopotamia and the suzerainty 
of Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Osroene. Simultaneously 
began a new and severe conflict with the Scythians. Parthian 
coins, probably dating from this period (Wroth, Catal. of the 
Coins of Parthia, 1903, p. xxx. and p. 40), mention victorious 
campaigns of Parthian kings and a conquest of the provinces of 
Aria, Margiane and (?) Traxiane (cf. Strabo xi. 505). But how 

1 For the whole of this period see further ANTIGONUS; ANTIOCHUS 
I.-IV. ; SELEUCID DYNASTY ; HELLENISM. 



confused the situation was is shown by the fact that in 76 B.C. 
the octogenarian king Sanatruces was seated on the Parthian 
throne by the Scythian tribe of the Sacaraucians (cf. Strabo xi. 
511; Trog. Prol. 42). The names of his predecessors are not 
known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual 
dynastic feuds (cf. Trog. Prol. 42 : " ut varia complurium regum 
in Parthia successione imperium accepit Orodes qui Crassum 
delevit" ). Not till Sanatruces' successor Phraates III. (70-57) 
do we find the kingdom again in a settled state. 

A fact of decisive significance was that the Romans now began 
to advance against Tigranes. In vain Mithradates of Pontus 
and Tigranes turned to the Parthian king, the latter Contacts 
even proffering restitution of the conquered frontier with the 
provinces. Pbraates, though rightly distrusting Romans. 
Rome, nevertheless concluded a treaty with Lucullus (69 B.C.) 
and with Pompey, and' even supported the latter in his campaign 
against Tigranes in 66. But after the victory it was manifest 
that the Roman general did not consider himself bound by 
the Parthian treaty. When Tigranes had submitted, Pompey 
received him into favour and extended the Roman supremacy 
over the vassal states of Gordyene and Osroene; though he had 
allured the Parthian king with the prospect of the recovery of his 
old possessions as far as the Euphrates. Phraates complained, 
and simultaneously attacked Tigranes, now a Roman vassal 
(64 B.C.). But when Pompey refused reparation Phraates recog- 
nized that he was too weak to begin the struggle with Rome, 
and contented himself with forming an alliance with Tigranes, 
in hopes that the future would bring an opportunity for his 
revenge (Dio Cass. xxxvi. 3, 5; xxxvii. 5 sqq.; Plut. Luc. 30; 
Pomp. 33, 38; cf. Sallust's letter of Mithradates to Arsaces). 

Although Phraates III. had not succeeded in regaining the full 
power of his predecessors, he felt justified in again assuming the 
title " king of kings" which Pompey declined to acknowledge 
and even in proclaiming himself as "god" (Phlegon, fr. 12 ap. 
Phot. cod. 97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.C. the " god " 
was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates. 

The Parthian Empire, as founded by the conquests of Mithra- 
dates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. and again by 
Phraates III., was, to all exterior appearance, a con- 
tinuation of the Achaemenid dominion. Thus the 
Arsacids now began to assume the old title " king of 
kings " (the shahanshah of modern Persia), though previously their 
coins, as a rule, had borne only the legend " great king." The 
official version, preserved by Arrian in his Parthica (ap. Phot. 
cod. 58: see PARTHIA), derives the line of these chieftains of the 
Parnian nomads from Artaxerxes II. In reality, however, the 
Parthian Empire was totally different from its predecessor, both 
externally and internally. It was anything rather than a world- 
empire. The countries west of the Euphrates never owned its 
dominion, and even of Iran itself not one half was subject to the 
Arsacids. There were indeed vassal states on every hand, but 
the actual possessions of the kings the provinces governed by 
their satraps consisted of a rather narrow strip of land, stretch- 
ing from the Euphrates and north Babylonia through southern 
Media and Parthia as far as Arachosia (north-west Afghanistan), 
and following the course of the great trade-route which from time 
immemorial had carried the traffic between the west of Asia and 
India. We still possess a description of this route by Isidore 
of Charax, probably dating from the Augustan period (in C. 
Miiller, Geographi graeci minores, vol. i.), in which is contained 
a list of the 18 imperial provinces, known also to Pliny (vi. 112; 
cf. 41). Isidore, indeed, enumerates nineteen; but, of these, 
Sacastene formed no part of the Parthian Empire, as has been 
shown by von Gutschmid. 

The lower provinces (i.e. the districts west of Parthia) are: 
( i ) Mesopotamia, with northern Babylonia, from the Euphrates bridge 
at Zeugma to Seleucia on the Tigris; (2) Apolloniatis, the p^,,^,^ 
plain east of the Tigris, with Artemita; (3) Chalonitis, 
the hill-country of Zagros; (4) Western Media; (5) Cambadene, with 
Bagistana (Behistun) the mountainous portions of Media; (6) 
Upper Media, with Ecbatana; (7) Rhagiane or Eastern Media. 
Then with the Caspian Gates the pass between Elburz and the 
central desert, through which lay the route from west Iran to 
east Iran the upper provinces begin; (8) Choarene and (9) 



Organiza- 
tion. 



2l6 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



Comisene, the districts on the verge of the desert ; (10) Hyrcania ; (i i) 
Astabene, with the royal town Asaac on the Attruck (see PARTHIA) ; 
(12) Parthyene with Parthaunisa, where the sepulchres of the kings 
were laid; (13) Apavarcticene (now Abiward, with the capital 
Kelat); (14) Margiane (Merv); (15) Aria (Herat); (16) Anauon, 
the southern portion of Aria; (17) Zarangiane, the country of 
the Drangians, on the lake of Hamun; (18) Arachosia, on the 
Etymander (Helmand), called by the Parthians " White India," 
extending as far as Alexandropolis (Kandahar), the frontier city 
of the Parthian Empire. 

On the lower Etymander, the Sacae had established themselves 
obviously on the inroad of the Scythian tribes and after them 
the country was named Sacastene (now Sejistan, Seistan). Through 
it lay the route to Kandahar; and for this reason the district is 
described by Isidore, though it formed no part of the Parthian 
Empire. 

Round these provinces lay a ring of numerous minor states, 
which as a rule were dependent on the Arsacids. They might, 
, however, partially transfer their allegiance on the rise 
of a new power (e.g. Tigranes in Armenia) or a Roman 
States. invasion. Thus it is not without justice that the 
Arsacid period is described, in the later Persian and Arabian 
tradition, as the period of " the kings of the part-kingdoms " 
among which the Ashkanians (i.e. the Arsacids, from Ashak, the 
later pronunciation of the name A rshak = Arsaces) had won the 
first place. This tradition, however, is nebulous in the extreme; 
the whole list of kings, which it gives, is totally unhistorical ; only 
the names of one Balash (=Vologaeses) and of the last Ardewan 
( = Artabanus) having been preserved. The period, from the 
death of Alexander to the Sassanid Ardashir I., is put by the Persian 
tradition at 266 years; which was afterwards corrected, after 
Syro-Grecian evidence, to 523 years. The actual number is 548 
years (i.e. 323 B.C. to A.D. 226). The statements of the Armenian 
historians as to this period are also absolutely worthless. 

The ten most important of the vassal states were : 

1. The kingdom of Osroene (q.v.) in the north-east of Mesopotamia, 
with Edessa as capital, founded about 130 B.C. by the chieftain of 
an Arabian tribe, the Orrhoei, which established itself there. 

2. To this must be added the numerous Arabian tribes of 
the Mesopotamian desert, under their chiefs, among whom one 
Alchaudonius comes into prominence in the period of Tigranes 
and Crassus. Their settlement in Mesopotamia was encouraged by 
Tigranes, according to Plutarch (Luc. 21) and Pliny (vi. 142). In 
later times the Arabic town Atra in an oasis on the west of the 
Tigris, governed by its own kings, gained special importance. 

3 and 4. To the east of the Tigris lay two kingdoms: Gordyene 
(or Cordyene), the country of the Carduchians (now Bohtan), a wild, 
mountainous district south of Armenia; and Adiabene (Hadyab), 
the ancient Assyria, on either side of the Zab (Lycus). 

5. On the farther side of Zagrqs, adjoining Adiabene on the east, 
was the kingdom of Atropatene in north Media, now often simply 
called Media (q.v.). 

While the power of Armenia was at its height under Tigranes 
(86-69 B.C.) all these states owned his rule. After the victories 
of Pompey, however, the Romans claimed the suzerainty, so that, 
during the next decades and the expeditions of Crassus and Antony, 
they oscillated between Rome and Parthia, though their inclination 
was generally to the latter. For they were all Orientals and, 
consciously or unconsciously, representatives of a reaction against 
that Hellenism which had become the heritage of Rome. At the 
same time the loose organization of the Parthian Empire, afforded 
them a greater measure of independence than they could hope to 
enjoy under Roman suzerainty. 

6. In the south of Babylonia, in the district of Mesene (the 
modern Maisan), after the fall of Antiochus Sidetes (129 B.C.), 
an Arabian prince, Hyspaosines or Spasines (in a cuneiform in- 
scription of 127, on a clay tablet dated after this year, he is called 
Aspasine) founded a kingdom which existed till the rise of the 
Sassanian Empire. Its capital was a city (mod. Mohammerah), 
first founded by Alexander on an artificial hill by the junction of 
the Eulaeus (Karun) with the Tigris, and peopled by his veterans. 
The town, which was originally named Alexandria and then 
rebuilt by Antiochus I. as Antiochia, was now refortified with dikes 
by Spasines, and christened Spasinu Charax (" the wall of Spasines "), 
or simply Charax (Plin. vi. 138 seq.). In the following centuries 
it was the main mercantile centre on the Tigris estuary. 

The kingdom of Mesene, also called Characene, is known to us 
from occasional references in various authors, especially Lucian 
(Macrobii, 16), as well as from numerous coins, dated by the Seleucian 
era, which allow us to frame a fairly complete list of the kings. 1 
The Arabian dynasty speedily assimilated itself to the native 
population ; and most of the kings bear Babylonian in a few 
cases, Parthian names. The official language was Greek, till, 
on the destruction of Seleucia (A.D. 164), it was replaced on the 
coinage by Aramaic. Another Babylonian dynast must have 



1 See Saint-Martin, Recherches sur la Aftsene et la Characene 
(1838); Reinaud, Memoires sur le royaume de la Mesene (1861); 
E. Babelon, " Numism. et chronol. des dynastes de la Characfene," 
in Journ. internal. d'archeol. numism. vol. i. (1898). 



been Hadadnadinaches (c. 100 B.C.), who built in Tello the fortified 
palace which has been excavated by de Sarzec. 

7. East of the Tigris lay the kingdom of Elymais (Elam), to 
which belonged Susa and its modern representative Ahwaz, farther 
down on the Eulaeus. The Elymaeans, who had already offered 
a repeated resistance to the Seleucids, were subdued by Mithra- 
dates I., as we have mentioned above; but they remained a separate 
state, which often rebelled against the Arsacids (Strabo xvi. 744 ; cf. 
Plut. Pomp. 36; Tac. Ann. vi. 50). Of the kings who apparently 
belonged to a Parthian dynasty, several bearing the name Cammas- 
cires are known to us from coins dated 8 1 and 71 B.C. One of 
these is designated by Lucian (Macrobii, 16) " king of the 
Parthians "; while the coinage of another, Orodes, displays Aramaic 
script (Allotte de la Fuye, Rev. num., 4me serie, t. vi. p. 92 sqq., 
1902). The kingdom, which is seldom mentioned, survived till 
Ardashir I. In its neighbourhood Strabo mentions " the minor 
dynasties of the Sagapenians and Silacenians " (xvi. 745). The 
Uxians, moreover, with the Cossaeans and other mountain tribes, 
maintained their independence exactly as under the later Achae- 
menids (Strabo xvi. 744; Plin. vi. 133). 

8. The district of Persis, also, became independent soon after 
the time of Antiochus IV., and was ruled by its own kings, who 
perpetuated the Achaemenian traditions, and on their coins which 
bear the Persian language in Aramaic characters, i.e. the so-called 
Pahlavi appear as zealous adherents of Zoroastrianism and the 
Fire-cult (see PERSIS). They were forced, however, to acknowledge 
the suzerainty of Parthia, to which they stood in the same position 
as the Persians of Cyrus and his forefathers to the Median Empire 
(cf. Strabo xv. 728, 733, 736; Lucian, Macrob. 15). In later times, 
before the foundation of the Sassanid dominion, Persis was dis- 
integrated into numerous small local states. Even in Carmania 
we find independent kings, one of whom gave his name to a town 
Vologesocerta (Balashkert) . 

9. The east of Iran Bactria with Sogdiana, Eastern Arachosia 
and Gedrosia was never subject to the Arsacids. Here the 
Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian kingdoms held their own, 
till, in 139 B.C., they succumbed before the invading Mongolian 
and Scythian tribes (see BACTRIA and works quoted there). But 
in the Indus district the Greek kings held their ground for an appre- 
ciably longer period and, for a while, widely extended their power 
(see MENANDER OF INDIA). Among the kings then following, only 
known to us from their coins, there appears a dynasty with Iranian 
and sometimes peculiarly Parthian names which seems to have 
reigned in the Punjab and Arachosia. Its best-known representa- 
tive, Gondophares or Hyndopherres, to whom legend makes the 
apostle Thomas write, reigned over Arachosia and the Indus dis- 
trict about A.D. 20. Further, about A.D. 70, the Periplus of the 
Erythraean Sea mentions that the great commercial town of 
Minnagar in the Indus Delta was under Parthian kings, " who 
spent their time in expelling one another." Here, then, it would 
seem there existed a Parthian dynasty, which probably went back 
to the conquests of Mithradates I. (cf. Vincent A. Smith, " The 
Indo-Parthian Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to A.D. 100," in the 
Zeitschr. der deutschen morgenl. Gesellsch. 60, 1906). Naturally, 
such a dynasty would not long have recognized the suzerainty of 
the Arsacids. It succumbed to the Indo-Scythian Empire of the 
Kushana, who had obtained the sovereignty of Bactria as early as 
about A.D. 50, and thence pressed onward into India. In the 
period of the Periplus (c. A.D. 70) the Scythians were already 
settled in the Indus yalley (pp. 38, 41, 48), their dominion reaching 
its zenith under Kanishka (c. A.D. 123153)- 

This empire of the Kushana merits special mention here, on 
account of its peculiar religious attitude, which we may gather 
from the coins of its kings, particularly those of Kanishka and his 
successor Huvishka, on which an alphabet adapted from the Greek 
is employed (cf. Aurel Stein, " Zoroastrian Deities on Indo-Scythian 
Coins," in The Babylonian and Oriental Record, vol. i., 1887). 
Kanishka, as is well known, had embraced Buddhism, and many of his 
coins bear the image and name of Buddha. Iranian divinities, how- 
ever, predominate on his currency: Mithras (Mihro or Helios); the 
Moon Mah (also Selene); Athro, the Fire; Orthragno (Verethragna) ; 
Pharro = Farna. (hvarena), " the majesty of kingship "; Teiro = Tir 
(Tistrya " the archer "); Nana (Nanaia); and others, Here, then, 
we have a perfect example of syncretism ; as in the Mithras cult in 
Armenia, Asia Minor, and still further in the Roman Empire. 
Buddhism and Zoroastrianism have been wedded in the state re- 
ligion, and, in characteristic Indian fashion, are on the best of terms 
with one another, precisely as, in the Chinese Empire at the present 
day, we find the most varied religions, side by side, and on an equal 
footing. 

10. Originally a part of the Turanian steppe belonged to the 
Arsacids; it was the starting-point of their power. Soon, however, 
the nomads (Dahae) gained their independence, and, as we _ have 
seen, repeatedly attacked and devastated the Parthian Empire in 
conjunction with the Tocharians and other tribes of Sacae and 
Scythians. In the subsequent period, again, we shall frequently 
meet them. 

It may appear surprising that the Arsacids made no 
attempt to incorporate the minor states in the empire and 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



217 



create a great and united dominion, such as existed under the 
Achaemenids and was afterwards restored by the Sassanids. 
This fact is the clearest symptom of the inner weakness of 
Character of their empire and of the small power wielded by the 
the Parthian " king of kings." In contrast alike with its prede- 
Empire. cessors and its successors, the Arsacid dominion was 
peculiarly a chance formation a state which had come into 
existence through fortuitous external circumstances, and had 
no firm foundation within itself, or any intrinsic raison d'etre. 

Three elements, of widely different kinds, contributed to its 
origin and denned its character. It was sprung from a predatory 
nomad tribe (the Parnian Dahae, Scythians) which had established 
itself in Khorasan (Parthia), on the borders of civilization, and thence 
gradually annexed further districts as the political situation or the 
weakness of its neighbours allowed. Consequently, these nomads 
were the main pillar of the empire, and from them were obviously 
derived the great magnates, with their huge estates and hosts of 
serfs, who composed the imperial council, led the armies, governed 
the provinces and made and unmade the kings (Strabo xi. 515^ 
Justin xli. 2; the former terming them avyytvtii, " kinsmen " 
of the king, the latter, probuli). Of these great families that of 
Surenas held the privilege of setting the diadem on the head of the 
new king (Plut. Crass. 21 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 42). 

The military organization, moreover, was wholly nomadic in 
character. The nucleus of the army was formed of armoured horse- 
men, excellently practised for long-distance fighting with bow and 
javelin, but totally unable to venture on a hand-to-hand conflict, 
their tactics being rather to swarm round the enemy's squadrons 
and ovenvhelm them under a hail of missiles. When attacked 
they broke up, as it seemed, in hasty and complete flight, and 
having thus led the hostile army to break its formation, they them- 
selves rapidly reformed and renewed the assault. How difficult 
it was for infantry to hold their own against these mounted squadrons 
was demonstrated by the Roman campaigns, especially in broad 
plains like those of Mesopotamia. In winter, however, the Parthians 
were powerless to wage war, as the moisture of the atmosphere 
relaxed their bows. The infantry, in contrast with its earlier 
status under the Persians, was wholly neglected. On the other 
hand, every magnate put into the field as many mounted warriors 
as possible, chiefly servants and bought slaves, who, like the Janis- 
saries and Mamelukes, were trained exclusively for war. Thus 
Surenas, in 53 B.C., is said to have put at the king's disposal 1000 
mailed horsemen and, in all, 10,000 men, including the train, which 
also comprised his attendants and harem (Plut. Crass. 21; descrip- 
tion of the military organization; Dio Cass. 40, 15; Justin xli. 2). 
In the army of 50,000 mounted men which took the field against 
Mark Antony there were, says Justin, only 400 freemen. 

How vital was the nomadic element in the Parthian Empire is 
obvious from the fact that, in civil wars, the deposed kings con- 
-TA , .I.- sistently took refuge among the Dahae or Scythians 
'"and were restored by them. But, in Parthia, these 
nomads were amalgamated with the native peasantry, 
and, with their religion, had adopted their dress and manners. 
Even the kings, after the first two or three, wear their hair 
and beard long, in the Iranian fashion, whereas their predecessors 
are beardless. Although the Arsacids are strangers to any deep 
religious interest (in contrast to the Achaemenids and Sassanids), 
they acknowledge the Persian gods and the leading tenets of 
Zoroastrianism. They erect fire-altars, and even obey the command 
to abandon all corpses to the dogs and fowls (Justin xli. 3). The 
union, moreover, recommended by that creed, between brother and 
sister and even son and mother occurs among them. Conse- 
quently, beside the council of the nobility, there is a second council 
of " Magians and wise men " (Strabo xi. 515). 

Again, they perpetuate the traditions of the Achaemenid Empire. 
The Arsacids assume the title " king of kings " and derive their 
line from Artaxerxes II. Further, the royal apotheosis, so common 
among them and recurring under the Sassanids, is probably not so 
much of Greek origin as a development of Iranian views. For at 
the side of the great god Ahuramazda there stands a host of sub- 
ordinate divine beings who execute his will among these the 
deified heroes of legend, to whose circle the king is now admitted, 
since on him Ahuramazda has bestowed victory and might. 

This gradual Iranianization of the Parthian Empire is shown 
by the fact that the subsequent Iranian traditions, and Firdousi 
in particular, apply the name of the " Parthian " magnates 
(Pahlavan) to the glorious heroes of the legendary epoch. Con- 
sequently, also, the language and writing of the Parthian period, 
which are retained under the Sassanids, received the name Pahlavi, 
i.e. " Parthian." The script was derived from the Aramaic. 

But to these Oriental elements must be added that of Hellenism, 

the dominant world-culture which had penetrated into Parthia 

and Media. It was indispensable to every state which 

a hoped to play some part in the world and was not so 

HeTfenhm utterly secluded as Persis and Atropatene; and the 

' Arsacids entertained the less thought of opposition as 

they were destitute of an independent national basis. All their 



external institutions were borrowed from the Seleucid Empire: 
their coinage with its Greek inscriptions and nomenclature; their 
Attic standard of currency; and, doubtless, a great part of their 
administration also. In the towns Greek merchants were every- 
where settled. Mithradates I. even followed the precedent of the 
Seleucids in building a new city, Arsacia, which replaced the ancient 
Rhagae (Rai, Europus) in Media. The further the Arsacids ex- 
panded the deeper they penetrated into the province of Hellenism; 
the first Mithradates himself assumed, after his great conquests, 
the title of Philhellen, " the protector of Hellenism," which was 
retained by almost all his successors. Then follow the surnames 
Epiphanes " the revealed god," Dicaeus " the just," Euergetes 
" the benefactor," all of them essentially Greek in their reference, 
and also regularly borne by all the kings. After the conquest of 
the Euphrates and Tigris provinces it was imperative that the 
royal residence should be fixed there. But as no one ventured to 
transfer the royal household and the army, with its hordes of wild 
horsemen, to the Greek town of Seleucia, and thus disorganize its 
commerce, the Arsacids set up their abode in the great village of 
Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia, 
which accordingly retained its free Hellenic constitution, (see 
CTESIPHON and SELEUCIA). So, also, Orodes I. spoke good Greek, 
and Greek tragedies were staged at his court (Plut. Crass. 33). 

In spite of this, however, the rise of the Arsacid Empire marks 
the beginning of a reaction against Hellenism not, indeed, a 
conscious or official reaction, but a reaction which was jj eac f/ on 
all the more effective because it depended on the impetus agalast 
of circumstances working with all the power of a natural Hellealsm. 
force. The essential point is that the East is completely 
divorced from the Mediterranean and the Hellenic world, that it 
can derive no fresh powers from that quarter, and that, consequently, 
the influence of the Oriental elements must steadily increase. This 
process can be most clearly traced on the coins almost the sole 
memorials that the Parthian Empire has left. From reign to reign 
the portraits grow poorer and more stereotyped, and the inscriptions 
more neglected, till it becomes obvious that the engraver himself 
no longer understood Greek but copied mechanically the signs 
before his eyes, as is the case with the contemporary Indo-Scythian 
coinage, and also in Mesene. Indeed, after Vologaeses I. (51-77), 
the Aramaic script is occasionally employed. The political opposi- 
tion to the western empires, the Seleucids first, then the Romans, 
precipitated this development. Naturally enough the Greek cities 
beheld a liberator in every army that marched from the West, 
and were ever ready to cast in their lot with such a disposition 
for which the subsequent penalty was not lacking. The Parthian 
magnates, on the other hand, with the army, would have little 
to do with Greek culture and Greek modes of life, which they con- 
temptuously regarded as effeminate and unmanly. Moreover, 
they required of their rulers that they should live in the fashion of 
their country, practise arms and the chase, and appear as Oriental 
sultans, not as Grecian kings. 

These tendencies taken together explain the radical weakness 
of the Parthian Empire. It was easy enough to collect a great 
army and achieve a great victory; it was absolutely impossible to 
hold the army together for any longer period, or to conduct a regular 
campaign. The Parthians proved incapable of creating a firm, 
united organization, such as the Achaemenids before them, and the 
Sassanids after them gave to their empire. The kings themselves 
were toys in the hands of the magnates and the army who, tenaci- 
ously as they clung to the anointed dynasty of the Arsacids, were 
utterly indifferent to the person of the individual Arsacid. Every 
moment they were ready to overthrow the reigning monarch and 
to seat another on his throne. The kings, for their part, sought 
protection in craft, treachery and cruelty, and only succeeded in 
aggravating the situation. More especially they saw an enemy in 
every prince, and the worst of enemies in their own sons. Sanguin- 
ary crimes were thus of everyday occurrence in the royal house- 
hold; and frequently it was merely a matter of chance whether 
the father anticipated the son, or the son the father. The conditions 
were the same as obtained subsequently under the Mahommedan 
Caliphate (q.v.) and the empire of the Ottomans. The internal 
history of the Parthian dominion is an unbroken sequence of civil 
war and dynastic strife. 

For the literature dealing with the Parthian Empire and 
numismatics, see PARTHIA, under which heading will be found 
a complete list of the kings, so far as we are able to reconstitute 
them. 

These conditions elucidate the fact that the Parthian Empire, 
though founded on annexation and perpetually menaced by 
hostile arms in both the East and the West, yet Laterals- 
never took a strong offensive after the days of toryofthe 
Mithradates II. It was bound to protect itself 
against Scythian aggression in the East and 
Roman aggression in the West. To maintain, or regain, the 
suzerainty over Mesopotamia and the vassal states of that region, 
as also over Atropatene and Armenia, was its most imperative 
task. Yet it always remained on the defensive and even so was 



218 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



lacking in energy. Whenever it made an effort to enforce its 
claims, it retreated so soon as it was confronted by a resolute 
foe. 

Thus the wars between Parthia and Rome proceeded, not 
from the Parthians deeply injured though they were by the 
Wars with encroachments of Pompey but from Rome herself. 
Crassus and Rome had been obliged, reluctantly enough, to enter 
Antonius. U p On the inheritance of Alexander the Great; and, 
since the time of Pompey, had definitely subjected to her 
dominion the Hellenistic countries as far as the Euphrates. 
Thus the task now faced them of annexing the remainder of the 
Macedonian Empire, the whole East from the Euphrates to the 
Indus, and of thereby saving Greek civilization (cf. Plut. Comp. 
Nic. et Crass. 4). The aristocratic republic quailed before such 
an enterprise, though Lucullus, at the height of his successes, 
entertained the thought (Plut. Luc. 30). But the ambitious men, 
whose goal was to erect their own sovereignty on the ruins of the 
republic, took up the project. With this objective M. Licinius 
Crassus, the triumvir, in 54 B.C., took the aggressive against 
Parthia, the occasion being favourable owing to the dynastic 
troubles between Orodes I., the son of Phraates III., and his 
brother Mithradates III. Crassus fell on the field of Carrhae 
(June 9, 53 B.C.). With this Mesopotamia was regained by the 
Parthians, and King Artavasdes of Armenia now entered their 
alliance. But, apart from the ravaging of Syria (51 B.C.) by 
Pacorus the son of Orodes, the threatened attack on the Roman 
Empire was carried into effect neither then nor during the civil 
wars of Caesar and Pompey. At the time of his assassination 
Caesar was intent on resuming the expedition of Crassus. The 
Parthians formed a league with Brutus and Cassius, as previously 
with Pompey, but gave them no support, until in 40 B.C. a 
Parthian army, led by Pacorus and the republican general 
Labienus, harried Syria and Asia Minor. But it was easily 
repulsed by Ventidius Bassus, the lieutenant of Mark Antony. 
Pacorus himself fell on the gih of June 38 B.C. at Gindarus in 
northern Syria. Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C., 
and penetrated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was 
defeated by Phraates IV. who in 37 B.C. had murdered his 
father Orodes I. and compelled to retreat with heavy losses. 
The continuation of the war was frustrated by the conflict 
with Octavian. Armenia alone was again subdued in 34 B.C. 
by Antony, who treacherously captured and executed King 
Artavasdes. 

Roman opinion universally expected that Augustus would 
take up the work of his predecessors, annihilate the Parthian 
dominion, and subdue the East as far as the 
Augustus. Indians, Scythians and Seres (cf. Horace and the other 
Augustan poets). (But Augustus disappointed these 
expectations. His whole policy and the needs of the newly 
organized Roman Empire demanded peace. His efforts were 
devoted to reaching a modus vivendi, by which the authority 
of Rome and her most vital claims might be peacefully vindicated. 
This the weakness of Parthia enabled him to effect without 
much difficulty. His endeavours were seconded by the revolt 
of Tiridates II., before whom Phraates IV. was compelled to 
flee (32 B.C.), till restored by the Scythians. Augustus lent no 
support to Tiridates in his second march on Ctesiphon (26 B.C.), 
but Phraates was all the more inclined on that account to 
stand on good terms with him. Consequently in 20 B.C., he 
restored the standards captured in the victories over Crassus 
and Antony, and recognized the Roman suzerainty over Osroene 
and Armenia. In return, the Parthian dominion in Babylonia 
and the other vassal states was left undisputed. 

Thus it was due not to the successes and strength of the Par- 
thians but entirely to the principles of Roman policy as defined by 
Augustus that their empire appears as a second great independent 
power, side by side with Rome. The precedence of the Caesars, 
indeed, was always admitted by the Arsacids; and Phraates IV. 
soon entered into a state of dependency on Rome by sending 
(9 B.C.) four of his sons as hostages to Augustus a convenient 
method of obviating the danger threatened in their person, 
without the necessity of killing them. In 4 B.C., however, 



Phraates was assassinated by his favourite wife Musa and her 
son Phraates V. In the subsequent broils a Parthian faction 
obtained the release of one of the princes interned in Rome 
as Vonones I. (A.D. 8). He failed, however, to maintain his 
position for long. He was a stranger to the Parthian customs, 
and the feeling of shame at dependency on the foreigner was 
too strong. So the rival faction brought out another Arsacid, 
resident among the Scythian nomads, Artabanus II., who 
easily expelled Vonones only to create a host of enemies by 
his brutal cruelty, and to call forth fresh disorders. 

Similar proceedings were frequently repeated in the period 
following. In the intervals the Parthians made several attempts 
to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there 
install an Arsacid prince ; but on each occasion votogaeses I. 
they retreated without giving battle so soon as the 
Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropatene 
was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsacid 
ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out under Vologaeses I. 
(51-77), who made his brother Tiridates king of Armenia. 
After protracted hostilities, in which the Roman army was 
commanded by Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a peace was concluded 
in A.D. 63, confirming the Roman suzerainty over Armenia but 
recognizing Tiridates as king (see CORBULO). Tiridates himself 
visited Rome and was there invested with the diadem by 
Nero (A.D. 66). After that Armenia continued under the rule 
of an Arsacid dynasty. 

These successes of Vologaeses were counterbalanced by 
serious losses in the East. He was hampered in an energetic 
campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and Sacae. 
Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under 
a separate line of kings. A little later, the Alans, a great Iranian 
tribe in the south of Russia the ancestors of the present-day 
Ossets broke for the first time through the Caucasian passes, 
and ravaged Media and Armenia an incursion which they often 
repeated in the following centuries. 

On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses I. is characterized 
by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against Hellenism. 
The line of Arsacids which came to the throne in the person of 
Artabanus II. (A.D. 10) stands in open opposition to the old 
kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tinge 
of Hellenism. The new regime obviously laid much more stress 
on the Oriental character of their state, though Philostratus, 
in his life of Apollonius of Tyana(who visited the Parthian court), 
states that Vardanes I. (A.D. 40-45), the rival king to the brutal 
Gotarzes (A.D. 40-51), was a cultivated man (Vit. Ap. i. 22, 28, 
31 sqq.); and Vologaeses I. is distinguished by the excellent 
relations which subsisted all his life between himself and his 
brothers Pacorus and Tiridates, the kings of Media and Armenia. 
But the coins of Vologaeses I. are quite barbarous, and for the 
first time on some of them appear the initials of the name of 
the king in Aramaic letters by the side of the Greek legend. 
The Hellenism of Seleucia was now attacked with greater deter- 
mination. For seven years (A.D. 37-43) the city maintained 
itself in open rebellion (Tac. Ann. xi. 8 seq.), till at last it 
surrendered to Vardanes, who in consequence enlarged Ctesiphon, 
which was afterwards fortified by Pacorus (A.D. 78-105: 
v. Ammian. 23, 6, 23). In the neighbourhood of the same town 
Vologaeses I. founded a city Vologesocerta (Balashkert), to 
which he attempted to transplant the population to Seleucia 
(Plin. vi. 122: cf. Th. Noldeke in Zeilschr. d. deutsch. morgenl. 
Gesellschaft, xxviii., too). Another of his foundations was 
Vologesias (the Arabian Ullaish), situated near Hira on the 
Euphrates, south of Babylon, which did appreciable damage to 
the commerce of Seleucia and is often mentioned in inscrip- 
tions as the destination of the Palmyrene caravans. 

After Vologaeses I. follows a period of great disturbances. 
The literary tradition, indeed, deserts us almost entirely, but 
the coins and isolated literary references prove that during the 
years A.D. 77 to 147, two kings, and sometimes three or more, 
were often reigning concurrently (Vologaeses II. 77-79, and 
111-147; Pacorus 78-c. 105; Osroes 106-129; Mithradates V. 
129-147: also Artabanus III. 80-81; Mithradates IV. and his 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



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219 



son Sanatruces II. 115; and Parthamaspates 116-117). Ob- 
viously the empire can never have been at peace during these 
years, a fact which materially assisted the aggressive campaigns 
Wars with of Trajan (113-117). Trajan resuscitated the 
Trajan and old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the 
Marcus empire of Alexander as far as India was to be won 
" s> for Western civilization. In pursuance of this plan 
he reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia and Babylonia to the posi- 
tion of imperial provinces. On his death, however, Hadrian 
immediately reverted to the Augustan policy and restored the 
conquests. Simultaneously there arose in the East the powerful 
Indo-Scythian empire of the Kushana, which doubtless limited 
still further the Parthian possessions in eastern Iran. 

An era of quiet seems to have returned with Vologaeses III. 
(147-191), and we hear no more of rival kings. With the Roman 
Empire a profound peace had reigned since Hadrian (117), 
which was first disturbed by the attack of Marcus Aurelius and 
Aelius Verus in 162. This war, which broke out on the question 
of Armenia and Osroene, proved of decisive significance for the 
future development of the East, for, in its course, Seleucia was 
destroyed by the Romans under Avidius Cassius (164). The 
downfall of the great Greek city sealed the fate of Hellenism 
in the countries east of the Euphrates. Henceforward Greek 
culture practically vanishes and gives place to Aramaic; it is 
significant that in future the kings of Mesene stamped their 
coinage with Aramaic legends. This Aramaic victory was 
powerfully aided by the ever-increasing progress of Christianity, 
which soon created, as is well known, an Aramaic literature 
Christianity. f which the language was the dialect of Edessa, a city 
in which the last king of Osroene, Abgar IX. (170- 
214), had been converted to the faith. After that Greek 
culture and Greek literature were only accessible to the Orientals 
in an Aramaic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the 
king Valgash, who, according to a native tradition, preserved 
in the Dinkart, began a collection of the sacred writings of 
Zoroaster the origin of the Aiiesla which has come down to us. 
This would show how the national Iranian element in the 
Parthian Empire was continually gathering strength. 

The Roman war was closed in 165 by a peace which ceded 
north-west Mesopotamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place 
in 195-202 between Vologaeses IV. (191-209) and Septimius 
Severus, and again in 216-217 between Artabanus IV. (209-226) 
and Caracalla. They failed, however, to affect materially the 
position of the two empires. 

VIII. The Sassanian Empire. That the Arsacid Empire 
should have endured some 350 years after its foundation by 
Ardashiri. Mithradates I. and Phraates II., was a result, not 
of internal strength, but of chance working in its 
external development. It might equally well have so existed 
for centuries more. But under Artabanus IV. the catastrophe 
came. In his days there arose in Persis precisely as Cyrus 
had arisen under Astyages the Mede a great personality. 
Ardashir (Artaxerxes) I., son of Papak (Babek), the descendant 
of Sasan, was the sovereign of one of the small states into which 
Persis had gradually fallen. His father Papak had taken 
possession of the district of Istakhr, which had replaced the old 
Persepolis, long a mass of ruins. Thence Ardashir I., who 
reigned from about A.D. 212, subdued the neighbouring poten- 
tates disposing of his own brothers among the rest. This 
proceeding quickly led to war with his suzerain Artabanus IV. 
The conflict was protracted through several years, and the 
Parthians were worsted in three battles. The last of these 
witnessed the fall of Artabanus (A.D. 226), though a Parthian 
king, Artavasdes perhaps a son of Artabanus IV. who is 
only known to us from his own coins, appears to have retained 
a portion of the empire for some time longer. The members 
of the Arsacid line who fell into the hands of the victor were put 
to death; a number of the princes found refuge in Armenia, 
where the Arsacid dynasty maintained itself till A.D. 429. 
The remainder of the vassal states -Carmania, Susiana, Mesene 
were ended by Ardashir; and the autonomous desert fortress 
of Hatra in Mesopotamia was destroyed by his son Shapur 



(Sapor) I., according to the Persian and Arabian traditions, 
which, in this point, are deserving of credence. The victorious 
Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctesiphon and 
assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians " (/Ja<7iXi>s 
/SaeriXewi' 'Apuivuv). 

The new empire founded by Ardashir I. the Sassanian, 
or Neo-Persian Empire is essentially different from that of 
his Arsacid predecessors. It is, rather, a continua- sassaalaa 
tion of the Achaemenid traditions which were still Warswita 
alive on their native soil. Consequently the national Rome - 
impetus already clearly revealed in the title of the new 
sovereign again becomes strikingly manifest. The Sassanian 
Empire, in fact, is once more a national Persian or Iranian 
Empire. The religious element is, of course, inseparable 
from the national, and Ardashir, like all the dynasts of Persis, 
was an ardent devotee of the Zoroastrian doctrine, and closely 
connected with the priesthood. In his royal style he assumed 
the designation " Mazdayasnian " (MaaSatrvas) , and the fire- 
cult was everywhere vigorously disseminated. Simultaneously 
the old claims to world dominion made their reappearance. 
After the defeat of Artabanus, Ardashir, as heir of the Achae- 
menids, formulated his pretensions to the dominion of western 
Asia (Dio. Cass. 80, 3; Herodian vi. 2, 4; Zonar. xii. 15; similarly 
under Shapur II.: Ammian. Marc. xvii. 5, 5). He attacked 
Armenia, though without permanent success (cf. von Gutschmid 
in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xxxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian 
account of these wars), and despatched his armies against 
Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and 
Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman Empire, and the 
widespread tendency of its troops to mutiny and usurpation, 
favoured his enterprise. Nevertheless, the armies of Alexander 
Severus, supported by the king of Armenia, succeeded in repelling 
the Persians, though the Romans sustained severe losses (231- 
233). Towards the end of his reign Ardashir resumed the attack; 
while his son Shapur I. (241-272) reduced Nisibis and Carrhae 
and penetrated into Syria, but was defeated by shapuri 
Gordian III. at Resaena (243). Soon afterwards, 
however, the Roman Empire seemed to collapse utterly. The 
Goths defeated Decius (251) and harried the Balkan Peninsula 
and Asia Minor, while insurrections broke out everywhere and 
the legions created one Caesar after the other. Then Shapur 
resumed the war, subdued Armenia and plundered Antioch. 
The emperor Valerian, who marched to encounter him, was 
overthrown at Edessa and taken prisoner (260). The Persian 
armies advanced into Cappadocia; but here Ballista or Balista 
(d. c. 264) beat them back, and Odenathus (Odainath), prince of 
Palmyra (<?..), rose in their rear, defeated Shapur, captured 
his harem, and twice forced his way to Ctesiphon (263-265). 
Shapur was in no position to repair the defeat, or even to hold 
Armenia; so that the Sassanid power failed to pass the bounds 
of the Arsacid Empire. Nevertheless Shapur I., in contrast 
to his father, assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians 
and non-Iranians" (/SamXeiis /SatriXeaji' 'Apiav&v /ecu 'Avapiavwv; 
shah an shah Iran we Aniran), thus emphasizing his claim to 
world dominion. His successors retained the designation, 
little as it corresponded to the facts, for the single non-Iranian 
land governed by the Sassanids was, as under the Parthians, 
the district of the Tigris and Euphrates as far as the Mesopo- 
tamian desert; western and northern Mesopotamia remained 
Roman. 

The Sassanid ruler is the representative of the " Kingly Majesty," 
derived from Ormuzd, which appears in the Avesta as the angel 
Kavaem Hvareno, " the royal glory," and, according to 
legend, once beamed in the Iranian kings, unattainable to TV*" 
all but those of royal blood. A picture, which frequently 
recurs in the rock-reliefs of Ardashir I. and Shapur I., represents 
the king and the god Ormuzd both on horseback, the latter in the 
act of handing to his companion the ring of sovereignty. Thus it 
is explicable that all the Sassanids, as many of the Arsacids before 
them, include the designation of " god " in their formal style. 
From this developed (as already under the Arsacids) that strict 
principle of legitimacy which is still vigorous in Firdousi. It 
applies, however, to the whole royal house, precisely as in the 
Ottoman Empire of to-day. The person of the individual ruler 



220 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



Achieve- 
ments. 



is, on the other hand, a matter of indifference. He can readily be 
removed and replaced by another; but no usurper who was not 
of the legitimate blood can hope to become the genuine king. 
Therefore the native tradition carries the Sassanid line back to the 
Achaemenids and, still further, to the kings of the legendary period. 
Officially the king is all-powerful, and his will, which is guided 
by God and bound up in His law, unfettered. Thus, externally, 
he is surrounded by all the splendour of sovereignty; on his head 
he wears a great and resplendent crown, with a high circular centre- 
piece; he is clothed in gold and jewels; round him is a brilliant 
court, composed of his submissive servants. He sits in dazzling 
state on his throne in Ctesiphon. All who approach fling them- 
selves to the ground, life and death depend on his nod. Among 
his people he is accounted the fairest, strongest and wisest man 
of the empire; and from him is required the practice of all piety 
and virtue, as well as skill in the chase and in arms especially 
the bow. Ardashir I., moreover, and his successors endeavoured 
to establish the validity of the royal will by absorbing the vassal 
states and instituting a firmer organization. Nevertheless they 
failed to attain the complete independence and power of the Achae- 
menids. Not strong enough to break up the nobility, with its 
great estates, they were forced to utilize its services and still further 
to promote its interests; while their dependence on its good- will 
and assistance led inevitably to incessant gifts of money, lands 
and men. This state of affairs had also prevailed under the later 
Achaemenids, and had materially contributed to the disintegration 
of the empire and the numerous insurrections of the satraps. But 
the older Achaemenids held an entirely different position; and 
hardly a single Sassanid enjoyed even that degree of power which 
was still retained by the later Achaemenids. It was of fundamental 
importance that the Sassanian Empire could not make good its 
claim to world dominion; and, in spite of the title of its kings, it 
always remained essentially the kingdom of Iran or rather west 
Iran, together with the districts on the Tigris and Euphrates. 
This fact, again, is most closely connected with its military and 
administrative organization. The external and internal conditions 
of the empire are in mutual reaction upon one another. The 
empire, which in extent did not exceed that of the Arsacids with 
its vassal states, was protected on the east and west by the great 
deserts of central Iran and Mesopotamia. For the 
defence of these provinces the mounted archers, who 
formed the basis of the army, possessed adequate 
strength; and though the Scythian nomads from the 
east, or the Romans from the west, might occasionally penetrate deep 
into the country, they never succeeded in maintaining their position. 
But the power of the neo-Persian Empire was not great enough 
for further conquests, though its army was capable and animated 
by a far stronger national feeling than that of the Parthians. It 
still consisted, however, of levies from the retinue of the magnates 
led by their territorial lords; and, although these troops would 
stream in at the beginning of a war, they could not be kept per- 
manently together. For, on the one hand, they were actuated 
by the most varied personal interests and antipathies, not all of 
which the king could satisfy; on the other hand he could not, 
owing to the natural character and organization of his dominions, 
maintain and pay a large army for any length of time. Thus the 
great hosts soon melted away, and a war, begun successfully, 
ended ingloriously, and often disastrously. Under such circum- 
stances an elaborate tactical organization employing different 
species of arms, or the execution of a comprehensive plan of cam- 
paign, was out of the question. The successes of the Sassanids in 
the east were gained in the later period of their dominion; and the 
Roman armies, in spite of decay in discipline and military spirit, 
still remained their tactical and strategical superiors. A great 
victory might be won even an emperor might be captured, like 
Valerian but immediately afterwards successes, such as those 
gained against Shapur I. (who was certainly an able general) by 
Ballista and Odenathus of Palmyra, or the later victories of Carus, 
Julian and others, demonstrated how far the Persians were from 
being on an equality with the Romans. That Babylonia perma- 
nently remained a Sassanian province was due merely to the 
f:ographical conditions and to the political situation of the Roman 
mpire, not to the strength of the Persians. 

Among the magnates six great houses seven, if we include the 

royal house were still regarded as the foremost, precisely as 

_ under the Achaemenids, and from these were drawn 

* the generals, crown officials and governors (cf. Procop. 

iity- Pers j 6 , 3 sqq ) j n tne i ast O f these positions we 

frequently find princes of the blood, who then bear the royal title 
(shah). Some of these houses whose origin the legends derive from 
King Gushtasp (i.e. Vishtaspa), the protector of Zoroaster (Marquart, 
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xlix. 635 sqq.), already existed under 
the Arsacids, e.g. the Suren (Surenas, vide supra, p. 798) and Karen 
(Carenes, Tac. Ann. xii. 12 sqq.), who had obviously embraced the 
cause of the victorious dynasty at the correct moment and so re- 
tained their position. The name Pahlavan, moreover, which denoted 
the Parthian magnates, passed over into the new empire. Below 
these there was an inferior nobility, the dikhans (" village-lords ") 
and the "knights" (aswar); who, as among the Parthians, took 
the field in heavy scale-armour. To an even greater extent than 



under the Arsacids the empire was subdivided into a host of small 
provinces, at the head of each being a Marzban (" boundary-lord," 

lord of the marches "). These were again comprised in four 
great districts. With each of these local potentates the king could 
deal with as scant consideration as he pleased, always provided 
that he had the power or understood the art of making himself 
feared. But to break through the system or replace it by another 
was impossible. In fact he was compelled to proceed with great 
caution whenever he wished to elevate a favourite of humbler 
origin to an office which custom reserved for the nobility. Thus 
it is all the more worthy of recognition that the Sassanian Empire 
was a fairly orderly empire, with an excellent legal administration, 
and that the later sovereigns did their utmost to repress the 
encroachments of the nobility, to protect the commonalty, and, 
above all, to carry out a just system of taxation. 

Side by side with the nobles ranked the spiritual chiefs, now 
a far more powerful body than under the Arsacids. Every larger 
district had its upper Magian (Magupat, mobed, i.e. 
" Lord of the Magians "). At their head was the K ea g> us 
supreme Mobed, resident in Rhagae (Rai), who was re- ' op ~ 
garded as the successor of Zoroaster. In the new empire, *"*"* 
of which the king and people were alike zealous professors of the true 
faith, their influence was extraordinarily strong (cf. Agathias ii. 
26) comparable to the influence of the priesthood in later Egypt, 
and especially^ in Byzantium and medieval Christendom. As has 
already been indicated, it was in their religious attitudes that the 
essential difference lay between the Sassanid Empire and the older 
Iranian states. But, in details, the fluctuations were so manifold 
that it is necessary at this point to enter more fully into the history 
of Persian religion (cf. especially H. Gelzer, " Eznik u. d. Entwickel. 
des pers. Religions-systems," in the Zeitschr. f. armen. Philol. 
i. 149 sqq.). 

The Persian religion, as we have seen, spread more and more 
widely after the Achaemenian period. In the Indo-Scythian 
Empire the Persian gods were zealously worshipped ; in Armenia the 
old national religion was almost entirely banished by the Persian 
cults (Gelzer, " Zur armen. Gotterlehre," in Ber. d. sacks. Gesch. 
d. Wissensch., 1895); in Cappadocia, North Syria and the west of 
Asia Minor, the Persian gods were everywhere adored side by 
side with the native deities. It was in the third century that the 
cult of Mithras, with its mysteries and a theology evolved from 
Zoroastrianism, attained the widest diffusion in all Latin-speaking 
provinces of the Roman dominion; and it even seemed for a while 
as though the Sol invictus Mithras, highly favoured by the Caesars, 
would become the official deity-in-chief of the empire. But in all 
these cults the Persian gods are perfectly tolerant of other native 
or foreign divinities; vigorous as was their propagandism, it was yet 
equally far removed from an attack on other creeds. Thus this 
Parseeism always bears a syncretic character; and the supreme 
god of Zoroastrian theory, Ahuramazda (i.e. Zeus or Jupiter), in 
practice yields place to his attendant deities, who work in the world 
and are able to lead the believer, who has been initiated and keeps 
the commandments of purity, to salvation. 

But, meanwhile, in its Iranian home and especially in Persis, 
the religion of Zoroaster lived a quiet life, undisturbed by the pro- 
ceedings of the outside world. Here the poems of the prophet and 
fragments of ancient religious literature survived, understood by 
the Magians and rendered accessible to the faithful laity by versions 
in the modern dialect (Pahlavi). Here the opposition between the 
good spirit of light and the demons of evil between Ormuzd and 
Ahriman still remained the principal dogma of the creed; while 
all other gods and angels, however estimable their aid, were but 
subordinate servants of Ormuzd, whose highest manifestation on 
earth was not the sun-god Mithras, but the holy fire guarded by his 
priests. Here all the prescriptions of purity partly connected 
with national customs, and impossible of execution abroad 
were diligently observed; and even the injunction not to pollute 
earth with corpses, but to cast out the dead to vulture and, 
dog, was obeyed in its full force. At the same time Ahuramazda 
preserved his character as a national god, who bestowed on his 
worshippers victory and world dominion. In the sculptures of 
the Sassanids, as also in Armenian traditions, he appears on horse- 
back as a war-god. Here, again, the theology was further developed, 
and an attempt made to annul the old dualism by envisaging both 
Ormuzd and Ahriman as emanations of an original principle of 
infinite time (Zervan), a doctrine which long enjoyed official validity 
under the Sassanids till, in the reign of Chosroes I., " the sect 
of Zervanites " was pronounced heretical. 1 But, above all, the 
ritual and the doctrine of purity were elaborated and expanded, 
and there was evolved a complete and detailed system of casuistry, 
dealing with all things allowed and forbidden, the forms of pollution 
and the expiation for each, &c., which, in its arid and spiritless 
monotony vividly recalls the similar prescriptions in the Pentateuch. 
The consequences of this development were that orthodoxy and 
literal obedience to all priestly injunctions now assumed an impor- 
tance far greater than previously ; henceforward, the great command- 
ment of Zoroastrianism, as of Judaism, is to combat the heresies 

1 It may be observed that this innovation was also known to 
the Mithras-cult of the West, where Zervan appears as al&v. 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



221 



of the heathen, a movement which had already had an energetic 
representative in the prophet himself. Heathenish cults and for- 
bidden manners and customs are a pollution to the land and a deep 
insult to the true God. Therefore the duty of the believer is to 
combat and destroy the unbeliever and the heretic. In short, the 
tolerance of the Achaemenids and the indifference of the Arsacids 
are now replaced by intolerance and religious persecution. 

Such were the views in which Ardashir I. grew up, and in their 
energetic prosecution he found a potent instrument for the building 
up of his empire. It has previously been mentioned that Volo- 
gaeses III. had already begun a collection of the holy writings; 
and the task was resumed under Ardashir. At his order the 
orthodox doctrines and texts were compiled by the high priest 
Jansar; all divergent theories were prohibited and their adherents 
proscribed. Thus arose the Avesta, the sacred book of the Parsees. 
Above all, the sacred book of laws, the Vendidad, breathes through- 
out the spirit of the Sassanian period, in its intolerance, its casuistry 
degenerating into absurdity, and its soulless monotony. Sub- 
scription to the restored orthodox doctrine was to the Iranian a 
matter of course. The schismatics Ardashir imprisoned for a year ; 
if, at its expiration, they still refused to listen to reason, and remained 
stiff-necked, they were executed. It is even related that, in his 
zeal for uniformity of creed, Ardashir wished to extinguish the 
holy fires in the great cities of the empire and the Parthian vassal 
states, with the exception of that which burned in the residence 
of the dynasty. This plan he was unable to execute. In Armenia, 
also, Ardashir and Shapur, during the period of their occupation, 
sought to introduce the orthodox religion, destroyed the heathen 
images even those of the Iranian gods which were here considered 
heathen, and turned the shrines into fire-altars (Gelzer, Ber. 
sacks. Ges. p. 135, 1895). Shapur I., who appears to have had a 
broader outlook, added to the religious writings a collection of 
scientific treatises on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philo- 
sophy, zoology, &c., partly from Indian and Greek sources. 

This religious development was most strongly influenced by the 
fact that, meanwhile, a powerful opponent of Zoroastrianism had 
arisen with an equally zealous propagandism and an 
rh in et l ua l exclusiyeness and intolerance. More especially 
in the countries of the Tigris and Euphrates, now alto- 
gether Aramaic, Christianity had everywhere gained a 
firm footing. 1 But its missionary enterprise stretched over the whole 
of Iran, and even farther. The time was come when, in the western 
and eastern worlds alike, the religious question was for large masses 
of people the most important question in life, and the diffusion 
of their own creed and the suppression of all others the highest 
and holiest of tasks. The man who thinks thus knows no com- 
promise, and so Zoroastrianism and Christianity confronted each 
other as mortal enemies. Still the old idea that every religion 
contained a portion of the truth, and that it was possible to borrow 
something from one and amalgamate it with another, had not yet 
lost all its power. From such a conception arose the teaching of 
Mani or Manes. For Manichaeism (g.f.) is an attempt to weld the 
doctrine of the Gospel and the doctrine of Zoroaster 
inlchac- ; nt(J a un ;f orm system, though naturally not without 
an admixture of other elements, principally Babylonian 
and Gnostic. Mani, perhaps a Persian from Babylonia, is said to 
have made his first appearance as a teacher on the coronation 
day of Shapur I. At all events he found numerous adherents, 
both at court and among the magnates of the empire. The king 
even inclined to him, till in a great disputation the Magians 
gained the predominance. None the less Mani found means 
to diffuse his creed far and wide over the whole empire. Even 
the heir to the throne, Hormizd I. (reigned 272-273), was 
favourably disposed to him; but Shapur's younger son, Bahram I. 
(273-276), yielded to sacerdotal pressure, and Mani was executed. 
After that Manichaeism was persecuted and extirpated in Iran. 
Yet it maintained itself not merely in the west, where its head 
resided at Babylon propagating thence far into the Roman 
Empire but also in the east, in Khorasan and beyond the 
bounds of the Sassanian dominion. There the seat of its pon- 
tiff was at Samarkand; thence it penetrated into Central Asia, 
where, buried in the desert sands which entomb the cities of 
eastern Turkestan, numerous fragments of the works of Mani 
and his disciples, in the Persian language (Pahlavi) and Syrian 
script, and in an East Iranian dialect, called Sogdian, which was 
used by the Manichaeans of Central Asia, have been discovered 
(K. Muller, " Handschriftenreste in Estrangelo-schrift aus Turfan, 
in Chinesisch-Turkestan," in Abh. d. berl. Akod., 1904); among them 
translations of texts of the New Testament (K. Muller, Berichte 
der Berl., 1907, p. 260 seq.). In these texts God the Father 
is identified with the Zervan of Zarathustrism, the devil with 
Ahriman. The further religious development of the Sassanid 
Empire will be touched upon later. 



1 For the propagation and history of the Christians in the Sassanid 
Empire, cf. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans V empire perse sous la 
dynastie sassanide (1904); Harnack, Die Mission and Ausbreitung 
des Christenthums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 2. Aufl. (1906), 
Bd. II. p. 121 seq. ; Chabot, Synodicon orientale (1902) (a collection of 
the acts of the Nestorian synods held under the rule of theSassanids). 



Like the Arsacids the kings resided in Ctesiphon, where, out of 
the vast palace built by Chosroes I., a portion at least of the great 
hall is still erect. On the ruins of Seleucia, on the kH ~* 
opposite bank of the Tigris, Ardashir I. built the city ~* 
of Veh-Ardashir ("good is Ardashir"), to which the later * m 
kings added new towns, or rather new quarters. In Susiana 
Shapur I. built the great city of Gondev-Shapur, which succeeded 
the ancient capital of the Persian Empire. At the same time the 
mother-country again gained importance; especially the capital 
of Persis, Istakhr, which had replaced the former Persepolis (now 
the ruins of Hajji-abad). Farther in the south-east, Ardashir I. 
built Gur (now Firuzabad), under the name of Ardashir-khurre 
(" the glory of Ardashir "). At these places and in Sarwistan, 
near Shiraz and elsewhere, lie ruins of the Sassanid palaces, which 
in their design go back to the Achaemenid architecture, blending 
with it, however, Graeco-Syrian elements and serving in their turn 
as models for the structures of the Caliphs (see ARCHITECTURE : 
| Sassanian). After its long quiescence under the Arsacids native 
art underwent a general renaissance, which, though not aspiring 
to the Achaemenian creations, was still of no small importance. 
Of the Sassanian rock-sculptures some have already been mentioned ; 
besides these, numerous engraved signet-stones have been preserved. 
The metal-work, carpets and fabrics of this period enjoyed a high 
reputation; they were widely distributed and even influenced 
western art. 

In the intellectual life and literature of the Sassanid era the 
main characteristic is the complete disappearance of Hellenism and 
the Greek language. Ardashir I. and Shapur I. still ^^ 
appended Greek translations to some of their inscrip- Ltte ' 
tions; but all of later date are drawn up in Pahlavi alone. The 
coins invariably bear a Pahlavi legend on the obverse the king's 
head with his name and title ; on the reverse, a fire-altar (generally 
with the ascription " fire of Ardashir, Shapur, &c.," i.e. the fire of 
the royal palace), and the name of the place of coinage, usually 
abbreviated. The real missionaries of culture in the empire were 
the Aramaeans (Syrians), who were connected with the West by their 
Christianity, and in their translations diffused Greek literature 
through the Orient. But there also developed a rather extensive 
Pahlavi literature, not limited to religious subjects, but containing 
works in belles lettres, modernizations of the old Iranian sagas and 
native traditions, e.g. the surviving fabulous history of Ardashir I., 
ethical tales, &c., with translations of foreign literature, principally 
Indian, one instance being the celebrated book of tales Kaltiah 
and Dimnah (see SYRIAC LITERATURE), dating from Chosroes I., 
in whose reign chess also was introduced from India. 

AUTHORITIES. Side by side with the accounts of Roman and 
Greek authors stands the indigenous tradition which, especially 
for the later years of the empire, is generally trustworthy. It 
goes back to a native work, the Khudai nama (" book of lords "), 
compiled under Chosroes I. and continued to Yazdegerd III. Its 
narrations are principally preserved in Tabari, though there com- 
bined with numerous Arabian traditions; also in the poetical 
adaptation of Firdousi. To these may be added Syrian accounts, 
particularly in the martyrologies, which have been excellently 
treated by G. Hoffmann, Auszuge aus syrischen Akten persischer 
Mdrtyrer (1880) ; also the statements of the Armenian historians. 

The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Noldeke's 
Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen 
Chronik des Tabari (1879, trans, with notes and excursuses chiefly 
on the chronology and organization of the empire). On this is 
based Noldeke's Aufsdtze zur pers. Gesch, (1887 ; containing a history 
of the Sassanian Empire, pp. 86 sqq.). The only other works re- 
quiring mention are: G. Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental 
Monarchy (1876), and F. Justi's sketch in the Grundriss der iranischen 
Philologie, vol. ii. (1904). For the geography and numerous details of 
administration: J. Marquart, " Eranshahr" (Abh. d. getting. Ges. d. 
Wissensch., 1901). For the numismatology the works of A. D. 
Mordtmann are of prime importance, especially his articles in the 
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. (1879), xxxiii. 113 sqq. and xxxiv. 
I sqq. (1880), where the inscriptions of the individual kings are 
also enumerated. Also Noldeke, ibid. xxxi. 147 sqq. (1877). For 
facsimiles of coins the principal work is J. de Bartholomaei, Collection 
de monnaies sassanides (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1875). For the 
inscriptions: Edward Thomas, " Early Sassanian Inscriptions," 
Journ. R. A. Soc. vol. ii. (1868); West, " Pahlavi Literature " in the 
Grundriss d. iran. Philol. vol. ii. For the monuments: Flandin and 
Coste, Voyage en Perse (1851); Stolze, Persepolis (1882); Fr. Sarre, 
Iran, Felsreliefs a. d. Z. der Achaemeniden und Sassaniden (1908). 

In foreign policy the problems under the Sassanid kings 2 

2 List of kings (after Noldeke, Tabari, p. 435). 
Ardashir I., 226^-241. Ardashir II., 379-383. 

Shapur I., 241-272. Shapur III., 383-388. 

Hormizd I., 272-273. Bahram IV., 388-399. 

Bahram I., 273-276. Yazdegerd I., 399-420. 

Bahram II., 276-293. Bahram V., Gor. 420-438. 

Bahram III., 293. Yazdegerd II., 438-457. 

Narseh (Narses), 293-302. Hormizd III., 457-459. 

Hormizd II., 302-310. Peroz, 457-484. 

Shapur II., 310-379. Balash, 484-488. 



222 



PERSIA 



[HISTORY: ANCIENT 



remained as of old, the defence and, when possible, the expansion 
of the eastern and western frontiers. In the first two centuries 
History ^ the Sassanid Empire we hear practically nothing 
of the of its relations with the East. Only occasional 
Sassaataa notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads 
Empire. j^d no t ceased, and that the extent of the empire 
had by no means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion 
Sacastene (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east, 
on both sides of the Indus, the Kushana Empire was still in exis- 
tence, though it was already hastening to decay, and about 
A.D. 320 was displaced from its position in India by the Gupta 
dynasty. In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern 
Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of 
Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the 
Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the 
Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to 
Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke 
out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Carus, 
burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into 
Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and reduced Coche 
(near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden death, in 
December of 283, precluded further success, and the Roman army 
returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to effect any- 
thing, as his brother Hormizd was in arms, supported by the 
Sacae and other tribes. (Mamertin, Panegyr. Maximin. 7. 10; 
Genettt. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy 
peace with Diocletian by means of presents. Some years later 
his uncle and successor, Narses, after subduing his rival Bahram 
III., occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor Galerius 
at Callinicum (296). But in the following year he sustained a 
severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war-chest and 
harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which 
Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes 
of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country 
on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene, were ceded 
to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Petr. Patr. fr. 13, 14; 
Rufus brev. 25). In return Narses regained his household. 
This peace, ratified in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids 
from the disputed districts, lasted for forty years. 

For the rest, practically nothing is known of the history 
of the first six successors of Shapur I. After the death of 
Hormizd II. (302-310), the son of Narses, the magnates 
imprisoned or put to death his adult sons, one of whom, 
Hormisdas, later escaped to the Romans, who used him as a 
pretender in their wars. Shapur II., a posthumous child of the 
late king, was then raised to the throne, a proof that the great 
magnates held the sovereignty in their own hands and attempted 
to order matters at their own pleasure. Shapur, however, 
when he came to manhood proved himself an independent and 
energetic ruler. 

Meanwhile the Roman Empire had become Christian, the 
sequel of which was that the Syro-Christian population of 
Shapur H. Mesopotamia and Babylonia even more than the 
Persecution Hellenic cities in former times gravitated to the 
of the W est and looked to Rome for deliverance from the 
Christians, jngfjel yoke. On similar grounds Christianity, as 
opposed to the Mazdaism enforced officially by the Sassanids, 
became predominant in Armenia. Between these two great 
creeds the old Armenian religion was unable to hold its own; 
as early as A.D. 294 King Tiridates was converted by Gregory 
the Illuminator and adopted the Christian faith. For this very 
reason the Sassanid Empire was the more constrained to champion 
Zoroastrianism. It was under Shapur II. that the compilation 
of the Avesta was completed and the state orthodoxy perfected 
by the chief mobed, Aturpad. All heresy was proscribed by the 

Kayadh I., 488-531. (Bahram VI., Cobin, Bistam 590- 

(Djamasp, 496-498). 596.) 

Chosroes (Khosrau) I., Anushir- Kavadh II., Sheroe, 628. 

van, 531-579. Ardashir III., 628-630. 

Hormizd IV., 579-59- (Shahrbaraz, 630.) 

Chosroes II., Parvez, 590-628. (Boran and others, 630-632.) 

Yazdegerd III., 632-651. 

On most of these kings there are separate articles. 



state, defection from the true faith pronounced a capital crime, 
and the persecution of the heterodox particularly the Chris- 
tians began (cf. Sachall, " Die rechtlichen Verhaltnisse der 
Christen in Sassanidenreich," in Mitteilungen des Seminars 
fiir orientalische Sprachen fiir Berlin, Bd. X., Abt. 2, 1907). 
Thus the duel between the two great empires now becomes 
simultaneously a duel between the two religions. 

In such a position of affairs a fresh war with Rome was inevit- 
able. 1 It was begun by Shapur in A.D. 337, the year that saw 
the death of Constantine the Great. The conflict centred round 
the Mesopotamian fortresses; Shapur thrice besieged Nisibis 
without success, but reduced several others, as Amida 
(359) and Singara (360), and transplanted great masses of 
inhabitants into Susiana. The emperor Constantius conducted 
the war feebly and was consistently beaten in the field. But, 
in spite of all, Shapur found it impossible to penetrate deeper 
into the Roman territory. He was hampered by the attack 
of nomadic tribes in the east, among whom the Chionites now 
begin to be mentioned. Year after year he took the field against 
them (353-358), till finally he compelled them to support him 
with auxiliaries (Ammian. Marc. 14, 3; 16, 9; 17, 5; 18, 4, 6). 
With this war is evidently connected the foundation of the 
great town New-Shapur (Nishapur) in Khorasan. 

By the resolution of Julian (363) to begin an energetic attack 
on the Persian Empire, the conflict, after the lapse of a quarter 
of a century, assumed a new phase. Julian pressed forward 
to Ctesiphon but succumbed to a wound ; and his successor Jovian 
soon found himself in such straits, that he could only extricate 
himself and his army by a disgraceful peace at the close of 363, 
which ceded the possessions on the Tigris and the great fortress 
of Nisibis, and pledged Rome to abandon Armenia and her 
Arsacid protege, Arsaces III., to the Persian. 

Shapur endeavoured to occupy Armenia and introduce the 
Zoroastrian orthodoxy. He captured Arsaces III. by treachery 
and compelled him to commit suicide; but the Armenian 
magnates proved refractory, placed Arsaces' son Pap on the 
throne, and found secret support among the Romans. This 
all but led to a new war; but in 374 Valens sacrificed Pap and 
had him killed in Tarsus. The subsequent invasions of the 
Goths, in battle with whom Valens fell at Adrianople (375), 
definitely precluded Roman intervention; and the end of the 
Armenian troubles was that (c. 390) Bahram IV. and Theodosius 
the Great concluded a treaty which abandoned the extreme 
west of Armenia to the Romans and confirmed the remainder in 
the Persian possession. Thus peace and friendship could at 
last exist with Rome; and in 408 Yazdegerd I. contracted an 
alliance with Theodosius II. In Armenia the Persians 
immediately removed the last kings of the house of Armenti 
Arsaces (430), and thenceforward the main portion 
of the country remained a Persian province under the control 
of a marzban, though the Armenian nobles still made repeated 
attempts at insurrection. The introduction of Zoroastrianism 
was abandoned; Christianity was already far too deeply rooted. 
But the sequel to the Roman sacrifice of Armenian interests was 
that the Armenian Christians now seceded from the orthodoxy 
of Rome and Constantinople, and organized themselves into 
an independent national church. This church was due, before 
all, to the efforts of the Catholicos Sahak (390-439), whose 
colleague Mesrob, by his translation of the Bible, laid the 
foundations of an Armenian literature (see ARMENIAN CHURCH). 

In the interior of the Sassanian Empire the old troubles broke 
out anew on the death of Shapur II. (379). At first the magnates 
raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then in 383 
deposed him and enthroned Shapur's son as 
Shapur III. In 388, however, he was assassinated, Yazdegerdi. 
as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the 
son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetic and 
intelligent sovereign, who held the magnates within bounds 
and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment. He 
even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Church, 

1 For the succeeding events see also under ROME: Ancient History; 
and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian kings. 



HISTORY: ANCIENT] 



PERSIA 



223 



put an end to the persecutions, and allowed the Persian Christians 
an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is 
consequently known as " the sinner." In the end he was 
probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against 
him that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the 
throne. One of them, however, Bahrain V., found an auxiliary in 
the Arab chief Mondhir, who had founded a principality in Hira, 

west of the lower Euphrates; and, as he pledged him- 
''self to govern otherwise than his father, he received 

general recognition. This pledge he redeemed, and 
he is, in consequence, the darling of Persian tradition, which 
bestows on him the title of Gor (" the wild ass "), and is eloquent 
on his adventures in the chase and in love. This reversal of 
policy led to a Christian persecution and a new war with Rome. 
Bahrain, however, was worsted; and in the peace of 422 Persia 
agreed to allow the Christians free exercise of their religion in 
the empire, while the same privilege was accorded to Zoroastrian- 
ism by Rome. Under his son, Yazdegerd II. (438-457), who once 
more revived the persecutions of the Christians and the Jews, 
a short conflict with Rome again ensued (441) : while at the same 
time war prevailed in the east against the remnants of the 
Kushan Empire and the tribe of Kidarites, also named Huns. 

Here a new foe soon arose in the shape of the Ephthalites 
(Haitab), also known as the " White Huns," a barbaric tribe 
TheEphtha- which shortly after A.D. 450 raided Bactria and ter- 
tttesor minated the Kushana dominion (Procop. Pers. i. 3). 
White Huns. These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened 
the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and 
weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457-484) fell 
in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured 
and the country devastated far and near. His brother Balash 
(484-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and blinded, 
and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488-531), the son 
of Peroz. As the external and internal distress still continued 
he was dethroned and imprisoned, but took refuge among the 
Ephthalites and was restored in 499 by their assistance like 
Kavadh I so manv Arsacids by the arms of the Dahae and 

Sacae. To these struggles obviously must be 
attributed mainly the fact that in the whole of this period no 
Roman war broke out. But, at the same time, the religious 
duel had lost in intensity, since, among the Persian Christians, 
the Nestorian doctrine was now dominant. Peroz had already 
favoured the diffusion of Nestorianism, and in 483 it was officially 
adopted by a synod, after which it remained the Christian 
Church of the Persian Empire, its head being the patriarch of 
Seleucia Ctesiphon. 

Kavadh proved himself a vigorous ruler. On his return 
he restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked ' the 

Romans and captured and destroyed Amida (mod. 

The Maida- ~. , , , , ,, , . .., 

kite Sect Diarbekr), but was compelled to ratify a peace 
owing to an inroad of the Huns. Toward the close 
of his reign (527) he resumed the war, defeating Belisarius at 
Callinicum (531), with the zealous support of the wild Arab 
Mondhir II. of Hira. On his death his son Chosroes I. concluded 
a peace with Justinian (532), pledging the Romans to an annual 
subsidy for the maintenance of the Caucasus fortresses. In 
his home policy Kavadh is reminiscent of Yazdegerd I. Like 
him he had little inclination to the orthodox church, and favoured 
Mazdak, the founder of a communistic sect which had made 
headway among the people and might be used as a weapon 
against the nobles, of whom Mazdak demanded that they should 
cut down their luxury and distribute their superfluous wealth. 
Another feature of his programme was the community of wives. 
The crown-prince, Chosroes, was, on the other hand, wholly 
orthodox; and, towards the close of his father's reign, in con- 
junction with the chief Magian, he carried through a sacrifice 
of the Mazdakites, who were butchered in a great massacre 
(528). Chosroes I. (531-579), surnamed Anushirvan (" the 

blessed "), then restored the orthodox doctrine in 
Anushirvan. ^ u ^> publishing his decision in a religious edict. 

At the same time he produced the official exposition 
of the Avesta, an exegetical translation in the popular tongue 



(Pahlavi), and declared its contents binding. Defection from 
Zoroastrianism was punished with death, and therefore also 
the proselytizing of the Christians, though the Syrian martyr- 
ologies prove that the kings frequently ignored these proceedings 
so long as it was at all possible to do so. 

Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the 
Sassanian Empire. From him dates a new and equitable adjust- 
ment of the imperial taxation, which was later adopted by the 
Arabs. His reputation as an enlightened ruler stood so high 
that when Justinian, in 529, closed the school of Athens, the 
last Neoplatonists bent their steps to him in hopes of finding in 
him the true philosopher-king. Their disillusionment, indeed, 
was speedy and complete, and their gratitude was great, when, 
by the conditions of the armistice of 549, he allowed their return. 
From 540 onward he conducted a great war against Justinian 
(527-565), which, though interrupted by several armistices, 
lasted till the fifty years' peace of 562. The net result, indeed, 
was merely to restore the status quo; but during the campaign 
Chosroes sacked Antioch and transplanted the population to 
a new quarter of Ctesiphon (540). He also extended his power 
to the Black Sea and the Caucasus; on the other hand, a siege of 
Edessa failed (544). A second war broke out in 577, chiefly 
on the question of Armenia and the Caucasus territory. In 
this Chosroes ravaged Cappadocia in 575; but the campaign in 
Mesopotamia was unsuccessful. In the interval between these 
two struggles (570) he despatched assistance to the Arabs of 
Yemen, who had been assailed and subdued by the Abyssinian 
Christians; after which period Yemen remained nominally under 
Persian suzerainty till its fate was sealed by the conquests of 
Mahomet and Islam. 

Meanwhile, about A.D. 560, a new nation had sprung up in 
the East, the Turks. Chosroes concluded an alliance with 
them against the Ephthalites and so conquered 
Bactria south of the Oxus, with its capital Balkh. p^raa!* of 
Thus this province, which, since the insurrection the Turks, 
of Diodotus in 250 B.C., had undergone entirely Sassaaia 
different vicissitudes from the rest of Iran, was 
once more united to an Iranian Empire, and the 
Sassanid dominions, for the first time, passed the frontiers of 
the Arsacids. This, however, was the limit of their expansion. 
Neither the territories north of the Oxus, nor eastern Afghanistan 
and the Indus provinces, were ever subject to them. That the 
alliance with the Turks should soon change to hostility and 
mutual attack was inevitable from the nature of the case; in the 
second Roman war the Turkish Khan was leagued with Rome. 

Chosroes bequeathed this war to his son Hormizd IV. (579- 
590), who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish 
peace. Hormizd had not the ability to retain the authority 
of his father, and he further affronted the Magian priesthood 
by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring 
that, in his empire, both religions should dwell together in 
peace. Eventually he succumbed to a conspiracy of his 
magnates, at whose head stood the general Bahram Cobin, 
who had defeated the Turks, but afterwards was beaten 
by the Romans. Hormizd 's son, Chosroes II., was set 
up against his father and forced to acquiesce in his execu- 
tion. But immediately new risings broke out, in which 
Bahram Cobin though not of the royal line attempted to 
secure the crown, while simultaneously a Prince cllosroesH 
Bistam entered the lists. Chosroes fled to the 
Romans and the emperor Maurice undertook his restoration at 
the head of a great army. The people flocked to his standard; 
Bahram Cobin was routed (591) and fled to the Turks, who slew 
him, and Chosroes once more ascended the throne of Ctesiphon ; 
Bistam held out in Media till 596. Maurice made no attempt 
to turn the opportunity to Roman advantage, and in the peace 
then concluded he even abandoned Nisibis to the Persians. 

Chosroes II. (590-628) is distinguished by the surname of 
Parvez (" the conqueror "), though, in point of fact, he was 
immeasurably inferior to a powerful sovereign like his grand- 
father, or even to a competent general. He lived, however, to 
witness unparalleled vicissitudes of fortune. The assassination 



224 



PERSIA 



[TRANSITION PERIOD 



of Maurice In 602 impelled him to a war of revenge against 
Rome, in the course of which his armies in 608 and, again, in 
615 and 626 penetrated as far as Chalcedon opposite Constanti- 
nople, ravaged Syria, reduced Antioch (611), Damascus (613), 
and Jerusalem (614), and carried off the holy cross to Ctesiphon; 
in 619 Egypt was occupied. Meanwhile, the Roman Empire 
was at the lowest ebb. The great emperor Heraclius, who 
assumed the crown in 610, took years to create the nucleus 
of a new military power. This done, however, he took the field 
in 623, and repaid the Persians with interest. Their armies 
were everywhere defeated. In 624 he penetrated into Atropa- 
tene (Azerbaijan), and there destroyed the great fire-temple; 
in 627 he advanced into the Tigris provinces. Chosroes at- 
tempted no resistance, but fled from his residence at Dastagerd 
to Ctesiphon. These proceedings, in conjunction with the avarice 
and licence of the king, led to revolution. Chosroes was deposed 
and slain by his son Kavadh II. (628); but the parricide died 
in a few months and absolute chaos resulted. A whole list of 
kings and pretenders among them the General Shahrbaraz 
and Boran, a daughter of Chosroes followed rapidly on one 
another; till finally the magnates united and, in 632, elevated 
a child to the throne, Yazdegerd III., grandson of Chosroes. In 
the interval presumably during the reign of Queen Boran 
peace was concluded with Heraclius, the old frontier being 
apparently restored. The cross had already been given back 
to the emperor. 

Thus the hundred years' struggle between Rome and Persia, 
which had begun in 527 with the attack of the first Kavadh 
on Justinian, had run its fruitless course, utterly 
Conquest, enfeebling both empires and consuming their powers. 
So it was that room was given to a new enemy who 
now arose between either state and either religion the Arabs 
and Islam. In the same year that saw the coronation 
of Yazdegerd III. the beginning of 633 the first Arab 
squadrons made their entry into Persian territory. After 
several encounters there ensued (637) the battle of Kadisiya 
(Qadisiya, Cadesia), fought on one of the Euphrates canals, 
where the fate of the Sassanian Empire was decided. A little 
previously, in the August of 636, Syria had fallen in a battle 
on the Yarmuk (Hieromax), and in 639 the Arabs penetrated 
into Egypt. The field of Kadisiya laid Ctesiphon, with all its 
treasures, at the mercy of the victor. The king fled to Media, 
where his generals attempted to organize the resistance; but 
the battle of Nehavend ( ? 641 ) decided matters there. Yazdegerd 
sought refuge in one province after the other, till, at last, in 
651, he was assassinated in Merv (see CALIPHATE: A, i). 

Thus ended the empire of the Sassanids, no less precipitately 
and ingloriously than that of the Achaemenids. By 650 the 
Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus. 
Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan), 
the " generals " of the house of Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed) 
maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs 
exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them. 

The fall of the empire sealed the fate of its religion. The 
Moslems officially tolerated the Zoroastrian creed, though occa- 
sional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished 
from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the 
oasis of Yezd), the faithful finding a refuge in India at Bombay. 
These Parsees have preserved but a small part of the sacred 
writings; but to-day they still number their years by the era 
which begins on the i6th of June A.D. 632, with the accession of 
Yazdegerd III., the last king of their faith and the last lawful 
sovereign of Iran, on whom rested the god-given Royal Glory of 
Ormuzd. 

AUTHORITIES. Besides the works on special periods-quoted above, 
the following general works should be consulted : Spiegel, Eranische 
Altertumskunde (3 vols., 1876 sqq.); W. Geiger and Ernst Kuhn, 
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie herausg., vol. ii. (Literature, 
History and Civilization, 1896 sqq.); G. Rawlinson, The Five Great 
Monarchies, The Sixth Monarchy, The Seventh Monarchy. Further 
the mutually supplementary work of Th. Noldeke, Aufsdtze zur 
persischen Geschichte (1887, Medes, Persians and Sassanids), and 
A. v. Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans von Alexander d. Gr. bis zum 
Vntergang der Arsaciden (1888). A valuable work of reference is 
F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch (1895). 



The most important works on the monuments are: Flandin et 
Coste, Voyage en Perse (6 vols., 1840 sqq.); Texier, L'Armenie, la 
Perse, et la Mesopotamie (2 vols., 1842); Stolze, Persepolis (2 vols., 
1882); Sarre, Iranische Felsreliefs (1908). 

For works on the external history of Persia see those quoted 
under articles on Persian kings; also ROME; GREECE; EGYPT- 
SYRIA ;&c. (ED. M.) 

B. Transition Period: from the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty 
to the Death of Timur (1405). 

With the final defeat of the Sassanids under Yazdegerd III. 
at the battles of Kadisiya (Kadessia) (637) and Nehavend (641).. 
Persia ceased to exist as a single political unit. The 
country passed under a succession of alien rulers 
who cared nothing for its ancient institutions or 
its religion. For about 150 years it was governed, first from 
Medina and afterwards from Bagdad, by officers of the Mahom- 
medan caliphs whose principal aim it was to destroy the old 
nationality by the suppression of its religion. The success 
of this policy was, however, only apparent, especially in Iran, 
the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in the most super- 
ficial manner, and it was from Persia that the blow fell which 
destroyed the Omayyad caliphate and set up the Abbasids in 
its place (see CALIPHATE). Even before this event adventurers 
and dissatisfied Moslem officers had utilized the slumbering 
hostility of the Persian peoples to aid them in attacks on 
the caliphs (e.g. Ziyad, son of Abu Sofia n, in the reign of 
Moawiya I.), and the policy of eastern expansion brought the 
Arab armies perpetually into the Persian provinces. 

In the reign of Merwan I. the Persians (who were mostly 
Shi'ites) under a Moslem officer named Mokhtar (Mukhtar), 
whom they regarded as their mahdi, vainly attempted to assert 
their independence in Kufa, but were soon defeated. This 
rising was followed by many more (see CALIPHATE: B) in 
which the caliphs were generally successful, and Abdaimalik 
(d. 705) considerably strengthened the Moslem power by insti- 
tuting a thorough system of Moslem coins and enforcing Arabic 
as the official language throughout the empire. In the succeed- 
ing reign Persia was further subdued by the great conqueror 
Qoteiba (Qotaiba) b. Moslim, the Arabic governor of Khorasan. 
Omar II., however, extended to non- Arabic Moslems immunity 
from all taxes except thezakat (poor-rate), with the result that a 
large number of Persians, who still smarted under their defeat 
under Mokhtar, embraced Islam and drifted into the towns to 
form a nucleus of sedition under the Shi'ite preachers. In the 
reign of Yazid II. (720-724) serious risings took place in Khora- 
san, and in spite of the wise administration of his successor 
Hisham (d. 743), the disorder continued to spread, fanned by the 
Abbasids and the Shi'ite preachers. Ultimately in the reign of 
Merwan II .the non- Arabic Moslems found a leader in AbuMoslim , 
a maula (client) of Persian origin and a henchman of Ibrahim 
b. Mahommed b. Ali, the Shi'ite imam, who raised a great army, 
drove the caliph's general Nasr b. Sayyar into headlong flight, 
and finally expelled Merwan. Thus the Abbasids became 
masters of Persia and also of the Arab Empire. They had gained 
their success largely by the aid of the Persians, who began 
thenceforward to recover their lost sense of nationality ; according 
to the Spanish author Ibn Hazm the Abbasids were a Persian 
dynasty which destroyed the old tribal system of the Arabs 
and ruled despotically as Chosroes had done. At the same 
time the Khorasanians had fought for the old Alid family, not 
for the Abbasids, and with the murder of Abu Moslim discontent 
again began to grow among the Shi'ites (q.v.). In the reign of 
Harun al-Rashid disturbances broke out in Khorasan which 
were temporarily appeased by a visit from Harun himself. 
Immediately afterwards Rafi' b. Laith, grandson of the Omayyad 
general Nasr b. Sayyar, revolted in Samarkand, and Harun on 
his way to attack him died at Tus (809). Harun's sons Amin and 
Mamun quarrelled over the succession; Amin became caliph, 
but Mamun by the aid of Tahir b. Hosain Dhu '1-Yaminain 
(" the man with two right hands ") and others succeeded in 
deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (820) received the 
governorship of Khorasan, where he succeeded in establishing 



TRANSITION PERIOD] 



PERSIA 



225 



a practically independent Moslem dynasty (the Tahirids) 1 which 
ruled until about 873 in nominal obedience to Bagdad. From 
825 to about 898 a similar dynasty, the Dulafids 2 or Dolafids 
reigned nominally as governors under the caliphs till they were 
put down by Motadid. In the reign of the caliph Motasim a 
serious revolt of Persian Mazdakite sectaries (the Khorrami) 
in alliance with Byzantium was with difficulty suppressed, as 
also a rising of Tabaristan under an hereditary chief Maziyar 
who was secretly supported by the Turkish mercenaries (e.g., 
Afshin) whom the caliph had invited to his court. To another 
Turk, Itakh, the caliph Wathiq gave a titular authority over 
all the eastern provinces. In the reign of the tenth caliph 
Motawakkil the Tahirids fell before Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar, 
who with the approbation of the caliph founded a dynasty, the 
Saffarid (q.v.), in Seistan. 

It is convenient at this point to mention several other minor 
dynasties founded by nominal governors in various parts of 
Persia and its borderland. From 879 to about 930 
tne Sajids ruled in Azerbaijan, while in Tabaristan 
an Alid dynasty (the Zaidites) was independent 
from 864 to 928, when it fell before the Samanids. Subsequently 
descendants of this house ruled in Dailam and Gilan. Through- 
out this period the caliphate was falling completely under the 
power of the Turkish officers. Mohtadi, the fourteenth Abbasid 
caliph, endeavoured vainly to replace them by Persians (the 
Abna). His successor Motamid was attacked by the Saffarid 
Yakub who however was compelled to flee (see CALIPHATE: C, 
15). Yakub 's brother Amr (reigned 878-900) received the vacant 
position, but was taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmad, the 
Samanid, and the Saffarids were henceforward a merely nomi- 
Samanlds na ^ dynasty under the Samanids (900-1229). The 
Samanids (q.v.) were the first really important non- 
Arabic Persian dynasty since the fall of Yazdegerd III. They 
held sway over most of Persia and Transoxiana, and under 
their rule scholarship and the arts flourished exceedingly in 
spite of numerous civil wars. Ultimately they fell before the 
Ghaznevid dynasty of Sabuktagin. 

In the reign of Motadid (CALIPHATE: C, 16) who, as we have 
seen, put down the Dolafids, and also checked the Sajids of 
Azerbaijan in their designs on Syria and Egypt, the Kharijites 
of Mesopotamia were put down by the aid of the Hamdanites 
of Mosul, who were to become an important dynasty (see below). 
Subsequently the caliphate, which had temporarily recovered 
some of its authority, resumed its downward course, and the 
great families of Persia once again asserted themselves. In 
the reign of Qahir (d. 934), a new dynasty arose in Persia, that 
Bu ids ^ l ^ e Buyids (Buwayhids). This family was 
descended from one Abu Shaja Buya, who claimed 
to be of the old Sassanian house and had become a chieftain 
in Dailam. He had successively fought for the Samanids 
and the Ziyarids, 3 a dynasty of Jorjan, and his son Imad 
addaula (ed-dowleh, originally Abu '1 ijasan ^H) received from 
Mardawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; his 
second son Rokn addaula (Abu Ali Hasan) subsequently held 
Rai and Isfahan, while the third, Moizz addaula (Abu '1 IJosain 
Ahmad) secured Kerman, Ahvaz and even Bagdad. 

The reign of the caliph Mottaqi (CALIPHATE: C, 21) was a 
period of perpetual strife between the Dailamites, the Turks 
and the Hamdanid Nasir addaula of Mosul. In the next reign 
Moizz addaula took Bagdad (945) and was recognized by the 
caliph Mostakfi as sultan 4 and amir al-Omara. It was at this 

1 Tahir died 822 or 824; Talha d. 828; Abdallah, 828-844; Tahir 
II., 844-862; Mahommed, 862-873. 

'Abu Dolaf Qasim b. Idris-'Ijli (825); 'Abdalaziz (842); Dolaf 
(873); Ahmad (878); Omar 893-898). 

3 The Ziyarid dynasty was founded by Mardawij b. Ziyar (928- 
935). His successors were Zahir addaula (ud-daula, ed-dowleh) 
Abu Mansur Washmagir (935-967), Bistun (967-976), Shams al 
Ma'ali Qabus (976-1012), Falak al Ma'ali Manushahr (1012-1029), 
Anushirwan (1029-1042). They were Alyite in religion. They 
were of progressively less importance under the Samanids, and were 
ultimately expelled by the Ghaznevids. 

4 This is denied by S. Lane Poole, who points out that they did 
not use the title on their coins. 

XXI. 8 



time that the three brothers took the titles Imad, Rukn (Rokn), 
and Moizz addaula. The authority of the family was absolute 
though they paid outward respect to the caliphs. Moizz addaula 
repelled an attack of the Hamdanids of Mosul. The Buyids, 
and especially Adod addaula (Azud-ed-Dowleh, and similar 
forms), ruled Bagdad wisely and improved the city by great 
public works such as the great dike, still known as the Bend 
Amir on the Kur (Cyrus) near Persepolis. Their sway extended 
from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea (CALIPHATE: C, 24). 
Ultimately, however, the Buyid dynasty grew weaker under 
the quarrels of its members and fell an easy prey to the Ghaz- 
nevids. In the meantime (999) the Samanids fell before the 
Ilek-Khans of Turkestan, to the great advantage of the Ghaznevid 
princes. 

For these and other minor dynasties such as the Hasanwayhids 
of Kurdistan (c. 959-1015) and the Kakwayhids of Kurdistan 
(1007-1051), see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, i. 113 sqq. (Leiden, 

1888). 

The centre of force in Persian politics now changes from west 
to east. Hitherto the ultimate power, at least nominally, had 
resided in the caliphate at Bagdad, and all the dynasties which 
have been noticed derived their authority formally from that 
source. With the rise of the Ghaznevids and l at 
the Seljuks, the Abbasid caliphate ceased to count 
as an independent power. As we have seen, the Ghaznevid 
armies in a brief space destroyed most of the native dynasties 
of Persia. The first of the house was Alptagin, a Turkish slave 
of the Samanid Mansur I., who, having quarrelled with his master, 
took refuge in Afghanistan and founded a semi-independent 
authority. After his death three unimportant governors of 
his house held sway, but in 977 the power fell to another former 
slave, Sabuktagin, who was recognized by the Samanid Nuh II. 
His son and successor Mahmud (q.v.) was attacked by a brother, 
Isma'il, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been 
governor). The Samanids then fell under the power of the 
Tatar Ilkhans, but Mahmud returned, triumphed over both 
the Samanids and the Tatars, and assumed the independent 
title of sultan with authority over Khorasan, Transoxiana and 
parts of north-west India. Mahmud was a great conqueror, 
and wherever he went he replaced the existing religion by 
Mahommedanism. He is described as the patron (if a somewhat 
ungenerous one) of literature; it was under his auspices that 
Firdousi collected the ancient myths of Persia and produced 
the great epic Shahnama (Book of the Kings). His descendants 
held a nominal rule till 1187, but in 1152 they lost all their 
extra-Indian territories to the Ghorids, and during the last 
thirty-five years reigned in diminished splendour at Lahore. 
Even before this time, however, the supremacy which they 
enjoyed under Mahmud in Persia had fallen into the hands of 
the Seljuks who, in the reign of Mas'ud I., son 
of Mahmud, conquered Khorasan. In 1037 Seljuk 
princes were recognized in Merv and Nishapur, and in the ensuing 
eighteen years the Seljuks conquered Balkh, Jorjan, Tabaristan, 
Khwarizm, Hamadan, Rai, Isfahan, and finally Bagdad (1055). 
The Abbasid caliphs, who still enjoyed a precarious and shadowy 
authority at the pleasure of Turkish viziers, gladly surrendered 
themselves to the protection of the Mahommedan Seljuks, who 
paid them all outward respect. 

Thus for the first time since the Arab conquest of the Sassanian 
realm Persia was ruled by a single authority, which extended 
its conquests westward into Asia Minor, where it checked the 
rulers of Byzantium, and eastward to India and Central Asia. 
The history of this period is treated at length in the articles 
CALIPHATE: C, 26 sqq.; and SELJUKS. A bare outline 
only is required here. 

The first three Seljuk rulers were Toghrul Beg, Alp Arslan 
and Malik Shah. On the death of the last the empire was 
distracted by civil war between his sons Barkiyaroq, Mahommed 
and Sinjar, with the result that, although the Seljuks of the 
direct line maintained nominal supremacy till the death of 
Sinjar (1157), other branches of the family established themselves 
in various parts of the empire Syria, Rum (Asia Minor), 



226 



PERSIA 



[TRANSITION PERIOD 



Kerman, and Irak with Kurdistan. Sinjar himself lost all his 
dominions except Khorasan in wars with the Karakitai. The 
sultans of Kerman were rarely independent in the full sense, 
but they enjoyed comparative peace and prosperity till the 
death of Toghrul Shah (1170), after which their power fell 
before the Ghuzz tribes; Kerman was finally captured in 1195 
by the Khwarizm shahs. Meanwhile an independent dynasty 
was formed about 1 136 in Azerbaijan by the governors (atabegs) 
appointed by the Seljuks; this dynasty was overthrown by the 
Khwarizm shahs in 1225. Similar dynasties existed in Laristan 
and Fars. 

The empire of the Seljuks was essentially military. Their 
authority over their own officers was so precarious that they 
preferred to entrust the command to Turkish slaves. These 
officers, however, were far from loyal to their lords. In every 
part of the empire they gradually superseded the Seljuk princes, 
and the minor dynasties above mentioned all owed their existence 
to the ambition of the Turkish regents or atabegs. The last 
important dynasty in Persia prior to the Mongol invasion was 
that of the Salgharids in Fars, founded by the descendants of 
a Turkish general Salaghar, who had formerly been a Turkoman 
leader and ultimately became chamberlain to Toghrul Beg. 
The first ruler was Sonkor b. Modud, who made himself inde- 
pendent in Fars in 1148. The fourth, Sa'd, became tributary 
to the Khwarizm shahs in 1195, and the fifth acknowledged 
allegiance to the Mongol Ogotai and received the title Kutbegh 
Khan. His successors were vassals of the Mongols, and the last, 
the Princess 'Abish (d. 1287), was the wife of Hulagu's son 
Mangu Timur. 

Before passing on to the Mongol conquerors of Persia it is 
necessary briefly to notice the shahs of Khwarizm, who have 
. t frequently been mentioned as overthrowing the minor 
' dynasties which arose with the decay of the 
Seljuks. These rulers were descended from Anushtajin, a 
Turkish slave of Ghazni, who became cupbearer to the Seljuk 
Malik Shah, and afterwards governor of Khwarizm (Khiva) 
in 1077. In 1138 the third of the line, Atsiz, revolted but was 
defeated and expelled by Sinjar. Shortly afterwards he returned, 
firmly established his power, and extended the Khwarizm 
Empire as far as Jand on the Sihun. The brief reigns of Il-Arslan 
and Sultan Shah Mahmud were succeeded by that of Tukush 
(1172-1199) and Ala ed-din Mahommed 1 (1199-1220). The 
former of these subdued Khorasan, Rai and Isfahan, while the 
latter brought practically all Persia under his sway, conquered 
Bokhara, Samarkand and Otrar, capital of the Karakitai, and 
had even made himself master of Ghazni when his career was 
stopped by the hordes of the Mongol Jenghiz Khan. In 1231 
the last of his house, Jelal ud-din (Jalaluddin) Mangbarti, or 
Mango-berti, was banished, and thus the empire of the Khwarizm 
shahs, which for a brief period had included practically all the 
lands conquered by the Seljuks, passed away. 

Thus from the fall of the Samanidsto the invasion of the Mongols 
five or at most six important dynasties held sway over Persia, 
while some forty small dynasties enjoyed a measure of local 
autonomy. During the whole of this period the Abbasid caliphs 
had been nominally reigning throughout the Mahommedan world 
with their capital at Bagdad. But with hardly any exceptions 
they had been the merest puppets, now in the hands of Turkish 
ministers, now under the protection of practically independent 
dynasts. The real rulers of Persia during the years 874-1231 were, 
as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids, the Ghaznevids, the 
Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come 
to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous petty 
dynasties which succeeded the Seljuks were all swallowed up in 
the great Mongol invasion. 

In the later years of the i2th century the] Mongols began 
their westward march and, after the conquest of the ancient 
ki n gdom of the Kajakitai, reached the borders of 
the territory of the Khwarizm shahs, which was at 
once overwhelmed. Jenghiz Khan died in 127 2, and the Mongol 

1 It was this prince who destroyed the Ghorid dynasty, which 
claimed descent from the legendary Persian monarch Zohak. 
Except for a brief period of submission to the Ghaznevids (1009- 
1099) they ruled at Ghor until 1215, when they were conquered 
after a fierce struggle. 



Mongols 



Empire stretching from the Caspian to the Yellow Sea was 
divided up among his sons. Persia itself fell partly in the 
domain of Jagatai and partly in that of the Golden Horde. 
The actual governor of Persia was Tului or Tule, whose son 
Hulagu or Hulaku is the first who can be rightly regarded as 
the sovereign of Persia. His accession occurred in 1256, and 
henceforward Persia becomes after 600 years of spasmodic 
government a national unit. Hulagu at once proceeded to 
destroy a number of nascent dynasties which endeavoured to 
establish themselves on the ruins of the Khwarizm Empire; 
about 1255 he destroyed the dynasty of the Assassins 2 by the 
capture of their stronghold of Alamut (Eagle's Nest), and finally 
in 1258 captured Bagdad. The thirty-eighth and last Abbasid 
caliph, Mostasim, was brutally murdered, and thus the Mahom- 
medan caliphate ceased to exist even as an emasculated pontifi- 
cate. The Persian Empire under Hulagu and his descendants 
extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to that 
of the Egyptian dynasts on the south, and from the Byzantine 
Empire on the west to the confines of China. Its rulers paid a 
nominal homage to the Khakhan (Great Khan) in China, 
and officially recognized this dependence in their title of Ilkhan, 
i.e. provincial or dependent khan. From 1258 to 1335 the 
Ilkhans were not seriously challenged. Hulagu fixed his capital 
at Maragha (Meragha) in Azerbaijan, where he erected an observa- 
tory for Nasir ud-din Tusi, who at his request prepared the 
astronomical tables known as the Zidj-i-Ilkhani. He died in 
1265 and was succeeded by his son Abagha or Abaka, who 
married the daughter of Michael Palaeologus, the Byzantine 
ruler. Abagha was a peaceful ruler and endeavoured by wise 
administration to give order and prosperity to a country torn 
asunder by a long period of intestine war and the Mongol 
invasion. He succeeded in repelling two attacks by other 
Mongolian princes of the house of Jenghiz Khan; otherwise 
his reign was uneventful. His brother Nikudar (originally 
Nicolas) Ahmad Khan succeeded him in 1281. This prince was 
converted to Islam, an event of great moment both to the 
internal peace and to the external relations of Persia. His 
persecution of the Christians led them into alliance with the 
Mongols, who detested Islam; the combined forces were too 
strong for Nikudar, who was murdered in 1284. The external 
results were of more importance. The Ilkhans, who had failed 
in their attempt to wrest Syria from the Mameluke rulers of 
Egypt, had subsequently endeavoured to effect their object by 
inducing the European Powers to make a new crusade. The 
conversion of Nikudar put an end to this policy and Egypt was 
for some time free from Persian attack (see EGYPT: History). 
The Mongol leaders put on the throne a son of Abagha, by name 
Arghun. His reign was troubled. His first minister Shams 
ud-din was suspected of having poisoned Abagha, and was soon 
put to death. His successor, the amir Bogha, conspired against 
Arghun and was executed. Under the third minister (1289- 
1291), a Jewish doctor named Sa'd addaula (ed-Dowleh), religious 
troubles arose owing to his persecution of the Mahommedans 
and his favouring the Christians. The financial administration 
of Sa'd was prudent and successful, if somewhat severe, and the 
revenue benefited considerably under his care. But he com- 
mitted the tactical error of appointing a disproportionate 
number of Jews and Christians as revenue officials, and thus 
made many enemies among the Mongol nobles, who had him 
assassinated in 1291 when Arghun was lying fatally ill. It is 
possible that it was Sa'd's diplomacy which led Pope Nicholas IV. 
to send a mission to Arghun with a view to a new crusade. 
The reign of Arghun was also disturbed by a rebellion of a 
grandson of Hulagu, Baidu Khan. Arghun died soon after 
the murder of Sa'd, and was succeeded by his brother Kaikhatu, 
or Gaykhatu, who was taken prisoner by Baidu Khan and 
killed (1295). Baidu's reign was cut short in the same year 
by Arghun's son Ghazan Mahmud, whose reign (1295-1304) 
was a period of prosperity in war and administration. Ghazan 

* The dynasty of the Assassins or Isma'ilites was founded in 
1090 and extended its rule over much of western Persia and Syria 
(for the rulers see Stockvis, op. cit. i. 131, and article ASSASSIN). 



1405-1736] 



PERSIA 



227 



was a man of great ability. He established a permanent staff 
to deal with legal, financial and military affairs, put on a firm 
basis the monetary system and the system of weights and 
measures, and perfected the mounted postal service. Ghazan 
fought with success against Egypt (which country had already 
from 1293 to December 1294 been ruled by a Mongol usurper 
Kitboga), and even held Damascus for a few months. In 1303, 
however, his troops were defeated at Merj al-Saffar, and Mongol 
claims on Syria were definitely abandoned. It was even 
suggested that the titular Abbasid caliphs (who retained an 
empty title in Cairo under Mameluke protection) should be 
reinstated at Bagdad, but this proposal was not carried into 
effect. Ghazan is historically important, however, mainly as 
the first Mongol ruler who definitely adopted Islam with a 
large number of his subjects. He died in 1304, traditionally 
of anger at the Syrian fiasco, and was succeeded by his brother 
Uljaitu (Oeljeitu). The chief events of his reign were a success- 
ful war against Tatar invaders and the substitution of the new 
city of Sultania as capital for Tabriz, which had been Ghazan's 
headquarters. Uljaitu was a Shi'ite and even stamped his 
coins with the names of the twelve Shi'ite imams. He died 
in 1316, and was succeeded by Abu Sa'id.his son. The prince, 
under whom a definite peace was made with Malik al-Nasir, 
the Mameluke ruler of Egypt, had great trouble with powerful 
viziers and generals which he accentuated by his passion for 
Bagdad-Khatun, wife of the amir Hosain and daughter of the 
amir Chupan. This lady he eventually married, with the result 
that Chupan headed a revolt of his tribe, the Selduz. Abu Sa'id 
died of fever in 1335, and with him the first Mongol or Ilkhan 
dynasty of Persia practically came to an end. The real power 
was divided between Chupan and Hosain the Jelair (or Jalair), 
or the Ilkhanian, "and their sons, known respectively as the 
Little Hasan (Hasan Kuchuk) and the great Hasan (Hasan 
Buzurg). Two puppet kings, Arpa Khan, a descendant of 
Hulagu's brother Arikbuhga, and Musa Khan, a descendant of 
Baidu, nominally reigned for a few months each. Then Hasan 
Kuchuk set up one Sati-beg, Abu Sa'id's daughter, and wife 
successively of Chupan, Arfa Khan and one Suleiman, the last 
of whom was khan from 1339 to 1343; in the same time Hasan 
Buzurg set up successively Mahommed, Tugha-Timur and Jahan- 
Timur. A sixth nonentity, Nushirwan, was a Chupani nominee 
in 1344, after which time Hasan Buzurg definitely installed 
himself as the first khan of the Jelairid or Ilkhanian-Jelairid 
dynasty. 

Practically from the reign of Abu Sa'id Persia was divided 
under five minor dynasties, (i) the Jelairids, (2) the Mozaffarids, 
^"Mniaor ($) tne Sarbadarids (Serbedarians), (4) the Beni 
Dynasties. Kurt, and (5) the Jubanians, all of which ultimately 

f . .11 i . ,. r. . ... . * u , . A _,; ,^ ~c 'T". . . ~ 

*~^ 



fell before the armies of Timur. 



i. The Jelairid rulers were Hasan Buzurg (1336, strictly 1344- 
1356), Owais (1356-1374), Hosain (1374-1382), Sultan Ahmad 
(1382-1410), Shah Walad (1410-1411). Their capital was Bagdad, 
and their dominion was increased under Hasan. Owais added 
Azerbaijan, Tabriz, and even Mosul and Diarbekr. Hosain fought 
with the Mozaffarids of Shiraz and the Black Sheep Turkomans 
(Kara Kuyunli) of Armenia, with the latter of whom he ultimately 
entered into alliance. On his death Azerbaijan and Irak fell to 
his brother, Sultan Ahmad, while another brother Bayezid ruled 
for a few months in part of Kurdistan. It was about this time 
that Timur (q.v.) began his great career of conquest, under which 
the power of the various Persian dynasties collapsed. By 1393 he 
had conquered northern Persia and Armenia, Bagdad, Mesopo- 
tamia, Diarbekr and Van, and Ahmad fled to Egypt, where he was 
received by Barkuk (Barquq) the Mameluke sultan. Barkuk, 
who had already excited the enmity of Timur by slaying one of his 
envoys, espoused Ahmad's cause, and restored him to Bagdad after 
Timur's return to his normal capital Samarkand. Timur retaliated 
and until his death Ahmad ruled only from time to time. In 1406 
Ahmad was finally restored, but almost immediately entered upon 
a quarrel with Kara Yusuf, leader of the Black Sheep Turkomans 
(Kara Kuyunli), who defeated and killed him in 1410. His nephew 
Shah Walad reigned for a few months only and the throne was 
occupied by his widow Tandu, formerly wife of Barkuk, who ruled 
over Basra, Wasit and Shuster till 1416, paying allegiance to Shah 
Rukh, the second Timurid ruler. Walad's sons Mahmud, Owais and 
Mahommed, and Hosain, grandson of Sultan Ahmad, successively 
occupied the throne. The last of these was killed by the Kara 



Kuyunli, who had established a dynasty in western Persia after 
Kara Yusuf's victory in 1410. 

2. The Mozaffarids, who ruled roughly from 1313 to 1399 in 
Pars, Kerman and Kurdistan, were descended from the Amir 
Mozaffar, or Muzaffar, who held a post as governor under the 
Ilkhan ruler. His son Mobariz ud-din Mahommed, who followed 
him in 1313, beaame governor in Pars under Abu Sa'id, in Ker- 
man in 1340, and subsequently made himself independent at 
Pars and Shiraz (1353) and in Isfahan (1356). In 1357 he was 
deposed and blinded, and though restored was exiled again and died 
in 1364. His descendants, except for Jelal ed-din (Jalaluddin) 
Shah Shuja', the patron of the poet Hafiz, were unimportant, and 
the dynasty was wiped out by Timur about 1392. 

3. The Sarbadarids (so called from their motto Sar-ba-dar, " Head 
to the Gibbet "), descendants of Abd al-Razzak, who rebelled in 
Khorasan about 1337, enjoyed some measure of independence 
under twelve rulers till they also were destroyed by Timur (c. 1380). 

4. The Beni Kurt (or Kart), who had governed in Khorasan from 
1245, became independent in the early I4th century; they were 
abolished by Timur (c. 1383). 

5. The Jubanians had some power in Azerbaijan from 1337 to 
1355, when they were dethroned by the Kipchaks of the house of 
Jenghiz Khan. 

The authority of Timur, which, as we have seen, was dominant 
throughout Persia from at least as early as 1395 till his death 
in 1405, was never unchallenged. He passed from one victory 
to another, but the conquered districts were never really settled 
under his administration. Fresh risings of the defeated 
dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal 
with the Mongol hordes whose territory marched with northern 
Persia. His descendants were for a brief period the overlords 
of Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-1446) and Ala 
addaula (1447), the so-called Timurid dynasty ceased to have 
any authority over Persia. There were Timurid governors 
of Fars under Shah Rukh, Pir Mahommed (1405-1409), Iskendar 
(1409-1414), Ibrahim (1415-1434) and Abdallah (1434); in 
other parts of Persia many of the Timurid family held governor- 
ships of greater or less importance. 

AUTHORITIES. The works relating to Persia will be found under 
articles on the maindynasties (CALIPH ATE; SELJUKS; MONGOLS), and 
the great rulers (jENGHiz KHAN; MAHMUD OF GHAZNI; TIMUR). 
For general information and chronology see S. Lane Poole, 
Mohammedan Dynasties (London, 1894); Stockvis, Manuel d'his- 
toire, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888); Sir H. Howorth, History of the Mongols 
(1876-1888). J Q. M. M7) 

C. From the Death of Timur to the Fall of the Safawid Dynasty, 
1405-1736. 

Timur died in 1405, when in the seventieth year of his age 
and about to invade China. Besides exercising sovereignty 
over Transoxiana and those vast regions more or j-f, e j-imu- 
less absorbed in Asiatic Russia of the igth century, rides ana 
inclusive of the Caucasus, Astrakhan and the Turkomans, 
lower Volga, and overrunning Mesopotamia, Syria, l405 ' 1499 - 
Asia Minor, Afghanistan and India, he had at this time left 
his indelible mark upon the chief cities and provinces of 
Persia. Khorasan and Mazandaran had submitted to him 
in 1381, Azerbaijan had shortly after followed their example, 
and Isfahan was seized in 1387. From Isfahan he passed on 
to Shiraz, and thence returned in triumph to his own capital 
of Samarkand. Five years later he subdued Mazandaran, and 
later still he was again at Shiraz, having effected the subjugation 
of Luristan and other provinces in the west. It may be said 
that from north to south, or from Astarabad to Hormuz, the 
whole country had been brought within his dominion. 

The third son of Timur, Miran Shah, had ruled over part of 
Persia in his father's lifetime; but he was said to be insane, and 
his incapacity for government had caused the loss of Bagdad 
and revolt in other provinces. His claim to succession had been 
put aside by Timur in favour of Pir Mahommed, the son of a 
deceased son, but Khalil Shah, a son of the discarded prince, won 
the day. His waste of time and treasure upon a fascinating 
mistress named Shadu '1-Mulk, the " delight of the kingdom," 
soon brought about his deposition, and in 1408 he gave way to 
Shah Rukh, who, with the exception of Miran Shah, was the 
only surviving son of Timur. In fact the uncle and nephew 
changed places the one quitting his government of Khorasan 



228 



PERSIA 



[1405-1736 



to take possession of the Central-Asian throne, the other con- 
senting to become governor of the vacated Persian province 
and abandon the cares of the empire at Samarkand. In 1409 
Khalil Shah died; and the story goes that Shadu '1-Mulk stabbed 
herself and was buried with her royal lover at.Rai, one of the 
towns which his grandfather had partly destroyed. 

Shah Rukh, the fourth son of Timur, reigned for thirty-eight 
years, and appears to have been a brave, generous, and enlight- 
ened monarch. He removed his capital from Samarkand to 
Herat, of which place he rebuilt the citadel, restoring and im- 
proving the town. Merv also profited from his attention to its 
material interests. Sir John Malcolm speaks of the splendour 
of his court and of his encouragement of science and learning. 
He sent an embassy to China; and an English version of the 
travels to India of one of his emissaries, Abd ur-Razzak, is to 
be found in R. H. Major's India in the Fifteenth Century (London, 
Hakluyt Society, 1857). As regards his Persian possessions, 
he had some trouble in the north-west, where the Turkomans of 
Asia Minor, known as the Kara Kuyun, 1 or " Black Sheep," led 
by Kara Yusuf 2 and his sons Iskandar and Jahan Shah, had 
advanced upon Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan. On the death 
of the Shah Rukh in 1446 he was succeeded by his son Ulugh 
Bey, whose scientific tastes are demonstrated in the astro- 
nomical tables bearing his name, quoted by European writers 
when determining the latitude of places in Persia. He was, 
moreover, himself a poet and patron of literature, and built 
a college as well as an observatory at Samarkand. There is 
no evidence to show that he did much to consolidate his grand- 
father's conquests south of the Caspian. Ulugh Bey was put 
to death by his son Abd ul-Latif, who, six months later, was 
slain by his own soldiers. Babar not the illustrious founder 
of the Mughal dynasty in India, but an elder member of the 
same house next obtained possession of the sovereign power, 
and established himself in the government of Khorasan and the 
neighbouring countries. He died after a short rule, from 
habitual intemperance. After him Abu Sa'id, grandson of 
Miran Shah, and once governor of Pars, became a candidate for 
empire, and allied himself with the Uzbeg Tatars, seized Bokhara, 
entered Khorasan, and waged war upon the Turkoman tribe 
aforesaid, which, since the invasion of Azerbaijan, had, under 
Jahan Shah, overrun Irak, Pars and Kerman, and pillaged 
Herat. But he was eventually taken prisoner by Uzun Hasan, 
and killed in 1468. 

It is difficult to assign dates to a few events recorded in Persian 
history for the eighteen years following the death .'of Abd ul- 
Latif; and, were it not for chance European missions, the 
same difficulty would be felt in dealing with the period after the 
death of Abu Sa'id up to the accession of Isma'il Sufi in 1499. 
Sultan Ahmad, eldest son of Abu Sa'id, reigned in Bokhara; 
his brother, Omar Sheikh, in Ferghana; but the son of the 
latter, the great Babar, was driven by the Uzbegs to Kabul 
and India. More to the purpose is it that Sultan I.Iosain Mirza, 
great-grandson of Omar Sheikh, son of Timur, reigned 
i* 1 Herat from 1487 to 1506. He was a patron of 
learned men, among others of the historians Mirk- 
hond and Khwadamir, and the poets Jami and Hatifi. But 
at no time could his control have extended over central and 
western Persia. The nearest approach to a sovereignty in those 
parts on the death of Abu Sa'id is that of Uzun IJasan, the 
leader of the Ak Kuyun, or " White Sheep " Turkomans, and 
conqueror of the " Black Sheep," whose chief, Jahan Shah, he 
defeated and slew. Between the two tribes there had long been 
Viun Hasan a Deadly feud. Both were composed of settlers in Asia 
'Minor, the " Black Sheep " having consolidated 
their power at Van, the " White " at Diarbekr. 

Sir John Malcolm states that at the death of Abu Sa'id, 
Sultan Hosain Mirza " made himself master of the empire," 

1 They were commonly called Kara Kuyun-lu and the " White 
Sheep " Turkomans Ak Kuyun-lu, the affix " lu " signifying 
possession, i.e. possession of a standard bearing the image of a 
black or white sheep. 

1 According to Ersktne, this chief killed Miran Shah, whose 
dwelling-place was Tabriz. 



and, a little later, that " Uzun Hasan, after he had made himself 
master of Persia, turned his arms in the direction of Turkey "; 
but the reader is left to infer for himself what the real " empire " 
of Hosain Mirza, and what the limit of the " Persia " of Uzun 
Hasan. The second could not well be included in the first, 
because the Turkomans were in possession of the greater part 
of the Persian plateau, while the " sultan " was in Herat, to 
which Khorasan belonged. It may be assumed that an empire 
like that acquired by Timur could not long be maintained by 
his descendants in its integrity. 

The Turkish adjective uzun, Ojjj' " long," applied to Hasan, 
the Turkoman monarch of Persia (called also by the Arabs 
Hasanu 't-Tawil), is precisely the qualifying Persian word j'ji 
used in the compound designation of Artaxerxes Longimanus; 
and Malcolm quotes the statement of a Venetian envoy in 
evidence that Uzun Hasan was "a tall thin man, of a very open 
and engaging countenance." This reference, and a further 
notice in Markham's history, supply the clue to a store of 
valuable information made available by the publications of the 
Hakluyt Society. The narratives of Caterino Zeno, Barbara 
and Contarini, envoys from Venice to the court of Uzun Hasan, 
are in this respect especially interesting. Zeno was sent in 
1471 to incite this warlike ruler against the Ottoman sultan, 
and succeeded in his mission. That the result was disastrous 
to the shah is not surprising, but the war seems to hold a 
comparatively unimportant place in the annals of Turkey. 

Uzun Hasan had married Despina (Gr. Aeywoiva.) , daughter 
of the emperor of Trebizond, Calo Johannes of the house of the 
Comneni; and Zeno's wife was niece to this Christian princess. 
The relationship naturally strengthened the envoy's position 
at the court, and he was permitted to visit the. queen in the name 
of the republic which he represented. Barbara and Contarini 
met at Isfahan in 1474, and there paid their respects to the 
shah together. Kum and Tauris or Tabriz (then the capital) 
were also visited by the Italian envoys following in the royal 
suite; and the incidental notice of these cities, added to Con- 
tarini's formal statement that " the extensive country of Ussun- 
cassan [sic] is bounded by the Ottoman Empire and by Cara- 
mania," and that Siras (Shiraz) is comprehended in it, proves 
that at least Azerbaijan, Irak, and the main part of the provinces 
to the south, inclusive of Pars, were within the dominions of 
the reigning monarch. 

There is good reason to suppose that Jahan Shah, the Black 
Sheep Turkoman, before his defeat by Uzun Hasan, had set up 
the standard of royalty; and Zeno, at the outset of his travels, 
calls him " king of Persia " 3 in 1450. Chardin alludes to him 
in the same sense; but Hasan the Long is a far more prominent 
figure, and has hardly received justice at the hands of the 
historian. Indeed, his identity seems to have been lost in the 
various modes of spelling his name adopted by the older 
chroniclers, who call him indiscriminately 4 Alymbeius, Asem- 
beius, Asembec, Assimbeo, or Ussan Cassano. He is said to 
have earned the character of a wise and valiant monarch, to have 
reigned eleven years, to have lived to the age of seventy, and, 
on his death in 1477 or (according to Krusinski and Zeno) 1478, 
to have been succeeded on the throne of Persia by his son Ya'qub. 
This prince, who had slain an elder brother, died by poison 
(1485), after a reign of seven years. The dose was offered to 
him by his wife, who had been unfaithful to him and sought to 
set her paramour on his throne. 

Writers differ as to the succession to Ya'qub. Zeno's account 
is that a son named Allamur (called also, Alamut, Alvante, 
El-wand and Alwung Bey) was the next king, who, Aaan i, 
besides Persia, possessed Diarbekr and part of 
greater Armenia near the Euphrates. On the other hand, 
Krusinski states that, Ya'qub dying childless, his relative 
Julaver, one of the grandees of the kingdom, seized the throne, 
and held possession of it for three years. Baisingar, it is added, 
succeeded him in 1488 and reigned till 1490, when a young noble- 
man named Rustan (Rustam?) obtained the sovereign power 
and exercised it for seven years. This account is confirmed by 

* See also Ramusio's preface. * Knolles, Purchas. Zeno. 



1405-1736] 



PERSIA 



229 



Angiolello, a traveller who followed his countrymen Barbaro 
and Contarini to Persia; and from the two authorities combined 
may be gathered the further narration of the murder of Rustam 
and usurpation of the throne by a certain Ahmad, whose death, 
under torture, six months afterwards, made way for Alamut, 
the young son of Hasan. These discrepancies can be reconciled 
on reference to yet another record bound up with the narratives 
of the four Italians aforesaid, and of much the same period. In 
the Travels of a Merchant in Persia the story of Ya'qub's death 
is supplemented by the statement that " the great lords, hearing 
of their king's decease, had quarrels among themselves, so that 
for five or six years all Persia was in a state of civil war, first 
one and then another of the nobles becoming sultans. At last 
a youth named Alamut, aged fourteen years, was raised to the 
throne, which he held till the succession of Sheikh Isma'il." Who 
this young man was is not specified; but other writers call 
Alamut and his brother Murad the sons of Ya'qub, as though 
the relationship were unquestionable. 

Now little is known, save incidentally, of Julaver or Rustam; 
but Baisingar is the name of a nephew of Omar Sheikh, king 
of Ferghana and contemporary of Uzun Hasan. There was 
no doubt much anarchy and confusion in the interval between the 
death of Ya'qub and the restoration, for two years, of the 
dynasty of the White Sheep. But the tender age of Alamut 
would, even in civilized countries, have necessitated a regency; 
and it may be assumed that he was the next legitimate and 
more generally recognized sovereign. Markham, in designating 
this prince the last of his house, states that he was dethroned 
by the renowned founder of the Safawi dynasty. This event 
brings us to one of the most interesting periods of Persian history, 
any account of which must be defective without a prefatory 
sketch of Isma'il Sufi. 

The Sufi or Safawid (Safawi) Dynasty (1490-1736). Sheikh 
Saifu 'd-Din Izhak 1 lineally descended from Musa, the seventh 
imam was a resident at Ardebil (Ardabil) south- 
Sa/fti'd-D/n. west f tne Caspian, some time during the i4th 
century. It is said that his reputation for sanctity 
attracted the attention of Timur, who sought him out in his 
abode, and was so charmed by the visit that he released, at the 
holy man's request, a number of captives of Turkish origin, or 
Georgians, taken in the wars with Bayezid. The act ensured to 
the Sheikh the constant devotion and gratitude of these men 
a feeling which was loyally maintained by their descendants 
for the members of his family in successive generations. 

His son Sadru'd-Din and grandson Kwaja 'Ah' (who visited 
Mecca and died at Jerusalem) retained the high reputation of 
their pious predecessor. Junaid, a grandson of the last, married 
a sister of Uzun Hasan, and by her had a son named Sheikh 
Haidar, who married his cousin Martha, daughter 
of Uzun Hasan and Queen Despina. Three sons 
were the issue of this marriage, Sultan "Ali, Ibrahim 
Mirza, and the youngest, Isma'il, the date of whose birth is 
put down as 1480 for reasons which will appear hereafter. 
So great was the influence of Sheikh Haidar, and so earnestly 
did he carry out the principles of conduct which had character- 
ized his family for five generations, that his name has become, 
as it were, inseparable from the dynasty of his son Isma'il; and 
the term " Haidari " (leonine) is applied by many persons to 
indicate generally the Safawids of Persia. The outcome of his 
teaching was a division of Mahommedanism vitally momentous 
to the world of Islam. The Persian mind was peculiarly adapted 
to receive the form of religion prepared for it by the philosophers 
of Ardebil. The doctrines presented were dreamy and mystic; 
they rejected the infallibility of human wisdom, and threw 
suspicion on the order and arrangement of human orthodoxy. 
There was free scope given for the indulgence of that political 
imagination which revels in revolution and chafes at prescriptive 
bondage. As Malcolm remarks, " the very essence of Sufi-ism 
is poetry." 

1 According to Langlfis, the annotator of Chardin, his real designa- 
tion was Abu '1-Fath Izhak, the Sheikh Saifu '1-Hakk wu 'd-Din or 
" pure one of truth and religion." 



Sheikh 
Haidar. 



Those authorities who maintain that Ya'qub Shah left no 
son to succeed him consider valid the claim to the vacant throne 
of Sheikh Haidar Sufi. Purchas says that Ya'qub himself, 
" jealous of the multitude of Aidar's disciples and the greatness 
of his fame, caused him to be secretly murthered "; but Krusinski 
attributes the act to Rustam a few years later. Zeno, the anony- 
mous merchant and Angiolello affirm that the devotee was 
defeated and killed in battle the first making his conqueror 
to be Alamut, the second a general of Alamut's, and the third 
an officer sent by Rustam named Suleiman Bey. Malcolm, 
following the Zubdatu 'l-tawarikh, relates that Sheikh Haidar 
was vanquished and slain by the governor of Shirvan. The 
subsequent statement that his son, Sultan 'Ali, was seized, in 
company with two younger brothers, by Ya'qub, " one of the 
descendants of their grandfather Uzun Hasan, who, jealous of 
the numerous disciples that resorted to Ardebil, confined them 
to the hill fort of Istakhr in Fars," seems to indicate a second 
interpretation of the passage just extracted from Purchas, 
and that there is confusion of persons and incident somewhere. 
One of the sons here alluded to was Isma'il, whom Malcolm 
makes to have been only seven years of age when he fled to 
Gilan in 1492. Zeno states that he was then thirteen, which is 
much more probable, 2 and the several data available for reference 
are in favour of this supposition. 

The life of the young Sufi from this period to his assumption 
of royalty in 1499 was full of stirring adventure; and his career 
as Isma'il I. was a brilliant one. According to . 
Zeno, who seems to have carefully recorded the 
events of the time, he left his temporary home on an island of 
Lake Van before he was eighteen, and, passing into Karabakh, 3 
between the Aras and Kur, turned in a south-easterly direction 
into Gilan. Here he was enabled, through the assistance of a 
friend of his father, to raise a small force with which to take 
possession of Baku on the Caspian, and thence to march upon 
Shemakha in Shirvan, a town abandoned to him without a 
struggle. Hearing, however, that Alamut was advancing to 
meet him, he was compelled to seek new levies from among the 
Jengian Christians and others. At the head of 16,000 men, he 
thoroughly routed his opponents, and, having cleared the way 
before him, marched straight upon Tabriz, which at once sur- 
rendered. He was soon after proclaimed shah of Persia (1499), 
under the designation which marked the family school of 
thought. 

Alamut had taken refuge at Diarbekr; but his brother Murad, 
at the head of an army strengthened by Turkish auxiliaries, 
was still in the field with the object of contesting the paternal 
crown. Isma'il lost no time in moving against him, and won 
a new victory on the plains of Tabriz. Murad fled with a small 
remnant of his soldiers to Diarbekr, the rallying-point of the 
White Sheep Turkomans. Zeno states that in the following 
year Isma'il entered upon a new campaign in Kurdistan and 
Asia Minor, but that he returned to Tabriz without accomplishing 
his object, having been harassed by the tactics of Ala ud-Daula, 
a beylerbey, or governor in Armenia and parts of Syria. Another 
writer says that he marched against Murad Khan in Irak-i- 
Ajami and Shiraz. This last account is extremely probable, 
and would show that the young Turkoman had wished to make 
one grand effort to save Isfahan and Shiraz (with Kazvin and 
the neighbouring country), these being, after the capital Tabriz, 
the most important cities of Uzun Hasan's Persia. His men, 
however, apparently dismayed at the growing prestige of the 
enemy, did not support him, and he was defeated and probably 
slain. There is similar evidence of the death of Alamut, who, 
it is alleged, was treacherously handed over to be killed by the 
shah's own hands. 

'Isma'il returned again to Tabriz (1501) "and caused great 
rejoicings to be made on account of his victory." In 1503 
he had added to his conquests Bagdad, Mosul and Jezira on 
the Tigris. The next year he was called to the province of 

2 So thinks the editor and annotator of the Italian Travels in 
Persia, Charles Grey. 

3 Possibly Kara-dagh, as being the more direct road. 



230 



PERSIA 



[1405-1736 



War with 
Sellm. 



Gilan to chastise a refractory ruler. Having accomplished his 
end, he came back to his capital and remained there in 
comparative quiet till 1507.* Malcolm's dates are 
somewhat at variance with the above, for he infers 
that Bagdad was subdued in that particular year; 
but the facts remain. All writers seem to agree that in 1508 
the king's attention was drawn to an invasion of Khorasan by 
Shaibani, or Shahi Beg, the Uzbeg, a descendant of Jenghiz and 
the most formidable opponent of Babar, from whom he had, 
seven years before, wrested the city of Samarkand, and whom 
he had driven from Turkestan to Kabul. Since these exploits 
he had obtained great successes in Tashkent, Ferghana, Hissar, 
Kunduz, and Khwarizm (Kharezm), and, at the time referred to, 
had left Samarkand intent upon mischief south and west of the 
Oxus, had passed the Murghab, and had reached Sarakhs (Ser- 
rakhs). Isma'il encamped on this occasion at Isfahan, and there 
concentrated the bulk of his army strengthening his northern 
(and probably north-eastern) frontier with large bodies of cavalry, 
but maintaining an attitude of simple watchfulness. In 1510, 
when Shaibani had invaded Khorasan the second time, and had 
ravaged the Persian province of Kerman, Shah Isma'il asked 
for redress, referring to the land encroached on as " hereditary "; 
and Shaibani replied that he did not understand on what was 
founded the claim " to inherit." Eventually the Persian troops 
were put in movement, and the Uzbegs, having been divided 
into small detachments scattered over the country, fell back 
and retreated to Herat. Their leader repaired to Merv, but 
Isma'il quickly followed him and enticed him out to battle 
by taunt and reproach. Shaibani was defeated and fled, but 
was overtaken in his flight, and put to the sword, together with 
numerous relatives and companions. 

The next remarkable event in Isma'il's reign is his war with 
Sultan Selim I. Its origin may be traced to the Ottoman 
emperor's hatred and persecution of all heretical 
Moslems in his dominions, and the shah's anger at 
the fanaticism which had urged him to the slaughter 
of 40,000 Turks suspected to have thrown off the orthodox 
Sunnite doctrines. The sultan's army advanced into Azer- 
baijan and western Persia through Tokat and Erzingan. Isma'il 
had at this time the greater number of his soldiers employed 
in his newly-conquered province of Khorasan and was driven 
to raise new levies in Kurdistan to obtain a sufficient force to 
resist the invasion. It is asserted by some that his frontier then 
extended westward to Sivas, a city situated in a large high plain 
watered by the Kizil Irmak, and that hence to Khoi, oo m. west 
of Tabriz, he followed the approved and often successful tactics 
of ravaging and retreating, so as to deprive his advancing 
enemy of supplies. There is good evidence to show that the 
Turkish janissaries were within an ace of open revolt, and that 
but for extraordinary firmness in dealing with them they would 
have abandoned their leader in his intended march upon Tabriz. 
In fine, at or near Khoi, the frontier-town of Azerbaijan, the 
battle (1514) was fought between the two rival monarchs, ending 
in the defeat of the Persians and the triumphant entry of Selim 
into their capital. 

There are stirring accounts of that action and of the gallant 
deeds performed by Selim and Isma'il, both personally engaged 
in it, as well as by their generals. 2 Others maintain that Isma'il 
was not present at all. 3 It is tolerably certain that the Turks 
won the day by better organization, superiority of numbers, 
and more especially the use of artillery. On the side of the 
Persians the force consisted of little more than cavalry. 

1 Angiolello. 

2 Knolles, Malcolm, Creasy, Markham, &c. 

* Zeno. Angiolello says that " the Sophi monarch had left for 
Tauris [Tabriz] in order to assemble more troops." Krusinski infers 
much to the same effect, for he notes that " Selim came in person 
and took Tauris from Ismail, but at the noise of his approach was 
obliged to retreat with precipitation." The battle must thus have 
been fought and the victory gained when the shah was himself absent. 
Yet Markham quotes a journal which thus records his feats of 
prowess: " It was in vain that the brave Shah, with a blow of his 
sabre, severed a chain with which the Turkish guns were fastened 
together to resist the shock of the Persian cavalry." 






Selim remained at Tabriz no more than eight days. Levying 
a contribution at that city of a large number of its skilled artisans 
whom be sent off to Constantinople, he marched thence towards 
Karabagh with intent to fix his winter quarters in those parts 
and newly invade Persia in the spring, but the insubordination 
of his troops rendered necessary his speedy return to Turkey. 
His expedition, if not very glorious, had not been unproductive 
of visible fruits. Besides humbling the power of an arrogant 
enemy, he had conquered and annexed to his dominions the 
provinces of Diarbekr and Kurdistan. 4 

From 1514 to 1524, although the hostile feeling between 
the two countries was very strong, there was no serious nor open 
warfare. Selim's attention was diverted from Persia to Egypt; 
Isma'il took advantage of the sultan's death in 1519 to overrun 
and subdue unfortunate Georgia, as Jahan Shah of the " Black 
Sheep" had done before him; but Suleiman, who succeeded 
Selim, was too strong to admit of retaliatory invasion being 
carried out with impunity at the cost of Turkey. 

In 1524 Isma'il died 6 at Ardebil when on a pilgrimage to the 
tomb of his father. " The Persians dwell with rapture on hio 
character," writes Sir John Malcolm, for they deem 
him " not only the founder of a great dynasty, but 
the person to whom that faith in which they glory 
owes its establishment as a national religion." And he quotes 
a note handed down by Purchas from a contemporary European 
traveller which reports of him thus: " His subjects deemed him a 
saint, and made use of his name in their prayers. Many disdained 
to wear armour when they fought under Isma'il; and so enthu- 
siastic were his soldiers in their new faith that they used to bare 
their breasts to their enemies and court death, exclaiming 
' Shiah! Shiah! ' to mark the holy cause for which they fought." 

Shah Tahmasp, 6 the eldest of the four sons of Isma'il, succeeded 
to the throne on the death of his father. 7 The principal occur- 
rences in his reign, placed as nearly as possible in 
chronological order, were a renewal of war with 
the Uzbegs, who had again invaded Khorasan, and 
the overthrow of their army (1527); the recovery of Bagdad 
from a Kurdish usurper (1528); the settlement of an internal 
feud between Kizil-bash tribes (Shamlu and Tukulu), contending 
for the custody of the royal person, by the slaughter of the more 
unruly of the disputants (1529); the rescue of Khorasan from a 
fresh irruption, and of Herat from a besieging army of Uzbegs 
(1530); a new invasion of the Ottomans, from which Persia was 
saved rather by the severity of her climate than by the prowess 
of her warriors (1533); the wresting of Bagdad from Persia by 
the sultan Suleiman (i 534) ; the king's youngest brother's rebellion 

4 It was about this time that Persia again entered into direct 
relations with one of the states of western Europe. In 1510 and 
1514 Alphonso d'Albuquerque, the governor of Portuguese India, 
sent envoys to Isma'il, seeking an alliance. In 1515, after occupying 
Hormuz, he despatched a third embassy under Fernao Gomes de 
Lemos. His object was to utilize the Shi'ite armies in conjunction 
with the Portuguese fleet for an attack upon the Sunnite powers 
Egypt and Turkey which wert then at war with Portugal in the 
East. See, for further details and authorities, K. G. Jayne, Vasco 
da Gama and his Successors, pp. 108-110 and App. A. (London, 
1910). ED. 

6 Malcolm says 1523, Krusinski 1525; Angiolello heard of his 
death at Cairo in August 1524. Krusinski adds that he was forty- 
five years of age. 

6 Angiolello calls him " Shiacthemes." As an instance of the 
absurd transliterating current in France as in England the word 
" Ach-tacon " may be mentioned. It is explained in Chardin's 
text to mean " jes h6pitaux a Tauris: c'est-a-dire lieux oH Von fail 
profusion de vivres." Chardin's editor remarks, " La dermere 
partie de ce mot est mecpnnaissable, et je ne puis deviner quel mot 
Persan signifiant profusion a pu donner naissance a la corruption 
qu'on voit ici." In other words, the first syllable " ach " (An^lice 
ash) was understood in its common acceptance for " food ' or 
" victuals "; but " tacon " was naturally a puzzler. The solution of 
the whole difficulty is, however, to be found in the Turco-Persian 

Ail*. >- A khastah khanah, pronounced by Turks nasta hona, or 
more vulgarly asta khon and even to a French ear ash-tacon, a 
hospital, literally a sick-house. This word is undoubtedly current 
at Tabriz and throughout northern Persia. 

7 The other brothers were Ilkhas, Bahram and Sam Mirza, each 
having had his particular appanage assigned him. 



1405-1736] 



PERSIA 



231 






and the actual seizure of Herat, necessitating the recovery of 
that city and a march to Kandahar (1536 ); the temporary loss 
of Kandahar in the following year (1537), when the governor 
ceded it to Prince Kamran, son of Babar; the hospitable reception 
accorded to the Indian emperor Humayun (1543); the rebellion 
of the shah's brother next in age, Ilkhas, who, by his alliance 
with the sultan, brought on a war with Turkey (1548);' and 
finally a fresh expedition to Georgia, followed by a revengeful 
incursion which resulted in the enforced bondage of thousands 
of the inhabitants (1552). 

Bayezid, a son of the Turkish emperor, rebelled, and his 
army was beaten in 1559 by the imperial troops at Konia 
in Asia Minor. He fled to Persia and took refuge 
^h Shah Tahmasp, who pledged himself to give 
him a permanent asylum. Suleiman's demand, 
however, for extradition or execution was too peremptory for 
refusal, and the prince was delivered up to the messengers sent 
to take him. Whatever the motive, the act itself was highly 
appreciated by Suleiman, and became the means of cementing a 
recently concluded peace between the two monarchs. Perhaps 
the domestic affliction of the emperor and the anarchy which 
in his later years had spread in his dominions had, however, 
more to do with the maintenance of tranquillity than any mere 
personal feeling. At this time not only was there religious 
fanaticism at work to stir up the mutual hatred ever existing 
between Sunni and Shi'ah, but the intrigue of European courts 
was probably directed towards the maintenance of an hostility 
which deterred the sultan from aggressive operations north and 
west of Constantinople. ' 'Tis only the Persian stands between 
us and ruin " is the reported saying of Busbecq, ambassador 
at Suleiman's court on the part of Ferdinand of Austria; " the 
Turk would fain be upon us, but he keeps him back." 

In 1561 Anthony Jenkinson arrived in Persia with a letter 
from Queen Elizabeth to the shah. He was to treat with his 
majesty of " Trafique and Commerce for our English Mar- 
chants," 2 but his reception was not encouraging, and led to 
no result of importance. 

Tahmasp died in 1576, after a reign of about fifty-two 
years. He must have been some sixty-six years of age, having 
come to the throne at fourteen. Writers describe 
n ' m ^ a ro ^ ust m an, of middle stature, wide-lipped, 
and of tawny complexion. He was not wanting 
in soldierly qualities; but his virtues were rather negative than 
decided. The deceased shah had a numerous progeny, and on 
his death his fifth son, Haidar Mirza, proclaimed himself king, 
supported in his pretensions by the Kizil-bash tribe of Ustujulu. 
Another tribe, the Afshar, insisted on the succession of the 
fourth son, Isma'il. Had it not been that there were two 
candidates in the field, the contention would have resembled 
that which arose shortly after Tahmasp's accession. Finally 
Isma'il, profiting from his brother's weak character and the 
intrigues set on foot against him, obtained his object, and was 
brought from a prison to receive the crown. 

The reign of Isma'il II. lasted less than two years. He was 
found dead in the house of a confectioner in Kazvin, having 
left the world either drunk, drugged or poisoned. 
No steps were taken to verify the circumstances, for 
the event itself was a cause of general relief and joy. He was 
succeeded by his eldest brother, Mahommed Mirza, otherwise 
Mahommed called Mahommed Khudabanda, whose claim to 
Kbuda- sovereignty had been originally put aside on the 
**"* ground of physical infirmity. He had the good 
sense to trust his state affairs almost wholly to an able 
minister; but he was cowardly enough to 'deliver up that 
minister into the hands of his enemies. His kingdom was 
distracted by intestine divisions and rebellion, and the foe 

1 Creasy says that " Suliman led his armies against the Persians 
in several campaigns (1533, 1534, 1535, 1548, 1553, 1554), during 
which the Turks often suffered severely through the difficult nature 
of the countries traversed, as well as through the bravery and 
activity of the enemy." All the years given were in the reign of 
Tahmasp I. 

1 Purchas. 



Isma'il II. 



appeared also from without. On the east his youngest son. 
'Abbas, held possession of Khorasan; on the west the sultan's 
troops again entered Azerbaijan and took Tabriz. His 
eldest son, Hamza Mirza, upheld his fortunes to the utmost 
of his power, reduced the rebel chieftains, and forced the Turks 
to make peace and retire; but he was stabbed to death by 
an assassin. On the news of his death reaching Khorasan, 
Murshid Kuli Khan, leader of the Ustujulu Kizil-bash, who had 
made gdod in fight his claims to the guardianship of 'Abbas, 
at once conducted the young prince from that province to 
Kazvin, and occupied the royal city. The object was evident, 
and in accordance with the popular feeling. 'Abbas, who had 
been proclaimed king by the nobles at Nishapur some two or 
three years before this occurrence, may be said to have now 
undertaken in earnest the cares of sovereignty. His ill-starred 
father, at no time more than a nominal ruler, was at Shiraz, 
apparently deserted by soldiers and people. Malcolm infers 
that he died a natural death, but when 3 or where is not stated. 

Shah 'Abbas the Great commenced his long and glorious 
reign (1586) by retracing his step? towards Khorasan, which 
had been reinvaded by the Uzbef s almost imme- 
diately after his departure thence with the Kizil-bash 
chief. They had besieged and taken Herat, killed the 
governor, plundered the town, and laid waste the surrounding 
country. 'Abbas advanced to Meshed, but owing to internal 
troubles he was compelled to return to Kazvin without going 
farther east. In his absence 'Abd-ul-Munim Khan, the Uzbeg 
commander, attacked the sacred city, obtained possession of it 
while the shah lay helplessly ill at Teheran, and allowed his savage 
soldiers full licence to kill and plunder. The whole kingdom 
was perplexed, and "Abbas had much work to restore confidence 
and tranquillity. But circumstances rendered impossible his 
immediate renewal of the Khorasan warfare. He was summoned 
to Shiraz to put down rebellion in Fars; and before he could 
drive out the Uzbegs, he had to secure himself against Turkish 
inroads threatening from the west. He had been engaged in a 
war with Murad III. in Georgia. Peace was concluded between 
the two sovereigns in 1590; but the terms were unfavourable 
to Persia, who lost thereby Tabriz and one or more of the Caspian 
ports. A stipulation was included in the treaty to the effect 
that Persians were not to curse any longer the first three caliphs, 
a sort of privilege previously enjoyed by Shi'ites as part and 
parcel of their religious faith. 

In 1597 'Abbas renewed operations against the Uzbegs, and 
succeeded in recovering from them Herat and Khorasan. East- 
ward he extended his dominions to Balkh, and in the south his 
generals made the conquest of Bahrain (Bahrein), on the Arabian 
side of the Persian Gulf, and the territory and islands of the 
Persian seaboard, inclusive of the mountainous province of 
Lar. He strengthened his position in Khorasan by planting 
colonies of Kurdish horsemen on the frontier, or along what is 
called the " atak " or skirt of the Turkoman mountains north of 
Persia. In 1601 the war with the Ottoman Empire, which had 
been partially renewed prior to the death of Sultan Murad in 
tSQS; with little success on the Turkish side, was now entered 
upon by 'Abbas with more vigour. Taking advantage of the 
weakness of his ancient enemy in the days of the poor volup- 
tuary Mahommed III., he began rapidly to recover the provinces 
which Persia had lost in preceding reigns, and continued to 
reap his advantages in succeeding campaigns under Ahmed I., 
until under Othman II. a peace was signed restoring to Persia 
the boundaries which she had obtained under the first Isma'il. 
On the other side Kandahar, which Tahmasp's lieutenant had 
yielded to the Great Mogul, was recovered from that potentate 
in 1609. 

At the age of seventy, after a reign of forty-two years, 'Abbas 
died at his favourite palace of Farahabad, on the coast of 
Mazandaran, on the night of the 27th of January 1628. Perhaps 
the most distinguished of all Persian kings, his fame was not 
merely local but world-wide. At his court were ambassadors 
from England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Holland and India. 
3 Krusinski says in 1585. 



232 



PERSIA 



[1405-1736 



To his Christian subjects he was a kind and tolerant ruler. 
The establishment of internal tranquillity, the expulsion of 
interlopers and marauders like Turks and Uzbegs, the intro- 
duction of salutary laws and the promotion of public works ot 
utility these alone would render remarkable his two-score 
years of enlightened government. With a fine face, " of which 
the most remarkable features were a high nose and a keen and 
piercing eye," 1 he is said to have been below the middle height, 
robust, active, a sportsman, and capable of much endurance. 
It is, however, to be regretted that this monarch's memory is 
tarnished by more than one dark deed. The murder of his 
eldest son, Sufi Mirza, and the cruel treatment of the two 
younger brothers, were stains which could not be obliterated by 
an after-repentance. All that can be now said or done in the 
matter is to repeat the testimony of historians that his grief for 
the loss of Sufi Mirza was profound, and that, on his death- 
bed, he nominated that prince's son (his own grandson) his 
successor. 

Sam Mirza was seventeen years of age when the nobles, in 

fulfilment of the charge c >mmitted to them, proclaimed him 

, king under the title of Shah Sufi. He reigned 

Shah Sufi, _ .... j. 

fourteen years, and his reign was a succession of 
barbarities, which can only be attributed to an evil disposition 
acted upon by an education void of all civilizing influences. When 
left to his own devices he became a drunkard and a murderer, 
and is accused of the death of his mother, sister and favourite 
queen. Among many other sufferers Imam Kuli Khan, con- 
queror of Lar and Hormuz, the son of one of 'Abbas's most 
famous generals, founder of a college at Shiraz, and otherwise 
a public benefactor, fell a victim to his savage cruelty. During 
his reign the Uzbegs were driven back from Khorasan, and a 
rebellion was suppressed in Gilan ; but Kandahar was again 
handed over to the Moguls of Delhi, and Bagdad retaken from 
Persia by Sultan Murad both serious national losses. Taver- 
nier, without charging the shah with injustice to Christians, 
mentions the circumstance that " the first and only European 
ever publicly executed in Persia was in his reign." He was 
a watchmaker named Rodolph Stadler, who had slain a Persian 
on suspicion of intrigue with his 'wife. Offered his life if he 
became a Moslem, he resolutely declined the proposal, and was 
decapitated. His tomb is to be recognized at Isfahan by the 
words " Cy git Rodolphe " on a long wide slab. Shah Sufi died 
(1641) at Kashan and was buried at Kum. 

His son, "Abbas II., succeeded him. Beyond regaining 
Kandahar, an operation which he is said to have directed in 
'Abbas u P erson when barely sixteen, there is not much to 
mark his life to the outer world. As to foreign 
relations, he received embassies from Europe and a deputation 
from the French East India Company; he sought to conciliate 
the Uzbegs by treating their refugee chiefs with unusual honour 
and sumptuous hospitality; he kept on good terms with Turkey; 
he forgave the hostility of a Georgian prince when brought to 
him a captive; and he was tolerant to all religions always 
regarding Christians with especial favour. But he was a drunk- 
ard and a debauchee, and chroniclers are divided in opinion 
as to whether he died from the effects of drink or licentious 
living. That he changed the system of blinding his relatives 
from passing a hot metal over the open eye to an extraction 
of the whole pupil is indicative of gross brutality. "Abbas II. 
died (1668) at the age of thirty-eight, after a reign of twenty- 
seven years, and was buried at Kum in the same mosque as his 
father. 

'Abbas was succeeded by his son, Shah Sufi II., crowned a 

second time under the name of Shah Suleiman. Though weak, 

Suleiman dissolute and cruel, Suleiman is not without his 

panegyrists. Chardin, whose testimony is all the 

more valuable from the fact that he was contemporary with 

him, relates many stories characteristic of his temper and habits. 

He kept up a court at Isfahan which surprised and delighted 

his foreign visitors, among whom were ambassadors from 

European states; and one learned writer, Kaempfer, credits 

1 Malcolm. 



Hosain. 



him with wisdom and good policy. During his reign Khorasan 
was invaded by the ever-encroaching Uzbegs, the Kipchak 
Tatars plundered the shores of the Caspian, and the island of 
Kishm was taken by the Dutch; but the kingdom suffered 
otherwise no material loss. He died in 1694, in the forty-ninth 
year of his age and twenty-sixth of his reign. 

About a year before his death, he is described by Sanson, 2 a 
missionary from the French king Louis XIV., as tall, strong and 
active, " a fine prince a little too effeminate for a monarch," 
with " a Roman nose very well proportioned to other parts," 
very large blue eyes, and " a midling mouth, a beard painted 
black, shav'd round, and well turn'd, even to his ears." The 
same writer greatly praises him for his kindness to Christian 
missionaries. 

Krusinski's memoir is full of particulars regarding Shah 
Hosain, the successor of Suleiman. He had an elder and a 
younger brother, sons of the same mother, but the 
eldest had been put to death by his father's orders, 
and the youngest secreted by maternal precaution lest a similar 
fate should overtake him. There was, however, a second 
candidate for power in the person of a half-brother, "Abbas. 
The latter prince was the worthier of the throne, but the other 
better suited the policy of the eunuchs and those noblemen who 
had the right of election. Indeed Suleiman himself is reported 
to have told the grandees around him, in his last days, that 
" if they were for a martial king that would always keep his 
foot in the stirrup they ought to choose Mirza "Abbas, but that 
if they wished for a peaceable reign and a pacific king they 
ought to fix their eyes upon Hosain." But he himself made no 
definite choice. 

Hosain was selected, as might have been anticipated. On 
his accession (1694) he displayed his attachment to religious 
observances by prohibiting the use of wine causing all wine- 
vessels to be brought out of the royal cellars and destroyed, and 
forbidding the Armenians to sell any more of their stock in 
Isfahan. The shah's grandmother, by feigning herself sick and 
dependent upon wine only for cure, obtained reversal of the 
edict. For the following account of Shah Hosain and his 
successors to the accession of Nadir Shah, Sir Clements 
Markham's account has been mainly utilized. 

The new king soon fell under the influence of mullahs, and was led 
so far to forget his own origin as to persecute the Sufis. Though 
good-hearted he was weak and licentious; and once out of the 
hands of the fanatical party he became ensnared by women and 
entangled in harem intrigues. For twenty years a profound peace 
prevailed throughout the empire, but it was the precursor of a 
terrible storm destined to destroy the Safawid dynasty and scatter 
calamity broadcast over Persia. In the mountainous districts of 
Kandahar and Kabul the hardy tribes of Afghans had for centuries 
led a wild and almost independent life. They were divided into 
two great branches the Ghilzais of .Ghazni and Kabul and the 
Saduzais of Kandahar and Herat, 'in 1702 a newly-appointed 
governor, one Shah Nawaz, called Gurji Khan from having been 
" wali " or ruler of Georgia, arrived at Kandahar with a tolerably 
jarge force. He was a clever and energetic man, and had been 
instructed to take severe measures with the Afghans, some of whom 
were susf>ected of intriguing to restore the city to the Delhi emperor. 
At this time Kandahar had been for sixty years uninterruptedly in 
the shah's possession. The governor appears to have given great 
offence by the harshness of his proceedings, and a Gnilzai chief 
named Mir Wa'iz, who had complained of his tyranny, was sent a 
prisoner to Isfahan. This person had much ability and no little 
cunning. He was permitted to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and 
on his return in 1708 he so gained upon the confidence of the 
Persian court that he was allowed to go back to his country. At 
Kandahar he planned a conspiracy against the government, slew 
Gurji Khan and his retinue, seized the city, defeated two Persian 
armies sent against him, and died a natural death in 1715. His 
brother, Mir 'Abdallah, succeeded him in the government of the 
Afghans ; but after a few months, Mahmud, a son of Mir Wa'iz, a very 
young man, murdered his uncle and assumed the title of a sovereign 
prince. 

In the meanwhile the Saduzai tribe revolted at Herat, and declared 
itself independent in 1717; the Kurds overran the country round 
Hamadan; the Uzbegs desolated Khorasan; and the Arabs of Muscat 
seized the island of Bahrein and threatened Bander Abbasi. Thus 
surrounded by dangers on all sides the wretched shah was bewildered. 
He made one vain attempt to regain his possessions in the Persian 



Present State of Persia (London, 1695). 



1405-1736] 



PERSIA 



233 



Gulf; but the Portuguese fleet which had promised to transport his 
troops to Bahrein was defeated by the imam of Muscat and forced 
to retreat to Goa. 

The court of Isfahan had no sooner received tidings of this 
disaster than Mahmud, with a large army of Afghans, invaded 
.. Persia in the year 1721, seized Kerman, and in the 

following year advanced to within four days' march of 
the city of Isfahan. The shah offered him a sum of 
money to return to Kandahar, but the Afghan answered by advanc- 
ing to a place called Gulnabad, within 9 m. of the capital. The 
ill-disciplined Persian army, hastily collected, advanced to attack 
the rebels. Its centre was led by Sheikh 'AH Khan, covered by 
twenty-four field-pieces. The wali of Arabia commanded the 
right, and the 'itimadu' d-daulah, or prime minister, the left wing. 
The whole force amounted to 50,000 men, while the Afghans could 
not count half that number. 

On the 8th of March 1722 the richly dressed hosts of Persia 
appeared before the little band of Afghans, who were scorched and 
disfigured by their long marches. The wali of Arabia commenced 
the battle by attacking the left wing of the Afghans with great 
fury, routing it, and plundering their camp. The prime minister 
immediately afterwards attacked the enemy's right wing, but was 
routed, and the Afghans, taking advantage of the confusion, captured 
the Persian guns and turned them on the Persian centre, who fled 
in confusion without striking a blow. The wali of Arabia escaped 
into Isfahan, and Mahmud the Afghan gained a complete victory. 
Fifteen thousand Persians remained dead on the field. A panic 
now seized on the surrounding inhabitants, and thousands of country 
people fled into the city. Isfahan was then one of the most magni- 
ficent cities in Asia, containing more than 600,000 inhabitants. 
Mahmud seized on the Armenian suburb of Julfa, and invested the 
doomed city; but Tahmasp, S0 n of the shah, had previously escaped 
into the mountains of Mazandaran. Famine soon began to press 
hard upon the besieged, and in September Shah Hosain offered to 
capitulate. Having been conducted to the Afghan camp, he fixed 
... ., the royal plume of feathers on the young rebel's turban 
a muas w j t j j j^ s Qwn ^and; and 4000 Afghans were ordered to 
'occupy the palace and gates of the city. 1 Mahmud 
entered Isfahan in triumph, with the captive shah on his left hand, 
and, seating himself on the throne in the royal palace, he was saluted 
as sovereign of Persia by the unfortunate fjosain. When Tahmasp, 
the fugitive prince, received tidings of the abdication of his father, 
he at once assumed the title of shah at Kazvin. 

Turkey and Russia were not slow to take advantage of the calami- 
ties of Persia. The Turks seized on Tiflis, Tabriz and Hamadan, 
while Peter the Great, whose aid had been sought by the friendless 
Fahmasp, fitted out a fleet on the Caspian. 2 The Russians occupied 
Shirvan, and the province of Gilan south-west of the Caspian; 3 and 
Peter made a treaty with Tahmasp II. in July 1722, by which he 
agreed to drive the Afghans out of Persia on condition that Darband 
(Derbend), Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad were ceded 
to Russia in perpetuity. These were all the richest and most 
important northern provinces of Persia. 

Meanwhile the invader, in 1723, invited 300 of the principal Persian 
nobility to a banquet and massacred them. To prevent their 
children rising up in vengeance they were all murdered also. Then 
he proceeded to slaughter vast numbers of the citizens of Isfahan, 
until the place was nearly depopulated. Not content with this, 
in February 1725 he assembled all the captives of the royal family, 
except the shah, in the courtyard of the palace, and caused them 
all to be murdered, commencing the massacre with his own hand. 
The wretched Hosain was himself wounded in endeavouring vainly 
to save his infant son, only five years of age. All the males of the 
royal family, except Hosain himself, Tahmasp, and two children, 
are said to have perished. At length the inhuman miscreant 
Mahmud died, at the early age of twenty-seven, on the 22nd of 
April 1725. With scarcely any neck, he had round shoulders, a 
broad face with a flat nose, a thin beard, and squinting eyes, which 
were generally downcast. 

Mahmud was succeeded by his first cousin, Ashraf, the son of 
Mir 'Abdallah. He was a brave but cruel Afghan. He gave the 
dethroned shah a handsome allowance, and strove, by a mild policy, 
to acquire popularity. In 1727, after a short war, he signed 
a treaty with the Turks, acknowledging the sultan as chief of 
the Moslems. But the fortunate star of Tahmasp II. was now be- 
binning to rise, and the days of Afghan usurpation were numbered. 
He had collected a small army in Mazandaran, and was supported by 
Fath 'Ali Khan, the powerful chief of the Kajar tribe. In 1727 

1 We have an account of the Afghan invasion and sack of Isfahan 
from an eye-witness, Father Krusmski, procurator of the Jesuits at 
that place, whose interesting work was translated into English in the 
last century. 

2 In 1721 Sultan Hosain sent an embassy to the Russians, seeking 
aid against the Afghans. In May 1722 a flotilla descended the Volga 
commanded by Tsar Peter and on the igth of July the Russian 
flag first waved over the Caspian. Gilan was occupied by 6000 men 
under General Matushkin. 

3 The Russians remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were 
obliged to evacuate it, owing to the unhealthiness of the climate. 



the fugitive shah was joined by Nadir Kuli, a robber chief, who 
murdered Fath 'AH, and, having easily appeased the shah, received 
the command of the royal army. In 1729 Ashraf became _ .. 
alarmed, and led an Afghan army into Khorasan, where , p " 
he was defeated by Nadir at Damghan, and forced to otAI * baas - 
retreat. The Persian general followed close in his rear and again 
defeated him outside Isfahan in November of the same year. 
The Afghans fled through the town; and Ashraf, murdering the poor 
old shah Hpsain on his way, hurried with the wreck of his army 
towards Shiraz. On the loth of November the victorious Nadir 
entered Isfahan, and was soon followed by the young shah Tahmasp 
II., who burst into tears when he beheld the ruined palace of 
his ancestors. His mother, who had escaped the numerous mas- 
sacres by disguising herself as a slave and performing the most 
degrading offices, now came forth and threw herself into his arms. 
Nadir did not give his enemies time to recover from their defeat. 
He followed them up, and again utterly routed them in January 
1730. Ashraf tried to escape to Kandahar almost alone, but was 
murdered by a party of Baluch robbers; and thus, by the genius of 
Nadir, his native land was delivered from the terrible Afghan 
invaders. 

The ambition of Nadir, however, was far greater than his [loyalty. 
On pretext of incapacity, he dethroned Tahmasp II. in 1732, and 
sent him a prisoner into Khorasan, where he was 
murdered some years afterwards by Nadir's son while 
the conqueror was absent on his Indian expedition. 
For a short time the wily usurper placed Tahmasp's son on the 
throne, a little child, with the title of 'Abbas III., while he con- 
tented himself with the office of regent. Poor little 'Abbas died at 
a very convenient time, in the year 1736, and Nadir then thiew off 
the mask. He was proclaimed shah of Persia by a vast assemblage 
on the plain of Moghan. 

By the fall of the Safawid dynasty Persia lost her race of 
national monarchs, considered not only in respect of origin and 
birthplace but in essence and in spirit. Isma'il, Tahmasp an d 
'Abbas, whatever their faults and failings, were Persian and 
peculiar to Persians. Regarded in a sober English spirit, the 
reign of the great 'Abbas is rendered mythical by crime. But 
something liberal in the philosophy of their progenitors threw 
an attractiveness over the earlier Safawid kings which was 
wanting in those who came after them. The fact is that, two 
centuries after Shah Isma'il 's accession to the throne, the Safawid 
race of kings was effete; and it became necessary to make room 
for a more vigorous if not a more lasting rule. Nadir was the 
strong man for the hour and occasion. He had been designated 
a "robber chief"; but his antecedents, like those of many 
others who have filled the position, have redeeming points of 
melodramatic interest. 

A map attached to Krusinski's volumes illustrates the extent 
of Persian territory in 1728, or one year before Ashraf was finally 
defeated by Nadir, and some eight years prior to 
the date on which Nadir was himself proclaimed king. 
It shows, during the reign of the Safawids, Tiflis, 
Erivan, Khoi and Bagdad to have been within the limits of 
Persia on the west, and in like manner Balkh and Kandahar 
to have been included within the eastern border. There is, 
however, also shown, as a result of the Afghan intrusion and 
the impotency of the later Safawid kings, a long broad strip of 
country to the west, including Tabriz and Hamadan, marked 
" conquests of the Turks," and the whole west shore of the Caspian 
from Astrakan to Mazandaran marked " conquests of the czar 
of Muscovy "; Makran, written Mecran, is designated " a warlike 
independent nation." If further allowance be made for the 
district held by the Afghan invaders as part of their own country, 
it will be seen how greatly the extent of Persia proper was 
reduced, and what a work Nadir had before him to restore the 
kingdom to its former proportions. 

But the former proportions had been partly reverted to, and 
would doubtless have been in some respects exceeded, both in 
Afghanistan and the Ottoman dominions and on the shores of 
the Caspian, by the action of this indefatigable general, had not 
Tahmasp II. been led into a premature treaty with the Turks. 
Nadir's anger and indignation had been great at this weak 
proceeding; indeed, he had made it the ostensible cause of the 
shah's deposition. He had addressed letters to all the military 
chiefs of the country, calling upon them for support; he had sent 
an envoy to Constantinople insisting upon the sultan's restora- 
tion of the Persian provinces still in his possession that is, 



a 



234 



PERSIA 



[1736-1884 



Georgia and part of Azerbaijan and he had threatened Bagdad 
with assault. As regent, he had failed twice in taking the city 
,of the caliphs, but on the second occasion he had defeated and 
killed its gallant defender, Topal'Othman, and he had succeeded 
in regaining Tiflis, Kars and Erivan. 1 

Russia and Turkey, naturally hostile to one another, had 
taken occasion of the weakness of Persia to forget their mutual 
quarrels and unite to plunder the tottering kingdom of the 
Safawid kings. A partition treaty had been signed between 
these two powers in 1723, by which the czar was to take Astara- 
bad, Mazandaran, Gilan, part of Shirvan and Daghistan, while 
the acquisitions of the Porte were to be traced out by a line drawn 
from the junction of the Aras and Kur rivers, and passing along 
by Ardebil, Tabriz and Hamadan, and thence to Kermanshah. 
Tahmasp was to retain the rest of his paternal kingdom on con- 
dition of his recognizing the treaty. The ingenious diplomacy 
of Russia in this transaction was manifested in the fact that she 
had already acquired the greater part of the territory allotted 
to her, while Turkey had to obtain her share by further con- 
quest. But the combination to despoil a feeble neighbour was 
outwitted by the energy of a military commander of a remark- 
able type. 

D. From the Accession of Nadir Shah, in 1736, to 1884. 

Nadir, it has been said, was proclaimed shah in the plains 
of Moghan in 1736. Mirza Mahdi relates how this event was 

brought about by his address to the assembled 
Coronation n bles and officers on the morning of the " Nau-ruz," 

or Persian New- Year's Day, the response to that 
appeal being the offer of the crown. The conditions were that 
the crown should be hereditary in his family, that the claim of 
the Safawids was to be held for ever extinct, and that measures 
should be taken to bring the Shi'ites to accept uniformity of 
worship with the Sunnites. The mulla bashi (or high priest) 
objecting to the last, Nadir ordered him to be strangled, a com- 
mand which was carried out on the spot. On the day following, 
the agreement having been ratified between sovereign and people, 
he was proclaimed emperor of Persia. At Kazvin the ceremony 
of inauguration took place. The edict expressing the royal 
will on the religious question is dated in June, but the date of 
coronation is uncertain. From Kazvin Nadir moved to Isfahan, 
where he organized an expedition against Kandahar, then in 
the possession of a brother of Mahmud, the conqueror of Shah 
Hosain. But before setting out for Afghanistan he took 
measures to secure the internal quiet of Persia, attacking and 
seizing in his stronghold the chief of the marauding Bakhtiaris, 
whom he put to death, retaining many of his men for service 
as soldiers. With an army of 80,000 men he marched through 
Khorasan and Seistan to Kandahar, which city he blockaded 
ineffectually for a year; but it finally capitulated on the loss of 
the citadel. Balkh fell to Riza Kuli, the king's son, who, 
moreover, crossed the Oxus and defeated the Uzbegs in battle. 
Besides tracing out the lines of Nadirabad, a town since merged 
in modern Kandahar, Nadir had taken advantage of the time 
available and of opportunities presented to enlist a large number 
of men from the Abdali and Ghilzai tribes. It is said that as 
many as 16,000 were at his disposal. His rejection of the 
Shi'ite tenets as a state religion seems to have propitiated the 
Sunnite Afghans. 

Nadir had sent an ambassador into Hindustan requesting 
the Mogul emperor to order the surrender of certain unruly 
lovaslea of Afghans who had taken refuge within Indian terri- 
iniiia. tory, but no satisfactory reply was given, and 

obstacles were thrown in the way of the return of the 

embassy. The Persian monarch, not sorry perhaps to find a 

plausible pretext for encroachment in a quarter so full of promise 

to booty-seeking soldiers, pursued some of the fugitives through 

Ghazni to Kabul, which city was then under the immediate 

control of Nasr Khan, governor of eastern Afghanistan, for 

Mahommed Shah of Delhi. This functionary, alarmed at the 

near approach of the Persians, fled to Peshawar. Kabul had 

1 Malcolm. 



long been considered not only an integral part but also one of 
the main gates of the Indian Empire; notwithstanding a stout 
resistance on the part of its commandant, Shir or Shirzah Khan, 
the place was stormed and carried (1738) by Nadir, who moved 
on eastward. Mirza Mahdi relates that from the Kabul plain 
he addressed a new remonstrance to the Delhi court, but that 
his envoy was arrested and killed, and his escort compelled to 
return by the governor of Jalalabad. The same authority 
notes the occupation of the latter place by Persian troops and 
the march thither from Gandamak. It was probably through 
the Khaibar (Khyber) Pass that he passed into the Peshawar 
plain, for it was there that he first defeated the Imperial forces. 

The invasion of India had now fairly commenced, and its 
successful progress and consummation were mere questions 
of time. The prestige of this Eastern Napoleon was immense. 
It had not only reached but had been very keenly felt at Delhi 
before the conquering army had arrived. There was no actual 
religious war; all sectarian distinction had been disavowed; the 
contest was between vigorous Mahommedans and effete Mahom- 
medans. Nadir's way had been prepared by circumstances, 
and as he progressed from day to day his army increased. 
There must have been larger accessions by voluntary recruits 
than losses by death or desertion. The victory on the plain of 
Karnal, whether accomplished by sheer fighting or the interven- 
tion of treachery, was the natural outcome of the previous 
situation, and the submission of the emperor followed as a 
matter of course. 

Delhi must have experienced a sense of relief at the departure 
of its conqueror, whose residence there had been rendered 
painfully memorable by carnage and riot. The marriage of 
his son to the granddaughter of Aurangzeb and the formal 
restoration of the crown to the dethroned emperor were doubt- 
less politic, but the descendant of Babar could not easily forget 
how humiliating a chapter in history would remain to be written 
against him. The return march of Nadir to Persia is not 
recorded with precision. On the sth of May 1739 he left the 
gardens of Shalamar, and proceeded by way of Lahore and 
Peshawar through the passes to Kabul. Thence he seems to 
have returned to Kandahar, and in May 1740 just one year 
after his departure from Delhi he was in Herat displaying the 
imperial throne and other costly trophies to the gaze of the 
admiring inhabitants. Sind was certainly included in the 
cession to him by Mahommed Shah of " all the territories 
westward of the river Attok, " but only that portion of it, 
such as Thattah (Tatta), situated on the right bank of the 
Indus. 

From Herat he moved upon Balkh and Bokhara, and received 
the submission of Abu'1-Faiz Khan, the Uzbeg ruler, whom he 
restored to his throne on condition that the Oxus 
should be the acknowledged boundary between the 
two empires. The khan of Khwarizm, who had made 
repeated depredations in Persian territory, was taken prisoner 
and executed. Nadir then visited the strong fortress of Kelat, 
to which he was greatly attached as the scene of his boyish 
exploits, and Meshed, which he constituted the capital of his 
empire. He had extended his boundary on the east to the 
Indus, and to the Oxus on the north. 

On the south he was restricted by the Arabian Ocean and 
Persian Gulf; but the west remained open to his further 
progress. He had in the first place to revenge the 
death of his brother Ibrahim Khan, slain by the ,$ p 
Lesghians; and a campaign against the Turks might 
follow in due course. The first movement was unsuccessful, 
and indirectly attended with disastrous consequences. Nadir, 
when hastening to the support of some Afghan levies who were 
doing good service, was fired at and wounded by a stray assailant; 
suspecting his son, Riza Kuli, of complicity, he commanded the 
unfortunate prince to be seized and deprived of sight. From 
that time the heroism of the monarch appeared to die out. He 
became morose, tyrannical and suspicious. An easy victory 
over the Turks gave him but little additional glory; and he 
readily concluded a peace with the sultan which brought but 



1736-1884] 



PERSIA 



235 



.... . 



insignificant gain to Persia. 1 Another battle won from the 
Ottoman troops near Diarbekr by Nasr Ullah Mirza, the young 
prince who had married a princess of Delhi, left matters much 
the same as before. 

The last years of Nadir's life were full of internal trouble. 
On the part of the sovereign, murders and executions; on that 
of his subjects, revolt and conspiracy. Such a state of things 
could not last, and certain proscribed persons plotted the 
destruction of the half-demented tyrant. He was despatched 
by Salah Bey, captain of his guards (1747). He was some sixty 
years of age, and had reigned eleven years. About the time of 
setting out on his Indian expedition he was described as a most 
comely man, upwards of 6 ft., tall, well-proportioned, of robust 
make and constitution; inclined to be fat, but prevented by the 
fatigue he underwent; with fine, large black eyes and eyebrows; 
of sanguine complexion, made more manly by the influence of 
sun and weather; a loud, strong voice; a moderate wine-drinker; 
fond of simple diet, such as pilaos and plain dishes, but often 
neglectful of meals altogether, and satisfied, if occasion required, 
with parched peas and water, always to be procured. 2 

During the reign of Nadir an attempt was made to establish 
a British Caspian trade with Persia. The names of Jonas 
Hanway and John Elton were honourably connected with this 
undertaking; and the former has left most valuable records of 
the time and country. 

From Nadir Shah to the Kajar Dynasty. After the death of 
Nadir Shah something like anarchy prevailed for thirteen years 
in the greater part of Persia as it existed under 
Shah 'Abbas. No sooner had the crime become 
known than Ahmad Khan, chief of the Abdali 
Afghans, took possession of Kandahar and a certain amount 
of treasure. By the action of Ahmad Abdali, Afghanistan was 
at once lost to the Persian crown, for this leader was strong 
enough to found an independent kingdom. The chief of the 
Bakhtiaris, Rashid, also with treasure, fled to the mountains, 
and the conspirators invited 'Ali, a nephew of the deceased 
monarch, to ascend the vacant throne. The Bakhtiari encour- 
aged his brother, 'Ali Mardan, to compete for the succession 
to Nadir. The prince was welcomed by his subjects; he told 
them that the murder of his uncle was due to his own instigation, 
and, in order to conciliate them, remitted the revenues of the 
current year and all extraordinary taxes for the two years 
following. 

Taking the title of 'Adil Shah, or the " just " king, he 
commenced his reign by putting to death the two princes Riza 
Kuli and Nasr Ullah, as well as all relatives whom he considered 
his competitors, with the exception of Shah Rukh, son of Riza 
Kuli, whom he spared in case a lineal descendant of Nadir 
should at any time be required. But he had not removed all 
dangerous members of the royal house, nor had he gauged the 
temper of the times OP people. 'Adil Shah was soon dethroned 
by his own brother, Ibrahim, and he in his turn was defeated 
by the adherents of Shah Rukh, who made their leader king. 

This young prince had a better and more legitimate title 
than that of the grandson of Nadir, for he was also grandson, 
on t ^ ie mot ^ er ' s s 'de, of the Safawid Shah Husain. 
'Amiable, generous and liberal-minded, and of pre- 
possessing exterior, he proved to be a popular prince. But 
he was neither of an age nor character to rule over a people led 
by turbulent and disaffected chiefs, ever divided by the con- 
flicting interests of personal ambition. Sa'id Mahommed, son 
of Mirza Daud, a chief mullah at Meshed, whose mother was 
the reputed daughter of Suleiman, declared himself king, and 
imprisoned and blinded Shah Rukh. Yusuf 'Ali, the general 
commanding the royal troops, defeated and slew Suleiman, and 
replaced his master on the throne, reserving to himself the 
protectorship or regency. A new combination of chiefs, of 
which Ji'afir the Kurd and Mir 'Alam the Arabian are the 

1 Creasy says the war broke out in 1743, but was terminated 
in 1746 by a treaty which made little change in the old arrange- 
ments fixed under Murad IV. 

2 Eraser's History of Nadir Shah (1742). 



Shah Ruth 

' 



principal names handed down, brought about the death of 
Yusuf 'Ali and the second imprisonment of Shah Rukh. These 
events were followed by a quarrel terminating in the supremacy 
of the Arab. At this juncture Ahmad Shah Abdali reappeared 
in Persian Khorasan from Herat; he attacked and took posses- 
sion of Meshed, slew Mir 'Alam, and, pledging the local chiefs 
to support the blinded prince in retaining the kingdom of his 
grandfather, returned to Afghanistan. But thenceforward this 
unfortunate young man was a mere shadow of royalty, and 
his purely local power and prestige had no further influence 
whatever on Persia as a country. 

The land was partitioned among several distinguished persons, 
who had of old been biding their opportunities, or were born of 
the occasion. Foremost among these was Mahom- 
med Hasan Khan, hereditary chief of those Kajars 
who were established in the south-east corner of 
the Caspian. His father, Path 'Ali Khan, after sheltering Shah 
Tahmasp II. at his home in Astarabad, and long acting as 
one of his most loyal supporters, had been put to death by 
Nadir, who had appointed a successor to his chief dom from the 
" Yukari " or " upper " Kajars, instead of from his own, the 
" Ashagha," or "lower." 3 Mahommed, with his brother, had 
fled to the Turkomans, by whose aid he had attempted the 
recovery of Astarabad, but had not succeeded in regaining a 
permanent footing there until Nadir had been removed. On the 
murder of the tyrant he had raised the standard of independence, 
successfully resisted Ahmad Shah and his Afghans, who sought 
to check his progress in the interests of Shah Rukh, and even- 
tually brought under his own sway the valuable provinces of 
Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad 4 quite a little kingdom in 
itself. In the large important province of Azerbaijan, Azad 
Khan, one of Nadir's generals, had established a separate 
government; and 'Ali Mardan, brother of the Bakhtiari chief, 
took forcible possession of Isfahan, empowering Shah Rukh's 
governor, Abu'1-Fath Khan, to act for the new master instead 
of the old. 

Had 'Ali Mardan declared himself an independent ruler he 
would have been by far the most important of the three persons 
named. But such usurpation at the old Safawid capital would 
have been too flagrant an act for general assent; so he put 
forward Isma'il, a nephew of Shah Husain, as the representative 
of sovereignty, and himself as one of his two ministers the 
other being Karim Khan, a chief of the Zend Kurds. Shah 
Israa'il, it need scarcely be said, possessed no real authority; 
but the ministers were strong men in their way, and the Zend 
especially had many high and excellent qualities. After a time 
'Ali Mardan was assassinated, and Karim Khan became the 
sole living power at Isfahan. The story of the period is thus told 
by R. G. Watson: 

" The three rivals, Karim, Azad and Muhammad Hasan, pro- 
ceeded to settle, by means of the sword, the question as to which 
of them was to be the sole master of Persia. A three- 
sided war then ensued, in the course of which each of 
the combatants in turn seemed at one time sure to be . 
the final conqueror. Karim, Vhen he had arranged 
matters at Ispahan, marched to the borders of Mazandaran, 
where the governor of that province was ready to meet him. 
After a closely contested battle victory remained with Muhammad 
Hasan; who, however, was unable to follow up the foe, as he 
had to return in order to encounter Azad. That leader had in- 
vaded Gilan, but, on the news reaching him of the victory which 
the governor of Mazandaran had gained, he thought it prudent 
to retrace his steps to Sultaniyah. Karim reunited his shattered 
forces at Tehran, and retired to Ispahan to prepare for a second 
campaign. When he again took the field it was not to measure 
himself once more with the Kajar chief, but to put down the pre- 
tensions of Azad. The wary Afghan, however, shut himself up in 
Kazvin, a position from which he was enabled to inflict much in- 
jury on the army of Karim, while his own troops remained unharmed, 
behind the walls of the town. Karim retired a second time to 

3 There were three branches of the Kajar tribe, i.e. the Suldus, 
Tungkut and Jalaiyar. The last, according to Watson, became 
settled in Iran and Turan, and seem at first to have given their 
name to all the tribe. 

4 Watson. Malcolm says that Gilan was under one of its own 
chiefs, Hidaiyat Khan. 



236 



PERSIA 



[1736-1884 



Ispahan, and in the following spring advanced again to meet Azad. 
A pitched battle took place between them, in which the army of 
Karim was defeated. He retreated to the capita], closely pressed 
by the foe. Thence he continued his way to Shiraz, but Azad was 
still upon his traces. He then threw himself upon the mercy of 
the Arabs of the Garmsir or hot country, near the Persian Gulf, to 
whom the name of the Afghans was hateful, and who rose in a body 
to turn upon Azad. Karim, by their aid, once more repaired his 
losses and advanced on Ispahan, while Muhammad Hasan with 
fifty thousand men was coming from the opposite direction, ready 
to encounter either the Afghan or the Zend. The Afghan did not 
await his coming, but retired to his government of Tabriz. 

" The Zend issued from Ispahan, and was a second time defeated 
in a pitched battle by the Kajar. Karim took refuge behind the 
walls of Shiraz, and all the efforts of the enemy to dislodge him 
were ineffectual. Muhammad Hasan Khan in the following year 
turned his attention to Adarbaijan. Azad was no longer in a posi- 
tion to oppose him in the field, and he in turn became master of 
every place of importance in the province, while Azad had to seek 
assistance in vain first from the pasha of Baghdad, and then from 
his former enemy, the tsar of Georgia. Next year the conquering 
Kajar returned to Shiraz to make an end of the only rival who now 
stood in his way. On his side were 80,000 men, commanded by a 
general who had twice defeated the Zend chief on an equal field. 
Karim was still obliged to take shelter in Shiraz, and to employ 
artifice in order to supply the place of the force in which he was 
deficient. Nor were his efforts in this respect unattended with 
success: seduced by his gold, many of the troops of the Kajar 
began to desert their banners. In the meantime the neighbour- 
hood of Shiraz was laid waste, so as to destroy the source from 
which Muhammad Hasan drew his provisions; by degrees his army 
vanished, and he had finally to retreat with rapidity to Ispahan 
with the few men that remained to him. Finding his position 
there to be untenable, he retreated still farther to the country 
of his own tribe, while his rival advanced to Ispahan, where he 
received the submission of nearly all the chief cities of Persia. The 
ablest of Karim's officers, Shaikh 'Ali, was sent in pursuit of the 
Kajar chief. The fidelity of the commander to whom that chief- 
tain had confided the care of the pass leading into Mazandaran, 
was corrupted; and, as no further retreat was open to him, he found 
himself under the necessity of fighting. The combat which ensued 
resulted in his complete defeat, although he presented to his followers 
an example of the most determined valour. While attempting to 
effect his escape he was recognized by the chief of the other branch 
of the Kajar tribe, who had deserted his cause, and who had a 
blood-feud with him, in pursuance of which he now put him to 
death. 

" For nineteen years after this event Karim Khan ruled with the 

title of wakil, or regent, over the whole of Persia, excepting the 

- ift. province of Khurasan. He made Shiraz the seat of 

his government, and by means of his brothers put 

down every attempt which was ma'de to subvert his authority. 

The rule of the great Zend chief was just and mild, and he is on the 

whole, considering his education and the circumstances under 

which he was placed, one of the most faultless characters to be met 

with in Persian history." 

Karim Khan died at his capital in 1779 in the twentieth year 
of his reign, and, it is said, in the eightieth of his age. He built 
the great bazaar of Shiraz, had a tomb constructed over the 
remains of Hafiz, and repaired the " turbat " at the grave of 
Sa'di, outside the walls. He encouraged commerce and agricul- 
ture, gave much attention to the shores of the Persian Gulf, 
and carefully studied the welfare of the Armenian community 
settled in his dominions. In his time the British factory was 
removed from Bander Abbasi to Bushire. 

On Karim's death a new period of anarchy supervened. His 
brother, Zaki, a cruel and vindictive chief who, when governor 
of Isfahan, had revolted against Karim, assumed 
the government. At the same time he proclaimed 
Abu '1-Fath Khan, second son of the deceased monarch, and his 
brother Mahommed 'Ali, joint-successors to the throne. The 
seizure of the citadel at Shiraz by the adherents of the former, 
among whom were the more influential of the Zends, may have 
induced him to adopt this measure as one of prudent conciliation. 
But the garrison held out, and, to avoid a protracted siege, he 
had recourse to treachery. The suspicious nobles were solemnly 
adjured to trust themselves to his keeping, under promise of 
forgiveness. They believed his professions, tendered their 
submission, and were cruelly butchered. Zaki did not long 
enjoy the fruits of his perfidious dealing. The death of Karim 
Khan had raised two formidable adversaries to mar his peace. 

Aga Mahommed, son of Mahommed Hasan, the Kajar chief 
of Astarabad, a prisoner at large in Shiraz, was in the environs 



of that city awaiting intelligence of the old king's decease, and, 
hearing it, instantly escaped to Mazandaran, there to gather his 
tribesmen together and compete for the crown of Persia. Taken 
prisoner by Nadir and barbarously mutilated by 'Adil Shah, he 
had afterwards found means to rejoin his people, but had 
surrendered himself to Karim Khan when his father was killed 
in battle. On the other hand, Sadik, brother to Zaki, who had 
won considerable and deserved repute by the capture of Basra 
from the Turkish governor, abandoned his hold of the conquered 
town on hearing of the death of Karim, and appeared with his 
army before Shiraz. To provide against the intended action 
of the first, Zaki detached his nephew, 'Ali Murad, at the head 
of his best troops to proceed with all speed to the north; and, as 
to the second, the seizure of such families of Sadik's followers 
as were then within the walls of the town, and other violent 
measures, struck such dismay into the hearts of the besieging 
soldiers that they dispersed and abandoned their leader to his 
fate. From Kerman, however, where he found an asylum, the 
latter addressed an urgent appeal for assistance to 'Ali Murad. 
This chief, encamped at Teheran when the communication 
reached him, submitted the matter to his men, who decided 
against Zaki, but put forward their own captain as the only 
master they would acknowledge. 'Ah' Murad, leaving the pur- 
suit of Aga Mahcmmed, then returned to Isfahan, where he was 
received with satisfaction, on the declaration that his one 
object was to restore to his lawful inheritance the eldest son of 
Karim Khan, whom Zaki had set aside in favour of a younger 
brother. The sequel is full of dramatic interest. Zaki, enraged 
at his nephew's desertion, marched out of Shiraz towards 
Isfahan. On his way he came to the town of Yezdikhast, where 
he demanded a sum of money from the inhabitants, claiming 
it as part of secreted revenue; the demand was refused, and 
eighteen of the head men were thrown down the precipice beneath 
his window; a " saiyid," or holy man, was the next victim, and 
his wife and daughter were to be given over to the soldiery, when 
a suddenly-formed conspiracy took effect, and Zaki's own life 
was taken in retribution for his guilt (1779). 

When intelligence of these events reached Kerman, Sadik 
Khan hastened to Shiraz, proclaimed himself king in place 
of Abu "1-Fath Khan, whom he declared incompe- 

. . . r jl '**'' mUFaQ. 

tent to reign, and put out the eyes of the young 
prince. He despatched his son Ji'afir to assume the govern- 
ment of Isfahan, and watch the movements of 'Ali Murad, 
who appears to have been then absent from that city; and he 
gave a younger son, 'Ali Naki, command of an army in the field. 
The campaign ended in the capture of Shiraz and assumption 
of sovereignty by 'Ali Murad, who caused Sadik Khan to be 
put to death. 

From this period up to the accession of Aga Mahommed Khan 
the summarized history of Markham will supply the principal 
facts required. 

'Ali Murad reigned over Persia until 1785, and carried on a 
successful war with Aga Mahommed in Mazandaran, defeating 
him in several engagements, and occupying Teheran and Sari. He 
died on his way from the former place to Isfahan, and was suc- 
ceeded by Ji'afir, son of Sadik, 1 who reigned at Shiraz, assisted in 
the government by an able but unprincipled " kalantar," or head 
magistrate, named Hajji Ibrahim. This ruler was poisoned by the 
agency of conspirators, one of whom, Saiyid Murad, succeeded to 
the throne. Hajji Ibrahim, however, contriving to maintain the 
loyalty of the citizens towards the Zend reigning family, the usurper 
was killed, and Lutf 'Ali Khan, son of Ji'afir, proclaimed LutfAIi 
king. He had hastened to Shiraz on hearing of his Kbaa. 
father's death and received a warm welcome from the 
inhabitants. Hajji Ibrahim became his chief adviser, and a new 
minister was found for him in Mirza Hosain Shirazi. At the time 
of his accession Lutf 'AH Khan was only in his twentieth year, 
very handsome, tall, graceful, and an excellent horseman. While 
differing widely in character, he was a worthy successor of Karim 
Khan, the great founder of the Zend dynasty. Lutf 'AK Khan had 
not been many months on the throne when Aga Mahommed ad- 
vanced to attack him, and invested the city of Shiraz, but retreated 
soon afterwards to Teheran, which he had made the capital of his 
dominions. The young king then enjoyed a short period of peace. 



1 A five days' usurpation of Bakir Khan, governor of Isfahan, is 
not taken into account. 



1736-1884] 



PERSIA 



237 



Afterwards, in 1790, he collected his forces and marched against 
the Kajars, in the direction of Isfahan. But Hajji Ibrahim had 
been intriguing against his sovereign, to whose family he owed 
everything, not only with his officers and soldiers but also with 
Aga Mahommed, the chief of the Kajars, and arch-enemy of the 
Zends. Lutf 'AH Khan was suddenly deserted by the whole of his 
army, except seventy faithful followers; and when he retreated to 
Shiraz he found the gates closed against him by Hajji Ibrahim, 
who held the city for the Kajar chief. Thence falling back upon 
Bushire, he found that the sheikh of that town had also betrayed 
him. Surrounded by treason on every side, he boldly attacked 
and routed the chief of Bushire and blockaded Shiraz. His un- 
conquerable valour gained him many followers, and he defeated an 
army sent against him by the Kajars in 1792. 

Aga Mahommed then advanced in person against his rival. 
He encamped with an army of 30,000 men on the plain of Mardasht, 
near Shiraz. Lutf "All Khan, in the dead of night, suddenly attacked 
the camp of his enemy with only a few hundred followers. The 
Kajars were completely routed and thrown into confusion; but 
Aga Mahommed, with extraordinary presence of mind, remained 
in his tent, and at the first appearance of dawn his " muezzin," 
or public crier, was ordered to call the faithful to morning prayer 
as usual. Astonished at this, the few Zend cavaliers, thinking 
that the wholy army of Kajars had returned, fled with precipitation 
leaving the field in possession of Aga Mahommed. The successful 
Kajar then entered Shiraz, and promoted the traitor Hajji Ibrahim 
to be his vizier. Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge with the hospitable 
chief of Tabbas in the heart of Khorasan, where he succeeded in 
collecting a few followers; but advancing into Pars, he was again 
defeated, and forced to take refuge at Kandahar. 

In 1794, however, the undaunted prince once more crossed the 
Persian frontier, determined to make a last effort, and either regain 
Capture of his throne or die in tne attempt. He occupied the 
Kerman. " 1 Y * Kerman, then a flourishing commercial town, 
half-way between the Persian Gulf and the province 
of Khorasan. Aga Mahommed besieged it with a large army 
in 1795, and, after a stout resistance, the gates were opened 
through treachery. For three hours the gallant young warrior 
fought in the streets with determined valour, but in vain. When 
he saw that all hope was gone he, with only three followers, fought 
his way through the Kajar host and escaped to Bam-Narmashir, 
the most eastern district of the province of Kerman on the borders 
of Seistan. 

Furious at the escape of his rival, the savage conqueror ordered 
a general massacre; 20,000 women and children were sold into 
slavery, and 70,000 eyes of the inhabitants of Kerman were brought 
to Aga Mahommed on a platter. 

Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge in the town of Bam ; but the governor 
of Narmashir, anxious to propitiate the conqueror, basely surrounded 
him as he was mounting his faithful horse Kuran to seek a more 
secure asylum. The young prince fought bravely; but, being 
badly wounded and overpowered by numbers, he was secured and 
sent to the camp of the Kajar chief. The spot where he was seized 
at Bam, when mounting his horse, was marked by a pyramid, 
formed, by order of his revengeful enemy, of the skulls of the most 
faithful of his adherents. The most hideous indignities and atrocities 
were committed upon his person by the cruel Kajar, and finally 
he was sent to Teheran and murdered, when only in his twenty- 
sixth year. Every member of his family and every friend was 
ordered to be massacred by Aga Mahommed; and the successful 
miscreant thus founded the dynasty of the Kajars at the price of 
all the best and noblest blood of Iran. 

The Zend is said to be a branch of the Lak tribe, dating from 
the time of the Kaianian kings, and claims to have been charged 
with the care of the Zend-Avesta by Zoroaster himself. 1 The 
tree attached to Markham's chapter on the dynasty contains 
the names of eight members of the family only, i.e. four brothers, 
one of whom had a son, grandson and great-grandson, and one 
a son. Four of the eight were murdered, one was blinded, 
and one cruelly mutilated. In one case a brother murdered a 
brother, in another an uncle blinded his nephew. 

Kajar Dynasty. Aga Mahommed was undoubtedly one of 
the most cruel and vindictive despots that ever disgraced a 
throne. But he was not without care for the honour of his 
empire in the eyes of Europe and the outer world, and his early 
career in Mazandaran gave him a deeply-rooted mistrust of 
Russia, with the officers of which power he was in constant 
contact. The following story, told by Forster, 2 and varied by 
a later writer, is characteristic. A party of Russians having 
obtained permission to build a " counting-house " at Ashraf, 

1 Markham. Morier says of Karim Khan's family, " it was a 
low branch of an obscure tribe in Kurdistan." 

2 Journey from Bengal to England (1798), ii. 201 ; see also Markham, 
pp. 341, 342. 



in the bay of that name, erected instead a fort with eighteen 
guns. Aga Mahommed, learning the particulars, visited the 



Aga 
Mahommed. 



spot, expressed great pleasure at the work done, 

invited the officers to dine with him, imprisoned 

them, and only spared their lives when they had 

removed the whole of the cannon and razed the fort to the 

ground. This occurrence must have taken place about 1782. 

Forster was travelling homeward by the southern shores of 
the Caspian in January 1784, and from him we gather many 
interesting details of the locality and period. He calls Aga 
Mahommed chief of Mazandaran, as also of Astarabad and 
" some districts situate in Khurasan," and describes his tribe 
the Kajar, to be, like the Indian Rajput, usually devoted to the 
profession of arms. Whatever hold his father may have had 
on Gilan, it is certain that this province was not then in the 
son's possession, for his brother, Ji'afir Kuli, governor of Balfrush 
(Balfroosh), had made a recent incursion into it and driven 
Hidaiyat Khan, its ruler, from Resht to Enzeli, and Aga Mahom- 
med was himself meditating another attack on the same quarter. 
The latter's palace was at Sari, then a small and partly fortified 
town, thickly inhabited, and with a plentifully-supplied market. 
As " the most powerful chief in Persia " since the death of 
Karim Khan, the Russians were seeking to put their yoke upon 
him. 

As Aga Mahommed's power increased, his dislike and jealousy 
of the Muscovite assumed a more practical shape. His victory 
over Lutf 'Ali was immediately followed by an campaign 
expedition into Georgia. After the death of Nadir against 
the wali of that country had looked around him Georgia. 
for the safest means of shaking off the yoke of Persia; and 
in course of time an opportunity had offered of a promising 
kind. In 1783, when the strength of the Persian monarchy was 
concentrated upon Isfahan and Shiraz, the Georgian tsar 
Heraclius entered into an agreement with the empress Catherine 
by which all connexion with the shah was disavowed, 
and a quasi-vassalage to Russia substituted the said empire 
extending her aegis of protection over her new ally. Aga 
Mahommed now demanded that Heraclius should return 
to his position of tributary and vassal to Persia, and, as his 
demand was rejected, prepared for war. Dividing an army of 
60,000 men into three corps, he sent one of these jnto Daghestan, 
another was to attack Erivan, and with the third he himself 
laid siege to Shusha in the province of Karabakh. The stubborn 
resistance offered at the last-named place caused him to leave 
there a small investing force only, and to move on with the 
remainder of his soldiers to join the corps d'armte at Erivan. 
Here, again, the difficulties presented caused him to repeat the 
same process and to effect a junction with his first corps at 
Ganja, the modern Elisavetpol. At this place he encountered 
the Georgian army under Heraclius, defeated it, and marched 
upon Tiflis, which he pillaged, massacring and enslaving 3 the 
inhabitants. Then he returned triumphant to Teheran, where 
(or at Ardebil on the way) he was publicly crowned shah of 
Persia. Erivan surrendered, but Shusha continued to hold 
out. These proceedings caused Russia to enter the field. 
Derbent was taken possession of by Imhov, Baku and Shumakhy 
were occupied and Gilan was threatened. The death of the 
empress, however, caused the issue of an order to retire, and 
Derbent and Baku remained the only trophies of the campaign. 

In the meantime Aga Mahommed's attention had been called 
away to the east. Khorasan could hardly be called an integral 
part of the shah's kingdom so long as it was under operations 
even the nominal rule of the blind grandson of in 
Nadir. But the eastern division of the province Korasan. 
and its outlying parts were actually in j the hands of 
the Afghans, and Meshed was not Persian in 1796 in the sense 
that Delhi was British at the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny. 
Shah Rukh held his position, such as it was, rather under Ahmad 

3 Lady Sheil says (1849) ; " I saw a few of these unhappy captives 
who all had to embrace Mahommedanism, and many of whom 
had risen to the highest stations, just as the Circassian slaves in 
Constantinople." 



PERSIA 



[1736-1884 



Shah and his successors in Afghanistan than under any other 
sovereign power. Aga Mahommed determined to restore the 
whole province to Persia, and, after a brief residence in Teheran 
on his return from the Georgian expedition, he set out for 
Meshed. It is important to note that on the occasion of his 
coronation he had girded on the sabre consecrated at the tomb 
of the founder of the Safawid thus openly pledging himself 
to support the Shi'ite faith. 

But there had been continual dissatisfaction in the capital 
of Khorasan, and constant inroads upon it from without, which 
the royal puppet was unable to prevent. His popularity was 
real, but never seemed to have effect outside the limited sphere 
of personal sympathy and regard. Owing to the frequent 
revolutions in the holy city the generals of Timur Shah, king of 
the Afghans, had made three expeditions on Shah Rukh's behalf. 
Meshed had been taken and retaken as though he were not a 
resident in it, much less its dejure king. Moreover, his two sons 
Nadir Mirza and Wali Ni'amat had long been fighting, and the 
former was in 1796 the actual ruler of the place. Three years 
before Timur had died, and his third son, Zaman Shah, by the 
intrigues of an influential sirdar, Paiyanda Khan, and been 
proclaimed his successor at Kabul. 

Aga Mahommed 's entry into Meshed was effected without a 
struggle on the part of those in possession. The Kajar shah 
walked on foot to the tomb of Imam Riza, before which he knelt 
and kissed the ground in token of devotion, and was recognized 
as a Shi'ite of Shi'ites. Shah Rukh submissively followed in his 
train. Then began the last act of the local tragedy. The 
blind king's gradual revelation, under horrible torture, of the 
place of concealment of his several jewels and treasures, and his 
deportation and death (of the injuries thus received, at Damghan, 
en route to Mazandaran), must be classed among the darkest 
records of Oriental history. 

From Meshed Aga Mahommed sent an envoy to Zaman Shah, 
asking for the cession of Balkh, and explaining his invasion of 
Khorasan; but the Afghan monarch was too perplexed with the 
troubles in his own country and his own insecure position to 
do more than send an unmeaning reply. It is not shown what 
was the understood boundary between the two countries at 
this particular period; but Watson states that on the shah's 
departure he had received the submission of the whole of 
Khorasan, and left in Meshed a garrison of 12,000 men. 

Aga Mahommed had now fairly established his capital at 
Teheran. On his return thither in September 1796 he dismissed 
Death and h* 8 troops for the winter, directing their reassembly 
Character in the following spring. The re-invasion by Russia 
of Aga of the provinces and districts he had recently 
' MB/Iomnlerf - wrested from her west of the Caspian had made 
great progress, but the circumstance does not seem to have 
changed his plans for the army. Although, when the spring 
arrived and the shah led his forces to the Aras, the Russians 
had, it is true, retreated, yet territory had been regained by 
them as far south as the Talysh. Aga Mahommed had now 
arrived at the close of his career. He was enabled, with some 
difficulty, to get his troops across the river, and take possession 
of Shusha, which had given them so much trouble a year or 
two before. There, in camp, he was murdered (1797) by his 
own personal attendants men who were under sentence of 
death, but allowed to be at large. He was then fifty-seven years 
of age, and had ruled over part of Persia for more than eighteen 
years over the kingdom generally for about three years, and 
from his coronation for about one year only. 

The brutal treatment he had experienced in boyhood under 
the orders of ' Adil Shah, and the opprobrious name of " eunuch " 
with which he was taunted by his enemies, no doubt contributed 
to embitter his nature. His contempt of luxury, his avoidance 
of hyperbole and dislike of excessive ceremony, his protection 
to commerce and consideration for his soldiers, the reluctance 
with which he assumed the crown almost at the close of his 
reign all these would have been praiseworthy in another man ; 
but on his death the memory of his atrocious tyranny alone 
survived. Those who have seen his portrait once will recognize 



Path All 
Shah. 



Rebellions. 



the face wherever presented. "Beardless and shrivelled," 
writes Sir John Malcolm, " it resembled that of an aged and 
wrinkled woman, and the expression of his countenance, at no 
time pleasant, was horrible when clouded, as it very often was, 
with indignation. He was sensible of this, and could not bear 
that any one should look at him." 

Aga Mahommed had made up his mind that he should be 
succeeded by his nephew Path 'Ali Shah, son of his full brother, 
Hosain Kuli Khan, governor of Pars. There was 
a short interval of confusion after the murder. The 
remains of the sovereign were exposed to insult, the 
army was disturbed, the recently captured fort on the left bank 
of the Aras was abandoned; but the wisdom and resolution 
of the minister, Hajji Ibrahim, and of Mirza Mahommed Khan 
Kajar secured order and acceptance of the duly appointed 
heir. The first, proclaiming his own allegiance, put himself at 
the head of a large body of troops and marched towards the 
capital. The second closed the gates of Teheran to all comers 
until Path "AH Shah came himself from Shiraz. Though instantly 
proclaimed on arrival, the new monarch was not crowned until 
the spring of the following year (1798). 

The so-called rebellions which followed were many, but not 
of any magnitude. Such as belong to local history are three 
in number, i.e. that of Sadik Khan Shakaki, the 
general whose possession of the crown jewels enabled 
him, after the defeat of his army at Kazvin, to secure 
his personal safety and obtain a government; of Hosain Kuli 
Khan, the shah's brother, which was compromised by the 
mother's intervention; and of Mahommed, son of Zaki Khan, 
Zend, who was defeated on more than one occasion in battle, 
and fled into Turkish territory. Later, Sadik Khan, having 
again incurred the royal displeasure, was seized, confined and 
mercilessly bricked up in his dungeon to die of starvation. 

Another adversary presented himself in the person of Nadir 
Mirza, son of Shah Rukh, who, when Aga Mahommed appeared 
before Meshed, had taken refuge with the Afghans. Path 'Ali 
sent to warn him of the consequences, but 'without the desired 
effect. Finally, he advanced into Khorasan with an army 
which appears to have met with no opposition save at Nishapur 
and Turbet, both of which places were taken, and when it reached 
Meshed, Nadir Mirza tendered his submission, which was 
accepted. Peace having been further cemented by an alliance 
between a Kajar general and the prince's daughter, the shah 
returned to Teheran. 

Now that the narrative of Persian kings has been brought up to 
the period of the consolidation of the Kajar dynasty and commence- 
ment of the igth century, there remains but to summarize the 
principal events in the reigns of Path 'Ali Shah and his immediate 
successors, Mahommed Shah and Nasru 'd-Din Shah. 

Path 'Ali Shah came to the throne at about thirty-two years 
of age, and died at sixty-eight, after a reign of thirty-six years. 
Persia's great aim was to recover in the north-west, as in the north- 
east of her empire, the geographical limits obtained for her by the 
Safawid kings; and this was no easy matter when she had to con- 
tend with a strong European power whose territorial limits touched 
her own. Path 'AH Shah undertook, at the outset of 
his 'reign, a contest with Russia on the western side of 
the Caspian, which became constant and harassing 
warfare. Georgia was, clearly, not to revert to a Mahom- 
medan suzerain. In 1800 its tsar, George, son and successor 
of Heraclius, notwithstanding his former professions of allegiance 
to the shah, renounced his crown in favour of the Russian emperor. 
His brother Alexander indignantly repudiated the act and resisted 
its fulfilment, but he was defeated by General Lazerov on the banks 
of the Lora. Persia then re-entered the field. Among the more 
notable occurrences which followed were a three days' battle, 
fought near Echmiadzin, between the crown prince, 'Abbas Mirza, 
and General Zizianov, in which the Persians suffered much from the 
enemy's artillery, but would not admit they were defeated; un- 
successful attempts on the part of the Russian commander to get 
possession of Erivan; and a surprise, in camp, of the shah's forces, 
which caused them to disperse, and necessitated the king's own 
presence with reinforcements. On the latter occasion the shah is 
credited with gallantly swimming his horse across the Aras, and 
setting an example of energy and valour. In the following year 
'Abbas Mirza advanced upon Shishah, the chief of which place 
and of the Karabagh had declared for Russia; much fighting en- 
sued, and Erivan was formally taken possession of in the name of 



1736-1884] 



PERSIA 



239 



the shah. The Russians, moreover, made a futile attempt on Gilan 
by landing troops at Enzeli, which returned to Baku, where Zizianov 
fell a victim to the treachery of the Persian governor. Somewhat 
later Ibrahim Khalil of Shusha, repenting of his Russophilism, 
determined to deliver up the Muscovite garrison at that place, but 
his plans were betrayed, and he and his relatives put to death. 
Reprisals and engagements followed with varied success; and the 
crown prince of Persia, after a demonstration in Shirvan, returned 
to Tabriz. He had practically made no progress; yet Russia, in 
securing possession of Derbent, Baku, Shirvan, Sheki, Gania, the 
Talysh and Mugan, was probably indebted to gold as well as to 
the force of arms. At the same time Persia would not listen to 
the overtures of peace made to her by the governor-general who 
had succeeded Zizianov. 

Relations had now commenced with England and British India. 

A certain Mahdi 'AH Khan had landed at Bushire, entrusted by 

the governor of Bombay with a letter to the shah, and 

he was followed shortly by an English envoy from the 

, g j, governor-general, Captain Malcolm of the Madras 

rfB * armv - He had not onl y to talk about the Afghans 
* but about the French, and the trade of the Persian 
Gulf. The results were a political and commercial treaty, 
and a return mission to India from Path "AH Shah. To him 
France next sent her message. In 1801 an Armenian merchant 
from Bagdad had appeared as the bearer of credentials from 
Napoleon, but his mission was mistrusted and came to nothing. 
Some five years afterwards Jaubert, after detention and imprison- 
ment on the road, arrived at Teheran and went back to Europe 
with a duly accredited Persian ambassador, who concluded a treaty 
with the French emperor at Finkenstein. On the return of the 
Persian diplomatist, a mission of many officers under General 
Gardane to instruct and drill the local army was sent from France 
to Persia. Hence arose the counter-mission of Sir Harford Jones 
from the British government, which, on arrival at Bombay in 
April 1808, found that it had been anticipated by a previously 
sent mission from the governor-general of India, under Malcolm 
again, then holding the rank of brigadier-general. 

The home mission, however, proceeded to Bushire, and Malcolm's 
return thence to India enabled Sir Harford to move on and reach 
the capital in February 1809. A few days before his entry General 
Gardane had been dismissed, as the peace of Tilsit debarred 
France from aiding the shah against Russia. Sir Harford concluded 
a treaty with Persia the month after his arrival at the capital ; but 
the government of India were not content to leave matters in his 
hands: notwithstanding the anomaly of ; a double mission, Malcolm 
was in 1810 again despatched as their own particular envoy. He 
brought with him Captains Lindsay and Christie to assist the Persians 
in the war, and presented the shah with some serviceable field- 
pieces; but there was little occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic 
ability save in his non-official intercourse with the people, and here 
he availed himself of it to the great advantage of himself and his 
country. 1 He was welcomed by the shah in camp at Ujani, and 
took leave a month afterwards to return via Bagdad and Basra 
to India. The next year Sir Harford Jones was relieved as envoy 
by Sir Gore Ouseley. 

Meanwhile hostilities had been resumed with Russia, and in 
1812 the British envoy used his good offices for the restoration of 
peace, but the endeavour failed. To add to the Persian 
difficulty, in July of this year a treaty was concluded 
*Tuss aa between England and Russia, and this circumstance 
caused the envoy to direct that British officers should 
take no further part in Russo-Persian military operations. Christie 
and Lindsay, however, resolved to remain at their own risk, and 
advanced with the Persian army to the Aras. On the 3 1st of 
October the force was surprised by an attack of the enemy, and 
retreated; the next night they were again attacked and routed at 
Aslanduz. Christie fell bravely fighting at the head of his brigade ; 
Lindsay saved two of his nine guns; but neither of the two English- 
men was responsible for the disaster. Lenkoran was taken by 
Persia, but retaken by Russia during the next three months; and 
on the 1 3th of October 1813, through Sir Gore Ouseley's interven- 
tion, the Treaty of Gulistan put an end to the war. Persia formally 
ceded Georgia and the seven provinces before named, with Karabakh. 

On the death of the emperor Alexander in December 1825 Prince 
Menshikov was sent to Teheran to settle a dispute which had arisen 
between the two governments regarding the prescribed frontier. 
But, as the claim of Persia to a particular district then occupied 
by Russia could not be admitted, the special envoy was given 
his conge, and war was recommenced. The chief of Talysh struck 
the first blow, and drove the enemy from Lenkoran. The Persians 
then carried all before them; and the hereditary chiefs of Shirvan, 
Sheki and Baku returned from exile to co-operate with the shah's 
general in the south. In the course of three weeks the only 



1 The " wakilu "1-mulk," governor of Kerman, told Colonel 
Goldsmid, when his guest in 1866, that " his father had been Sir 
John Malcolm's Mihmandar. There never was such a man as 
Malcolm Sahib.' Not only was he generous on the part of his 
government, but with his own money also." (Telegraph and, Travel, 
P- 585.) 



advanced post held by the governor-general of the Caucasus was 
the obstinate little fortress of Shusha. But before long all was 
again changed. Hearing that a Russian force of some 9000 men 
was concentrated at Tiflis, Mahommed Mirza, son of the crown 
prince, advanced to meet them on the banks of the Zezam. He 
was defeated; and his father was routed more seriously still at 
Ganja. The shah made great efforts to renew the war; but divisions 
took place in his son's camp, not conducive to successful operations, 
and new proposals of peace were made. But Russia demanded 
Erivan and Nakhichevan as well as the cost of the war; and in 
1827 the campaign was reopened. Briefly, after successive gains 
and losses, not only Erivan was taken from Persia but Tabriz also, 
and finally, through the intervention of Sir John Macdonald, the 
English envoy, a new treaty was concluded at Turkmanchai, laying 
down the boundary between Russia and Persia. Among the hard 
conditions for the latter country were the cession in perpetuity of 
the khanates of Erivan and Nakhichevan, the inability to have 
an armed vessel in the Caspian, and the payment of a war indemnity 
of some 3,000,000. 

After Russia, the neighbouring state next in importance to the 
well-being of Persia was Turkey, with whom she was united on the 
west by a common line of frontier. Selim had not . .,. 
scrupled, in 1804 and 1805, to allow the Russians to _ . 
make free use of the south-eastern coasts of the Black ' 
Sea, to facilitate operations against the shah's troops; and there 
had been a passage of arms between the king's eldest son, Mahommed 
'AH Mirza, and Suleiman Pasha, son-in-law of the governor-general 
of Bagdad, which is locally credited as a battle won by the former. 
But there was no open rupture between the two sovereigns until 
1821, when the frontier disputes and complaints of Persian travellers, 
merchants and pilgrims culminated in a declaration of war. This 
made 'Abbas Mirza at once seize upon the fortified places of Toprak 
Kal'ah and Ak Sarai within the limits of the Ottoman Empire, and, 
overcoming the insufficient force sent against him, he was further 
enabled to extend his inroads to Mush, Bitlis, and other known 
localities. The Turkish government retaliated by a counter- 
invasion of the Persian frontier on the south. At that time the 
Pasha of Bagdad was in command of the troops. He was defeated 
by Mahommed 'AH Mirza, then prince-governor of Kermanshah, 
who drove his adversary back towards his capital and advanced to 
its immediate environs. Being attacked with cholera, however, 
the Persian commander recrossed the frontier, but only to succumb 
to the disease in the pass of Kirind. In the sequel a kind of 
desultory warfare appears to have been prosecuted on the Persian 
side of Kurdistan, and the shah himself came down with an army to 
Hamadan. Cholera broke out in the royal camp and caused the 
troops to disperse. 

In the north the progress of 'Abbas Mirza was stopped at Bayazid 
by a like deadly visitation; and a suspension of hostilities was 
agreed upon for the winter season. At the expiration of four months 
the sirdar of Erivan took possession of a Turkish military station 
on the road to Erzerum, and the crown prince marched upon that 
city at the head of 30,000 men. The Ottoman army which met 
him is said to have numbered some 52,000; but victory was 
on the side of their opponents. Whether the result was owing to 
the defection of 15,000 Kurds or not the evidence adduced is in- 
sufficient to decide. In the English records of the period it is stated 
that the defeat of the Turks was complete. 

Profiting from this victory, 'Abbas Mirza repeated an offer of 
peace before made without avail to the pasha of Erzerum; and, in 
order to conciliate him more effectually, he retired within the old 
limits of the dominions of the shah, his father. But more troubles 
arose at Bagdad, and other reasons intervened to protract negotia- 
tions for a year and a half. At length, in July 1823, the Treaty of 
Erzerum closed the war between Turkey and Persia. It provided 
especially against a recurrence of the proved causes of war, such 
as extorting taxes from Persian travellers or pilgrims, disrespect 
to the ladies of the royal harem and other ladies of rank proceeding 
to Mecca or Karbala (Kerbela), irregular levies of custom-duties, 
non-punishment of Kurdish depredators transgressing the boundary, 
and the like. 

With respect to the eastern boundaries of his kingdom, Path 
'AH Shah was fortunate in having to deal with a less dangerous 
neighbour than the Muscovite of persistent policy and 
the Turk of precarious friendship. The Afghan, though 
equal to the Persian in physical force and prowess, was 
his inferior in worldly knowledge and experience. Moreover, the 
family divisions among the ruling houses of Afghanistan grew 
from day to day more destructive to that patriotism and sense of 
nationality which Ahmad Shah had held out to his countrymen as 
the sole specifics for becoming a strong people. 

The revolt of Nadir Mirza had, as before explained, drawn the 
shah's attention to Khorasan in the early part of his reign; but, 
although quiet had for the moment been restored at Meshed by 
the presence of the royal camp, fresh grounds of complaint were 
urged against the rash but powerless prince, and recourse was had 
to extreme measures. Charged with the murder of a holy saiyid, 
his hands were cut off and his tongue was plucked out, as part of 
the horrible punishment inflicted on him. It does not appear that 
Nadir Mirza's cause was ever seriously espoused by the Afghans, 



240 



PERSIA 



[1736-1884 



nor that Path 'All Shah's claim to Meshed, as belonging to the 
Persian crown, was actively resisted. But the large Province of 
Khorasan, of which Meshed was the capital, had never been other 
than a nominal dependency of the crown since the death of _ Nadir; 
and in the autumn of 1830 the shah, under Russian advice, as- 
sembled a large force to bring into subjection all turbulent and 
refractory chiefs on the east of his kingdom. Yezd and Kerman 
were the first points of attack; Khorasan was afterwards entered 
by Samnan, or the main road from Teheran. The expedition, led 
by 'Abbas Mirza, involved some hard fighting and much loss of 
life; several forts and places were captured, among them Kuchan 
and Serrakhs; and it may be concluded that the objects contem- 
plated were more or less attained. An English officer, Colonel 
Shee, commanded what was called the " British detachment " 
which accompanied the prince. Thus far as regards Yezd, Kerman 
and Khorasan. It was otherwise with Herat. 

Hajii Firuzu'd-Din, son of Timur Shah, reigned undisturbed in 
that city from 1800 to 1816. Since Path 'Ali Shah's accession he 
and his brother Mahmud had been, as it were, under Persian pro- 
tection. Persia claimed the principality of Herat as part of the 
empire of Nadir, but her pretensions had been satisfied by payments 
of tribute or evasive replies. Now, however, that she marched her 
army against the place, Firuzu 'd-Din called in the aid of his brother 
Mahmud Shah of Kabul, who sent to him the famous vizier, Path 
Khan Barakzai. The latter, intriguing on his own account, got 
possession of the town and citadel; he then sallied forth, engaged 
the Persian forces, and forced them to retire into their own country. 
In 1824, on a solicitation from Mustafa Khan, who had got temporary 
hold of Herat, more troops were despatched thither, but, by the 
use of money or bribes, their departure was purchased. Some 
eight or nine years afterwards 'Abbas Mirza, when at the head of 
his army in Meshed, invited Yar Mahommed Khan of Herat to 
discuss a settlement of differences between the two governments. 
The meeting was unproductive of good. Again the Persian troops 
advanced to Herat itself under the command of Mahommed Mirza, 
son of Abbas; but the news of his father's death caused the com- 
mander to break up his camp and return to Meshed. 

Sir Gore Ouseley returned to England in 1814, in which year 
Mr Ellis, assisted by Mr Morier whose " Hajji Baba " is the un- 
failing proof of his ability and deep knowledge of Persian character 
negotiated on the part of Great Britain the Treaty of Teheran. 
England was to provide troops or a subsidy in the event of unpro- 
voked invasion, while Persia was to attack the Afghans should 
they invade India. Captain Willock succeeded Morier as charge 
d'affaires in 1815, and since that period Great Britain has always 
been represented at the Persian court. It was in Path 'Ali Shah's 
reign that Henry Martyn was in Persia, and completed his able 
translation of the New Testament into the language of that country. 
Little more remains to be here narrated of the days of Path 'Ali 
Shah. Among the remarkable occurrences may be noted the murder 
at Teheran in 1828 of M. Grebayadov, the Russian envoy, whose 
conduct in forcibly retaining two women of Erivan provoked the 
interference of the mullas and people. To repair the evil con- 
sequences of this act a conciliatory embassy, consisting of a young 
son of the crown prince and some high officers of the state, was 
despatched to St Petersburg. Shortly afterwards the alliance 
with Russia was strengthened, and that with England slackened 
in proportion. 

Path 'Ali Shah had a numerous family. Agreeably to the Persian 
custom, asserted by his predecessors, of nominating the heir-apparent 
from the sons of the sovereign without restriction to seniority, he 
had passed over the eldest, Mahommed 'Ali, in favour of a junior, 
'Abbas; but, as the nominee died in the lifetime of his father, the 
old king had proclaimed Mahommed Mirza, the son of 'Abbas, and 
his own grandson, to be his successor. Why a younger son had 
been originally selected, to the prejudice of his elder brother, is 
differently stated by different writers. The true reason was probably 
the superior rank of his mother. 

Mahommed Shah was twenty-eight years old when he came to 
the throne in 1834. He died at the age of forty-two, after a reign 
Mah d ^ a b u t thirteen and a half years. His accession was 
Shah no ^ P u blicly notified for some months after his grand- 

father's death, for it was necessary to clear the way of 
all competitors, and there were two on this occasion one 'Ali 
Mirza, governor of Teheran, who actually assumed a royal title, 
and one Hasan 'AH Mirza, governor of Shiraz. Owing to the steps 
taken by the British envoy, Sir John Campbell, assisted by Colonel 
Bethune, at the head of a considerable force, supplied with artillery, 
the opposition of the first was neutralized, and Mahommed Shah, 
entering Teheran on the 2nd of January, was proclaimed king on 
the 3ist of the same month. It cost more time and trouble to 
bring the second to book. Hasan 'AH, " farman-farma," or com- 
mander-in-chief , and his brother and abettor, had an army at their 
disposal in Pars. Sir Henry Lindsay Bethune marched his soldiers 
to Isfahan to be ready to meet them. An engagement which took 
place near Kumishah, on the road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 
having been successful, the English commander pushed on to the 
latter town, where the two rebel princes were seized and imprisoned. 
Forwarded under escort to Teheran, they were, according to Watson, 
ordered to be sent on thence as state prisoners to Ardebil, but the 



farman-farma died on the way, and his brother was blinded before 
incarceration. Markham, however, states that both 'Ali Mirza 
and Hasan 'Ali were allowed to retire with a small pension, and that 
no atrocities stained the beginning of the reign of Mahommed Shah. 
It is presumed that the fate of the prime minister or " kaim-makam," 
who was strangled in prison, was no more than an ordinary execution 
of the law. This event, and the prevalence of plague and cholera 
at Teheran, marked somewhat gloomily the new monarch's first 
year. 

The selection of a premier was one of the first weighty questions 
for solution. A member of the royal family, the " asafu "d-daula," 
governor of Khorasan, left his government to urge his candidature 
For the post. The king's choice, however, fell on Hajji Mirza 
Aghasi, a native of Erivan, who in former years, as tutor to the 
sons of 'Abbas Mirza, had gained a certain reputation for learning 
and a smattering of the occult sciences, but whose qualifications 
for statesmanship were craftiness and suspicion. As might have 
been anticipated, the hajji fell into the hands of Russia, represented 
by Count Simonich, who urged him to a fresh expedition into 
Khorasan and the siege of Herat. There was no doubt 
a plausible pretext for both proposals. The chiefs, Expedition 
reduced to temporary submission by 'Abbas Mirza, had " f* 
again revolted; and Shah Kamran, supported by his 
vizier, Yar Mahommed, had broken those engagements and pledges 
on the strength of which Path 'Ali Shah had withdrawn his troops. 
In addition to these causes of offence he had appropriated the 
province of Seistan, over which Persia had long professed to hold 
the rights of suzerainty. But the king's ambition was to go farther 
than retaliation or chastisement. He refused to acknowledge any 
right to separate government whatever on the part of the Afghans, 
and Kandahar and Ghazni were to be recovered, as belonging to 
the empire of the Safawid dynasty. The advice of the British 
envoy was dissuasive in this respect, and therefore distasteful. 

Sir John Campbell, in less than a year after the sovereign's 
installation, went home, and was succeeded as British envoy by 
Henry Ellis. The change in personnel signified also a transfer of 
superintendence of the Persian legation, which passed from the 
government in India to the authorities in England. The expedi- 
tion was to commence with a campaign against the Turcomans 
Herat being its later destination. Such counter-proposals as Ellis 
had suggested for consideration had been politely put aside, and 
the case was now more than ever complicated by the action of the 
Barakzai chiefs of Kandahar, who had sent a mission to Teheran to 
offer assistance against their Saduzai rival at Herat. Fresh provo- 
cation had, moreover, been given to the shah's government by the 
rash and incapable Kamran. 

About the close of the summer the force moved from Teheran. 
The royal camp was near Astarabad in November 1836. Food was 
scarce : barley sold for ten times the usual price, and wheat was not 
procurable for any money. The troops were dissatisfied, and, being 
kept without pay and on short rations, took to plundering. There 
had been operations on the banks of the Gurgan, and the Turcomans 
had been driven from one of their strongholds; but little or no pro- 
gress had been made in the subjection of these marauders, and the 
Heratis had sent word that all they could do was to pay tribute, 
and, if that were insufficient, the shah had better march to Herat. 
A military council was held at Shahrud, when it was decided to 
return to the capital and set out again in the spring. Accordingly 
the troops dispersed, and the sovereign's presence at Teheran was 
taken advantage of by the British minister to renew his attempts 
in the cause of peace. Although on the present occasion Simonich 
ostensibly aided the British charge d'affaires M'Neill, who had 
succeeded Ellis in 1836, no argument was of any avail to divert 
the monarch from his purpose. He again set out in the summer, 
and, invading the Herat territory in November 1837, began the 
siege on the 23rd of that month. 

Not until September in the following year did the Persian army 
withdraw from before the walls of the city; and then the move- 
ment only took place on the action of the British govern- . , 
ment. M'Neill, who had joined the Persian camp on HI 
the 6th of April, left it again on the 7th of June. He 
had done all in his power to effect a reasonable agreement between 
the contending parties; but both in this respect and in the matter of 
a commercial treaty with England, then under negotiation, his 
efforts had been met with evasion and latent hostility. The 
Russian envoy, who had appeared among the tents of the besieging 
army almost simultaneously with his English colleague, no sooner 
found himself alone in his diplomacy than he resumed his aggressive 
counsels, and little more than a fortnight had elapsed since M'Neill's 
departure when a vigorous assault, planned, it is asserted, by 
Simonich himself, was made upon Herat. The Persians attacked 
at five points, at one of which they would in all likelihood have been 
successful had not the Afghans been aided by Eldred Pottinger, a 
young Englishman, who with the science of an artillery officer 
combined a courage and determination which inevitably influenced 
his subordinates. Still the garrison was disheartened; but Colonel 
Stoddart's arrival on the nth of August to threaten the shah with 
British intervention put a stop to further action. Colonel Stoddart's 
refusal to allow any but British mediators, to decide the pending 
dispute won the day; and that officer was able to report that on 



1736-1884] 



PERSIA 



241 



the gth of September Mahommed Shah had " mounted his horse " 
and gone from before the walls of the beleaguered city. 

The siege of Herat, which lasted for nearly ten months, was the 
great event in the reign of Mahommed Shah. The British expedition 
in support of Shah Shuj'a, which may be called its natural conse- 
quence, involves a question foreign to the present narrative. 

The remainder of the king's reign was marked by new difficulties 
with the British government; the rebellion of Aga Khan Mahlati 
otherwise known as the chief of the Assassins; a new rupture with 
Turkey; the banishment of the asafu'd-daula, governor of Khorasan, 
followed by the insurrection and defeat of his son; and the rise of 
Babiism (q.v.). The first of these only calls for any detailed account. 

In the demands of the British Government was included the 
cession by Persia of places such as Farah and Sabzewar, which had 
niffi it been taken during the war from the Afghans, as well 

ith as reparation for the violence offered to the courier of 

. . the British legation. M'Neill gave a certain time for 
decision, at the end of which, no satisfactory reply 
having reached him, he broke off diplomatic relations, ordered the 
British officers lent to the shah to proceed towards Bagdad en route 
to India, and retired to Erzerum with the members of his mission. 
On the Persian side, charges were made against M'Neill, and a 
special envoy was sent to England to support them. An endeavour 
was at the same time made to interest the cabinets of Europe in 
influencing the British government on behalf of Persia. The 
envoy managed to obtain an interview with the minister of foreign 
affairs in London, who, in July 1839, supplied him with a statement, 
fuller than before, of all English demands upon his country. Con- 
siderable delay ensued, but the outcome of the whole proceedings 
was not only acceptance but fulfilment of all the engagements 
contracted. In the meantime the island of Kharak had been taken 
possession of by an expedition from India. 

On the nth of October 1841 a new mission arrived at Teheran 
from London, under John (afterwards Sir John) M'Neill, to renew 
diplomatic relations. It was most cordially received by the shah, 
and as one of its immediate results, Kharak was evacuated by the 
British-Indian troops. 

There had been a long diplomatic correspondence in Europe on 
the proceedings of Count Simonich and other Russian officers at 
Herat. Among the papers is a very important letter from Count 
Nesselrode to Count Pozzo di Borgo in which Russia declares herself 
to be the first to counsel the shah to acquiesce in the demand made 
upon him, because she found " justice on the side of England " and 
" wrong on the side of Persia." She withdrew her agent from 
Kandahar and would " not have with the Afghans any relations 
but those of commerce, and in no wise any political interests." 

Aga Khan's rebellion was fostered by the defection to his cause 
of a large portion of the force sent against him ; but he yielded at 
last to the local authorities of Kerman and fled the province and 
country. He afterwards resided many years at Bombay, where, 
while maintaining among natives a quasi-spiritual character, he was 
better known among Europeans for his doings on the turf. 

The quarrel with Turkey was generally about frontier relations. 
Eventually the matter was referred to an Anglo-Russian commission, 
of which Colonel Williams (afterwards Sir Fenwick Williams of Kars) 
was president. A massacre of Persians at Kerbela might have 
seriously complicated the dispute, but, after a first burst of indigna- 
tion and call for vengeance, an expression of the regret of the 
Ottoman government was accepted as a sufficient apology for the 
occurrence. 

The rebellion of the asafu 'd-daula, maternal uncle of the shah, 
was punished by exile, while his son, after giving trouble to his 
opponents, and once gaining a victory over them, took shelter with 
the Turcomans. 

Before closing the reign of Mahommed Shah note should be taken 
of a prohibition to import African slaves into Persia, and a com- 
mercial treaty with England recorded by Watson as gratifying 
achievements of the period by British diplomatists. The French 
missions in which occur the names of MM. de Lavalette and de 
Sartiges were notable in their way, but somewhat barren of results. 

In the autumn of 1848 the shah was seized with the malady, 
or combination of maladies, which caused his death. Gout and 
erysipelas had, it is said, 1 ruined his constitution, and he died at 
his palace in Shimran on the 4th of September. He was buried at 
Kum, where is situated the shrine of Fatima, daughter of Imam 
Riza, by the side of his grandfather, Path 'Ali, and other kings 
of Persia. In person he is described as short and fat, with an 
aquiline nose and agreeable countenance. 2 

On the occasion of his father's death, Nasru 'd-Din Mirza, who 

had been proclaimed wall 'ahd, or heir apparent, some years before, 

was absent at Tabriz, the headquarters of his province of 

Azerbaijan. Colonel Farrant, then charg6 d affaires on 

the part of the British government, in the absence of 

Colonel Sheil, who had succeeded Sir John M'Neill, had, 

in anticipation of the shah's decease and consequent trouble, sent 

a messenger to summon him instantly to Teheran. The British 

officer, moreover, associated himself with Prince Dolgoruki, the 

representative of Russia, to secure the young prince's accession. 



1 Watson. 



2 Markham. 



The queen-mother, as president of the council, showed much 
judgment and capacity in conciliating adverse parties. But the 
six or seven weeks which passed between the death of the one king 
and the coronation of the other proved a disturbed interval, and full 
of stirring incident. The old minister, Hajji Mirza Aghasi, shut 
| himself up in the royal palace with 1200 followers, and had to take 
refuge in the sanctuary of Shah 'Abdul-'Azim near Teheran. On 
the other hand Mirza Aga Khan, a partisan of the asafu 'd-daula, 
and himself an ex-minister of war, whom the hajji had caused to be 
banished, was welcomed back to the capital. At Isafahan, Shiraz 
and Kerman serious riots took place, which were with difficulty 
suppressed. While revolution prevailed in the city, robbery was 
rife in the province of Yezd ; and from Kazvin the son of 'Ali Mirza 
otherwise called the " zillu's-sultan," the prince-governor of Teheran, 
who disputed the succession of Mahommed Shah, came forth to 
contest the crown with his cousin, the heir-apparent. The last- 
named incident soon came to an inglorious termination for its hero. 
But a more serious revolt was in full force at Meshed when, on the 
2oth of October 1848, the young shah entered his capital and was 
crowned at midnight king of Persia. 

The chief events in the long reign of Nasru 'd-Din, fall under 
four heads: (l) the insurrection in Khorasan, (2) the insurrection 
of the Babis, (3) the fall of the amiru 'n-nizam, and (4) the war with 
England. 

It has been stated that the asafu 'd-daula was a competitor 
with Hajji Mirza Aghasi for the post of premier in the cabinet of 
Mahommed Shah, that he was afterwards, in the same 
reign, exiled for rising in rebellion, and that his son, ' 
the salar, took shelter with the Turcomans. Some tri. or , aa 
four months prior to the Mahommed Shah's decease 
the latter chief had reappeared in arms against his authority; he 
had gained possession of Meshed itself, driving the prince-governor, 
Hamza Mirza, into the citadel; and so firm was his attitude that 
Yar Mahommed of Herat, who had come to help the government 
officials, had retired after a fruitless co-operation, drawing away 
the prince-governor also. The salar now defied Murad Mirza, 
Nasru 'd-Din's uncle, who was besieging the city. In April 1850, 
after a siege of more than eighteen months, fortune turned against 
the bold insurgent, and negotiations were opened for the surrender 
of the town and citadel. Treachery may have had to do with the 
result, for when the shah's troops entered the holy city the salar 
sought refuge in the mosque of Imam Riza, and was forcibly expelled. 
He and his brother were seized and put to death, the instrument 
used being, according to Watson, " the bowstring of Eastern story." 
The conqueror of Meshed, Murad Mirza, became afterwards himself 
the prince-governor of Khorasan. 

In the article on BABIISM, the facts as to the life of the Bab, Mirza 
Ali Mahommed of Shiraz, and the progress of the Babiist movement, 
are separately noticed. The Bab himself was executed 0-1,, 
in 1850, but only after serious trouble over the new Ba "" s - 
religious propaganda; and his followers kept up the revolutionary 
propaganda. 

In the summer of 1852 the shah was attacked, while riding in 
the vicinity of Teheran, by four Babis, one of whom fired a pistol 
and slightly wounded him. The man "was killed, and two others 
were captured by the royal attendants; the fourth jumped down 
a well. The existence of a conspiracy was then discovered in 
which some forty persons were implicated; and ten of the con- 
spirators were put to death some under cruel torture. 

Mirza Taki, the amiru 'n-nizam (vulgarly amir nizam), or com- 
mander-in-chief, was a good specimen of the self-made man of 
Persia. He was the son of a cook of Bahram Mirza, Mahommed 
Shah's brother, and he had filled high and important _, 
offices of state and amassed much wealth when he was Vjv ' .. 
made by the young shah Nasru 'd-Din, on his accession, 
both his brother-in-law and his prime-minister. The choice was an 
admirable one; he was honest, hard-working, and liberal according 
to his lights; and the services of a loyal and capable adviser were 
secured for the new regime. Unfortunately, he did not boast the 
confidence of the queen- mother; and this circumstance greatly 
strengthened the hands of those enemies whom an honest minister 
must ever raise around him in a corrupt Oriental state. For a 
time the shah closed his eyes to the accusations and insinuations 
against him ; but at last he fell under the evil influence of designing 
counsellors, and acts which should have redounded to the minister's 
credit became the charges on which he lost his office and his life. 
He was credited with an intention to grasp in his own hands the 
royal power; his influence over the army was cited as a cause of 
danger; and on the night of the I3th of November 1851 he \yas 
summoned to the palace and informed that he was no longer premier. 
Mirza Aga Khan, the " 'itimadu "d-daulah," was named to succeed 
him, and had been accordingly raised to the dignity of " sadr'azim." 
As the hostile faction pressed the necessity of the ex-minister's 
removal from the capital; he was offered the choice of the govern- 
ment of Fars, Isfahan or Kum. He declined all; but, through 
the mediation of Colonel Sheil, he was afterwards offered and accepted 
Kashan. Forty days after his departure an order for his execution 
was signed, but he anticipated his fate by committing suicide. 

When England was engaged in the Crimean War of 1854-55 ner 
alliance with a Mahommedan power in no way added to her 



242 



PERSIA 



[1884-1901 



popularity or strengthened her position in Persia. The Sunnite 
Turk was almost a greater enemy to his neighbour the Shi'ite than 
the formidable Muscovite, who had curtailed him of 
Rupture SQ i ar g e a section of his territory west of the Caspian. 
"'"* . Since Sir John M'Neill's arrival in Teheran in 1841, 
England. f orrna i]y t o repair the breach with Mahommed Shah, 
there had been little differences, demands and explanations, and these 
symptoms had culminated in 1856, the year of the peace with 
Russia. As to Afghanistan, the vizier Yar Mahommed had in 
1842, when the British troops were perishing in the passes, or 
otherwise in the midst of dangers, caused Kamran to be suffocated 
in his prison. Since that event he had himself reigned supreme in 
Herat, and, dying in 1851, was succeeded by his son Sa'id Mahommed. 
This chief soon entered upon a series of intrigues in the Persian 
interests, and, among other acts offensive to Great Britain, suffered 
one 'Abbas Kuli, who had, under guise of friendship, betrayed the 
cause of the salar at Meshed, to occupy the citadel of Herat, and 
again place a detachment of the shah's troops in Ghurian. Colonel 
Sheil remonstrated, and obtained a new engagement of non- 
interference with Herat from the Persian government, as well as 
the recall of 'Abbas Kuli. In September 1855 Mahommed Yusuf 
Saduzai seized upon Herat, putting Sa'id Mahommed to death 
with some of his followers who were supposed accomplices in the 
murder of his uncle Kamran. About this time Kohan Dil Khan, 
one of the chiefs of Kandahar, died, and Dost Mahommed of Kabul 
annexed the city to his territory. Some relations of the deceased 
chief made their escape to Teheran, and the shah, listening to their 
complaint, directed the prince-governor of Meshed to march across 
to the eastern frontier and occupy Herat, declaring that an invasion 
of Persia was imminent. Negotiations were useless, and on the 1st 
of November 1856 war against Persia was declared. 

In less than three weeks after its issue by proclamation of the 
governor-general of India, the Sind division of the field force left 
Karachi. On the l$th of January following the Bombay govern- 
ment orders notified the formation of a second division under 
Lieut. -General Sir James Outram. Before the general arrived 
the island of Kharak and port of Bushire had both been occupied, 
and the fort of Rishir had been attacked and carried. After 
the general's arrival the march upon Borazjan and the engage- 
ment at Khushab two places on the road to Shiraz and the 
operations at Muhamrah and the Karun River decided the cam- 
paign in favour of England. On the 5th of April, at Muhamrah, 
Sir James Outram received the news that the treaty of peace had 
been signed in Paris, where Lord Cowley and Farrukh Khan had 
conducted the negotiations. The stipulations regarding Herat were 
much as before ; but there were to be apologies made to the mission 
for past insolence and rudeness, and the slave trade was to be sup- 
pressed in the Persian Gulf. With the exception of a small force 
retained at Bushire under General John Jacob for the three months 
assigned for execution of the ratifications and giving effect to certain 
stipulations of the treaty with regard to Afghanistan, the British 
troops returned to India, where their presence was greatly needed, 
owing to the outbreak of the Mutiny. 

The question of constructing a telegraph in Persia as a link in 
the overland line to connect England with India was broached in 
Teheran by Colonel Patrick Stewart and Captain 
Anglo- Champain, officers of engineers, in 1862, and an agree- 
h/ / on *' le su bjcct concluded by Edward Eastwick, 

graph Line. w j len cnar ge d'affaires, at the close of that year. Three 
years later a more formal convention, including a second wire, was 
signed by the British envoy Charles Alison and the Persian foreign 
minister; meantime the work had been actively carried on, and 
communication opened on the one side between Bushire and Karachi 
and the Makran coast by cable, and on the other between Bushire 
and Bagdad via Teheran. The untrustworthy character of the 
line through Asiatic Turkey caused a subsequent change of direction; 
and an alternative line the Indo-European from London to 
Teheran, through Russia and along the eastern shores of the Black 
Sea, was constructed, and has worked well since 1872, in conjunction 
with the Persian land telegraph system and the Bushire-Karachi 
line. 

The Seistan mission, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Fred- 
eric) Goldsmid, left England in August 1870, and reached Teheran 
on the 3rd of October. Thence it proceeded to Isfahan, from which 
city it moved to Baluchistan, instead of seeking its original destina- 
tion. Difficulties had arisen both in arranging the preliminaries 
to arbitration and owing to the disordered state of Afghanistan, and 
it was therefore deemed advisable to commence operations by 
settling a frontier dispute between Persia and the Kalat state. 
Unfortunately, the obstructions thrown in the way of this settle- 
ment by the Persian commissioner, the untoward appearance at 
Bampur of an unexpected body of Kalatis, and the absence of 
definite instructions marred the fulfilment of the programme 
sketched out; but a line of boundary was proposed, which was 
afterwards accepted by the litigants. In the following year the 
same mission, accompanied by the same Persian commissioner, 
proceeded to Seistan, where it remained for more than five weeks, 
prosecuting its inquiries, until joined by another mission from 
India, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Richard) Pollock, 
accompanying the Afghan commissioner. Complications then 



ensued by the determined refusal of the two native officials to meet 
in conference; and the arbitrator had no course available but to 
take advantage of the notes already obtained on the spot, and 
return with them to Teheran, there to deliver his decision. This 
was done on the I9th of August 1872. The contending parties 
appealed to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, as 
provided by previous understanding; but the decision held good, 
and was eventually accepted on both sides. 

Nasru 'd-Din Shah, unlike his predecessors, visited Europe 
in 1873 and in 1879. On the first occasion only he extended his 
journey to England, and was then attended by his " sadr "azim," 
or prime minister, Mirza Husain Khan, an able and enlightened 
adviser, and a Grand Cross of the Star of India. His second visit 
was to Russia, Germany, France and Austria, but he did not cross 
the Channel. (F. J. G. ; X.) 

E. Persia from 1884 to igoi. 

In 1865 the shah had mooted the idea of a Persian naval 
flotilla in the Persian Gulf, to consist of two or three steamers 
manned by Arabs and commanded by English naval f heCaatro i 
officers; but the idea was discountenanced by the O fthn 
British government, to whom it was known that the Persian 
project really concealed aggressive designs upon Qult - 
the independence of the islands and pearl fisheries of Bah- 
rein (Curzon, Persia, ii. 294). Fifteen or sixteen years later 
it was repeatedly pointed out to the authorities that the revenues 
from the customs of the Persian Gulf would be much increased 
if control were exercised at all the ports, particularly the small 
ones where smuggling was being carried on on a large scale, 
and in 1883 the shah decided upon the acquisition of four or 
five steamers, one to be purchased yearly, and instructed the 
late 'Ali Kuli Khan, Mukhber ad-daulah, minister of telegraphs, 
to obtain designs and estimates from British and German firms. 
The tender of a well-known German firm at Bremerhaven was 
finally accepted, and one of the minister's sons then residing in 
Berlin made the necessary contracts for the first steamer. Sir 
Ronald Thomson, the British representative in Persia, having 
at the same time induced the shah to consider the advantages 
to Persia of opening the Karun River and connecting it with 
Teheran by a carriageable road, a small river steamer for con- 
trolling the shipping on the Karun was ordered as well, and the 
construction of the road was decided upon. Two steamers, the 
" Susa " and the " Persepolis," were completed in January 1885 
at a cost of 32,000, and despatched with German officers and 
crew to the Persian Gulf. When the steamers were ready to 
do the work they had been intended for, the farmer, or farmers, 
of the Gulf customs raised difficulties and objected to pay the 
cost of maintaining the " Persepolis "; the governor of Muham- 
rah would not allow any interference with what he considered 
his hereditary rights of the shipping monopoly on the Karun, 
and the objects for which the steamers had been brought were 
not attained. The " Persepolis " remained idle at Bushire, 
and the " Susa " was tied up in the Failieh creek, near Muham- 
rah. The scheme of opening the Karun and of constructing a 
carriageable road from Ahvaz to Teheran was also abandoned. 

Frequent interruptions occurred on the telegraph line between 
Teheran and Meshed in 1885, at the time of the " Panjdeh incident," 
when the Russians were advancing towards Afghanistan and Sir 
Peter Lumsden was on the Afghan frontier; and Sir Ronald Thomson 
concluded an agreement with the Persian government for the line 
to be kept in working order by an English inspector, the Indian 
government paying a share not exceeding 20,000 rupees per annum 
of the cost of maintenance, and an English signaller being stationed 
at Meshed. Shortly afterwards Sir Ronald Thomson left Persia 
(he died on the I5th of November 1888), and Arthur (afterwards Sir 
Arthur) Nicolson was appointed charge d'affaires. During the 
latter's tenure of office an agreement was concluded between the 
Persian and British governments regarding the British telegraph 
settlement at Jask, and the telegraph conventions of 1868 and 1872 
relative to telegraphic communication between Europe and India 
through Persia, in force until the 1st of January 1895, were pro- 
longed until the 3ist of January 1905 by two conventions dated 
the 3rd of July 1887. Since then these conventions have been 
prolonged to 1925. 

Ayub Khan, son of Shir 'Ali (Shere Ali) of Afghanistan, who had 
taken refuge in Persia in October 1881, and was kept interned in 
Teheran under an agreement, concluded on the I7th of April 1884, 
between Great Britain and Persia, with a pension of 8000 per annum 
from the British government escaped on the I4th of August 1887. 
After a futile attempt to enter Afghan territory and raise a revolt 



1884-1901] 



PERSIA 



243 



Shah's 

Visit to 
Europe, 
1889. 



against the Amir Abdur Rahman, he gave himself up to the British 
consul-general at Meshed in the beginning of November, and was 
sent under escort to the Turkish frontier and thence via Bagdad to 
India. Yahya Khan, Mushir-ad-daulah, the Persian minister for 
foreign affairs (died 1892), who was supposed to have connived at 
Ayub Khan's escape in order to please his Russian friends, was 
dismissed from office. 

In December 1887 Sir Henry Drummond Wolff was appointed 
minister to Persia. The appointment greatly pleased the Persian 
court, and the shah lent a willing ear to his advocacy for the 
development of trade and commerce, construction of roads, abolition 
of various restrictions hampering Persian merchants, &c. The 
shah soon afterwards (May 26, 1888) issued a proclamation assuring 
freedom of life and property to all his subjects, and (Oct. 30) 
declared the Karun river open to international navigation up to 
Ahvaz. At about the same time he appointed Amin-es-Sultan, 
who had been prime-minister since 1884, Grand Vizier (Sadr 'azim). 
In the same year (June 25) the first railway in Persia, a small line 
of 5J miles from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim, was opened under 
the auspices of a Belgian company. A few months later (Jan. 30, 
1889) Baron Julius de Reuter in consideration of giving up the 
rights which he held by his concession obtained in 1873 became 
the owner of a concession for the formation of a Persian State 
Bank, with exclusive rights of issuing bank-notes and working the 
mines of iron, copper, lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese, 
borax, and asbestos in Persia. Russia now insisted upon what she 
considered a corresponding advantage; and Prince Dolgoruki, the 
Russian minister, obtaineJin February 1889 a document from the 
shah which gave to Russia the refusal of any railway concession 
in Persia for a period of five years. The Persian State Bank was 
established by British royal charter, dated the 2nd of September 

1889, and started business in Persia (Oct. 23) as the " Imperial Bank 
of Persia." The railway agreement with Russia was changed in 
November 1890 into one interdicting all railways whatsoever in 
Persia. 

In April 1889 the shah set out upon his third voyage to Europe. 
After a visit to the principal courts, including a stay of a month 
in England, where he was accompanied by Sir Henry 
Drummond Wolff, he returned to his capital (Oct. 20). 
Sir Henry returned to Persia soon afterwards, and in 
March of the following year the Persian government 
granted another important concession, that of a tobacco 
monopoly, to British capitalists. In the autumn bad health obliged 
the British minister to leave Persia. It was during his stay in England 
that the shah, for two or three days without his grand vizier, who was 
mourning for the death of his brother, listened to bad advice and 
granted a concession for the monopoly of lotteries in Persia to a 
Persian subject. The latter ceded the concession to a British 
syndicate for 40,000. Very soon afterwards the shah was made 
aware of the evil results of this monopoly, and withdrew the con- 
cession, but the syndicate did not get the money paid for it returned. 
This unfortunate affair had the effect of greatly discrediting Persia 
on the London Stock Exchange for a long time. The concession 
for the tobacco monopoly was taken up by the Imperial Tobacco 
Corporation (1891). The corporation encountered opposition 
fostered by the clergy, and after a serious riot at Teheran (Jan. 4, 
1892) the Persian government withdrew the concession and agreed 
to pay an indemnity of 500,000 (April 5, 1892). In order to pay 
this amount Persia contracted the 6% loan of 500,000 through 
the Imperial Bank of Persia, which was redeemed in 1900 out of 
the proceeds of the Russian 5 % loan of that year. (For details 
of the tobacco concession and an account of the events which led to 
its withdrawal, see E. Lorini, La Persia economica, Rome, 1900, 
pp. 164169; and Dr Feuvrier, Trois ans a la cour de Perse, Paris, 

1890, en. v., the latter ascribing the failure of the tobacco monopoly 
to Russian intrigue.) 

In November 1889 Malcolm Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, who had 
been Persian representative to the court of Great Britain since 
October 1872, was recalled, and Mirza Mahommed 'AH Khan, consul- 
general at Tiflis, was appointed in his stead, arriving in London 
the following March. In 1890 the scheme of a carriageable road 
from Teheran to Ahvaz was taken up again; the Imperial Bank of 
Persia obtained a concession, and work of construction was begun 
in the same year, and continued until 1893. In this year, too, the 
mining rights of the Imperial Bank of Persia were ceded to the 
Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation, and a number of engineers 
were sent out to Persia. The total absence of easy means of com- 
munication, the high rates of transport, and the scarcity of fuel 
and water in the mineral districts made profitable operations 
impossible, and the corporation liquidated in 1894, after having 
expended a large sum of money. 

Great excitement was caused in the summer of 1891 by the report 

that an English girl, Kate Greenfield, had been forcibly carried 

away from her mother's house at Tabriz by a Kurd. 

*, a<e The British authorities demanded the girl's restitu- 

* tion from the Persian government. The Kurd, a 

Turkish subject, refused to give up the girl, and took 

her to Saujbulagh. The Turkish authorities protected him, and 

serious complications were imminent; but finally an interview 

between the girl and the British agent was arranged, and the matter 



I was promptly settled by her declaring that she had left her mother's 
house of her own accord, and was the wife of the Kurd. It also 
became known that she was the daughter of a British-protected 
Hungarian named Griinfeld, who had died some years since, and 
an American lady of Tabriz. 

Sir Frank Lascelles, who had been appointed minister to Persia 
in July, arrived at Teheran in the late autumn of 1891. In the 
following year Persia had a visitation of cholera. In Teheran and 
surrounding villages the number of fatal cases exceeded 28,000, or 
about 8% of the population. In 1893 the epidemic appeared 
again, but in a milder form. In June 1893 Persia ceded to Russia 
the small but very fertile and strategically important district of 
Firuza and the adjacent lands between Baba Durmaz and Lutfabad 
on the northern frontier of Khorasan, and received in exchange 
the important village of Hissar and a strip of desert ground near 
Abbasabad on the frontier of Azerbaijan, which had become Russian 
territory in 1828, according to the Treaty of Turkmanchai. 

Sir Frank Lascelles left Persia in the early part of 1894, and 
was succeeded by Sir Mortimer Durand, who was appointed in 
July and arrived in Teheran in November. In the 
following year the shah, by a firman dated the I2th of 
May gave the exclusive right of exploring ancient sites ^ 
in Persia to the French government, with the stipula- . 

tion that one-half of the discovered antiquities, except- 
ing those of gold and silver and precious stones, should belong to 
the French government, which also had the preferential right 
of acquiring by purchase the other half and any of the other anti- 
quities which the Persian government might wish to dispose of. 
In 1897 M. J. de Morgan, who had been on a scientific mission in 
Persia some years before and later in Egypt, was appointed chief 
of a mission to Persia, and began work at Susa in December. 

On the 1st of May 1896 Nasur 'd-Din Shah was assassinated while 
paying his devotions at the holy shrine of Shah-abdul-Azim. Five 
days later he would have entered the fiftieth (lunar) 
year of his reign, and great preparations for duly cele- * ssa * " 
brating the jubilee had been made throughout the 
country. The assassin was a small tradesman of 
Kerrnan named Mirza Reza, who had resided a short time in Con- 
stantinople and there acquired revolutionary and anarchist ideas 
from Kemalu 'd-Din, the so-called Afghan sheikh, who, after being 
very kindly treated by the shah, preached revolution and 
anarchy at Teheran, fled to Europe, visited London, and finally 
took up his residence in Constantinople. Kemalu 'd-Din was 
a native of Hamadan and a Persian subject, and as the assassin 
repeatedly stated that he was the sheikh's emissary and had 
acted by his orders, the Persian government demanded the ex- 
tradition of Kemal from the Porte; but during the protracted 
negotiations which followed he died. Mirza Reza was hanged 
on the 1 2th of August 1896. There were few troubles in the 
country when the news of the shah's death became known. 
Serious rioting arose only in Shiraz and Fars, where some persons 
lost their lives and a number of caravans were looted. European 
firms who had lost goods during these troubles were afterwards 
indemnified by the Persian government. The new shah, Muzaffar- 
ud-Din (born March 25, 1853), then governor-general of Azerbaijan, 
residing at Tabriz, was enthroned there on the day of his father's 
death, and proceeded a few days later, accompanied by the British 
and Russian consuls, to Teheran, where he arrived on the 8th of 
June. 

An excessive copper coinage during the past three or four years 
had caused much distress among the poorer classes since the 
beginning of the year, and the small trade was almost 
paralysed. Immediately after his accession the shah 
decreed that the coining of copper money should 
cease and the excess of the copper coinage be withdrawn from 
circulation. In order to reduce the price of meat, the meat tax, 
which had existed since ancient times was abolished. The Imperial 
Bank of Persia, which had already advanced a large sum. of money, 
and thereby greatly facilitated the shah's early departure from 
Tabriz and enabled the grand vizier at Teheran to carry on the 
government, started buying up the copper coinage at all its branches 
and agencies. The nominal value of the copper money was 20 
shahis equal to I kran, but in some places the copper money cir- 
culated at the rate of 80 shahis to the kran, less than its intrinsic 
value; at other places the rates varied between 70 and 25 shahis, 
and the average circulating value in all Persia was over 40. If 
government had been able to buy up the excess at 40 and reissue it 
gradually after a time at its nominal value when the people required 
it, the loss would have been small. But although the transport of 
copper money from place to place had been strictly prohibited, 
dishonest officials found means to traffic in copper money on their 
own account, and by buying it where it was cheap and forwarding it 
to cities where it was dear, the bank bought it at high rates, thus 
rendering the arrangement for a speedy withdrawal of the excess 
at small cost to government futile. It was only in 1899 that the 
distress caused by the excessive copper coinage ceased, and then 
only at very great loss to government. The well-intentioned 
abolition of the tax on meat also had not the desired result, for by 
a system of " cornering " the price of meat rose to more than it 
was before. 



244 



PERSIA 



[1902-1909 



In the autumn of 1896 the grand vizier (Amin-es-Sultan) en- 
countered much hostility from some members of the shah's 
entourage and various high personages. Amin-ad- 
daulah was appointed chief administrator (vizier) of 
I896 g i898 Azerbaijan and sent to Tabriz. Shortly afterwards 
' the grand vizier found it impossible to carry on his 
work, resigned, and retired to Kum (Nov. 24), and the shah formed 
a cabinet composed for the greater part of the leading members 
of the opposition to the grand vizier. After three months of the 
new regime affairs of state fell into arrears, and the most important 
department, that of the interior, was completely disorganized. 
The shah accordingly recalled Amin-ad-daulah from_ Tabriz (Feb. 
1897), and appointed him minister president (rai's-i-vuzara) and 
minister of the interior. In June Amin-ad-daulah was made 
prime minister (vizir "azirn) and given more extended powers, 
and in August raised to the dignity of grand vizier (sadr 'azim). 
Nasru '1-Mulk was appointed minister of finance (Feb. 1898), and 
made an attempt to introduce a simple system of accounts, establish 
a budget, reorganize the revenue department, made a new assess- 
ment of the land-tax, &c. ; but resistance on the part of the officials 
rendered it abortive. 

In the latter part of 1897 E. Graves, the inspector of the English 
telegraph line from Jask eastwards, was brutally murdered by 
Baluchis, and the agents of the Persian government sent to seize 
the murderers were resisted by the tribes. A considerable district 
breaking out into open revolt, troops under the command of the 
governor-general of Kerman were despatched into Baluchistan. The 
port of Fannoch was taken in March 1898, and order was restored. 
One of the murderers was hanged at Jask (May 31). 

Various attempts to obtain a foreign loan had been made during 
the previous year, but with the sole result of discrediting the 
Persian government in Europe. In the beginning of 
Abortive jg^g t jj e sna ji' s medical advisers strongly recommended 
uh'z cu . re f mineral waters in Germany or France, and 
as his departure from Persia without paying the arrears 
7^g to the army and to thousands of functionaries, or 

providing a sufficient sum for carrying on the govern- 
ment during his absence, would have created grave discontent, 
serious negotiations for a loan were entered upon. It was estimated 
that 1,000,000 would be required to pay all debts, including the 
balance of the 1892 loan, and leave a surplus sufficient for carrying 
on the government until the shah's return.. London capitalists 
offered to float a loan for i ,250,000 at 5 % and on the guarantee 
of the customs of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and to give 
1,025,000, or 82% to the Persian government. They stipulated 
for a kind of control over the custom-houses by placing their own 
agents as cashiers in them. This stipulation was agreed to in prin- 
ciple by the grand vizier, Amin ad-daulah, who in March, in order 
to meet some pressing demands on the treasury borrowed 50,000 
on the customs receipts of Kermanshah and Bushire, and agreed 
to the lenders, the Imperial Bank of Persia's agents, being placed 
as cashiers in the custom-houses of both cities. He encountered, 
however, much opposition from the other ministers. Further 
negotiations ensued, and the shah's visit to Europe was abandoned. 
The assistance of the British government not being forthcoming, 
the grand vizier's position became more and more difficult, and 
on the 5th of June he had to resign. Muhsin Khan, Mushir-ad- 
daulah, minister for foreign affairs, then became president of the 
cabinet, and continued the negotiations, but could not bring hem 
to a successful issue. Moreover, the Persian government, finding 
that the previous estimate of the money required for paying its 
debts was about 50% below the mark, now asked for double the 
amount offered by the London capitalists, _without, however, 
proportionately increasing the guarantee. This disorganized all 
previous arrangements, and the negotiations for a London loan came 
to an end for a time at the end of July, leaving in the minds of the 
Persians the unfortunate impression that the British government 
had done nothing to aid them. 

On the 9th of July the former grand vizier, Amin-es-Sultan, was 
recalled from Kum, where he had resided since November 1896, 
arrived at Teheran three days later, and was reinstated as grand 
vizier on the loth of August. His immense popularity, his friendly 
relations with the clergy, and some temporary advances from the 
banks, tided over difficulties for some time. The reform of 
the customs department was now (Sept. 1898) taken up seriously, 
and the three Belgian custom-house officials who had been engaged 
by Amin-ad-daulah in the beginning of the year were instructed 
to collect information and devise a scheme for the reorganization 
of the department and the abolition of the farm system. In March 
1899 the custom-houses of the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kerman- 
shah were given over to the Belgians. The results of this step 
were so satisfactory that government was induced to abolish the 
farm system and set up the new regime in the other provinces in 
March 1900, and a number of other Belgian custom-houses officials 
were engaged. 

In September, when renewed negotiations for a loan from London 
were_ not appearing to progress favourably, and the long-thought- 
of visit to Europe was considered to be absolutely necessary in 
the following year, the shah issued a firman authorizing the Russian 
Banque des Prgts de Perse to float a loan. Shortly after this it was 



said that the London capitalists were willing to lend 1,250,000 
without insisting upon the objectionable control clause; but the 
proposal came too late, and on the 3Oth of January 
1900, the Russian government had permitted the issue "' 
of a loan for 22i million roubles (2,400,000) at 5%, 
guaranteed by all the customs receipts of Persia, ex- 
cepting those for Fars and the Persian Gulf ports. Only in the 
event of any default of paying instalments and interests was the 
bank 'co be given control of the custom-houses. Persia received 
85 % of the nominal capital, and the Russian government guar- 
anteed the bondholders. Money was immediately remitted to 
Teheran, and nearly all the arrears were paid, while the balance 
of the 1892 London 6% loan was paid off by direct remittance 
to London. 

Sir Mortimer Durand left Teheran in the early spring, and pro- 
ceeded to Europe on leave. On the 1 2th of April the shah, accom- 
panied by the grand vizier and a numerous suite, 
started on his voyage to Europe. The affairs of State Sbab's 
during his absence were entrusted to a council of Visits to 
ministers, under the presidency of his second son, Europe, 
Malik Mansur Mirza, Shua-es-Sultaneh, who had made 1900, 1902. 
a long stay on the Continent the year before. 

After a residence of a month at Contrexeville, the shah proceeded 
(July 14) to St Petersburg, and thence to Paris (July 29), intending 
to go to London on the 8th of August. But on account of the 
mourning in which several courts were thrown through the death 
of the king of Italy (July 29) and the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
(July 30), the visits to England, Germany and Italy were abandoned. 
On the 2nd of August an anarchist made an attempt upon the shah's 
life in Paris. 

F. Riisso- British Rivalry (1902- 1907) and the Persian 
Revolution (1906-1909}. 

In 1902 Muzaffar-ud-Dln Shah revisited the principal European 
capitals, and was received by King Edward VII. at Portsmouth 
in August. A mission headed by Viscount Downe was after- 
wards despatched to Persia, to invest the shah with the order of 
the Garter, a ceremony which took place in Teheran on the 2nd 
of February 1903. A week later, a new commercial treaty was 
concluded between Great Britain and Persia, which instituted 
various reforms in the customs service, secured to both countries 
the " most-favoured-nation " treatment, and substituted specific 
import and export duties for the charge of 5% ad valorem 
provided for in the treaty of 1857. These provisions to some 
extent counterbalanced the losses inflicted on British trade by 
the Russo-Persian commercial treaty signed in 1902, which had 
seriously damaged the Indian tea trade, and had led to a rapid 
extension of Russian influence. Between 1899 and 1903 the 
Russian Bank had lent Persia 4,000,000, of which fully half 
was paid to the shah for his personal requirements. Russian 
concessionnaires were given the right to build roads from Tabriz 
to Teheran (1902) and from Tabriz to Kazvin (1903); and the 
Russian Bank opened new branches in Seistan an example 
followed in 1903 by the Bank of Persia. It was, however, in 
the Persian Gulf that the rivalry between Great Britain and 
Russia threatened to become dangerous. Great Britain had 
almost a monopoly of maritime commerce in the Gulf, and was 
alone responsible for buoying, lighting and policing its waters. 
Trie British claim to political supremacy in this region had thus 
a solid economic basis; it had been emphasized by the British 
action at Kuwet (q.v.) in 1899, and by the declaration made in 
the House of Lords by Lord Lansdowne, as secretary of state 
for foreign affairs, to the effect that Great Britain would resist 
by all means in its power the attempt of any other nation to 
establish itself in force on the shores of the Gulf. On the i6th 
of November 1903, Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, sailed 
from Karachi for the Persian Gulf. His ship, the " Hardinge," 
was escorted by four cruisers, and the voyage was regarded as a 
political demonstration, to be interpreted in connexion with 
Lord Lansdowne's declaration. At Bushire, on the ist of 
December, the Persian governor of Fars, Ala ad-daula, com- 
mitted a breach of diplomatic etiquette which induced Lord 
Curzon to sail away without landing. This incident was con- 
sidered by some British observers to have been brought about 
by Russian intrigue, and the fact that Ala ad-daula was dis- 
missed in 1904, after the Japanese had achieved several initial 
successes in the Russo-Japanese war, was held to confirm this 
opinion. But Russian financial and commercial influence in 



1902-1909] 



PERSIA 



245 



Persia continued to increase; in December 1904 a special mission 
under Mirza Riza Khan was received in audience by the tsar; 
and in May 1905 Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah himself left Persia to 
visit the courts of Vienna and St Petersburg. 

The Seistan Mission of 1902-190$. A dispute as to the frontier 
between Afghanistan and Seistan arose in 1902. The boundary 
delimited by the Seistan mission of 1870-1872, and known as 
the " Goldsmid line," was drawn along the course of the river 
Helmund. Between 1872 and 1902 the Helmund took a more 
westerly direction; no boundary marks had been erected, and a 
wide strip of territory remained in dispute. The Persians claimed 
that the boundary was the old bed of the river, the Afghans that 
it was the new bed; and in accordance with the treaty of 1857 
both parties asked the British government to arbitrate. In 
January 1903, Colonel Arthur Henry MacMahon, who had 
previously delimited the frontier between Afghanistan and 
British India, was despatched from Quetta. The Persian 
officials were at first hostile, but their opposition, which was 
attributed to Russian influence at Teheran, was eventually 
overcome, and Colonel MacMahon (who was knighted in 1906) 
delivered his final award, sustaining the Persian contention, in 
February 1905. 

British Commercial Missions. Owing to the success of the 
Maclean mission, which visited and reported upon the markets 
and trade-routes of north-western Persia in 1903, under the 
direction of the Board of Trade, a similar mission was sent to 
southern Persia in 1904, under the auspices of the Upper India 
Chamber of Commerce, the Bengal Chamber and the Indian Tea 
Cess Company. The report of this mission (by Gleadowe- 
Newcomen) was published in 1906. After showing that civilized 
government was practically non-existent in the regions visited, 
it suggested as the chief remedy the conclusion of a Russo- 
British convention, and the division of Persia into " spheres of 
influence." 

Russo- British Convention of 1907. The political situation 
created by the Russo-Japanese War and by an internal crisis 
in Persia itself rendered possible such an agreement between the 
two rival powers, and a Russo-British convention was signed 
on the 3ist of August 1907. Its chief provisions, in regard to 
Persia, are as follows: (i) north of a line drawn from Kasr-i- 
Shirin, Isfahan, Yezd and Kakh to the junction of the Russian, 
Persian and Afghan frontiers Great Britain undertook to seek 
no political or commercial concession, and to refrain from 
opposing the acquisition of any such concession by Russia or 
Russian subjects; (2) Russia gave to Great Britain a like under- 
taking in respect of the territory south of a line extending from 
the Afghan frontier to Gazik, Birjend, Kerman and Bander 
Abbasi; (3) the territory between the lines above-mentioned 
was to be regarded as a neutral zone in which either country 
might obtain concessions; (4) all existing concessions in any 
part of Persia were to be respected; (5) should Persia fail to meet 
its liabilities in respect of loans contracted, before the signature 
of the convention, with the Persian Banque d'Escompte and de 
Frets, or with the Imperial Bank of Persia, Great Britain and 
Russia reserved the right to assume control over the Persian 
revenues payable within their respective spheres of influence. 
With this convention was published a letter from the British 
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir E. Grey), stating (i) 
that the Persian Gulf lay outside the scope of the convention, 
(2) that Russia admitted the special interests of Great Britain 
in the Gulf, and (3) that these interests were to be maintained 
by Great Britain as before. 

The Persian Constitution. The misgovernment and disorder 
which were revealed to Europe by the Gleadowe-Newcomen 
report, and by such sporadic outbreaks as the massacre of the 
Babis in Yezd (1903), had caused widespread discontent in 
Persia. In 1905, partly owing to the example shown by the 
revolutionary parties in Russia, this discontent took the form of 
a demand for representative institutions. On the 5th of August 
1906, Muzaffar-ud-Dm Shah issued a rescript in which he under- 
took to form a national council (Majlis) representing the whole 
people (see above, Constitution). The Majlis was duly elected, 



and was opened by the shah in person on the 7th of October 
1906. In January 1907 the shah died, and was succeeded by 
his eldest son, Mahommed 'Ah' Mirza, who on the nth of 
February published a message to his people, pledging himself 
to adhere to the new constitution. 

The Revolution. On the i2th of November the shah visited 
the Majlis, and repeated his pledge, but during December a 
riot in Teheran developed into a political crisis, in which the 
shah's troops were employed against the civil population. The 
Majlis issued a manifesto to the powers, declaring that the shah 
intended to overthrow the constitution, and demanding inter- 
vention. The Russian and British ministers in Teheran urged 
Mahommed 'Ali to maintain the constitution, and he sent a 
message to the Majlis, promising compliance with its demands 
and agreeing to place the whole army under the control of the 
ministry of war. These concessions allayed the prevailing 
unrest for a time, but the Royalist and Nationalist parties 
continued secretly to intrigue against one another, and in 
February 1908, while the shah was driving in Teheran, two 
bombs were exploded under his motor-car. Two persons were 
killed, but the shah was unhurt, and the Majlis formally con- 
gratulated him on his escape. A prolonged ministerial crisis, 
in April and May, was attributed by the Nationalists to the 
influence of reactionary courtiers, and by the Royalists to the 
influence of the Anjumans, or political clubs, which were alleged 
to control the Nationalist majority in the Majlis. Early in 
June the Majlis urged the shah to dismiss the courtiers under 
suspicion. Mahommed 'Ali consented, but withdrew from 
Teheran; and on his departure the royal bodyguard of so-called 
" Cossacks " Persian soldiers officered by Russians in the 
shah's service at once came into conflict with the Nation- 
alists. The house of parliament was bombarded, and when the 
Majlis appointed commissioners to discuss terms, the shah 
issued a manifesto dissolving the Majlis, and entrusted the 
restoration of order in Teheran to military administrators. He 
also proposed to substitute for the elected Majlis a council of 
forty members, nominated by himself; but under pressure from 
Great Britain and Russia he promised to abandon this scheme 
and to order another general election. Meanwhile, civil war 
had broken out in the provinces; Kurdish raiders had sacked 
many villages near Tabriz; Persian brigands had attacked the 
Russian frontier-guards on the borders of Transcaucasia, and 
the indemnity demanded by the tsar's government was not paid 
until several Persian villages had been burned by Russian 
troops. This incident, combined with the employment of the 
so-called Cossacks, evoked a protest from the Nationalists, who 
asserted that Russia was aiding the Royalists; the accusation 
was true only in so far as it referred to the conduct of certain 
Russian officials who acted without the consent of the Russian 
government. Early in 1909, indeed, a Russian force of 2600 
men was sent to watch events near Tabriz, and if necessary to 
intervene in favour of the Nationalists who held the town, and 
had for some months been besieged by the shah's troops. The 
presence of the Russians ultimately induced the Royalists to 
abandon the siege. In January of the same year the revolution 
spread to Isfahan, where the Bakhtiari chiefs made common 
cause with the Nationalists, deposed the Royalist governor and 
marched on the capital. In May and June the shah issued 
proclamations declaring his fidelity to the constitution, and 
promising an amnesty to all political offenders; but he was 
powerless to stay the advance of the combined Bakhtiari and 
Nationalist troops, who entered Teheran on the i3th of July. 
After severe street fighting the Cossacks deserted to the rebels, 
and the shah took refuge in the Russian legation (July 15). 
This was interpreted as an act of abdication; on the same 
day the national council met, and chose Mahommed 'Ali's son, 
Sultan Ahmad Mirza, aged thirteen, as his successor. Asad 
ul-Mulk, head of the Kajar tribe, was appointed regent. On the 
9th of September 1909, the ex-shah departed for his place of 
exile in the Crimea, escorted by Russian Cossacks and Indian 
sowars. On the isth of November a newly elected Majlis was 
formally opened by the shah. 



246 



PERSIA 



[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. General: Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Persia 
and the Persian Question (London, 1892), contains an account of 
European literature relating to Persia (A.D. 900-1901) and numerous 
bibliographical notes. See also Lady [M. L.J Shiel, Life and Manners 
in Persia (London, 1856); Sir A. H. Layard, Early Adventures in 
Persia (London, 1887); S. G. W. Benjamin, Persia and the Persians 
(3rd ed., London, 1891); C. E. Yate, Khurasan and Sistan (Edin- 
burgh, 1900); H. S. Landor, Across Coveted Lands (London, 1902); 
J de Morgan, Mission scientifique (vols. i.-v., 1897-1904); N. 
Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town (Yezd) (London, 1905); 
A. V. W. Jackson, Persia, Past and Present (London, 1906) ; E. C. 
Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907). The works of James 
Morier (q.v.), especially his Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan, 
throw much light on Persian society in the early years of the 
igth century. 

2. History: Sir J. Malcolm, History of Persia (2nd ed., London, 
1829); R. G. Watson, A History of Persia from the Beginning of 
the Nineteenth Century (London, 1873) ; Sir C. R. Markham, A General 
Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874), and Curzon, as quoted 
above, are the standard authorities on modern Persian history. 
The Travels of Pedro Teixeira (London, 1902) and other publications 
of the Hakluyt Society relating to Persia are also of great historical 
value. For more recent events see the reports of the Gleadowe- 
Newcomen and MacMahon missions: E. G. Browne, The Persian 
Revolution of /poj-op (London, loio); A. Hamilton, Problems of the 
Middle East (London, 1909) ; V. Chirol, The Middle Eastern Question 
(London, 1904) ; E. <C. Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907). 
The commercial convention of 1903 is given in Treaty series, 
No. 10 (London, 1903), the Russo-British convention in Treaty 
series, No. 34 (London, 1907). Other official publications of his- 
torical importance are the annual British F. O. reports, and the 
U.S. Consular Reports. 

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

I. Persian (Iranian) Languages. Under the name of Persian 
is included the whole of that great family of languages occupying 
a field nearly coincident with the modern Iran, of which true 
Persian is simply the western division. It is therefore common 
and more correct to speak of the Iranian family. The original 
native name of the race which spoke these tongues was Aryan. 
King Darius is called on an inscription " a Persian, son of a 
Persian, an Aryan of Aryan race "; and the followers of the 
Zoroastrian religion in their earliest records never give themselves 
any other title but Alryaw danghavo, that is to say, " Aryan 
races." The province of the Iranian language is bounded on 
the west by the Semitic, on the north and north-east by the 
Ural-altaic or Turanian, and on the south-east by the kindred 
language of India. 

The Iranian languages form one of the great branches of the 
Indo-European stem, first recognized as such by Sir William 

Jones and Friedrich Schlegel. The Indo-European 
. or Indo-Germanic languages are divided by Brug- 

mann into (i) Aryan, with sub-branches (a) Indian, 
(6) Iranian; (2) Armenian; (3) Greek; (4) Albanian; (5) Italic; 
(6) Celtic; (7) Germanic, with sub-branches (a) Gothic, (6) 
Scandinavian, (c) West Germanic; and (8) Balto-Slavonic. 
(See INDO-EUROPEAN.) The Aryan family (called by Professor 
Sievers the " Asiatic base-language ") is subdivided into (i) 
Iranian (Eranian, or Erano-Aryan) languages, (2) Pisacha, or 
non-Sanskritic Indo- Aryan languages, (3) Indo- Aryan, or Sans- 
kritic Indo-Aryan languages (for the last two see INDO-ARYAN) ; 
Iranian being also grouped into Persian and non-Persian. 

The common characteristics of all Iranian languages, which 
distinguish them especially from Sanskrit, are as follows: 

1. Changes of the original i into the spirant h. Thus 

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian. 

sindhu (Indus) hindu hindu hind 

sarva (all) haurva haruva har 

sama (whole) hama hama ham 

santi (sunt) henti hantiy hend. 

2. Change of the original aspirates gh, ah, bh ( = \, 9, <t>) into the 
corresponding medials 

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian. 

bhumi (earth) bumi bum! bum 

dhita (SerAs) data data dad 

gharma (heat) garema garma garm. 

3. k, t, p before a consonant are changed into the spirants kh, 
th,f 

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian. 

prathama (first) fratema fratama fradum (Parsi) 

kratu (insight) khratu .... khirad. 



4. The development of soft sibilants 

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian. 

Asuro Medhas 1 Ahuro Mazdao Auramazda Ormuzd 
bahu (arm) bazu .... bazu 

hima (hiems) zima zim. 

Our knowledge of the Iranian languages in older periods is too 
fragmentary to allow of pur giving a complete account of this family 
and of its special historical development. It will be sufficient here 
to distinguish the main types of the older and the more recent 
periods. From antiquity we have sufficient knowledge of two 
dialects, the first belonging to eastern Iran, the second to western. 

I. Zend or Old Bactrian. Neither of these two titles is well 
chosen. The name Old Bactrian suggests that the language was 
limited to the small district of Bactna, or at least that 
it was spoken 'there which is, at the most, only an 
hypothesis. Zend, again (originally azaintish), is not the name of 
a language, as Anquetil Duperron supposed, but means " inter- 
pretation " or " explanation," and is specially applied to the 
medieval Pahlavi translation of the Avesia. Our " Zend-Avesta " 
does not mean the Avesta in the Zend language, but is an incorrect 
transcription of the original expression " Avistak va zand," i.e. 
" the holy text (Avesta) together with the translation." But, 
since we still lack sure data to fix the home of this language with 
any certainty, the convenient name of Zend has become generally 
established in Europe, and may be provisionally retained. But the 
home of the Zend language was certainly in eastern Iran; all 
attempts to seek it farther west e.g. in Media * must be regarded 
as failures. 

Zend is the language of the so-called Avesta, 3 the holy book of 
the Persians, containing the oldest documents of the religion of 
Zoroaster. Besides this important monument, which is about 
twice as large as the Iliad and Odyssey put together, we only possess 
very scanty relics of the Zend language in medieval glosses and 
scattered quotations in Pahlavi books. These remains, however, 
suffice to give a complete insight into the structure of the language. 
Not only amongst Iranian languages, but amongst all the languages 
of the Indo-European group, Zend takes one of the very highest 
places in importance for the comparative philologist. In age it 
almost rivals Sanskrit; in primitiveness it surpasses that language 
in many points; it is inferior only in respect of its less extensive 
literature, and because it has not been made the subject of system- 
atic grammatical treatment. The age of Zend must be examined 
in connexion with the age of the Avesta. In its present form the 
Avesta is not the work of a single author or of any one age, but 
embraces collections produced during a long period. The view 
Wbich became current through Anquetil Duperron, that the Avesta 
is throughout the work of Zoroaster (in Zend, Zarathushtra) , the 
founder of th& religion, has long been abandoned as untenable. 
But the opposite view, that not a single word in the book can lay 
claim to the authorship of Zoroaster, also appears on closer study 
too sweeping. In the Avesta two stages of the language are plainly 
distinguishable. The older is represented in but a small part of 
the whole work, the so-called Gathas or songs. These songs form 
the true kernel of the book Yasna; 4 they must have been in exist- 
ence long before all the other parts of the Avesta, throughout the 
whole of which allusions to them occur. These gathas are what 
they claim to be, and what they are honoured in the whole Avesta 
as being the actual productions of the prophet himself or of his 
time. They bear in themselves irrefutable proof s of their authen- 
ticity, bringing us face to face not with the Zoroaster of the legends 
but with a real person, announcing a new doctrine and way of 
salvation, no supernatural Being assured of victory, but a mere 
man, struggling with human conflicts of every sort, in the midst of 
a society of fellow-believers yet in its earliest infancy. It is almost 
impossible that a much later period could have produced such 
unpretentious and almost depreciatory representations of the deeds 
and personality of the prophet. If, then, the gathas reach back 
to the time of Zoroaster, and he himself, according to the most 
probable estimate, lived as early as the 141(1 century B.C., the oldest 
component parts of the Avesta are hardly inferior in age to the 
oldest Vedic hymns. The gathas are still extremely rough in style 
and expression ; the language is richer in forms than the more recent 
Zend; and the vocabulary shows important differences. The pre- 
dominance of the long vowels is a marked characteristic, the 
constant appearance of a long final vowel contrasting with the 
preference tor a final short in the later speech. 

1 Name of the supreme god of the Persians. 

1 Cf. I. Darmesteter, tudes iraniennes, i. 10 (Paris, 1883). 

3 This, and not Zend-Avesta, is the correct title for the original 
text of the Persian Bible. The origin of the word is doubtful, 
and we cannot point to it before the time of the Sassanians. Perhaps 
it means " announcement," " revelation." 

* The Avesia is divided into three parts: (i) Yasna, with an 
appendix, Visparad, a collection of prayers and forms for divine 
service; (2) Vendidad, containing directions for purification and 
the penal code of the ancient Persians; (3) Khordah-Avesta, or the 
Small Avesta, containing the Yasht, the contents of which are for the 
most part mythological, with shorter prayers for private devotion. 



LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE] 



PERSIA 



247 



Sanskrit. Gatha . Later Zend. 

abhi (near) aibl aiwi 

Iha (work) Izha Izha. 

The clearest evidence of the extreme age of the language of the 
gathas is its striking resemblance to the oldest Sanskrit, the language 
of the Vedic poems. The gatha language (much more than the 
later Zend) and the language of the Vedas have a close resemblance, 
exceeding that of any two Romanic languages; they seem hardly 
more than two dialects of one tongue. Whole strophes of the 
gathas can be turned into good old Sanskrit by the application of 
certain phonetic laws; for example 

" mat yao padaish ya frasruta Izhayao 
pairijasai mazda ustanazasto 
at vao asha aredrahyaca nemangha 
at vao vangehush manangho hunaretata," 
becomes in Sanskrit 

" mana vah padaih ya pracruta ihayah 
parigachai medha uttanahastah 
at va rtena radhrasyaca namasa 
at vo vasor manasah sunrtaya." * 

The language of the other parts of the Avesta is more modern, 
but not all of one date, so that we can follow the gradual decline 
of Zend in the Avesta itself. The later the date of a text, the 
simpler is the grammar, the more lax the use of the cases. We 
have no chronological points by which to fix the date when Zend 
ceased to be a living language; no part of the Avesta can well be 
put later than the 5th or 4th century B.C. Before Alexander's 
time it is said to have been already written out on dressed cowhides 
and preserved in the state archives at Persepolis. 

The followers of Zoroaster soon ceased to understand Zend. For 
this reason all that time had spared of the Avesla was translated 
into Middle Persian or PAHLAVI (q.v.) under the Sassanians. This 
translation, though still regarded as canonical by the Parsees, shows 
a very imperfect knowledge of the original language. Its value 
for modern philology has been the subject of much needless contro- 
versy amongst European scholars. It is only a secondary means 
towards the comprehension of the ancient text, and must be used 
with discrimination. A logical system of comparative exegesis, 
aided by constant reference to Sanskrit, its nearest ally, and to the 
other Iranian dialects, is the best means of recovering the lost 
sense of the Zend texts. 

The phonetic system of Zend consists of simple signs which 
express the different shades of sound in the language with great 
precision. In the vowel-system a notable feature is the presence 
of the short vowels e and o, which are not found in Sanskrit and 
Old Persian; thus the Sanskrit santi, Old Persian hantiy, becomes 
henti in Zend. The use of the vowels is complicated by a tendency 
to combinations of vowels and to epenthesis, i.e. the transposition 
of weak vowels into the next syllable; e.g. Sanskrit bharati, Zend 
baraiti (he carries) ; Old Persian margu, Zend mourva (Merv) ; 
Sanskrit rinakfi, Zend irinakhti. Triphthongs are not uncommon, 
e.g. Sanskrit a<pebhyas (dative plural of aqua, a horse) is in Zend 
aspaeibyo ; Sanskrit krnoti (he does), Zend kerenaoiti. Zend has 
also a great tendency to insert irrational vowels, especially near 
liquids; owing to this the words seem rather inflated; e.g. savya 
(on the left) becomes in Zend havaya ; bhrajati (it glitters), Zend 
barazaiti; gna (ywfi), Zend genii. In the consonantal system we 
are struck by the abundance of sibilants (s and sh, in three forms 
of modification, z and zh) and nasals (five in number), and by the 
complete absence of /. A characteristic phonetic change is that of 
rt into sh; e.g. Zend asha for Sanskrit rla, Old Persian aria, (in 
Artaxerxes) ; fravashi for Pahlavl fravardin, New Persian ferver 
(the spirits of the dead). The verb displays a like abundance of 
primary forms with Sanskrit, but the conjugation by periphrasis 
is only slightly developed. The noun has the same eight cases 
as in Sanskrit. In the gathas there is a special ablative, limited, as 
in Sanskrit, to the " a " stems, whilst in later Zend the ablative is 
extended to all the stems indifferently. 

We do not know in what character Zend was written before the 
time of Alexander. From the Sassanian period we find an alpha- 
betic and very legible character in use, derived from Sassanian 
Pahlavi, and closely resembling the younger Pahlavi found in books. 
The oldest known manuscripts are of the I4th century A.D. 2 

Although the existence of the Zend language was known to the 
Oxford scholar Thomas Hyde, the Frenchman Anquetil Duperron, 
who went to the East Indies in 1755 to visit the Parsee priests, was 
the first to draw the attention of the learned world to the subject. 
Scientific study of Zend texts began with E. Burnouf, and has 

1 " With verses of my making, which are now heard, and with 
prayerful hands, I come before thee, Mazda, and with the sincere 
humility of the upright man and with the believer's song of praise." 

2 Grammars by F. Spiegel (Leipzig, 1867) and A. V. W. Jackson 
(Stuttgart, 1892); Dictionary by F. Justi (Leipzig, 1864); editions 
of the Avesta by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen, 1852) and C. F. 
Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886^-1895; also in English); translation into 
German by Spiegel (Leipzig, 1852), and into English by Darmesteter 
(Oxford, 1880) in Max M tiller's Sacred Books of the East. 



since then made rapid strides, especially since the Vedas have 
opened to us a knowledge of the oldest Sanskrit. 

2. Old Persian. This is the language of the ancient Persians 
properly so-called, 3 in all probability the mother-tongue of Middle 
Persian of the Pahlavi texts, and of New Persian. We QUPerslsa 
know Old Persian from the rock-inscriptions of the 
Achaemenians, now fully deciphered. Most of them, and these 
the longest, date from the time of Darius, but we have speci- 
mens as late as Artaxerxes Ochus. In the latest inscriptions the 
language is already much degraded; but on the whole it is almost 
as antique as Zend, with which it has many points in common. 
For instance, if we take a sentence from an inscription of Darius 
as 

" Auramazda hya imam bumim ada hya avam asmanam ada hya 
martiyam ada hya siyatim ada martiyahya hya Darayavaum 
khshayathiyam akunaush aivam paruvnam khshayathiyam," 

it would be in Zend 

" Ahuro mazdao yo imam bumim ada{ yo aom asmanem ada yo 
mashim ada yo shaitim adut mashyahe yo darayatvohum khshaetem 
akerenaot oyum pourunam khshaetem." 4 

The phonetic system in Old Persian is much simpler than in 
Zend; we reckon twenty-four letters in all. The short vowels e, 
o are wanting; in their place the old " a " sound still appears as 
in Sanskrit, e.g. Zend bagem, Old Persian bagam, Sanskrit bhagam; 
Old Persian hamarana, Zend hamerena, Sanskrit samarana. As 
regards consonants, it is noticeable that the older z (soft s) still 
preserved in Zend passes into d a rule that still holds in New 
Persian ; compare 

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian. 

hasta (hand) zasta dasta dast 

jrayas (sea) zrayo daraya darya 

aham (I) azem adam . . . 

Also Old Persian has no special /. Final consonants are almost 
entirely wanting. In this respect Old Persian goes much farther 
than the kindred idioms, e.g. Old Persian abara, Sanskrit abharat, 
Zend abarat, t<t>tpt: nominative baga, root-form baga-s, Sanskrit 
bhagas. The differences in declension between Old Persian and 
Zend are unimportant. 

Old Persian inscriptions are written in the cuneiform character 
of the simplest form, known as the " first class." Most of the 
inscriptions have besides two translations into the more compli- 
cated kinds of cuneiform character of two other languages of the 
Persian Empire. One of these is the Assyrian; the real nature of 
the second is still a mystery. The interpretation of the Persian 
cuneiform, the character and dialect of which were equally 
unknown, was begun by G. F. Grotefend, who was followed by 
E. Burnouf, Sir Henry Rawlinson and J. Oppert. The ancient 
Persian inscriptions have been collected in a Latin translation 
with grammar and glossaries by F. Spiegel (Leipzig, 1862; new and 
enlarged ed., 1881). The other ancient tongues and dialects of 
this family are known only by name; we read of peculiar idioms 
in Sogdiana, Zabulistan, Herat, &c. It is doubtful whether the 
languages of the Scythians, the Lycians and the Lydians, of which 
hardly anything remains, were Iranian or not. 

After the fall of the Achaemenians there is a period of five 
centuries, from which no document of the Persian language has 
come down to us. 

Under the Arsacids Persian nationality rapidly declined; all that 
remains to us from that period namely, the inscriptions on coina 
is in the Greek tongue. Only towards the end of the Parthian 
dynasty and after the rise of the Sassanians, under whom the national 
traditions were again cultivated in Persia, do we recover the lost 
traces of the Persian language in the Pahlavi inscriptions and 
literature. 

3. Middle Persian. The singular phenomena presented by 
Pahlavi writing have been discussed in a separate article (see 
PAHLAVI). The languages which it disguises rather middle 
than expresses Middle Persian, as we may call it Persian. 
presents many changes as compared with the Old Persian 

of the Achaemenians. The abundant grammatical forms of the 
ancient language are much reduced in number; the case-ending 
is lost ; the noun has only two inflexions, the singular and the plural ; 
the cases are expressed by prepositions e.g. ruban (the soul), nom. 
and ace. sing., plur. rubanan; dat. val or avo ruban, abl. min or az 
ruban. Even distinctive forms for gender are entirely abandoned, 
e.g. the pronoun avo signifies " he," " she," " it." In the verb 
compound forms predominate. In this respect Middle Persian 
is almost exactly similar to New Persian. 

3 And perhaps of the Medes. Although we have no record of 
the Median language we cannot regard it as differing to any great 
extent from the Persian. The Medes and Persians were two 
closely-connected races. There is nothing to justify us in looking 
for the true Median language either in the cuneiform writings of 
the second class or in Zend. 

4 " Ormuzd, who created this earth and that heaven, who created 
man and man's dwelling-place, who made Darius king, the one and 
only king of many." 



248 



PERSIA 



[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 



4. New Persian. The last step in the development of the 
language is New Persian, represented in its oldest form by Firdousi. 
... In grammatical forms it is still poorer than Middle 

'*". Persian; except English, no Indo-European language 

has so few inflexions, but this is made up for by the 
subtle development of the syntax. The structure of New Persian 
has hardly altered at all since the Shdhndma; but the original 
purism of Firdousi, who made every effort to keep the language 
free from Semitic admixture, could not long be maintained. Arabic 
literature and speech exercised so powerful an influence on New 
Persian, especially on the written language, that it could not 
withstand the admission of an immense number of Semitic words. 
There is no Arabic word which would be refused acceptance in 
good Persian. But, nevertheless, New Persian has remained a 
language of genuine Iranian stock. 

Among the changes of the sound system in New Persian, as 
contrasted with earlier periods, especially with Old Persian, the 
first that claims mention is the change of the tenues k, t,p, c, into 
g, d, b, z. Thus we have 

Old Persian or Zend. Pahlam. New Persian. 

mahrka (death) mark marg 

Thraetaona Fritun Feridun 

ap (water) ap ab 

hvato (self) khot khod 

raucah (day) roj ruz 

haca . aj az. 

A series of consonants often disappear in the spirant ; thus 
Old Persian or Zend. Pahlam. New Persian. 

kaufa (mountain) kof koh 

gathu (place), Z. gatu gas gah 

cathware (four) .... cihar 

bandaka (slave) bandak bandah 

spada (army) .... sipah 

dadami (I give) .... diham. 

Old d and dh frequently become y 
Old Persian or_Zend. Pahlam. New Persian. 

madhu (wine) mai 

baodho (consciousness) bod boi 

padha (foot) .... pai 

kadha (when) .... icai. 

Old y often appears as j/: Zend yama (glass), New Persian jam; 
yavan (a youth), New Persian javan. Two consonants are not 
allowed to stand together at the beginning of a word ; hence vowels 
are frequently inserted or prefixed, e.g. New Persian sitadan or 
istadan (to stand), root sta; biradar (brother), Zend and Pahlavl 
bratar. 1 

Amongst modern languages and dialects other than Persian which 
must be also assigned to the Iranian family may be 
mentioned : 

1. Kurdish, a language nearly akin to New Persian, 
with which it has important characteristics in common. It is 
chiefly distinguished from it by a marked tendency to shorten 
words at all costs, e.g. Kurd, bera (brother) = New Persian biradar; 
Kurd, dim (I give) = New Persian diham; Kurd, spl (white) = New 
Persian siped. 

2. Baluch, the language of Baluchistan, also very closely akin 
to New Persian, but especially distinguished from it in that all 
the old spirants are changed into explosives, e.g. Baluch vab (sleep) 
= Zend hvafna; Baluch kap (slime) = Zend kafa, New Persian kaf; 
Baluch hapt (seven) = New Persian haft. 

3. Ossetic, true Iranian, in spite of its resemblance in sound to 
the Georgian. 2 

4. Pushtu (less accurately Afghan), which has certainly been 
increasingly influenced by the neighbouring Indian languages in 
inflexion, syntax and vocabulary, but is still at bottom a pure 
Iranian language, not merely intermediate between Iranian and 
Indian. 

The position of Armenian remains doubtful. Some scholars 
attribute it to the Iranian family; others prefer to regard it as a 
separate and independent member of the Indo-European group. 
Many words that at first sight seem to prove its Iranian origin are 
only adopted from the Persian.' (K. G.) 

II. Modern Persian Literature. Persian historians are greatly 
at variance about the origin of their national poetry. Most of 
them go back to the sth Christian century and ascribe to one 
of the Sassanian kings, Bahrain V. (420-439), the invention of 

1 Grammars of New Persian, by M. Lumsden (Calcutta, 1810) 
A. B. Chodzko (Paris, 1852; new ed., 1883), D. Forbes (1869), 
J. A. Vullers (Giessen, 1870), A. Wahrmund (Giessen, 1875), C. 
Salemann and V. Zhukovski (Leipzig, 1889); J. T. Platts 
fat. i. 1984). For the New Persian dialects see Fr. Muller, in the 
Sitzungsber. der wien. Akad., vols. Ixxvii., Ixxviii. 

1 Cf . Hiibschmann, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxiv. 396. 

'Cf. P. de Lagarde, Armenische Studien (Gottingen, 1877)- 
H. Hiibschmann, Armenische Studien (Leipzig, 1883). 



metre and rhyme; others mention as author of the first Persian 
poem a certain Abulhaf of Soghd, near Samarkand. In point 
of fact, there is no doubt that the later Sassanian rulers fostered 
the literary spirit of their nation (see PAHLAVI). Pahlavl books, 
however, fall outside of the present subject, which k the literature 
of the idiom which shaped itself out of the older Persian speech 
by slight modifications and a steadily increasing mixture of 
Arabic words and phrases in the 9th and loth centuries of our 
era, and which in all essential respects has remained the same 
for the last thousand years. The death of Harun al-Rashid in 
the beginning of the Qth century, which marks the commence- 
ment of the decline of the caliphate, was at the same time the 
starting-point of movements for national independence and a 
national literature in the Iranian dominion, and the common 
cradle of the two was in the province of Khorasan, between the 
Oxus and the Jaxartes. In Merv, a Khorasanian town, a certain 
'Abbas composed in 809 A.D. (193 A.H ), according to the oldest 
biographical writer of Persia, Mahommed 'Aufi, the Earliest 
first real poem hi modern Persian, in honour of the Modern 
Abbasid prince Mamun, Harun al-Rashld's son, who Peniaa 
had himself a strong predilection for Persia, his Poet> 
mother's native country, and was, moreover, thoroughly imbued 
with the freethinking spirit of his age. Soon after this, in 820 
(205 A.H.), Tahir, who aided Mamun to wrest the caliphate from 
his brother Amin, succeeded in establishing the first semi- 
independent Persian dynasty in Khorasan, which was overthrown 
in 872 (259 A.H.) by the Saffarids. 

The development of Persian poetry under these first native 
dynasties was slow. Arabic language and literature had gained 
too firm a footing to be supplanted at once by a new literary 
idiom still in its infancy; nevertheless the few poets who arose 
under the fahirids and Saffarids show already the germs of the 
characteristic tendency of all later Persian literature, which 
aims at amalgamating the enforced spirit of Islamism with their 
own Aryan feelings, and reconciling the strict deism of the 
Mahommedan religion with their inborn loftier and more or less 
pantheistic ideas; and we can easily trace in the few fragmentary 
verses of men like Hanzala, Hakim Firuz and Abu Salik those 
principal forms of poetry now used in common by forms of 
all Mahommedan nations the forms of the qa$ida Eastern 
(the encomiastic, elegiac or satirical poem), the Pottr y- 
ghazol or ode (a love-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the 
rubd't or quatrain (our epigram, for which the Persians invented 
a new metre in addition to those adopted from the Arabs), and 
the mathnawi or double-rhymed poem (the legitimate form for 
epic and didactic poetry). The first who wrote such a mathnawi 
was Abu Shukur of Balkh, the oldest literary representative of 
the third dynasty of Khorasan, the Samanids, who had been able 
in the course of time to dethrone the Saffarids, and to secure the 
government of Persia, nominally still under the supremacy of 
the caliphs in Bagdad, but in fact with full sovereignty. The 
undisputed reign of this family dates from the accession of Amir 
Nasr II. ^913-942; 301-331 A.H.), who, more than any of his 
predecessors, patronized arts and sciences in his dominions. 
The most accomplished minstrels of his time were minstrels 
Mahommed Faraladl (or Faralawl); Abu '!-' Abbas oftotb 
of Bokhara, a writer of very tender verses; Abu Century. 
'1-Muzaffar Nasr of Nlshapur; Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed of 
Junaid, equally renowned for his Arabic and Persian poetry; 
Ma'nawl of Bokhara, full of original thoughts and spiritual 
subtleties; Khusrawa.nl, from whom even Firdousi condescended 
to borrow quotations; Abu '1-Hasan Shahid of Balkh, the first 
who made a dlwan or alphabetical collection of his lyrics; and 
RudagI (or Rudakl), the first classic genius of Persia, who im- 
pressed upon every form of lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar 
stamp and individual character (see RUDAGI). His graceful and 
captivating style was imitated by Hakim Khabbaz of Nlshapur, 
a great baker, poet and quack; Abu Shu'aib Salih of Herat, who 
left a spirited little song in honour of a young Christian maiden ; 
RaunaqI of Bokhara; Abu'1-Fath of Bust, who was also a good 
Arabic poet; the amir Abu '1-Hasan 'AH Alagatchl, who handled 
the pen as skilfully as the sword; 'Umara of Merv, a famous 



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PERSIA 



249 



- h - 



Dakiki. 



astronomer; and Kisa'I, a native of the same town, a man of 
stern and ascetic manners, who sang in melodious rhythm the 
praise of 'All and the twelve imams. All these poets flourished 
under the patronage of the Samanid princes, who also fostered 
the growing desire of their nation for historical and antiquarian 
researches, for exegetical and medical studies. Manur I., the 
grandson of Rudagi's patron, ordered (963; 352 A.H.) his vizier 
to translate the famous universal history of Tabari 
(838-923 A.D.) from Arabic into Persian; and this 
Ta'rikh-i-Tabari, the oldest prose work in modern 
Persian, is not merely remarkable from a philological point of 
view, it is also the classic model of an easy and simple style 
(French trans, by L. Dubeux and H. Zotenberg, 1867-1874). 
The same prince employed the most learned among the ulema 
of Transoxiana for a translation of Tabarl's second great 
work, the Tafsir, or commentary on the Koran, and accepted 
the dedication of the first Persian book on medicine, a pharma- 
copoeia by the physician Abu Manur Muwaffaq b. 'All of 
Herat (edited by Seligmann, Vienna, 1859), which forms a kind 
of connecting link between Greek and Indian medicine. It was 
soon after further developed by the great Avicenna (d. 1037; 
428 A.H.), himself a Persian by birth and author of pretty wine- 
songs, moral maxims, psychological tracts, and a manual 
of philosophic science, the Ddnishndma-i-Ald'l, in his native 
tongue. 

A still greater impulse was given, both to the patriotic feelings 
and the national poetry of the Persians, by Manur's son and suc- 
cessor, Prince Nuh II., who ascended the throne in 976 (365 
A.H.). Full of enthusiasm for the glorious past of the old 
Iranian kingdom, he charged his court poet Daklki (Daqiqi), 
who openly professed in his ghazals the Zoroastrian 
creed, to turn the Khodd'indma, or " Book of Kings," 
into Persian verse. Shortly after commencing this work Dakiki 
was murdered in the prime of life; his death was soon followed 
by the fall of the Samanid dynasty itself. But Daklkl's great 
enterprise was not abandoned; a stronger hand, a higher genius, 
was to continue and to complete it, and this genius was found 
. in Firdousi (940-1020; 328-411 A.H.), with whom we 
enter the golden age of the national epopee in Persia 
(see FIRDOUSI). In ion, after thirty-five years of unremitting 
labour, he accomplished his gigantic task, and wrote the last dis- 
tichs of the immortal Shahndma, that " glorious monument of 
Eastern genius and learning," as Sir W. Jones calls it, " which, if 
ever it should be generally understood in its original language, 
will contest the merit of invention with Homer itself." The Shdh- 
imitatioas otndma, from the very moment of its appearance, 
the"Shib- exercised such an irresistible fascination upon all 
aims." minds that there was soon a keen competition 
among the younger poets as to who should produce the 
most successful imitation of that classic model; and this competi- 
tion has gone on under different forms through all the following 
centuries, even to the most recent times. First of all, the old 
popular traditions, so far as they had not yet been exhausted 
by Firdousi, were ransacked for new epic themes, and a regular 
cycle of national epopees gathered round the Book of Kings, 
drawn almost exclusively from the archives of the princes of 
Sejistan, the family of Firdousl's greatest hero, Rustam. The 
first and most ambitious of these competitors seems to have 
been Asadi's own son, "All b. Ahmad al-Asadi, the author of 
the oldest Persian glossary, who completed in 1066 (458 A.H.), 
in upwards of 9000 distichs, the Garshdspndma, or marvellous 
story of the warlike feats and love adventures of Garshasp, 
one of Rustam's ancestors. The heroic deeds of Rustam's 
grandfather were celebrated in the Sdmndma, which almost 
equals the Shahndma in length; those of Rustam's two sons, in 
the Jahdgairndmaand the Fardmurzndma; those of his daughter, 
an amazon, in the Brunhild style of the German Nibelunge, in 
the Bdnu Gushdspndma; those of his grandson in the Barsundma; 
those of his great-grandson in the Shahriydrndma (ascribed 
to Mukhtari and dedicated to Mas'ud Shah, who is probably 
identical with Mas'ud b. Ibrahim, Sultan Mahmud's great- 
grandson, 1099-1114; 492-508 A.H.) ; and the wonderful exploits 



of a son of Isfandiyar, another hero of the Shahndma, in the 
Bahmanndma. 

When these old Iranian sources were almost exhausted, the 
difficulty was met in various ingenious ways. Where some 
slight historical records of the heroic age were still obtainable 
poetical imagination seized upon them at once; where no tradi- 
tions at all were forthcoming fiction pure and simple asserted its 
right; and thus the national epopee gave way to the epic story, 
and substituting prose for verse to the novel and the fairy 
tale. Models of the former class are the various Iskandarndmas, 
or " Books of Alexander the Great," the oldest and most original 
of which is that of Nizami of Ganja, the modern Elizavetpol 
(completed about 1202; 599 A.H.); the latter begins with the 
KUdb-i-Samak 'lydr, a novel in three volumes (about 1189; 
585 A.H.), and reaches its climax in the Bustdn-i-Khaydl, 
or " Garden of Imagination," a prose romance of fifteen 
large volumes, by Mahommed Taki Khayal, written between 
1742 and 1756 (1155 and 1169 A.H.). Some writers, both 
in prose and verse, turned from the exhausted fields of the 
national glory of Persia, and chose their subjects from the 
chivalrous times of their own Bedouin conquerors, or even 
from the Jewish legends of the Koran. Of this description are 
the Anbiydndma, or history of the pre-Mahommedan prophets, 
by HasanI Shabistari 'Ayani (before the 8th century of the 
Hegira); Ibn Husam's Khdwarndma (1427; 830 A.H.), of the 
deeds of "All; Badhil's Ifamla-i-IJaidari, which was completed 
by Najaf (1723; 1135 A.H.), or the life of Mahommed and the 
first four caliphs; Kazim's Farahndma-i-Fdtima, the book of 
joy of Fatima, Mahomet's daughter (1737; 1150 A.H.) all four 
in the epic metre of the Shahndma; and the prose stories of Ifdtim 
?\i't, the famous model of liberality and generosity in pre- 
Islamitic times; of Amir Ifamzah, the uncle of Mahomet; and of 
the Mu'jizdt-i-Musa'wi, or the miraculous deeds of Moses, by 
Mu'in-almiskln (died about 1501; 907 A.H.). 

Quite a different turn was taken by the ambition of another 
class of imitators of Firdousi, especially during the last four 
centuries of the Hegira, who tried to create a new 
heroic epopee by celebrating in rhythm and rhyme 
stirring events of recent date. The gigantic figure of TImur 
inspired Hatifi (d. 1521; 927 A.H.) with his Timurndma; the 
stormy epoch of the first Safawid rulers, who succeeded at last 
in reuniting for some time the various provinces of the old 
Persian realm into one great monarchy, furnished Kasimi (died 
after 1560; 967 A.H.) 1 with the materials of his Shahndma, a 
poetical history of Shah Isma'il and Shah Tahmasp. Another 
Shahndma, celebrating Shah 'Abbas the Great, was written by 
Kamall of Sabzevar; and even the cruelties of Nadir Shah were 
duly chronicled in a pompous epic style in 'Ishratl's Shdhndma-i- 
Nddiri (1749; 1162 A.H.). But all these poems are surpassed 
in length by the 33,000 distichs of the Shdhinshdhndma by the 
poet-laureate of Path "All Shah of Persia (1797-1834), and the 
40,000 distichs of the Georgendma, a poetical history of India 
from its discovery by the Portuguese to the conquest of Poona 
by the English in 1817. In India this kind of epic versifica- 
tion has flourished since the beginning of Humayun's reign 
( : 53~ 1 5 56); e.g. the %afarndma-i-Shdhjahdni byKudsl (d. 1646; 
1056 A.H.); the Shdhinshdhndma by Talib Kalim (d. 1651; 
1061 A.H.), another panegyrist of Shah Jahan; Atashl's 'Adil- 
ndma, in honour of Shah Mahommed 'Adil of Bljapur, who 
ascended the throne in 1629 (1039 A.H.) or 1627; the Tawdrlkh- 
i-^uli fcutbshdh, a metrical history of the Ku^b shahs of 
Golconda; and many more, down to the Fathndma-i-Tipu 
Sultan by Ghulam ijasan (1784; 1198 A.H.). 

But the national epopee was not the only bequest the great 
Firdousi left to his nation. This rich genius gave also the first 
impulse to romantic, didactic and mystic poetry; and even his 
own age produced powerful co-operators in these three most 
conspicuous departments of Persian literature. 
Romantic fiction, which achieved its highest triumph p^i"". 
in Ni?aml of Ganja's (1141-1203; 535-599 A.H.) 
brilliant pictures of the struggles and passions in the human heart 

1 After 1572 (979 A.H.) according to H. E. in Grundriss, ii. 237. 



250 



PERSIA 



[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 



(see NIZAMI), sent forth its first tender shoots in the numerous 
love stories of the Shahnama, the most fascinating of which is that 
of Zal and Rudabeh, and developed almost into full bloom in 
Firdousf s second great mathnawl Yusuf u Zalikhd, which the 
aged poet wrote after his flight from Ghazni, and dedicated to the 
reigning caliph of Bagdad, al Qadir billah. It represents the 
oldest poetical treatment of the Biblical story of Joseph, which 
has proved so attractive to the epic poets of Persia, among others 
to 'Am'ak of Bokhara (d. 1 149), who was the first after Firdousi to 
write a Yusuf u Zalikha to Jam! (d. 1492) ; Maujl Kasim Khan, 
Humayun's amir (d. 1571), Nazim of Herat (d. 1670), 
and Shaukat, the governor of Shlraz under Path "All Shah. 
Perhaps prior in date to Firdousl's Yusuf was his patron 'Unsuri's 
romance, Wamib u Adhrd, a popular Iranian legend of great 
antiquity, which had been first written in verse under the Tahirid 
dynasty. This favourite story was treated again by Faslhl 
Jurjani (sth century of the Hegira), and by many modern poets 
as Damlrl, who died under the Safawi shah Mahommed (1577- 
1586; 985-994 A.H.), Nairn, the historiographer of the Zand 
dynasty, and Hosain of Shlraz under Path 'All Shah, the last 
two flourishing towards the beginning of the present century. 
Another love story of similar antiquity formed the basis of 
Fakr-uddm As'ad Jorjani's Wis u Rdmin, which was composed 
in Isfahan about 1048 (440 A.H.) a poem remarkable not only 
for its high artistic value but also for its resemblance to Gottfried 
von Strassburg's Tristan und Isolt. 

The last-named Persian poet was apparently one of the earliest 
eulogists of the Seljuks, and it was under this Turkish dynasty 
Encomiasts that lyrical romanticism rose to the highest pitch. 
and What Firdousi and the court-poets of Sultan Mahmud 

Satirists. jj ac j commenced, w hat Abu '1-Faraj Runl of Lahore 
and Mas'ud b. Sa'd b. Salman (under Sultan Ibrahim, 1059- 
1099) had successfully continued, reached its perfection in the 
famous group of panegyrists who gathered in the first half of the 
6th century of the Hegira round the throne of Sultan Sinjar, 
and partly also round that of his great antagonist, Atsiz, shah of 
Khwarizm. This group included Adlb Sabir, who was drowned 
by order of the prince in the Oxus about 1145 (540 A.H.), and his 
pupil Jauhari, the goldsmith of Bokhara; Amir Mu'izzl, the king 
of poets at Sinjar's court, killed by a stray arrow in 1147 (542 A. H.), 
Rashid Watwat (the Swallow) who died in 1182 (578 A.H.), 
and left, besides his kasldas, a valuable treatise on poetry 
(Hodaik-essihr) and a metrical translation of the sentences of 
"AH, 'Abd-alwasi' Jabali, who sang at first, like his contem- 
porary Hasan Ghaznawl (d. 1169; 565 A.H.), the praise of the 
Ghaznevid shah Bahram, but afterwards bestowed his eulogies 
upon Sinjar, the conqueror of Ghazni ; and Auhad-uddm Anwari, 
the most celebrated kasida-writer of the whole Persian literature. 
Anwari (died between 1189 and 1191; 585 and 587 A.H.), who 
in early life had pursued scientific studies in the madrasa of Tus, 
and who ranked among the foremost astronomers of his time, 
owes his renown as much to the inexhaustible store of poetical 
similes and epitheta ornantia which he showered upon Sinjar 
and other royal and princely personages, as to his cutting sar- 
casms, which he was careful to direct, not against individuals, 
but against whole classes of society and the cruel wrong worked 
by an inexorable fate thus disregarding the example of 
Firdousi, whose attack upon Sultan Mahmud for having cheated 
him out of the reward for his epopee is the oldest and most 
finished specimen of personal satire. This legitimate branch of 
high art, however, soon degenerated either into the lower forms 
of parody and travesty for which, for instance, a whole 
group of Transoxanian writers, SuzanI of Samarkand (d. 1174; 
569 A.H.) and his contemporaries, Abu 'AH Shatranjl of the same 
town, Lami' of Bokhara, and others gained a certain literary 
reputation or into mere comic pieces and jocular poems like 
the " Pleasantries " (Hazliyyat) and the humorous stories of the 
;' Mouse and Cat " and the " Stone-cutter " (Sangtarash) by 
'Ubaid ZakanI (d. 1370; 772 A.H.). Anwari's greatest rival 
was Khakanl (d. 1199; 595 A.H.), the son of a carpenter in 
Shlrvan, and panegyrist of the shahs of Shlrvan, usually called 
the Pindar of the East. To European taste only the shorter 



epigrams and the double-rhymed poem TuhfatuTird^ain, in 
which Khakani describes his journey to Mecca and back, give 
full satisfaction. Among his numerous contemporaries and 
followers may be noticed Mujlr-uddln BailakanI (d. 1198; 
594 A.H.); Zahir Faryabi (d. 1202; 598 A.H.) and Athlr 
Akhslkatl (d. 1211; 608 A.H.) all three panegyrists of the 
atabegs of Azerbaijan, and especially of Sultan Kizil Arslan 
Kamal-uddln IsfahanI, tortured to death by the Moguls in 1237 
(635 A.H.), who sang, like his father Jamal-uddin, the praise of 
the governors of Isfahan, and gained the epithet of the " creator 
of fine thoughts " (Khallak-ulma'anl) ; and Saif-uddln Isfarangi 
(d. 1267; 666 A.H.), a favourite of the shahs of Khwarizm. 

Fruitful as the 6th and 7th centuries of the Hegira were in 
panegyrics, they attained an equally high standard in didactic 
and mystic poetry. The origin of both can again Didactic ana 
be traced to Firdousi and his time. In the ethical Mystic 
reflections, wise maxims and moral exhortations Poet 'y- 
scattered throughout the Shahnama the didactic element is 
plainly visible, and equally plain in it are the traces of that 
mystical tendency which was soon to pervade almost all the 
literary productions of Persian genius. But the most character- 
istic passage of the epopee is the mysterious disappearance of 
Shah Kaikhosrau, who suddenly, when at the height of earthly 
fame and splendour, renounces the world in utter disgust, and, 
carried away by his fervent longing for an abode of everlasting 
tranquillity, vanishes for ever from the midst of his companions. 
The first Persian who employed poetry exclusively for the 
illustration of Suflc doctrines was Firdousl's con- SBf[ p 
temporary, the renowned sheikh Abu Sa'Id b. Abu 
1-Khair of Mahna in Khorasan (968-1049; 357-440 A.H.), the 
founder of that specific form of the ruba'I which gives the most 
concise expression to religious and philosophic aphorisms 
a form which was further developed by the great free- 
thinker 'OMAR B. KHAYYAM (q.v.), and Afdal-uddln Klash 
(d. 1307; 707 A.H.). The year of Abu Sa'ld's death is most 
likely that of the first great didactic mathnawl, the Rushan. 
a'indma, or " Book of Enlightenment," by NASIR KHOSRAU 
(q.v.), a poem full of sound moral and ethical maxims with 
slightly mystical tendencies. About twenty-five years later the 
first theoretical handbook of Sufism in Persian was composed by 
'All b. 'Uthman al-Jullabl al-Hujwm in the Kashf-ulmahjub, or, 
" Revelation of Hidden Things," which treats of the various 
schools of Sufis, their teachings and observances. A great saint 
of the same period, Sheikh 'Abdallah Ansari of Herat (1006- 
1089; 396-481 A.H.), assisted in spreading the pantheistic move- 
ment by his Mundjdt or " Invocations to God," by several prose 
tracts, and by an important collection of biographies of eminent 
Sufis, based on an older Arabic compilation, and serving in its 
turn as groundwork for Jaml's excellent Nafahdt-aluns (completed 
in 1478; 883 A.H.). He thus paved the way for the publication 
of one of the earliest textbooks of the whole sect, the fladifcat- 
ulhakikat, or "Garden of Truth" (1130; 525 A.H.), by Hakim 
Sana'I of Ghazni, to whom all the later Suflc poets refer as their 
unrivalled master in spiritual knowledge. As the most uncom- 
promising Sufis appear the greatest pantheistic writer of all ages, 
Jelal ud-dln Ruml (1207-1273; 604-672 A.H.; see RUMI), and 
his scarcely less renowned predecessor Farid ud-dln 'Attar, who 
was slain by the Moguls at the age of 114 lunar years in 1230 
(627 A.H.). This prolific writer, having performed the pilgrim- 
age to Mecca, devoted himself to a stern ascetic life, and to the 
composition of Suflc works, partly in prose, as in his valuable 
" Biography of Eminent Mystic Divines," but mostly in the form 
of mathnawls (upwards of twenty in number), among which the 
Pandnama, or " Book of Counsels," and the Manlik-uttair, or 
the "Speeches of Birds," occupy the first rank. In the latter, 
an allegorical poem, interspersed w,ith moral tales and pious 
contemplations, the final absorption of the Sufi in the deity is 
most ingeniously illustrated. 

In strong contrast to these advanced Sufis stands the greatest 
moral teacher of Persia, Sheikh Sa'dl of Shlraz (died about no 
lunar years old in 1292; 691 A.H.; see SA'DI), whose two 
best known works are the Bustan, or " Fruit-garden," and 



PERSIA 



251 



Sa'di. 



the Gulistan, or " Rose-garden." However, both have found 
comparatively few imitations the former in the Dasturndma, 
or " Book of Exemplars," of Nizari of Kohistan 
(d. 1320; 720 A.H.), in the Dah Bab, or 
" Ten Letters," of KatibI (d. 1434; 838 A.H.), and in the 
Gulzar, or " Rose-bower," of Hairati (murdered 1554; 
961 A.H.); the latter in Mu'In-uddln Juwaini's Nigdristdn, or 
"Picture-gallery" (1335; 735 A.H.) and Jami's Bahdristdn, or 
"Spring-garden" (1487; 892 A.H.); whereas an innumerable 
host of purely Suflc compositions followed in the wake of 
Sana'I's, 'Attar's and Jelal ud-dln Rumi's mathnawis. It will 
suffice to name a few of the most conspicuous. The 
Lama 'a { > or " Sparks," of 'Iraki (d. between 1287 and 
1309; 686 and 709 A.H.),' the Zdd-ulmusdfirin, or 
" Store of the Wayfarers," by Husaini (d. 1318; 718 A.H.), the 
Gulshan-i-Raz, or " Rose-bed of Mystery," by Mahmud Shabis- 
tarl (d. 1320; 720 A.H.), the Jam-i-Jam, or ' Cup of Jamshid," 
by AuhadI (d. 1338; 738 A.H.), the Anls-id 'Arifin, or "Friend 
of the Mystics," by Kasim (Qasim)-i-Anwar (d. 1434; 837 A.H.), 
and others; 'Assarts Mihr u Mushtarl, or " Sun and Jupiter " 
( J 376; 778 A.H.), 'Arifl's Gui u Chaugdn, or "The Ball and the 
Bat " (1438; 842 A.H.), tfusn u Dil, or " Beauty and Heart," 
by Fattahl of Nlshapur(d. 1448; 852 A.H.), Sham' u Parwdna, or 
" The Candle and the Moth," by Ahli of Shlraz (1489; 894 A.H.), 
Shah u Gada, or " King and Dervish," by Hilali (put to death 
IS3 2 ! 939 A.H.), Baha-ud-dm 'Amili's (d. 1621; 1030 A.H.) 
Nan u Halwd, or " Bread and Sweets," Shir u Shakar, or " Milk. 
and Sugar," and many more. 

During all these periods of literary activity, lyric poetry, pure 
and simple, had by no means been neglected; almost all the 
L ric Poetry renowned poets since the time of Rudagi had sung in 
' endless strains the pleasures of love and wine, the 
beauties of nature, and the almighty power of the Creator; but 
it was left to the incomparable genius of Hafiz (d. 1389; 791 A.H.; 
see IjAFii) to give to the world the most perfect models of lyric 
composition; and the lines he had laid down were more or less 
strictly followed by all the ghazal-writers of the Qth 
writers" an< ^ Iot ' 1 centur i es f the Hegira by Salman of Sawa 
(d. about 1377; 779 A.H.), who excelled besides in 
kaslda and mathnawi; Kamal Khujandl (d. 1400; 803 A.H.), 
jjafiz's friend, and protege of Sultan Hosain (1374-1382 A.D.); 
Mahommed Shlrln MaghribI (d. at Tabriz in 1406; 809 A.H.), an 
intimate friend of Kamal; Ni'mat-ullah Wall (d. 1431; 834 A.H.), 
the founder of a special religious order; Kasim-i-Anwar (see 
above); Amir Shahl (d. 1453; 857 A.H.), of the princely family 
of the Sarbadars of Sabzewar; Banna'I (d. 1512; 918 A.H.), 
who also wrote a romantic poem, Bahrdm u Bihruz; Baba 
FighanI of Shlraz (d. 1519; 925 A.H.), usually called the " Little 
Hafiz "; Nargisi (d. 1531; 938 A.H.); Lisanl (d. 1534; 941 A.H.), 
who himself was imitated by Damiri of Isfahan, Muhtasham 
Kashl and WahshI Bafiki (all three died in the last decade of the 
loth century of the Hegira); Ahli of Shlraz (d. 1535; 942 A.H.), 
author of the Sihr-i-tfaldl, or "Lawful Witchcraft," which, like 
Katibl's (d. 1434; 838 A.H.) Majma'-ulbahrain, of the "Con- 
fluence of the Two Seas," can be read in two different metres; 
Nau'I (d. 1610; 1019 A.H.), who wrote the charming romance of 
a Hindu princess who burned herself in Akbar's reign with her 
deceased husband on the funeral pile, called Suz u Guddz, or 
" Burning and Melting," &c. Among the immediate predeces- 
sors of Hafiz in the 8th century of the Hegira, in which also Ibn 
Yamin, the great kit'a-writer, 1 flourished, the highest fame was 
gained by the two poets of Delhi, Amir Hasan and Amir Khosrau. 
The latter, who died in 1325 (725 A.H.), two years before his 
friend Hasan, occupies the foremost place among all the Persian 
poets of India by the richness of his imagination, his graphic 
style, and the historical interest attached to his writings. Five 
extensive dlwans testify to his versatility in all branches of lyric 
poetry, and nine large mathnawis to his mastership in the epic 
line. Four of the latter are poetical accounts of the reigns of 

1 A kit'a or mukatta'a is a poem containing moral reflections, and 
differs from the Ifasida and ghazal only by the absence of a ma^la' 
or initial distich. 



the emperors of Delhi, 'Ala-uddin Khilji (1296-1316), his pre- 
decessor Feroz Shah and his successor Kutb-uddln Mubarek 
Shah the Miftah-ulfuttth, or " Key of Victories," the Kiran- 
ussa'dain, or " The Conjunction of the Two Lucky Planets," 
the Nuh Sipihr, or " Nine Spheres," and the love-story of 
Khidrkhdn u Duwalrdni. His other five mathnawis formed the 
first attempt ever made to imitate Nizami's famous Khamsah, 
or five romantic epopees, and this attempt turned out so well that 
henceforth almost all epic poets wrote quintuples of a similar 
description. Khwaju Kirmani (d. 1352; 753 A.H.) was the next 
aspirant to Nizami's fame, with five mathnawis, among which 
Humdi u Humdyun is the most popular, but he had to yield the 
palm to 'Abd-urrahman Jam! (1414-1492; 817-898 A.H.), the 
last classic poet of Persia, in whose genius were 
summed up all the best qualities of his great prede- 
cessors. Many poets followed in Jami's footsteps, 
first of all his nephew Ha,tifl (see above), and either wrote whole 
khamsahs or imitated at least one or other of Nizami's epopees; 
thus we have a Laild u Majnun, for instance, by Maktabi (1490), 
Hilali (see above), and Ruh-ulamln (d. 1637). But their 
efforts could not stop the growing corruption of taste, and it was 
only at the court of the Mogul emperors, particularly of the 
great Akbar (1556-1605), who revived Sultan Mahmud's " round 
table," that Persian literature still enjoyed some kind of " Indian 
summer " in poets like Ghazall of Mashhad or Meshed 
(d. 1572); 'Urfl of Shlraz (d. 1591), who wrote spirited kasidas, 
and, like his contemporaries WahshI and Kauthari, a mathnawi, 
Farhdd u Shlrln; and Faidi (d. 1595), the author of the romantic 
poem, Nal u Daman, who also imparted new life into the ruba'I. 
In Persia proper only Zulall, whose clever romance of " Sultan 
Mahmud and his favourite Ayaz " (1592) is widely read in the 
East, Sa'ib (d. 1677), who is commonly called the creator of a 
new style in lyric poetry, and, among the most modern, Hatif 
of Isfahan, the singer of sweet and tasteful odes (died about 
1785), deserve a passing notice. 

But we cannot conclude our brief survey of the national 
literature of Persia without calling attention to the rise of the 
drama, which has only sprung up in the beginning of The Drama 
the nineteenth century. Like the Greek drama and 
the mysteries of the European middle ages, it is the offspring of a 
purely religious ceremony, which for centuries has been performed 
annually during the first ten days of the month Muharram the 
recital of mournful lamentations in memory of the tragic fate 
of the house of the caliph 'All, the hero of the Shi'itic Persians. 
Most of these passion-plays deal with the slaughter of 'All's son 
Uosain and his family in the battle of Kerbela. But lately this 
narrow range of dramatic subjects has been considerably widened, 
Biblical stories and even Christian legends have been brought 
upon the Persian stage; and there is a fair prospect of a further 
development of this most interesting and important movement. 
(See further DRAMA: Persian.) 

In the various departments of general Persian literature not 
touched upon in the foregoing pages the same wonderful activity 
has prevailed as in the realm of poetry and fiction, Historical 
since the first books on history and medicine appeared works. 
under the Samanids (see above). The most important 
section is that of historical works, which, although deficient in 
sound criticism and often spoiled by a highly artificial style, 
supply us with most valuable materials for our own research. 
Quite unique in this respect are the numerous histories of India, 
from the first invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to the English 
conquest, and even to the first decades of the present century, 
most of which have been described and partly translated in the 
eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot's History of India (1867-1878). 
Persian writers have given us, besides, an immense variety of 
universal histories of the world, with many curious and note- 
worthy data (see, among others, Mirkhond's and Khwandamlr's 
works under MIRKHOND); histories of Mahomet and the first 
caliphs, partly translated from Arabic originals, which have been 
lost; detailed accounts of all the Persian dynasties, from the 
Ghaznevids to the still reigning Kajars, of Jenghiz Khan and 
the Moguls (in Juwaini's and Wassaf's elaborate Ta'rikhs), and 



252 



PERSIGNY PERSIS 



of Timur and his successors (see an account of the Zafarnama 
under PETIS DE LA CROIX) ; histories of sects and creeds, especially 
the famous Dabistan, or " School of Manners " (translated by 
Shea and Troyer, Paris 1843); and many local chronicles of Iran 
and Turan. Next in importance to history rank geography, 
cosmography, and travels (for instance, the Nuzhat-ul^ulub, by 
Hamdallah Mustaufi, who died in 1349, and the translations oi 
Istakhri's and Kazvlnl's Arabic works), and the various tadhkiras 
or biographies of Sufis and poets, with selections in prose and 
verse, from the oldest of 'AufI (about 1220) to the last and largest 
of all, the Makhzan-ulghara'ib, or " Treasure of Marvellous 
Matters" (completed 1803), which contains bngraphies and 
specimens of more than 3000 poets. We pass over the well- 
stocked sections of philosophy, ethics and politics, of theology, 
law and Suflsm, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine 
(the oldest thesaurus of which is the " Treasure of the shah of 
Khwarizam," 1 1 10), of Arabic, Persian and Turkish grammar and 
lexicography, and only cast a parting glance at the rich collection 
of old Indian folk-lore and fables preserved in the Persian version 
of Kalttah u Dimnah (see RUDAGI), of the Sindbad- 
niima > the futlnama, or " Tales of a Parrot," and 
others, and at the translations of standard works 
of Sanskrit literature, the epopees of the Ramayana and 
Mahabharata, the Bhagaiiad-Gitd, the Yoga-Vasishtha, and 
numerous Purdnas and Upanishads, for which we are mostly 
indebted to the emperor Akbar's indefatigable zeal. 

AUTHORITIES. The standard modern discussions of Persian 
literature are those of E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia 
(1902, seq.), and Hermann Eth6, in vol. ii. of Geiger and Kuhn's 
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1906); also 
the latter's Hofische und romantische Poesie der Perser (1887), and 
Mystische, didaktische und lyrische Poesie und das spdtere Schriftthum 
der Perser (1888). See also P. Horn, Geschichte der persischen 
Litteratur (1901). Concise sketches of Persian poetry are contained 
in Sir G. Ouseley's Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846); 
in G. L. Fliigel's article in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Ency- 
klopddie' (1842); in N. Eland's papers in the Journ. of the Roy. 
As. Soc., vii. 345 seq. and ix. 122 seq.; and in C. A. C. Barbier 
de Meynard's Poesie en Perse (Paris, 1877). Real mines of informa- 
tion are the catalogues of A. Sprenger (Calcutta, 1854); W. H. 
Morley (London, 1854); Fliigel (3 vols., Vienna, 1865); and C. Rieu 
(3 vols., London, 1879-^-1883). For the first five centuries of the 
Hegira compare Ethels editions and metrical translations of 
" Rudagi's Vorlaufer und Zeitgenossen," in Morgenldndische 
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875); of Kisa'i's songs, Firdousl's lyrics, 
and Abu Sa'id b. Abu '1-Khair's ruba'Is, in Sitzungsberichte der 
bayr. Akademie (1872, p. 275 seq. ; 1873, p. 622 seq. ; 1874, p. 133 seq. ; 
1875, p. 145 seq.; and 1878, p. 38 seq.); of Avicenna's Persian 
poems, in GoUinger Nachrichten (1875, p. 555 seq.) ; and of Asadi and 
his munazarat, in " Persische Tenzonen, ' Verhandlungen des $ten 
Orientalisten- Congresses (Berlin, 1882, pt. ii., first half, p. 48 seq.); 
H. Zotenberg's Chronique de Tabari (Paris, 1867-1874); Jurjani's 
Wis u Ramin, ed. in the Bibl. Indica (1864) (trans, into German 
by C. H. Graf in Zeitschrift der morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, xxiii. 
375 seq.) ; and A. de B. Kasimirski's Specimen du diwari de Menout- 
chehri (Versailles, 1876). On Khakani, see N. de Khanykoff's 
" Meinoire," in Journal asiatique, 6th series, vol. iy. p. 137 seq. 
and vol. v. p. 296 seq., and C. Salemann's edition of his ruba'is, with 
Russian trans. (Petersburg, 1875); on Farid uddln 'Attar, S. de 
Sacy's edition of the Pandnama (Paris, 1819), and Garcin de Tassy's 
Mantib-uttair (Paris, 1857); on the Gulshan-i-raz, E. H. Whinfield's 
edition (London, 1880); and on Amir Khosrau's mathnawis, the 
abstracts given in Elliot's History of India, Hi. 524 seq. German 
translations of Ibn Yamin were published by O. Schlechta-Wssehrd, 
Bruchstucke (Vienna, 1852); of Jami's minor poems, by V. von 
Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1840); by F. Ruckert, in Zeitschrift fur die 
Kunde des Morgenlandes, vols. v. and vi., and Zeitschrift der a. morgenl. 
Gesellsch., vols. ii., iv., v., vi., xxiv., xxv. and xxix. ; and by M. Wick- 
erhauser (Leipzig, 1855, and Vienna, 1858); German translation of 
Yusufu Zalikha, by Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1824), English by R. T. H. 

(~^f\fftt-\-t (1 nnr\nw+ QQ * \ . 1 ." ~. . . , , , 1 . i ~., ...}., i "... -~f T ~ 11 X -. 1 f _ i__ 



by A 

1807) 




Stud. (Leipzig, 1870, p. 197 seq.). On the Persian drama, compare 
J. A. de Gobineau's Religions et philosophies dans I'Asie centrale 



I 



Paris, 1866); A. Chodzko s Theatre person (new ed., Paris, 1878); 
and Eth6, " Persische Passionspiele," in Morgenldnd. Stud., p. 174 seq. 

(H. .) 

PERSIGNY, JEAN GILBERT VICTOR FIALIN, DUCDE (1808- 
1872), French statesman, was born at Saint-German Lespinasse 
(Loire) on the nth of January 1808, the son of a receiver 
of taxes. He was educated at Limoges, and entered the cavalry 



school at Saumur in 1826, becoming marechal des logis m the 
4th Hussars two years later. The share taken by his regiment 
in supporting the revolution of 1830 was regarded as insub- 
ordination, and next year Fialin was dismissed from the army. 
He became a journalist, and in 1833 became a strong Bonapartist, 
assuming the title of comte de Persigny, said to be dormant 
in his family. He planned the attempt on Strassburg in 1836 
and that on Boulogne hi 1840. At Boulogne he was arrested and 
condemned to twenty years' imprisonment in a fortress, shortly 
afterwards commuted into mild detention at Versailles, where 
he wrote a book to prove that the Pyramids were built to prevent 
the Nile from silting up. This was published in 1845 under the 
title, De la Destination et de VutUite permanente des Pyramides. 
At the revolution of 1848 he was arrested by the provisional 
government, and on his release took a prominent part in securing 
the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency. With Morny 
and the marshal Saint Arnaud he plotted the restoration of the 
empire, and was a devoted servant of Napoleon III. He 
succeeded Morny as minister of the interior in January 1852, 
and later in the year became senator. He resigned office in 
1854, being appointed next year to the London embassy, which 
he occupied with a short interval (1858-1859) until 1860, when he 
resumed the portfolio of the interior. But the growing influence 
of his rival Rouher provoked his resignation in 1863, when he 
received the title of duke. A more dangerous enemy than 
Rouher was the empress Eugenie, whose marriage he had opposed 
and whose presence in the council chamber he deprecated in a 
memorandum which fell into the empress's hands. He sought 
in vain to see Napoleon before he started to take over the 
command in 1870, and the breach was further widened when 
master and servant were in exile. Persigny returned to France 
in 1871, and died at Nice on the nth of January 1872. 

See Memoires du due de Persigny (2nd ed., 1896), edited by H. 
de Laire d'Espagny, his former secretary; an eulogistic life, Le Due 
de Persigny (1865), by Delaroa; and Emile Ollivier's Empire liberal 
(I895.&C.). 

PERSIMMON, the name given to the fruits of Diospyros 
virginiana in the United States. The tree which bears them 
belongs to the order Ebenaceae, is usually from 30 to 50 ft. in 
height, and has oval entire leaves, and unisexual flowers on short 
stalks. In the male flowers, which are numerous, the stamens 
are sixteen in number and arranged in pairs; the female flowers 
are solitary, with traces of stamens, and a smooth ovary with 
one ovule in each of the eight cells the ovary is surmounted by 
four styles, which are hairy at the base. The fruit-stalk is 
very short, bearing a subglobose fruit an inch or rather more in 
diameter, of an orange-yellow colour, and with a sweetish astrin- 
gent pulp. It is surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx- 
lobes, which increase in size as the fruit ripens. The astringency 
renders the fruit somewhat unpalatable, but after it has been 
subjected to the action of frost, or has become partially rotted 
or " bletted " like a medlar, its flavour is improved. The fruit 
is eaten in great quantities in the southern states of America, 
and is also fermented with hops, corn-meal or wheat-bran into 
a sort of beer or made into brandy. The wood is heavy, strong 
and very close-grained and used in turnery. The tree is very 
common in the South Atlantic and Gulf states, and attains its 
largest size in the basin of the Mississippi. It was brought to 
England before 1629 and is cultivated, but rarely if ever ripens 
ts fruit. It is easily raised from seed and can also be propagated 
Tom stolons, which are often produced in great quantity. 
The Chinese and Japanese cultivate another species, the 
Diospyros Kaki,oi which there exist numerous ill-defined varieties. 
The fruits are larger than those of the American kind, variable 
"n shape, but have similar properties. An astringent fluid, 
cnown as shibu, rich in tannin, is expressed from the green 
fruit and used in various industries. The tree is hardy in the 
south of England and in the Channel Islands. 

PERSIS (mod. Pars, q.v.), the south-western part of Iran 
^Persia), named from the inhabitants, the Iranian people of the 
Parsa (Fars) ; their name was pronounced by the lonians Persai, 
with change from a to e, and this form has become dominant 



PERSIS 



253 



in Greek and in the modern European languages. The natural 
features of Persis are described very exactly by Nearchus, the 
admiral of Alexander the Great (preserved by Arrian Indie. 
40 and Strabo xv. 727). The country is divided into three 
parts, of very different character and climate: the coast is sandy 
and very hot, without much vegetation except date palms; it 
has no good harbours, and the climate is very unwholesome; 
the population is scanty. About 50 m. from the coast rise the 
chains of the mountains, through which some steep passes lead 
into the interior valleys (called KotXi) Eepffis, Strabo xv. 
729), which lie about 5000 ft. above the sea. Here the climate 
is temperate, the country watered by many rivers and lakes, 
the soil fertile, the vegetation rich, the cattle numerous. These 
regions, which were thickly populated, form the real Persis of 
history. " This land Persis," says Darius, in an inscription 
at Persepolis, " which Ahuramazda has given to me, which is 
beautiful and rich in horses and men, according to the will of 
Ahuramazda and myself it trembles before no enemy." The 
third part is the north, which belongs to the central plateau, still 
much higher, and therefore rough and very cold in the winter. 
Towards the north-west it borders on the Median district of 
Paraetacene (about Isfahan); towards the north and north-east 
it soon passes into the great desert, of which only the oasis 
of Yezd (Isatichai in Ptolem. vi. 4, 2) is inhabitable. In the 
east, Persis proper is separated by a desert (Laristan) from 
the fertile province of Carmania (Kerman), a mountainous 
region inhabited by a Persian tribe. To Carmania belonged 
also the coast, with the islands and harbours of Hormuz and 
Bander Abbasi. In the west Persis borders on the mountains 
and plains of Elam or Susiana. For the ancient topography 
cf. Tomaschek, " Beitrage zur historischen Topographic von 
Persien," in Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akademie, phil. Cl. cii. 
cviii. cxxi. 

The Persians are not mentioned in history before the time of 
Cyrus; the attempt to identify them with the Parsua, a district 
in the Zagros chains south of Lake Urmia, often mentioned by 
the Assyrians, is not tenable. The Parsua are perhaps the non- 
Arian tribe Hdpoxot in northern Media, Strabo xi. 508. Herodotus 
i. 125, gives a list of Persian tribes: the Pasargadae (at Murghab), 
Maraphii, Maspii, Panthialaei (in western Carmania), Derusiaei, 
Germanii (i.e. the Carmanians) are husbandmen, the Dahae 
(i.e. the " enemies," a general name of the rapacious nomads, 
used also for the Turanian tribes), Mardi, Dropici, Sagartii 
(called by Darius Asagarla, in the central desert; cf. Herod, 
vii. 85) are nomads. The kings of the Pasargadae, from the 
clan of the Achaemenidae, had become kings of the Elamitic 
district Anshan (probably in 596, cf. CYRUS). When, in 553, 
Cyrus, king of Anshan, rebelled against Astyages, the Maraphians 
and Maspians joined with the Pasargadae; after his victory over 
Astyages all the Persian tribes acknowledged him, and he took 
the title of " king of Persia." But from then only the inhabitants 
of Persis proper were considered as the rulers of the empire, 
and remained therefore in the organization of Darius free from 
taxes (Herod, iii. 97). But Carmania, with the Sagartians, the 
Utians (called by Darius Yautiya), and other tribes, formed a 
satrapy and paid tribute (Herod, iii. 93); the later authors 
therefore always distinguished between Carmania and Persis. 
Names of other Persian tribes, partly of very doubtful authority, 
are given by Strabo xv. 727,' and Ptolem. vi. 4 and 8. 

The Persians of Cyrus (see PERSIA: Ancient History) were 
a vigorous race of husbandmen, living in a healthy climate, 
accustomed to hardship, brave and upright; many stories in 
Herodotus (especially ix. 122) point the contrast between their 
simple life and the effeminate nations of the civilized countries 
of Asia. They were firmly attached to the pure creed of 
Zoroaster (cf. Herod, i. 131 sqq. and the inscriptions of Darius). 

When Darius had killed the usurper Smerdis and gained the 
crown, a new usurper, Vahyazdata, who likewise pretended to 

1 To the Pateiskhoreis belongs the lance-bearer of Darius, 
" Gobryas (Gaubaruva) the Patishuvari," mentioned iii his tomb- 
inscription; they occur also in an inscription of Esarhaddon as 
Patush-ara, eastwards of Media, in Choarene at the Caspian gates ; 
the Kyrtii are the Kurds. 



be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, rose in Yautiya, but was defeated 
in two battles by Darius's generals and put to death (Behistun 
inscription) . Cyrus had built his capital with his palace and tomb, 
in Pasargadae (q.v.) . Darius founded a new city about 30 m. 
farther south on the left bank of the Pulwar, near its confluence 
with the Kur, with a large terrace, on which his magnificent 
palace and that of his son Xerxes were built. As Pasargadae was 
named after the tribe in whose district it lay, so the new capital 
is by the Persians and Greeks simply called "the Persians"; 
later authors call it Persepolis (q.v.), " the Persian city." 
Another Persian palace lay in Taoke, near the coast (Strabo 
xv. 728; Arrian Ind. 39; Dionys. Perieg. 1069); Gabae, which 
Strabo mentions besides, is Isfahan in Paraetacene and belonged 
already to Media. 

Both in Persepolis and Pasargadae large masses of gold and 
silver from the tribute of the subject nations were treasured, 
as in Susa and Ecbatana. But Persis lies too far off from the 
centre of the Asiatic world to be the seat of government. Like 
Arabia and similar countries, it could exercise a great momentary 
influence in history and produce a sudden change throughout 
the world; but afterwards it would sink into local insignificance. 
So the Persian kings fixed their residence at Susa, which is always 
considered as the capital of the empire (therefore Aeschylus 
wrongly considers it as a Persian town and places the tomb of 
Darius here). After the reign of Xerxes, Persis and Persepolis 
became utterly neglected, in spite of occasional visits, and even 
the palaces of Persepolis remained in part unfinished. But the 
national feeling of the Persians remained strong. When Alexander 
had won the victory of Arbela, and occupied Babylon and Susa, 
he met (in the spring of 330) with strong resistance in Persia, 
where the satrap Ariobarzanes tried to stop his progress at the 
" Persian gates," the pass leading up to Persepolis. Here 
he set fire to the cedar roof of the palace of Xerxes as a symbol 
that the Greek war of revenge against the Persians had come 
to an end. Our best information tells us that he soon had the 
fire extinguished (Plut. Alex. 38); the story of Thais is a pure 
fiction, and we may well believe that he repented the damage 
he had done (Arrian vi. 30, i). 

Alexander had planned to amalgamate the former rulers 
of the world with his Macedonians; but his death was followed 
by a Macedonian reaction. Peucestas, the new satrap of 
Persis, followed the example of Alexander, and thus gained a 
strong hold on his subjects (Diod. xix. 48) ; nor did Seleucus, to 
whom the dominion of the east ultimately passed (from 311 
onwards), disdain the aid of the Persians; he is the only one 
among the Diadochi who retained his Persian wife, Apame, 
daughter of Spitamenes. At the same time Seleucus and his 
son Antiochus I. Soter tried to introduce Hellenism into Persis. 
Of Greek towns which they founded here we know Alexandria 
in Carmania (Plin. vi. 107; Ptol. vi. 8, 14; Ammian. Marc. 23, 
6, 49), Laodicea in the east of Persis (Plin. 6, 115), Stasis, " a 
Persian town on a great rock, which Antiochus, the son of 
Seleucus, possessed " (Steph. .Eyz. s.v.), Antiochia in Persis, 
founded apparently by Seleucus I. and peopled by Antiochus I. 
with immigrants called together from all Greece, as we learn 
from a psephisma passed by " boule and demos " of this town 
in 206 in honour of Magnesia on the Maeander (Kern, Inschriften 
von Magnesia am Maeander, No. 6i = Dittenberger, Orientis gr. 
inscr. 233, where they are mentioned together with a great 
many Seleucid towns in Susiana and Babylonia, and compare 
Kern, No. i8 = Dittenberger, No. 231). An insurrection of the 
Persians against Seleucus (II.) is mentioned in two stratagems 
of Polyaenus (vii. 39. 40). When in 221 Molon, the satrap of 
Media, rebelled against Antiochus III., his brother Alexander, 
satrap of Persis, joined him, but they were defeated and killed 
by the king. Persis remained a part of the Seleucid empire 
down to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, who at the end of his reign 
restored once more the authority of the empire in Babylonia, 
Susiana and Persis; perhaps a battle, in which the satrap 
Numenius of Mesene (southern Babylonia) defeated the Persians 
on the shore of Carmania on sea and land (Plin. vi. 15 2), belongs 
to this time. But after the death of Antiochus IV. (164) the 



254 



PERSIUS 



Seleucid Empire began to dissolve. While the central pro- 
vinces, Media and northern Babylonia, were conquered by 
the Parthians, Mesene, Elymais and Persis made themselves 
independent. 

Persis never became a part of the empire of the Arsacids, 
although her kings recognized their supremacy when they were 
strong (Strabo xv. 728, 736). From the periplus of the Ery- 
thraean Sea 33-37 we learn that their authority extended over 
the shores of Carmania and the opposite coasts of Arabia. A 
Persian king, Artaxerxes, who was murdered by his brother 
Gosithros at the age of 93 years, is mentioned in a fragment 
of Isidore of Charax (Lucian, Macrobii, 15). Other names occur 
on their coins, the oldest of which are imitations of Seleucid 
coins, and were perhaps struck by local dynasts under their 
supremacy; most of the others show the king's head with the 
Persian tiara, and on the reverse a fire-altar with the adoring 
king before it, a standard (perhaps the famous banner of the 
smith Kavi, which b2came the standard of Iran under the 
Sassanids), and occasionally the figure of Ahuramazda; they 
were first explained by A. D. Mordtmann in Zeitschrift fur 
Numismalik, iii., iv. and vii.; cf. Grundriss der iranischen Phttol. 
ii. 486 seq. The legends are in Aramaic characters and Persian 
(Pahlavi) language; among them occur Artaxerxes, Darius (from 
a dynast of this name the town Darabjird, " town of Darius," 
in eastern Persia seems to derive its name), Narses, Tiridates, 
Manocihr and others; the name Vahuburz seems to be identical 
with Oborzos, mentioned by Polyaenus vii. 40, who put down 
a rebellion of 3000 settlers (KIXTOUOI) in Persis. From the 
traditions about Ardashir I. we know that at his time there 
were different petty kingdoms and usurpers in Persis; the 
principal dynasty is by Tabari called Bazrangi. The coins 
demonstrate that Hellenism had become quite extinct in Persis, 
while the old historical and mythical traditions and the Zoroas- 
trian religion were supreme. There can be no doubt that at this 
time the true form of Zoroastrianism and the sacred writings 
were preserved only in Persis, whereas everywhere else (in 
Parthia, in the Indo-Scythian kingdoms of the east and in the 
great propagandist movement in Armenia, Syria and Asia 
Minor, where it developed into Mithraism) it degenerated and 
was mixed with other cults and ideas. So the revival of 
Zoroastrianism came from Persis. When Ardashir I. attempted 
to restore the old empire of Cyrus and Darius, and in 212 A.D. 
rose against the Parthian king, Artabanus, his aim was religious 
as well as political. The new Sassanid Empire which he founded 
enforced the restored religion of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) on the 
whole of Iran. 

The new capital of Persis was Istakhr on the Pulwar, about 
9 m. above Persepolis, now Hajjiabad, where even the pre- 
decessors of Ardashir I. are said to have resided. It was a great 
city under the Sassanids, of which some ruins are extant. But 
it shared the fate of its predecessor; when the empire was founded 
the Sassanids could no longer remain in Persis but transferred 
their headquarters to Ctesiphon. (En. M.) 

PERSIUS, in full AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS (A.D. 34-62), 
Roman poet and satirist. According to the Life contained in 
the MSS., Persius was a native of Volaterrae, of good stock on 
both parents' side. When six years old he lost his father, and 
his step-father died in a few years. At the age of twelve Persius 
came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and 
the rhetor Verginius Flavus. Four years later began a close 
intimacy with the Stoic Cornutus. In this philosopher's pupil 
Lucan, Persius found a generous admirer of all he wrote. Still 
in early youth he became the friend of the lyric poet Caesius 
Bassus, whilst with Thrasea Paetus (whose wife Arria was a 
relative) he had a close friendship of ten years' duration and 
shared some travels. Seneca he met later, and was not attracted 
by his genius. In his boyhood Persius wrote a tragedy dealing 
with an episode of Roman history, and a work, the title of which 
is rendered uncertain by corruption in our MSS. Pithou's 
generally accepted reading makes the subject that of travel; 
the excursions with Thrasea however must have taken place after 
boyhood. The perusal of Lucilius revealed to Persius his 



vocation, and he set to work upon a book of satires. But he 
wrote seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio slomachi) 
prevented the completion of his task. He is described as 
possessed of a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal 
beauty, and living a life of exemplary devotion towards his 
mother Fulvia Sisenna, his sister and his aunt. To his mother 
and sister he left a considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed 
all his work except the book of satires in which he made some 
slight alterations and then handed it over to Bassus for editing. 
It proved an immediate success. 

The scholia add a few details on what authority is, as generally 
with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free 
from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly corrupt and 
disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The MSS. say it 
came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, no doubt a learned 
edition of Persius like those of Virgil and Horace by this same famous 
" grammarian " of Berytus, the poet's contemporary. The only 
case in which it seems to conflict with the Satires themselves is 
in its statement as to the death of Persius's father. The declaiming 
of a suasoria in his presence (Sat. 3. 4 sqq.) implies a more mature 
age than that of six in the performer. But pater might here mean 
" step-father," or Persius may have forgotten his own auto- 
biography, may be simply reproducing one of his models. The 
mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not 
of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points 
of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger 
evolved it from the works of Persius. It requires indeed a thoughtful 
reading of the Life before we realize how distinct is the impression 
it gives of a " bookish " youth, who has never strayed far, at least 
in spirit, from the domestic hearth and his women-folk. And of 
course this is notoriously the picture drawn by the Satires. So much 
better does Persius know his books than the world that he draws 
the names of his characters from Horace. A keen observer of what 
occurs within his narrow horizon, he cannot but discern the seamy 
side of life (cf. e.g. such hints as Sat. iii. no); he shows, however, 
none of Juvenal's undue stress on unsavoury detail or Horace's 
easy-going acceptance of human weaknesses. The sensitive, home- 
bred nature of Persius shows itself perhaps also in his frequent 
references to ridicule, whether of great men by street gamins or of 
the cultured by Philistines. 

The chief interest of Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman 
satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of 
the Roman tongue. The influence of Horace on Persius can, 
in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than 
that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but 
whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him. 
The resemblance only emphasizes the difference between the 
caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher. Persius strikes the 
highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and 
moral purpose rising far superior to the political rancour or 
good natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical 
indignation of Juvenal, he seems a forerunner of the great 
Christian Apologists. From him we learn a lesson Seneca never 
taught, how that wonderful philosophy could work on minds 
that still preserved the depth and purity of the old Roman 
gravitas. When the Life speaks of Seneca's genius as not 
attracting Persius, it presumably refers to Seneca the philosopher. 
Some of the parallel passages in the works of the two are very 
close, and hardly admit of explanation by assuming the use of 
a common source. With Seneca, Persius censures the style 
of the day, and imitates it. Indeed in some of its worst failings, 
straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids 
Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not 
seven hundred lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to 
great depth of thought, compares very ill with the terse clear- 
ness of the Epistolae morales. A curious contrast to this ten- 
dency is presented by his free use of " popular " words. As of 
Plato, so of Persius we hear that he emulated Sophron; the 
authority is a late one (Lydus, De mag. i. 41), but we can at 
least recognize in the scene that opens Sal. 3. kinship with such 
work as Theocritus' Adoniazusae and the Mimes of Herodas. 

Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the 
scazons of the short prologue above referred to, in which he half 
ironically asserts that he writes to earn his bread, not because he 
is inspired. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day 
as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme 
of Seneca's U4th letter is similar. The description of the recilator 
and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an 
interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification 



PERSON PERSONALITY 



255 



and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of 
appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the 
dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining 
satires handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly 
ask of the gods (cf. Plato's second Alcibiades), (3) the importance 
of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge 
for public men (cf. Plato's first Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doctrine 
of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus' teaching), 
and (6) the proper use of money. The Life tells us that the Satires 
were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by 
Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be 
quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius 
had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not com- 
pleted, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus 
definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor's literary 
taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the MSS. in Sat. i. 121, 
" auriculas asini quis non [for Mida rex] habet ! " Traces of 
lack of revision are, however, still visible; cf. e.g. v. 176 (sudden 
transition from ambition to superstition) and vi. 37 (where criticism 
of Greek declares has nothing to do with the context). The parallels 
to passages of Horace and Seneca are recorded in the commentaries: 
in view of what the Life says about Lucan, the verbal resemblance 
of Sat. iii. 3 to Phars. x. 163 is interesting. Examples of bold 
language or metaphor: i. 25, rupto iecore exierit caprificus, 60, 
linguae quantum sitiat canis; iii. 42, inlus palleat, 81, silentia rodunt; 
v. 92, ueteres auiae de pulmone reuello. Passages like iii. 87, 100 sqq. 
show elaboration carried beyond the rules of good taste. " Popular 
words: baro, cedo, ebullire, gluto, lallare, mamma, muttire, obba, 
palpo, stloppus. Fine lines, &c., in i. 116 sqq., ii. 6 sqq., 61 sqq., 
73 sqq., iii. 39 sqq. 

AUTHORITIES. The MSS. of Persius fall into two groups, the one 
represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Pithoeus, 
so important for the text of Juvenal. Since the publication of 
J. Sieger's de Persii cod. pith, recte aestimando (Berlin, 1890) the 
tendency has been to prefer the tradition cf the latter. 

The important editions are: (i) with explanatory notes: Casaubon 
(Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Diibner, Leipzig, 1833) ;O. Jahn 
(with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843) ; Coning- 
ton (with translation ; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893) ; B. L. Gildersleeve (New 
York, 1875); G. Nemethy (Buda-Pesth, 1903); (2) with critical 
notes: Jahn-BOcheler (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893); S. G. Owen (with 
Juvenal, Oxford, 1902). Translations into English by Dryden 
(1693) ; Conington (loc. cit.) and Hemphill (Dublin, 1901). Criticism, 
&c., in Martha, Les Moralistes sous I'empire remain (sth ed., Paris, 
1886); Nisard, Poetes latins de la decadence (Paris, 1834); Htrzel, 
Der Dialog (Leipzig, 1895); Saintsbury, History of Criticism, i. 248; 
Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (London, 
1903); and the histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz, 
382 sqq.). A Bibliography of Persius, by M.'H. Morgan (Cam- 
bridge, U.S.A., 1893). (W. C. Su.) 

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE. This expression is 
used in English law to classify crimes involving some form of 
assault or personal violence or physical injury, i.e. offences 
affecting the life, liberty or safety of an individual: but it is 
also extended to certain offences against morality which cannot 
technically be described as assaults. The bulk of the offences 
thus classified, so far as their definition or punishment depends 
upon statute law, are included in the Offences Against the 
Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Viet. c. 100), and in the Criminal 
Law Amendment Acts of 1880 and 1885, and the Prevention of 
Cruelty to Children Act 1904. The classification in these statutes 
is not scientific: e.g. bigamy is within the act of 1861 (s. 57), 
and certain offences involving assault, e.g. robbery, are to be 
found in other statutes. The particular offences dealt with 
by the acts above named are discussed under their appropriate 
titles, e.g. abortion, assault, bigamy, homicide, rape, &c. In 
the Indian penal code most of the offences above referred to 
fall under the head " offences against the human body " (ch. 
xvi.). In his Digest of the Criminal Law Sir James Stephen 
includes most of these offences under the title " offences against 
the person, the conjugal and parental rights, and the reputation 
of individuals," a classification also to be found in the English 
draft code of 1880 and adopted in the Queensland code of 1890. 
In working out this classification offences not involving assault 
are relegated to another and perhaps more appropriate title, 
" offences against morality." 

PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's 
mask, from personare, 1 to sound through), a term applied in 

1 So Gabius Bassus in Cell. Noct. Alt. v. 7, I. Since, however, 
it is difficult to explain persona from personare (Skeat suggests 
by analogy from icpbauncov the Greek equivalent!), Walde, in 



philosophy and also in common speech to the identity or indi- 
viduality which makes a being (person) what he is, or marks 
him off for all that he is not. The term " person," which is 
technically used not only in philosophy but also in law, is applied 
in theology (Gr. irpocrowrov) to the three hypostases of the 
Trinity. It was first introduced by Tertullian, who implied 
by it a single individual; the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost 
were three personae though of one and the same substance 
(uniias subsiantiae) . The nature of this unity in difference 
exercised the minds of the early Christian theologians, and was 
the subject of many councils and official pronouncements, accord- 
ing as emphasis was laid on the unity or on the separateness of 
the persons. There was perpetual schism between the Unitarians 
and Trinitarians (see for example SABEILIUS). The natural 
sense of the word " person " is undoubtedly individuality; 
hence those who found a difficulty in the philosophic conception 
of the three-in-one naturally tended to lay emphasis on the 
distinctions between the members of the Trinity (see HERESY; 
MONARCHIANISM; LOGOS, &c.). A further theological question 
arises in connexion with the doctrine of immortality (q.v.), and 
it is argued that immortality is meaningless unless the soul of 
the dead man is self-conscious throughout. 

In philosophy the term has an important ethical significance. 
The Greek moralists, attaching little importance to individual 
citizens as such, found the highest moral perfection in the sub- 
ordination of the individual to the state. Man, as iro\iTii<6v &ov, 
is good only when he is a good iroXmjs. Subsequent ethical 
systems on the contrary have laid stress on the moral worth 
of personality, finding the summum bonum in the highest 
realization of the self. This view is specially characteristic 
of the Neo-hegelian school (e.g. T. H. Green), but it belongs 
also in various degrees to all intuitional and idealistic systems. 
Utilitarian universalistic hedonism and evolutionist ethics so 
far resemble the Greek theory that they tend to minimize the 
importance of personality, by introducing ulterior reasons 
(e.g. the perfection of the social organism, of humanity) as the 
ultimate sanctions of moral principles, whereas the intuitionists i 
by making the criterion abstract and absolute limit goodness 
to personal obedience to the a priori moral law. 

Still more important problems are connected with the 
psychological significance of personality. What is the origin 
and character of the consciousness of the self? The conscious- 
ness of the identity of another person is comparatively simple; 
but one's own individuality consists partly in being aware of that 
individuality; a man cannot use the word " I " unless he is 
conscious of the unity of his " self," and yet there is involved in 
the word " I " something more than this consciousness. In 
what does the unity of the " self " consist prior to its being 
recognized in consciousness; how does the consciousness arise? 
The answer to this problem is to be found in so far as it can 
be found in the subject-object relation, in the distinction 
between the external world and the subjective processes of 
knowing and willing which that relation involves. I will 
something, and afterwards perceive a corresponding change 
within the unity of my external world. Hence, we may sup- 
pose, arises the consciousness of a permanent self and not-self. 

It should be observed that self-consciousness varies according 
to the intellectual development, and the term " personality " 
is usually connected only with the self-consciousness of an 
advanced type, not, for example, with that of an animal. Even 
among human beings there is considerable difference. The 
most elementary form of human self-consciousness includes in 
the self not only the soul but also the body, while to the developed 
self-consciousness the physical self is part of the external or 
objective world. Finally it is necessary to refer to the Kantian 
distinction of the pure and the empirical ego, the latter (" the 
Me known ") being an object of thought to the former (" the 
I knowing "). 

From the use of the term " person " as distinguishing the 

Lateinisches elymologisches Worterbuch (1906), suggests a derivation 
from Greek fww), a zone. In Roman law persona was one who 
had civil rights. For the ecclesiastical persona ecclesiae, see PARSON. 



256 



PERSONAL PROPERTY PERSONATION 



self from the not-self arises the phrase " personal equation " 
for those peculiar characteristics or idiosyncrasies which have 
to be taken into account in estimating the value of an individual 
judgment or observation. This phrase, which is commonly 
used in any connexion, was first applied to the errors detected 
in the astronomical observations of a Greenwich observer named 
Kinnebrook in 1795. The recognized fact that the greater or 
less inaccuracy is habitual to individual observers has been 
investigated, e.g. by Bessel (Abhandlungen, iii. 300) and by 
Wundt (Physiol. Psychol.), and machines have been devised 
which make allowance for the error caused by the personal 
equation (see MICROMETER). 

For the psychological problem, see PSYCHOLOGY. For the 
problems connected with sub-conscious action, &c., see SUBLIMINAL 
SELF; TRANCE; HYPNOTISM; TELEPATHY. 

PERSONAL PROPERTY, one branch of the main division 
of the English law of property, the other being " real property." 
The division of property into real and personal represents in 
a great measure the division into immovable and movable 
incidentally recognized in Roman law and generally adopted 
since. " Things personal," according to Blackstone, " are 
goods, money, and all other movables which may attend the 
owner's person wherever he thinks proper to go " (Comm. ii. 16). 
This identification of things personal with movables, though 
logical in theory, does not, as will be seen, perfectly express 
the English law, owing to the somewhat anomalous position 
of chattels real. In England real property is supposed to be 
superior in dignity to personal property, which was originally of 
little importance from a legal point of view. This view is the 
result of feudal ideas, and had no place in the Roman system, in 
which immovables and movables were dealt with as far as pos- 
sible in the same manner, and descended according to the same 
rules. The main differences between real and personal property 
which still exist in England are these, (i) In real property there 
can be nothing more than limited ownership; there can be no 
estate properly so called in personal property, and it may be held 
in complete ownership. There is nothing corresponding to an 
estate-tail in personal property; words which in real property 
would create an estate-tail will give an absolute interest in 
personalty. A life-interest may, however, be given in personalty, 
except in articles quae ipso usu consumuntur. Limitations 
of personal property, equally with those of real property, fall 
within the rule against perpetuities. (2) Personal property is 
not subject to various incidents of real property, such as rent, 
dower or escheat. (3) On the death of the owner intestate 
real property descends to the heir; personal property is divided 
according to the Statute of Distributions. (4) Real property as a 
general rule must be transferred by deed; personal property does 
not need so solemn a mode of transfer. (5) Contracts relating 
to real property must be in writing by the Statute of Frauds, 29 
Car. II. c. 3, s. 4; contracts relating to personal property need 
only be in writing when it is expressly so provided by statute, 
as, for instance, in the cases falling under s. 17 of the Statute of 
Frauds. (6) A will of lands need not be proved, but a will of 
personalty or of personal and real property together must be 
proved in order to give a title to those claiming under it. (7) 
Devises of real estate fall as a rule within the Mortmain Acts 
(see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; CORPORATION); bequests of 
personal property, other than chattels real, are not within 
the act. (8) Mortgages of real property need not generally be 
registered; mortgages of personal property for the most part 
require registration under the Bills of Sale Acts (see PLEDGE, 
and BILL OF SALE). 

Personal estate is divided in English law into chattels real and 
chattels personal; the latter are again divided into chases in 
possession and chases in action (see CHATTEL; CHOSE). 

Interest in personal property may be either absolute or qualified. 
The latter case is illustrated by animals ferae naturae, in which 
property is only coextensive with detention. Personal property 
may be acquired by occupancy (including the accessio, commixtio, 
and confusio of Roman law), by invention, as patent and copy- 
right, or by transfer, either by the act of the law (as in bankruptcy, 



judgment and intestacy), or by the act of the party (as in gift, 
contract and will). 

There are several cases in which, by statute or otherwise, 
property is taken out of the class of real or personal to which 
it seems naturally to belong. By the operation of the equitable 
doctrine of conversion money directed to be employed in the 
purchase of land, or land directed to be turned into money, is 
in general regarded as that species of property into which it is 
directed to be converted. An example of property prima facie 
real which is treited as personal is an estate pur autre vie, which, 
since 14 Geo. II. c. 20, s. 9, 1740-1741 (now replaced by the 
Wills Act 1837, s. 6) is distributable as personal property in the 
absence of a special occupant. Examples of property prima facie 
personal which is treated as real are fixtures, heirlooms, such 
as deeds and family portraits, and shares in some of the older 
companies, as the New River Company, which are real estate 
by statute. In ordinary cases shares in companies are per- 
sonal property, unless the shareholders have individually some 
interest in the land as land. 

The terms heritable and movable of Scots law to a great extent 
correspond with the real and personal of English law. The main 
points of difference are these, (i) Leases are heritable as to the 
succession to the lessee, unless the destination expressly exclude 
heirs, but are movable as to the fisk. (2) Money due on mortgages 
and securities on land is personalty in England. At common law 
in Scotland debts secured on heritable property are themselves 
heritable. But by the Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland) 
Act 1868, s. 117, heritable securities are movable as far as regards 
the succession of the creditor, unless executors are expressly ex- 
cluded. They still, however, remain heritable quoad fiscum, as 
between husband and wife, in computing legitim, and as far as 
regards the succession of the debtor. (3) Up to 1868 the heir of 
heritage succeeded to certain movable goods called heirship 
movables, which bore a strong likeness to the heirlooms of English 
law. This right of the heir was abolished by the act of 1868, s. 160. 
(4) Annuities, as having traclum futuri temporis, are heritable, and 
an obligation to pay them falls upon the heir of the deceased (Watson, 
Law Diet. s.y. " Annuities "). 

The law in the United States agrees in most respects with that 
of England. Heirlooms are unknown, one reason being, no doubt, 
that the importance of title-deeds is much less than it is in England, 
owing to the operation of the Registration Acts. Long terms in 
some states have annexed to them the properties of freehold estates. 
In some states estates pur autre vie descend like real property; in 
others an estate pur autrt vie is deemed a freehold only during the 
life of the grantee; after his death it becomes a chattel real. In 
yet other states the heir has a scintilla of interest as special occupant 
(Kent, Comm. iv. 27). In some states railway rolling-stock is 
considered as purely personal, in others it has been held to be a 
fixture, and so to partake of the nature of real property. Shares 
in some of the early American corporations were, like New River 
shares in England, made real estate by statute, as in the case of 
the Cape Sable Company in Maryland (Schouler, Law of Personal 
Property, i.). In Louisiana animals employed in husbandry are, 
and slaves were, regarded as immovables. Pews in churches are 
generally real property, but in some states they are made personal 
property by statute. The assignment of choses in action is generally 
permitted, and is in most states regulated by statute. (J. W.) 

PERSONATION, in English law, a form of fraud consisting 
in a false representation by one person (by words or conduct) 
that he is another person living or dead. It is not an offence 
by the common law unless the representation is made on oath 
under circumstances constituting the offence of perjury, or 
unless the representation if not made on oath is made under 
circumstances amounting to a common law cheat. Personation 
has been made an offence by statute in the following cases: (i) 
where it amounts to a false pretence by words or conduct, and 
is done with intent to defraud, and property is by such false 
pretence obtained, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96 ss. 88-90 (see FALSE 
PRETENCES); (2) in the case of false and deceitful personation 
of any person or of the heir, executor, administrator, wife, widow, 
next of kin or relative of any person with intent fraudulently 
to obtain any land, estate, chattel, money, valuable security or 
property (37 & 38 Viet. c. 36 s. i); (3) in the case of personation 
of votes at elections (see CORRUPT PRACTICES). 

The first of these offences is a misdemeanour only; the second 
is a felony punishable by penal servitude for life. The second 
offence was created in 1874 in consequence of the Tichborne 
case, in which under the law as it then stood it had been necessary 



PERSPECTIVE 



257 



to prosecute the claimant for perjury. Besides the enactments 
above referred to there are also a number of provisions for dealing 
with the personation of sailors, soldiers, pensioners and owners 
of stock in the public funds or shares in joint-stock companies, 
and of persons who falsely acknowledge in the name of another 
recognizances, deeds or instruments, before a court or person 
authorized to take the acknowledgment. 

PERSPECTIVE (Lat. perspicere, to see through), in mathematics 
the name given to the art of representing solid objects by a plane 
drawing which affects the eye as does the object itself. In the 
article PROJECTION it is shown that if all points in a figure be 
projected from a fixed centre to a plane, each point on the 
projection will be the projection of all points on the projecting 
ray. A complete representation by a single projection is there- 
fore possible only when there is but one point to be projected 
on each ray. This is the case by projecting from one plane to 
another, but it is also the case if we project the visible parts of 
objects in nature; for every ray of light meeting the eye starts 
from that point in which the ray, if we follow its course from the 
eye backward, meets for the first time any object. Thus, if we 
project from a fixed centre the visible part of objects to a plane 
or other surface, then the outlines of the projection would give 
the same impression to the eye as the outlines of the things 
projected, provided that one eye only be used and that this be 
at the centre of projection. If at the same time the light emanat- 
ing from the different points in the picture could be made to 
be of the same kind that is, of the same colour and intensity 
and of the same kind of polarization as that coming from the 
objects themselves, then the projection would give sensibly 
the same impression as the objects themselves. The art of 
obtaining this result constitutes a chief part of the technique of 
a painter, who includes the rules which guide him under the 
name of perspective, distinguishing between linear and aerial 
perspective the former relating to the projection, to the 
drawing of the outlines, the latter to the colouring and the 
shading off of the colours in order to give the appearance of 
distance. Here we deal only with the former, which is in fact a 
branch of geometry consisting in the applications of the rules 
of projection. 

I. Our problem is the following: There is given a figure in 
space, the plane of a picture, and a point as centre of projection; it is 
required to project the figure from the point to the plane. 

From what has been stated about projection (q.v.) in general it 
follows at once that the projection of a point is a point, that of a 
line a line. Further, the projection of a point at infinity in a line 
is in general a finite point. Hence parallel lines are projected into 
a pencil of lines meeting at some finite point. This point is called 
the vanishing point of the direction to which it belongs. To find 
it, we project the point at infinity in one of the parallel lines; that 
is, we draw through the eye a line in the given direction. This 
cuts the picture plane in the point required. 

Similarly all points at infinity in a plane are projected to a line 
(see PROJECTION : 6) which is called the vanishing line of the plane 
and which is common to all parallel planes. 

All lines parallel to a plane have their vanishing points in a line, 
viz. in the vanishing line of the plane. 

All lines parallel to the picture plane have their vanishing points 
at infinity in the picture plane; hence parallel lines which are 

parallel to the picture plane 
appear in the projection as 
parallel lines in their true 
direction. 

The projection of a line is 
determined by the projection of 
two points in it, these being 
very often its vanishing point 
and its trace on the picture 
plane. The projection of a 
point is determined by the 
projection of two lines through 
it. 

These are the general rules 
which we now apply. We 
suppose the picture plane to 
be vertical. 

2. Let (fig. i) S be the 
centre of projection, where 
the eye is situated, and which 

in perspective is called the point of sight, ABKL the picture 
plane, ABMN a horizontal plane on which we suppose the objects 

XXI. 9 




to rest of which a perspective drawing is to be made. The lowest 
plane which contains points that are to appear in the picture is 
generally selected for this purpose, and is therefore called the 
ground plane, or sometimes the geometrical plane. It cuts the 
picture plane in a horizontal line AB called the ground line or base 
line or fundamental line of the picture. A horizontal line SV, 
drawn through the eye S perpendicular to the picture, cuts the 
latter at a point V called the centre of the picture or the centre of 
vision. The distance SV of the eye from the picture is often 
called the distance simply, and the height ST of the_eye above the 
ground the height of the eye. 

The vanishing line of the ground plane, and hence of every 
horizontal plane, is got by drawing the projecting rays from S to 
the points at infinity in the plane in other words, by drawing all 
horizontal rays through S. These lie in a horizontal plane wnich 
cuts the picture plane in a horizontal line DD' through the centre 
of vision V. This line is called the horizon in the picture. It 
contains the vanishing points of all horizontal lines, the centre of 
vision V being the vanishing point of all lines parallel to SV, that 
is perpendicular to the picture plane. To find the vanishing point 
of any other line we draw through S the ray projecting the point at 
infinity in the line; that is, we draw through S a ray parallel to the 
line, and determine the point where this ray cuts the picture plane. 
If the line is given by its plan on the ground plane, and its elevation 
on the picture plane, then its vanishing point can at once be deter- 
mined; it is the vertical trace of a line parallel to it through the 
eye (cf. GEOMETRY: Descriptive, 6). 

3. To have construction in a single plane, we suppose the 
picture plane turned down into the ground plane; but before this 
is done the ground plane is 
pulled forward till, say, the 
line MN takes the place of 
AB, and then the picture 
plane is turned down. By 
this we keep the plan of the 
figure and the picture itself 
separate. In this new posi- 
tion the plane of the picture 
will be that of the paper 
(fig. 2). On it are marked 
the base line AB, the centre 
of vision V, and the horizon 
DD', and also the limits 
ABKL of the actual picture. 
These, however, need not 
necessarily be marked. In 
the plan the picture plane 
must be supposed to pass 
through AiBi, and to be 
perpendicular to the ground 
plane. If we further sup- 
pose that the horizontal 
plane through the eye which 
cuts the picture plane in the horizon DD' be turned down about 
the horizon, then the centre of sight will come to the point S, where 
VS equals the distance of the eye. 

To find the vanishing point of any line in a horizontal plane, 
we have to draw through S a line in the given direction and see 
where it cuts the horizon. For instance to find the vanishing points 
of the two horizontal directions which make angles of 45 with the 
horizon, we draw through S lines SD and SD' making each an angle 
of 45 with the line DD . These points can also be found by making 
VD and VD' each equal to the distance SV. The two points D, D' 
are therefore called the distance points. 

4. Let it now be required to find the perspective P of a point 
P! (figs, i and 2) in the groundjplane. We draw through PI two 
lines of which the projection can easily be found. The most con- 
venient lines are the perpendicular to the base line, and a line 
making an angle of 45 with the picture plane. These lines in the 
ground plane are PiQi and PjRi. The first cuts the picture at Q; or 
at Q, and has the vanishing point V; hence QV is its perspective. 
The other cuts the picture in RI, or rather in R, and has the vanish- 
ing point D; its perspective is RD. These two lines meet at P, 
which is the point required. It [will be noticed that the line 
QR = QiRi = QiPi gives the distance of the point P behind the 
picture plane. Hence if we know the point Q where a perpendicular 
from a point to the picture plane cuts the latter, and also the 
distance of the point behind the picture plane, we can find its 
perspective. We join Q to V, set off QR to the right equal to the 
distance of the point behind the picture plane, and join R to the 
distance point to the left ; where RD cuts QV is the point P required. 
Or we set off QR' to the left equal to the distance and join R' to 
the distance point D' to the right. 

If the distance of the point from the picture should be very great, 
the point R might fall at too great a distance from Q to be on the 
drawing. ' In this case we might set off QW equal to the nth part 
of the distance and join it to a point E, so that VE equals the nth 
part of VD. Thus if QW = iQR and VE = $VD, then WE will 
again pass through P. It is thus possible to find for every point in 
the ground plane, or in fact in any horizontal plane, the perspective; 




258 



PERSPECTIVE 



for the construction will not be altered if the ground plane be 
replaced by any other horizontal plane. We can in fact now find 
the perspective of every point as soon as we know the foot of the per- 
pendicular drawn from it to the picture plane, that is, if we know its 
elevation on the picture plane, and its distance behind it. For this 
reason it is often convenient to draw in slight outlines the elevation 
of the figure on the picture plane. 

Instead of drawing the elevation of the figure we may also proceed 
as follows. Suppose (fig. 3) Ai to be the projection of the plan 
of a point A. Then the point A lies vertically above Ai because 
vertical lines appear in the perspective as vertical lines (i). If 
then the line VAi cuts the figure plane at Q, and we erect at Q a 
perpendicular in the picture plane to its base and set off on it QA 2 
equal to the real height of the point A above the ground plane, 




FIG. 3. 

then the point A 2 is the elevation of A and hence the line A 2 V 
will pass through the point A. The latter thus is determined by 
the intersection of the vertical line through A t and the line A S V. 

This process differs from the one mentioned before in this that 
the construction for finding the point is not made in the horizontal 
plane in which it lies, but that its plan is constructed in the ground 
plane. But this has a great advantage. The perspective of a 
horizontal plane from the picture to the line at infinity occupies 
in the picture the space between the line where the plane cuts the 
picture and the horizon, and this space is the greater the farther the 
plane is from the eye, that is, the farther its trace on the picture 
plane lies from the horizon. The horizontal plane through the eye 
is projected into a line, the horizon; hence no construction can be 
performed in it. The ground plane on the other hand is the lowest 
horizontal plane used. Hence it offers most space for constructions, 
which consequently will allow of greater accuracy. 

5. The process is the same if we know the co-ordinates of the 
point, viz. we take in the base line a point O as origin, and we take 
the base line, the line OV, and the perpendicular OZ as axes of 
co-ordinates. If we then know the co-ordinates x, y, z measured in 
these directions, we make OQ = *, set off on QV a distance QA such 
that its real length QR=y, make QA 2 = z, and we find A as before. 
This process might be simplified by setting off to begin with along 
OQ and OZ scales in their true dimensions and along OV a scale 
obtained by projecting the scale on OQ from D to the line OV. 

6. The methods explained give the perspective of any point 
in space. If lines have to be found, we may determine the perspec- 
tive of two points in them and join these, and this is in many cases the 
most convenient process. Often, however, it will be advantageous 
to determine the projection of a line directly by finding its vanishing 
point. This is especially to be recommended when a number of 
parallel lines have to be drawn. 

The perspective of any curve is in general a curve. The projec- 
tion of a conic is a conic, or in special cases a line. The perspec- 
tive of a circle may be any conic, not necessarily an ellipse. 
Similarly the perspective of the shadow of a circle on a plane is 



some conic. 



7. A few words must be said about the determination of shadows 
in perspective. The theory of their construction is very simple. 
We have given, say, a figure and a point L as source of light. We 
join the point L to any point of which we want to find the shadow 
and produce this line till it cuts the surface on which the shadow 
falls. These constructions must in many cases first be performed 
in plan and elevation, and then the point in the shadow has to be 
found in perspective. The constructions are different according as 
we take as the source of light a finite point (say, the flame of a lamp), 
or the sun, which we may suppose to be at an infinite distance. 

If, for instance, in fig. 3, A is a source of light, EHGF a vertical 
wall, and C a point whose shadow has to be determined, then the 
shadow must lie on the line joining A to C. To see where this ray 
meets the floor we draw through the source of light and the point 
C a vertical plane. This will cut the floor in a line which contains 
the feet Ai, Ci of the perpendiculars drawn from the points A, C to 
the floor, or the plans of these points. At C', where the line AiQ 
cuts AC, will be the shadow of C on the floor. If the wall EHGF 
prevents the shadow from falling on the floor, we determine the 
intersection K of the line AiC, with the base EF of the wall and 
draw a vertical through it, this gives the intersection of the wall 
with the vertical plane through A and C. Where it cuts AC is the 
shadow C* of C on the wall. 



If the shadow of a screen CDDiCi has to be found we find the 
shadow D' of D which falls on the floor; then DiD' is the shadow 
of DiD and D'C' is the shadow on the floor of the line DC. The 
shadow of DiD, however, is intercepted by the wall at L. Here 
then the wall takes up the shadow, which must extend to D" as the 
shadow of a line on a plane is a line. Thus the shadow of the screen 
is found in the shaded part in the figure. 

8. If the shadows are due to the sun, we have to find first the 
perspective of the sun, that is, the vanishing point of its rays. This 
will always be a point in the picture plane; but we have to distin- 
guish between the cases where the sun is in the front of the picture, 
and so behind the spectator, or behind the picture plane, and so in 
front of the spectator. In the second case only does the vanishing 
point of the rays of the sun actually represent the sun itself. It 
will be a point above the horizon. In the other case the vanishing 
point of the rays will lie below the horizon. It is the point where 
a ray of the sun through the centre of sight S cuts the picture plane, 
or it will be the shadow of the eye on the picture. In either case 
the ray of the sun through any point is the line joining the perspec- 
tive of that point to the vanishing point of the sun's rays. But 
in the one case the shadow falls away from the vanishing point, 
in the other it falls towards it. The direction of the sun's rays 
may be given by the plan and elevation of one ray. 

For the construction of the shadow of points it is convenient 
first to draw a perpendicular from the point to the ground and to 
find its shadow on the ground. But the shadows of verticals from 
a point at infinity will be parallel ; hence they have in perspective 
a vanishing point LI in the horizon. To find this point, we draw 
that vertical plane through the eye which contains a ray of the 
sun. This cuts the horizon in the required point LI and the picture 
plane in a vertical line which contains the vanishing point of the 
sun's rays themselves. Let then (fig. 4) L be the vanishing point 




FIG. 4. 

of the sun's rays, LI be that of their projection in a horizontal 
plane, and let it be required to find the shadow of the vertical 
column AH. We draw AL X and EL; they meet at E', which is 
the shadow of E. Similarly we find the shadows of F, G, H. Then 
E'F'G'H' will be the shadow of the quadrilateral EFGH. For 
the shadow of the column itself we join E' to A, &c., but only mark 
the outlines; F'B, the shadow of BF, does not appear as such in the 
figure. 

If the shadow E has to be found when falling on any other surface 
we use the vertical plane through E, determine its intersection 
with the surface, and find the point where this intersection is cut 
by the line EL. This will be the required shadow of E. 

9. If the picture is not to be drawn on a vertical but on another 
plane say, the ceiling of a room the rules given have to be slightly 
modified. The general principles will remain true. But if the 
picture is to be on a curved surface the constructions become 
somewhat more complicated. In the most general case conceivable 
it would be necessary to have a representation in plan and eleva- 
tion of the figure required and of the surface on which the projection 
has to be made. A number of points might also be found by 
calculation, using co-ordinate geometry. But into this we do not 
enter. As an example we take the case of a panorama, where the 
surface is a vertical cylinder of revolution, the eye being in the 
axis. The ray projecting a point A cuts the cylinder in two points 
on opposite sides of the eye, hence geometrically speaking every 
point has two projections; of these only the one lying on the half 
ray from the eye to the point can be used in the picture. But the 
other has sometimes to be used in constructions, as the projection 
of a line has to pass through both. Parallel lines have two vanish- 
ing points which are found by drawing a line of the given direction 
through the eye; it cuts the cylinder in the vanishing points required. 
This operation may be performed by drawing on the ground the 
plan of the ray through the foot of the axis, and through the point 
where it cuts the cylinder a vertical, on which the point required 
must lie. Its height above is easily found by making a drawing of 
a vertical section on a reduced scale. 

Parallel planes have in the same manner a vanishing curve. 
This will be for horizontal planes a horizontal circle of the height 
of the eye above the ground. For vertical planes it will be a pair 
of generators of the cylinder. For other planes the vanishing 
curves will be ellipses having their centre at the eye. 

The projections of vertical lines will be vertical lines on the 



PERSPIRATION PERTH 



259 



cylinder. Of all other lines they will be ellipses with the centre 
at the eye. If the cylinder be developed into a plane, then these 
ellipses will be changed into curves of sines. Parallel lines are 
thus represented by curves of sines which have two points in 
common. There is no difficulty in making all the constructions on 
a small scale on the drawing board and then transferring them to 
the cylinder. 

10. A variety of instruments have been proposed to facilitate 
perspective drawings. If the problem is to make a drawing from 
nature then a camera pbscura or, better, Wollaston's camera lucida 
may be used. Other instruments are made for the construction of 
perspective drawings. It will often happen that the vanishing 
point of some direction which would be very useful in the construc- 
tion falls at a great distance off the paper, and various methods 
have been proposed of drawing lines through such a point. For 
some of these see Stanley's Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical 
Drawing Instruments. (O. H.) 

PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe), 
the excretion of sweat from the sweat-glands of the skin. 
Sweat is a clear colourless neutral or slightly alkaline fluid 
containing 2% of solids. Under pathological conditions, sugar 
urea and other substances are found. The secretion of sweat 
is constantly going on, the activity of the sweat-glands being 
under control of the central nervous system. The only func- 
tion of sweat is the regulation of the heat discharge from 
the body. The chief morbid conditions of the sweat-glands are 
excessive sweating (Hyperidrosis) and foetid sweating (Bromi- 
drosis). Excessive sweating is a symptom observed in various 
diseases, such as tuberculosis and rheumatic fever, but it may 
exist apart from such conditions, and either be general, affecting 
the whole body, or confined to a part, such as the axillae, head, 
hands, feet, or, as in some rare instances, the one half of the body. 
Excessive perspiration may often be prevented by the cold bath, 
and by tonics, such as iron, quinine, strychnia, &c. Locally, 
the use of astringent lotions of vinegar or a weak solution of 
lead will also be of service. Foetid sweating most frequently 
affects the feet, specially in those who have much fatigue, 
and is apparently due to rapid decomposition in the perspiration 
which has saturated the stockings; these should be frequently 
changed and the feet washed several times a day, dried carefully, 
and dusted with some antiseptic powder. 

PERTAB (or PARTAB) SINGH, SIR, maharaja of Idar 
(1844- ), native Indian soldier and statesman, belonging to 
the Rahtor Rajputs of the Jodha class, was born in 1844, being 
the son of Maharaja Takht Singh, ruler of Marwar (or Jodhpur). 
In 1878 and again in 1879 he was chief minister of Jodhpur. 
In the following year he accompanied the British mission to 
Afghanistan, and on his return he carried out many judicious 
reforms and administered Jodhpur with remarkable success. He 
visited England to take part in the celebration of the 1887 
Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign. He served on the staffs of 
Sir William Lockhart and General Elles in the Tirah and Momand 
expeditions in 1897-98, was slightly wounded, was mentioned 
in despatches, and promoted to the rank of full colonel. He 
won the reputation of being one of the keenest sportsmen 
and the best riders that even Rajputana has produced. 
When it was decided to send a force from India to China in 
1900 to relieve the foreign embassies besieged in Peking, Sir 
Pertab Singh at once offered the services of the Jodhpur Lancers, 
and himself accompanied them. His father rendered good 
services to the British government in the Mutiny, and Pertab 
Singh always cherished the memory of the protection given to 
Jodhpur by the East India Company in 1818. His services to 
the empire in India were universally recognized. From Queen 
Victoria he received the honour of knighthood and the Bath 
and the Star of India; from King Edward VII. the distinction 
of "aide-de-camp"; and the university of Cambridge gave 
him the degree of LL.D. From his own state of Jodhpur he 
obtained the title of Maharaja-Dhiraj. In 1901 he succeeded 
to the rulership of the state of Idar. 

PERTH, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Scottish title of 
earl of Perth was bestowed upon James, 4th Lord Drummond 
(d. 1611) in 1605. His ancestor Sir John Drummond (d. 1519) 
had been created Lord Drummond in 1488. The ist earl's great- 
nephew, James, 4th earl and ist duke of Perth (1648-1716), 



was a son of James, the 3rd earl (c. 1615-1675). When John 
Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, was virtually the dictator of 
Scotland, Perth was among his opponents, and after Lauderdale's 
retirement in 1680 he was one of the committee of seven which 
managed Scottish affairs. He was made justice-general and extra- 
ordinary lord of session in 1682, and was lord chancellor of 
Scotland from 1684 to 1688. As a convert to Roman Catholi- 
cism after the death of Charles II., he stood high in the favour of 
James II. Perth, who is credited with the introduction of the 
thumbscrew,was very unpopular with the Scottish people, and dur- 
ing the Revolution of 1688 he was imprisoned at Stirling. Released 
from captivity in 1693 he joined James II. at St Germains, and 
was made duke of Perth, a titular dignity only after the exiled 
king's death in 1701. His son James (c. 1675-1720) was with 
James II. in Ireland, and led the cavalry at the battle of Sheriff- 
muir. He was attainted in 1715, but claimed the dukedom of 
Perth after his father's death. His son James (1713-1746), 
regarded by friends and dependants as the 3rd duke of Perth, 
fought for the Young Pretender at Prestonpans and Culloden. 
His brother and heir, John, the 4th duke (c. 1716-1747), 
also joined Charles Edward, and fought at Falkirk and Culloden. 
The titular dukedom became extinct when the sixth holder, 
Edward, another son of the ist duke, died in 1760. 

The earldom was then claimed by Edward s cousin, James 
Lundin (1707-1781), agrandson of the ist titular duke of Melfort, 
who was a brother of the ist duke of Perth and took the name 
of Drummond. His son James (1744-1800) secured the Drum- 
mond estates in 1783, and was created a British peer as Lord 
Perth and Baron Drummond in 1797. On his death without 
sons in July 1800 his barony became extinct, but the claim to 
the earldom of Perth was inherited by his kinsman, the 4th 
titular duke of Melfort, and his descendants (see below). The 
Drummond estates, however, passed to the baron's daughter 
Clementina (d. 1865), afterwards the wife of Peter Robert, 
20th Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and thence to her descendant 
the earl of Ancaster. 

The ist duke's brother, John (c. 1650-1715), earl of Melfort, 
rose to favour under Charles II. about the same time as his 
brother; like him, too, he became a Roman Catholic in 1686. 
In 1684 he was made secretary of state for Scotland; in 1686 he 
was created earl of Melfort by James II., and during his reign 
he took a leading part in Scottish affairs. After the Revolution 
of 1688 his great influence with James II. and with Mary of 
Modena drew upon him the hatred both of the French and of 
the Irish. He was with James II. at St Germains, but lost 
his former ascendancy, and died in Paris on the 25th of January 
1715. In 1694 he was made duke of Melfort, and all his titles 
were held under the singular condition that they should descend 
to the children of his second wife, Euphemia (d. 1743), daughter 
of Sir Thomas Wallace, in preference to his children by his first 
wife, Sophia Lundin, who were Protestants. In 1701 Melfort 
was recognized as a French peer, the due de Melfort, by 
Louis XIV. In 1695 he had been attainted, but his titles were 
claimed by John (1682-1754), his eldest son by his second wife, 
who shared in the rising of 1715. In 1800 John's grandson, 
James Louis, 4th titular duke of Melfort, claimed the earldom of 
Perth. This claim was unsuccessful, but in 1853 George 
(1807-1902), nominally 6th duke of Melfort, obtained a reversal 
of the various attainders, and his own recognition as earl of 
Perth and Melfort. The succeeding earl was his kinsman, 
William Huntly Drummond, Viscount Strathallan (1871- ). 

See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland; and Histories of Noble 
British Families, vol. ii., edited by H. Drummond (1846). 

PERTH, the capital of Western Australia, situated on the 
Swan River, 12 m. by rail from the sea at Fremantle, and about 
1700 m. W.N.W. of Melbourne. It is the seat of both Anglican 
and Roman Catholic bishops, and has two cathedrals. The 
fashionable street is St George's Terrace; in it are situated the 
public library, the government boys' school, the stock exchange, 
the town-hall, the government offices and the parliament build- 
ings. Between it and the broad reach of the river known as 
Perth Water lie the governor's residence and domain. The 



260 



PERTH 



town-hall, built entirely by convict labour, stands on an emi- 
nence in the very heart of the city ; opposite to it are the govern- 
ment offices, housed in a four-storeyed structure in the style of 
the French Renaissance. The mint, opened in 1899, is a massive 
freestone building. There are a public library, built as a 
memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887, a Scots college, 
two good theatres, a mechanics' institute, a museum, and a 
fine Wesleyan church-house, known as Queen's Hall. The 
Perth Park, containing about 1200 acres, is connected by tram 
with the city, and in it is a well-equipped observatory. There 
are several smaller parks and squares in the city, while the 
esplanade gardens are a feature of the place, being thrown out 
like a pier into Perth Water. There is a good cricket ground, 
and three race-courses are in easy reach. South Perth, on the 
other side of the river, is connected by bridges and steam ferry; 
and adjoining the city on the north-west are the suburban 
municipalities of Leederville and Subiaco. Outlying suburbs 
are Belmont, Victoria Park, Burswood, Claremont, Cottesloe, 
Peppermint Grove and Bayswater. The city is lighted by 
electricity, and has a good service of electric trams. Perth 
has an agreeable climate, the mean temperature is 64-9 F., 
and the average rainfall 33 in. Perth was founded in 1829, 
received its municipal charter in 1856, and was created a city 
in 1880. Between 1891 and 1901 the growth of the city was 
remarkedly rapid; in 1891 the population was only 8447, but 
in 1901 it had grown to 27,471 in the city proper, and to 36,199 
including the suburbs. 

PERTH, a city, and royal, municipal and police burgh, and 
county town of Perthshire, Scotland, 32 m. N. by W. of Edin- 
burgh direct, and 47^ m. by the North British railway, via the 
Forth Bridge and Kinross Junction. Pop. (1901). 33, 566. 
It is situated on the right bank of the Tay, between the meadows 
of the North Inch (98 acres) and those of the South Inch (72 
acres), both laid out as public parks. The river is crossed by 
St John's Bridge of nine arches, completed in 1772 from the 
designs of John Smeaton and widened a century later; by Victoria 
Bridge, a modern structure connecting South Street with Dundee 
Road; and farther south (at the end of Tay Street) by a footway 
alongside of the viaduct belonging to the Caledonian railway. 
Of earlier bridges one, which crossed at High Street, was swept 
away by the flood of 1621, and another, constructed by General 
Wade in 1723-1733, was apparently the predecessor of Smeaton's 
bridge. On the left bank of the river lie the suburb of Bridgend 
and Kinnoull Hill (729 ft.). To the south are the wood-clad 
heights of Moncrieffe Hill (725 ft.), Magdalenes Hill (596 ft.), 
Kirkton Hill (540 ft.) and Craigie Wood (407) ft. In the river 
are Friarton or Moncrieffe Island and the Stanners. 

Notwithstanding the importance of Perth in former times, 
almost the sole relic of the past is the church of St John the 
Baptist, a large Decorated cruciform building surmounted by a 
massive square central tower 155 ft. high. The original edifice 
is believed to have been erected in the time of Columba, but the 
transept and nave of the existing structure date from the early 
part of the I3th century, the choir from the isth. The church 
was restored in 1891, and is now divided into the East, Middle 
and West churches. The silver-gilt communion cup used in the 
Middle Church is said to have been presented by Queen Mary. In 
May 1559 John Knox preached in St John's his famous sermon 
in denunciation of idolatry. The Dominican or Blackfriars' 
monastery, founded by Alexander II. in 1231, occupied a site 
near the west end of St John's Bridge; in what is now King 
Street stood the Carthusian monastery, founded by James I. 
in 1425; the Franciscan or Greyfriars' monastery, founded in 
1460 by Laurance, first Lord Oliphant, stood on the present 
Greyfriars' cemetery; the Carmelite or Whitefriars' monastery, 
founded in 1260, stood west of the town. The tombstone of 
James I. and his queen, who were buried in the Charterhouse, 
was afterwards removed to St John's East Church. During the 
period between the beginning of the I2th century and the 
assassination of James I. in 1437, many of the Scottish parlia- 
ments were held in Perth. The building in which they met 
stood off High Street and was only cleared away in 1818, its 



site being occupied by the Freemasons' Hall. The earl of 
Cowrie's palace, built in 1520, stood in spacious grounds near 
the river and was removed in 1805 to provide room for the 
county buildings. The castle of Perth stood on the north of High 
Street, not far from St John's. It was probably built about 
860 and demolished about 1400. The Spey or Spy tower, the 
most important fortress on the city wall, guarded the south gate 
close to the river, but it was taken down early in the igth century. 
The market cross, erected in High Street in 1669 to replace 
the older cross which Cromwell destroyed, was removed in 
1765 as an obstruction. The huge fortress, 466 ft. square, which 
Cromwell erected in 1651 on the South Inch, close to the river 
and the Greyfriars' burying-ground, was demolished in 1663. 
The house of Catherine Glover, the " Fair Maid of Perth," still 
stands in Curfew Row. James VI. 's Hospital, founded in 1569, 
occupies the site of the Carthusian monastery, the original 
structure having been pulled down by Cromwell's orders. The 
pensioners now live out and the hospital has been converted 
into artisans' dwellings. Among modern public buildings the 
principal are St Ninian's Episcopal Cathedral, in the Early 
Middle Pointed style, an important example (completed 1890) 
of the work of William Butterfield (1814-1900); the municipal 
buildings (1881); the city-hall; the Marshall Memorial Hall 
(1823), housing the public library and the museum of the 
Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society; the Perthshire natural 
history museum; the Sandeman public library (1898), founded by 
a bequest of Professor Sandeman of Owens College, Manchester. 
The general prison for Scotland, south of the South Inch, was 
originally erected in 1812 as a dep&t for French prisoners, but was 
remodelled as a convict prison in 1840 and afterwards enlarged. 
North-west of the city are the military barracks built in 1793- 
1794. Besides the regular elementary schools there are the 
Perth Academy (1807) with which was subsequently amalgamated 
the Burgh Grammar School, an institution supposed to date 
from the I2th century; Sharp's institute (1860); the Stewart's 
free school, an industrial school for girls, and the Fechney 
industrial school. The charitable institutions comprise the 
royal infirmary, in the Italian style, considerably enlarged 
since its foundation in 1836; the Murray royal lunatic asylum 
in Bridgend; the Hillside House in Kinnoull and the small-pox 
hospital. 

From the south the city is entered by the North British 
railway and the Caledonian railway (which also runs west 
to St Fillans, east to Dundee and north-west to Aberdeen); 
and from the north by the Highland railway, the three 
systems utilizing a general station in the south-west of 
the town. During the season there is communication with 
Dundee and other river ports by steamer. The navigation 
of the stream is considerably obstructed by sandbanks, but 
vessels of 200 tons can unload at the quays, which, with the 
town and Friarton harbours, lie below the South Inch. The 
greatest tidal rise is 13 ft. The chief imports are Baltic timber, 
coal, salt and manure; and the exports, manufactured goods, 
grain, potatoes and slates. Perth has long been famous for its 
dyeing and bleaching, the bleach-fields being mostly situated 
outside of the city, in convenient proximity to the Tay and 
Almond. The other leading industries include manufactures 
of gauge-glasses, ink, muslins, India shawls, jute goods, woollens 
and winceys, floorcloth, and boots and shoes. There are iron 
foundries, breweries, distilleries, rope and sail works, coach- 
building yards, steam joinery works, and brick and tile works. 
The salmon fisheries of the Tay yield a substantial revenue. 
Perth is under the jurisdiction of a town council, with a lord 
provost and bailies, and returns one member to parliament. 

History. During the time that it was occupied by the 
Romans, a period estimated at 320 years, the city was called 
Victoria; but shortly after their withdrawal it seems to have 
borne the Celtic appellation of Aber-tha (" at the mouth of the 
Tay "). The transition to the latinized form Bertha and later 
to Perth (the Gaelic name being Peart) appears obvious. On 
the conversion of the original Pictish inhabitants and the 
dedication of the first church to St John the Baptist, the town 



PERTH AMBOY PERTHES, J. G. J. 



261 



was designated St Johnstoun, and it continued to be known 
indifferently by this name and that of Perth down to the iyth 
century. Roman remains have often been found in excavations 
carried out within the existing boundaries, which suggests 
that the Roman settlement was at least twenty feet below the 
present surface. The obscurity of the early annals of the 
town is explained by the circumstance that Edward I. caused 
the records to be removed. Perth is stated to have been a 
burgh in 1106 and was made a royal burgh by William the Lion 
in 1210. During the Scottish wars of the Independence its 
fortifications were strengthened by Edward I. (1298). Robert 
Bruce several times ineffectually attempted to seize it, but in 
1311 he succeeded in scaling the walls during a night attack. 
This was the fourth and most brilliant of the seven sieges which 
the city has sustained. Taken by Edward III. in 1335, it was 
recaptured in 1339. In 1396 the combat between the Clan 
Chattan and the Clan Quhele, described in Scott's Fair Maid 
of Perth, took place on the North Inch in presence of Robert III. 
and his queen, Annabella Drummond. The Blackfriars' monas- 
tery was the scene of the murder of James I. by Walter, earl 
of Atholl, in 1437. In consequence Perth lost its status as 
capital, in which it had succeeded to Scone, and the Parliament 
Courts were transferred to Edinburgh in 1482. Cowrie Palace 
was the scene of the mysterious " Cowrie " conspiracy against 
James VI. in 1600. The town was taken by Montrose in 
1644, by Cromwell in 1651, and was occupied by Viscount 
Dundee in 1689. In 1715 the Old Pretender was proclaimed 
king at the Mercat Cross (Sept. 16), and the chevalier 
himself appeared in the city in the following January, only 
to leave it precipitately on the approach of the earl of Argyll. 
Prince Charles Edward spent a few days in Perth from the 
3rd of September 1745. In both rebellions the magistrates 
took the side of the Crown and were supported by the 
townsfolk generally, the Jacobites drawing their strength mainly 
from the county noblemen and gentry with their retainers. 
Since then the city has devoted itself to the pursuits of 
trade and commerce. Perth was visited by plague in 1512, 
1585-1587, 1608 and 1645; by cholera in 1832; and the 
floods of 1210, 1621, 1740, 1773 and 1814 were exceptionally 
severe. 

AUTHORITIES. Maidment, The Chronicle of Perth from 1210 to 
1668 (1831); Penney, Traditions of Perth (1836) ; Lawson, The Book 
of Perth (1847); Peacock, Perth, its Annals and Archives (1849); 
Samuel Cowen, The Ancient Capital of Scotland (1904). 

PERTH AMBOY, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county, 
New Jersey, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Raritan river, on 
Raritan Bay and Staten Island Sound, about 15 m. S. by W. 
of Newark. Pop. (1910 census) 32,121. It is served by 
the Pennsylvania, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey and 
Staten Island Rapid Transit railways, and by boats to New 
York City. It is connected by a railway bridge (C.R.R. 
of N.J.) and by a foot and wagon bridge with South Amboy, 
on the south shore of the Raritan. Perth Amboy has a good 
harbour, shipyards and dry-docks. In the city still stands 
Franklin Palace (erected in 1764-1774), the home of William 
Franklin (1729-1813), a natural son of Benjamin Franklin and 
the last royal governor of New Jersey. In the vicinity is the 
Bartow House, in which William Dunlap (1766-1839), the art 
historian, made his first drawings. Other buildings of historic 
interest are the Parker Castle (c. 1729), a centre of Loyalist 
influence at the time of the War of Independence, and the 
Kearny Cottage, the home of " Madam Scribblerus," a half- 
sister of Captain James Lawrence. The city has various manu- 
factures, the factory product in 1905 being valued at $34,800,402. 
Clay is obtained in the vicinity, and large shipments of coal are 
made. Perth Amboy was founded in 1683. It was at first 
called Amboy after the original Indian name; in 1684 the 
proprietors named it Perth in honour of James, earl of Perth 
(1648-1716), one of their number, and a few years later the two 
names were combined. From 1686 until the end of the pro- 
prietary government in 1702 Perth Amboy was the capital of 
the province of East Jersey, and during the period of royal 



government the general assembly and supreme court of New 
Jersey met alternately here and at Burlington. Perth Amboy 
was incorporated as a city in 1718, and received a new charter 
in 1784, and another in 1844, the last being revised in 1870. 
The township of Perth Amboy was incorporated in 1693 and 
in 1844 was included in the city. 

PERTHES, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1772-1843), German 
publisher, nephew of Johan Georg Perthes (q.v.) , was born at 
Rudolstadt on the 2ist of April 1772. At the age of fifteen 
he became an apprentice in the service of Adam Friedrich 
Bohme, a bookseller in Leipzig, with whom he remained for 
about six years. In Hamburg, where he settled in 1793 as an 
assistant to the bookseller B. G. Hoffmann, he started in 1796 
a bookselling business of his own, and in 1798 he entered into 
partnership with his brother-in-law, Johann Heinrich Besser 
(1775-1826). By his marriage in 1797 with a daughter of the 
poet, Matthias Claudius, he was brought into intimate relation 
with a group of Protestant writers, who exercised a powerful 
influence on the growth of his religious opinions. This, however, 
did not prevent him from being on friendly terms with a number 
of eminent Roman Catholic authors. Perthes was an ardent 
patriot; and during the period of Napoleon's supremacy he 
distinguished himself by his steady resistance to French preten- 
sions. His zeal for the national cause led him, in 1810-1811, to 
issue Das deutsche Museum, to which many of the foremost 
publicists in Germany contributed. For some time the French 
made it impossible for him to live in Hamburg; and when, in 1814, 
he returned to that city he found that his business had greatly 
diminished. In 1821, his wife having died, he left Hamburg, 
transferring his business there to his partner, and went to Gotha, 
where he established what ultimately became one of the first 
publishing houses in Germany. It was owing to his initiation 
that the Borsenverein der deutschen Buchhandler (Union of Ger- 
man Booksellers) in Leipzig was founded in 1825. When the 
foundation-stone of the fine building of the Union was laid in 
1834, Perthes was made an honorary freeman of the city of 
Leipzig, and in 1840 the university of Kiel conferred upon him 
the degree of doctor of philosophy. Perthes died at Gotha on 
the i8th of May 1843. His Life was written by his son, Klemens 
Theodor Perthes (1809-1867), professor of law in the university 
of Bonn, and author of Das deutsche Staatsleben vor der 
Resolution (Hamburg and Gotha, 1845), and Das Herbergswesen 
der Handwerksgesellen (Gotha, 1856, and again 1883), whose 
son Hermann Friedrich Perthes (1840-1883) was the founder 
of the Fridericianum at Davos Platz. The publishing business 
at Gotha was carried on by Perthes's . younger son, Andreas, 
(1813-1890) and his grandson, Emil (1841- ), until 1889, 
when it was handed over to a company. 

See also O. Adler, Friedrich and Karoline Perthes (Leipzig, 1900). 

PERTHES, JOHAN GEORG JUSTUS (1740-1816), German 
publisher, was born at Rudolstadt on the nth of September 
1749. In 1785 he founded at Gotha the business which bears 
his name (Justus Perthes). In this he was joined in 1814 by 
his son Wilhelm (1793-1853), who had been in the establishment 
of Justus' nephew, Friedrich Christoph Perthes, at Hamburg. 
On the death of Justus at Gotha on the 2nd of May 1816, Wilhelm 
took entire control of the firm. He laid the foundation of the 
geographical branch of the business, for which it is chiefly 
famous, by publishing the Hand-atlas (1817-1823) of Adolf Stieler 
(1775-1836). Wilhelm Perthes engaged the collaboration of 
the most eminent German geographers of the time, including 
Heinrich Berghaus, Christian Gottlieb Reichard (1758-1837), 
who was associated with Stieler in the compilation of the atlas, 
Karl Spruner (1803-1892) and Emil von Sydow (1812-1873). 
The business passed to his son Bernard Wilhelm Perthes (1821- 
1857), who was associated with August Petermann (under whose 
direction the well-known periodical Petermanns Mitteilungen 
was founded) and Bruno Hassenstein (1830-1902); and subse- 
quently to his son Bernard (1857- ). In 1863 the firm first 
issued the Almanack de Gotha, a statistical, historical and 
genealogical annual (in French) of the various countries of the 



262 



PERTHSHIRE 



world; and in 1866 the elaborate Geographisches Jahrbuch was 
produced under the editorship of Ernst Behm (1830-1884), on 
whose death it was continued under that of Professor Hermann 
Wagner. 

PERTHSHIRE, an inland county of Scotland, bounded N. 
by the shires of Inverness and Aberdeen; E. by Forfarshire; 
S.E. by the Firth of Tay and the counties of Fife and Kinross; 
S. by the shires of Clackmannan and Stirling; S.W. by the coun- 
ties of Stirling and Dumbarton; W. by Argyllshire and N.W. by 
Inverness-shire. It is the fourth largest county in Scotland, 
having an area of 1,595,774 acres, or 2493-4 sq. m., including the 
island of Mugdrum in the Firth of Tay. By far the greater 
part of the county is mountainous. Including the hills on the 
confines of Inverness-shire and Argyllshire, there are at least 
fifty mountains exceeding 3000 ft. in height. Of these the most 
familiar are Ben Lawers (3984 ft.) near Loch Tay, Ben More 
(3843) east of Crianlarich, Ben Lui (3708) on the Argyllshire 
border, Schiehallion (3547) south of Loch Rannoch, Ben Vannoch 
(3125) west of Loch Lyon, and Ben Chonzie (3048) near the head 
of Glen Almond. Of the immense number of hills of lesser 
altitude there may be mentioned four that have been popularized 
by the Lady of the Lake Ben Ledi (2875) and Uam Var (2179) 
near Callander, and Ben Venue (2393) and Ben A'an (1750), 
guardians of the Trossachs. The Ochils divide Perthshire 
from the shires of Clackmannan, Kinross and Fife. The chief 
stream is the Tay, which rises on the Argyllshire frontier and 
discharges into the North Sea off Buddon Ness, after a course of 
117 m., being thus the longest river in Scotland. Its head-waters 
are the Fillan and Dochart, and among its affluents are, on the 
right, the Bran, Almond and Earn and, on the left, the Lyon, 
Tummel, rising in Argyllshire and receiving the Garry on its 
left, and Isla. The Earn flows out of Loch Earn and enters 
the Firth of Tay 6| m. below Perth. The Forth, the principal 
natural boundary of the shire on the south, properly belongs 
to Stirlingshire, in which it rises, but its leading left-hand affluents 
are Perthshire rivers, namely, the Teith, the Goodie, issuing 
from the lake of Menteith, and the Allan, rising in the Ochils 
near Sheriffmuir. All the lakes are narrow , scarcely one 
exceeding a mile in width. Loch Ericht, belonging partly to 
Inverness-shire, is 14! m. long. Loch Tay (14! m. long), 
situated about the centre, is the largest lake in the county. 
In the south are the series of lakes which the Lady of the Lake 
has rendered famous Loch Vennachar (4! m. long), Loch 
Achray (ij m. long), Loch Katrine (about 8 m. long) ; to the west 
of Aberfoyle is Loch Ard (3 m. long) and to the east Lake Men- 
teith (ij m. long). Nearly all the glens possess striking natural 
features, among them, from south to north, being Glens Artney, 
Almond, Dochart, Ogle, Lochay, Lyon, Garry, Shee, Bruar and 
Tilt; while the Trossachs, Killiecrankie, Birnam and Leny are 
the loveliest passes in the Highlands. The low-lying country 
is represented mainly by Strathmore, Strath Gartney, Strath- 
allan, noted for its annual " gathering " or games, Strathearn, 
Strath Bran, Strath Tay and Strath Fillan, but more particularly 
by the fertile alluvial belts of the Carse of Cowrie, on the 
northern shore of the Firth of Tay, and the Carse of Stirling. 
The Moor of Rannoch on the borders of Argyllshire is a sterile 
boulder-strewn waste, and Flanders Moss, to the south-east 
of Lake Menteith, is a vast boggy tract, which is, however, being 
gradually reclaimed and brought under cultivation. 

Geology. The Highland portion of this county is built up of a 
great series of schists and metamorphosed rocks grouped as Dai- 
radian " or Eastern schists. The general direction of the strike 
of these rocks is W.S.W.-E.N.E. They are cut off from the Old 
Red Sandstone, which occupies most of the remainder of the county, 
by the great fault which traverses the county somewhat to the 
north of Aberfoyle and Crieff. But for some distance north and 
east of Crieff the boundary between these two formations is an 
unconformable one. In the neighbourhood of the fault line the 
Highland schists are less metamorphosed than they are farther 
north ; about Comrie and Callander they consist of shales, greywackes 
and igneous rocks with radiolarian cherts and black shales that are sug- 
gestive of the rocks of Arenig age in south Scotland. At Aberfoyle, 
Comrie and Dunkeld roofing; slates are worked and massive lime- 
stones occur in Glen Tilt, Pitlochry, Callander, Blair Atholl, Loch 
Rannoch and other places. A gritty series comes on above the 



slates and is well seen capping the summit of Ben Vorlich. A 
great variety of schists form the bulk of the series; but granite 
masses appear in their midst as at Loch Rannoch, Loch Ericht 
and Glen Tilt, and there are numerous acid and intermediate dikes 
which are themselves traversed by later basaltic dikes. The Old 
Red Sandstone consists in the lower portion mainly of coarse 
volcanic agglomerates and lava flows followed by conglomerates, 
sandstones and marls. The lowest beds are exposed along the 
crest of the Ochil Hills which like the Sidlaw Hills are anticlinal in 
structure, while between the Ochils and the Highland fault the 
rocks are folded into syncline; near the fault they become very 
steeply inclined and even inverted, and it is interesting also to note 
that the sediments become coarser as the fault is approached. 
The Upper Old Red Sandstone is well exposed near the Bridge of 
Earn and it extends beneath the marine platform of the Carse of 
Gowrie. The rocks are mainly red sandstones and marls, let down 
between two parallel east and west faults but between the Bridge 
of Earn and Forgandenny, west of the tract, they are seen to rest 
unconformably upon the lower division. Small outliers of Car- 
boniferous rocks (lower) occur on the north of the Ochils. The 
marks of ice action left by the Glacial epoch are abundant and 
striking in Perthshire; moraines are common in the Highland glens, 
as those at the head of the Glengarry on borders of Loch Katrine ; 
ice-scratched surfaces are found on the Sidlaw Hills, the Ochils, 
Kinnoull Hill and elsewhere; and erratic blocks of stone, such as 
" Samson's Putting Stone," a mass of Highland schist resting on 
a hill of Old Red Sandstone near Coilantogle, are widely distributed. 
Old high level marine beaches form terraces far up several of the 
larger streams, and the Carse of Gowrie, as already indicated, is 
formed by the beach at the 5o-ft. level. The gravel cones poured out 
at the mouths of many of the glens which open on the south of the 
Ochils on to the loo-ft. or 5o-ft. beaches are often the site of villages. 
Climate and Agriculture. The mountainous territory is extremely 
wet, the rainfall for the year varying from 93 in. in Glengyle at the 
head of the Loch Katrine to 37 in. at Pitlochry and 23 in. at Perth. 
Winter and autumn are the rainiest seasons. The temperature 
is remarkably constant everywhere, averaging 47 F. for the year, 
January being the coldest month (36-5 F.) and July the hottest 
(59 F-)- Only a little more than one-fifth of the total area is 
under cultivation, and of this nearly one-third is in permanent 
pasture, while in addition there are about 930,000 acres of hill 
pasturage. The arable land is chiefly in the drier regions of the 
east and south-east, the soil for the most part being fertile. Light 
soils prevail in the lower undulating districts; clay and alluvial 
land occur in the Carse of Gowrie, the Carse of Stirling and the 
lower reach of Strathearn below and above Bridge of Earn. The 
best heavy carse land is very rich and productive, but requires to 
be thoroughly worked, limed and manured, being well adapted for 
wheat. A considerable area is occupied by orchards, the light 
quick soil of Tayside and the upper districts of Menteith being 
admirably fitted for apples. The number_of holdings is slightly 
in excess of 5000 and of these the majority are under 50 acres 
each, chiefly in the Highland valleys and near the villages and 
small towns. Of grain, oats is the predominating crop, but barley 
and wheat are also grown. Two-thirds of the area devoted to 
green crops is occupied by turnips? the rest by potatoes. Most of 
the horses raised, chiefly Clydesdales, are used solely for agricultural 
purposes. Although dairy-farming is not an important industry, 
a large number of cows, principally Ayrshires, are kept on the 
lowland farms, the herds of the straths and mountain pastures 
being most usually West Highlands or Kyloes. Perthshire, next 
to Argyllshire, still carries the heaviest flocks in Scotland. Black- 
faced is the principal breed in the Grampians, but there is also a 
large number of Cheviots and South Downs, and Leicesters are 
common on the lower runs. Only one-seventeenth of the surface 
is under wood. This is well up to the proportion of the other 
Scottish counties, but compares unfavourably with the conditions 
existing in 1812, when 203,880 acres were under wood, of which 
61,164 were planted and 142,716 natural. In Breadalbane and 
Menteith there are remains of the ancient Caledonian forest. 
Perthshire affords exceptional facilities for sport with rod and gun. 
The lochs and rivers abound with salmon and trout, while hardly 
any of the streams have suffered pollution from industries or 
manufactures. The deer forests, exceeding 100,000 acres in area, 
are frequented by red deer and roe deer, and on the extensive 
moors and in the woods are found grouse, pheasants, partridge, 
capercailzie, woodcock, ptarmigan and hares. 

Industries. The shire is famous for its dyeing and bleaching 
works, which are situated in Perth and its vicinity; but, apart from 
these, there are flax and jute mills at Rattray and cotton mills at 
Stanley, Deanston and Crieff; woollens, linen, jute and tartans are 
woven at Dunblane, Alyth, Blairgowrie, Coupar-Angus, Auchter- 
arder and Crieff; tanning is carried on at Blackford, Coupar-Angus 
and Crieff; there are breweries and distilleries at various places, 
as at Auchterarder and Logierait; granite, freestone, limestone 
and slate are quarried at different centres; and there are sawmills 
and flour-mills. 

Communications. The Caledonian railway main line to Aberde 
enters the county near Dunblane and runs in a north-easterly 



PERTINAX PERTZ 



263 



direction via Perth. At Crieff junction it sends off a branch to 
Crieff and at Perth branches to Dundee and Lochearnhead. The 
Stirling to Oban line of the same company crosses the shire from 
Dunblane to Tyndrum. The Highland railway runs northwards 
from Perth, and has a branch at Ballinluig to Aberfeldy. Branches of 
the North British railway reach Perth from Mawcarse in Kinross- 
shire and Ladybank in Fifeshire; part of the branch from Buchlyvie 
on the Forth and Clyde line runs to Aberfoyle, and the West 
Highland railway skirts the extreme west of the shire. At several 
points coaches supplement the rail. In the tourist season steamers 
ply on Loch Tay and Loch Katrine, and there is a service on the 
Tay between Perth and Dundee. 

Population and Administration. In 1891 the population 
amounted to 122,185 and in 1901 to 123,283, or 49 persons to the 
sq. m. The rate of increase was the smallest of any Scottish 
county for the decade. In 1901 there were 78 persons speaking 
Gaelic only and 11,446 Gaelic and English. The chief towns 
are Perth (pop. 32,873), Crieff (5208), Blairgowrie (3378), 
Dunblane (2516), Auchterarder (2276), Coupar-Angus (2064), 
Rattray (2019). Among lesser centres may be mentioned Aber- 
feldy (1508), a favourite resort on the Tay, well known for the 
falls of Moness, mentioned in Robert Burns's song " The Birks 
of Aberfeldy "; Abernethy (623), the seat of an early bishopric, 
retaining one of the three ancient round towers in Scotland; 
Alyth (1965); Callander (1458); Comrie (1118), a holiday resort 
on the Earn; Pitlochry (1541); and Stanley (1035), on the Tay. 
Of old the county was divided into hereditary jurisdictions, 
which were abolished in 1748, and in 1795 the county was 
divided into districts for administrative purposes, a system which 
obtained until 1889, when county and district councils were 
established. The sheriffdom is divided into an eastern and 
western district, the seat of the one being Perth and the other 
Dunblane. For parliamentary purposes the county is also 
divided into an eastern and a western division, and the city of 
Perth returns a member. The shire is under school-board 
jurisdiction, and there are secondary schools at Perth and 
Crieff, and Trinity College in Glen Almond is a well-known 
public school on the English model. 

History. In 83 Agricola explored the lands beyond the Forth 
and in the following year penetrated to the Grampians, defeating 
the Caledonians under Galgacus with great slaughter. The site 
of this battle is conjectured by William Forbes Skene to have 
been near Meikleour, south of Blairgowrie, but other writers 
have referred it to Dalginross, near Comrie; to Ardoch (where 
there are the most perfect remains of a Roman encampment in 
the British Isles) ; and even as far north as Raedykes, near Stone- 
haven in Kincardineshire. The Romans did not pursue their 
victory, and the Picts were left undisturbed for a considerable 
period. At this time, according to Ptolemy, the territory now 
known as Perthshire was occupied by three tribes the Dam- 
nonii, the Venicones and the Vacomagi. The Damnonii held 
Menteith, Strathearn and Fothrif (the western part of modern 
Fife and Kinross), with Alauna (Allan), just above Stirling, 
Lindum (Ardoch) and Victoria (believed by some authorities 
to be Lochore in Fifeshire, and by others to be Perth city), as 
their chief towns. The Venicones inhabited north-western Fife 
and the adjoining tract of Perthshire, with Orrea (probably 
Abernethy) as their chief town and a station at Ardargie. The 
Vacomagi dwelt in the Highland region, with stations at Inch- 
tuthil (a peninsula in the Tay above Kinclaven) and Banatia 
(Buchanty on the Almond). The growing lawlessness of the 
southern Picts and their frequent raids in the more settled 
country in the south at last compelled the attention of the 
emperor Severus. He arrived in Britain in 208, but though he 
led a strong army to the shores of the Moray Firth, he was 
unable effectually to subdue the tribesmen. The road he 
constructed ran from Stirling to Ardoch (where there are notable 
remains) and thence by Strageath, near Muthill, where it 
branched north-westwards to Dalginross and Buchanty, and 
north-eastwards to Perth and so to the Grampians. When the 
Romans finally withdrew from Britain, the Picts established 
their capital first at Abernethy and then at Forteviot. Aber- 
nethy was the centre of the Celtic church after the conversion 
of the natives by Ninian, Palladius and other missionaries in the 



5th and 6th centuries. On the burning of Forteviot by the 
Norsemen in the 8th century, the seat of Pictish government was 
removed to Scone. In the latter half of the 9th century Dunkeld 
to which Kenneth Macalpine had brought some of the relics 
of Columba from lona became the scene of monastic activity, 
the abbot succeeding to the position of the abbot of lona, and 
exercising great influence for nearly a hundred years. The 
Danes periodically harried the land, but a crushing defeat at 
Luncarty in 961 put an end to their inroads in this quarter. 
In 1054 Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane by Siward, earl 
of Northumberland, who had invaded Scotland in the interest 
of his kinsman, Duncan's son, who, on the death of the usurper 
three years later, ascended the throne as Malcolm III., called 
Canmore. With Malcolm's accession the Celtic rule of the 
monarchy of Scone came to an end. Nevertheless, the Scottish 
sovereigns (excepting James II., James III. and Mary) continued 
to be crowned at Scone, which also retained the position of 
capital until the beginning of the i2th century, when it was 
displaced by Perth. From the time of Alexander I. (d. 1124), 
therefore, the history of the shire is merged in that of the county 
town, with the exception of such isolated incidents as the removal 
of the Coronation Stone from Scone to Westminster in 1296, 
the defeat of Robert Bruce at Methven in 1306, the battle of 
Dupplin in 1332, the victory of Dundee at Killiecrankie in 1689 
and the indecisive contest at Sheriff muir in 1715. Among 
archaeological remains may be mentioned the hill-fort on 
Dunsinane; the ship-barrow of the vikings at Rattray, weems 
(or earth-houses) in the parishes of Monzie, Alyth and Bendochy; 
the witch-stone near Cairnbeddie, one of the numerous spots 
where Macbeth is alleged to have met the witches, but probably 
a sepulchral memorial of some forgotten battle; standing stones 
near Pitlochry, and an extraordinary assemblage of sculptured 
stones at Meigle. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Robertson, Comitatus de Atholiae (Edinburgh, 
1860) ; P. R. Drummond, Perthshire in Bygone Days (London, 1879) ; 
Marshall, Historic Scenes of Perthshire (Perth, 1880); Beveridge, 
Perthshire-on- Forth (2 vols., London, 1885); R. B. Cunninghame- 
Grahame, Notes on the District of Menteith (London, 1895) ; Hutchison, 
The Lake of Menteith (Stirling, 1899). 

PERTINAX, PUBLIUS HELVIUS (A.D. 126-193), Roman 
emperor, the son of a charcoal-burner, was born at Alba Pompeiain 
Liguria. From being a teacher of grammar he rose through many 
important offices, both civil and military, to the consulate, which 
he held twice. Chosen, at an advanced age and against his 
will, on the ist of January 193, to succeed Commodus, he was 
himself assassinated in a mutiny of the soldiers, on the 28th of 
March 193. 

PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876), German historian, 
was born at Hanover on the 28th of March 1795. From 1813 
to 1818 he studied at Gottingen, chiefly under A. H. L. Heeren. 
His graduation thesis, published in 1819, on the history of the 
Merovingian mayors of the palace, attracted the attention of 
Baron Stein, by whom he was engaged in 1820 to edit the Carol- 
ingian chroniclers for the newly-founded Historical Society of 
Germany. In search of materials for this purpose, Pertz made 
a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return 
in 1823 he received at the instance of Stein the principal charge 
of the publication of Monumenta germaniae historica, texts 
of all the more important historical writers on German affairs 
down to the year 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal 
archives, and other valuable documents, such as letters, falling 
within this period. Pertz made frequent journeys of explora- 
tion to the leading libraries and public record offices of Europe, 
publishing notes on the results of his explorations in the Archiv. 
der Gesellsch. f. deutsche Geschichtskunde (1824-1872). In 1823 
he had been made secretary of the archives, and in 1827 principal 
keeper of the royal library at Hanover; from 1832 to 1837 he 
edited the Hannoverische Zeitung, and more than once sat as a 
representative in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1842 
he was called as chief librarian to Berlin, where he shortly 
afterwards was made a privy councillor and a member of the 
Academy of Sciences. He resigned all his appointments in 



264 



PERU 



1874, and on the 7th of October 1876 died at Munich while 
attending the sittings of the historical commission. 

The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of 
his resignation 24 volumes folio (Scriptores, Leges, Diplomala) 
had appeared. This work for the first time made possible the 
existence of the modern school of scientific historians of medieval 
Germany. In connexion with the Monumenta Pertz also began 
the publication of a selection of sources in octavo form, the 
Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum; among his 
other literary labours may be mentioned an edition of the Gesam- 
melte Werke of Leibnitz, and a life of Stein (Leben des Ministers 
Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols., 1849-1855); also, in an abridged form, 
Aus Steins Leben (2 vols., 1856). 



Scale, 1:12,000,000 
English Miles 

IOO ISO 200 



Boundaries of Deportments & ntMMM 

Capitals of Departments A Provinces 
Railways 



Reference to 
Departments & Provinces 

1. Tumbez (Province) 

2. Piura , 

3. Lambayeque 

4. Cajamarca 

5. Amazonas 

6. Loreto 

7. San Martin 

8. Llbertad 

9. Ancachs 

10. JH uanuco 

11. Callao (Province) 

12. Lima 
IS. Junin 

11 Huancaveltea 

15. lea 

16. Ayacucho 

17. Apurimae 



Pttt-Carret 

8. at la lnaer*ntSencia 



19. Puno 

20. Arequlpa 

21. Moquegua (Provlnet) 



R Longitude West 76 of Greenwich 




PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast 
of Colombia, where Pizarro landed), a republic of the Pacific 
coast of South America, extending in a general N.N.W.-S.S.E. 
direction from lat. 3 21' S. to about 18 S., with a sea-coast of 
1240 m. and a width of 300 to 400 m., exclusive of territories 
in dispute. Its area in 1906, including Tacna and Arica, and 
other disputed territories occupied by neighbouring states, was 
officially estimated at 1,752,422 sq. kilometers, or 676,638 sq. m.; 
exclusive of these territories, the area of Peru is variously 



estimated at 439,000 to 480,000 sq. m., the Gotha measurements 
being 1,137,000 sq. kilometers, or 439,014 sq. m. 

With the exception of parts of the Ecuador, Brazil and Bolivia 
frontiers, all the boundary lines have been disputed and referred 
to arbitration those with Colombia and Ecuador to the king 
of Spain, and that with Bolivia to the president of Argentina, 
on which a decision was rendered on the gth of July 1909. 
There have been misunderstandings with Ecuador in regard 
to some small areas in the Chira valley, but it may be assumed 
that the line is fixed between Santa Rosa (3 21' S.) on the Gulf 
of Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe river, a tributary of the 

Maranon. At the junction of 
the Cauches with that river, 
that Ecuadorean line descends 
the Chinchipe to the Maranon, 
and the Peruvian ascends to a 
point where it is intersected by 
a line following the eastern 
Cordillera northward to the 
head-waters of the Caqueta, or 
Japura, which forms the 
northern boundary down to the 
Brazilian frontier. This claim 
covers all eastern Ecuador and 
a large part of south-eastern 
Colombia. In 1903 there were 
encounters between small bodies 
of Peruvian and Ecuadorean 
troops on the disputed frontier. 
After arbitration by the king 
of Spain had been agreed 
upon, the question was con- 
sidered by two Spanish com- 
missions, and modifications 
favouring Peru were recom- 
mended. These became known 
prematurely, and in May 1910 
war was threatened between 
Peru and Ecuador in spite of 
an offer of mediation by the 
United States, Brazil and 
Argentina under the Hague 
Convention. 

From the Japura southward 
to the Amazon, in 4 13' 21" S., 
69 35' W., and thence up the 
Javary, or Yavari, to its source 
in 7 8' 4" S., 73 46' 3" W., 
as determined by a mixed 
commission, the line has been 
definitely settled. From near 
the source of the Javary, or 
lat. 7 i' 17" S., a line running 
eastward to the Madeira in 
lat. 6 52' 15" S., which is 
half the distance between the 
mouth of the Mamore and the 
mouth of the Madeira, divides 
the Spanish and Portuguese 
possessions in this part of South 
America, according to the pro- 
visions of the treaty of San 
Ildefonso of 1777. This line has been twice modified by treaties 
between Bolivia and Brazil, but without the consent of Peru, 
which claimed all the territory eastward to the Madeira between 
the above-mentioned line and the Beni-Madidi rivers, the line 
of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a small tributary 
of the Madidi, to its source, and thence in a straight line to the 
village of Conima, on Lake Titicaca. The dispute with Brazil 
relates to the territory acquired by that republic from Bolivia 
in 1867 and 1903, and was to be settled, according to an agreement 



Emery 



PERU 



265 



of 1908, by direct negotiation if possible, or, failing this, 
by arbitration. The decision of the president of Argentina of 
the pth of July 1909, in regard to the remainder of this extensive 
territory, was a compromise, and divided it into two nearly 
equal parts. The line adopted starts from Lake Suches, the 
source of a small river of that name flowing into the north of 
Lake Titicaca, crosses the Cordillera by the Palomani to the 
Tambopata river, follows that stream to the mouth of the Lanza, 
thence crosses to the source of the Heath river, which forms the 
dividing line down to its junction with the Madre de Dios, 
descends that river to the mouth of the Torosmonas, thence in 
a straight line north-westerly to the intersection of the Tahua- 
manu river by the 6gth meridian, and thence north on that 
meridian to the Brazilian frontier. This decision at first gave 
offence to the Bolivians, but friendly overtures from Peru led 
to its acceptance by both parties with the understanding that 
modifications would be made in locating the line wherever actual 
settlements had been made by either party on territory awarded 
to the other. With Chile the dejure line is that of the Camarones 
ravine which separated the old department of Moquegua (includ- 
ing the provinces of Tacna and Arica) from that of Tarapaca. 
The de facto line is that of the Sama river (usually dry), which 
opens on the coast a little south of Sama point, near 18 S., Chile 
retaining possession of the two above-mentioned provinces in 
violation of the treaty of Ancon, which she forced upon her 
defeated antagonist. 

Physical Geography. Peru is divided longitudinally into three 
well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra and the montana. The 
coast, extending from the base of the Western or Maritime Cor- 
dillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert crossed at 
intervals by rivers flowing through narrow, fertile valleys. The 
sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 m. in width. It 
contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and 
table-lands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines. The montana 
is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and 
skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes. 

The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant 

geological epoch, and is nearly as destitute of vegetation as the 

African Sahara. It is watered, however, by fifty 

1 streams which cross the desert at intervals. Half 
of these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run 
with a permanent supply of water into the ocean. The others, 
rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line 
and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during 
the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry. The 
absence of rain here is ascribed to the action of the lofty uplands 
of the Andes on the trade-wind, and to the influence of the cold 
Humboldt current sweeping northward along the west coast of 
the continent. The south-east trade-wind blows obliquely across 
the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil. By this time it is 
heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the 
continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon 
and La Plata. When the wind rises above the snow-capped Andes, 
the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that a very low 
temperature can extract. Passing the summit of that range, it 
rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond. 
Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature 
colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain-tops, this 
wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh 
moisture. The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast 
is from the south, which is a cold wind from the Humboldt current. 
As it moves north it becomes gradually warmed and takes up 
moisture instead of depositing it as ram. From November to 
April there are usually constant dryness, a clear sky, and con- 
siderable, though by no means oppressive, heat. From June to 
September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog, which 
is often accompanied by drizzling rain called garua. At the time 
when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily 
in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are 
at their lowest, the garua prevails on the coast. The climate 
of various parts of the coast, however, is modified by local 
circumstances. 

The Western Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains 
a long line of volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their 
presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe 
earthquakes, especially in the southern section of the coast. Since 
1570 seventy violently destructive earthquakes have been recorded 
on the west coast of South America, but the register is incomplete 
in its earlier part. The most terrible was that of 1746, which 
destroyed Callao, on the 28th of October, and there were 220 shocks 
in the following twenty-four hours. The town was overwhelmed 
by a vast wave, which rose 80 ft.; and the shocks continued until 
the following February. On the I3th of August 1868 an earthquake 



nearly destroyed Arequipa, and great waves rolled in upon the 
ports of Arica and Iquique. On the gth of May 1877 nearly all the 
southern ports were overwhelmed. 

The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest 
being more than 70 m. across. On their western margin steep 
cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the tablazo or 
plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges 
of considerable height rising out of it. The surface is generally 
hard, but in many places there are large accumulations of drifting 
sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called medanos, 
of a half-moon shape, having their convex sides towards the trade- 
wind. They are from 10 to 20 ft. high, with an acute crest, the 
inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Sometimes, 
especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like 
the sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of 
grains of sand in the heated atmosphere, on the crests of the 
medanos. 

Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation ; yet three 
kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and 
survive long periods of drought. One is an amar- c _. 
anthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the 
sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which 
maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and 
only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient 
moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows which are 
reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the 
algarrobo (Prosopis horrida), a low tree of very scraggy growth, 
the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides), and the zapote del perro (Colico- 
dendrum scabridum), mere shrubs. Near the Cordillera and on its 
lower slopes a tall branched cactus is met with, and there are 
Salicornias and Salsolas near the coast. But, when the mists set 
in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are 
called lomas, undergo a change as if by magic. A blooming vege- 
tation of wild flowers for a short time covers the barren hills. Near 
Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow 
lily called amancaes (Ismene Amancaes). The other flowers of the 
lomas are the papita de San Juan (Begonia geranifolia), with red 
petals contrasting with the white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful 
Bomarea ovata, several species of Oxalis, Solarium and crucifers. 
But this carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts 
but a short time. 

The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding 
desert. A great mass of pale-green foliage is usually composed 
of the algarrobo trees, while the course of the river is marked by 
lines or groups of palms, by fine old willows (Salix humboldtiana) , 
fruit-gardens, and fields of cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane and 
alfalfa (lucerne). In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane, 
in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and olive-yards pre- 
dominate. The woods of algarrobo are used for pasture, cattle and 
horses enjoying the pendulous yellow pods. 

For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be 
divided into five sections, beginning from the north: (i) the Piura 
region; (2) the Lambayeque and Trujillo section; sections at 
(3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section from Lima to Nasca; the Coasti 
(5) the Arequipa and Tacna section. 

(i) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 m. from 
the Gulf of Guayaquil to the borders of the Morrope Valley, and 
is traversed by three rivers the Tumbes, Chira and Piura, the 
two former receiving their waters from the inner Cordillera and 
breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South 
America extends farthest to the westward until it reaches Capes 
Blanco and Parina, and then turns southward to the Bay of Paita. 
The climate of Piura is modified by the lower latitude, and also 
by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and garua are 
much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while 
rain sometimes falls. At intervals of three or four years there are 
occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. (2) The 
second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope, 
the Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the Sana, the Jequetepeque, the 
Chicama, Moche, Viru and Chao. With the intervening deserts 
this section extends over 200 m. All these valleys, except Morrope 
and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in 
the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant 
supply in the season when irrigation is needed. (3) The third 
section, also extending for 200 m., contains the valleys of Santa, 
Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Sup6 and Huaura. 
The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 ft. 
above the sea, and has a length of 180 m., is remarkable for its 
long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a 
trough known as the " Callejon de Huaylas," 100 m. in length. 
It then breaks through in a deep gorge, and reaches the sea after 
a course of 35 m. over the coast-belt, and after fertilizing a rich 
valley. The Santa and Nepena valleys are separated by a desert 
8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a good anchorage 
in the bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is the terminus of 
a railway. The Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza and Sup6 
rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra, 
and are consequently dry during the great part of the year. Wells 
are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus main- 
tained. The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break 



266 



PERU 



through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy 
Cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are 9 
leagues of desert between the Nepena and Casma, 16 between the 
Casraa and Huarmey, and 18 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza. 
The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the Pampa 
de Mala, Cavallos, from the number of exhausted animals which die 
there. Between the Sup6 and Pativilca is the desert called the 
Pampa del Media Mundo. (4) The next coast-section extends for 
over 300 m., from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of 
Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, Canete, 
Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, lea and Rio Grande. Here the 
maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower strip of 
coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those 
of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay 
of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain bounded by 
the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure. 
Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Canete 
is one green sheet of sugar-cane; and narrow strips of desert separate 
it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous 
vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of lea, Palpa, San Xavier and Nasca 
are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea ; but between 
Nasca and Acari there is a desert 60 m. in width. (5) The Arequipa 
and Tacna section extends over 350 m. and comprises the valleys of 
Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocona, Majes or Camana, Quilca, with the 
interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ilo or Moquegua, It6 or Locumba, 
Sanaa, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica. Here the Western Cordillera 
recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western 
slope, is 7000 ft. above the sea and 90 m. from the coast. Most 
of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are 
well supplied with water. The coast-valleys through which they 
flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their 
vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive 
plantations. 

The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands 
are generally abrupt and lofty. These and the few islands are 
frequented by sea-birds, whence come the guano- 
isiaaas. deposits, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing 
properties being due to the absence of rain. The islets off the 
coast are all barren and rocky. 

The most northern is Foca, in 5 13' 30* S., near the coast to the 
south of Paita. The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera 
(2) in 6 27' 45' S. and 6 56' 45" S. respectively, are off the desert of 
Sechura, and contain deposits of guano. The two Afuera islands 
are 6p and 36 m. respectively from the coast at the port of Sari Jos6. 
The islets of Macabi, in 7 49' 20* S., also have guano deposits, now 
practically exhausted. The two islets of Guanape, surrounded by 
many rocks, in 8 34' S., contain rich deposits. Chao rises 450 ft. 
above the sea, off the coast, in 8 46' 30* S. Corcobado is in 8 57' S. 
La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9 23' 30" S. ; arid Tortuga is 
2 m. distant to the north. Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in 
9 i' 40*, and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9 8' 30' S. Farther 
south there is the group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in 1 1 27' S., 
the chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, Bravo, 
Quitacalzones and Mazorque. The Hormigas are in 11 4' S. and 
n 58', and the Pescadores in 1 1 47' S. The island of San Lorenzo, 
in 12 4' S., is a lofty mass, 4$ m. long by I broad, forming the 
Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 ft. Off its south-east end 
lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west 
are the Palomitas Rocks. Horadada Islet, with a hole through 
it, is to the south of Callao Point. Off the valley of Lurin are the 
Pachacamac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a 
mile long. The next, called San Francisco, is Tike a sugar-loaf, 
perfectly rounded at the top. The others are mere rocks. Asia 
Island is farther south, 17 m. north-west of Cerro Azul, and about 
a mile in circuit. Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with 
a bold cliff outline, 2j m. long by I broad, the Ballista Islets, and 
farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guano 
deposits are now exhausted. South of the entrance to Pisco Bay 
is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa 
Rosa. The Infiernillo rock is quite black, about 50 ft. high, in the 
form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the point of Santa Maria, which 
is near the mouth of the lea river. Alacran is a small islet off the 
lofty " morro " of Arica. All these rocks and islets are barren and 
uninhabitable. The more common sea-birds are the Sula variegata 
or guano-bird, a large gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus 
thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white 
feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all the gulls is also 
found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xemafureatum. Sea-lions 
(Otaria forsteri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories. 

The region of the Cordilleras of the Andes is divided into puna, 
or lofty uninhabited wilderness, and sierra, or inhabitable moun- 
Sl tain slopes and valleys. This great mountain-system, 

running south-east to north-west, consists of three 
chains or Cordilleras. The two chains, which run parallel and near 
each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have 
been separated by the action of water during many centuries. On 
these chains are the volcanoes and many thermal springs. The 
narrow space between them is for the most part, but not always, a 
cold and lofty region known as the puna containing alpine lakes 
the sources of the coast-rivers. The great eastern chain, rising from 



the basin of the Amazon and forming the inner wall of the system, 
is of distinct origin. These three chains are called the Western or 
Maritime Cordillera, the Central Cordillera and the Andes. Paz 
Soldan and other Peruvian geographers give the name of Andes, 
par excellence, to the Eastern Cordillera. 

The Maritime Cordillera of Peru has no connexion with the coast 
ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of the Cordillera Occidental 
of Chile, which under various local names forms the eastern margin 
of the coastal desert belt from Atacama northward into Peru. 
It contains a regular chain of volcanic peaks overlooking the coast- 
region of Tarapaca. Chief among them are the snowy peak of 
Lirima (19,128 ft.) over the ravine of Tarapaca, the volcano of 
Isluga overhanging Camina, the Bolivian peak of Sajama, and 
Tocora (19,741 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier. In rear of Moquegua 
there is a group of volcanic peaks, clustering round those of Ubinas 
and Huaynaputina. A great eruption of Huaynaputina began on 
the I5th of February 1600 and continued until the 28th. But 
generally these volcanoes are quiescent. Farther north the Misti 
volcano rises over the city of Arequipa in a perfect cone to a height 
of over 20,013 ft., and near its base are the hot sulphur and iron 
springs of Yura. The peak of Sarasara, in Parinacochas (Ayacucho) 
is 19,500 ft. above the sea, and in the mountains above Lima the 
passes attain a height of more than 15,000 ft. In latitude 10 S. 
the maritime chain separates into two branches, which run parallel 
to each other for 100 m., enclosing the remarkable ravine of Callejon 
de Huaylas the eastern or main branch being known as the 
Cordillera Nevada and the western as the Cordillera Negra. On 
the Nevada the peak of Huascan reaches a height of 22,051 ft. 
The Huandoy peak, above Carhuaz, rises to 21,088 ft.; the Hualcan 
peak, overhanging the town of Yungay, is 19,945 ft- high ; and most 
of the peaks in this part of the chain reach a height of 19,000 ft. 
During the rainy season, from October to May, the sky is generally 
clear at dawn, and the magnificent snowy peaks are clearly seen. 
But as the day advances the clouds collect. In most parts of the Peru- 
vian Andes the line of perpetual snow is at 16,400 ft. ; but on the Cor- 
dillera Nevada, above the Callejon de Huaylas, it sinks to 15,400 ft. 
This greater cold is caused by the intervention of the Cordillera 
Negra, which intercepts the warmth from the coast. As this lower 
chain does not reach the snow-line, the streams rising from it are 
scanty, while the Santa, Pativilca and other coast-rivers which 
break through it from sources in the snowy chain have a greater 
volume from the melted snows. At the point where the river 
Santa breaks through the Cordillera Negra that range begins to 
subside, while the Maritime Cordillera continues as one chain to and 
beyond the frontier of Ecuador. 

The Central Cordillera is the true water-parting of the system. 
No river, except the Maranon, breaks through it either to the east or 
west, while more than twenty coast streams rise on its slopes and 
force their way through the maritime chain. The Central Cordillera 
consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of 
which are aqueous, in great part Jurassic, strata thrown up almost 
vertically. In 14 30' S. the central chain is connected with the 
Eastern Andes by the transverse mountain-knot of Vilcanota, the 
peak of that name being 17,651 ft. above the sea. The great inland 
basin of Lake Titicaca is thus formed. The central chain continues 
to run parallel with the Maritime Cordillera until, at Cerro Pasco, 
another transverse knot connects it with the Andes in 10 30' S. lat. 
It then continues northward, separating the basins of the Maranon 
and Huallaga; and at the northern frontier of Peru it is at length 
broken through by the Maranon flowing eastward. 

The Eastern Andes is a magnificent range in the southern part of 
Peru, of Silurian formation, with talcose and clay slates, many 
quartz veins and eruptions of granitic rocks. Mr Forbes says that 
the peaks of Illampu (21,709 ft.) and Illimani (21,014 ft.) in Bolivia 
are Silurian and fossiltferous to their summits. The eastern range 
is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely, the Maranon and Hual- 
laga, the Perene, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo, 
the last five being tributaries of the Ucayali. The range of the 
Andes in south Peru has a high plateau to the west and the vast 
plains of the Amazonian basin to the east. The whole range is 
highly auriferous, and the thickness of the strata is not less than 
10,000 ft. It is nowhere disturbed by volcanic eruptions, except at 
the very edge of the formation near Lake Titicaca, and in this respect 
it differs essentially from the Maritime Cordillera. To the eastward 
numerous spurs extend for varying distances into the great plain 
of the Amazons. 

The Andes lose their majestic height to the northward ; and beyond 
Cerro Pasco the eastern chain sinks into a lower range between the 
Huallaga and Ucayali. But throughout the length of Peru the three 
ranges are clearly defined. 

For purposes of description the sierra of Peru may be divided 
into four sections, each embracing portions of all three ranges. 
The first, from the north, comprises the upper basins Sfcti an , a t 
of the Maranon and the Huallaga, and is 350 m. long by %j ra 
100 broad. The second extends from the Knot of 
Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 m., including the Lake of 
Chinchay-cocha and the basin of the river Xauxa. The third or 
Cuzco section extends 250 m. to the Knot of Vilcanota with the basins 
of the Pampas, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo. The 
fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca. 



PERU 



267 



Lake Junin, or Chinchay-cocha, in the second section, is 36 m. 
long by 7 m. broad, and 13,232 ft. above the sea. Its marshy 
banks are overgrown with reeds and inhabited by numerous water- 
fowl. From this lake the river Xauxa flows southwards through 
a populous valley for 150 m. before entering the forests. Lake 
Titicaca (see BOLIVIA), in the fourth or most southern section, is 
divided between Peru and Bolivia. It receives a number of short 
streams from the ranges shutting in the upper end of the valley; 
the largest is the Ramiz, formed by the two streams of Pucara and 
Azangaro, both coming from the Knot of Vilcanota to the north. 
The Suches, which has its source in Lake Suches, falls into Lake 
Titicaca on the north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave. 
The principal islands are Titicaca and Coati (at the south end near 
the peninsula of Copacabana), Campanaria (9 m. from the east 
shore), Soto and Esteves. There are two other lakes in the Cottao, 
as the elevated region round Titicaca is called. Lake Arapa, a few 
miles from the northern shore of Titicaca, is 30 m. in circumference. 
Lake Umayo is on higher ground to the westward. The lake in 
Peru which is third in size is that of Parinacochas on the coast 
watershed, near the foot of the snowy peak of Sarasara. It is 12 m. 
long by 6 broad, but has never been visited and described by any 
modern traveller. The smaller alpine lakes, often forming the 
sources of rivers, are numerous. 

The great rivers of the sierra are the Maranon, rising in the lake 
of Lauricocha and flowing northward in a deep gorge between the 
Maritime and Central Cordilleras for 350 m., when it forces its way 
through the mountains at the famous Pongo de Manseriche and 
enters the Amazonian plain. The Huallaga rises north of Cerro 
Pasco, and, passing Huanuco, flows northwards on the other side of 
the Central Cordillera for 300 m. It breaks through the range at 
the Pongo de Chasuta and falls into the Maranon. The other great 
rivers are tributaries of the Ucayali. The Pozuzu, flowing east- 
ward from the Knot of Cerro Pasco, joins the Pachitea, which is 
the most important northern affluent of the Ucayali. The Xauxa, 
becoming afterwards the Mantaro, receives the drainage of Xauxa, 
Huancavelica and Ayacucho. The southern valleys of this part of 
the sierra furnish streams which form the main rivers of Pampas, 
Pachachaca and Apurimac. These, uniting with the Mantaro, 
form the Ene, and the Ene and Perene (which drains the province 
of Tambo) form the Tambo. The Vilcamayu rises on the Knot of 
Vilcanota, flows north through a lovely valley, received the Yanatilde 
and Paucartambo on its right bank, and, uniting with the Tambo, 
forms the Ucayali. Most of these main streams flow through pro- 
found gorges in a tropical climate, while the upper slopes yield 
products of the temperate zone, and the plateaus above are cold and 
bleak, affording only pasture and the hardiest cereals. 

The great variety of elevation within the sierra produces vege- 
tation belonging to every zone. There is a tropical flora in the 
deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a temper- 
Slerraa at6i ^ en a sub-arctic flora. In ascending from the 
*""* coast-valleys there is first an arid range, where the 
Fauna. great-branched cacti rear themselves up among 
the rocks. Farther inland, where the rains are more plentiful, 
is the native home of the potato. Here also are other plants 
with edible roots the oca (Oxalis luberosa), ulluca (Ullucus 
tuberosus), massua (Tropteolum tuberosum), and learco (Polymnia 
sonchifolia). Among the first wild shrubs and trees that are met 
with are the chilca (Baccharis Feuilki), with a pretty yellow flower, 
the Mutisia acuminata, with beautiful red and orange flowers, 
several species of Senecio, calceolarias, the Schinus moUe, with its 
graceful branches and bunches of red berries, and at higher elevations 
the lambras (Alnus acuminata), the sauco (Sambucus peruviana), 
the quenuar (Buddleia incana), and the Polylepis racemosa. The 
Buddleia, locally called oliva silveslre, flourishes at a height of 
12,000 ft. round the shores of Lake Titicaca. The most numerously 
represented family is the Compositae, the grasses being next in num- 
ber. The temperate valleys of the sierra yield fruits_ of many 
kinds. Those indigenous to the country are the delicious chin- 
moyas, paltas or alligator pears, the paccay, a species of Inga, the 
lucma, and the granadilla or fruit of the passion-flower. Vineyards 
and sugar-cane yield crops in the warmer ravines; the sub-tropical 
valjeys are famous for splendid crops of maize; wheat and barley 
thrive on the mountain slopes; and at heights from 7000 to 13,000 ft. 
there are crops of quinua (Chenopodium quinua). In the loftiest 
regions the pasture chiefly consists of a coarse grass (Stipa ychu), 
of which the llamas eat the upper blades and the sheep browse on the 
tender shoots beneath. There are also two kinds of shrubby plants, 
a thorny Composite, called " ccanlli " and another, called tola," 
which is a resinous Baccharis and is used for fuel. 

The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Andes are 
the domestic llamas and alpacas and the wild vicunas. There are 
deer, called taruco (Cervus antisensis) ; the viscacha, a large rodent ; 
a species of fox called atoc ; and the puma (Felis concolor) and wumari 
or black bear with a white muzzle, when driven by hunger, wander 
into the loftier regions. The largest bird is the condor, and there is 
another bird of the vulture tribe, with a black and white wing 
feather formerly used by the Incas in their head-dress, called the 
coraquenque or alcamari. The pito is a brown speckled creeper which 
flutters about the rocks. There is a little bird, the size of a starling, 
with brown back striped with black, and white breast, which the 



Indians call yncahualpa ; it utters a monotonous sound at each hour 
of the night. A partridge called yutu frequents the long grass. 
On the lakes there is a very handsome goose, with white body and 
dark-green wings shading into violet, called huachua, two kinds 
of ibis, a large gull (Larus serranus) frequenting the alpine lakes in 
flocks, flamingoes called parihuana, ducks and water-hens. Many 
pretty little finches fly about the maize-fields and fruit-gardens, 
and a little green parakeet is met with as high as 1 2,000 ft. above the 
sea. 

The third division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests, 
at the base of the Andes, and within the basin of the Amazon. 
It is traversed by great navigable rivers. The Maranon, . - 
having burst through the defile of the Pongo de Man- 
seriche (575 ft. above sea level), and the Huallaga through that of 
Chasuta, enter the forests and unite after separate courses of about 
600 and 400 m., the united flood then flowing eastward to the 
Brazilian frontier. After 150 m. it is joined by the Ucayali, a great 
navigable river with a course of 600 m. The country between 
the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, 
is called the Pampa del Sacramento, and is characterized by exten- 
sive grassy plains. The forests drained by the Maranon, Huallaga 
and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian montana. 
The southern half of the montana is watered by streams flowing 
from the eastern Andes, which go to form the river Madre de 
Dios or Amaru -mayu, the principal branch of the river Beni, which 
falls into the Madeira. The region of the Peruvian montana, which 
is 800 m. long from the Maranon to the Bolivian frontier, is naturally 
divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines 
and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the dense tropical 
forests in the Amazonian plain. The sub-tropical section is impor- 
tant from the value of its products and interesting from the grandeur 
and beauty of its scenery. Long spurs run on from the Andes, 
gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of 
60 or 80 m. before they finally subside into the vast forest-covered 
plains of the Amazon basin. Numerous rivers flow through the 
valleys between these spurs, which are the native home of the 
quinine-yielding cinchona trees. The most valuable species, called 
C. Calisaya, is found in the forests of Caravaya in south Peru and in 
those of Bolivia. The species between Caravaya and the head- 
waters of the Huallaga yield very little of the febrifuge alkaloid. 
But the forests of Huanuco and Huamalios abound in species yield- 
ing the grey bark of commerce, which is rich in cinchonine, an 
alkaloid efficacious as a febrifuge, though inferior to quinine. With 
the cinchona trees grow many kinds of melastomaceae, especially 
the Lasiandra, with masses of purple flowers, tree-ferns and palms. 
In the warm valleys there are large plantations of coca (Erythro- 
xylon Coca), the annual produce of which is stated at 15,000,000 Ib. 
The other products of these warm valleys are excellent coffee, cocoa, 
sugar, tropical fruits of all kinds, and gold in abundance. In the 
vast untrodden forests farther east there are timber trees of many 
kinds, incense trees, a great wealth of rubber trees of the Hevea genus, 
numerous varieties of beautiful palms, sarsaparilla, vanilla, ipecac- 
uanha and copaiba. The abundant and varied fauna is the same as 
that of the Brazilian forests. 

Geology.* The Eastern Cordillera, which, however, is but little 
known, appears to consist, as in Bolivia, chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks; 
the western ranges of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, together 
with recent volcanic lavas and ashes; and the lower hills near the 
coast are composed of granite, syenite and other crystalline rocks, 
sometimes accompanied by limestones and sandstones, which are 
probably of Lower Cretaceous age, and often covered by marine 
Tertiary deposits. Thus the orographical features of the country 
correspond broadly with the geological divisions. 

The constitution of the Mesozoic band varies. Above Lima 
the western chain of the Andes is composed of porphyritic tuffs 
and massive limestones, while the longitudinal valley of the Oroya 
is hollowed in carbonaceous sandstones. From the analogy of the 
neighbouring countries it is possible that some of the tuffs may be 
Jurassic, but the other deposits probably belong for the most part 
to the Cretaceous system. The carbonaceous sandstone contains 
Gault fossils. Like the similar sandstone in Bolivia, it includes 
steams of coal and is frequently impregnated with cinnabar. It is 
in this sandstone that the rich mercury mines of Huancavelica are 
worked. 

Farther north, in the department of Ancachs, the Mesozoic belt is 
composed chiefly of sandstones and shales, and the limestones which 
form so prominent a feature above Lima seem to have disappeared. 
The Cordillera Negra in this region is in many places cut by numerous 
dikes of diorite, and it is near these dikes that silver ores are chiefly 



1 See L. Crosnier, " Notice gdologique sur les departements de 
Huancavelica et d'Ayacucho," Ami. des mines, 5th series, vol. ii. 
pp. 1-43, PI. I (1852); A. Raimondi, El Departamento de Ancachs y 
sus riquezas minerales (Lima, 1873); G. Stemmann, " Ueber Tithon 
und Kreide in den peruanischon Anden," Neues Jahrb. (1882), vol. ii. 
pp. 130-153, Pis. 6-8; K. Gerhardt, " Beitrag zur Kenntniss der 
Kreideformation in Venezuela und Peru," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-Bd. XI. 
(1897), pp. 65-1 17, Pis. 1 , 2 ; J. Grzybowski, "Die Tertiarablagerungen 
des nordlichen Peru und ihre Molluskenfauna," Neues Jahrb., Beil.- 
Bd. XII. (1899), pp. 610-664, Pis. 15-20. 



268 



PERU 



found. In the Cordillera Nevada the Mesozoic rocks which form 
the chain are often covered by masses of modern volcanic rock. 
Similar rocks are also found in the Cordillera Negra, but the volcanic 
centres appear to have been in the Sierra Nevada. 

Population. The first trustworthy enumeration of the people 
of Peru was made in 1793, when there were 617,700 Indians, 
241,225 mestizos (Indian and white inter-mixture), 136,311 
Spaniards, 40,337 negro slaves and 41,404 mulattoes, making a 
total of 1,076,977, exclusive of the wild Indians of the monlana. 
Viceroy Toledo's enumeration of the Indians in 1575 gave them 
a total of 8,000,000, the greater part of whom had been sacrificed 
by Spanish cruelty. Others had withdrawn into the mountains 
and forests, and in the native villages under Spanish administra- 
tion the birth rate had dropped to a small part of what it had 
been because the great bulk of the male population had been 
segregated in the mines and on the estates of the conquerors. 
This tells a story of depopulation under Spanish rule, to which 
the abandoned terraces (andenes) on the mountain sides, once 
highly cultivated, bear testimony. Several diverse totals have 
been published as the result of the census taken in 1876, which 
is considered imperfect. One estimate places the total at 
2,660,881, comprising about 13-8% whites, 57-6% Indians, 
1-9% negroes, 1-9% Asiatics, chiefly Chinese, and 24-8 % 
mixed races. In 1906 estimates were made under official 
auspices (see A. Garland, Peru in 1906, Lima, 1907), which 
gave the population as 3,547,829, including Tacna (8000). It 
is believed, however, that this and other larger estimates are 
excessive. There is no considerable immigration. 

The population of Peru is mixed, including whites, Indians, 
Africans, Asiatics, and their mixtures and sub-mixtures. The 
dominant race is of Spanish origin, to a considerable extent 
mixed with Indian blood. The Indians are in great part 
descendants of the various tribes organized under the rule of 
the Incas at the time of the Spanish conquest. There are two 
distinct general types the coast tribes occupying the fertile 
river valleys, who are employed on the plantations, in domestic 
service in the cities, or in small industries of their own, no longer 
numerous; and the sierra tribes, who are agriculturists, miners, 
stock-breeders and packers, still comparatively numerous. 
In addition to these are the tribes of wild Indians of the montana 
region, or eastern forests, who were never under Inca rule and 
are still practically independent. Their number is estimated 
at 150,000 to 300,000, divided into 112 tribes, and differing 
widely in habits, customs and material condition. Some 
live in settled communities and roughly cultivate the soil. 
Others are hunters and fishermen and are nomadic in habit. 
Others are intractable forest tribes, having no relations with the 
whites. The sierra or upland Indians, the most numerous 
and strongest type, belong largely to the Quichua and Aymard 
families, the former inhabiting the regions northward of Cuzo, 
and the latter occupying the Titicaca basin and the sierras of 
Bolivia. These Indians are generally described as Cholos, a 
name sometimes mistakenly applied to the mestizos, while the 
tribes of the eastern forests are called Chunchos, barbaros, or 
simply Indians. The Cholos may be roughly estimated at about 
i ,800,000 and form by far the larger part of the sierra population. 
Practically all the industries and occupations of this extensive 
region depend upon them for labourers and servants. 

The mestizos are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. There 
are two general classes the costenos or those of the coast, and 
the serranos or those of the sierras. The mestizos of the coast 
are usually traders, artisans, overseers, petty officers and clerks, 
and small politicians. In the sierras they have the same general 
occupations, but there are no social bars to their advancement, 
and they become lawyers, physicians, priests, merchants, officials 
and capitalists. The African and Asiatic elements furnish only 
about 2 % each of the population. The Africans were introduced 
as slaves soon after the conquest, because the coast Indians were 
physically incapable of performing the work required of them 
on the sugar estates. All the heavy labour in the coast provinces 
was performed by them down to 1855, when African slavery was 
abolished. They have since preferred to live in the towns, 



although many continue on the plantations. The first Chinese 
coolies were introduced in 1849 to supply labourers on the sugar 
estates, which had begun to feel the effects of the suppression 
of the African slave traffic. At first the coolies were treated 
with cruelty. The scandals that resulted led to investigations 
and severe restrictions, and their employment now has become 
a matter of voluntary contract, usually for two years, in which 
fair dealing and good treatment are the rule. Many Chinese 
are also settled in the coast cities. Commercial relations have 
also been opened with Japan, and a small Japanese colony has 
been added to the population. The Spanish and African cross 
is to be seen in the mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons that 
inhabit the warm coast cities. Other race mixtures consist of 
thezambos (the African-Indian cross), an Asiatic graft upon these 
various crosses, and an extremely confusing intermixture of the 
various crosses, for which the Spanish races have descriptive 
appellations. The foreign population is chiefly concentrated in 
Lima and Callao, though mining and other industries have drawn 
small contingents to other places. 

Education.- Universities and colleges were founded in Peru soon 
after the conquest, and Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa and Chuquisaca 
(now the Bolivian town of Sucre) became centres of considerable intel- 
lectual activity. Something was done for the education of the sons of 
the Indian" nobility," schools being created at Lima and Cuzco. The 
university of San Marcos at Lima is the oldest collegiate institution 
in the New World, originating in a grant from Charles V. in 1551 to 
the Dominicans for the establishment of a college in their monastery 
at Lima. Its present name, however, was not adopted until 1574, 
two years after its first secular rector had been chosen. The 
college of San Carlos was founded in 1770, and the school of medicine 
in 1792. At Cuzco the university of San Antonio Abad was 
founded in 1598, and the college of San Geronirno at Arequipa in 
1616. The instruction given in these institutions was of the 
religious-scholastic character of that time, and was wholly under the 
supervision of the Church. Independence opened the way for a 
larger measure of intellectual and educational progress, especially 
for the lower classes. As organized under the law of the 5th of 
December 1905, primary instruction is free and nominally obligatory, 
and is under the control of the national government. The primary 
schools are divided into two grades: a free elementary course of 
two years, and a higher course of three years, in a school called the 
" scholastic centre,' in which learning a trade is included. There 
were 1508 elementary schools and 862 scholastic centres in 1906. 
There are, besides these, a large number of private schools, which in 
1906 carried about 22,000 pupils on their rolls, or three times the num- 
ber in the public primary schools. To provide teachers six normal 
schools have been established, two of which (one for males and one 
for females) are in Lima. For intermediate or secondary instruction 
there are 23 national colleges for boys in the various departmental 
capitals, and three similar colleges for girls, in Ayacucho, Cuzco 
and Trujillo. In these the majority of pupils were under the direc- 
tion of Belgian and German instructors. The private schools of 
this grade are still more numerous, and there are a number of special 
schools that belong to the same category. For higher instruction 
there are four universities: the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos 
at Lima, and three provincial institutions at Arequipa, Cuzco and 
Trujillo. All these have faculties of letters and law, and San Marcos 
has in addition faculties of theology, medicine, mathematics and 
science, philosophy and administrative and political economy. 
The professional schools include a school of civil and mining engineer- 
ing at Lima (created 1876), a military school at Chornllos under 
the direction of French instructors, a naval school at Callao, nine 
episcopal seminaries (one for each diocese), a national agricultural 
school in the vicinity of Lima (created 1902), and a few commercial 
schools. There is also a correctional school at Lima devoted to the 
education and training of youthful delinquents. 

Science and Literature. Towards the end of the l8th century 
scientific studies began to receive attention in Peru. M. Godin, a 
member of the French commission for measuring an arc of the 
meridian near Quito, became professor of mathematics at San Marcos 
in 1750; and the botanical expeditions sent out from Spain gave 
further zest to scientific research. Dr Gabriel Moreno (d. 1809), 
a native of Huamantanga in the Maritime Cordillera, studied 
under Dr Jussieu, and became an eminent botanist. Don Hipolito 
Unanue, born at Arica in 1755, wrote an important work on the 
climate of Lima and contributed to the Mercurio peruano. _This 
periodical was started in 1791 at Lima, the contributors forming a 
society called " amantes del pais," and it was completed in eleven 
volumes. It contains many valuable articles on history, topography, 
botany, mining, commerce and statistics. An ephemeris and guide 
to Peru was begun by the learned geographer Dr Cosme Bueno, and 
continued by Dr Unanue, who brought out his guides at Lima from 
1793 to 1798. In 1794 a nautical school was founded at Lima, 
with Andres Baleato as instructor and Pedro Alvarez as teacher of 
the use of instruments. Baleato also constructed a map of Peru. 



PERU 



269 



A list of Peruvian authors in viceregal times occupies a long chapter 
in the life of St Toribio 1 by Montalvo; and the bibliographical 
labours of the Peruvian Leon Pinelo are still invaluable to Spanish 
students. The most prolific author of colonial times was Dr Pedro 
de Peralta y Barnuevo, who wrote more than sixty works, including 
an epic poem entitled Lima fundada. 

The topographical labours of Cosme Bueno and Unanue were 
ably continued at Lima by Admiral Don Eduardo Carrasco, who 
compiled annual guides of Peru from 1826. But the most eminent 
Peruvian geographer is Dr Don Mariano Felipe Paz Soldan (1821- 
1886), whose Geografia del Peru appeared in 1 86 1. His still more 
important work, the Diccionario geografico estadistico del Peru (1877), 
is a gazetteer on a most complete scale. In 1868 appeared his first 
volume of the Historia del Peru independiente, and two others have 
since been published. His Historia de la guerra del Pacifico is the 
Peruvian version of that disastrous war. The earlier history of 
Peru has been written in three volumes by Sebastian Lorente (d. 
1884); Mariano Rivero has discussed its antiquities; and Manuel 
Fuentes has edited six volumes of memoirs written by Spanish 
viceroys. But the most valuable and important historical work by 
a modern Peruvian is General Mendiburu's (1805-1885) Diccionario 
historico-biografico del Peru, a monument of patient and conscien- 
tious research, combined with critical discernment of a high order. 
As laborious historical students, Don JoscS Toribio Polo, the author 
of an ecclesiastical history of Peruvian dioceses, and Don Enrique 
Torres Saldamando, the historian of the Jesuits in Peru, have great 
merit. Among good local annalists may be mentioned Juan Gilberto 
Valdivia, who has written a history of Arequipa, and Pio Benigno 
Mesa, the author of the Annals of Cuzco. 

The leading Peruvian authors on constitutional and legal subjects 
are Dr Jos6 Santistevan, who has published volumes on civil and 
criminal law; Luis Felipe Villaran (subsequently rector of the univer- 
sity at Lima), author of a work on constitutional right; Dr Francisco 
Garcia Calderon (once president of Peru), author of a dictionary of 
Peruvian legislation, in two volumes ; Dr Francisco Xavier Mariategui, 
one of the fathers of Peruvian independence; and Dr Francisco de 
Paula Vigil (i 792-1 875) , orator and statesman as well as author, whose 
work, Defensa de los gobiernos, is a noble and enlightened statement 
of the case for civil governments against the pretensions of the 
court of Rome. Manuel A. Fuentes, an able statistician and the 
author of the Estadistica de Lima, has also written a manual of 
parliamentary practice. Perhaps the most important work on Peru 
of modern times is that of the Italian savant Antonio Raimondi 
(1825-1890), who spent the greater part of his life in studying the 
topography and natural resources of the country. Only four 
volumes had been published at the time of his death, but he left a 
mass of papers and manuscripts which the government has put in 
the hands of the Geographical Society of Lima for publication. 
His great work is entitled El Peru: estudios mineralogicos, &c. 
(3 vols., Lima, 1890-1902), and one separate volume on the depart- 
ment of Ancachs. Peruvian literature since the independence has 
also attained high merit in the walks of poetry and romance. The 
Guayaquil author, Olmedo, who wrote the famous ode on the victory 
of Junin, and the Limenians Felipe Pardo and Manuel Segura 
are names well known wherever the Spanish language is spoken. 
Both died between 1860 and 1870. The comedies of Segura on the 
customs of Lima society, entitled Un Paseo a Amancaes and La 
Saya y Manto, have no equal in the dramatic literature of Spanish 
America and few in that of modern Spain. From 1848 date the first 
poetical efforts of Arnaldo Marquez, who is distinguished for his 
correct diction and rich imagination, as is Nicolas Corpancho for his 
dramas and a volume of poems entitled Brisas, Adolfo Garcia for a 
beautiful sonnet to Bolivar, which was published at Havre in 1870, 
in his one volume of poems, and Clemente Althaus for his produc- 
tivity and style. Pedro Paz Soldan was a classical scholar who 
published three volumes of poems. Carlos Augusto Salaverry is 
known as one of Peru's best lyrical poets, and Luis Benjamin 
Cisneros for his two novels, Julia and Edgardo. Trinidad Fernandez 
and Constantino Carrasco were two poets of merit who died young, 
the principal work of the latter being his metrical version of the 
Quichua drama, Ollantay. Jos6 Antonio Lavalle and Narciso 
Arestegui are chiefly known as novelists. In his youth Ricardo 
Palma published three books of poems, entitled Armonias, Verbos y 
Gerundios and Pasionarias, and_ then, since 1870, devoted his great 
literary talents to writing the historical traditions of Peru, of which 
six volumes were published. At the outbreak of the war with Chile 
he was vice-director of the national library at Lima, which was 
wantonly pillaged by the Chilean forces. After the evacuation of 
Lima by the Chileans Palma devoted his life to the recovery of his 
scattered books and the acquisition of new collections, and he had 
the satisfaction before his death of re-opening the library, which had 
obtained about 30,000 volumes, or three-fourths of the number 
on its shelves before the Chilean invasion. 

Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru much has been written. 
The important work of Mariano Eduardo Rivero, of Arequipa, 



1 The city of Lima produced two saints, the archbishop St 
Toribio, who flourished from 1578 to 1606, and Santa Rosa, the patron 
saint of the city of the kings (1586-1616), whose festival is cele- 
brated on the 26th of August. 



assisted by J. J. von Tschudi, on the antiquities of Peru (Antigue- 
dades peruanas, Vienna, 1841 ; Eng. trans., New York, 1853) has 
been followed by other investigators into the language, literature, 
customs and religion of the Incas. The best known of these are 
Jos6 Sebastian Barranca, the naturalist and antiquary, Jos6 
Fernandez Nodal, and Gavino Pacheco Zegarra of Cuzco, who 
published translations of the Inca drama of Ollantay, and Leonardo 
Villar, of Cuzco. 

Among Peruvian naturalists since the advent of the republic, 
the most distinguished have been Mariano Eduardo Rivero, the 
geologist, mineralogist and archaeologist, and his friend and colleague 
Nicolas, de Pierola, authors of Memorial de ciencias naturales. 
The Lima Geographical Society (founded in 1888) is perhaps the best 
and most active scientific organization in the republic. Its special 
work covers national geographical exploration and study, archae- 
ology, statistics and climatology, and its quarterly bulletins contain 
invaluable information. The society receives a government subsidy, 
and its rooms in the national library in Lima are the principal 
centre of scientific study in Peru. It had an active membership of 
163 in 1906, besides 172 honorary and corresponding members. 
The historical institute of Peru, also at Lima, is charged by the 
government, from which it receives a liberal subsidy, with the work 
of collecting, preparing and publishing documents relating to Peru- 
vian history, and of preserving objects of archaeological and historic 
character. Its museum, which is of great historical and artistic 
value and includes a collection of portraits of the Peruvian viceroys 
and presidents, is in the upper floors of the Exposition Palace. 
Another subsidized national society is the athenaeum, which was 
founded in 1877 as the " literary club," and reorganized in 1887 
under its present title. Its purpose is to foster learning and literary 
effort, and it is a popular and prominent feature in the intellectual 
life of the country. 

Religion. According to the constitution of 1 860 "the nation 
professes the apostolic Roman Catholic religion; the state protects 
it, and does not permit the public exercise of any other." There is 
a certain degree of tolerance, however, and the Anglican and some of 
the evangelical churches are permitted to establish missions in the 
country, but not always without hostile demonstrations from the 
Catholic priesthood. There are Anglican churches in Lima and 
Cuzco, belonging to the diocese of the Bishop of the Falkland Islands; 
but their existence is illegal and is ignored rather than permitted. 
In its ecclesiastical organization Peru is divided into nine dioceses: 
Lima, which is an archbishopric, Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, Ayacucho, 
Huanuco, Huaraz, Trujillo and Chachapoyas. These dioceses are 
subdivided into 613 curacies, presided over by curas, or curate- 
vicars. Each diocese has its seminary for the education of the priest- 
hood, that of Arequipa being distinguished for its influence in church 
affairs. Arequipa, like Cordoba and Chuquisaca, is a stronghold 
of clericalism and exercises a decisive influence in politics as well as 
in church matters. There are a number of fine churches in Lima 
and in the sees of the various dioceses. Monasteries and nunneries 
are numerous, dating back to the l6thand 1 7th centuries, but their 
influence is now less potent than in those days and the monastic 
population is not so large. In modern times many of the convents 
nave been devoted to educational work especially for girls, which is 
an obstacle to the successful development of a public school system 
in the country. 

Political Divisions. The empire of the Incas was divided 
into four main divisions, Chinchay-suyu to the north of Cuzco, 
Anti-suyu to the east, Colla-suyu to the south and Cunti-suyu 
to the west, the whole empire being called Ttahuantin-suyu, or 
the four governments. Each was ruled by a viceroy, under 
whom were the " huaranca-camayocs," or officers ruling over 
thousands, and inferior officers, in regular order, over 500, 100, 
50 and 10 men. All disorders and irregularities were checked 
by the periodical visits of the tucuyricocs or inspectors. The 
Spanish conquest destroyed this complicated system. In 1569 
the governor, Lope Garcia de Castro, divided Peru into corregi- 
mientos under officers named corregidors, of whom there were 
77, each in direct communication with the government at Lima. 
An important administrative reform was made in 1784, when 
Peru was divided into 7 intendencias, each under an officer called 
an inlendenle. These intendencias included about 6 of the old 
corregimienlos, which were called partidos, under officers named 
subdelegados. Thus the number of officers reporting direct to 
Lima was reduced from 77 to 7, a great improvement. The 
republic adopted the same system, calling the intendencias 
departments, under a prefect, and the partidos provinces, under 
a sub-prefect. Peru is divided into 18 departments, 2 littoral 
provinces, and what is called the constitutional province of 
Callao. This is exclusive of Tacna and its 3 provinces. The 
departments, which contain 98 provinces, with their areas, 
capitals and estimated populations of 1906, are as follow: the 



270 



PERU 



list being arranged to show the coast, sierra and montafia 
divisions: 


Departments. 


An\i 
sq. m. 


Estimated 
pop., 1906. 


Capital. 


Estimated 
pop., 1906. 


Coast^- 










Piura . . . 


14,849 


154,080 


Piura . . . 


9,100 


Lambaycque . 


4.615 


93,070 


Chiclayo . 


10,000 


Libertad . 




188,200 


Trujillo . . 


6,500 


Ancachs . 


16^567 


317-050 


Mil. ii. i . 


13.000 


Lima . 




250,000 


Lima (1903) 


140,000 


lea (or Yea) 


!72I 


68,220 


lea . . . 


6,000 


Arequipa . 


21,953 


171.750 


Arequipa 


28,000 


Sierra: 










Cajamarca . 
Huanuco. 


12,542 
14,028 


333,310 

108,980 


Cajamarca . 
Huanuco . 


9,000 


Junin. 
Huancavelica 


23.354 

'),-\S4 


305,700 

167,840 


Cerro de Pasco 
Huancavelica 


10,000 

6,000 


Ayacucho 
Apurimac 


18,190 
8,189 


226,850 
133.00 


Ayacucho . . 
Abancay . . 


15,000 
2,400 


Cuzco. . 


156,317 


328,980 


Cuzco . . . 


23,000 


Puno . . . 


41,211 


403,000 


Puno . N . 


4.500 


Montana: 










Amazonas . 


13.947 


53.000 


Chachapoyas . 


4.500 


Loreto 




120,000 


Iquitos 


6,000 


San Martin . 


30J45 


33,000 


Moyobamba 


7,500 


Littoral 










Provinces: 










Tumbez . 


1,981 


8,000 


Tumbez . 


-. >ix> 


Callao . . 


I4i 


33.879 


Callao (1905). 


31,128 


Moquegua . 


5.55J 


31.920 


Moquegua 


5,000 



Apart from the departmental capitals there are few towns 
of size and importance. The so-called coast towns are commonly 
at some distance from the seashore, and their shipping ports are 
little more than a straggling collection of wretched habitations 
in the vicinity of the landing-stage and its offices and ware- 
houses. Callao (q.v.) is a noteworthy exception, and Paita 
and Pisco are something more than the average coast village. 
Near Lima, on the south, there are three bathing resorts, 
Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco, which have handsome 
residences and large populations in the bathing season. North 
of Lima is the port and bathing resort of Ancon, in an extremely 
arid locality but having a fine beach, a healthy climate and a 
considerable population in the season. The towns of the coast 
region are usually built on the same general plan, the streets 
crossing each other at right angles and enclosing squares, or 
quadras. In the sierra there is the same regular plan wherever 
the site is level enough. High-pitched red tiled roofs take the 
place of the flat roofs of the coast. The upper storey often 
recedes, leaving wide corridors under the overhanging eaves, 
and in the " plazas " there are frequently covered arcades. 
In addition to the capitals of the departments, Tarma (about 
4000) and Xauxa, or Jauja (about 3000), are important towns 
of this region. In the montaHa there are no towns of importance 
other than the capitals of the departments and the small river 
ports. 

Communications. The problem of easy and cheap transportation 
between the coast and the interior has been a vital one for Peru, 
for upon it depends the economic development of some of the 
richest parts of the republic. The arid character of the coastal 
zone, with an average width of about 80 m., permits cultivation 
of the soil only where water for irrigation is available. Only in the 
sierra and montaHa regions is it possible to maintain a large popu- 
lation and develop the industries upon which their success as a 
nation depends. During colonial times and down to the middle 
of the I9th century pack animals were the only means of trans- 
portation across the desert and ove_r the rough mountain trails. 
Railway construction in Peru began in 1848 with a short line from 
Callao to Lima, but the building of railway lines across the desert 
to the inland towns of the fertile river valleys and the Andean 
foot-hills did not begin until twenty years later. These roads added 
much to the productive resources of the country, but their extension 
to the sierra districts was still a vital necessity. Under the adminis- 
tration (1868-1872) of President Jos6 Balta the construction of 
two transandean and several coastal zone railways was begun, 
but their completion became impossible for want of funds. Balta's 
plans covered 1281 m. of state railways and 749 m. of private 
lines, the estimated cost to be about 37,500,0003 sum far beyond 
the resources of the republic. The two transandean lines were 
the famous Oroya railway, running from Callao to Oroya (1893), 
which crosses the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft., 



and later on to Cerro de Pasco (1904), the Goillarisquisga coal mines 
(1904) and Hauri (1906); and the southern line from Mollendo 
to Lake Titicaca, which reached Arequipa in 1869, Puno in 1871 
and Checcacupe (Cuzco branch) in 1906. Surveys were completed 
in 1909 for an extension of the Oroya line from a point on its Cerro 
de Pasco branch eastward to the Ucayali, and another transandean 
line frequently discussed is projected from Paita across the Andes 
to Puerto Limon, on the Marafion a distance of 410 m. 

The most important means of communication in the republic 
is that of its river system, comprising, as it does, the navigable 
channels of the Marafion, or upper Amazon, and its tributaries. 
It is officially estimated that this system comprises no less than 
20,000 m. of connected riverways navigable at high water for all 
descriptions of boats, or 10,000 m. for steamers of 20 to 2 ft. draught, 
which is reduced to 5800 m. at low water. The rivers forming 
this system are the Maranon from Puerto Limon to Tabatinga on 
the Brazilian frontier (484. m.), the Japura, Putumayo, Javary, 
Napo, Tigre, Huallaga, Ucayali, Pachitea, Jurua, Purus, Acre, 
Curaray and Aguarico all navigable over parts of their courses 
for steamers of 4 to 8 ft. draught in periods of nigh water. As for the 
Marafion, it is claimed that steamers of 20 ft. draught can ascend to 
Puerto Limon at all seasons of the year. The inclusion of the 
upper waters of the Brazilian rivers Juru4, Purus and Acre is 
pro forma only, as they are wholly under Brazilian jurisdiction. 
Practically the whole of the region through which these rivers run 
the m it n Ui fni of Peru is undeveloped, and is inhabited by Indians, 
with a few settlements of whites on the river courses. Its chief 
port is Iquitos, on the Maranon, 335 m. above the Brazilian frontier 
and 2653 m. from the mouth of the Amazon. It is visited by 
ocean-going^ steamers, and is the centre of the Peruvian river 
transportation system. The second port in importance is Yuri- 
maguas, on the Huallaga, 143 m. from the mouth of that river 
and 528 m. from Iquitos, with which it is in regular communication. 
There are small ports, or trading posts, on all the large rivers, and 
occasional steamers are sent to them with supplies and to bring 
away rubber and other forest products. Of the rivers farther 
south, which discharge into the Amazon through the Madeira, 
the Madre de Dios alone offers an extended navigable channel, 
together with some of its larger tributaries, such as the Heath 
and Chandless. Of a widely different character is the navigation 
of Lake Titicaca, where steamers ply regularly between Puno and 
Guaqui, the latter on the south-east shore in railway connexion 
with La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. This is one of the most 
remarkable steamer routes in the world, being 12,370 ft. above sea- 
level. The lake is 165 m. long and from 70 to 80 m. wide and has 
a number of small Indian villages on its shores. 

There are two submarine cable lines on the Peruvian coast 
the (American) Central and South American Co. extending from 
Panama to Valparaiso, and the (British) West Coast Cable Co., 
subsidiary to the Eastern Telegraph Co., with a cable between 
Callao and Valparaiso. The inland telegraph service dates from 
1864, when a short line from Callao to Lima was constructed, and 
state ownership from 1875, when the government assumed control 
of all lines within the republic, some of which were subsequently 
handed over to private administration. They connect all the 
important cities, towns and ports, but cover only a small part of 
the republic. The cost of erecting and maintaining telegraph lines 
in the sierra and montaHa regions is too great to permit their exten- 
sive use, and the government is seeking to substitute wireless 
telegraphy. From Puerto Bermudez, on the Pachitea or Pichis 
river, the terminus of a government road and telegraph line, a 
wireless system connects with Massisea on the Ucayali, and thence 
with Iquitos, on the Maranon a distance of 930 m. by steamer, which 
is much shortened by direct communication between the three 
radiographic stations. This service was opened to Iquitos on 
the 8th of July 1908, the first section between Puerto Bermndez 
and Massisea having been pronounced a success. The Peruvian 
telegraph system connects with those of Ecuador and Bolivia. 
The use of the telephone is general, 5236 m. being in operation in 
1906. The postal service is unavoidably limited and defective, 
owing to the rugged character of the country, its sparse population, 
and the large percentage of illiterates. On the coast, however, 
in and near the large cities and towns, it compares well with other 
South American countries. Peru belongs to the international 
postal union, and had in 1906 a money order and parcels exchange 
with seven foreign states. A noteworthy peculiarity in the foreign 
mail service is that an extra charge of 2 cents for each letter and 
I cent for each post-card is collected when they are sent across the 
isthmus of Panama. No charge is made for the _ transmission of 
newspapers within the republic. The letter rate is 5 cents silver 
for 15 grams, or 10 cents to foreign countries in the postal union. 

Commerce. Owing to political disorder, difficulty in land com- 
munications, and the inheritance of vicious fiscal methods from 
Spanish colonial administration, the commercial development of 
Peru has been slow and erratic. There are many ports on the 
coast, but only eight of them are rated as first class, viz. Paita, 
Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo and Ilo, 
five of which are ports of call for foreign coasting steamers. The 
inland port of Iquitos, on the Marafion, is also rated as first class, 
and enjoys special privileges because of its distance from the national 



PERU 



271 



capital. The second-class ports are Tumbez, Talara, Pimentel, 
Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Huacho, Cerro-Azul, Tambo de Mora, 
Lomas and Chala, on the coast, Puno on Lake Titicaca, and 
Leticia on the Amazon near the western mouth of the Javary, 
Callao (q.v.) is the chief port of the republic and monopolizes the 
greater part of its foreign trade. Its harbour, one of the best 
on the west coast of South America, has been greatly improved 
by the port works begun under the administration of President 
Balta. Paita and Chimbote have good natural harbours, but the 
others, for the most part, are open roadsteads or unsheltered bays. 
Mollendo is a shipping port for Bolivian exports sent over the railway 
from Puno. There were 12 foreign steamship lines trading at 
Peruvian ports in 1908, some of them making regular trips up and 
down the coast at frequent intervals and carrying much of its 
coastwise traffic. Foreign sailing vessels since 1886 have not been 
permitted to engage in this traffic, but permission is given to steam- 
ships on application and under certain conditions. The imports 
were valued in 1907 at 55,147,870 soles (10 soles = 1 stg.) and the 
exports at 57,477,320 soles the former showing a considerable 
increase and the latter a small decrease in comparison with 1906. 
The exports consist of cotton, sugar, cocaine, hides and skins, 
rubber and other forest products, wool, guano and mineral products. 
The most important export is sugar, the products of the mines 
ranking second. The largest share in Peru's foreign trade is taken 
by Great Britain, Chile ranking second and the United States 
third. 

Products. Although her mining industries have been the longest 
and most widely known, the principal source of Peru's wealth is 
agriculture. This seems incompatible with the arid character of 
the country and the peculiar conditions of its civilization, but 
irrigation has been successfully employed in the fertile valleys of 
the coast. 

Agriculture. Sugar-cane is cultivated in most of the coast valleys, 
and with exceptional success in those of the Canete, Rimac, Chancay, 
Huaura, Supe, Santa, Chicama, Pacasmayo and Chiclayo. Some 
of the large estates are owned and worked by British subjects. 
The industry was nearly ruined by the Chileans in 1880, but its 
recovery soon followed the termination of the war and the output 
has been steadily increasing. At the outbreak of the war the 
production was about 80,000 tons; in 1905 the production of sugar 
and molasses amounted to 161,851 metric tons, of which 134,344 
were exported. In 1906 the total production reached 169,418 
metric tons. Next in importance is cotton, which is grown along 
the greater part of the Peruvian coast, but chiefly in the depart- 
ments of Piura, Lima and lea. Four kinds are produced: rough 
cotton or " vegetable wool," sea island, brown or Mitafifi, and 
smooth or American. Production is steadily increasing, the export 
having been 8000 metric tons in 1900, 17,386 in 1905 and 20,000 
in 1906. Local consumption required about 2500 tons in 1905. 
Rice is an important crop in the inundated lands of Lambayeque 
and Libertad. It is a universal article of food in Peru, and the 
output is consumed in the country. Maize is another important 
food product which is generally cultivated along the coast and in 
the lower valleys of the sierra. In some places two or three crops 
a year are obtained. It is the staple food everywhere, and little is 
exported. It is largely used in the manufacture of chicha, a fer- 
mented drink popular among the lower classes. Tobacco is grown 
in the department of Piura, and in the montana departments of 
Loreto, Amazonas and Cajamarca. The local consumption is large 
and the export small. Another montana product is coffee, whose suc- 
cessful development is prevented by difficult transport. A superior 
quality of bean is produced in the eastern valleys of the Andes, 
especially in the Chanchamayp valley. Cacao is another montana 
product, although like coffee it is cultivated in the warm valleys 
of the sierra, but the export is small. With cheap transport to 
the coast the production of coffee and cacao must largely increase. 
Coca (Erythroxylon coca) is a product peculiar to the eastern Andean 
slopes of Bolivia and Peru, where it has long been cultivated for 
its leaves. These are sun-dried, packed in bales, and distributed 
throughout the sierra region, where coca is used by the natives 
as a stimulant. The Cholos are never without it, and with it are 
able to perform incredible tasks with little food. _ The common 
manner of using it is to masticate the dried leaves with a little lime. 
Cocaine is also derived from coca leaves, and a considerably quantity 
of the drug is exported. The coca shrub is most successfully 
cultivated at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. Fruits in great 
variety are grown everywhere in Peru, but beyond local market 
demands their commercial production is limited to grapes and 
olives. Grapes are produced in many of the irrigated valleys of 
the coast, such as Chincha, Lunahuana, lea, Vitor, Majes, Andaray, 
Moquegua and Locumba, and the fruit is manufactured into wines 
and brandies. Excellent clarets and white wines are produced, 
and the industry is steadily increasing. Olives were introduced 
early in colonial times and are cultivated in several coast valleys, 
especially in the provinces of CamanS (Arequipa) and Moquegua. 
The fruit is commonly used for the manufacture of oil, which is 
consumed in the country, and only a small part is exported. Were 
large markets available, other fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes 
and bananas would undoubtedly be extensively cultivated. In 
the sierra region, wheat, barley, oats, quinua (Chenopodium quinoa). 



alfalfa, Indian corn, oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and potatoes are the 
principal products. Wheat is widely grov/n but the output is not 
large. Barley and oats are grown for forage, but for this purpose 
alfalfa has become the staple, and without it the mountain pack- 
trains could not be maintained. Quinua is an indigenous plant, 
growing at elevations of 13,500 ft. and more; its grain is an important 
food among the upland natives. Potatoes are grown everywhere in 
the sierras, and with quinua are the only crops that can be raised 
for human food above 13,000 ft. Yuca (Manihot utilissima), 
known as cassava in the West Indies and mandioca in Brazil, is also 
widely cultivated for food and for the manufacture of starch. 

There are good pastures in the sierras, and cattle have been 
successfully reared in some of the departments since the early years 
of Spanish occupation, chiefly in Ancachs, Cajamarca, Junin, 
Ayacucho, Puno, and some parts of Cuzco. The development 
of alfalfa cultivation is extending the area of cattle-breeding 
somewhat and is improving the quality of the beef . 

produced. The cattle are commonly small and hardy, Mvcttock. 
and, like the Mexican cattle, are able to bear unfavourable 
conditions. Sheep are reared over a somewhat wider range, 
exclusively for their wool. The " natives," or descendants of the 
early importations, are small, long-legged animals whose wool is 
scanty and poor. Since the end of the igth century efforts have 
been made to improve the stock through the importation ef merinos, 
with good results. Sheep ranges under the care of Scottish shep- 
herds have also been established in the department of Junin, the 
stock being imported from southern Patagonia, England and 
Australia. Goats are raised in Piura and Lambayeque for their 
skins and fat, and swine-breeding for the production of lard has 
become important in some of the coast valleys immediately north 
of Lima. Horses are reared only to a limited extent, although 
there is a demand for them for military purposes. The government 
is seeking to promote the industry through the importation of 
breeding mares from Argentina. Mules are bred in Piura and 
Apurimac, and are highly esteemed for mountain travel. The 
chief breeding industry is that of the llama, alpaca and vicuna 
animals of the Auchenia family domesticated by the Indians and 
bred, the first as apack animal, and the other two for their wool, 
hides and meat. The llama was the only beast of burden known 
to the South American natives before the arrival of the Spaniards 
and is highly serviceable on the difficult trails of the Andes. The 
alpaca and vicuna are smaller and weaker and have never been 
used for this service, but their fine, glossy fleeces were used by the 
Indians in the manufacture of clothing and are still an important 
commercial asset of the elevated table-lands of Peru and Bolivia. 
The export of wool in 1905 exceeded 3,300,000 Ib. The rearing 
of these animals requires much patience and skill, in which no 
one has been able to match the Indian breeders of the Andean 
plateaus. 

The natural products of Peru include rubber, cabinet woods in 
great variety, cinchona or Peruvian bark and other medicinal 
products, various fibres, and guano. There are two p rt*t 
kinds of rubber supplied by the Peruvian montana product*. 
forests : jebe (also written hebe) or seringa, and caucho 
the former being collected from the Hevea guayanensis, or H. 
brasiliensis, and the latter from the Caslilloa elastica and some 
other varieties. The Hevea product is obtained annually by tapping 
the trees and coagulating the sap over a smoky fire, but the caucho 
is procured by felling the tree and collecting the sap in a hollow in 
the ground where it is coagulated by stirring in a mixture of soap 
and the juice of a plant called vetilla. As the species from which 
Ceara rubber is obtained (Hancorina speciosa) is found in Bolivia, 
it is probable that this is also a source of the Peruvian caucho. The 
Hevea is found along the water-courses of the lowlands, which 
includes the large tributaries of the Maranon, while the caucho 
species flourish on higher ground, above 900 ft. elevation. Owing 
to the export tax on rubber (8 cents per kilogram on jebe and 5 cents 
on caucho) it is probable that the official statistics do not cover the 
total production, which was returned as 2539 metric tens in 1905^ 
valued at 913,989. The export of cinchona, or Peruvian bark, 
is not important in itself, being only 64 tons, valued at 1406 in 
1905. The best bark comes from the Carabaya district in south- 
eastern Peru, but it is found in many localities on the eastern slopes 
of the Andes. The Peruvian supply is practically exhausted through 
the destructive methods employed in collecting the bark, and the 
world now depends chiefly on Bolivia and Ecuador. The forests 
of eastern Peru are rich in fine cabinet woods, but their inaccessi- 
bility renders them of no great value. Among the best known 
of them are cedar, walnut, ironwood and caoba, a kind of mahogany. 
Many of the forest trees of the upper Amazon valley of Brazil 
are likewise found in Peru. The palm family is numerous and 
includes the species producing vegetable ivory (Phytelephas), 
straw for plaiting Panama hats (Carludovica palmala), and the 
peach palm (Guifielma speciosa). 

From guano an immense revenue was derived during the third 
quarter of the igth century and it is still one of the largest exports. 
The guano beds are found on the ban-en islands of the oamao. 
Pacific coast. They were developed commercially 
during the administration (1845-1851) of President Ramon Castilla, 
at the same time that the nitrate deposits of Tarapaca became a 



272 



PERU 



commercial asset of the republic. The large revenues derived from 
these sources undoubtedly became a cause of weakness and 
demoralization and eventually resulted in bankruptcy and the loss 
of Tarapaca. The deposits have been partially exhausted by the 
large shipments of over a half-century, but the export in 1905 was 
73,369 tons, valued at 285,729. 

Mining. Mining was the chief industry of Peru under Spanish 
rule. The Inca tribes were an agricultural and pastoral people, but 
the abundance of gold and silver in their possession at the time of 
the conquest shows that mining must have received considerable 
attention. They used these precious metals in decorations and as 
ornaments, but apparently attached no great value to them. The 
use of bronze also shows that they must have worked, perhaps super- 
ficially, some of the great copper deposits. Immediately following 
the Spanish invasion the Andean region was thoroughly explored, 
and with the assistance of Indian slaves thousands of mines were 
opened, many of them failures, some of them becoming famous. 
There was a decline in mining enterprise after the revolt of the 
colonists against Spanish rule, owing to the unsettled state of the 
country, and this decline continued in some measure to the end 
of the century. The mining laws of the colonial regime and 
political disorder together raised a barrier to the employment of 
the large amount of capital needed, while the frequent outbreaks 
of civil war made it impossible to work any large enterprise because 
of its interference with labour and the free use of ports and roads. 
The Peruvians were impoverished, and under such conditions 
foreign capital could not be secured. In 1876 new mining laws 
were enacted which gave better titles to mining properties and 
better regulations for their operation, but the outbreak of the war 
with Chile at the end of the decade and the succeeding years of 
disorganization and partisan strife defeated their purpose. Another 
new mining code was adopted in 1901 , and this, with an improvement 
in political and economic conditions, has led to a renewal of mining 
enterprise. 

Practically the whole Andean region of Peru is mineral-bearing 
a region 1500 m. long by 200 to 300 m. wide. Within these limits 
are to be found most of the minerals known gold, silver, quick- 
sirver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, wolfram, bismuth, 
thorium, vanadium, mica, coal, &c. On or near the coast are coal, 
salt, sulphur, borax, nitrates and petroleum. Gold is found in 
lodes and alluvial deposit ; the former on the Pacific slope at Salpo, 
Otuzco, Huaylas, Yungay, Ocros, Chorrillos, Cafiete, lea, Nasca, 
Andaray and Arequipa, and on the table-lands and Amazon slope 
at Pataz, Huanuco, Chuquitambo, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Cota- 
bambas, Aymares, Paucartambo, Santo Domingo and Sandia; 
the latter wholly on the Amazon slope, in the country about the 
Pongo de Manseriche and at Chuquibamba, both on the upper 
Maranon, in the districts of Pataz, Huanuco, Aymares and Anta- 
bamba (Apurimac), Paucartambo and Quippicauchi (Cuzco), and 
Sandia and Carabaya (Puno). The last two are most important 
and, it is believed, were the sources from which the Incas derived 
the greater part of their store. The alluvial deposits are found both 
in the beds of the small streams and in the soil of the small plains or 
pampas. The Aporoma deposit, in the district of Sandia, is the best 
known. Long ditches with stone-paved sluices for washing this 
mineral-bearing material have long been used by the Indians, who 
also construct stone bars across the beds of the streams to make 
riffles and hold the deposited grains of gold. Modern methods of 
hydraulic mining have been introduced to work the auriferous banks 
of Poto; elsewhere antiquated methods only are employed. The 
upper valley of the Maranon has undeveloped gold-bearing lodes. 
The number of mines worked is small and there is not much foreign 
capital invested in them. The gold ores of Peru are usually found 
in ferruginous quartz. The production in 1906 was valued at 

Peru has been known chiefly for its silver mines, some of which 
have been marvellously productive. The Cerro de Pasco district, 
with its 342 mines, is credited with a production, in value, of 
40,000,000 between 1784 and 1889, and is still productive, the 
output for 1906 being valued at 972,958. The principal silver- 
producing districts, the greater part on the high table-lands and 
slopes of the Andes, are those of Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari, 
Huallanca, Huaylas, Huaraz, Recuay, Cajatambo, Yauli, Cerro 
de Pasco, Morococha, Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castro- 
virreyna, Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno, but there are 
hundreds of others outside their limits. Silver is generally found 
as red oxides (locally called rosider), sulphides and argentiferous 
galena. Modern machinery is little used and many mines are 
practically unworkable for want of pumps. In the vicinity of some 
of the deposits of argentiferous galena are large coal beds, but 
timber is scarce on the table-lands. The dried dung of the llama 
(taquia) is generally used as fuel, as in pre-Spanish times, for roasting 
ores, as also a species of grass called ichu (Stipa incana), and a 
singular woody fungus, called yareta (Azorella umbellifera), found 
growing on the rocks at elevations exceeding 12,000 ft. The methods 
formerly employed in reducing ores were lixiviation and amalga- 
mation with quicksilver, but modern methods are gradually coming 
into use. Quicksilver is found at Huancavelica, Chonta (Ancachs), 
and in the department of Puno. The mine first named has been 
worked since 1566 and its total production is estimated at 60,000 



tons, the annual product being about 670 tons for a long period. 
The metal generally occurs as sulphide of mercury (cinnabar), 
but the ores vary greatly in richness from 2j to 20%. The 
annual production has fallen to a small fraction of the former 
output, its value in 1905 being only 340, and in 1906 495. 

The copper deposits of Peru long remainea undeveloped 
through want of cheap transport and failure to appreciate their 
true value. The principal copper-bearing districts are Chimbote, 
Cajamarca, Huancayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Junin, Huancavelica, 
lea, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco chiefly situated in the 
high, bleak regions of the Andes. The Junin district is the best 
known and includes the Cerro de Pasco, Yauli, Morococha and 
Huallay groups of mines, all finding an outlet to the coast over 
the Oroya railway. These mines are of recent development, the 
Cerro de Pasco mines having been purchased by American 
capitalists. A smelting plant was erected in the vicinity of Cerro 
de Pasco designed to treat 1000 tons of ore daily, a railway was 
built to Oroya to connect with the state line terminating at that 
point, and a branch line 62 m. long was built to the coal-mines of 
Goillarisquisga. The Cerro de Pasco mines are supposed by some 
authorities to be the largest copper deposit in the world. In 
addition to the smelting works at Cerro de Pasco there are other 
large works at Casapalca, between Oroya and Lima, which belong 
to a British company, and smaller plants at Huallanca and Huinac. 
The production of copper is steadily increasing, the returns for 
1903 being 9497 tons and for 1906 13,474 tons, valued respectively 
at 476,824 and 996,055. Of other metals, lead is widely distri- 
buted, its chief source being a high grade galena accompanied by 
silver. Iron ores are found in Piura, the Huaylas valley, Aya, 
and some other places, but the deposits have not been worked 
through lack of fuel. Sulphur deposits exist in the Sechura 
desert region, on the coast, and extensive borax deposits have been 
developed in the department of Arequipa. Coal has been found 
in extensive beds near Piura, Salaverry, Chimbote, Huarmey and 
Pisco on the coast, and at Goillarisquisga, Huarochiri and other 
places in the interior. Both anthracite and bituminous deposits 
have been found. Most of the deposits are isolated and have not 
been developed for want of transport. Petroleum has been found 
at several points on the coast in the department of Piura, and near 
Lake Titicaca in the department of Puno. The most productive 
of the Piura wells are at Talara and Zorritos, where refineries have 
been established. The crude oil is used on some of the Peruvian 
railways. 

The number of mining claims (perlenencias) registered in 1907 was 
12,858, according to official returns, each subject to a tax of 30 
soles, or 3, per annum, the payment of which secures complete 
ownership of the property. The claims measure 100X200 metres 
(about 5 acres) in the case of mineral veins or lodes, and 200X200 
metres (about 10 acres) for coal, alluvial gold and other deposits. 
The labourers are commonly obtained from the Cholos, or Indian 
inhabitants of the sierras, who are accustomed to high altitudes, 
and are generally efficient and trustworthy. 

Manufactures. The manufacturing industries of Peru are confined 
chiefly to the treatment of agricultural and mineral products 
the manufacture of sugar and rum from sugar cane, textiles from 
cotton and wool, wine and spirits from grapes, cigars and cigarettes 
from tobacco, chocolate from cacao, kerosene and benzine from 
crude petroleum, cocaine from coca, and refined metals from their 
ores. Many of the manufacturing industries are carried on with 
difficulty and maintained only by protective duties on competing 
goods. The Incas had made much progress in weaving, and 
specimens of their fabrics, both plain and coloured, are to be found 
in many museums. The Spanish introduced their own methods, 
and their primitive looms are still to be found among the Indians 
of the interior who weave the coarse material from which their 
own garments are made. Modern looms for the manufacture of 
woollens were introduced in 1861 and of cotton goods in 1874. 
There are large woollen factories at Cuzco and Lima, the Santa 
Catalina factory at the latter place turning out cloth and cashmere 
for the army, blankets, counterpanes and underclothing. There 
are cotton factories about Lima, at lea and at Arequipa. Besides 
the wine industry, an irregular though important industry is the 
manufacture of artificial or counterfeit spirits and liqueurs in Callao 
and Lima. There are breweries in Arequipa, Callao, Cuzco and 
Lima, and the consumption of beer is increasing. There are large 
cigarette factories in Lima, and others in Arequipa, Callao, Piura 
and Trujillo. The plaiting of Panama hats from the specially 
prepared fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a domestic industry 
among the Indians at Catacoas (Piura) and Eten (Lambayeque). 
Coarser straw hats are made at other places, as well as hammocks, 
baskets, &c. 

Government. Peru is a centralized republic, whose supreme 
law is the constitution of 1860. Like the other states of 
South America its constitution provides for popular control of 
legislation and the execution of the laws through free elections 
and comparatively short terms of office, but in practice these 
safeguards are often set aside and dictatorial methods super- 
sede all others. Nominally the people are free and exercise 



PERU 



273 



sovereign rights in the choice of their representatives, but the 
ignorance of the masses, their apathy, poverty and dependence 
upon the great land proprietors and industrial corporations 
practically defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions. 
Citizenship is accorded to all Peruvians over the age of 21 and 
to all married men under that age, and the right of suffrage 
to all citizens who can read and write, or possess real estate 
or workshops, or pay taxes. In all cases the exercise of 
citizenship is regulated by law. 

The government is divided into three independent branches, 
legislative, executive and judicial, of which through force of 
circumstances the executive has become the dominating power. 
The executive branch consists of a president and two vice- 
presidents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six 
ministers of state appointed by the president, and various 
subordinate officials who are under the direct orders of the 
president. The president is chosen by a direct popular election 
and cannot be re-elected to succeed himself. He must be not 
less than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment 
of all his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years 
preceding the election. The immediate supervision and despatch 
of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet 
ministers interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, finance and 
commerce, justice and public instruction, and public works and 
promotion (Jomenlo). The execution of the laws in the depart- 
ments and provinces, as well as the maintenance of public 
order, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appoin- 
tees of the president. A vacancy in the office of president is 
filled by one of the two vice-presidents elected at the same 
time and under the same conditions. Inability of the first 
vice-president to assume the office opens the way for the 
second vice-president, who becomes acting president until a 
successor is chosen. The vice-presidents cannot be candidates 
for the presidency during their occupancy of the supreme 
executive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the general- 
in-chief of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties. 

The legislative power is exercised by a national Congress 
senate and chamber of deputies meeting annually on the 
28th of July in ordinary session for a period of 90 days. Sena- 
tors and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties, 
and cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress, 
including the month preceding and following the session, except 
in flagrante delicto. Members of Congress are forbidden to 
accept any employment or benefit from the executive. Senators 
and deputies are elected by direct vote the former by depart- 
ments, and the latter in proportion to the population. With 
both are elected an equal number of substitutes, who assume 
office in case of vacancy. 

Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four 
senators, those of four to seven provinces three senators, those of 
two to three provinces two senators, and those of one province 
one senator. The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000 
population each, but every province must have at least one 
deputy. Both senators and deputies are elected for terms of 
six years, and both must be native-born Peruvian citizens in the full 
enjoyment of their civil rights. A senator must be 35 years of age, 
and have a yearly income of $1000. The age limit of a deputy is 
25 years, and his income must be not less than $500. In both 
chambers the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted 
in lieu of the pecuniary income. No member of the executive 
branch of the government (president, cabinet minister, prefect, 
sub-prefect, or governor) can be elected to either chamber, nor can 
any judge or " fiscal " of the supreme court, nor any member of the 
ecclesiastical hierarchy from his diocese, province or parish, nor any 
judge or " fiscal " of superior and first-instance courts from their 
judicial districts, nor any military officer from the district where he 
holds a military appointment at the time of election. No country 
is provided with more and better safeguards against electoral and 
official abuses than is Peru, and yet few countries suffered more 
from political disorder during the igth century. The- president has 
no veto power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with 
comments within a period of ten days. Should the act be again 
passed without amendments it becomes law; if, however, the 
suggested amendments are accepted the act must go over to the 
next session. Congress may also sit as a court of impeachment 
the senate hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting 
as prosecutor. The president, ministers of state and judges of the 
supreme court may be brought before this court. 



Justice. The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior 
courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the peace. The 
supreme court is established at the national capital and consists 
of II judges and 2 " fiscals " or prosecutors. Ihe judges are 
selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the exe- 
cutive. The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the presi- 
dent from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court. 
Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts, 
as well as questions of like character between the supreme 
court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a 
court. The courts of first instance are established in the capitals 
of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of 
the districts in which they are located. The independence of the 
Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there 
has been much criticism of their character and decisions. 

The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of 
the departments and the sub-prefects of the provinces, and the 
prefects appoint the gobiernadores of the districts. The police 
officials throughout the republic are also appointees of the presi- 
dent and are under his orders. 

Army. After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the 
rival military officers led to a desire to place the administration 
of public affairs under civilian control. This led to a material 
reduction in the army, which, as reorganized, consists of 4000 
officers and men, divided into seven battalions of infantry of 300 men 
each, seven squadrons of cavalry of 125 men each, and one regiment 
of mountain artillery of 590 men, with six batteries of mountain guns. 
The reorganization of the army was carried out by 10 officers and 
4 non-coms, of the French army, known as the French military 
mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military 
school at Chorrillos and all branches of military instruction. There 
are a military high school, preparatory school, and " school of 
application " in connexion with the training of young officers for 
the army. The head of the mission is chief of staff. Formerly the 
Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled 
the positions of officers, in great part untrained. Now military 
service is obligatory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and 
50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19 
to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have 
purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the 
national guard (35 to 50 years). The regular force is maintained 
by annual drawings from the lists of young men 19 years of age 
in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years. The 
direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which 
was reorganized in 1904 on the lines adopted by the great 
military powers of Europe. The republic is divided into four 
military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and 
Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions. The mounted 
police force of the republic is also organized on a military basis. 

Navy. -The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the 
war with Chile, and the poverty of the country prevented for many 
years the adoption of any measure for its rebuilding. In 1908 it 
consisted of only five vessels. The naval school at Callao is under 
the direction of an officer of the French navy. In addition to the 
foregoing the government has a few small river boats on the Maranon 
and its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used 
to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical 
and hydrographical work. 

Finance. The financial record of Peru, notwithstanding her 
enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit. 
Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources, 
and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her treasury 
with an abundance of funds the money was squandered on extrava- 
gant enterprises and in corrupt practices. This was followed by the 
loss of these resources, bankruptcy, and eventually the surrender of 
her principal assets to her foreign creditors. The government 
then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources; 
but the obligation has been met intelligently and courageously, 
and since 1895 there has been an improvement in the financial state 
of the country. The public revenues are derived from customs, 
taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies, 
the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c. The customs 
taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues, 
warehouse charges, &c. ; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes 
on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper, 
capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.; 
and the state monopolies cover opium and salt. In 1905 a loan 
of 600,000 was floated in Germany for additions to the navy. The 
growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table : 





1904. 


1906. 


1908. 


Revenue 
Expenditure 


1,990,568 
1,884,949 


2,527,766 
2,178,252 


2,997,433 
3-043,032 



The revenues of 1896 were only 1,128,714. 

The foreign debt began with a small loan of 1,200,000 in London 
in 1822, and another of 1,500,000 in 1825 of which only 716,516 
was placed. At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing 
to Chile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to 4,000,000. In 



274 



PERU 



1830 the debt and accumulated interest owing in London amounted 
to 2,310,767, in addition to which there was a home debt of 
17,183,397 dollars. In 1848 the two London loans and accumulated 
interest were covered by a new loan of 3,736,400, and the home 
debt was partially liquidated, the sale of guano giving the treasury 
ample resources. Lavish expenditure followed and the government 
was soon anticipating its revenues by obtaining advances from 
guano consignees, usually on unfavourable terms, and then floating 
loans. There was another conversion loan in 1862 in the sum of 
5,500,000 and in 1864 still another loan of this character was issued, 
nominally for 10,000,000, of which 7,000,000 only were issued. 
Then followed the ambitious schemes of President Balta, which 
with the loans of 1870 and 1872 raised the total foreign debt to 
49,000,000, on which the annual interest charge was about 
2,500,000, a sum wholly beyond the resources of the treasury. 
In 1876 interest payments on account of this debt were suspended 
and in 1879-1882 the war with Chile deprived Peru of her principal 
sources of income the guano deposits and the Tarapaca nitrates. 
In 1889 the total foreign debt, including arrears of interest, was 
54,000,000, and in the following year a contract was signed with 
the Peruvian Corporation, a company in which the bondholders 
became shareholders, for the transfer to it for 66 years of the state 
railways, the free use of certain ports, the right of navigation on 
Lake Titicaca, the exploitation of the remaining guano deposits 
up to 3,000,000 tons, and thirty-three annual subsidies of 80,000 
each, in consideration of the cancellation of the debt. Some modi- 
fications were later made in the contract, owing to the government's 
failure to meet the annual subsidies and the corporation's failure 
to extend the railways agreed upon. This contract relieved Peru 
of its crushing burden of foreign indebtedness, and turned an 
apparently heavy loss to the bondholders into a possible profit. _In 
1910 the foreign debt stood at 3,140,000, composed of (i) Peruvian 
Corporation 2,160,000; (2) wharves and docks, 80,000; (3) loan 
of 1905, 500,000; (4) loan of 1906, 400,000. 

Currency. The single gold standard has been in force in Peru 
since 1897 and 1898, silver and copper being used for subsidiary 
coinage. The monetary unit is the Peruvian pound (libra) which is 
uniform in weight and fineness with the British pound sterling. 
Half and fifth pounds are also coined. The silver coinage consists 
of the sol (100 cents), half sol (50 cents), and pieces of 20 (peseta), 
10 and 5 cents; and the copper coinage of I and 2 cents. The 
single standard has worked well, and has contributed much toward 
the recovery of Peruvian commerce and finance. The change from 
the double standard was effected without any noticeable disturbance 
in commercial affairs, but this was in part due to the precaution of 
making the British pound sterling legal tender in the republic and 
establishing the legal equivalent between gold and silver at 10 soles 
to the pound. The coinage in 1906-1907 was about 150,000 
gold and 65,000 silver, and the total circulation in that year was 
estimated at 1,400,000 in gold coin and 600,000 in silver coin. 
Previous to the adoption of the single gold standard in 1897 the 
monetary history of Peru had been unfortunate. The first national 
coinage was begun in 1822, and the decimal system was adopted in 
1863. Although the double standard was in force, gold was 
practically demonetized by the monetary reform of 1872 because of 
the failure to fix a legal ratio between the two metals. Experience 
with paper currency has been even more disastrous. During the 
administration (1872-1876) of President Pardo the government 
borrowed heavily from the banks to avoid the suspension of work on 
the railways and port improvements. These banks enjoyed the 
privilege of issuing currency notes to the amount of three times the 
cash in hand without regard to their commercial liabilities. A large 
increase in imports, caused by fictitious prosperity and inability 
to obtain drafts against guano shipments, led to the exportation of 
coin to meet commercial obligations, and this soon reduced the 
currency circulation to a paper basis. The government being 
unable to repay its loans from the banks compelled the latter to 
suspend the conversion of their notes, which began to depreciate 
in value. In 1875 the banks were granted a moratorium, to enable 
them to obtain coin, but without result. The government in 1877 
contracted a new loan with the banks and assumed responsibility 
for their outstanding emissions, which are said to have aggregated 
about 100,000,000 soles, and were worth barely 10% of their nominal 
value. At last their depreciation reached a point where their 
acceptance was generally refused and silver was imported for com- 
mercial needs, when the government suspended their legal tender 
quality and allowed them to disappear. 

Weights and Measures. The French metric system is the official 
standard of weights and measures and is in use in the custom-houses 
of the republic and in foreign trade, but the old units are still com- 
monly used among the people. These are the ounce, 1-104 oz - 
avoirdupois; the libra, 1-014 ft avoirdupois; the quintal, 101-44 R> 
avoirdupois; the arroba, 25-36 Ib avoirdupois; ditto of wine, 
6-70 imperial gallons; the gallon, -74 of an imperial gallon; the 
vara, -927 yard ; and the square vara, -859 square yard. (A. J. L.) 

History. Cyclopean ruins of vast edifices, apparently never 
completed, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake 
Titicaca. Remains of a similar character are found at Huaraz 



in the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, Ollantay-tambo and Huinaque 
between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco. These works appear to have 
been erected by powerful sovereigns with unlimited command 
of labour, possibly with the object of giving employment to 
subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the taste 
of the conqueror. Of their origin nothing is historically known. 
It is probable, however, that the settlement of the Cuzco valley 
and district by the Incas or " people of the sun " took place 
some 300 years before Pizarro landed in Peru. The conquering 
tribe or tribes had made their way to the sierra from the plains, 
and found themselves a new land sheltered from attack amidst 
the lofty mountains that hem in the valley of Cuzco and the 
vast lake basin of Titicaca, situated 12,000 ft. above the sea 
level. The first historical records show us these people already 
possessed of a considerable civilization, and speaking two allied 
languages, Aymara and Quichua. The expansion of the Inca 
rule and the formation of the Peruvian Empire was of modern 
growth at the time of the Spanish conquest, and dated from the 
victories of Pachacutic Inca who lived about a century before 
Huayna Capac, the Great Inca, whose death took place in 1526, 
the year before Pizarro first appeared on the coast. His con- 
solidated empire extended from the river Ancasmayu north of 
Quito to the river Maule in the south of Chile. The Incas had 
an elaborate system of state-worship, with a ritual, and fre- 
quently recurring festivals. History and tradition were pre- 
served by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the 
sovereign and his court. Roads with post-houses at intervals 
were made over the wildest mountain-ranges and the bleakest 
deserts for hundreds of miles. A well-considered system of 
land-tenure and of colonization provided for the wants of all 
classes of the people. The administrative details of government 
were minutely and carefully organized, and accurate statistics 
were kept by means of the " quipus " or system of knots. The 
edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their workman- 
ship is unsurpassed. The world has nothing to show, in the way 
of stone-cutting and fitting, to equal the skill and accuracy 
displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco. As workers in metals 
and as potters they displayed infinite variety of design, while as 
cultivators and engineers they excelled their European con- 
querors. (For illustrations see AMERICA, Plate V.) 

The story of the conquest has been told by Prescott and 
Helps, who give ample references to original authorities; it will 
be sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the 
leading events. On the zoth of March 1526 the fi"^ y 
contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by 
Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque, 
Caspar de Espinosa supplying the funds. In 1527 Pizarro, 
after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of Peru 
at Tumbez. In the following year he went to Spain, and on 
the 26th of July 1529 the capitulation with the Crown for the 
conquest of Peru was executed. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar 
with his brothers in January iS3, and landed at Tumbes in 
1531. The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the sons 
of Huayna Capac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, and 
the victorious Atahualpa was at Cajamarca on his way from 
Quito to Cuzco. On the isth of November 1532 Pizarro with 
his little army, made his way to Cajamarca, where he received 
a friendly welcome from the Inca, whom he treacherously seized 
and made prisoner. He had with him only 183 men. In 
February 1533 his colleague Almagro arrived with reinforce- 
ments. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa was perpetrated 
on the 2Cjth of August 1533, and on the isth of November 
Pizarro entered Cuzco. He allowed the rightful heir to the 
empire, Manco, the legitimate son of Huayna Capac, to be 
solemnly crowned on the 24th of March 1534. Almagro then 
undertook an expedition to Chile, and Pizarro founded the city 
of Lima on the i8th of January 1535. In the following year the 
Incas made a brave attempt to expel the invaders, and closely 
besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco during February and March. 
But Almagro, returning from Chile, raised the siege on the i8th 
of April 1537. Immediately afterwards a dispute arose between 
the brothers, Francisco, Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro and Almagro 



PERU 



275 



as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions. An interview 
took place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on the i3th of November 
1537, which led to no result, and Almagro was finally defeated 
in the battle of Las Salinas near Cuzco on the 26th of April 1538. 
His execution followed. His adherents recognized his young 
half-caste son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as 
Almagro the Lad, as his successor. Bitterly discontented, they 
conspired at Lima and assassinated Francisco Pizarro on the 
26th of June 1541. Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent 
out as governor of Peru by Charles V., and on hearing of the 
murder of Pizarro he assumed the government of the country. 
On the i6th of September 1542 he defeated the army of Almagro 
the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga, and the boy 
was beheaded at Cuzco. 

' Charles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in 
1542. " Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the 
Civil Wars inhabitants were bound to pay tribute and give 
' personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the 
Crown on the death of the actual holder; a fixed sum was 
to be assessed as tribute; and forced personal service was 
forbidden. Blasco Nunez de Vela was sent out, as first viceroy 
of Peru, to enforce the " New Laws." Their promulgation 
aroused a storm among the conquerors. Gonzalo Pizarro rose 
in rebellion, and entered Lima on the 28th of October 1544. 
The viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated and killed 
at the battle of Anaquito on the i8th of January 1546. The 
" New Laws " were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as 
first president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was 
sent out to restore order. He arrived in 1547, and on the 8th 
of April 1548 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the 
plain of Sacsahuaman near Cuzco. Gonzalo was executed 
on the field. La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas " 
to the loyal conquerors, which caused great discontent, and left 
Peru before his scheme was made public in January 1550. On 
the 23rd of September 1551 Don Antonio de Mendoza arrived as 
second viceroy, but he died at Lima in the following July. The 
country was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a 
formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Francisco Hernan- 
dez Giron, with the object of maintaining the right of the 
conquerors to exact forced service from the Indians. In May 
1554 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but 
he was hopelessly routed at Fucara on the nth of October 
1554, captured, and on the 7th of December executed at Lima. 
Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Canete, entered 
Lima as third viceroy of Peru on the 6th of July 1555, and ruled 
with an iron hand for six years. All the leaders in former 
disturbances were sent to Spain. Corregidors, or governors 
of districts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every 
turbulent person within their jurisdictions. All unemployed 
persons were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " en- 
comiendes " were granted to a few deserving officers. At the 
same time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri 
Tupac, the son and successor of the Inca Manco, and granted 
him a pension. He took great care to supply the natives with 
priests of good conduct, and promoted measures for the estab- 
lishment of schools and the foundation of towns in the different 
provinces. The cultivation of wheat, vines and olives, and 
European domestic animals were introduced. The next viceroy 
was the Conde de Nieva (1561-1564). His successor, the 
licentiate Lope Garcia de Castro, who only had the title of 
governor, ruled from 1564 to 1569. From this time there was 
a succession of viceroys until 1824. The viceroys were chief 
magistrates, but in legal matters they had to consult the Audi- 
encia of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other 
branches of administration the Juntas de Gobierno and de 
Guerra. 

Don Francisco de Toledo, the second son of the count of 
Oropesa, entered Lima as viceroy on the a6th of November 1 569. 
Toledo's Fearing that the little court of the Inca Tupac Amaru 
Admiaistra-(-w\io had succeeded his brother Sayri Tupac) might 
become a focus of rebellion, he seized the young 
prince, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Incas in the square 



of Cuzco in the year 1571. After a minute personal inspection 
of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the 
learned Polo de Ondegardo and the judge of Matienza, estab- 
lished the system under which the native population of Peru 
was ruled for the two succeeding centuries. His Libro de 
Tasos fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting 
all men under eighteen and over fifty. He found it necessary, 
in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure 
to the system of the Incas. The people were to be directly 
governed by their native chiefs, whose duty was to collect the 
tribute and exercise magisterial functions. The chiefs or 
" curacas " had subordinate native officials under them called 
" pichca-pachacas " over 500 men, and " pachacas " over 
100 men. The office of curaca or cacique was made hereditary, 
and its possessor enjoyed several privileges. Many curacas 
were descended from the imperial family of the Incas, or from 
great nobles of the Incarial court. In addition to the tribute, 
which was in accordance with native usage, there was the 
" mita," or forced labour in mines, farms and manufactories. 
Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a 
village should be subject to conscription for this service, but 
they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified 
distance from their homes. 

The Spanish kings and viceroys desired to protect the people 
from tyranny, but they were unable to prevent the rapacity 
and lawlessness of distant officials and the country 
was depopulated by the illegal methods of enforcing royalty. 
the mita. Toledo was succeeded in 1581 by Don 
Martin Henriquez, who died at Lima two years afterwards. 
The Spanish colonies suffered from the strict system of monopoly 
and protection, which was only slightly relaxed by the later 
Bourbon kings, and from the arbitrary proceedings of the 
Inquisition. Between 1581 and 1776 as many as fifty-nine 
heretics were burned at Lima, and there were twenty-nine 
"autos"; but the Inquisition affected Europeans rather than 
natives, for the Indians, as catechumens, were exempted from 
its terrors. The curacas sorrowfully watched the gradual extinc- 
tion of their people by the operation of the mita, protesting from 
time to time against the exactions and cruelty of the Spaniards. 
At length a descendant of the Incas, who assumed the name of 
Tupac Amaru, rose in rebellion in 1780. The insurrection lasted 
until July 1783, and cruel executions followed its suppression. 
This was the last effort of the Indians to throw off the Spanish 
yoke and the rising was by no means general. The army which 
overthrew Tupac Amaru consisted chiefly of loyal Indians, and 
the rebellion was purely anti-Spanish, and had no support from 
the Spanish population. The movement for independence, 
which slowly gained force during the opening decade of the i9th 
century, did not actually become serious until the conquest of 
Spain by the French in 1807-1808. The Creoles (Criallos) or 
American-born Spaniards had for long been aggrieved at being 
shut out from all important official positions, and at the restric- 
tions placed upon their trade, but the bulk of the Creole popula- 
tion was not disloyal. 

Peru was the centre of Spanish power, and the viceroy had 
his military strength concentrated at Lima. Consequently the 
insurrections in the more distant provinces, such as 
Chile and Buenos Aires, were the first to declare 
themselves independent, in 1816 and 1817. But 
the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to their 
continued independent existence. The conquest of the Peruvian 
coast must always depend on the command of the sea. A fleet 
of armed ships was fitted out at Valparaiso in Chile, under the 
command of Lord Cochrane (afterwards earl of Dundonald) and 
officered by Englishmen. It convoyed an army of Argentine 
troops, with some Chileans, under the command of the Argentine 
general, San Martin, which landed on the coast of Peru in 
September 1820. San Martin was enthusiastically received, 
and the independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima after 
the viceroy had withdrawn (July 28, 1821). On the 2oth of 
September 1822 San Martin resigned the protectorate, with 
which he had been invested, and on the same day the first 



PERU 



congress of Peru became the sovereign power of the state. 
After a short period of government by a committee of three, 
the congress elected Don Jose de la Riva Aguero to be first 
president of Peru on the 28th of February 1823. He displayed 
great energy in facing the difficulties of a turbulent situation, 
but was unsuccessful. The aid of the Colombians under Simon 
Bolivar was sought, and Aguero was deposed. 

Bolivar arrived at Lima on the ist of September 1823, and 
began to organize an army to attack the Spanish viceroy in 
the interior. On the 6th of August 1824 the cavalry action of 
Junin was fought with the Spanish forces under the command 
of a French adventurer, General Canterac, near the shores of 
the lake of Chinchay-cocha. It was won by a gallant charge 
of the Peruvians under Captain Suarez at the critical moment. 
Soon afterwards Bolivar left the army to proceed to the coast, 
and the final battle of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824) was fought by 
his second in command, General Sucre. The viceroy and all 
his officers were taken prisoners, and the Spanish power in Peru 
came to an end. 

General Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial powers for more 
than a year, and though' there were cabals against him there can 
be little doubt of his popularity. He was summoned back to 
Colombia when he had been absent for five years and, in spite 
of protests left the country on the 3rd of September 1826, 
followed by all the Colombian troops in March 1827. 

General Jose de Lamar, who commanded the Peruvians at 

Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru on the 24th of August 

1827, but was deposed, after waging a brief but 

Presidents disastrous war with Colombia on the 7th of June 

' 1829. General Agustin Gamarra, who had been 

in the Spanish service, and was chief of the staff in the patriot 

army at Ayacucho, was elected third president on the 3ist of 

August 1829. 

For fifteen years, from 1829 to 1844, Peru was painfully 
feeling her way to a right use of independence. The officers 
who fought at Ayacucho, and to whom the country felt natural 
gratitude, were all-powerful, and they had not learned to settle 
political differences in any other way than by the sword. Three 
men, during that period of probation, won a prominent place 
in their country's history, Generals Agustin Gamarra, Felipe 
Santiago Salaverry, and Andres Santa Cruz. Gamarra, born 
at Cuzco in 1785, never accommodated himself to constitutional 
usages; but he attached to himself many loyal and devoted 
friends, and, with all his faults he loved his country and sought 
its welfare according to his lights. Salaverry was a very different 
character. Born at Lima in 1806, of pure Basque descent, he 
joined the patriot army before he was fifteen and displayed 
his audacious valour in many a hard-fought battle. Feeling 
strongly the necessity that Peru had for repose, and the guilt 
of civil dissension, he wrote patriotic poems which became very 
popular. Yet he too seized the supreme power, and perished 
by an iniquitous sentence on the i8th of February i836. 1 
Andres Santa Cruz was an Indian statesman. His mother was a 
lady of high rank, of the family of the Incas, and he was very 
proud of his descent. Unsuccessful as a general in the field, he 
nevertheless possessed remarkable administrative ability and for 
nearly three years (1836-1839) realized his lifelong dream of a 
Peru-Bolivian confederation. 2 But the strong-handed inter- 
vention of Chile on the ground of assistance rendered to rebels, 
but really through jealousy of the confederation, ended in the 
defeat and overthrow of Santa Cruz, and the separation of 
Bolivia from Peru. But Peruvian history is not confined to 
the hostilities of these military rulers. Three constitutions 
were framed in 1828, 1833 and 1839. Lawyers and orators 
are never wanting in Spanish-American states, and revolution 
succeeded revolution in one continuous struggle for the spoils 

1 The romance of his life has been admirably written by Manuel 
Bilbao (isted., Lima, 1853; 2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1867). 

2 The succession of presidents and supreme chiefs of Peru from 
1829 to 1844 was as follows: 1820-1833, Agustin Gamarra; 
1834-1835, Luis Jos6 Orbegoso; 1835-1836, Felipe Santiago Sala- 
verry; 1836-1839, Andres Santa Cruz; 1839-1841, Agustin Gamarra; 
1841-1844, Manuel Menendez. 



of office. An exception must be made of the administration 
of General Ramon Castilla, who restored peace to Peru, and 
showed himself to be an honest and very capable ruler. He 
was elected constitutional president on the 2oth of April 1845. 
Ten years of peace and increasing prosperity followed. In 
1849 the regular payment of the interest of the public debt 
was commenced, steam communication was established along 
the Pacific coast, and a railroad was made from Lima to Callao. 
After a regular term of office of six years of peace and moral 
and material progress Castilla resigned, and General Jose 
Echenique was elected president. But the proceedings of 
Echenique's government in connexion with the consolidation 
of the internal debt were disapproved by the nation, and, after 
hostilities which lasted for six months, Castilla returned to power 
in January 1855. From December 1856 to March 1858 he had 
to contend with and subdue a local insurrection headed by 
General Agostino Vivanco, but, with these two exceptions, 
there was peace in Peru from 1844 to 1879, a period of thirty-five 
years. Castilla retired at the end of his term of office in 1862, 
and died in 1868. On the 2nd of August 1868 Colonel Juan 
Balta was elected president. With the vast sum raised from 
guano and nitrate deposits President Balta commenced the 
execution of public works, principally railroads on a gigantic 
scale. His period of office was signalized by the opening of an 
international exhibition at Lima. He was succeeded (Aug. 
2, 1872) by Don Manuel Pardo (d. 1878), an honest and 
enlightened statesman, who did all in his power to retrieve the 
country from the financial difficulty into which it had been 
brought by the reckless policy of his predecessor, but the con- 
ditions were not capable of solution. He regulated the Chinese 
immigration to the coast-valleys, which from 1860 to 1872 had 
amounted to 58,606. He promoted education, and encouraged 
literature. On the 2nd of August 1876 General Mariano-Ignacio 
Prado was elected. (C. E. M.; X.) 

On the 5th of April 1879 the republic of Chile declared war 
upon Peru, the alleged pretext being that Peru had made an 
offensive treaty, directed against Chile, with Bolivia, War with 
a country with which Chile had a dispute; but the Chile, 1879- 
publication of the text of this treaty made known 1882 ' 
the fact that it was strictly defensive and contained no just 
cause of war. The true object of Chile was the conquest of 
the rich Peruvian province of Tarapaca, the appropriation 
of its valuable guano and nitrate deposits, and the spoliation 
of the rest of the Peruvian coast. The military events of the 
war, calamitous for Peru, are dealt with in the article CHILE- 
PERUVIAN WAR. Suffice it here to note that, after the crushing 
defeat of the Peruvian forces at Arica (June 7, 1880) Senor 
Nicolas de Pierola assumed dictatorial powers, with General 
Andres Caceres as commander-in-chief, but the defeats at 
Chorrillos (Jan. 13, 1881) and Miraflores (Jan. 15) proved 
the Chilean superiority, and put Lima at their mercy though 
desultory fighting was maintained by the remnants of the 
Peruvian army in the interior, under direction of General 
Caceres. An attempt was made to constitute a government 
with Senor Calderon as president of the republic and General 
Caceres as first vice-president. The negotiations between this 
nominal administration and the Chilean authorities for a treaty 
of peace proved futile, the Chilean occupation of Lima and the 
Peruvian seaboard continuing uninterruptedly until 1883. In 
that year Admiral Lynch, who had replaced General Baquedano 
in command of the Chilean forces after the taking of Lima, sent 
an expedition against the Peruvians under General Caceres, 
and defeated the latter in the month of August. The Chilean 
authorities now began preparations for the evacuation of Lima, 
and to enable this measure to be effected a Peruvian administra- 
tion was organized with the support of the Chileans. General 
Iglesias was nominated to the office of president of the republic, 
and in October 1883 a treaty of peace, known as the treaty of 
Ancon, between Peru and Chile was signed. The Chilean army 
of occupation was withdrawn from Lima on the 22nd of October 

1883, but a strong force was maintained at Chorrillos un*il July 

1884, when the terms of the treaty were finally approved. The 



PERU 



277 



principal conditions imposed by Chile were the absolute cession 
by Peru of the province of Tarapaca, and the occupation for a 
period of ten years of the territories of Tacna and Arica, the 
ownership of these districts to be decided by a popular vote of 
the inhabitants of Tacna and Arica at the expiration of the 
period named. A further condition was enacted that an 
indemnity of 10,000,000 soles was to be paid by the country 
finally remaining in possession a sum equal to about 1,000,000 
to-day. The Peruvians in the interior refused to recognize 
President Iglesias, and at once began active operations to over- 
throw his authority on the final departure of the Chilean troops. 
Affairs continued in this unsettled state until the middle of 1885, 
Caceres meanwhile steadily gaining many adherents to his side 
of the quarrel. In the latter part of 1885 President Iglesias 
abdicated. 

Under the guidance of General Caceres a junta was then 
formed to carry on the government until an election for the 
presidency should be held and the senate and cham- 
ber of de P uties constituted. In the following year 
(1886) General Caceres was elected president of the 
republic for the usual term of four years. The task assumed 
by the new president was no sinecure. The country had been 
thrown into absolute confusion from a political and administra- 
tive point of view, but gradually order was restored, and peaceful 
conditions were reconstituted throughout the republic. The 
four years of office for which General Caceres was elected passed 
in uneventful fashion, and in 1890 Seuor Morales Bermudez 
was nominated to the presidency, with Sefior Solar and Senor 
Borgono as first and second vice-presidents. Matters continued 
without alteration from the normal course until 1894, and in 
that year Bermudez died suddenly a few months before the 
expiration of the period for which he had been chosen as presi- 
dent. General Caceres secured the nomination of the vice- 
president Borgono as chief of the executive for the unexpired 
portion of the term of the late president Bermudez. This 
action was unconstitutional, and was bitterly resented by the 
vice-president Solar, who by right should have succeeded to the 
office. Armed resistance to the authority of Borgono was 
immediately organized in the south of Peru, the movement being 
supported by Senores Nicolas de Pierola, Billinghurst, Durand 
and a number of influential Peruvians. In the month of August 
1894 General Caceres was again elected to fill the office of presi- 
dent, but the revolutionary movement rapidly gained ground. 
President Caceres adopted energetic measures to suppress the 
outbreak: his efforts, however, proved unavailing, the close of 
1894 finds the country districts in the power of the rebels and the 
authority of the legal government confined to Lima and other 
cities held by strong garrisons. Early in March 1895 the insur- 
gents encamped near the outskirts of Lima, and on the lyth, 
1 8th and igth of March severe fighting took place, ending in 
the defeat of the troops under General Caceres. A suspension 
of hostilities was then brought about by the efforts of H.B.M. 
consul. The loss on both sides to the struggle during these two 
days was 2800 killed and wounded. President Caceres, finding 
his cause was lost, left the country, a provisional government 
under Senor Candamo assuming the direction of public affairs. 

On the 8th of September 1895 Senor Pierola was declared 
president of the republic for the following four years. The 
Peruvians were now heartily tired of revolutionary 
'president, disturbances, and an insurrectionary outbreak in 
the district of Iquitos met with small sympathy, 
and was speedily crushed. In 1896 a reform of the electoral 
law was sanctioned. By the provisions of this act an electoral 
committee was constituted, composed of nine members, two of 
these nominated by the senate, two by the chamber of deputies, 
four by the supreme court, and one by the president with the 
consent of his ministers. To this committee was entrusted the 
task of the examination of all election returns, and of the pro- 
clamation of the names of successful candidates for seats in 
congress. Another reform brought about by Pierola was a 
measure introduced and sanctioned in 1897 for a modification 
of the marriage laws. Under the new act marriages of non- 



Catholics solemnized by diplomatic or consular officers or by 
ministers of dissenting churches, if properly registered, are 
valid, and those solemnized before the passing of this act were 
to be valid if registered before the end of 1899. Revolutionary 
troubles again disturbed the country in 1899, when the presi- 
dency of Senor Pierola was drawing to a close. In consequence 
of dissensions amongst the members of the election committee 
constituted by the act of 1896, the president ordered the suppres- 
sion of this body. A group of malcontents under the leadership 
of one Durand, a man who had been prominent in the revolution 
against General Caceres in 1894-95, conspired against the 
authorities and raised several armed bands, known locally as 
montaneras. Some skirmishes occurred between these insur- 
gents and the government troops, the latter generally obtaining 
the advantage in these encounters. 

In September 1899 President Pierola vacated the presidency 
in favour of Senor Romana, who had been elected to the office 
as a popular condidate and without the exercise 
of any undue official influence. President Romana 
was educated at Stonyhurst in England, and was a 
civil engineer by profession. The principal political problem 
before the government of Peru was the ownership of the terri- 
tories of Tacna and Arica. The period of ten years originally 
agreed upon for the Chilean occupation of these provinces 
expired in 1894. At that date the peace of Peru was so seriously 
disturbed by internal troubles that the government was quite 
unable to take active steps to bring about any solution of the 
matter. After 1894 negotiations between the two governments 
were attempted from time to time, but without any satisfactory 
results. The question hinged to a great extent on the qualifica- 
tion necessary for the inhabitants to vote, in the event of a 
plebiscite being called to decide whether Chilean ownership 
was to be finally established or the provinces were to revert to 
Peruvian sovereignty. Peru proposed that only Peruvian 
residents should be entitled to take part in a popular vote; 
Chile rejected this proposition, on the ground that all residents in 
the territories in question should have a voice in the final decision. 
The agreement between Chile and Bolivia, by which the disputed 
provinces were to be handed over to the latter country if Chilean 
possession was recognized, was also a stumbling-block, a strong 
feeling existed among Peruvians against this proceeding. It 
was not so much the value of Tacna and Arica that put diffi- 
culties in the way of a settlement as the fact that the national 
pride of the Peruvians ill brooked the idea of permanently losing 
all claim to this section of country. The money, about i ,000,000, 
could probably have been obtained to indemnify Chile if occasion 
for it arose. 

The question of the delimitation of the frontier between Peru 
and the neighbouring republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and 
Brazil also cropped up at intervals. A treaty was signed with 
Brazil 1876, by which certain physical features were accepted 
by both countries as the basis for the boundary. In the case 
of Ecuador and Colombia a dispute arose in 1894 concerning 
the ownership of large tracts of uninhabited country in the 
vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon and its tributaries. 
An agreement was proposed between Peru and Ecuador in 
connexion with the limits of the respective republics, but diffi- 
culties were created to prevent this proposal from becoming 
an accomplished fact by the pretensions put forward by Colom- 
bia. The latter state claimed sovereignty over the Napo and 
Maranon rivers on the grounds of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
exercised over this section of territory during the period of 
Spanish dominion, the government of Colombia asserting 
that these ecclesiastical rights to which Colombia became 
entitled after her separation from the Spanish crown carried 
also the right of absolute ownership. In a treaty signed by 
the three interested states in 1895 a compromise was effected 
by which Colombia withdrew a part of the claim advanced, 
and it was agreed that any further differences arising out of this 
frontier question should be submitted to the arbitration of the 
Spanish crown. The later development of the boundary ques- 
tion is dealt with at the outset of this article. 



278 



PERU PERUGIA 



Senor Manuel Candamo succeeded Senor Romana as president 
in 1903. In the following year he died, and on the 24th of 
September 1904 Senor Jose Pardo was installed in the presiden- 
tial chair. In 1908 there were some insurrectionary movements 
at Lima and an attempt was made to assassinate President 
Pardo, but they were, however, suppressed without a serious 
outbreak. Senor August o Leguiva became president on the 
24th of September 1908. (C. E. A.; G. E.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the principal publications relating to 
Peru are: C. E. Akers, A History of South America (London, 1904) ; 
L. E. Albertini, Perou en 1878 (Paris, 1878); C. B. Cisneros and 
R. E. Garcia, El Peru en Europa (Lima, 1900) ; the same authors, 
Geografia comercial de la America del Sud (3 vols., ibid. 1898); 
E. B. Clark, Twelve Months in Peru (London, 1891) ; Geo. R. Fitzroy 
Cole, The Peruvians at Home, (ibid. 1884); A. J. Duffield, Peru in 
the Guano Age (ibid. 1877) ; C. R. Enock, The Andes and, the Amazon 
(ibid. 1907); idem, Peru: its Former and Present Civilization, &c. 
(ibid. 1908); P. F. Evans, From Peru to the Plate (ibid. 1889); 
M. A. Fuentes, Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru (ibid. 1866); 
Calderon F. Garcia, Le Perou contemporain (Paris, 1907) ; Garcilasso 
de la Vega, Royal commentaries of the Incas, 1609 (Hakluyt Society's 




1863); T. Haenke, Descripcion del Peru (Lima, 1901); E. Higginson, 
Mines and Mining in Peru (ibid. 1903).; S. S. Hill, Travels in Peru 
and Mexico (2 vols., London, 1860); T. J. Hutchinson, Two Years 
in Peru (2 vols.; ibid. 1874); R. Laos, A Handbook of Peru for Inves- 
tors and Immigrants (Baltimore, 1903) ; C. R. Markham, Cuzco and 
Lima (London, 1858); idem, Travels in Peru and India (ibid. 1862); 
idem, The War between Peru and Chile (ibid. 1883); idem, History 
of Peru (Chicago, 1892) ; V. M. Maurtua, The Question of the Pacific 
(Philadelphia, 1901); M. de Mendiburu, Diccionario historico- 
biogr&fico del Peru (8 vols., Callao, 1874-1890); E. W. Middendorf, 
Peru: Beobachtungen und Studien uber das Land und seine Bewohner, 
&c. (Berlin, 1 893) ; Federico Moreno, Petroleum in Peru (Lima, 1891); 
Dr M. Neveu-Lemaire, Les Lacs des hauls plateaux de I'Amerique du 
Sud (Paris, 1906); M. F. Paz-Soldan, Historia del Peru indepen- 
diente (3 vols., 1868 et seq.); idem, Diccionario geogrdfico-estadistico 
del Peru (Lima, 1879); A. Plane, A travers I'Amerique equatoriale 
(Paris, 1903) ; W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (3 vols., 
Philadelphia, 1868); A. Raimondi, El Peru: Estudios mineralogicos, 
&c. (4 vols., Lima, 1890-1902); M. Ch. Renoz, Le Perou (Bruxelles, 
1897): G. Rene'-Moreno, Ultimas dias coloniales en el Alto Peru 
1807-1808 (Santiago de Chile, 1896-1898); F. Seebee, Travelling 
Impressions in and Notes on Peru (2nd ed., London, 1905) ; E. G. 
Squier, Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the 
Incas (ibid. 1877); Edmond Temple, Travels in Various Parts of 
Peru (2 vols., ibid. 1830); J. J. Von Tschudi, Reisen durch Sud- 
amerika (5 vols., Leipzig, 1866-1868) ; idem, Travels in Peru (London, 
1847) ; Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880) ; Frank Vincent, 
Around and about South America (New York, 1890) ; Marie Robinson 
Wright, The Old and New Peru (Philadelphia, 1909) ; the Consular and 
Diplomatic Reports of Great Britain and the United States; Hand- 
book of Peru and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics; 
and the departmental publications of the Peruvian Government. 

PERU, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the 
north-central part of the state, on the N. bank of the Illinois 
River, about 100 m. S.W. of Chicago and i m. W. of La 
Salle, a terminus of the Illinois & Michigan Canal. Pop. (1900), 
6863 (2095 foreign-born) ; (1910), 7984. It is served by the 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific railways. The city is built on the face and top of a 
series of river bluffs. It is the seat of St Bede College (Roman 
Catholic, opened in 1891), conducted by Benedictine fathers. 
In a large public park there is a bronze monument in memory of 
the soldiers of Peru who died in the Civil War. There are 
extensive coal-mines in the vicinity; and the city includes 
various manufactures. Peru was first settled about 1827, was 
incorporated in 1845, and re-incorporated in 1800. 

PERU, a city and the county-seat of Miami county, Indiana, 
U.S.A., about 75 m. N. of Indianapolis, on the Wabash River. 
Pop. (1910 U.S. census), 10,910. Peru is served by the Chicago 
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western and the 
Wabash railways (each of which maintains shops here), and by 
electric lines to Indianapolis, Warsaw and other cities. The 
city has a Carnegie library, a railway Young Men's Christian 
Association, and a hospital for the employes of the Wabash 
railroad. There is a city park on the river, and 9 m. east of the 
city is Boyd park, an amusement resort. Peru is an important 
grain and produce market, and has various manufactures. 



In 1905 the value of the factory products was $1,703,417 
(27-3% more than in 1900). Petroleum is found in the 
vicinity. Peru was settled in 1834 and was chartered as a 
city in 1867. 

PERUGIA (anc. Perusia), a city and archiepiscopal see of 
Italy, the capital of the province of Perugia (which forms the 
entire compartimento of Umbria) situated 1444 ft. above sea- 
level. Pop. (1906), 22,321 (town); 65,527 (commune). The 
town is finely situated upon a group of hills nearly 1000 ft. 
above the valley of the Tiber. Its outline is very irregular; from 
the centre of the town, at the junction of several ridges, parts 
of it extend for a considerable distance along their summits, 
being divided from one another by deep valleys. This is the 
extent enclosed by the medieval walls; within them are consider- 
able remains of the lofty terrace walls of the Eutruscan period. 
The so-called Arco di Augusto is a town gate with a Decorated 
superstructure, perhaps of the Etruscan period, bearing the 
inscription Augusta Perusia; above this again is a Renaissance 
loggia. The superstructure of a similar gate (Porta Marzia), 
which was removed in 1540 to make way for the citadel, but is 
depicted in a fresco by Benedetto Bonfigli (between 1461 and 
1477), was re-erected in the substruction walls of the citadel 
itself. It bears the inscription Colonia Vibia Augusta Perusia, 
so that the town must have become a colony in the reign of the 
emperor C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (A.D. 251-253), who was 
a native of it. Four other gates of the Etruscan period can still 
be traced (F. Noack in Romische Mitteilungen, 1897, 166 sqq). 
In the garden of the church of S. Elisabeth was found in 1876 
a fine mosaic in black on a white ground representing Orpheus in 
the midst of the beasts (Notizie degli scam, 1876, 181; 1877 309). 

The citadel was erected by Pope Paul III. in 1540-1546, after 
the plans of Antonio da Sangallo the younger, and demolished 
in 1860 (see Bacile di Castiglione in L'Arte, 1903, 347). The 
Piazza del Duomo is at the north of the Corso. On one side 
stands the cathedral of San Lorenzo, a Gothic structure of the 
1 4th and isth centuries, in the plan of a Latin cross, with nave 
and aisles of equal height ; on the other the Palazzo del Municipio, 
presenting two fine Gothic facades, of the i4th century (though 
the building was not completed till 1443), with the figures of 
the Perugian griffin and the Guelph lion above the outside stair; 
and in the centre the marble fountain constructed in 1277-1280 
by Arnolfo di Cambio, and adorned with statues and statuettes 
by Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. The cathedral contains the 
burial-place of Urban IV. and Martin IV. the remains of Inno- 
cent III. were removed to Rome in 1892 and placedin the basilica 
of S. Giovanni in Laterano and the Virgin's wedding -ring; and 
at the north-east corner is a sitting statue of Pope Julius III. 
by Vincenzo Danti, erected in 1555 by the people of Perugia 
in gratitude for the restoration of their civic privileges. On 
the decoration of the Sala del Cambio, or old exchange, Perugino 
put forth the full force of his genius. Most of the movable 
paintings have since 1863 been collected in the Pinacoteca 
Vannucci, established in the Palazzo del Municipio; besides a 
considerable number of pieces by Perugino, there are specimens 
of Niccolo Alunno, Bonfigli, Pinturicchio, &c. A very interest- 
ing and important exhibition of Umbrian art was held here in 
1907. The pictures, the needlework with some splendid pieces 
of embroidery from S. Francesco at Assisi, the vestments of 
Pope Benedict XI., and the majolica of Perugia and Deruta, 
a village 10 m. south, were especially noteworthy (see U. Gnoli, 
L'Arte umbra alia mostra di Perugia, Bergamo, 1908). The 
illuminated MSS. of the communal library, the cathedral and 
the church of S. Pietro, from the 7th century onwards, were also 
exhibited. 

The formation of the Pinacoteca Vannucci has impaired the 
interest of several churches but in others it remains undiminished. 
San Domenico, a Gothic edifice originally designed by Giovanni 
Pisano but rebuilt in 1614, contains the monument of Pope 
Benedict XI. (attributed, but probably wrongly, to Giovanni 
Pisano by Vasari), and in its east front a Gothic window with 
stained glass by Fra Bartolommeo of Perugia (1441). San 
Pietro de' Cassinensi (outside the Porta Romana) is a basilica 



PERUGINO 



279 



with nave and aisles, founded in the beginning of the nth 
century by San Pietro Vincioli on the site of a building of the 
6th century, and remarkable for its conspicuous spire, its ancient 
granite and marble columns, its walnut stall- work of 1535 by 
Stefano de' Zambelli da Bergamo, and its numerous pictures (by 
Perugino, &c.). The oratory of S. Bernardino has an early 
Renaissance polychrome facade, richly sculptured, of 1457-1461, 
by Agostino d'Antonio di Duccio of Florence. S. Severo con- 
tains Raphael's first independent fresco (1505), much damaged 
by restoration. The circular church of S. Angelo, with sixteen 
antique columns in the interior, probably dates from the middle 
of the 6th century. The university dates from 1307, and has 
faculties of law, science and medicine; it had 318 students in 
1902-1903. It contains an important museum of Etruscan and 
Roman antiquities. Three miles to the S.S.E. the Etruscan 
necropolis of the ancient city was discovered in 1870. The 
large tomb of the Volumni (3rd century B. c.) hewn in the rock, 
with its carved cinerary urns, is interesting. 

The ancient Perusia first appears in history as one of the 
twelve confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in 
the account of the war of 310 or 309 B.C. between the Etruscans 
and the Romans. It took, however, an important part in the 
rebellion of 295, and was reduced, with Vulsinii and Arretium, 
to seek for peace in the following year. In 216 and 205 it 
assisted Rome in the Hannibalic war, but afterwards it is not 
mentioned until 41-40 B.C., when L. Antonius took refuge there, 
and was reduced by Octavian after a long siege. A number of 
lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the 
city (Corpus inscr. lat. xi. 1212). The city was burnt, we 
are told, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno 
the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly 
have suffered at all and the town, with the territory for a mile 
round, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must 
have been rebuilt almost at once, for several bases exist, inscribed 
Augusta sacr(um) Perusia restituta; but, as we have seen, it 
did not become a colony until A.D. 251-253. It is hardly men- 
tioned except by the geographers until the middle of the 6th 
century, when it was captured by Totila after a long siege. In 
the Lombard period it is spoken of as one of the principal cities 
of Tuscia. In the gth century, with the consent of Charles the 
Great and Louis the Pious, it passed under the popes; but 
for many centuries the city continued to maintain an indepen- 
dent life, warring against many of the neighbouring lands 
and cities Foligno, Assisi, Spoleto, Montepulciano, &c. It 
remained true for the most part to the Guelphs. On various 
occasions the popes found asylum within its walls, and it was 
the meeting-place of the conclaves which elected Honorius II. 
(1124), Honorius IV. (1285), Celcstine V. (1294), and Clement V. 
(1305). But Perugia had no mind simply to subserve the papal 
interests. At the time of Rienzi's unfortunate enterprise it 
sent ten ambassadors to pay him honour; and, when papal 
legates sought to coerce it by foreign soldiers, or to exact con- 
tributions, they met with vigorous resistance. In the i5th 
century power was at last concentrated in the Baglioni family, 
who, though they had no legal position, defied all other authority. 
Gian Paolo Baglioni was lured to Rome in 1520 and beheaded 
by Leo X.; and in 1534 Rodolfo, who had slain a papal legate, 
was defeated by Pier Luigi Farnese, and the city, captured 
and plundered by his soldiery, was deprived of its privileges. 
The citadel was begun six y.ears later " ad coercendam Perusi- 
norum audaciam." In 1797 Perugia was occupied by the 
French; in 1832, 1838 and 1854 it was visited by earthquakes; 
in May 1849 it was seized by the Austrians; and, after a futile 
insurrection in 1859, it was finally united, along with the rest of 
Umbria, to Piedmont, in 1860. 

See G. Conestabile, / Monumenti di Perugia etrusca e romana 
(Perugia, 1855) ; M. Symonds and L. Duff Gordon, Perugia (" Medi- 
eval Towns Series"), (1898); R. A. Gallenga Stuart, Perugia 
(Bergamo, 1905; W. Heywood, Hist, of Perugia (1910). (T. As.) 

PERUGINO, PIETRO (1446-1524), whose correct family 
name was VANNUCCI, Italian painter, was born in 1446 at Citta 
della Pieve in Umbria, and belongs to the Umbrian school of 



painting. The name of Perugino came to him from Perugia, 
the chief city of the neighbourhood. Pietro was one of several 
children born to Cristoforo Vannucci, a member of a respectable 
family settled at Citta della Pieve. Though respectable, they 
seem to have been poor, or else, for some reason or other, to 
have left Pietro uncared for at the opening of his career. Before 
he had completed his ninth year the boy was articled to a master, 
a painter at Perugia; Who this may have been is very uncertain ; 
the painter is spoken of as wholly mediocre, but sympathetic 
for the great things in his art. Benedetto Bonfigli is generally 
surmised; if he is rejected as being above mediocrity, either 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo or Niccolo da Foligno may possibly have 
been the man. Pietro painted a little at Arezzo; thence he went 
to the headquarters of art, Florence, and frequented the famous 
Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine. It appears 
to be sufficiently established that he studied in the atelier of 
Andrea del Verrocchio, where Leonardo de Vinci was also a 
pupil. He may have learned perspective, in which he par- 
ticularly excelled for that period of art, from Piero de' Fran- 
ceschi. The date of this first Florentine sojourn is by no means 
settled; some authorities incline to make it as early as 1470. 
while others, with perhaps better reason, postpone it till 1479. 
Pietro at this time was extremely poor; he had no bed, but 
slept on a chest for many months, and, bent upon making his 
way, resolutely denied himself every creature comfort. 

Gradually Perugino rose into notice, and became famous not 
only throughout Italy but even beyond. He was one of the 
earliest Italian painters to practise oil-painting, in which he 
evinced a depth and smoothness of tint, which elicited much 
remark; and in perspective he applied the novel rule of two 
centres of vision. Some of his early works were extensive 
frescoes for the Ingesati fathers in their convent, which was 
destroyed not many years afterwards in the course of the siege 
of Florence; he produced for them also many cartoons, which 
they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. Though 
greedy for gain, his integrity was proof against temptation; 
and an amusing anecdote has survived of how the prior of the 
Ingesati doled out to him the costly colour of ultramarine, and 
how Perugino, constantly washing his brushes, obtained a 
surreptitious hoard of the pigment, which he finally restored 
to the prior to shame his stingy suspiciousness. A good speci- 
men of his early style in tempera is the circular picture in the 
Louvre of the " Virgin and Child enthroned between Saints." 

Perugino returned from Florence to Perugia, and thence, 
towards 1483, he went to Rome. The painting of that part of 
the Sixtine Chapel which is now immortalized by Michelangelo's 
" Last Judgment " was assigned to him by the pope; he covered 
it with frescoes of the "Assumption," the " Nativity," and " Moses 
in the Bulrushes." These works were ruthlessly destroyed to 
make a space for his successor's more colossal genius, but other 
works by Perugino still remain in the Sixtine Chapel; " Moses 
and Zipporah " (often attributed to Signorelli), the " Baptism 
of Christ," and " Christ giving the Keys to Peter." Pinturicchio 
accompanied the greater Umbrian to Rome, and was made his 
partner, receiving a third of the profits; he may probably have 
done some of the Zipporah subject. 

Pietro, now aged forty, must have left Rome after the comple- 
tion of the Sixtine paintings in 1486, and in the autumn of that 
year he was in Florence. Here he figures by no means advan- 
tageously in a criminal court. In July 1487 he and another 
Perugian painter named Aulista di Angelo were convicted, on 
their own confession, of having in December waylaid with staves 
some one (the name does not appear) in the street near S. Pietro 
Maggiore. Perugino limited himself, in intention, to assault 
and battery, but Aulista had made up his mind for murder. 
The minor and more illustrious culprit was fined ten gold florins, 
and the major one exiled for life. 

Between 1486 and 1499 Perugino resided chiefly in Florence, 
making one journey to Rome and several to Perugia. He was in 
many other parts of Italy from time to time. He had a regular 
shop in Florence, received a great number of commissions, 
and continued developing his practice as an oil-painter, his 



28o 



PERUKE 



system of superposed layers of colour being essentially the 
same as that of the Van Eycks. One of his most celebrated 
pictures, the " Pieta " in the Pitti Gallery, belongs to the year 
1495. From about 1498 he became increasingly keen after money, 
frequently repeating his groups from picture to picture, and 
leaving much of his work to journeymen. In 1499 the gild of 
the cambio (money-changers or bankers) of Perugia asked him 
to undertake the decoration of their audience-hall, and he 
accepted the invitation. This extensive scheme of work, which 
may h^ve been finished within the year 1500, comprised the 
painting of the vault with the seven planets and the signs of 
the zodiac (Perugino doing the designs and his pupils most 
probably the executive work) and the representation on the walls 
of two sacred subjects the " Nativity " and " Transfiguration " 
the Eternal Father, the four virtues of Justice, Prudence, 
Temperance and Fortitude, Cato as the emblem of wisdom, 
and (in life size) numerous figures of classic worthies, prophets 
and sibyls. On the mid-pDaster of the hall Perugino placed his 
own portrait in bust-form. It is probable that Raphael, who 
in boyhood, towards 1496, had been placed by his uncles under 
the tuition of Perugino, bore a hand in the work of the vaulting. 
It may have been about this time (though some accounts date 
the event a few years later) that Vannucci married a young and 
beautiful wife, the object of his fond affection ; he loved to see 
her handsomely dressed, and would often deck her out with his 
own hands. He was made one of the priors of Perugia in 1501. 

While Perugino, though by no means stationary or unpro- 
gressive as an executive artist, was working contentedly upon the 
old lines and carrying out the ancient conceptions, a mighty 
wave of new art flooded Florence with its rush and Italy with 
its rumour. Michelangelo, twenty-five years of age in 1500, 
following after and distancing Leonardo da Vinci, was opening 
men's eyes and minds to possibilities of achievement as yet 
unsurmised. Vannucci in Perugia heard Buonarroti bruited 
abroad, and was impatient to see with his own eyes what the 
stir was all about. In 1504 he allowed his apprentices and 
assistants to disperse, and returned to Florence. Though not 
openly detracting, he viewed with jealousy and some grudging 
the advances made by Michelangelo; and Michelangelo on his 
part replied, with the intolerance which pertains to superiority, 
to the faint praise or covert dispraise of his senior and junior in 
the art. On one occasion, in company, he told Perugino to 
his face that he was " a bungler in art " (goffo nell' arte). Van- 
nucci brought, with equal indiscretion and ill success, an action 
for defamation of character. Put on his mettle by this mortifying 
transaction, he determined to show what he could do, and he 
produced the chef-d'cBuvre of the " Madonna and Saints " for 
the Certosa of Pavia. The constituent parts of this noble 
work have now been sundered. The only portion which remains 
in the Certosa is a figure of God the Father with cherubim. 
An " Annunciation " has disappeared from cognisance; three 
compartments the Virgin adoring the infant Christ, St Michael, 
and St Raphael with Tobias are among the choicer treasures 
of the National Gallery, London. The current story that 
Raphael bore a hand in the work is not likely to be true. This 
was succeeded in 1505 by an " Assumption," in the Cappella dei 
Rabatta, in the church of the Servi in Florence. The painting 
may have been executed chiefly by a pupil, and was at any rate 
a failure: it was much decried; Perugino lost his scholars; and 
towards 1506 he once more and finally abandoned Florence, 
going to Perugia, and thence in a year or two to Rome. 

Pope Julius II. had summoned Perugino to paint the Stanza 
in the Vatican, now called that of the Incendio del Borgo; but 
he soon preferred a younger competitor, that very Raphael who 
had been trained by the aged master of Perugia; and Vannucci, 
after painting the ceiling with figures of God the Father in 
different glories, in five medallion-subjects, found his occupation 
gone; he retired from Rome, and was once more in Perugia from 
1512. Among his latest works one of the best is the extensive 
altar-piece (painted between 1512 and 1517) of S. Agostino in 
Perugia; the component parts of it are now dispersed in various 
galleries. 



Perugino's last frescoes were painted for the monastery of 
S. Agnese in Perugia, and in 1522 for the church of Castello di 
Fortignano hard by. Both series have disappeared from their 
places, the second being now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 
He was still at Fontignano in 1524 when the plague broke out, 
and he died. He was buried in unconsecrated ground in a field, 
the precise spot now unknown. The reason for so obscure and 
unwonted a mode of burial has been discussed, and religious 
scepticism on the painter's own part has been assigned as the 
cause; the fact, however, appears to be that, on the sudden 
and widespread outbreak of the plague, the panic-struck local 
authorities ordained that all victims of the disorder should 
be at once interred without any waiting for religious rites. This 
leads us to speak of Perugino's opinions on religion. Vasari is 
our chief, but not our sole, authority for saying that Vannucci 
had very little religion, and was an open and obdurate disbeliever 
in the immortality of the soul. For a reader of the present day 
it is easier than it was for Vasari to suppose that Perugino may 
have been a materialist, and yet just as good and laudable a 
man as his orthodox Catholic neighbours or brother-artists; 
still there is a strong discrepancy between the quality of his art, 
in which all is throughout Christian, Catholic, devotional, and 
even pietistic, and the character of an anti-Christian con- 
temner of the doctrine of immortality. It is difficult to reconcile 
this discrepancy, and certainly not a little difficult also to suppose 
that Vasari was totally mistaken in his assertion; he was born 
twenty years before Perugino's death, and must have talked with 
scores of people to whom the Umbrian painter had been well 
known. We have to remark that Perugino in 1494 painted 
his own portrait, now in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence, and into 
this he introduced a scroll lettered " Timete Deum." That an 
open disbeliever should inscribe himself with " Timete Deum " 
seems odd. The portrait in question shows a plump face, with 
small dark eyes, a short but well-cut nose, and sensuous lips; 
the neck is thick, the hair bushy and frizzled, and the general 
air imposing. The later portrait in the Cambio of Perugia 
shows the same face with traces of added years. Perugino died 
possessed of considerable property, leaving three sons. 

Among the very numerous works of Perugino a few not already 
named j require mention. Towards 1496 he painted the " Cruci- 
fixion," in S. Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence. The attribu- 
tion to him of the picture of the marriage of Joseph and the Virgin 
Mary (the " Sposalizio ") now in the museum of Caen, which served 
indisputably as the original, to a great extent, of the still more 
famous " Sposalizio " which was painted by Raphael in 1504, and 
which forms a leading attraction of the Brera Gallery in Milan, 
is now questioned, and it is assigned to Lo Spagna. A vastly 
finer work of Perugino's is the " Ascension of Christ, which, painted 
a littler earlier for S. Pietro of Perugia, has for years past been in the 
museum of Lyons; the other portions of the same altar-piece are 
dispersed in other galleries. In the chapel of the Disciplinati of 
Citta dclla Pieve is an " Adoration of the Magi," a square of 21 ft. 
containing about thirty life-sized figures; this was executed, with 
scarcely credible celerity, from the 1st to the 25th of March (or 
thereabouts) in 1505, and must no doubt be in great part the work 
of Vannucci's pupils. In 1507, when the master's work had for years 
been in a course of decline and his performances were generally 
weak, he produced, nevertheless, one of his best pictures the 
" Virgin between St Jerome and St Francis," now in the Palazzo 
Penna. In S. Onofno of Florence is a much lauded and much- 
debated fresco of the " Last Supper," a careful and blandly correct 
but not inspired work; it has been ascribed to Perugino by some 
connoisseurs, by others to Raphael; it may more probably be by 
some different pupil of the Umbrian master. 

AUTHORITIES. In addition to Csowe and Cavalcaselle, see Di 
Pietro Perugino e degli scolari (1804); Mezzanotte, Vita, &c., di 
Pietro Vannucci (1836); Mariotti, Lettere pittoriche Perugine (1788); 
Claude Phillips (in The Portfolio) (1893) ; G. C. Williamson, Perugino 
(1900 and 1903). (W. M. R.) 

PERUKE, an artificial head of hair, a wig. The word is 
From Fr. perruque, an adaptation of Ital. perruca or parrucca. 
This is usually taken to be from Ital. pelo, hair; Lat. pilus. 
Span, peluca, wig, and Sardinian pilucca, lock or tuft of hair, 
support this view. In the I7th century the English forms 
which the French word took, such as perruck or perug, were 
corrupted into perwyke, and thence into perewyk, perrjrig, and 
lastly " periwig," which again was shortened into " wig," the 



PERUZZI PESCADORES 



281 



common term for all types of artificial heads of hair. Periwig 
is sometimes confined to the heavy full-bottomed wigs worn 
from the reign of Charles II. to the introduction of the light, 
tailed wig of the i8th century. 

PERUZZI, BALDASSARE (1481-1536), Italian architect 
and painter of the Roman school, was born at Ancajano, in 
the diocese of Volterra, and passed his early life at Siena, where 
his father resided. While quite young Peruzzi went to Rome, 
and there studied architecture and painting; in the latter he 
was at first a follower of Perugino. The choir frescoes in 
Sant' Onofrio on the Janiculan Hill, usually attributed to 
Pinturicchio, are by his hand. One of the first works which 
brought renown to the young architect was the villa on the banks 
of the Tiber in Rome now known as the Farnesina, originally 
built for the Sienese Agostino Chigi, a wealthy banker. This 
villa, like all Peruzzi's works, is remarkable for its graceful 
design and the delicacy of its detail. It is best known for the 
frescoes painted there by Raphael and his pupils to illustrate 
the stories of Psyche and Galatea. One of the loggie has frescoes 
by Peruzzi's own hand the story of Medusa. On account of 
his success Peruzzi was appointed by Leo X. in 1520 architect 
to St Peter's at a salary of 250 scudi; his design for its comple- 
tion was not, however, carried out. During the sack of Rome 
in 1527 Peruzzi barely escaped with his life, on condition of his 
painting the portrait of Constable de Bourbon, who had been 
killed during the siege (see VASARI). From Rome he escaped to 
Siena, where he was made city architect, and designed fortifica- 
tions for its defence, a great part of which still exist. Soon 
afterwards he returned to Rome, where he made designs for a 
palace for the Orsini family, and built the palaces Massimi and 
Vidoni, as well as others in the south of Italy. He died in 
1536, and was buried by the side of Raphael in the Pantheon. 

Peruzzi was an eager student of mathematics and was also 
a fair classical scholar. Like many of the great artists of his 
time, he was remarkable for the varied extent of his knowledge 
and skill. A most able architect, a fair painter, and a scientific 
engineer, he also practised minor arts, such as stucco-work in 
relief, sgraffito, and the decorative painted arabesques which 
the influence of Raphael did so much to bring into use. His 
best existing works in fresco are in the Castel di Belcaro and the 
church of Fontegiusta in Siena. For Siena Cathedral he also 
designed a magnificent wooden organ-case, painted and gilt, 
rich with carved arabesques in friezes and pilasters; he also 
designed the high altar and the Cappella del Battista. 

His chief pupil was the architect Serlio, who, in his work on 
architecture, gratefully acknowledges the great debt he owed to 
Peruzzi's instruction. The English National Gallery possesses 
an interesting drawing by his hand. The subject is the " Adora- 
tion of the Magi," and it is of special value, because the heads 
of the three kings are portraits of Michelangelo, Raphael, and 
Titian. The Uffizi and the library at Siena contain a number 
of Peruzzi's designs and drawings, many of which are now of 
priceless value, as they show ancient buildings which have 
been destroyed since the i6th century. 

AUTHORITIES. Vasari, Vita di Baldassare Peruzzi (Milanese's ed., 
1882), iv. 489; Milizia, Memorie degli archiletti (1781, i. 210^-215); 
Delia Valle, Lettere senesi (1782-1786); Gaye, Carteggio inedito 
d' artisti (1839-1840); Lanzi, Storia pittorica (1804); and Platner, 
Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (1830-1842). 

PERVIGILIUM 1 VENERIS, the Vigil of Venus, a short 
Latin poem. The author, date, and place of composition are 
unknown. The poem probably belongs to the 2nd or 3rd 
century A.D. An article signed L. Raquettius in the Classical 
Review (May 1905) assigns it to Sidonius Apollinaris ($th cent.) 
It was written professedly in early spring on the eve of a 
three-nights' festival of Venus (probably April 1-3). It 
describes in poetical language the annual awakening of the 
vegetable and animal world through the goddess. It consists 
of ninety-three verses in trochaic septenarii, and Is divided 
into strophes of unequal length by the refrain: 

" Cras amet qui nunquam amavit; quique amavit eras amet." 



1 Pervigilium was the term for a nocturnal festival in honour of 
some divinity, especially Bona Dea. 



Editio princeps (1577); modern editions by F. Bucheler (1859), 
A. Riese, m Anthologia latino, (1869), E. Bahrens in Unedierte latein- 
ische Cedichte (1877) ; S. G. Owen (with Catullus, 1893). There are 
translations into English verse by Thomas Stanley (1651) and 
Thomas Parnell, author of The Hermit-, on the text see J. W. Mackail 
in Journal of Philology (1888), vol. xvii. 

PESARO (anc. Pisaurum, q.v.), a city and seaport of the 
Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Pesaro and Urbino, 
situated on the coast of the Adriatic 37 m. N.W. of Ancona by 
rail, on the right bank of the Foglia, the ancient Pisaurus. The 
ground on which it is built is only from 10 to 40 ft. above the 
sea, but it is surrounded by hills on the E. by Monte Ardizio, 
on the W. by Monte Accio or San Bartolo, which derives one 
of its names from the tradition that the Roman dramatist 
L. Attius was born and buried on the spot. Upon this hill stands 
the Villa Imperiale, the foundation stone of which was laid by 
the emperor Frederick III., built by the Sforza, and decorated 
with fine stucco ceilings and wall paintings and pavements 
of majolica plaques. A new palace was begun in 1530 by the 
Genga for Eleonora Gonzaga, but never finished. The city walls 
were in 1830 transformed into a public promenade. Besides 
the ancient cathedral of the Annunciation (restored since 1860) 
with a 12th-century mosaic pavement, there are a number of 
smaller churches, several with Gothic portals. One of these, 
the church of San Francesco, now used as a cathedral, contains 
the " Coronation of the Virgin " by Giovanni Bellini, the largest 
and most important of his works outside Venice. The most 
conspicuous buildings are the prefecture (a palace originally 
erected in 1455-1465 by the Dalmatian architect Luciano da 
Laurana for the Sforza, and restored by Francesco Maria della 
Rovere in the i6th century, the Rossini theatre (opened in 1818), 
the fortress of Rocca Costanzia (built by Costanzo Sforza in 
1474, Laurana being the architect), and the large lunatic asylum. 
The composer Gioacchino Rossini, who was a native of Pesaro, 
left all his fortune to found a musical lyceum in the city, and his 
statue by Marochetti (1864) stands near the railway station. 
The Olivieri library (established by the antiquary of that name, 
author of Marmora pisaurensia, &c.) contains about 14,000 
volumes, MSS. of Tasso, &c., inscriptions and various antiquities, 
and a very fine collection of majolica (one of the best in Italy) 
from the old Urbino and other manufactories. The Museo 
Mosca, left by its owner to the town, contains important collec- 
tions of faience, furniture, &c. Among the industries of Pesaro 
are the growing, spinning and weaving of silk, tanning, iron- 
founding, and the manufacture of glass and pottery. It is also 
the centre of a rich agricultural district. The harbour is of no 
great importance, but there is a small export trade in wine, 
olives, silk and glass. Pop. (1901), 14,768 (town); 24,823 
(commune). 

Destroyed by Vitiges the Goth, the town was restored and 
strengthened by Belisarius, and afterwards along with Ancona, 
Fano, Senigallia, and Rimini formed the Pentapolis Maritima. 
In the course of the I3th century Pasaro was sometimes under 
the government of the popes, sometimes under that of the 
emperors; but the Malatesta family, which first took root in the 
city about 1285, gradually became the real masters of the place. 
In 1445 they sold their rights to Francesco Sforza; and in 1512, 
through the influence of Julius II., the Sforza were supplanted 
by his nephew Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino. Leo X. took 
the city away from Francesco and gave it to Lorenzo de' Medici ; 
but on Lorenzo's death Francesco was restored and Pesaro 
became the ordinary residence of the dukes of Urbino till the 
death of Francesco Maria II. in 1631, when it reverted to the 
States of the Church. It has formed part of the present kingdom 
of Italy since 1860. Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere, poet and 
statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1800. 

PESCADORES (i.e. fishers,) a group of islands (called 
by the Japanese Hoko to or Hoko Gunto) lying 30 m. west 
of Formosa, from which they are separated by the Pescadores 
Channel, about the tropic of Cancer. The islands number 48 
(21 inhabited), have a coast-line of 98^67 miles, a total area of 
85'5osq. m., and a population of about 55,ooo,principallyChinese. 
Flat and with unproductive soil, they are swept during one 



282 



PESCARA PESHAWAR 



half of the year by violent N.E. winds, and also lie full in the 
path of the numerous typhoons that rush up the Strait of 
Formosa. Meteorological observations taken by the Japanese 
during a period of three years show that the annual average 
number of stormy days is 237. The anchorage is at Mako 
(Makyu or Makun) on the principal island of Penghu. The 
chief industry is fishing (whence the old Spanish name which 
has come into general use) and dried fish are exported. 

PESCARA, FERNANDO FRANCESCO DAVALOS, MARQUIS 
OF (1489-1525), Italian condottiere, was born at Naples, his 
family being of Spanish origin. Rodrigo (Ruy) Lopez Davalos, 
his great-grandfather, a noble of Toledo, who had taken an 
active part in the civil wars of Castile in the reign of John II. 
(1407-1454), had been driven into exile, and died at Valencia. 
Ifiigo (Ignatius), his son, entered the service of Alphonso of 
Aragon and Naples, followed his master to Italy, and there, 
making an advantageous marriage with a lady of the family 
of Aquino, was created marquis of Pescara. His son Alphonso, 
who succeeded him in the marquisate, married a lady of the 
Sicilian branch of the Spanish family of Cardona, and when 
he was treacherously killed, during a French invasion of Naples, 
his only son Fernando, or Ferrante, was a child in arms. At 
the age of six the boy was betrothed to Vittoria Colonna (q.v.), 
daughter of the general Fabrizio Colonna, and the marriage was 
celebrated in 1509. His position as a noble of the Aragonese 
party in Naples made it incumbent on him to support Ferdinand 
the Catholic in his Italian wars. In 1512 he commanded a body 
of light cavalry at the battle of Ravenna, where he was wounded 
and taken prisoner by the French. Thanks to the intervention 
of one of the foremost of the French generals, the Italian 
J. J. Trivulzio, who was his connexion by marriage, he was 
allowed to ransom himself for 6000 ducats. He commanded 
the Spanish infantry at the battle of La Morta, or Vicenza, 
on the 7th of October 1513. It was on this occasion that he 
called his men before the charge to take care to step on him 
before the enemy did if he fell. From the battle of Vicenza 
in 1513, down to the battle of La Bicocca on the agth of April 
1522, he continued to serve in command of the Spaniards and 
as the colleague rather than the subordinate of Prosper Colonna. 
It was only by the accident of his birth at Naples that Pescara 
was an Italian. He considered himself a Spaniard, spoke 
Spanish at all times, even to his wife, and was always surrounded 
by Spanish soldiers and officers. His opinion of the Italians as 
fighting men was unfavourable and was openly expressed. After 
the battle of La Bicocca Charles V. appointed Prosper Colonna 
commander-in-chief. Pescara, who considered himself aggrieved, 
made a journey to Valladolid in Spain, where the emperor then 
was, to state his own claims. Charles V., with whom he had 
long and confidential interviews, persuaded him to submit for 
the time to the superiority of Colonna. But in these meetings 
he gained the confidence of Charles V. His Spanish descent 
and sympathies marked him out as a safer commander of the 
imperial troops in Italy than an Italian could have been. When 
Francis I. invaded Italy in 1524 Pescara was appointed as lieu- 
tenant of the emperor to repel the invasion. The difficulties 
of his position were very great, for there was much discontent 
in the army, which was very ill paid. The tenacity, patience 
and tact of Pescara triumphed over all obstacles. His influence 
over the veteran Spanish troops and the German mercenaries 
kept them loyal during the long siege of Pavia. On the 24th of 
February 1525 he defeated and took prisoner Francis I. by a 
brilliant attack. Pescara's plan was remarkable for its 
audacity and for the skill he showed in destroying the superior 
French heavy cavalry by assailing them in flank with a mixed 
force of harquebusiers and light horse. It was believed that 
he was dissatisfied with the treatment he had received from the 
emperor; and Girolamo Morone, secretary to the duke of Milan, 
approached him with a scheme for expelling French, Spaniards 
and Germans alike from Italy, and for gaining a throne for 
himself. Pescara may have listened to the tempter, but in 
act he was loyal. He reported the offer to Charles V. and put 
Morone into prison. His health however had begun to give 



way under the strain of wounds and exposure; and he died at 
Milan on the 4th of November 1525. Pescara had no children; 
his title descended to his cousin the marquis del Vasto, also a 
distinguished imperial general. 

AUTHORITIES. The life of Pescara was written in Latin by Paolo 
Giovio, and is included in the Vilae illustrium virorum, printed at 
Basel 1578. Giovio's Latin Life was translated by L. Domenichi, 
the translator of his other works, and published at Florence, 1551. 
The Spanish Historic, del fortissimo y prudentissimo capitan Don 
Hernando de Avalos, by El Maestro P. Valles (Antwerp, 1553), 
is also a translation of Giovio. See also Mignet, Rivalite de Francois 
I" et de Charles Quint (Paris, 1875), which gives references to all 
authorities. (D. H.) 

PESCARA, a river of Italy, formed by the confluence of the 
Gizio and Aterno, and flowing into the Adriatic at the small town 
of Pescara. This town 'occupies the site of the ancient Aternum, 
the terminus of the Via Claudia Valeria, and up to 1867 a fortress 
of some importance. The railway from Sulmona follows the 
Pescara valley and joins the coast line to Brindisi at Pescara. 
In this valley, 22 m. from the sea, was the site of the ancient 
Interpromium, a town belonging probably to the Paeligni; and 
not far off is the very fine Cistercian abbey church of S. Clemente 
di Casauria, founded by the emperor Louis II. in 871. The 
present building belongs to the 1 2th century. The sculptures 
of the portals, the pulpit, the Paschal candelabrum, &c., and 
the bronze doors of this period are important. The chronicle 
of the abbey, of the end of the I2th century, is in the Bibliotheque 
nationale at Paris. 

See V. Hindi, Monumenti degliAbruzzi (Naples, 1889), pp. 405 sqq. ; 
P. L. Calore in Archivio storico dell' arte (Rome, 1891), iv. 9 sqq. 

PESCHIERA SUL GARDA, a fortress of Venetia, Italy, in 
the province of Verona, on an island in the Mincio at its outlet 
from the lake of Garda, 77 m. by rail E. of Milan. It was one 
of the famous fortresses of the Quadrilateral, the chief bulwark 
of the Austrian rule in Italy until 1866 (Mantua, Legnago and 
Verona being the other three) and has played a prominent part 
in all the campaigns conducted in north Italy, more especially 
during the Napoleonic wars. It was taken by the Piedmontese 
from the Austrians, after a gallant defence by General Rath 
lasting six weeks, on the 3Oth of May 1848, and since that date 
has been in Italian hands. 

PESCIA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, 
from which it is 15 m. E.N.E. by rail, 203 ft. above sea-level. 
Pop. (1901), 12,400 (town); 18,000 (commune). The cathedral, 
restored in 1693, contains the fine chapel of the Turini family, 
built for Baldassare Turini (d. 1540) by Giuliano di Baccio of 
Florence, with his tomb by Raffaello da Montelupo. The 
town also has some buildings by Lazzaro Buggiano, the pupil 
and adoptive son of Brunelleschi. It has silk and paper manu- 
factures. 

PESETA, a silver coin and unit of value, the Spanish equivalent 
of the French, Belgian and Swiss franc, the Italian lira and the 
Greek drachma in the Latin monetary union. The peso (Lat. 
pensum, weight), of which peseta is a diminutive, was a Spanish 
coin of gold, peso de oro, or silver, peso de plata, once current in 
Spain and her colonies, and now the name of a silver coin of 
many South American states. The peso is also the name of 
the Mexican dollar. 

PESHAWAR, a city of British India, the capital of the 
North-West Frontier Province, giving its name to a district. 
The city is situated near the left bank of the river Bara, 1 1 m. from 
Jamrud at the entrance of the Khyber Pass, the railway station 
being 1588 m. north-west of Calcutta; pop. (1901), 95,147. Two 
miles west of the native city are the cantonments, forming the 
principal military station of the North-West Frontier Province. 
Peshawar lies within a horseshoe ring of hills on the edge of 
the mountain barrier which separates India from Afghanistan, 
and through it have passed nearly all the invaders from the north. 
The native quarter is a huddle of flat-roofed houses within mud 
walls, crowded along narrow, crooked alleys; there is but one fairly 
wide street of shops. Here for many centuries the Povindahs, 
or Afghan travelling merchants, have brought their caravans 
from Kabul, Bokhara and Samarkand every autumn. They 



PESHIN PESSIMISM 



283 



bring horses, wool, woollen stuffs, silks, dyes, gold-thread, 
fruits, precious stones, carpets and poshtins (sheepskin clothing) , 
fighting and buying their way to the British border where, 
leaving their arms, they are free to wander at will to Delhi, 
Agra and Calcutta. The chief speciality of Peshawar consists 
of bright-coloured scarves called lungis; wax-cloth and orna- 
mental needle-work are also local products, as well as knives 
and small arms. 

The district of PESHAWAR has an area of 2611 sq. m.; pop. 
(1901), 788,707, showing an increase of 10-8% in the 
decade. Except on the south-east, where the Indus flows, 
it is encircled by mountains which are inhabited by the 
Mohmand, Utman Khel and Afridi tribes. The plain consists 
of alluvial deposits of silt and gravel. The district is naturally 
fertile and well watered, and is irrigated by the Swat River 
Canal. The principal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets 
and oil-seeds, with a little cotton and sugar-cane. Peshawar 
also produces a fine variety of rice, known as " Bara rice," 
after the river which irrigates it. The North-Western railway 
crosses the district from Attock, and has been extended 
from Peshawar city to Jamrud for military purposes. The 
district is chiefly inhabited by Pathans; there are some Hindus 
engaged in trade as bankers, merchants and shop-keepers. 

In early times the district of Peshawar seems to have had an 
essentially Indian population, for it was not till the isth century 
that its present Pathan inhabitants occupied it. Under the 
name of Gandhara it was a centre of Buddhism, and especially 
Graeco-Buddhism. Rock-edicts of Asoka still exist at two places ; 
and a slupa excavated in 1909 was found to contain an inscription 
of Kanishka, as well as relics believed to be those of Buddha 
himself. The last of the Indian Buddhist kings was conquered 
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1009. The Mogul emperors always 
found difficulty in maintaining their authority over the Afghan 
border tribes, who finally established their independence during 
the reign of Aurangzeb. Peshawar was a favourite residence 
of the Afghan dynasty founded by Ahmed Shah Durrani, and 
here Mountstuart Elphinstone came as ambassador to Shah 
Shujah in 1809. A few years later Ranj't Singh crossed the 
Indus, and after much hard fighting Sikh authority was firmly 
established under General Avitabile in 1834.. In 1848 the whole 
of the Punjab passed to the British. During the Mutiny, 
after the sepoy regiments had been disaimed, Peshawar was a 
source of strength rather than of danger, though Sir John 
Lawrence did at one time contemplate the necessity of surrender- 
ing it to the Afghans, in order to preserve the rest of Northern 
India. 

PESHIN, or PISHIN, a district of Baluchistan. Area 2717 
sq.m. Pop. (1901), 50,200. It consists of a large plain surrounded 
on three sides by hills, which formerly belonged to Afghan- 
istan but was ceded to the British by the treaty of Gandamak 
in 1879. This plain is of considerable strategic importance, as 
it forms the focus of a great number of routes leading from 
Sind and the Punjab frontier districts to Kandahar, and is 
intersected by the Sind-Peshin railway. The agricultural 
wealth of Peshin, and consequently its revenues, have increased 
greatly under British administration. 

PESHITTO, or PESHITO (i.e. " simple "), the standard version 
of the Bible in the Syriac language. It was long supposed to 
be the original Syriac version, but is now generally recognized 
as representing a revision made by Rabbula, bishop of Edessa, 
early in the 5th century, an attempt at standardizing the Syriac 
text such as Jerome had made for the Latin in his Vulgate. (See 
BIBLE.) 

PESHWA (Persian for "leader," "guide"), the title of the 
head of the Mahratta confederacy in India. Originally the 
peshwa was only prime minister, but afterwards he supplanted 
his master and became chief of the state, founding an hereditary 
dynasty, with the capital at Poona. The last peshwa, Baji 
Rao, came into collision with the British, and was dethroned 
in 1818. His adopted son, Nana Sahib, took a leading part in 
the Mutiny of 1857, in revenge for being deprived of what he 
considered his rights. 



PESSIMISM (from Lat. pessimus, worst), a word of modern 
coinage, 1 denoting an attitude of hopelessness towards life, a 
vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in human 
affairs. It is the antithesis of " optimism," which denotes the 
view that on the whole there is a balance of good and pleasure, 
or at least that in the long run good will triumph. Between 
optimism and pessimism is the theory of " meliorism," according 
to which the world on the whole makes progress in goodness. 
The average man is pessimist or optimist not on theoretical 
grounds, but owing to the circumstances of his life, his material 
prosperity, his bodily health, his general temperament. Perhaps 
the most characteristic example of unsystematic pessimism 
is the language of Ecclesiastes, who concludes that " all is 
vanity." 

Pessimism and optimism have, however, been expressed in 
systematic philosophical forms, a brief summary only of which 
need here be given. Such systems have been elaborated chiefly 
by modern thinkers, but the germs of the ideas are found widely 
spread in the older Oriental philosophies and in pre-Christian 
European thought. Generally speaking, pessimism may be 
found in all pantheistic and materialistic systems. It is im- 
portant, however, to point out an essential distinction. The 
thinker who sees man confronted by the infinite non-moral 
forces presumed by natural pantheism inevitably predominating 
over the finite powers of men may appear to the modern Christian 
theologian or to the evolutionist as a hopeless pessimist, and yet 
may himself have concluded that, though the future holds out 
no prospect save that of annihilation, man may yet by prudence 
and care enjoy a considerable measure of happiness. Pessimism, 
therefore, depends upon the individual point of view, and the 
term is frequently used merely in a condemnatory sense by hostile 
critics. The attitude of a man who denies the doctrine of 
immortality and rejoices in the denial is not strictly pessimistic. 
A Christian again may be pessimistic about the present; he 
must logically be optimistic about the future a Ideological 
view of the universe implies optimism on the whole; the agnostic 
may be indifferent to, or pessimistic, regarding the future, while 
exceedingly satisfied with life as he finds it. 

This complex view of life is exemplified by Plato, whose general 
theory of idealism is entirely optimistic. In analysing the world 
of phenomena he necessarily takes a pessimistic view because 
phenomena are merely imitations more or less removed from 
reality, i.e. from the good. Yet the idealistic postulate of a 
summum bonum is in result optimistic, and this view predomin- 
ated among the Stoics and the Neoplatonists. The Epicureans, 
on the other hand, were empirical pessimists. Man is able 
to derive a measure of enjoyment from life in spite of the non- 
existence of the orthodox gods; yet this enjoyment is on the 
whole negative, the avoidance of pain. A similar view is that 
of the ancient sceptics. 

Oriental pessimism, at least as understood by Europeans, 
is best exemplified in Buddhism, which finds in human life 
sorrow and pain. But all pain and sorrow are incidental to 
the human being in his individual capacity. He who will cast 
aside the " Bonds," the " Intoxications," the " Hindrances," 
and tread the Noble Eightfold Path (see BUDDHISM) which leads 
to Nirvana, will attain the ideal, the " Fruit of Arahatship," 
which is described in terms of glowing praise in the Pali hymns. 
This, the original doctrine of the Buddha, though not adopted 
in the full sense by all his followers, is in fact at least as optimistic 
as any optimism of the West. To call it " pessimism " is merely 
to apply to it a characteristically Western principle according 
to which happiness is impossible without personality. The 
true Buddhist on the contrary looks forward with enthusiasm 
to this absorption into eternal bliss. 

In Europe on the whole the so-called pessimistic attitude 
was commoner in the Teutonic north than in the Mediterranean 
basin. But even here the hopefulness as regards a future life, 
in which the inequalities of the present would be rectified, com- 
pensated for the gloomy fatalism with which the present was 

1 The earliest example given in the New English Dictionary is 
in S. T. Coleridge's Letters (1794). 



284 



PESSINUS PESTALOZZI 



regarded. The advent of Christianity, with its categorica 
assertion of future happiness for the good, to a large extent 
did away with pessimism in the true sense. In Leibnitz we 
find a philosophic or religious optimism, which saw in the universe 
the perfect work of a God who from all possibilities selected the 
best. Kant, though pessimistic as regards the actual man, is 
optimistic regarding his moral capacity. To Hegel similarly 
the world, though evil at any moment, progresses by conflict 
and suffering towards the good. 

Passing over the Italian Leopardi we may notice two lead- 
ing modern pessimists, Schopenhauer and von Hartmann. 
Schopenhauer emphasizes the pessimistic side of Hegel's thought. 
The universe is merely blind Will, not thought; this Will is 
irrational, purposeless and therefore unhappy. The world 
being a picture of the Will is therefore similarly unhappy. 
Desire is a state of unhappiness, and the satisfaction of desire 
is therefore merely the removal of pain. Von Hartmann's doctrine 
of the Unconscious is in many respects similar to Schopenhauer's 
doctrine of the Will. The Unconscious which combines Will 
and Reason is, however, primarily Will. The workings of this 
Will are irrational primarily, but, as in its evolution it becomes 
more rationalized and understands the whole meaning of the 
Weltschmerz, it ultimately reaches the point at which the desire 
for existence is gone. This choice of final nothingness differs 
from that of Schopenhauer in being collective and not individual. 
The pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann does not, 
however, exclude a certain ultimate mysticism, which bears 
some analogy to that of Buddhism. 

Pessimism is naturally connected with materialist, optimism 
with idealist, views of life. The theories of the modern evolution- 
ist school, however, have introduced into materialistic theory 
a new optimistic note in doctrines such as that of the survival 
of the fittest. Such doctrines regard the progress of humanity 
as on the whole tending to the greater perfection, and are 
markedly optimistic in contrast with earlier theories that 
progressive differentiation is synonymous with progressive 
decay. Similarly the cynical contempt which Nietzsche shows 
for morality and the conventional virtues is counterbalanced 
by the theory of the Ubermensch, the highest type of manhood 
which by struggle has escaped from the ordinary weaknesses 
of normal humanity. 

See James Sully, Pessimism: A History and a Criticism (1877); 
Caro, Le Pessimism* au xiy? siecle (1878) ; Saltus, The Anatomy of 
Negation (1886); Tulloch, Modern Theories on Philosophy and 
Religion (1884); William James, The Will to Believe; Diihring, Der 
Werth des Lebens (1865); Meyer, Weltelend und Weltschmerz (1872); 
E. Pfleiderer, Der moderne Pessimismus (1875); Agnes Taubert 
(Hartmann), Der Pessimismus und seine Gegner (1873); Gass, 
Optimismus und Pessimismus (1876); Rehmke, Die Philos. des 
Weltschmerzes (1876); Huber, Der Pessimismus (1876); von Golther, 
Der moderne P. (1878); Paulsen, Schopenhauer, Hamlet, Mephisto- 
pheles (1900); Kowalewski, Studien zur Psychologie des P. (1904). 

PESSINUS (Htffaivovs, Hfffivovs) , an ancient city of Galatia 
in Asia Minor, situated on the lowest southern slope of Mt 
Dindymus, on the left bank of the river Sangarius, not far from 
its source. The ruins, discovered by Texier, lie round the village 
of Bala-Hissar, 8 or 9 m. S.E. of Sivri-Hissar. They include 
a theatre in partial preservation, but they have been mostly 
carried off to Sivri-Hissar, which is largely built out of them. 
Originally a Phrygian city, probably on the Persian " Royal 
Road," it became the capital of the Gallic tribe Tolistobogii 
and the chief commercial city of the district. It contained the 
most famous sanctuary of the mother of the gods (Cybele), who 
here went by the name of Agdistis, and was associated with 
the god Attis, as elsewhere with Sabazius, &c. Her priests 
were also princes, who bore rule not only in the city (the coinage 
of which, beginning about 100 B.C., was for long issued by them) 
but also in the country round, deriving a large revenue from 
the temple estates; but in the time of Strabo (A.D. 19-20) their 
privileges were much diminished. The high-priest always bore 
the god's name Attis. In the crisis of the second Punic War 
(205 B.C.), when the Romans lost faith in the efficacy of their 
own religion to save the state, the Senate, in compliance with 
an oracle in the Sibylline books to the effect that the foreign 



foe could be driven from Italy if the Idaean Mother (Cybele) 
were brought from Pessinus to Rome, sent ambassadors to 
the towii, who obtained the sacred stone which was the symbol 
of the goddess and brought it to Rome, where the worship of 
Cybele was established. But the goddess continued to be 
worshipped in her old home; her priests, the Galli, went out to 
welcome Manlius on his march in 189 B.C., which shows that the 
town was not yet in the hands of the Tolistobogii. Soon after 
this a splendid new temple of the goddess was built by the 
Pergamenian kings. Some time before 164 B.C. Pessinus fell 
into the power of the Gauls, and the membership of the priestly 
college was then equally divided between the Gauls and the 
old priestly families. Like Ancyra and Tavium, Pessinus was 
Romanized first and Hellenized afterwards. Only about A. D. 
165 did Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to be 
assumed; before that we find a deep substratum of Celtic feeling 
and ways, on which Roman elements had been superimposed 
without filtering through a Hellenic medium. Christianity was 
introduced late; it cannot be traced before the 4th century. 
When Galatia was divided into two provinces (A.D. 386-395) 
Pessinus was made the capital of Galatia Secunda or Salutaris, 
and it became a metropolitan bishopric. After the i6th century 
it disappears from history, being supplanted, from the begin- 
ning of the period of Saracen invasion, by the impregnable 
fortress Justinianopolis (Sivri-Hissar), which became the capital 
and the residence of the bishop, thenceforward called " arch- 
bishop of Pessinus or of Justinianopolis." (J. G. C. A.) 

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH (1746-1827), Swiss 
educational reformer, was born at Zurich on the I2th of January 
1 746. His father died when he was young, and he was brought 
up by his mother. At the university of Zurich he was associated 
with Lavater and the party of reform. His earliest years were 
spent in schemes for improving the condition of the people. 
The death of his friend Bluntschli turned him however from 
politics, and induced him to devote himself to education. He 
married at twenty-three and bought a piece of waste land at 
Neuhof in Aargau, where he attempted the cultivation of madder. 
Pestalozzi knew nothing of business, and the plan failed. Before 
this he had opened his farm-house as a school; but in 
1780 he had to give this up also. His first book published at 
this time was The Evening Hours of a Hermit (1780), a series 
of aphorisms and reflections. This was followed by his master- 
piece, Leonard and Gertrude (1781), an account of the gradual 
reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole village, by 
the efforts of a good and devoted woman. It was read with 
avidity in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi was rescued from 
obscurity. The French invasion of Switzerland in 1798 brought 
into relief his truly heroic character. A number of children 
were left in Canton Unterwalden on the shores of the Lake of 
Lucerne, without parents, home, food or shelter. Pestalozzi 
collected a number of them into a deserted convent, and spent 
his energies in reclaiming them. During the winter he personally 
tended them with the utmost devotion, but in June 1799 the 
building was required by the French for a hospital, and his charges 
were dispersed. In 1801 Pestalozzi gave an exposition of his 
ideas on education in the book How Gertrude teaches her Children. 
His method is to proceed from the easier to the more difficult. 
To begin with observation, to pass from observation to conscious- 
ness, from consciousness to speech. Then come measuring, 
drawing, writing, numbers, and so reckoning. In 1799 he had 
been enabled to establish a school at Burgdorf , where he remained 
:ill 1804. In 1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did his 
aest to interest Napoleon in a scheme of national education; 
but the great conqueror said that he could not trouble himself 
about the alphabet. In 1805 he removed to Yverdun on the 
Lake of Neuchatel, and for twenty years worked steadily at 
lis task. He was visited by all who took interest in education 
Talleyrand, Capo d'Istria, and Mme de Stael. He was praised 
}y Wilhelm von Humboldt and by Fichte. His pupils 
ncluded Ramsauer, Delbruck, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Frobel 
and Zeller. About 1815 dissensions broke out among the 
eachers of the school, and Pestalozzj's last ten years were 



PETALITE PETER, ST 



285 



chequered by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he retired to 
Neuhof, the home of his youth; and after writing the adventures 
of his life, and his last work, the Swan's Song, he died at Brugg on 
the 1 7th of February 1827. As he said himself, the real work 
of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdun. It lay in the 
principles of education which he practised, the development of 
his observation, the training of the whole man, the sympathetic 
application of the teacher to the taught, of which he left an 
example in his six months' labours at Stanz. He had the deepest 
effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from 
being exhausted. 

Pestalozzi's complete works were published at Stuttgart in 1819- 
1826, and an edition by Seyffarth appeared at Berlin in 1881. 
Volumes on his life and teaching have been written by De Guimps 
(1889), Barnard (1862), Kriisi (1875) and Pinloche (1901). 

PETALITE, a mineral species consisting of lithium aluminium 
silicate, LiAl(Si2Os)2. The monoclinic crystals approach spodu- 
mene (<?..) in form, which is also a lithium aluminium silicate 
with the formula LiAl(SiOa)2. There is a perfect cleavage parallel 
to the basal plane, and the mineral usually occurs in platy 
cleavage masses; on this account it was named, from Gr. ireTCiAoi' 
(a leaf). The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 2-4 (that 
of spodumene being 3-16). The mineral is colourless or occasion- 
ally reddish, varies from transparent to translucent, and has 
a vitreous lustre. It was discovered in 1800 as cleavage masses 
in an iron mine on the island of Uto in the Stockholm 
archipelago, where it is associated with lepidolite, tourmaline 
(rubellite and indicolite) and spodumene. A variety known as 
" castor " is found as transparent glassy crystals associated with 
pollux (q.v.) in cavities in the granite of Elba. (L.J.S.) 

PETARD (Fr. petard, peter, to make a slight explosion), a 
device formerly used by military engineers for blowing in a 
gate or other barrier. It consisted of a small metal or wooden 
case, usually of sugar-loaf shape, containing a charge of powder 
and fired by a fuse. 

PETAU, DENYS (1583-1652), Jesuit scholar, better known 
as DIONYSIUS PETAVIUS, was born at Orleans on the 2ist of 
August 1583. Educated at Paris University, he came under the 
influence of Isaac Scaliger, who directed his attention towards 
the obscurer fathers of the Church. In 1603 he was appointed 
to a lectureship at the university of Bourges, but resigned his 
place two years later, in order to enter the Society of Jesus. 
For many years he was professor of divinity at the College de 
Clermont, the chief Jesuit establishment in Paris; there he died 
on the i ith of December 1652. He was one of the most brilliant 
scholars in a learned age. Carrying on and improving the 
chronological labours of Scaliger, he published in 1627 an Opus 
de doctrina temporum, which has been often reprinted. An 
abridgment of this work, Rationarium temporum, was translated 
into French and English, and has been brought down in a modern 
reprint to the year 1849. But Petau's eminence chiefly rests 
on his vast, but unfinished, De theologicis dogmatibus, the 
first systematic attempt ever made to treat the development 
of Christian doctrine from the historical point of view. 

PETCHENEGS, or PATZINAKS, a barbarous people, probably 
of Turkish race, who at the end of the gth century were driven 
into Europe from the lower Ural, and for about 300 years 
wandered about the northern frontier of the East Roman 
Empire. (See TURKS). 

PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irerpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, 
Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr), 
a masculine name, derived from the famous surname bestowed by 
Christ upon his apostle Simon (" Thou art Peter and upon this 
rock will I build my church," Matt. xiv. 17-19). The name has 
consequently been very popular in Christian countries. It is 
noteworthy, however, that, out of deference to the " prince of 
the apostles " and first bishop of Rome, the name has never been 
assumed by a pope. The biographies which follow are arranged 
in the order: (i) the apostle; (2) kings; (3) other eminent men. 

PETER, ST, the chief of the Twelve Apostles. He is known 
also by other names : (a) " Simon " (SifMv) in Mark four times 
and Luke seven times. This use is only found in narrative 



before the story of the mission of the apostles: it is also found in 
speeches ; Matthew once, Mark once and Luke twice. (6) " Simon 
who is called Peter " is found in Matthew twice and Acts four 
times, (c) " Simon Peter " is found in Matthew once, Luke 
once, John seventeen times (and perhaps also in 2 Peter i. i, 
where the text varies between Simon and Symeon. (d) " Peter " 
is found in Matthew nineteen times, Mark eighteen times, 
Luke sixteen times, Acts fifty-one times, John fifteen times, 
Galatians twice, i Peter once, (e) " Cephas " is found in John 
once, Galatians four times, i Corinthians four times. (/) Symeon 
(Zvfieuv) is found in Acts once. It appears that the apostle 
had two names, each existing in a double form Greek and 
Hebrew, Symeon (pyc?0 which was Graecized according 
to the sound into Simon, and Cephas (fS'3) which was 
Graecized according to the meaning into Peter (Herpes) . Symeon 
and Simon are both well-known names in Aramaic and Greek 
respectively, but Cephas and Peter are previously unknown. 
Symeon was no doubt his original Aramaic name, and the 
earliest gospel, Mark, which has some claim specially to 
reproduce Petrine tradition, is careful to employ Simon until 
after the name Peter had been given, and not then to use it 
again. The Gospels agree in regarding Cephas or Peter as an 
additional name, which was given by Christ. But they differ as 
to the occasion. According to Mark iii. 13 sqq. it was given on 
the occasion of the mission of the Twelve. According to 
John i. 42 it was given at his first call. According to 
Matt. xvi. 13 sqq. it was given after the recognition of Jesus as 
Messiah at Caesarea Philippi. This last account is the only 
one which describes any circumstances (for a further discussion 
see 3 (2) below). 

According to the Gospels Peter was the son of John ("Icodi^js, 
John i. 42, xxi. 15 seq.) or Jonas ('Icovas, Matt. xxvi. 17). 
According to Mark i. 29 he was a fisherman of Capernaum, 
but John i. 44 describes him and his brother Andrew as of 
Bethsaida. From Mark i. 30 he is seen to have been married, 
and i Cor. ix. 5 suggests (but another interpretation is 
possible) that his wife went with him on his missionary 
journeys. In i Pet. v. 13 Mark is referred to as his son, but 
this is usually interpreted of spiritual kinship. According to 
legend (Acta Nerei et Achillei, and Ada Philippi) he had a 
daughter Petronilla, but there is no reason for thinking that 
this is historical. 

The Gospel narratives are unanimous in describing Peter as 
one of the first disciples of Christ, and from the time of his call 
he seems to have been present at most of the chief Hlstory la 
incidents in the narrative. He formed together the aospels 
with the sons of Zebedee to some extent an inner up to the 
circle within the Twelve, and this favoured group *^ urrec " 
is specially mentioned as present on three occasions 
the raising of the daughter of Jairus (Mark v. 22-43; 
Matt. ix. 18-36; Luke viii. 41-56), the transfiguration (Mark 
ix. 2 sqq.; Matt. xvii. i sqq.; Luke ix. 28 sqq.) and the scene 
in the Garden at Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 32 sqq.; Matt. xxvi. 
36 sqq.). He is also specially mentioned in connexion with 
his call (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18 sqq.; Luke v. i sqq.; 
John i. 40 sqq.); the healing of his wife's mother (Mark i. 21 
sqq.; Matt. viii. 14 sqq.; Luke iv. 38 sqq.); the mission of 
the Twelve Apostles (Mark iii. 13 sqq.; Matt. x. i sqq.; Luke vi. 
12 sqq.); the storm on the Lake of Galilee (Mark vi. 45 sqq.; 
Matt. xiv. 22 sqq.; John vi. 16 sqq.); the Messianic recognition 
at Caesarea Philippi (Mark vii. 27 sqq.; Matt. xvi. 16 sqq.; 
Luke ix. 18 sqq.); the incident of the payment of tribute by 
the coin found in the fish caught by Peter (Matt. xvii. 25 sqq.) 
and with various questions leading to parables or their expla- 
nations (Mark xiii. 36 sqq.; Luke xii. 41; Matt, xviii. 21 sqq.; 
Mark x. 28; Matt. xix. 27; Luke xviii. 28). In the week of 
the Passion he appears in connexion with the incident of the 
withered fig-tree (Mark xi. 21; Matt. xxi. 20); as introducing 
the eschatological discourse (Mark xiii. 3 sqq.); and as promi- 
nent during the Last Supper (Luke xxii. 8 sqq.; John 
xiii. 4 sqq.; Mark xiv. 27 sqq.; Matt. xxvi. 31 sqq.). He 



286 



PETER, ST 



was present in Gethsemane, and tried to offer some resistance to 
the arrest of Jesus (Mark xiv. 47; Matt. xxvi. 51; Luke xxii. 50; 
John xviii. 10). After the arrest he followed the Lord to the 
scene of the trial, but denied him and fled. The message of the 
young man at the tomb (Mark xvi. 4) was especially addressed 
to Peter and it is clear that the genuine conclusion of Mark must 
have contained an account of an appearance of the risen Lord 
to him. 

Out of this mass of incidents the following are central and call 
for closer critical consideration. 

1. The Call of St Peter. (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18-22; 
Luke v. i-n; John i. 40-42). The account in Matthew is 
practically identical with that in Mark and is no doubt taken 
from the Marcan source, but Luke and John have different 
traditions. The main points are as follows: according to Mark, 
at the beginning of the Galilean ministry Jesus saw Peter and 
Andrew fishing. He called them, and they joined him. After 
this he went with them to Capernaum, preached in the syna- 
gogue, and healed Peter's wife's mother. Luke, who certainly 
used Mark, has partly rearranged this narrative and partly 
rejected it in favour of a different version. According to him the 
visit to Capernaum and the healing of the wife's mother preceded 
the call of Peter, and this was associated with a tradition of 
a miraculous draught of fishes. The advantage of the Lucan 
reconstruction, so far as the first part is concerned, is that it 
supplies a reason for Peter's ready obedience, which is somewhat 
difficult to understand if he had never seen Jesus before. But it 
seems probable that this is the motive which led to the redac- 
torial change in Luke, and that the Marcan account, which is 
traditionally connected with Peter, ought to be followed. With 
regard to the narrative of the miraculous draught of fishes, the 
matter is more complicated. Luke obviously preferred this 
narrative to the Marcan account, but the fact that the same 
story comes in John xxi. suggests that there was an early 
tradition of some such incident of which the actual occasion 
and circumstances were undetermined. Luke preferred to 
connect it with the call of Peter, the writer of John xxi. with his 
restitution: probably both are of the nature of redactorial 
guesses, and the Marcan account must be regarded as preferable 
to either. The Johannine account of the call of Peter is quite 
different. According to this it took place immediately after 
the baptism of Jesus, in Judaea not in Galilee. It is connected 
with the giving of the name Peter, which in Mark was not given 
until much later. 

2. The Confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi. (Mark 
viii. 27-33; Matt. xvi. 13-23; Luke ix. 18-22). According to 
Mark, Peter, in answer to the question of Jesus, recognized that 
He was the Messiah, but protested against the prophecy of 
suffering which Jesus then added. This narrative is followed, 
with the exception of the last part, by Luke, who as usual is 
inclined to omit anything which could be regarded as derogatory 
to the Apostles. Matthew also uses the Marcan narrative, but 
adds to it a new section from some other source which suggests 
that the name of Peter was conferred on this occasion not, as 
Mark says, at the first mission of the Twelve and confers on 
him the keys of the kingdom of heaven and the right of binding 
and loosing. This must be probably * interpreted as a reference 
to the prophecy concerning Eliakim in Isa. xxii. 22, and to 
technical use of the words " binding " and " loosing " by the 
scribes in authoritative decisions as to the obligations of the law. 
It thus confers on Peter a position of quite unique authority. 
It must, however, be noted that the power of binding and loosing 
is given in Matt, xviii. 18 to the whole body of disciples. This 
seems to be an alternative version, also found only in Matthew. 
The question of the historical character of the Matthaean 
addition to the Marcan narrative is exceedingly difficult; but it 

1 See, however, A. Sulzbach's article in the Zeitschr. f. N.T. Wiss. 
( I 93)i P- 19- He thinks there is an allusion to a room in the Temple 
where the great key was kept ; this room was called Kephas, because 
the key was placed in a recess closed by a stone. There is also a 
valuable article by W. Kohler in the Archiv fur Religionswiss. 
treating the question of the keys from the point of view of compara- 
tive religion. 



is hard to think that if it were really authentic it would have 
been omitted from all the other gospels, and it perhaps belongs 
to the little group of passages in Matthew which seem to represent 
early efforts towards church legislation, rather than a strictly 
historical narrative. Besides it is noticeable that in one other 
point Matthew has slightly remodelled the Marcan narrative. 
According to the latter Jesus asked, " Whom say men that I 
am ? " and Peter replied " the Messiah," without qualification. 
But in Matthew the question is changed into " Whom say men 
that the Son of Man is?" and, whatever may be the original 
meaning of the phrase " the son of man " it cannot be doubted 
that in the gospels it means Messiah. Thus the simple answer 
of Peter in Mark would be meaningless, and it is replaced by 
" The Messiah, the son of the living God," which is no longer 
a recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus (this is treated in 
Matthew as an already recognized fact, cf. x. 23, xii. 40, &c.), 
but is a definition and an exaltation of the nature of the Messiah. 

3. The Conduct of Peter after the Betrayal. The consideration 
of this point brings one into touch with the two rival traditions 
as to the conduct of the disciples after the betrayal and cruci- 
fixion of the Lord the Galilean and the Jerusalem narratives. 
There is one incident which must in any case be accepted as it 
is found in both narratives. This is the denial of Peter. It 
appears that Peter did not stay with the disciples and neither 
returned home immediately to Galilee (according to the Galilean 
tradition) nor sought hiding in Jerusalem (according to the 
Jerusalem tradition), but followed the Lord at a distance and 
was a witness of at least part of the trial before the Sanhedrim. 
He was detected and accused of being a disciple, which he denied, 
and so fulfilled the prophecy of Jesus that he would deny Him 
before the cock crowed. 

But putting this incident aside, the Galilean and Jerusalem 
traditions do not admit of reconciliation with one another. The 
former is represented by Mark. According to it the disciples 
all fled after the betrayal (though Peter waited until after the 
denial), and afterwards saw the risen Lord in Galilee. The 
details of this narrative are unfortunately lost, as the genuine 
conclusion of Mark is not extant. But Mark xiv. 28 and 
xvi. 7 clearly imply a narrative which described how the disciples 
returned to Galilee, there saw the risen Lord, and perhaps even 
how they then returned to Jerusalem in the strength of their 
newly recovered faith, and so brought into existence the church 
of Jerusalem as we find it in the Acts. It is also clear from Mark 
xvi. 7 that Peter was in some special way connected with this 
appearance of the risen Lord, and this tradition is confirmed by 
i Cor. xv. 5, and perhaps by Luke xxiv. 34. 

The Jerusalem narrative is represented especially by Luke 
and John (excluding John xxi. as an appendix). According to 
this the disciples, though they fled at the betrayal, did not 
return to their homes, but remained in Jerusalem, saw the risen 
Lord in that city, and stayed there until after the day of Pente- 
cost. Attempts to reconcile these two narratives seem to be 
found in Matthew and in John xxi. 

Obviously the choice which has to be made between these 
traditions cannot be adequately discussed here: it must suffice 
to say that intrinsic and traditional probability seem to favour 
the Galilean narrative. If so, one must say that after the denial 
Peter returned to Galilee probably to resume his trade of 
fishing and he there saw the risen Lord. This appearance is 
referred to in i Cor. xv. 5, and was certainly described in the lost 
conclusion of Mark. An account of it is preserved in John xxi., 
but it is here connected probably wrongly with a miraculous 
draught of fishes, just as the account of his call is in Luke. 

Immediately after the resurrection there is a missing link 
in the history of Peter. We know that he saw the risen Lord, 
and, according to the most probable view, that this Hlstory 
was in Galilee; but the circumstances are unknown, after the 
and we have no account of his return to Jerusalem, Resurrection 
as at the beginning of the Acts the disciples are all according to 
in Jerusalem, and the writer, in contradiction to the '* e /*.f " ""' 



Marcan or Galilean narrative, assumes that they had 



Epistles. 



never left it. The first part of the Acts is largely concerned with 



PETER, ST 



287 



the work of Peter. He appears as the recognized leader of the 
Apostles in their choice of a new member of the Twelve to take 
the place of Judas Iscariot (Acts i. 15 sqq.); on the day of 
Pentecost he seems to have played a prominent part in explaining 
the meaning of the scene to the people (Acts ii. 14 sqq.) ; and soon 
afterwards was arrested by the Jews on the charge of being a ring- 
leader in the disorders caused by the healing of the lame man at 
the " Beautiful " gate of the temple, but was released. After 
this he appears as the leader of the apostles in the story of 
Ananias and Sapphira, who perished at his rebuke for their 
duplicity (Acts v. i-n). The last episode of this period is 
another arrest by the priests, which ended in his being scourged 
and released (Acts v. 17 sqq.). 

After this Peter's attention was directed to the growth of 
Christianity in Samaria, and he and John made a journey of 
inspection through that district, laying hands on those who had 
been baptized in order that they might receive the Holy Spirit. 
Here Simon Magus (q.v.) was encountered. He was a magician 
who had been converted by Philip and baptized; he desired to 
obtain the power of conferring the Spirit, arid offered Peter 
money for this purpose, but was indignantly repulsed. After 
this Peter and John returned to Jerusalem. 

During the following stay in Jerusalem, the duration of which 
is not defined, Peter was visited by Paul (Acts ix. 26-29; 
Gal. i. 1 8), and a comparison of the chronological date afforded 
by Gal. i. and ii. points to a year not earlier than 33 (Harnack) 
or later than 38 (C. H. Turner) for this meeting. According to 
Galatians, Paul saw none of the apostles on this occasion except 
Peter and James: it is therefore probable that none of the others 
were then in Jerusalem. 

After this Peter made another journey, visiting especially 
Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea. His stay at Lydda was marked 
by the healing of Aeneas (Acts ix. 32-4) and at Joppa by the 
resuscitation of Tabitha or Dorcas. While at Joppa he stayed 
with Simon the tanner, and thence was summoned to Caesarea 
to Cornelius the centurion. He hesitated whether to go, but 
was persuaded by a vision and the injunction to call nothing 
unclean which God had cleansed. Cornelius was accordingly 
baptized. This is an important incident, as being the first ad- 
mission of a Gentile into the church: but he was already " God- 
fearing," (t>oj3ovfjiti>os TOV 0ov (Acts x. i), which probably 
denotes some sort of connexion with the Jewish synagogue, 
though it is difficult to say exactly what it was. After this inci- 
dent Peter returned to Jerusalem. The members of the Church 
were somewhat shocked at the reception of a Gentile: their view 
apparently was that the only road to Christianity was through 
Judaism. They were, however, persuaded by Peter's speech 
(Acts xi. 417) ; but it is uncertain how far their concession went, 
and in the light of subsequent events it is probable that they still 
regarded circumcision as a necessary rite for all Christians. 

After the return of Peter to Jerusalem the most important 
events were the famine at Jerusalem, and the persecution of the 
Church by Herod. During the latter Peter was put in prison 
(Acts xii. 3 sqq.), but was released by an angel; he first went to 
the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, and afterwards 
went to " another place." This expression has been interpreted 
to mean another town, and even to be an implied reference to 
Rome. This last suggestion, improbable though it be, is his- 
torically important. The persecution of Herod seems to have 
been in his last year, which was probably A.D. 43-44. There was 
a marked tendency to make the duration of Peter's episcopate 
at Rome twenty-five years: and a combination of this tendency 
with the explanation that the trtpos TOTTOS was Rome probably is 
the origin of the traditional dating of the martyrdom of Peter 
in A.D. 67-68. There is, however, no justification for this view, 
and erepos roiros need not mean more than another house in 
Jerusalem. 

The famine referred to in Acts xi. 27 sqq. probably began 
before the death of Herod, but it continued after his death, and 
the relief sent by the church at Antioch to Jerusalem through 
Paul and Barnabas probably arrived about the year 45. It is 
not stated in the Acts that Peter was present, and it is therefore 



usually assumed that he was absent, but Sir W. M. Ramsay has 
argued in -his St Paul the Traveller that the visit of Paul to 
Jerusalem with the famine relief is the meeting between Paul 
and Peter referred to in Gal. ii. as the occasion of an agreement 
between them as to the preaching of the gospel to Jews and 
Gentiles. This view is not generally accepted, but it has the 
great advantage of avoiding the difficulty that otherwise Paul 
in Gal. ii. i sqq. must describe as his second visit to Jerusalem 
what was really his third. According to Ramsay, then, Peter 
was present during the famine, and made a private agreement 
with Paul that the latter should preach to the Gentiles, and so 
far Gentile Christianity was recognized, but the conditions of 
the intercourse between Gentile and Jewish Christians were not 
defined, and the question of circumcision was perhaps not finally 
settled. According to the more popular view the description in 
Gal. ii. applies to Acts xv. the so-called council of Jerusalem. 
This council met after the first missionary journey (c. A.D. 49) 
of Paul to discuss the question of the Gentiles. Peter, who was 
present, adopted the view that Gentile Christians were free from 
the obligation of the law, and this view was put into the form of 
the so-called Apostolic decrees by James (Acts xv. 23 sqq.). 

The next information which we have about Peter is given in 
Gal. ii. 1 1 sqq. According to this he went to Antioch and at 
first accepted the Gentile Christians, but afterwards drew back 
and was rebuked by Paul. On the ordinary interpretation this 
must have taken place after the council, and it is exceedingly 
difficult to reconcile it with the attitude of Peter described in 
Acts xv., so that Mr C. H. Turner thinks that in this respect the 
account in Gal. ii. is not chronological, and places the visit of 
Peter to Antioch before the council. If, however, we take the 
theory of Sir W. M. Ramsay the matter is simpler. We thus 
get the compact between Paul and Peter during the famine, 
then a visit of Peter to Antioch, during which Peter first adopted 
and afterwards drew back from the position which he had agreed 
to privately. 

This vacillation may then have been one of the causes which 
led up to the council, which may have been held before, not, as is 
usually thought, after the sending of the Epistle History 
to the Galatians. For this we have no knowledge after the 
of details for which the same certainty can be claimed. Co"^ 11 of 
There are, however, various traditions of importance. eri 
The following points are noteworthy, i Cor. i. 12 suggests the 
possibility that Peter went to Corinth, as there was a party 
there which used his name. It is, however, possible that this 
party had merely adopted the principles which, as they had been 
told, perhaps falsely, were supported by the leader of the 
Twelve. Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170) states that Peter was in 
Corinth. This may represent local tradition or may be an 
inference from i Cor. i. 12. i Peter suggests a ministry in the 
provinces of Asia Minor. There is, of course, nothing improb- 
able in this, and even if i Peter be not authentic, it is early 
evidence for such a tradition, but it is also possible that Peter 
wrote to converts whom he had not personally made. This 
tradition is found in Origen (Eus. H.E. iii. i), Epiphanius 
(Haer. xxvii., vi.), Jerome (De Vir. ill. i) and other later writers; 
but it is possible that it is merely an inference from the epistle. 
Early tradition connects Peter with Antioch, of which he is said 
to have been the first bishop. The first writer to mention it is 
Origen (Horn. vi. in Lucam), but it is also found in the Clementine 
Homilies and Recognitions (Horn. 20, 23; Recog. 10, 68) and 
probably goes back to the lists of bishops which were drawn up 
in the 2nd century. Other important references to this tradition 
are found in Eus. H.E. iii. 26, 2; Apost. Const, vii. 46; Jerome, 
De Vir. ill. i; Chronicon paschale; and Liber pontificalis. The 
tradition of work in Antioch may well be historical. Otherwise 
it is a rather wild elaboration of Gal. ii. ii. The most important 
and widespread tradition is that Peter came to Rome; and 
though this tradition has often been bitterly attacked, it seems 
to be probable that it is at least in outline quite historical. The 
evidence for it is earlier and better than that for any other 
tradition, though it is not quite convincing. 

The earliest witness to a residence of Peter in Rome is probably 



288 



PETER I. 



i Peter, for (see PETER, EPISTLES OF) it is probable that the 
reference to Babylon ought to be interpreted as meaning Rome. 
If so, and if the epistle be genuine, this is conclusive evidence 
that Peter was in Rome. Even if the epistle be not genuine 
it is evidence of the same tradition. Nor is corroboration lacking : 
Clement (c. A.D. 97) refers to Peter and Paul as martyrs (i Clem. 
5-6) and says that " To these men . . . there was gathered a 
great company of the elect who . . . became an example to us." 
This points in two ways to a martyrdom of Peter in Rome, (i) 
because Peter and Paul are co-ordinated, and it is generally 
admitted that the latter suffered in Rome, (2) because they seem 
to be joined to the great company of martyrs who are to be an 
example to the Church in Rome. Similarly Ignatius (c. A.D. 115) 
says to the Romans (Rom. iv.), " I do not command you as Peter 
and Paul." The suggestion obviously is that the Romans had 
been instructed by these Apostles. By the end of the 2nd 
century the tradition is generally known: Irenaeus (3, i, i), 
Clement of Alexandria (comment, on i Peter), Origen (Horn. vi. 
in Lucam), Tertullian (Scorp. 15, and several passages) are 
explicit on the point, and from this time onwards the tradition 
is met with everywhere. There is also a tradition, found in 
Irenaeus (3, i, i) and in many later writers, and supported by 
i Pet. v. 13, and by the statements of Papias (Eus. H.E. 3, 39, 
15) that Mark acted as Peter's assistant in Rome and that his 
gospel is based on recollections of Peter's teaching. 

This evidence is probably sufficient to establish the fact that 
Peter, like Paul, had a wide missionary career ending in a violent 
death at Rome, though the details are not recoverable. The 
chronological question is more difficult both as regards the 
beginning and the end of this period of activity. 

The Acts, in describing the visits of Peter to Samaria, Joppa, 
Lydda and Caesarea, justify the view that his missionary activity 
began quite early. Gal. ii. II and I Cor. ix. 5 show 
Chronology l ^ at Acts minimizes rather than exaggerates this 
ofPeter's activity; the Antiochian tradition probably repre- 
wider sents a period of missionary activity with a centre 
at Antiocn ; similarly the tradition of work in Asia 
is possibly correct as almost certainly is that of the 
visit to Rome. But we have absolutely no evidence justifying 
a chronological arrangement of these periods. Even the silence 
of Paul in the epistles of the captivity proves nothing except 
that Peter was not then present; the same is true of 2 Tim. 
even if its authenticity be undoubted. 

The evidence as to the date of his death is a little fuller, but 
not quite satisfactory. The earliest direct witness is Tertullian, 
who definitely states that Peter suffered under Nero by cruci- 
fixion. Origen also relates the latter detail and adds that at 
his own request Peter was crucified head downwards. Probably 
John xxi. 18 seq. is a still earlier reference to his crucifixion. 
Fuller evidence is not found until Eusebius, who dates the arrival 
of Peter at Rome in 43 and his martyrdom twenty-five years 
later. But the whole question of the Eusebian chronology 
is very confused and difficult, and the text of the Chronicon is 
not certain. The main objection to this date is based partly 
on general probability, partly on the language of Clement of 
Rome. It is more probable on general grounds that the martyr- 
dom of Peter took place during the persecution of Christians in 
64, and it is urged that Clement's language refers to this period. 
It is quite possible that an error of a few years has crept into the 
Eusebian chronology, which is probably largely based on early 
episcopal lists, and therefore many scholars are inclined to think 
that 64 is a more probable date than 67. As a rule the dis- 
cussion has mainly been between these two dates, but Sir-W. M. 
Ramsay, in his Church in the Roman Empire, has adopted a 
different line of argument. He thinks that i Peter was written 
c. A.D. 80, but that it may nevertheless be Petrine; therefore he 
lays stress on the fact that whereas the tradition that Peter was 
in Rome is early and probably correct, the tradition that he was 
martyred under Nero is not found until much later. Thus he 
thinks it possible that Peter survived until c. 80, and was 
martyred under the Flavian emperors. The weak point of 
this theory is that Clement and Ignatius bring Peter and Paul 



together in a way which seems to suggest that they perished, 
if not together, at least at about the same time. If this view 
be rejected and it is necessary to fall back on the choice between 
64 and 67, the problem is perhaps insoluble, but 64 has somewhat 
more intrinsic probability, and 67 can be explained as due to 
an artificial system of chronology which postulated for Peter an 
episcopate of Rome of twenty-five years a number which comes 
so often in the early episcopal lists that it seems to mean little 
more than " a long time," just as " forty years " does in the Old 
Testament. On the whole 64 is the most probable date, but it 
is very far from certain: the evidence is insufficient to justify 
any assurance. 

For further information and discussion see especially Harnack's 
Chronologic, and Bishop Chase's article in Hastings'! Dictionary of 
the Bible. The latter is in many ways the most complete statement 
of the facts at present published. 

Caius, who lived in the beginning of the 3rd century (see Eus. 
H.E. 2, 25), stated that the rpcnrata (i.e. probably the burial 
place, not that of execution) of Peter and Paul were 
on the Vatican. This is also found in the Acta Pelri, 
84 (in the Lib. Pont., ed. Duchesne, p. 52 seq., 118 
sqq.). From this place it appears that the relics (whether 
genuine or not) were moved to the catacombs in A.D. 258 
(cf . the Depositis martyrum, and see Lightfoot's Clement, i. 249) ; 
hence arose the tradition of an original burial in the catacombs, 
found in the Hieronymian Martyrology. 

For further information and investigations see Duchesne, Liber 
pontificalis; Lipsius, Die Apokr. Apostelgesch.; and Erbes " Die 
Todestage der Apostel Paulus u. Petrus," in Texte und Unter- 
suchungen, N.F., iv. I. (K. L.) 

PETER I., called " the Great " (1672-1725), emperor of Russia, 
son of the tsar Alexius Mikhailovich and Natalia Naruishkina, 
was born at Moscow on the 3oth of May 1672. His earliest 
teacher (omitting the legendary Scotchman Menzies) was the 
dyak, or clerk of the council, Nikita Zotov, subsequently the 
court fool, who taught his pupil to spell out the liturgical and 
devotional books on which the children of the tsar were generally 
brought up. After Zotov's departure on a diplomatic mission, 
in 1680, the lad had no regular tutor. From his third to his 
tenth year Peter shared the miseries and perils of his family. His 
very election (1682) was the signal for a rebellion. He saw one 
of his uncles dragged from the palace and butchered by a savage 
mob. He saw his mother's beloved mentor, and his own best 
friend, Artamon Matvyeev, torn, bruised and bleeding, from 
his retaining grasp and hacked to pieces. The haunting 
memories of these horrors played havoc with the nerves of a 
supersensitive child. The convulsions from which he suffered 
so much in later years must be partly attributed to this violent 
shock. During the regency of his half-sister Sophia (1682-1689) 
he occupied the subordinate position of junior tsar, and after 
the revolution of 1689 Peter was still left pretty much to himself. 
So long as he could indulge freely in his favourite pastimes ship- 
building, ship-sailing, drilling and sham fights he was quite 
content that others should rule in his name. He now found a 
new friend in the Swiss adventurer, Francois Lefort, a shrewd 
and jovial rascal, who not only initiated him into all the 
mysteries of profligacy (at the large house built at Peter's 
expense in the German settlement), but taught him his true 
business as a ruler. His mother's attempt to wean her prodigal 
son from his dangerous and mostly disreputable pastimes, by 
forcing him to marry the beautiful but stupid Eudoxia Lopu- 
khina (Jan. 27, 1689), was a disastrous failure. The young 
couple were totally unsuited to each other. Peter practically 
deserted his unfortunate consort a little more than a year after 
their union. 

The death of his mother (Jan. 25, 1694) left the young 
tsar absolutely free to follow his natural inclinations. Tiring 
of the great lake at Pereyaslavl, he had already seen the sea 
for the first time at Archangel in July 1683, and on the ist of 
May 1694 returned thither to launch a ship built by himself the 
year before. Shortly afterwards he nearly perished during a 
storm in an adventurous voyage to the Solovetsky Islands in 



PETER I. 



289 



the White Sea. His natural bent was now patent. From the 
first the lad had taken an extraordinary interest in the technical 
and mechanical arts, and their application to military and naval 
science. He was taught the use of the astrolabe (which Prince 
Yakov Dolgoruki, with intent to please, had brought him from 
Paris) by a Dutchman, Franz Timmerman, who also instructed 
him in the rudiments of geometry and fortifications. He had 
begun to build his own boats at a very early age, and the ultimate 
result of these pastimes was the creation of the Russian navy. 
He had already surrounded himself with that characteristically 
Petrine institution " the jolly company," or " the company," 
as it was generally called, consisting of all his numerous personal 
friends and casual acquaintances. " The company " was 
graduated into a sort of mock hierarchy, political and ecclesi- 
astical, and shared not only the orgies but also the labours of the 
tsar. Merit was the sole qualification for promotion, and Peter 
himself set the example to the other learners by gradually 
rising from the ranks. In 1695 he had only advanced to the 
post of " skipper " in his own navy and of " bombardier " in 
his own army. It was, however, the disreputable Lefort who, 
for the sake of his own interests, diverted the young tsar from 
mere pleasure to serious enterprises, by persuading him first 
to undertake the Azov expedition, and then to go abroad to 
complete his education. 

By this time the White Sea had become too narrow for Peter, 
and he was looking about him for more hospitable waters. The 
Baltic was a closed door to Muscovy, and the key to it was held 
by Sweden. The Caspian remained; and it had for long been 
a common saying with foreign merchants that the best way 
of tapping the riches of the Orient was to secure possession 
of this vast inland lake. But so long as the Turks and Tatars 
made the surrounding steppes uninhabitable the Caspian was 
a possession of but doubtful value. The first step making for 
security was to build a fleet strong enough to provide against 
the anarchical condition of those parts; but this implied a direct 
attack not only upon the Crimean khan, who was mainly 
responsible for the conduct of the Volgan hordes, but upon the 
khan's suzerain, the Turkish sultan. Nevertheless Peter did 
not hesitate. War against Turkey was resolved upon, and 
Azov, the chief Turkish fortress in those regions, which could 
be approached by water from Moscow, became the Russian 
objective. From the 8th of July to the 22nd of September 
1695 the Muscovites attempted in vain to capture Azov. On 
the 22nd of November Peter re-entered Moscow. His first 
military expedition had ended in unmitigated disaster, yet 
from this disaster is to be dated the reign of Peter the Great. 

Immediately after his return he sent to Austria and Prussia 
for as many sappers, miners, engineers and carpenters as money 
could procure. He meant to build a fleet strong enough to 
prevent the Turkish fleet from relieving Azov. The guards 
and all the workmen procurable were driven, forthwith, in 
bands, to all the places among the forests of the Don to fell 
timber and work day and night, turning out scores of vessels of 
all kinds. Peter himself lived among his workmen, himself 
the most strenuous of them all, in a small two-roomed wooden 
hut at Voronezh. By the middle of April two warships, twenty- 
three galleys, four fireships and numerous smaller craft were 
safely launched. On the 3rd of May " the sea caravan " sailed 
from Voronezh, " Captain Peter Aleksyeevich " commanding 
the galley-flotilla from the galley " Principium," built by his 
own hand. The new Russian fleet did all that was required 
of it by preventing the Turks from relieving Azov by water; 
and on the i8th of July the fortress surrendered. Peter now 
felt able to advance along the path of progress with a quicker 
and a firmer step. It was resolved to consolidate the victory by 
establishing a new naval station at the head of the Sea of Azov, 
to which the name of Taganrog was given. But it was necessary 
to guarantee the future as well as provide for the present. 
Turkey was too formidable to be fought single-handed, and it 
was therefore determined to send a grand embassy to the 
principal western powers to solicit their co-operation against 
the Porte. On the loth of March 1697 this embassy, under the 
xxi. 10 



leadership of Lefort, set out on its travels. Peter attached 
himself to it as a volunteer sailormah, " Peter Mikhailov," 
so as to have greater facility for learning ship-building and other 
technical sciences. As a political mission it failed utterly, the 
great powers being at that period far more interested in western 
than in eastern affairs. But personally Peter learnt nearly 
all that he wanted to know gunnery at Konigsberg, ship- 
building at Saardam and Deptford, anatomy at Leiden, engrav- 
ing at Amsterdam and was proceeding to Venice to complete 
his knowledge of navigation when the revolt of the stryeltsy, 
or musketeers (June 1698), recalled him to Moscow. This 
revolt has been greatly exaggerated. It was suppressed in an 
hour's time by the tsar's troops, of whom only one man was 
mortally wounded; and the horrible vengeance (September- 
October 1698) which Peter on his return to Russia wreaked upon 
the captive musketeers was due not to any actual fear of these 
antiquated warriors, but to his consciousness that behind them 
stood the reactionary majority of the nation who secretly 
sympathized with, though they durst not assist, the rebels. 

Peter's foreign tour had more than ever convinced him of 
the inherent superiority of. the foreigner. Imitation had 
necessarily to begin with externals, and Peter at once fell foul 
of the long beards and Oriental costumes which symbolized 
the arch-conservatism of old Russia. On the 26th of April 1698 
the chief men of the tsardom were assembled round his wooden 
hut at Preobrazhenskoye, and Peter with his own hand deliber- 
ately clipped off the beards and moustaches of his chief boyars. 
The ukaz of the ist of September 1698 allowed as a compromise 
that beards should be worn, but a graduated tax was imposed 
upon their wearers. The wearing of the ancient costumes was 
forbidden by the ukaz of the 4th of January 1700; thenceforth 
Saxon or Magyar jackets and French or German hose were 
prescribed. That the people themselves did not regard the 
reform as a trifle is plain from the numerous rebellions against 
it. By the ukaz of the 2oth of December 1699 it was next 
commanded that henceforth the new year should not be 
reckoned, as heretofore, from the ist of September, supposed 
to be the date of the creation, but from the first day of January, 
anno domini. 

The year 1 700 is memorable in Russian history as the starting- 
point of Peter's long and desperate struggle for the hegemony of 
the north. He had concluded peace with the Porte (June 13, 
1700) on very advantageous terms, in order to devote himself 
wholly to a war with Sweden to the end that Russia might gain 
her proper place on the Baltic. The possession of an ice-free 
seaboard was essential to her natural development; the creation 
of a fleet would follow inevitably upon the acquisition of such a 
seaboard; and she could not hope to obtain her due share of the 
trade and commerce of the world till she possessed both. All the 
conjunctures seemed favourable to Peter. The Swedish govern- 
ment was in the hands of an untried lad of sixteen; and the 
fine fleets of Denmark, and the veteran soldiers of Saxony, were 
on the same side as the myriads of Muscovy. It seemed an 
easy task for such a coalition to wrest the coveted spoil from 
the young Charles XII.; yet Peter was the only one of the three 
conspirators who survived the Twenty-one Years' War in which 
they so confidently embarked during the summer of 1701. He 
was also the only one of them who got anything by it. Charles's 
" immersion in the Polish bog " (1702-1707), as Peter phrased 
it, enabled the tsar, not without considerable expense and trouble, 
to conquer Ingria and lay the foundations of St Petersburg. 
In these early days Peter would very willingly have made peace 
with his formidable rival if he had been allowed to retain these 
comparatively modest conquests. From 1707 to 1709 the war 
on his part was purely defensive; Charles would not hear of 
peace till full restitution had been made and a war indemnity 
paid, while Peter was fully resolved to perish rather than sur- 
render his " paradise," Petersburg. After Pultava (June 26, 
1709), Peter, hitherto commendably cautious even to cowardice, 
but now purled up with pride, rashly plunged into as foolhardy 
an enterprise as ever his rival engaged in. The campaign of 
the Pruth (March to July 1711) must have been fatal to the 



290 



PETER I. 



tsar but for the incalculable behaviour of the omnipotent grand 
vizier, who let the Russian army go at the very instant when it 
lay helpless in the hollow of his hand. Even so, Peter, by the 
peace of the Pruth, had to sacrifice all that he had gained by 
the Azov expedition fifteen years previously. On receiving 
the tidings of the conclusion of the peace of Nystad (August 
30, 1721), Peter declared, with perfect justice, that it was 
the most profitable peace Russia had ever concluded. The 
gain to Russia was, indeed, much more than territorial. In 
surrendering the pick of her Baltic provinces, Sweden had 
surrendered along with them the hegemony of the north, and 
all her pretensions to be considered a great power. 

The Great Northern War was primarily a training school for a 
backward young nation, and in the second place a means of 
multiplying the material resources of a nation as poor as she 
was backward. During the whole course of it the process of 
internal domestic reformation had been slowly but unceasingly 
proceeding. Brand-new institutions on Western models were 
gradually growing up among the cumbrous, antiquated, worn- 
out machinery of old Muscovy; and new men, like Menshikov, 
Goloykin, Apraksin, Osterman,. Kurakin, Tolstoy, Shafirov, 
Prokopovich, Yaguszhinsky, Yavorsky, all capable, audacious, 
and brimful of new ideas, were being trained under the eye of 
the great regenerator to help him to carry on his herculean 
task. At first the external form of the administration remained 
much the same as before. The old dignities disappeared of 
their own accord with the deaths of their holders, for the new 
men, those nearest to Peter, did not require them. " The 
Administrative Senate " was not introduced till 1711, and only 
then because the interminable war, which required Peter's 
prolonged absence from Russia, made it impossible for him to 
attend to the details of the domestic administration. Still 
later came the " Spiritual Department," or " Holy Synod " 
(January 1721), which superseded the ancient patriarchate. It 
was established, we are told, " because simple folks cannot 
distinguish the spiritual power from the sovereign power, and 
suppose that a supreme spiritual pastor is a second sovereign, 
the spiritual authority being regarded as higher and better than 
the temporal." From the first the regenerator in his ukazes 
was careful to make everything quite plain. He was always 
explaining why he did this or that, why the new was better 
than the old, and so on; and we must recollect that these were 
the first lessons of the kind the nation had ever received. The 
whole system of Peter was deliberately directed against the chief 
evils from which old Muscovy had always suffered, such as 
dissipation of energy, dislike of co-operation, absence of responsi- 
bility, lack of initiative, the tyranny of the family, the insignifi- 
cance of the individual. The low social morality of all classes, 
even when morality was present at all, necessitated the regenera- 
tion of the nation against its will, and the process could therefore 
only be a violent one. Yet the most enlightened of Peter's 
contemporaries approved of and applauded his violence; some 
of them firmly believed that his most energetic measures were 
not violent enough. Thus Ivan Poroshkov, Peter's contempor- 
ary, the father of Russian political economy, writes as follows: 
" If any land be over-much encumbered with weeds, corn cannot 
be sown thereon unless the weeds first be burned with fire. 
In the same way, our ancient inveterate evils should also be 
burnt with fire." Peter himself carried this principle to its 
ultimate limits in dealing with his unfortunate son the Tsarevich 
Alexius (<?..). From an ethical and religious point of view 
the deliberate removal of Alexius was an abominable, an 
inhuman crime: Peter justified it as necessary for the welfare 
of the new Russia which he had called into existence. 

The official birthday of the Russian empire was the 22nd 
of October 1721, when, after a solemn thanksgiving service 
in the Troitsa Cathedral for the peace of Nystad, the tsar pro- 
ceeded to the senate and was there acclaimed: " Father of the 
Fatherland, Peter the Great, and Emperor of All Russia." 
Some Russians would have preferred to proclaim Peter as 
emperor of the East; but Peter himself adopted the more 
patriotic title. 



Towards the end of the reign the question of the successior 
to the throne caused the emperor some anxiety. The rightful 
heir, in the natural order of primogeniture, was the little grand 
duke Peter, son of the Tsarevich Alexius, a child of six; but 
Peter decided to pass him over in favour of his own beloved 
consort Catherine. The ustav, or ordinance of 1722, heralded 
this unheard-of innovation. Time-honoured custom had 
hitherto reckoned primogeniture in the male line as the best 
title to the Russian crown; in the ustav of 1722 Peter denounced 
primogeniture in general as a stupid, dangerous, and even 
unscriptural practice of dubious origin. The ustav was but 
a preliminary step to a still more sensational novelty. Peter 
had resolved to crown his consort empress, and on the isth 
of November 1723 he issued a second manifesto explaining at 
some length why he was taking such an unusual step. That 
he should have considered any explanation necessary demon- 
strates that he felt himself to be treading on dangerous ground. 
The whole nation listened aghast to the manifesto. The corona- 
tion of a woman was in the eyes of the Russian people a 
scandalous innovation in any case, and the proposed coronation 
was doubly scandalous in view of the base and disreputable 
origin of Catherine herself (see CATHERINE I.). But Peter had 
his way, and the ceremony took place at Moscow with 
extraordinary pomp and splendour on the 7th of May 1724. 

During the last four years of his reign Peter's policy was 
predominantly Oriental. He had got all he wanted in Europe, 
but the anarchical state of Persia at the beginning of 1722 
opened up fresh vistas of conquest. The war which lasted 
from May 1722 to September 1723 was altogether successful, 
resulting in the acquisition of the towns of Baku and Derbent 
and the Caspian provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad. 
The Persian campaigns wore out the feeble health of Peter, 
who had been ailing for some time. A long and fatiguing 
tour of inspection over the latest of his great public works, 
the Ladoga Canal, during the autumn of 1724, brought back 
another attack of his paroxysms, and he reached Peters- 
burg too ill to rally again, though he showed himself in 
public as late as the i6th of January 1725. He expired in 
the arms of his consort, after terrible suffering, on the 28th 
of January 1725. 

Peter's claim to greatness rests mainly on the fact that from 
first to last he clearly recognized the requirements of the Rus- 
sian nation and his own obligations as its ruler. It would 
have materially lightened his task had he placed intelligent 
foreigners at the head of every department of state, allowing them 
gradually to train up a native bureaucracy. But for the sake of 
the independence of the Russian nation he resisted the temptation 
of taking this inviting but perilous short-cut to greatness. He 
was determined that, at whatever cost, hardship and incon- 
venience, Russia should be ruled by Russians, not by foreigners; 
and before his death he had the satisfaction of seeing every 
important place in his empire in the hands of capable natives 
of his own training. But even in his most sweeping reforms 
he never lost sight of the idiosyncrasies of the people. He 
never destroyed anything which he was not able to replace by 
something better. He possessed, too, something of the heroic 
nature of the old Russian bogatuirs, or demigods, as we see them 
in the skazki and the builinui. His expansive nature loved 
width and space. No doubt this last of the bogatuirs possessed 
the violent passions as well as the wide views of his prototypes. 
All his qualities, indeed, were on a colossal scale. His rage was 
cyclonic: his hatred rarely stopped short of extermination. 
His banquets were orgies, his pastimes convulsions. He lived 
and he loved like one of the giants of old. There are deeds 
of his which make humanity shudder, and no man equally 
great has ever descended to such depths of cruelty and treachery. 
Yet it may generally be allowed that a strain of nobility, of 
which we occasionally catch illuminating glimpses, extorts 
from time to time an all-forgiving admiration. Strange, too, 
as it may sound, Peter the Great was at heart profoundly 
religious. Few men have ever had a more intimate persuasion 
that they were but instruments for good in the hands of God. 



PETER II. PETER (KINGS OF SPAIN) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. Letters and Papers of Peter the Great (Rus.) 
(St Petersburg, 1887, &c.); S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), 
vols. xiv.-xviii. (St Petersburg, 1895, &c.); A. Brueckner, Die 
Europdisierung Russlands (Gotha, 1888) ; R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils 
of Peter the Great, chs. i.-iv. (London, 1897), and The First Romanovs, 
chs. vii.-xiv. (London, 1905); E. Schuyler, Life of Peter the Great 
(London, 1884); K. Wafiszewski, Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1897); 
V. N. Aleksandrenko, Russian Diplomatic Agents in London in the 
i8th Century (Rus.) (Warsaw, 1897-1898; German ed., Guben, 1898) ; 
S. A. Chistyakov, History of Peter the Great (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 
1903); S. M. Solovev, Public Readings on Peter the Great (Rus.) 
(St Petersburg, 1903) ; Documents relating to the Great Northern War 
(Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892, &c.). (R. N. B.) 

PETER II. (1715-1730), emperor of Russia, only son of the 
Tsarevich Alexius, was born on the i8th of October 1715. 
From his childhood the orphan grand duke was kept in the 
strictest seclusion. His grandfather, Peter the Great, systemati- 
cally ignored him. His earliest governesses were the wives 
of a tailor and a vintner from the Dutch settlement; a sailor 
called Norman taught him the rudiments of navigation; and, 
when he grew older, he was placed under the care of a Hungarian 
refugee, Janos Zeikin, who seems to have been a conscientious 
teacher. During the reign of Catherine I. Peter was quite 
ignored; but just before her death it became clear to those 
in power that the grandson of Peter the Great could not be kept 
out of his inheritance much longer. The majority of the nation 
and three-quarters of the nobility were on his side, while his 
uncle, the emperor Charles VI., through the imperial ambassador 
at St Petersburg, Rabutin, persistently urged his claims. The 
matter was arranged between Menshikov, Osterman and Rabu- 
tin; and on the i8th of May 1727 Peter II., according to the 
terms of the supposed last will of Catherine I., was proclaimed 
sovereign autocrat. The senate, the privy council and the 
guards took the oath of allegiance forthwith. The education 
of the young prince was wisely entrusted to the vice-chancellor 
Osterman. Menshikov, who took possession of Peter II. and 
lodged him in his own palace on the Vasily island, had intended 
to marry Peter to his daughter Maria; the scheme was frus- 
trated by his fall (Sept. 21, 1727); but Peter only fell into the 
hands of the equally unscrupulous Dolgoruki, who carried 
him away from Petersburg to Moscow. Peter's coronation 
was celebrated at that city on the 25th of February 1728. 
He was betrothed to Catherine, second daughter of Alexis 
Dolgoruki, and the wedding was actually fixed for the 30th 
of January 1730; but on that very day the emperor died of 
small-pox. 

PETER III. (1728-1762), emperor of Russia, only son of 
Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and of Anne, eldest 
surviving daughter of Peter the Great, was born at Kiel on the 
2ist of February 1728. In December 1741 he was adopted by 
his aunt, Elizabeth Petrovna, as soon as she was safely estab- 
lished on the Russian throne, and on the 1 8th of November 
1742 was received into the Orthodox Church, exchanging his 
original name of Karl Peter Ulrich for that of Peter Fedorovich. 
On the 2ist of August 1745, by the command of his aunt, he 
married the princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt- 
Zerbst, who exchanged her name for that of Catherine Aleksye- 
evna. The union between a prince who physically was some- 
thing less than a man and mentally little more than a child, 
and a princess of prodigious intellect and an insatiable love 
of enjoyment, was bound to end in a catastrophe. But there 
is no foundation for the stories of Peter's neglect and brutality. 
It took the spouses five years to discover that their tastes were 
divergent and their tempers incompatible. Even when Peter III. 
succeeded his aunt on the 5th of January 1762, he paid off all 
the debts that Catherine had contracted without inquiring what 
they were for. On her birthday, in April, he made her a present 
of domains worth 10,000 per annum, though he had already 
readjusted her establishment on a truly imperial scale. A great 
deal has been made of Peter's infidelity towards his consort; 
but the only one who really suffered from his liaison with the 
ugly, stupid and vixenish countess Elizabeth Vorontsova was 
the unfortunate emperor. So far from being scandalized by 
the juxtaposition of "Das Fraulein " in the Winter Palace, 



291 

Catherine accepted it as a matter of course, provided that her 
own relations with the handsome young guardsman, Gregory 
Orlov, were undisturbed. Nor was Peter's behaviour to his 
consort in public of the outrageous character we have been 
led to suppose. Peter, in fact, was too good-natured and incon- 
sequent to pursue, or even premeditate, any deliberate course 
of ill treatment. No personal wrongs, but the deliberate deter- 
mination of a strong-minded, capable woman to snatch the reins 
of government from the hands of a semi-imbecile, was the cause 
of Peter's overthrow, and his stupendous blunders supplied 
Catherine with her opportunity. Peter's foreign policy was 
the absolute reversal of the policy of his predecessor. He had 
not been on the throne for two months when he made pacific 
overtures to the wellnigh vanquished king of Prussia, whom he 
habitually alluded to as " the king my master." Peter's 
enthusiastic worship of Frederick resulted in a peace (May 5) 
and then (June 19) in an offensive and defensive alliance 
between Russia and Prussia, whereby Peter restored to Prussia 
all the territory won from her by Russia during the last five 
years at such an enormous expense of men and money, and 
engaged to defend Frederick against all his enemies. This was 
followed up by a whole series of menacing rescripts addressed 
by Peter to the court of Vienna, in which war was threatened unless 
Austria instantly complied with all the demands of the king 
of Prussia. Finally he picked a quarrel with Denmark for not 
accepting as an ultimatum the terms to be submitted by Russia 
to a peace conference to meet at Berlin for the purpose of 
adjusting the differences between the two powers. On the 6th 
of July the Russian army received orders to invade Denmark 
by way of Mecklenburg. This advance was only arrested, 
when the opposing forces were almost within touch of each 
other, by the tidings that a revolution had taken place at St 
Petersburg, and that Peter III. was already a prisoner in the 
hands of his consort. The coup d'etat of the Qth of July 1762 
properly belongs to the history of Catherine II. (q.v.). Here 
only a few words must be said as to the mysterious death of 
Peter at the castle of Ropsha, to which he was removed imme- 
diately after his surrender. Here he remained from the evening 
of the 9th to the afternoon of the i8th of July. At first Catherine 
and her counsellors could not make up their minds what to do 
with " the former emperor." Imprisonment in Schliisselburg 
for life, or repatriation to Holstein, were proposed only to be 
rejected as dangerous. The Orlovs had even stronger motives 
than Catherine for suppressing the ex-emperor, for Gregory 
Orlov aspired to win the hand as well as the heart of his imperial 
mistress, and so long as Catherine's lawful husband lived, even 
in a prison, such a union would be impossible. The available 
evidence points to the irresistible conclusion that on the after 
noon of the i8th of July 1762, Peter III., with his consort's con- 
nivance, was brutally murdered at Ropsha by Alexius Orlcv. 
Theodore Baryatinski, and several other persons still unknown. 
See R. N. Bain, Peter III., Emperor of Russia (London, 1902): 
V. A. Bilbasov, History of Catherine II. (Rus.), vol. i. (Berlin. 
1900). (R. N. B.) 

PETER (PEDRO), the name of several Spanish kings. 

PETER I., king of Aragon (d. 1104), son of Sancho Ramirez, 
the third in order of the historic kings of Aragon, belonged to 
times anterior to the authentic written history of his kingdom; 
and little is known of him save that he recovered Huesca from 
the Mahommedans in 1096. 

PETER II., king of Aragon (1174-1213), son of Alphonso II. 
and his wife Sancia, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, 
was born in 1174. He had a very marked and curious personal 
character. As sovereign of lands on both sides of the Pyrenees, 
he was affected by very different influences. In his character 
of Spanish prince he was a crusader, and he took a distinguished 
part in the great victory over the Almohades at the Navas de 
Tolosa in 1212. But his lands to the north of the Pyrenees 
brought him into close relations with the Albigenses. He was 
a favourer of the troubadours, and in his ways of life he indulged 
in the laxity of Provencal morals to the fullest extent. We 
are told in the chronicle written by Desclot soon after his time, 



292 



PETER DBS ROCHES 



that Peter was only trapped into cohabiting with his wife by 
the device which is familiar to readers of Measure for Measure. 
In the year after the battle of the Navas de Tolosa he took up 
arms against the crusaders of Simon of Montfort, moved not 
by sympathy with the Albigenses, but by the natural political 
hostility of the southern princes to the conquering intervention 
of the north under pretence of religious zeal. His son records 
the way in which he spent the night before the battle of Muret 
with a crudity of language which defies translation, and tells us 
that his father was too exhausted in the morning to stand at 
Mass, and had to be lifted into the saddle by his squires. Peter 
none the less showed the greatest personal valour, and his body, 
recognizable by his lofty stature and personal beauty, was 
found on the field after the rout (Sept. 12, 1213). 

See Chronicle of James I. of Aragon, translated by J. Forster 
(London, 1883) ; and Life and Times of James the First the Conqueror, 
by F. Darwin Swift (Oxford, 1894). 

PETER III., king of Aragon (1236-1286), son of James the 
Conqueror, and his wife Yolande, daughter of Andrew II. of 
Hungary, was born in 1236. Having married Constance, 
daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, he came forward as the 
representative of the claims of the Hohenstaufen in Naples 
and Sicily against Charles, duke of Anjou. Peter began the 
long strife of the Angevine and Aragonese parties in southern 
Italy. His success in conquering Sicily earned him the surname 
of " the Great." He repelled an invasion of Catalonia under- 
taken by the king of France in support of Charles of Anjou, and 
died on the 8th of November 1286. 

For the personal character of Peter III., the best witness is the 
Chronicle of Ramonde Muntanez reprinted in the original Catalan 
by R. Lanz, Literarischer Verein in Stuttgart, vol. vii. (1844), and in 
French by Buchon, Coll. des chroniques nationales (Pans, 1824- 
1828). See also O. Cartellieri, Peter von Aragon und die Sizilian- 
ische Vesper (Heidelberg, 1904). 

PETER IV., king. of Aragon (d. 1387), son of Alphonso IV. 
and his wife Teresa d'Enteca, is known as " The Ceremonious " 
and also as " he of the dagger." He acquired the first title 
by the rigid etiquette he enforced, as one means of checking 
the excessive freedom of his nobles. The second name was 
given him because he wounded himself with his dagger in the 
act of cutting to pieces the so-called " charter of the Union," 
which authorised the rebellions of his nobles, and which he 
forced them to give up, after he had routed them at the battle 
of Epila in 1348. Of no man of the i4th century can it be more 
truly said that his life was a warfare on earth. He had first 
to subdue his nobles, and to reannex the Balearic Islands to the 
crown of Aragon. When he had made himself master at home, 
he had to carry on a long and fierce contest with his namesake 
Peter the Cruel of Castile, which only terminated when Henry 
of Trastamara succeeded, largely with Aragonese help, in making 
himself king of Castile in 1369. Peter succeeded in making 
himself master of Sicily in 1377, but ceded the actual possession 
of the island to his son Martin. He was three times married: 
to Mary, daughter of Philip of Evreux, king of Navarre; to 
Eleanor, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal; and to Eleanor, 
daughter of Peter II. of Sicily, his cousin. The marriage of his 
daughter by his third marriage, Eleanor, with John I. of Castile, 
carried the crown of Aragon to the Castilian line when his male 
representatives became extinct on the death of his son Martin 

in 1410. 

See Zurita, Angles de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610). 

PETER, " the Cruel," king of Castile (1333-1369), son of 
Alphonso XI. and Maria, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal, 
was born in 1333. He earned for himself the reputation of 
monstrous cruelty which is indicatd by the accepted title. In 
later ages, when the rbyal authority was thoroughly established, 
there was a reaction in Peter's favour, and an alternative name 
was found for him. It became a fashion to speak of him as 
El Justiciero, the executor of justice. Apologists were found to 
say that he had only killed men who themselves would not 
submit to the law or respect the rights of others. There is 
this amount of foundation for the plea, that the chronicler 
Lopez de Ayala, who fought against him, has confessed that the 



king's fall was regretted by the merchants and traders, who 
enjoyed security under his rule. Peter began to reign at the 
age of sixteen, and found himself subjected to the control of 
his mother and her favourites. He was immoral, and unfaithful 
to his wife, as his father had been. But Alphonso XI. did not 
imprison his wife, or cause her to be murdered. Peter certainly 
did the first, and there can be little doubt that he did the second. 
He had not even the excuse that he was passionately in love with 
his mistress, Maria de Padilla; for, at a time when he asserted 
that he was married to her, and when he was undoubtedly 
married to Blanche of Bourbon, he went through the form 
of marriage with a lady of the family of Castro, who bore him 
a son, and then deserted her. Maria de Padilla was only the 
one lady of his harem of whom he never became quite tired. 
At first he was controlled by his mother, but emancipated 
himself with the encouragement of the minister Albuquerque 
and became attached to Maria de Padilla. Maria turned him 
against Albuquerque. In 1354 the king was practically coerced 
by his mother and the nobles into marrying Blanche of Bourbon, 
but deserted her at once. A period of turmoil followed in which 
the king was for a time overpowered and in effect imprisoned. 
The dissensions of the party which was striving to coerce him 
enabled him to escape from Toro, where he was under observation, 
to Segovia. From 1356 to 1366 he was master, and was engaged 
in continual wars with Aragon, in which he showed neither 
ability nor daring. It was during this period that he perpetrated 
the series of murders which made him odious. He confided in 
nobody save the Jews, who were his tax-gatherers, or the 
Mahommedan guard he had about him. The profound hatred 
of the Christians for the Jews and Mudejares, or Mahommedans 
settled among them, dates from the years in which they were 
the agents of his unbridled tyranny. In 1366 he was assailed by 
his bastard brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host 
of soldiers of fortune, and fled the kingdom without daring to 
give battle. Almost his last act in Spain was to murder Suero, 
the archbishop of Santiago, and the dean, Peralvarez. Peter 
now took refuge with the Black Prince, by whom he was restored 
in the following year. But he disgusted his ally by his faithless- 
ness and ferocity. The health of the Black Prince broke down, 
and he left Spain. When thrown on his own resources, Peter 
was soon overthrown by his brother Henry, with the aid of 
Bertrand du Guesclin and a body of French free companions. 
He was murdered by Henry in du Guesclin's tent on the 23rd 
of March 1369. His daughters by Maria de Padilla, Constance 
and Isabella, were respectively married to John of Gaunt, and 
Edmund, duke of York, sons of Edward III., king of England. 

The great original but hostile authority for the life of Peter the 
Cruel is the Chronicle of the Chancellor Pero Lopez de Ayala (Madrid 
1779-1780). A brilliantly written Life is that by Prosper M6rim6e, 
Hist, de Don Pldre I., roi de Castille (Paris, 1848). (D. H.) 

PETER DES ROCHES (d. 1238), bishop of Winchester under 
John and Henry III., and conspicuous among the foreign favour- 
ites to whom these sovereigns owed much of their unpopularity, 
was a Poitevin by extraction. He received the office of chamber- 
lain towards the close of Richard's reign, and under Richard's 
successor became an influential counsellor. In 1205, doubtless 
through John's influence, he was elected to the see of Winchester. 
His election was disputed but, on appeal, confirmed by Pope 
Innocent III., who honoured Peter by consecrating him in 
person. None the less, the new bishop stood by his royal patron 
during the whole period of the interdict. In 1213 he was made 
justiciar in succession to Geoffrey Fitz Peter. This promotion 
was justified by the fidelity with which Peter supported the 
king through the barons' war. At the battle of Lincoln (1217) 
Peter led a division of the royal army and earned some distinc- 
tion by his valour; but he played a secondary part in the 
government so long as William Marshal held the regency. 
After Marshal's death (1219) Peter led the baronial opposition 
to Hubert de Burgh, with varying success. At first the justiciar 
was successful. In 1221 Peter meditated going on crusade; 
1223-1224 saw his party broken up by Hubert's energetic 
measures; in 1227 was himself dismissed from his office and 



PETER LOMBARD PETER OF COURTENAY 



293 



turned his back on England to join the crusade of the emperor 
Frederick II. He was absent from England until 1231; but in 
the meantime enhanced his reputation both as a soldier and 
diplomatist. After the fall of De Burgh he kept in the back- 
ground, but offices and honours were heaped on his dependants, 
especially on his nephew, Peter des Rievaulx, and other Poitevins. 
This foreign party triumphed over the revolt which was headed 
by Richard Marshal in 1233. But the primate, Edmund 
Rich, voiced the general feeling when he denounced Peter 
as ; a mischief maker, and demanded that he should be 
dismissed from court. The king complied, and threatened 
the bishop with charges of malversation. Peter was how- 
ever permitted to leave the country with a pardon (1235); 
he conciliated Gregory IX. by rendering efficient aid in 
a war with the citizens of Rome (1235); and in the next year 
returned without molestation to his see. He was invited to go 
as the king's envoy to the court of Frederick II., but refused 
apparently on the score of ill health. His public reconciliation 
with De Burgh (1236), effected through the mediation of the 
papal legate, provided a dramatic close to their long rivalry, 
but had no political significance, since both were now living in 
retirement. Peter died in 1238, and was buried at Winchester. 
He was undoubtedly a man of a winning personality, a good 
diplomat and financier, a statesman whose unpopularity was 
due in some measure to his freedom from the insularity of the 
Englishmen, against whom he matched himself. But his name 
is associated with a worthless clique of favourites, and with 
the first steps which were taken by Henry III. to establish a 
feeble and corrupt autocracy. 

See C. Petit Dutaillis, Vie et rlgne de Louis VIII. (Paris, 1894) ; 
Lecointre Dupont, Pierre des Roches (Poitiers, 1868) ; Stubbs's Con- 
stitutional History of England, vol. ii. ; H. W. C. Davis, England under 
the Normans and Angevins (1905) ; T. F. Tout in the Political History 
of England, vol. iii. (1905). (H. W. C. D.) 

PETER LOMBARD (c. noo-c. 1160), bishop of Paris, better 
known as Magister sententiarum, the son of obscure parents, 
was born about the beginning of the I2th century, at Novara 
(then reckoned as belonging to Lombardy). After receiving 
his education at Bologna, he removed to France, bearing a 
recommendation to Bernard of Clairvaux, who first placed him 
under Lotolf at Reims, and afterwards sent him to Paris with 
letters to Gilduin, the abbot of St Victor. He soon became 
known as a teacher, and obtained a theological chair in the 
cathedral school. His famous textbook, the Sententiae, was 
written between 1145 and 1150. On the 2gth of June 1159 he 
became bishop of Paris. The accounts of his bishopric are 
satisfactory. There is a charge that he was guilty of simony, 
having received his office through the favour of Philip, brother 
of Louis VII., his former pupil. The date of his death is 
uncertain. According to one account he died on the 2oth of 
July 1 1 60, and as Maurice de Sully became bishop that year the 
statement seems probable. Yet there is evidence for a later 
date, and he may have been set aside for simony. 

His famous theological handbook, Sententiarum libri quatuor, 
is, as the title implies, primarily a collection of opinions of the 
fathers, " sententiae patrum." These are arranged, professedly on 
the basis of the aphorism of Augustine, Lombard's favourite author- 
ity, that " omnis doctrina vel rerum est vel signorum," into four 
books, of which the first treats of God, the second of the creature, 
the third of the incarnation, the work of redemption, and the 
virtues, and the fourth of the seven sacraments and eschatology. 
The Sententiae show the influence of Abelard, both in method and 
arrangement, but lack entirely the daring of Sic et Non. Compared 
with that book they are tame. Gratian's Concordia discordantium 
canonum, as he called his Decretum, was another strong influence, 
Lombard doing in a sense for theology what Gratian did for the canon 
law. The influence of Hugh of St Victor is also marked. The rela- 
tion to the " sentences " of a Gandulph of Bologna (still unpublished) 
has not been established. The most important thing in the book was 
its crystallization of the doctrine concerning the sacramental system, 
by the definite assertion of the doctrine of the seven sacraments, 
and the acceptance of a definition of sacrament, not merely as "a 
sign of a sacred thing," but as itself " capable of conveying the grace 
of which it is the sign." The sentences soon attained immense 
popularity, ultimately becoming the text-book in almost every 
theological school, and giving rise to endless commentaries, over 1 80 
of these being written in England. In 1300 the theological professors 



? K riS j ag L ee m * re J?<:tion of sateen propositions taken from 
Lombard, but their decision was far from obtaining universal 
currency. 

Besides the Sententiae, Lombard wrote numerous commentaries 
(e.g. on the Psalms, Canticles, Job, the Gospel Harmony, and the 
Pauline Epistles), sermons and letters, which still exist in MS. The 
Glossae seu commentarius in psalmos Davidis, were first published 
at Paris in 1533. 

Lombard's collected works have been published in J. P. Migne's 
Patrologie latine, Tome 191 and 192. See also Denifle and Chatelain, 
Chartularium universitatis parisiensis, Tome i. (Paris, 1889) ; Protois, 
Pierre Lombard, son epoque, sa vie, ses ecrits, son influence (Paris, 
1881) ; Kogel, Petrus Lombard in seiner Stellung zur Philosophie des 
Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1897); A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, Bd. 
m. (1890; Eng. trans. 1894-1899); and the article in Herzog-Hauck's 
Realencyklopadie, Bd. xi. (Leipzig, 1902). 

PETER OF AIGUEBLANCHE (d. 1268), bishop of Hereford, 
belonged to a noble family of Savoy and came to England in 
1236 with his master, William of Savoy, bishop of Valence, being 
in attendance on Eleanor of Provence, the bride of Henry III. 
A year or two later he is found residing permanently in England 
as a member of the king's court; before 1239 he was archdeacon 
of Salop, and in 1240 he was chosen bishop of Hereford. In 
1255 Peter acted as Henry's principal agent in the matter 
of accepting the kingdom of Sicily from Pope Alexander IV. 
for his son Edmund, and his rapacious and dishonest methods 
of raising money for this foolish enterprise added not a little 
to the unpopularity which surrounded the king and his foreign 
favourites. When civil war broke out between Henry and his 
barons the bishop remained loyal to his master, and whilst 
residing, almost for the first time, at Hereford he was taken 
prisoner in May 1263. He was, however, released when the 
king and his enemies came to terms, and after a stay in France 
he retired to Savoy, where he died on the 27th of November 
1268. 

See F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre au XIII' sitcle et 
Pierre d' Aigueblanche (Chambdry, 1890). 

PETER OF BLOIS [PETRUS BLESENSIS] (c. 1135-6. 1205), 
French writer, the son of noble Breton parents, was born at 
Blois. He studied jurisprudence at Bologna and theology in 
Paris, and in 1167 he went to Sicily, where he became tutor to 
the young king William II., and keeper of the royal seal (sigil- 
larius). But he made many enemies and soon asked permission 
to leave the country; his request was granted and about 1170 he 
returned to France. After spending some time teaching in 
Paris and serving Rotrou de Perche, archbishop of Rouen, as 
secretary, Peter entered the employ of Henry II. of England 
about 1173. He quickly became archdeacon of Bath and soon 
afterwards chancellor, or secretary, to Richard, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and to Richard's successor, Baldwin, being sent 
on two occasions to Italy to plead the cause of these prelates 
before the pope. After the death of Henry II. in 1189, he was 
for a time secretary to his widow, Eleanor, in Normandy; he 
obtained the posts of dean of Wolverhampton and archdeacon 
of London, but he appears to have been very discontented in his 
later years. He died some time after March 1 204. 

Peter's writings fa|l into four classes, letters, treatises, sermons 
and poems. His Epistolae, which were collected at the request of 
Henry II., are an important source for the history of the time; 
they are addressed to Henry II. and to various prelates and scholars, 
including Thomas Becket and John of Salisbury. His treatises 
include De lerosolymitana peregrinatione accelerando,, an exhortation 
to take part in the third crusade, and Dialogus inter regent Henricum 
II. et abbatem Bonaevallensem; his extant sermons number 65 and 
his poems are unimportant. Peter's works have been printed in 
several collections, including the Patrologia of J. P. Migne and the 
Histor toe francorum scriptores of A. Duchesne. Of separate editions 
the best are those by Pierre de Goussainville (Paris, 1667) and J. A. 
^.iles (Oxford, 1846-1847). 

See the Histoire litteraire de la France, Tome xv. ; W. Stubbs, 
Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (Oxford, 1886); Sir T. D. 
Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue of Materials relating to the History 
of Great Britain (1862-1867), and C. L. Kingsford in vol. xlv. of the 
Dictionary of National Biography (1896). 

PETER OF COURTENAY (d. 1219), emperor of Romania (or 
Constantinople), was a son of Peter of Courtenay (d. 1183), and 
a grandson of the French king, Louis VI. Having, by a first 
marriage, obtained the counties of Nevers and Auxerre, he took 



294 



PETER OF DUISBURG PETER THE HERMIT 



for his second wife, Yolande (d. 1219), a sister of Baldwin and 
Henry of Flanders, who were afterwards the first and second 
emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Peter accom- 
panied his cousin, King Philip Augustus, on the crusade of 1190, 
fought against the Albigenses, and was present at the battle 
of Bouvines in 1214. When his brother-in-law, the emperor 
Henry, died without sons in 1216, Peter was chosen as his 
successor, and with a small army set out from France to take 
possession of his throne. Consecrated emperor at Rome, in a 
church outside the walls, by Pope Honorius III. on the 9th of 
April 1217, he borrowed some ships from the Venetians, prom- 
ising in return to conquer Durazzo for them; but he failed in 
this enterprise, and sought to make his way to Constantinople 
by land. On the journey he was seized by the despot of Epirus, 
Theodore Angelus, and, after an imprisonment of two years, 
died, probably by foul means. Peter thus never governed his 
empire, which, however, was ruled for a time by his wife, 
Yolande, who had succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Two 
of his sons, Robert and Baldwin, became in turn emperors of 
Constantinople. 

PETER OF DUISBURG (d. c. 1326), German chronicler, was 
born at Duisburg, and became a priest-brother of the Teutonic 
Order. He wrote the Chronicon terrae Prussiae, dedicated to 
the grand-master, Werner of Orseln, which is one of the chief 
authorities for the history of the order in Prussia. There is a 
rhyming translation in German by Nicholas of Jeroschin, which, 
together with the original, is published in Bd. I. of the 
Scriptores rerum prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861). 

See M. Toppen, Geschichte der preussischen Historiographie (Berlin, 
1853) I a d W. Fuchs, Peter von Duisburg und das Chronicon olivense 
(Konigsberg, 1884). 

PETER OF MARICOURT (i3th century), a French savant, to 
whom his disciple, Roger Bacon, pays the highest tribute in his 
opus tertium and other works. According to Bacon he was a 
recluse who devoted himself to the study of nature, was able to 
work metals, invented armour and assisted St Louis in one of 
his expeditions more than his whole army. According to Emile 
Charles (Roger Bacon sa vie, ses outrages, ses doctrines, 1861), 
Peter of Maricourt is the Pierre Peregrin (or Pelerin) de Maricourt 
(Meharicourt in Picardy), known also as Petrus Peregrinus of 
Picardy, one of whose letters, De magnete, is partly reproduced 
in Libri's Hist, des sciences mathematiques en Italic (1838), ii. 
70-71, 487-55- 

PETER OF SAVOY (c. 1203-1268), earl of Richmond, younger 
son of Thomas I. (Tommaso), count of Savoy, was born at Susa. 
After spending some years as an ecclesiastic he resigned his 
preferments, and in 1234 married his cousin Agnes, daughter 
and heiress of Aymon II., lord of Faucigny. Accepting an 
invitation from the English king, Henry III., who had married 
his niece, Eleanor of Provence, Peter came to England in 1240, 
and was created earl of Richmond, receiving also large estates 
and being appointed to several important offices. During 
several visits to the continent of Europe Peter had largely 
increased his possessions in Vaud and the neighbourhood, and 
returning to England in 1252 he became associated with Simon 
de Montfort, retaining at the same time the king's friendship. 
Having been employed by Henry to negotiate with the pope 
and with Louis IX. of France, he supported Earl Simon in his 
efforts to impose restrictions upon the royal power; but, more 
moderate than many members of the baronial party, went over 
to Henry's side in 1 260, and was consequently removed from the 
council. In 1263 he left England, and when his nephew, 
Boniface, count of Savoy, died in the same year he assumed the 
title of count of Savoy. This was also claimed by another 
nephew, Thomas; but Peter compelled the inhabitants of Turin 
to submit to him and secured possession of the county. He died 
on the i6th or i7th of May 1268, leaving an only child, Beatrice 
(d. 1310). Peter gave to the castle of Chillon its present form, 
and his name to the Savoy palace in London. He has been 
called le petit Charlemagne, and was greatly praised for his valour 
and his wisdom. 

See L. Wurstemberger, Peter der Zweite, Graf von Savoyen (Zurich, 



1858); F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre (Chambe'ry, 1890); 
and C. B6mont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884). 

PETER THE HERMIT, a priest of Amiens, who may, as Anna 
Comnena says, have attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem 
before 1096, and have been prevented by the Turks from reaching 
his destination. It is uncertain whether he was present at Urban 's 
great sermon at Clermont in 1095; but it is certain that he was one 
of the preachers of the crusade in France after that sermon, and 
his own experience may have helped to give fire to his eloquence. 
He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist preacher: his 
very ass became an object of popular adoration; and thousands 
of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. The crusade 
of the pauperes, which forms the first act in the first crusade, was 
his work; and he himself led one of the five sections of the 
pauperes to Constantinople, starting from Cologne in April, 
and arriving at Constantinople at the end of July 1096. Here 
he joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching 
Constantinople that of Walter the Penniless; and with the 
joint forces, which had made themselves a nuisance by pilfering, 
he crossed to the Asiatic shore in the beginning of August. In 
spite of his warnings, the pauperes began hostilities against the 
Turks; and Peter returned to Constantinople, either in despair 
at their recklessness, or in the hope of procuring supplies. In 
his absence the army was cut to pieces by the Turks; and he was 
left in Constantinople without any followers, during the winter 
of 1096-1097, to wait for the coming of the princes. He joined 
himself to their ranks in May 1097, with a little following which 
he seems to have collected, and marched with them through 
Asia Minor to Jerusalem. But he played a very subordinate 
part in the history of the first crusade. He appears, in the 
beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations 
of the siege of Antioch showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent 
says, a " fallen star." In the middle of the year he was sent by 
the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences by a duel; 
and in 1099 he appears as treasurer of the alms at the siege of 
Area (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions in 
Jerusalem which preceded the battle of Ascalon (August). 
At the end of the year he went to Laodicea, and sailed thence 
for the West. From this time he disappears; but Albert of Aix 
records that he died in 1151, as prior of a church of the Holy 
Sepulchre which he had founded in France. 

Legend has made Peter the Hermit the author and originator 
of the first crusade. It has told how, in an early visit to Jeru- 
salem, before 1096, Christ appeared to him in the Church of the 
Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. The legend is 
without any basis in fact, though it appears in the pages of 
William of Tyre. Its origin is, however, a matter of some 
interest. Von Sybel, in his Geschichte des ersten Kreuszuges, 
suggests that in the camp of the pauperes (which existed side by 
side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the 
crusade told more and more heavily in its progress on the purses 
of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had 
already begun, during the first crusade, parallel to the similar 
glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers. In this idolization 
Peter naturally became the instigator of the crusade, just as 
Godfrey became the founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem and the 
legislator of the assizes. This version of Peter's career seems as 
old as the Chanson des chetifs, a poem which Raymond of Antioch 
caused to be composed in honour of the Hermit and his followers, 
soon after 1130. It also appears in the pages of Albert of Aix, 
who wrote somewhere about 1130; and from Albert it was 
borrowed by William of Tyre. The whole legend of Peter is 
an excellent instance of the legendary amplification of the first 
crusade an amplification which, beginning during the crusade 
itself, in the " idolizations " of the different camps (idola cas- 
trorum, if one may pervert Bacon), soon developed into a regular 
saga. This saga found its most piquant beginning in the 
Hermit's vision at Jerusalem, and there it accordingly began 
alike in Albert, followed by William of Tyre and in the Chanson 
des chetifs, followed by the later Chanson d'Anlioche. 

The original authorities for the story of Peter the Hermit are: 
for the authentic Peter, Anna Comnena and the Gesta Francorum; 



PETER THE WILD BOY PETER, EPISTLES OF 



295 



for the legendary Peter, Albert of Aix. The whole career of the 
Hermit has been thoroughly and excellently discussed by H. Hagen- 
meyer, Peter der Heremite (Leipzig, 1879). (E. BR.) 

PETER THE WILD BOY (ft. 1723-1785), a Hanoverian 
imbecile of unknown parentage, who, having been found living 
wild in the woods near Hanover in 1725, was brought to England 
by order of George I., whose interest had been aroused in the 
unfortunate youth. An extraordinary amount of curiosity and 
speculation concerning Peter was excited in London, and the 
craze was the subject of a biting satire by Swift, and of another 
entitled The Most Wonderful Wonder that ever appeared to the 
Wonder of the British Nation, which has been attributed to Swift 
and Arbuthnot; Defoe also wrote on the subject, and Lord 
Monboddo in his Origin and Progress of Language presents the 
idiot Peter as an illustration of his theory of the evolution of 
the human species. He lived to an advanced age, was seen by 
Lord Monboddo in 1782, and died in 1785. 

See Henry Wilson, The Book of Wonderful Characters (London, 
1869). 

PETER, EPISTLES OF, the two books of the New Testament 
traditionally ascribed to the apostle Peter. 

i PETER 

This epistle is addressed to " the elect who are sojourners 
of the Dispersion [Diaspora] in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, 
Asia and Bithynia." The " Diaspora " was the name generally 
given to the Jews who were " scattered abroad." This suggests 
that the letter was intended for Jewish Christians in the provinces 
mentioned. But i. 14, 18; ii. 9, 10; iv. 3 point rather to Gentile 
Christians, and it is better to take this view, and interpret the 
" Diaspora " metaphorically as referring to the isolated position of 
Christians among the heathen. The general impression made by 
the epistle is that the central idea was to strengthen the courage 
of the recipients, who were likely to undergo per- 
secution, and to enjoin on them conduct which 
would remove all reasonable excuse for thinking 
that Christianity ought to be regarded as a crime. 

Ch. i. 3-12 is an introduction of praise to God that 
he had caused the recipients of the epistle to be 
born again to the living hope in a glorious salvation. 
The rest of the epistle may be divided into three parts : 
(a) i. I3~ii. 10, mainly hortatory injunctions to live 
holy lives in accordance with this new birth, and to 
grow up as God's people in communion with Christ; 
0?) ii. ll-iv. 6, particular directions as to the 
line of conduct to be pursued towards the Gentiles and 
towards those in authority, with special reference to the relations 
of slaves to masters, of wives and husbands to each other, and of 
Christians to one another; to the first of these a passage is appended 
dealing with the sufferings of Christ as an example (ii. 21-25), and 
the whole is completed by an exhortation to meekness and patience 
in suffering, in the light of the sufferings of Christ and the blessings 
given by them both to the living and to the dead; (7) iv. 7~v. II, 
has less cohesion. It begins with exhortations not to forget prayer 
and love, then the believers are warned to be careful to suffer only as 
Christians, not as breakers of the laws. The elders and the younger 
men are reminded of their duties to the community and to one 
another. The whole is brought to a close with an exhortation to all 
to fight manfully against the devil and to trust in God. 

Date and Authorship. These two questions are so closely 
connected that they cannot be considered separately. The 
external evidence of tradition is that the epistle was written by 
St Peter. This can be traced back tq Irenaeus (iv. 9, 2) and 
Clement of Alexandria (Strom, iii. 18, no), and it is thought by 
many writers that 2 Peter iii. i, even if it be not itself Petrine, 
is good evidence that the writer regarded i Peter as apostolic. 
Evidence for its use, without mention of its name, may be found 
in Polycarp, but probably not in the other apostolic fathers 
(cf. The N.T. in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford, 1905, p. 137). It 
is, however, possible that Papias made use of it. It is doubtful 
whether Justin Martyr used it, but probable that it was known 
to Theophilus of Antioch. It is not mentioned in the canon 
of Muratori. Thus external evidence, though unanimous in 
favour of the Petrine authorship, is not sufficient to settle the 
question. The internal evidence consists of (a) evidence bearing 
on the date in connexion with the persecution of Christians, 
03) evidence establishing the relation of the epistle to other 



documents in early Christian history, and (7) evidence concerning 
St Peter personally. 

(a) It is clear from I Peter i. 6, ii. 12, iv. 12-19, v - 9i that the 
epistle was written during a time of persecution. The question 
which is doubtful is to which persecution the description best 
applies. The traditional opinion was that the persecution referred 
to was that under Nero. But it has been argued that the Neroine 
persecution according to Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44) was not a persecution 
of Christians as such, but was rather the result of false accusation. 
Moreover there is no proof that there was any persecution of 
Christians at this time outside Rome, and I Peter alludes to per- 
secution in the provinces of Asia Minor. Therefore many critics 
have felt obliged to bring the epistle into connexion with the epistle 
of Pliny to Trajan, written c. 112, and asking for advice as to the 
procedure to be followed in trials of Christians. This is the earliest 
evidence which implies organized persecution in the provinces in 
question, and therefore Holtzmann, Weizsacker and others regard 
this as fixing the date of the epistle in the beginning of the 2nd 
century, and excluding the Petrine authorship. Against this view 
it may be argued that the epistle describes the beginning of per- 
secution. The writer still hopes that Christians will not be obliged 
to suffer " for the name " and is clearly aware of false accusations 
of crime. On the other hand Pliny's letter implies a time when 
Christianity was in itself a crime and was recognized as such. Thus 
it is urged, probably correctly, that the epistle belongs to the 
beginning of a period of which Pliny's letter marks a later develop- 
ment, and we can only say that c. 112 is the terminus ad quern. The 
terminus a quo is more difficult to find. We do not know with cer- 
tainty when Christianity became a recognized offence, and scholars 
have supported various hypotheses. T. Mommsen, Hardy and 
Sanday think that even under Nero it was criminal to be a Christian ; 
Neumann thinks that this was first the case under Domitian; Sir 
W. M. Ramsay believes that this attitude was one of the results of 
the Jewish War of 70, and ascribes it to Vespasian. If the Domitianic 
date be adopted the Petrine authorship is almost excluded, and it 
is difficult to reconcile the traditional date of St Peter's martyrdom 
with Ramsay's theory. 

03) The relations of I Peter to other books in early Christian 
literature is shown in the following table : 



i Pet. Rom. 


i Pet. Eph. 


i Pet. Jas. 


I Pet. Polycarp. 


i. 14 xii. 2 


i. I seq. i. 3seq. 


i. I i. I 


i. 8 i. 3 


ii. 5 xii. I 


i. 14 ii. 3 


i. 6 seq. i. 2 seq. 


i. 13 ii. I 


ii. 6-10 ix. 32 


ii. 1 8 vi. 5 


i. 24 i. 10 


i. 21 ii. i 


ii. 13 xiii. I 


iii. i v. 22 


i. 23 i. 18 


ii. II v. 3 


iii. 9 xii. 17 


iii. 22 i.2O 


iv. 8 v. 20 


ii. 12 x. 2 


iii. 22 viii. 34 


v. 5 v.2l 


v. 5 seq. iv. 6,10 


ii. 21 viii. 1,2 


iv. 3 xiii. II 






iii. 9 ii. 2 


iv. 7 xiii. 12 






iv. 7 vii. 2 


iv. 9 xiii. 13 






iv. 16 viii. 2 


iv. IO xii. 6 









From this table it is sufficiently plain that i Peter is closely connected 
with Romans, Ephesians, James and Polycarp. The majority of 
scholars are agreed that in the case of Romans the dependence is 
on the side of i Peter, and in the case of Polycarp on the side of 
Polycarp. There is less agreement as to Ephesians and James, 
though in the former case the general opinion favours the dependence 
of i Peter, in the latter case its priority. In England, however, the 
priority of James has been supported by Mayor and Hort. In the 
light of the established use of Romans it is possible that i Peter also 
used other Pauline epistles and some scholars have seen special 
traces of the influence of i Cor. and Gal. (for a list of these cf. 
Holtzmann, Einleitung in das N.T., 3,_p. 314). It has been argued 
that the use of the Pauline epistles is improbable for Peter, but 
this is a subjective argument which is not decisive. 

(y) According to tradition Peter was martyred in Rome, and it 
is probable that this was in the Neroine persecution. If this be so, 
the year 64 is the terminus ad quern of the letter, if it be authentic. 
Ramsay, however, thinks that Peter may have survived this persecu- 
tion and suffered at the beginning of the persecutions which, he 
thinks, were initiated by the Flavian emperors (see PETER, ST: 5, 
4 and 6). 

The whole question of authorship and date is thus a complex 
of smaller problems, many of which do not seem to admit of 
any definite answer. If St Paul's epistle to the Ephesians be 
genuine, and it were really known to the writer of i Peter, and if 
Peter were martyred in 64, the theory of Petrine authorship 
demands that it was written by Peter between 59 and 64. On 
the Petrine hypothesis this is the most probable view. The 
weak point is that it assumes a great spread of Christianity in 
the provinces of Asia Minor outside the activity of Paul, and that 
the official persecution of Christians as such began throughout 
the Roman Empire under Nero, for neither of which is there 



296 



PETER, EPISTLES OF 



corroborative evidence. On the non-Petrine hypothesis a date 
is demanded some time before the letter of Pliny; this suits the 
internal evidence better than any possible on the Petrine 
hypothesis, but it fails to explain the really considerable and 
early evidence for the Petrine authorship, and necessitates 
some purely hypothetical suggestion, such as Harnack's view 
that the epistle was originally anonymous, and that the opening 
and closing sentences (i. I sqq., v. 12 sqq.) were added between 
A.D. 150 and 175, perhaps by the writer of 2 Peter. 

The Provenance of the Epistle. This is defined in i Peter v. 13 
as Babylon. It has sometimes been argued that this is Babylon 
in Mesopotamia, in which there were, until the time of the em- 
peror Caius, many Jews; but no good tradition connects St Peter 
with the evangelization of Mesopotamia, and this district 
would have had little in common with the Graeco-Roman world 
of Asia Minor. Another suggestion is that the Egyptian Babylon 
is meant (Old Cairo); but in the ist century this was probably 
merely a fortress. Thus there is an overwhelming weight of 
opinion in favour of the view that Rome, the Babylon of 
Apocalyptic literature, is intended. This also agrees with the 
tradition in 2 Tim. iv. n, which (cf. i Pet. v. 13) suggests that 
St Mark was in Rome. 

Reception in the Canon. i Peter seems to have been the 
earliest of the Catholic epistles to obtain recognition. By the 
year 200 it was accepted everywhere except in two places the 
church of Edessa, which did not receive the Catholic epistles 
until the sth century, and, if the canon of Muratori is to be 
trusted, the church of Rome. It should, however, be noted that 
Zahn emends the text of the Muratorianum (rather violently) 
so as to include the epistle (see also BIBLE: New Testament 
Canon.) 

The Theology of i Peter. The simplicity of the theology is marked, 
and affords an argument for an early date. Jesus is the Messiah 
of whom the prophets had spoken, and the " Spirit of Christ " is 
identified with the spirit which was in them. His suffering for sin 
had rescued the elect, and was also an example for Christians to 
follow. After his death he preached to the " spirits in prison." 
The source of Christian life is on the one hand belief in God who 
raised the Messiah from the dead, and on the other hand baptism 
which " saves . . . through the resurrection of Jesus Christ." The 
members of the community are " a royal priesthood, a holy nation " 
i.e. inherit the promises made to the Jews, but this inheritance 
is bound up with the strongly eschatological doctrine that Christians 
are strangers in the world, the end of which is at hand. 

The Church Organization of i Peter. This also is very simple and 
primitive, and closely based on the Jewish model. The leaders are 
called presbyters or elders, and their duty is to act as shepherds to 
the flock. Beyond this there is no sign of a developed organization : 
each is to act in accordance with the gift (xipur^o) which he has 
received. There is no trace of a specially set apart ministry either 
for the service of the community or for teaching, as to which the only 
limitation given is " If any man speak let him speak as the oracles 
of God," i.e. probably, in accordance with the Old Testament. 

2 PETER 

This epistle may be divided into five parts, (i) The writer 
who describes himself as " Simon (var. lect. Symeon) Peter, 
a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ," exhorts his readers to 
become perfect in knowledge and virtue, so as to enter the 
kingdom of Christ (i. 3-11). (2) He then explains his desire 
once more to testify to the power of Jesus, and bases his testimony 
partly on his own experience in the Holy Mount (apparently 
a reference to the Transfiguration), and partly on the " word 
of prophecy " (i. 12-21). (3) The mention of prophecy leads 
him to deal with the question of false prophets, who are accused 
of false doctrine and immoral practices. In this section is 
incorporated almost the whole of the epistle of Jude (ii. 1-22). 
(4) He then discusses a special feature of the false teaching, 
viz. doubts thrown on the Parousia, the certainty of which 
for the future he defends (iii. 1-13). Finally he warns his 
hearers that they must be found spotless at the Parousia, 
and emphasizes the agreement of his teaching with St Paul's 
(iii. 14-18). 

The main object of the epistle is to be seen in the attack 
made on the false teachers, and in the defence of the certainty 
of the Parousia of the Lord. 



Authorship. The traditional view is that it was written by 
St Peter from Rome after i Peter. This view is however 
untenable for the following reasons, (i) The epistle is not 
quoted by any writer of the 2nd century, and Origen, who is 
the first to mention it as Petrine, admits that its authorship was 
disputed. (2) The style and language differ greatly from that 
of i Peter: this argument may however fairly be met by the 
suggestion that it is improbable that he wrote Greek with ease, 
and that he may have used a variety of amanuenses. (3) The 
growth of immorality and false teaching to which it witnesses 
seems irreconcilable with a very primitive period of church life. 

(4) It has incorporated the greater part of Jude in a whole- 
sale manner difficult to reconcile with apostolical authorship. 

(5) It seems to attribute a position of scriptural authority to 
the Pauline epistles, and this is improbable either in the mouth 
of Peter, or during the ist century. 

Any one of these arguments would be weighty by itself; in 
combination they form an irresistible cumulative argument 
against the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter. 

Date. If the Petrine authorship be abandoned, the terminus 
ad quern of the epistle is its use by Origen (or, just possibly, by 
Clement of Alexandria), and the terminus a quo is fixed by the 
following considerations: (i) the activity of an immoral 
Gnosticism; (2) the attainment by the Pauline epistles of great 
authority, and their perversion by heretics; (3) the use made 
of the epistle of Jude. 

It is difficult to define the exact date to which these indications 
point, but there is a general agreement that it must be sought 
in the 2nd century, and perhaps the decades immediately before 
and after the year A.D. 150 are the most probable. 

Place of Origin. There is hardly any evidence on this point : 
but the most probable place seems to be Egypt, as the letter has 
points of connexion with Philo, Clement of Alexandria and the 
Apocalypse of Peter, and seems first to have been used in the 
church of Alexandria. It should however be noted that Deiss- 
mann argues on lexical grounds in favour of Asia Minor (Bibel 
Stud. pp. 277-284). 

Relation to other Early Christian Documents. The documents 
with which 2 Peter has the greatest affinities are the epistle 
of Jude, and the Apocalypse of Peter, of which a fragment was 
found in Akhmim in 1892 by M Bouriant. In each case the 
affinity is very close, and is capable of more than one explanation. 
Roughly speaking 2 Peter ii. reproduces Jude: it is possible 
therefore either that Jude is an epitome of 2 Peter or that the 
writer of 2 Peter used Jude. The former hypothesis has a few 
supporters, notably T. Zahn and Spitta, but most writers are 
emphatic in thinking that 2 Peter has incorporated Jude, and 
this view is almost certainly correct (see JUDE, EPISTLE OF). 
The connexion with the Apocalypse of Peter is more complicated: 
the evidence of a comparison between the two documents (which 
is made in full in F. H. Chase's article in Hastings's Dictionary 
of the Bible) is to show that either one document is dependent 
on the other, or both were written by the same person, or both 
come from the same circle. Of these theories there is least to 
be said for the dependence of the Apocalypse on 2 Peter, and 
perhaps most for the dependence of 2 Peter on the Apocalypse. 

Reception in the Canon. 2 Peter was the last of the Catholic 
epistles to be accepted as canonical. It was first regarded as 
such in Alexandria, perhaps originally in connexion with the 
Apocalypse of Peter rather than with i Peter. Thence it passed 
into the canon used by the church of Constantinople, in the 4th 
century made its way into the Roman canon, and in the 6th was 
accepted last of all by the Syria church (see also BIBLE: New 
Testament Canon). 

The Theology of 2 Peter. The theology of the epistle is specially 
marked by two characteristics its high Christology and its eschato- 
logical character. Christ is referred to as " our God and Saviour," 
and the fatherhood of God is apparently only regarded as referring 
to the Divine Son. The work of Christ was the redemption of 
the elect, and this redemption awaits its consummation in the 
Parousia. This is the central point of the teaching of the epistle 
and is obviously directed against that of the false prophets. The 
writer looks forward to the destruction of the present world by fire, 



PETERBOROUGH 



297 



when the wicked, whether angels or men, who have been reserved 
for judgment will be finally condemned, and a new era of happiness 
for the elect will begin. 

Church Organization. There is very little in 2 Peter which throws 
light on church organization. From his silence it would appear that 
the monarchial episcopacy did not yet exist in the church to which 
the writer belonged, and perhaps the prophets were still the chief 
guides, but the argument from silence cannot be pressed. In any 
case the growth of false and immoral prophets, which ultimately 
led to the obsolescence and suppression of this order, was far advanced 
and was one of the reasons which led to the writing of the epistle. 

AUTHORITIES. Besides the books and articles already mentioned 
the following are important: F. H. Chase, " Peter " and " Epistles 
of Peter" in Hastings's Diet. Bible; P. W. Schmiedel, "Simon 
Peter " in the Ency. Bib.; Lightfoot, 5. Clement of Rome, I, 201-315 
and II, 481-502; Harnack, Altchr. Lift, and Chronologic I (the rele- 
vant sections). The relevant sections in the Introductions of 
Holtzmann, T. Zahn, Jiilicher, Salmon, Weiss and Moffat. The 
commentaries of Bigg, Mayor, F. Spitta, Ktihl (in Meyer's Commen- 
tary), von Soden (in Holtzmann's Commentary), and Weiss. 

(K. L.) 

PETERBOROUGH, a town and port of entry of Ontario, 
Canada, and capital of Peterborough county, situated 70 m. 
N.E. of Toronto, on the Otonabee river and the Grand Trunk 
and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901), 11,239. The 
five falls of the Otonabee at this point, with a total descent 
of 50 ft., furnish power for a large and increasing number of 
manufacturing establishments, whilst its canalization as part 
of the Trent canal gives communication with Lake Ontario and 
Georgian Bay. Peterborough has an electric railway, and con- 
tains important manufactories of electrical machinery and 
supplies, iron and steel bridges, agricultural implements and 
cordage, saw, flour and woollen mills. 

PETERBOROUGH, a city and municipal and parliamentary 
borough of Northamptonshire, England, 76 m. N. from London 
by the Great Northern railway; served also by the London & 
North Western, Great Eastern and Midland railways. Pop. 
(1891), 25,171; (1901), 30,872. It is built chiefly along the 
river Nene, on the north side, and on the western border of the 
Fen country. 

The cathedral of St Peter is the third church that has occupied 
the site; the first, founded under Penda, king of the Mercians, 
about 656, was entirely destroyed by the Danes in 870, and the 
second, founded in King Edgar's reign, was accidentally burnt 
in 1 1 1 6. The present building, founded in the following year, 
was, inclusive of the west front, 120 years in building, being 
consecrated on the 4th of October 1237. It embraces in all, 
however, eight periods of construction, and in no other building 
can the transition be better studied through the various grades 
of Norman to Early English, while the later addition is an 
admirable example of Perpendicular. 

The erection proceeded as usual from east to west, and, while 
an increase in elegance and elaboration is observable in the later 
parts, the character of the earlier buildings was so carefully kept in 
mind that no sense of incongruity is produced. A series of uniform 
Decorated windows were added throughout the church in the I4th 
century, and their effect is rather to enhance than detract from the 
unity of design. The choir, early Norman, terminating in an apse, 
was founded in 1117 or 1118 by John de Sais or Sez, and dedicated 
in 1140 or 1143; the aisles of both transepts and the whole of the 
south transept were built by Martin of Bee, 1 140-1 155 ; the remaining 
portions of the transepts and the central tower, of three stories, were 
completed by William de Waterville, 1155-1175; the nave, late 
Norman, was completed by Abbot Benedict, 1177-1193, who added 
a beautiful painted roof of wood ; the western transepts, transitional 
Norman, were the work of Abbot Andrew, 1193-1200; the western 
front, actually a vast portico of three arches, the unique feature of 
the building, and one of the finest specimens of Early English 
extant, must have been built between 1200 and 1250, during which 
period there were several abbots; but there exists no record of its 
reconstruction. The lady chapel, built parallel with the choir by 
William Parys, prior, was consecrated in 1290; the bell-tower was 
erected by Abbot Richard between 1260 and 1274; the south-west 
spire, the pinnacles of the flanking tower of the west portal, and the 
enlargement of the windows of the nave and aisles were the work 
of Henry de Morcot in the beginning of the I4th century; the " new 
building " or eastern chapel in the Perpendicular style, begun in 
1438, was not completed till 1528. In 1541 the church was converted 
into a cathedral, the abbot being made the first bishop. The 
extreme length of the building is 471 ft., and of the nave 211 ft., 
the breadth of the west front being 156; the height of the central 
tower, as reconstructed in the I4th century, was 150, that of the 



spires and tower of the west front is 156 ft. In 1643 the building 
was defaced by the soldiers of Cromwell, who destroyed nearly all 
the brasses and monuments, burnt the ancient records, levelled the 
altar and screen, defaced the windows, and demolished the cloisters. 
To obtain materials for repairs the lady chapel was taken down. 
In the latter part of the l8th century the church was repaved. 
In 1831 a throne, stalls and choir-screen were erected and other 
restorations completed. On account of the insecure state of the 
central tower in 1883 it was taken down; and its reconstruction, 
exactly as it stood with the exception of the four corner turrets 
added early in the igth century, was completed in 1886. The choir 
was reopened in 1889 after being closed, for thorough restoration, 
for six years. 

In 1895 the restoration of the west front and other parts was begun 
in the face of considerable adverse criticism; but the work was 
carried on with the utmost care. During the carrying out of this 
work many interesting discoveries were made, the most important 
being the site of the cruciform Saxon church, enclosed within a crypt 
under the south transept. Catherine of Aragon was interred in the 
cathedral in 1536, and Mary Queen of Scots in 1587, but the body of 
the Scottish queen was removed to Westminster Abbey in 1612. 
Both interments were superintended by Robert Scarlett the sexton, 
commonly known as " Old Scarlett," whose portrait, a copy of the 
original, hangs in the west transept. He died in 1594 at the age of 
98. Of the monastic buildings there are some interesting remains. 
The cathedral is approached by a Norman gateway, above which 
is the chapel of St Nicholas, built by Abbot Benedict, and now used 
as the music school, and on the left the chapel of St Thomas 
a Becket, built by Abbot Ashton in the I5th century as it stands, 
but originally Norman. The gateway to the bishop s palace, for- 
merly the abbot's house, was built by Abbot Godfrey de Croyland 
in 1319, and the deanery gate by Abbot Kirton about 1520. One of 
the canonry houses is formed partly from a hall of the I3th century. 

Peterborough is included for civil purposes in the parish of St 
John the Baptist, but for ecclesiastical purposes it is divided into 
four, the additional parishes being St Mary's Boongate (1857), 
St Mark's (1858) and St Paul's (1869). The old parish church 
of St John originally stood to the east of the cathedral, but was 
rebuilt on its present site in the centre of the city (1401-1407) 
in Perpendicular style. The educational establishments include 
the Henry VIII. grammar or chapter school, which used the 
chapel of St Thomas a Becket until 1885; the St Peter's training 
college for schoolmasters for the dioceses of Peterborough, Ely 
and Lincoln, erected from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott (1864); 
and Deacon's and Ireland's charity school, established in 1721 
for the clothing and educating of twenty poor boys. The 
principal public building is the market house (1671), used as a 
town-hall. The modern prosperity and rapid growth of the 
town are chiefly due to the trade caused by the junction of so 
many railway lines. Adjoining the town are extensive works 
and sheds connected with the Great Northern and Midland 
railways. The principal manufacture is that of agricultural 
implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member 
(since 1885). The municipal borough, incorporated in 1874, 
is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1878 
acres. The soke or liberty of Peterborough, with a population 
of 41,122, constitutes a separate administrative county (1888). 
The diocese of Peterborough includes the whole of Rutland, 
nearly all Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, and small 
portions of Derbyshire and Huntingdonshire. 

Peterborough (Burgh, Burgus sancti Petri) is proved by its 
original name Medehamstede to have been a Saxon village 
before 655 when Saxulf, a monk, founded the monastery on 
land granted to him for that purpose by Penda, king of Mercia. 
Its name was altered to Burgh between 992 and 1005 after 
Abbot Kenulf had made a wall round the minister, but the town 
does not appear to have been a borough until the I2th century. 
The burgesses received their first charter from " Abbot Robert," 
probably Robert of Sutton (1262-1273). Until the igth century 
the dean and chapter, who succeeded the abbot as lords of the 
manor, appointed a high bailiff, and the constables and other 
borough officers were elected at their court leet, but the borough 
was incorporated in 1874 under the government of a mayor, 
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Among the privileges claimed 
by the abbot as early as the I3th century was that of having 
a prison for felons taken in the soke and borough. In 1576 
Bishop Scamble sold the lordship of the hundred of Nassaburgh, 
which is coextensive with the soke, to Queen Elizabeth, who 



298 



PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, EARL OF 



gave it to Lord Burghley, and from that time until the igth 
century he and his descendants, marquesses of Exeter, had a 
separate gaol in Peterborough for prisoners arrested in the soke. 
The trades of weaving and woolcombing were carried on in 
Peterborough in the I4th century. The abbot formerly held 
four fairs, of which two, one called St Peter's fair, granted in 
1189 and now held on the second Tuesday and Wednesday in 
July, and the other called the Bridge fair, granted in 1439 and 
held on the first Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday in October, 
still survive and were purchased by the corporation from the 
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1876. Peterborough sent two 
members to parliament for the first time in 1547. 

PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, CHARLES MOR- 
DAUNT, EASL OF (c. 1658-1735), English soldier and statesman, 
was born about 1658. His father, John Mordaunt, was created 
Viscount Mordaunt of Avalon and Baron Mordaunt of Reigate, 
Surrey, in 1659^ his mother was Elizabeth, the daughter and sole 
heiress of Thomas Carey, the second son of Robert Carey, ist 
earl of Monmouth. 2 He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, 
on the nth of April 1674. When about sixteen years of age 
he joined Sir John Narborough's fleet in the Mediterranean, and 
won his first distinction in arms in the destruction of the dey's 
fleet under the very guns of Tripoli. His father died on the 5th 
of June 1675, and Charles Mordaunt succeeded to the peerage 
as Viscount Mordaunt. On his return from the second expedi- 
tion to Tangier he plunged into active political life as a zealous 
Whig and an unswerving opponent of the duke of York. But 
his continued hostility to James II. forced him to repair to 
Holland in 1686, when he proposed to William of Orange to 
invade England. The disposition of the cold and cautious 
William had little in common with the fierce and turbulent 
Mordaunt. His plan was rejected, though the prudent prince 
of Orange deemed it judicious to retain his services. When 
William sailed to Torbay his friend accompanied him, and when 
the Dutch prince was safely established on the throne of England 
honours without stint were showered upon Lord Mordaunt. 
He was sworn of the privy council on the I4th of February 
1689, on the 8th of April of the same year appointed first lord 
of the treasury, and a day later advanced in the peerage by 
creation as earl of Monmouth. 

In less than a year he was out of the treasury, but he still 
remained by the person of his monarch and was with him in 
his dangerous passage to Holland in January 1691. He was 
one of the eighteen peers who signed the protest against the 
rejection, on the 7th of December 1692, of the motion for the 
appointment of a committee to inquire into the conduct of the 
war, and although William had refused his consent to a bill for 
triennial parliaments in the previous session, Lord Monmouth 
did not shrink from reintroducing it in December 1693. This 
led to a disagreement with the court, though the final breach 
did not take place until January 1697, when Monmouth was 
accused of complicity in Sir John Fenwick's conspiracy and 
of the use of " undutiful words " towards the king. He was 
committed to the Tower, staying in confinement until the 3Oth 
of March 1697, and deprived of his employments. Some 
consolation for these troubles came to him on the igth of June 
of the same year, when he succeeded to the earldom of Peter- 
borough, by the death of his uncle Henry Mordaunt, 2nd earl. 

The four years after his release from the Tower were mainly 
passed in retirement, but on the accession of Anne he plunged 
into political life again with avidity. His first act was to draw 
down on himself in February 1702 the censure of the House of 
Commons for the part which he took in the attempt to secure 
the return of his nominee for the borough of Malmesbury. 
Through the fear of the ministry that his restless spirit would 
drive him into opposition to its measures if he stayed at home, 
he was appointed early in 1705 to command an expedition of 

1 A barony of Mordaunt by writ had existed in the family since 
1529, and the viscount was the second son of the fifth of these 
barons, who in 1628 was created earl of Peterborough, the elder son 
Henry being second earl. 

1 Cr. 1626. This peerage became extinct in 1661 on the death 
of the 2nd earl. 



English and Dutch troops in Spain. He was created the sole 
commander of the land forces in April 1705 and joint-commander 
with Sir Cloudesley Shovel of the fleet on the ist of May, after 
he had been reinstated a member of the privy council on the 
2gth of March. He arrived at Lisbon on the 2oth of June 1705, 
sailed for Barcelona (Aug. 1705) on an expedition for the 
conquest of Catalonia, and began to besiege that town. For 
some weeks the operations were not prosecuted with vigour 
and Peterborough urged that the fleet should transport the 
troops to Italy, but the energetic counsels of the Archduke 
Charles at last prevailed and by the I4th of October the city 
fell into his hands. On the 24th of January 1706 he entered 
Valencia in triumph, but these movements had weakened the 
garrison at Barcelona, which was now besieged by a superior 
French force under Tesse. The garrison, commanded by the 
archduke, defended their positions with great bravery, but 
would have been obliged to surrender had not the fleet of Sir 
John Leake, answering the appeals of Charles but contrary to 
the original orders of Peterborough, come to their assistance 
on the 8th of May, whereupon the French raised the siege on 
the nth of May. It is difficult to understand the action of 
Peterborough during this campaign, unless on the supposition 
that he was out of sympathy with the movement for placing an 
Austrian prince on the throne of Spain. When Charles deter- 
mined upon uniting with Lord Galway's troops and marching 
to Madrid, the advice of Peterborough again hindered his progress. 
At first he urged an advance by Valencia as supplies had there 
been collected, then he withdrew this statement; afterwards 
he delayed for some weeks to join Galway, who was in need of 
succour, but ultimately reached the camp on the 6th of August. 
The leaders of the army differed in their views, and Lord 
Peterborough was recalled to England to explain his conduct 
(March 1707). 

On his return to England in August he allied himself with the 
Tories, and received his reward in being contrasted, much to 
his advantage, with the Whig victor of Blenheim and Malplaquet. 
The differences between the three peers, Peterborough, Galway 
and Tyrawley, who had served in Spain, formed the subject 
of angry debates in the Lords, when the majority declared for 
Peterborough; after some fiery speeches the resolution that he 
had performed many great and eminent services was carried, 
and votes of thanks were passed to him without any division 
(January and February 1708). His new friends were not 
desirous of detaining him long on English soil, and they 
sent him on a mission to Vienna, where he characteristically 
engaged the ministry in pledges of which they disapproved. 
His resentment at this disagreement was softened by the com- 
mand of a cavalry regiment, and by his appointment as a Knight 
of the Garter (Aug. 3 and 4, 1713). With the accession 
of George I. Lord Peterborough's influence was gone. Worn 
out with suffering, he died at Lisbon on the 25th of October 
1735. His remains were brought to England, and buried at 
Turvey in Bedfordshire on the 2 ist of November. 

Lord Peterborough was short in stature and spare in habit of 
body. His activity knew no bounds. He was said to have seen 
more kings and postilions than any man in Europe, and the 
whole point of Swift's lines on " Mordanto " consisted in a 
description of the speed with which he hastened from capital 
to capital. He was eloquent in debate and intrepid in war, but 
his influence in the senate was ruined through his inconsistency, 
and his vigour in the field was wasted through his want of union 
with his colleagues. His first wife, Carey, daughter of Sir 
Alexander Fraser of Dores, Kincardineshire, died on the I3th 
of May 1709, and was buried at Turvey. Some years later 
(1722) he secretly married Anastasia Robinson (c. 1695-1755), a 
famous dramatic singer (from 1714) of great beauty and sweet- 
ness of disposition, daughter of Thomas Robinson (d. 1722), 
a portrait painter; but she was at first unrecognized as his wife, 
and lived apart from him (regarded merely as his mistress) 
with her two sisters at Parson's Green. She remained 
on the operatic stage, till 1724. It was only a few months 
before his death that (after a second marriage ceremony) she 



PETERHEAD PETERS, H. 



299 



was introduced to society as the countess of Peterborough. 
He had a son John (1681-1710) who predeceased him, and was 
therefore succeeded in the title by his grandson Charles (1710- 
1779), whose son Charles Henry (1758-1814), sth earl, died 
unmarried, the honours becoming extinct, except for the 
barony of Mordaunt, which passed to a collateral branch and 
fell into abeyance in 1836. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best accounts of the career of Peterborough 
are in the life by William Stebbing (1890), and the War of the 
Succession in Spain, by Colonel the Hon. Arthur Parnell (1905). 
The earlier lives are founded on the memoir of Captain George 
Carleton (1728), which was analysed by Colonel Parnell, and dis- 
missed as a fictitious narrative inspired by Swift, in the Eng. Hist. 
Rev. (1891), vi. 97-151). (W. P. C.) 

PETERHEAD, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport of 
Aberdeenshire, the most easterly town in Scotland. Pop. 
(1901), 11,794. It is situated about 33 m. by road E.N.E. of 
Aberdeen and 44! m. by rail, via Maud Junction, on the Great 
North of Scotland railway, from which there is a branch line. 
The town is built of the red granite for which it is famous, and 
the quarrying of which for home and foreign use constitutes 
an important industry. Among the principal buildings are the 
town-house (1788), with a spire 125 ft. high, and the Arbuthnot 
museum and art gallery. In front of the town-hall is a statue to 
Field Marshal Keith (born at Inverugie Castle, 2 m. north-west, 
in 1696), which was presented to the burgh in 1868 by William I. 
of Prussia, afterwards German emperor. Peterhead is one 
of the Elgin district group of parliamentary burghs, with Banff, 
Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie and Kintore. It formerly had an 
extensive trade with the ports of the Baltic, the Levant and 
America, and was once a sub-port to Aberdeen, but was made 
independent in 1832. It was also for a long period the chief 
seat of the Greenland trade, but the Arctic seal and whale 
fishery is now extinct. The north and south harbours lie 
between the town and Keith Inch a suburb at the extremity 
of the peninsula on part of which the town is built and the 
isthmus dividing them is pierced by a canal crossed by an iron 
swing-bridge. In the north harbour are two graving docks. A 
third harbour has been built, the area of the three basins 
amounting to 21 acres. In addition to the granite quarrying 
and polishing, the leading industries are ship- and boat-building, 
agricultural implement works and woollen manufactures. The 
herring fleet possesses more than 600 boats and the annual 
catch averages nearly 200,000. About a mile to the south 
is the convict prison for Scotland. Since 1886 the prisoners 
have been employed upon the construction of a vast harbour 
of refuge, for which the breakwater extends from Boddam 
Point northwards across the bay. This great undertaking 
(intended to be completed in 1921) was designed by Sir John 
Coode (d. 1892). Peterhead is the terminus of a cable to 
Norway. About 6 m. south of Peterhead are the famous 
Bullers, or Roarers, of Buchan, an enormous rocky cauldron 
into which the waves pour through a natural arch of granite, 
with incredible violence, in a storm. 

The town and lands belonged of old to the Abbey of Deer, 
built in the I3th century by William Comyn, earl of Buchan; 
but when the abbey was erected into a temporal lordship in the 
family of Keith the superiority of the town passed to the earl 
marischal, with whom it continued till the forfeiture of the 
earldom in 1716. The town and lands were purchased in 1720 
by a fishing company in England and, on their failure, by the 
Merchant Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh for 3000, who are 
still the overlords. Peterhead, made a burgh of barony in 1593 
by George Keith, fifth earl marischal, was the scene of the 
landing of the Pretender on Christmas Day 1715. 

PETERHOF, a town of Russia, in the government of St 
Petersburg, 18 m. W. of the capital, on the south coast of the 
Gulf of Finland. It was founded in 1711 and has grown up 
round the palace built by Peter the Great in 1720; pop., 11,300. 
Peterhof is almost exclusively a residential town, but gem-cutting 
and the manufacture of agricultural implements are carried on. 
The palace has undergone alterations and additions, e.g. by 
Catharine II., but retains a distinct Petrine stamp. It is built 



on a height 50 ft. above the sea, and contains portraits of 
the Russian imperial family and other pictures. A statue of 
Peter the Great was set up near the palace in 1883, and one of 
Francis I. of France in 1896, a gift from the town of Havre to 
Nicholas II. Peterhof is connected with Oranienbaum on the 
west and with Stryelna on the east by series of gardens and 
villas. 

PETERMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1822-1878), German 
cartographer, was born at Bleicherode, near Nordhausen, on 
the i8th of April 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the 
Geographical School of Art in Potsdam, and in 1845 proceeded 
to Edinburgh to assist Dr Keith Johnston in the production 
of an English edition of the Physical Atlas of Berghaus. In 
1847 he came to London, and published among other works, 
an account of Earth's expedition to Central Africa (1855). 
In 1854 he became director of the geographical institute of 
Justus Perthes in Gotha, and editor of the well-known Petermanns 
Mitteilungen. His work did much towards elucidating the 
geography of the interior of Africa and of the North Polar 
regions. Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Bunsen, appointed 
him physical geographer-royal. Petermann died by his own 
hand at Gotha on the 25th of September 1878. 

PETERS (or PETER), HUGH (1598-1660), English Independent 
divine, son of Thomas Dyckwoode, alias Peters, descended from 
a family which had quitted the Netherlands to escape religious 
persecution, and of Martha, daughter of John Treffry of Treffry 
in Cornwall, was baptized on the 29th of June 1598, and was 
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Having experienced 
conversion, he preached in Essex; returning to London he took 
Anglican orders and was appointed lecturer at St Sepulchre's. 
He entertained, however, unorthodox opinions, and eventually 
left England for Holland. He visited Gustavus Adolphus in 
Germany about 1632, and afterwards became the minister of 
the English church at Rotterdam. Here his unorthodox 
leanings again attracted attention, and Peters made a further 
move to New England. He was connected with John Winthrop 
through his wife, and had already formed several friendships 
with the American colonists. He arrived at Boston in October 
1635 and was given charge of the church at Salem. He took a 
leading part in the affairs of the colony, and interested himself 
in the founding of the new colony in Connecticut. In 1641 he 
returned to England as agent of the colony, but soon became 
involved in the political troubles which now began. He became 
chaplain to the forces of the adventurers in Ireland, and served in 
1642 in Lord Forbes's expedition, of which he wrote an account. 
On his return he took a violent part in the campaign against 
Laud, and defended the doctrines of the Independents in a 
preface to a tract by Richard Mather entitled " Church Govern- 
ment and Church Covenant discussed . . ." (1643). He gained 
great reputation as a preacher by his discourses and exhorta- 
tions at public executions, and as army chaplain. In the latter 
capacity he accompanied Lord Warwick's naval expedition to 
Lyme in 1644 and Fairfax's campaigns of 1645 ano " 1646, when 
his eloquence is said to have had a marvellous effect in inspiring 
the soldiers and winning over the people. At the conclusion 
of the war, Peters, though greatly disliked by the Presbyterians 
and the Scots, had attained great influence as leader of the 
Independents. In his pamphlet " Last Report of the English 
Wars " (1646) he urged religious toleration, an alliance with 
foreign Protestants, and an active propagation of the gospel. 
In the dispute between the army and the parliament he naturally 
took the side of the former, and after the seizure of the king by 
the army in June 1647 had interviews with Charles at Newmarket 
and Windsor, in which he favourably impressed the latter, and 
gave advice upon the best course to pursue. He performed 
useful services in the second Civil War, procured guns for the 
besiegers at Pembroke, raised troops in the midlands, and 
arranged the surrender of the duke of Hamilton at Uttoxeter. 
Though at the Restoration he denied any complicity in the 
king's death, it is certain that in his sermons he justified and 
supported the trial and sentence. In August he accompanied 
Cromwell to Ireland, and was present at the fall of Wexford, 



300 

while later he assisted the campaign by superintending from 
England the despatch to Cromwell of supplies and reinforce- 
ments, and was himself destined by Cromwell for a regiment 
of foot. In 1650 he was in South Wales, endeavouring to bring 
over the people to the cause, and subsequently was present at 
the battle of Worcester. At the conclusion of the war Peters 
was appointed one of the preachers at Whitehall and became a 
person of influence. Parliament had already voted him an 
annuity of 200, and Laud's library or a portion of it had been 
handed over to him in 1644. He was one of the committee of 
twenty-one appointed to suggest legal reforms, and he published 
his ideas on this subject, which included a register of wills and 
land titles and the destruction afterwards of the ancient records, 
in his tract, " Good Work for a Good Magistrate " (in 1651), 
answered by R. Vaughan and Prynne. He strongly disapproved 
of the war with Holland, and his interference brought upon 
him some sharp reprimands. In July 1658 he was sent to 
Dunkirk to provide apparently for the spiritual wants of the 
garrison. He preached the funeral sermon on Cromwell, and 
after the latter's death took little part in political events, 
though strongly disapproving of the removal of Richard. He 
met Monck at St Albans on the latter's march to London, but 
met with no favour from the new powers, being expelled from 
his lodgings at Whitehall in January 1660. On the nth of 
May his arrest was ordered. On the i8th of June he was ex- 
cepted from the Act of Indemnity and apprehended on the 2nd 
of September at Southwark. He sent in a defence of himself 
to the Lords, denying any share in the king's death. He was, 
however, tried on the i3th of October and found guilty of high 
treason. His execution took place at Charing Cross on the i6th 
of October, when he behaved with great fortitude, and was 
undismayed by the mangling of the body of John Cook, his 
fellow sufferer, upon which he was forced to look. Before his 
death he wrote " A Dying Father's Last Legacy " to his only 
child, Elizabeth, in which he gave a narrative of his career. 

His death was viewed with greater rejoicings than perhaps 
attended that of any of the regicides, which is the more sur- 
prising as Peters possessed many amiable qualities, and several 
acts of kindness performed by him on behalf of individual 
Royalists are recorded. But he had incurred great unpopularity 
by his unrestrained speech and extreme activity in the cause. 
He was a man, however, of a rough, coarse nature, without 
tact or refinement, of strong animal spirits, undeterred by 
difficulties which beset men of higher mental capacity, whose 
energies often outran his discretion, intent upon the realities 
of life and the practical side of religion. His conception of 
religious controversy, that all differences could be avoided if 
ministers could only pray together and live together, is highly 
characteristic, and shows the largeness of his personal sym- 
pathies and at the same time the limits of his intellectual 
imagination. Peters married (i) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas 
Cooke of Pebmarsh in Essex and widow of Edmund Read, 
and (2) Deliverance Sheffield, by whom he had one daughter, 
Elizabeth. 

PETERS, KARL (1856- ), German traveller in Africa, 
one of the founders of German East Africa, was born at Neuhaus 
on the Elbe on the 2yth of September 1856, the son of a Lutheran 
clergyman. He studied at Gottingen, Tubingen and Berlin, 
and in 1879 was awarded a gold medal by the Berlin University 
for his Frieden zu Venedig. After visiting London to study 
English principles of colonization, he returned to Berlin and 
promoted the German Colonization Society (Deutsche Kolonial- 
verein). In the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two com- 
panions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society 
treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Usagara and Ukami. 
Returning to Europe early in 1885, he formed the German East 
Africa Company, which speedily obtained an imperial charter. 
The story of this enterprise, the first step in the formation of a 
German colony in East Africa, is told under AFRICA, 5. In 
1888 Peters undertook an expedition from the east coast of 
Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha. This expedition 
was not sanctioned by the German government and was regarded 



PETERS, K. PETERSBURG 



by the British authorities as a filibustering exploit. One of its 
objects was to extend the sphere of German influence, and, reach- ' 
ing Uganda early in 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with the king 
of that country in favour of Germany. He left Uganda hastily 
on the approach of a representative of the British East Africa 
Company, and on reaching Zanzibar learned that his treaty was 
useless, as an agreement had been come to between Germany 
and Great Britain whereby Uganda was left in the British sphere. 
On his return to Germany Peters was received with great honours, 
and in 1891 published an account of his expedition entitled 
Die deutsche Emin Pasha Expedition, which was translated 
into English. In 1891 he went out again to East Africa as 
imperial high commissioner for the Kilimanjaro district, and 
in 1892 was one of the commissioners for delimiting the Anglo- 
German boundary in that region. In June 1892 accusations 
were brought against him of excesses in his treatment of the 
natives, and after three investigations had been held he was, 
in 1897, deprived of his commission for " misuse of official 
power." (He was regranted his title of imperial commissioner 
in 1906.) During 1893-1895 Peters was employed in the colonial 
office at Berlin. In 1896 he removed to London, where he 
occupied himself in schemes for exploiting parts of Rhodesia 
and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a company he 
formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombe's 
country on the Zambezi, where in 1899 he discovered ruins of 
ancient cities and deserted gold mines. He returned in 1901 
and gave an account of his explorations in The Eldorado of the 
Ancients (1902). In 1905 he again visited the region between 
the Zambezi and Sabi rivers. 

Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treatises 
Peters published a philosophic work entitled Willenswelt und Welt- 
witte (1883), and a disquisition on early gold production entitled 
Das goldene Ophir Salomos (1895), translated into English in 1898. 

PETERSBURG, a city and port of entry of Virginia, U.S.A., 
on the Appomattox river, at the head of navigation, about 
n m. from its mouth, and 22 m. S. of Richmond. Pop. (1890), 
22,680; (1900), 21,810, (10,751 negroes); (1910), 24,127. It is 
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the 
Norfolk & Western railways. The river, which is here spanned 
by two steel bridges and one frame bridge, is navigable to this 
point for vessels of 8 ft. draught at mean high water, and has been 
greatly improved by the Federal government, which in 1909 
was engaged in deepening the whole channel to 12 ft. at mean 
high water and in excavating at Petersburg a new channel into 
which to deflect the river. In and about the city there is much 
of historic and scenic interest. At Blandford, a suburban 
hamlet, is the picturesque old Blandford church, erected about 
1734. Petersburg has two public parks, and among its institu- 
tions are a home for the sick (1886), an orphanage for girls and 
another for negroes, the state central hospital for the insane 
(negroes), the southern female college (non-sectarian, 1863), 
the university school for boys, the Bishop Payne divinity 
school (Protestant Episcopal) for negroes, and the Virginia 
normal and industrial institute (opened in 1883), also for 
negroes. There are two national cemeteries near Petersburg 
Poplar Grove (about 4 m. south), containing about 6200 graves, 
and City Point (about 9 m. east), containing about 5100 graves; 
and in Blandford cemetery there are about 30,000 graves of 
Confederate dead. In this cemetery General William Phillips is 
buried, and there is a monument to Captain McRae, commander 
of the " Petersburg Volunteers," whose bravery in 1812-1813 
prompted President Madison to call Petersburg the " Cockade 
City." The falls above the city furnish abundant water-power, 
and the city has various manufactures. The factory product 
was valued at $5,890,574 in 1905, 11-3% more than in 1900; 
in both 1900 and 1905 Petersburg ranked fourth among the 
cities of the state in the value of factory products. From 
Petersburg are shipped quantities of trunks and bags, peanuts, 
tobacco and cotton. In 1909 the foreign trade, wholly imports, 
was valued at $360,774. The city was formerly in Chesterfield, 
Dinwiddie and Prince George counties, but is now independent 
of county government. 



PETERSBURG 



301 



An Indian village formerly stood on or near the site of the 
present city, and Fort Henry was built here by the whites in 
1645. Petersburg was founded in 1733 by Colonel William 
Byrd (1674-1744) and Peter Jones, and was named (first Peter's 
Point, and then Petersburg) in honour of the latter; in 1748 it 
was incorporated as a town. On the 25th of April 1781 a 
skirmish was fought in front of Petersburg between a British 
force of about 3000 under General William Phillips (i73i?-i78i) 
and about one-third of that number of American militia under 
Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben; the Ameiicans were 
defeated, and the British occupied the town. In the following 
month the British again entered Petersburg (General Phillips 
dying here on the i3th), but they were soon dislodged by 
Lafayette who shelled the town. General Winfield Scott was 
born near Petersburg, and practised law here for two years 
before he entered the army. Petersburg was chartered as a city 
in 1850. 

PETERSBURG CAMPAIGN (1864-65). The name of Peters- 
burg is associated with operations in the American Civil War, 
which formed the sequel of the Wilderness Campaign (q.v.) 
and the last act in the struggle between the armies of Grant 
and Lee for supremacy. Petersburg (see above) and Richmond, 
Virginia, connected by rail and covered north, east and south by 
forty miles of entrenchments, formed the salients of a vast 
fortress, into which reinforcements and supplies could be poured 
from the rear by means of the James Canal, the Virginia Central, 
the Lynchburg, the Danville and the Weldon railroads the 
latter bringing up to Petersburg from Wilmington (225 m. 
distant) the cargoes of blockade runners. Petersburg became 
a strategic point as soon as Grant determined to carry the army 
of the Potomac defeated at Cold Harbor on the Chicka- 
hominy (see WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN) south of Richmond, 
and, being joined by Butler's Army of the James (momentarily 
checked in the Bermuda Hundred Peninsula by a small army 
under Beauregard), to operate from the east, depending on 
the James river, as his line of supply, while the policy of the 
Confederate president was to employ Robert E. Lee's army to 
protect his capital. Petersburg was nearer than Richmond 
to the navigable part of the James River City Point is only 
10 m. distant and the capture of Petersburg would involve 
the fall of Richmond and the capitulation or flight of Lee's 
army. 

As early as the pth of June 1864, while the main armies were 
still north of the James and Petersburg was garrisoned by a 
brigade under General Wise, a Federal expedition from the Army 
of the James approached the city. General Gillmore on the 
City Point road discovered strong earthworks, and General 
Kautz attacking on the Jerusalem Plank road experienced a 
repulse: the total force of the Federals was 4500, and Wise's 
brigade (2400) had been quickly reinforced from Beauregard's 
central position at Bermuda Hundred. A week later a more 
serious attempt was made to break through the defences, while 
General Lee's main army was detained north of Richmond. 
Grant detached the II. and XVIII. corps under Generals Smith 
and Hancock, who were to unite and operate along the City Point 
railroad and capture the outer line of works about 2 m. from 
Petersburg while a demonstration was made along the Norfolk 
railroad by cavalry under Kautz. On the 15th of June Smith 
attacked and captured five redans before Hancock came up, and 
when next day Burnside's corps (IX.) arrived and General 
Meade assumed control of the three corps, he attacked again at 
6 p.m. On the i7th of June Warren's (V.) corps arrived, and 
Meade made a third assault with two corps (V., IX.). On the 
i8th of June the attack was renewed with three corps (II., V., 
IX.) late in the afternoon, and the results of the four days' 
fighting were so far satisfactory that ground was won which 
could be entrenched and held against any sortie of the 
Petersburg garrison. Probably on the i8th of June the town of 
Petersburg might have been captured by Meade, for at this crisis 
General Lee was in temporary eclipse. For four days Lee had 
refused to credit any report to the effect that Grant was crossing 
the James: his cavalry could not ascertain that the enemy in his 



front at Malvern Hill (VI. corps and Wilson's cavalry division), 
despite its menacing attitude towards Richmond, was only a 
flank guard for a movement to the south. 

It was late on the i7th of June when General Beauregard, who 
had for three days valiantly held his main lines south of Richmond 
with some 14,000 infantry against three Federal corps, succeeded 
in convincing General Lee that the main army was again (as 
in 1862 on the Chickahominy) in the wrong place at the wrong 
time. But when at last the Confederate leader was aroused 
to a sense of his danger he soon filled every road with divisions 
marching to save Petersburg: they marched all night; they slept 
in the trenches on arrival, and on the igth of June these rein- 
forcements convincedGeneralMeade that his main attack between 
the Appomattox river and the Jerusalem Plank noad was 
delivered a day too late. At a cost of 10,000 casualties Meade 
had gained half a mile of ground, but the Confederates in falling 
back had concentrated, and now that the new plan of operations 
was exposed and the main bodies were again face to face the 
power of defensive tactics reasserted itself. 

Yet June was not to close without adding some 8000 men to 
the Federal casualties, for in addition to daily losses by sharp- 
shooting along the front, over 5000 men fell or were captured in 
operations directed against the southern railroads. Grant had 
resolved to deprive his enemy of these lines of supply: his plan 
was to prolong his line of investment westward and construct 
redoubts (such as Fort Davis, Fort Steadman and Fort Sedgwick) 
as a continual menace to the Confederate garrison and a defence 
against sorties, while his cavalry and portions of five corps 
(II., V., VI., IX. and XVIII.) engaged in enterprises which it 
was hoped would tempt General Lee to fight outside his works. 
A decisive victory in the field, a successful assault on the defences 
between Richmond and Petersburg, or the complete destruction 
of the railroads, would precipitate disaster to the South, and of 
these three methods the last would be the surest in its effects. 
But such a method was necessarily slow. General Wilson's 
cavalry (5500) destroyed 30 m. of the Lynchburg or South Side 
railroad, and 30 m. of the Danville railroad, together with 
Burkesville Junction and Ream's Station on the Weldon rail- 
road; but Wilson was caught by the Confederate cavalry 
100 m. from Petersburg and escaped only by destroying his 
wagons and limbers and abandoning twelve guns. Even the 
Virginia Central railroad could not be held by the Federals 
after Sheridan with the main body of the cavalry had been 
called back to White House on the Pamunkey to escort a great 
convoy. 

By the end of June the whole of the rival forces were concen- 
trated about the Richmond-Petersburg defences, and General 
A. P. Hill had already sallied out on the 2ist of June to drive the 
II. corps from the Weldon railroad. Federal policy and Federal 
strategy, surmounting the crisis of Cold Harbor, were, however, 
at last in unison. Grant had a free hand in respect both of, his 
dispositions and his resources in men and money, and had resolved 
to use unsparingly the resources placed at his disposal. Early 
in July Grant, however, found himself compelled to detach a 
corps (VI.) to strengthen the garrison at Washington, for General 
Early had frustrated Hunter's attempt against Lynchburg (see 
SHENANDOAH VALLEY), driving Hunter into West Virginia, and 
then, pushing down the Shenandoah and across the Potomac, 
had arrived within a day's march of the Federal capital. This 
operation checked Grant's enterprises about Petersburg and 
restricted the Federal front to the ground east of the Weldon 
railroad. 

On the 25th of July Grant resolved to weaken the enemy on 
his front by a demonstration north of the James, and accordingly 
moved a corps (II.) and two cavalry divisions across the river 
to Malvern Hill under cover of Foster's corps (X.). But Lee 
possessed the inner line, and the Federal detachment found two 
cavalry divisions in its front, and the Richmond defences had 
been strengthened by three divisions of infantry. The expedi- 
tion then returned to take part in a fresh enterprise, which 
ended disastrously to the Federals. A Confederate redan faced 
Burnside's IX. corps 100 yds. distant, and this strong work was 



302 



PETERSBURG 



to be destroyed by mining operations. The mine was fired and 
produced a crater 150 ft. long, 60 ft. wide and 25 ft. deep, into 
which the Federals poured (see FORTIFICATION and SIEGECRAFT). 
But the troops could be got no farther before the Confederate 
counter-attack was upon them, and Burnside's corps lost 4300 
men. 

In August Sheridan was detached to operate against General 
Early in the Shenandoah Valley, and in order to prevent Lee rein- 
forcing Early another demonstration against Richmond was planned. 
But Lee again strengthened his left and the result of the fighting was 
a loss to the Federals of nearly 3000 men. Meanwhile another attack 
on the Weldon railroad by Warren's corps was met by General 
A. P. Hill on the 2Oth of August, and the possession of the railroad 
cost the Federals 3000 men. A further attempt on this railroad by 
Hancock's II. corps and Gregg's cavalry division at a point 3 m. 
south of Ream's Station was foiled by A. P. Hill, now aided 
by Hampton's two cavalry divisions, and the Federals here lost 
2372 men and nine guns. The Confederates therefore still retained 
possession of the railroad to a point within one day's hauling by 
wagon to Petersburg. During September another Federal enter- 
prise north of the James with two corps (X.and XVIII.) resulted in 
the capture of Fort Harrison near Chaffin's Bluff, and when General 
Lee reinforced his left and counter-attacked his troops were repulsed 
with heavy loss. The Federals lost over 2000 men and failed in the 
attempt to take Fort Gilmer, Confederate gunboats below Rich- 
mond aiding in the defence. While this operation was in progress 
on the Confederate left under General Grant's personal supervision 
General Lee was apprised of attacks on his extreme right at Peebles 
Farm by four divisions, which captured a Confederate redoubt 
covering the junction of t\vo routes to the south-west. General 
A. P. Hill prevented a further advance of the enehiy by a vigorous 
counter-attack which caused Warren and Parke (IX.) a loss of 2000 
men, of whom nearly three fourths allowed themselves to be captured ; 
for the rants, since the losses of the May battles, had been swamped 
with drafted and substitute recruits of poor quality and almost 
insignificant training. The Federals had, however, by these opera- 
tions pushed their entrenchments beyond the Weldon railroad 
westward and established new works within a mile of the Con- 
federate right. A minor engagement north of the James on the 7th 
of October between the Confederates and troops of the Army of the 
James was without result. At the end of the month, however, 
General Grant resolved to make a serious effort to bring the South 
Side railroad within his lines and deprive the enemy of this important 
line of supply. Parke (IX.), Warren (V.) and Hancock (II.) took each 
some 1 1 ,000 infantry with four days' rations on pack animals. Gregg's 
cavalry (3000) were attached for the operation, and both Grant and 
Meade accompanied the troops. General A. P. Hill encountered this 
force with three divisions (14,000) and Hampton's cavalry (5500), 
and he contrived to hold two corps with one division and attack 
Hancock (II.) with his main body. The Federals were stopped 
when 6 m. from the railway, and Hancock lost 1500 men at Hatcher's 
Run on the 27th of October. 

General Lee meanwhile had been called to Chaffin's Bluff, where 
again Butler was demonstrating with the Army of the James (X. and 
XVIII.) on the approaches to Richmond. But General Lon^street 
signalized his return to duty with the Army of Northern Virginia 
by driving Butler off with a 
loss of over 1000 men (action 
of Fair Oaks, Oct. 27). General 
Warren in December con- 
trived to evade A. P. Hill 
and destroy the Weldon rail- 
road at a point on the 
Meherrin river 40 "m. from 
Petersburg. 

There seemed now little to 
tie Lee to the lines he had so 
painfully constructed, for his 
army was without coffee, tea 
or sugar, and though of foreign 
meat they had 3J million 
rations and of bread 2 J million 
rations in reserve, the troops 
lived chiefly on corn-bread. 
A. P. Hill on the right held 
on from Hatcher's Run to 
Fort Gregg, whence Gordon 
and Anderson prolonged to 
the left as far as the Appo- 
mattox River, and Long- 
street continued the line 
north wards along the Bermuda 
front across the James as far 
as White Oak Swamp (37 m. 
in all). The winter was very 
severe, and the continual 



trenchiwork and outpost duty overtaxed the patriotism of Lee s 
50,000 infantry and stimulated desertion. Supplies were brought 
in by wagons, as the rolling stock on the railways was worn, and on 
the 5th of February 1865 General Gregg moved out to the Boydton 
Plank road to intercept the Confederate convoys. He was sup- 
ported by Warren, while Humphreys's (II.) corps connected the 
detachment with the left of the Federal entrenchments. Gregg 
failed to locate the wagons, and General Lee, hearing of the expedi- 
tion, sent out A. P. Hill and Gordon, who drove him back with a loss 
of 1500 men. Sheridan, after driving Early from the Valley in 
October, destroyed the railways about Staunton, Charlottesville, 
Gordonsvillt arid Lynchburg, and even rendered the James Canal 
useless as a line of supply. 

Grant recalled Sheridan to the main army in March, and at the 
end of the month prepared for a turning movement westward with 
the object of drawing Lee out of his lines. General Lee had 
anticipated such an attempt, and had resolved to abandon his lines 
and unite with Johnston in North Carolina, but the roads were not 



PETERSBURG 

1864-5 

Scale, 1:300,000 

English Miles 
10 ap 30 40 




PETERSBURG 



303 



yet in a state for the movement of artillery and wagons, and it was 
to gain time that he now ventured upon a bold offensive stroke 
a night attack upon a strong point in the Federal right called Fort 
Stedman the success of which might cause Grant to call in the 
detachments on his left and so facilitate the proposed movement 
of the Confederates towards Danville. General Gordon was selected 
to conduct the operation and his corps was strongly reinforced for the 
occasion. The opposing lines east of Petersburg were only 150 yds., 
and the sentries of each side 50 yds. apart. Gordon's men dashed 
across the intervening space at 4.30 a. m. on the 25th March, 
surprised the garrison and occupied Fort Stedman, but when day- 
light broke and the Federal guns could be brought to bear the 
fort was found to be untenable. Parke's corps (IX.) recaptured 
the work at a cost of 1000 men, and Gordon fell back, leaving nearly 
2000 men in the hands of the Federals. The encounter would have 
proved a more desperate one if reinforcements on both sides had 
arrived in time, but Gordon had cut the telegraph which connected 
Fort Stedman with Grant's headquarters at City Point, and the 
Confederate train service broke down and delayed the arrival from 
Richmond of reinforcements for Gordon. Meanwhile, 6 m. west- 
ward, Humphreys' corps (II.) attacked A. P. Hill's defences and 
gained some local success, seizing the Confederate picket line between 
the Weldon railroad and the Boydton Plank road, which was at 
once occupied and strengthened by the Federals. The Federals 



had resolved to attempt. Grant meanwhile had ordered Warren 
to support Sheridan in an attack on Pickett at daybreak. Sheridan 
advanced on the 1st of April and at 3 p.m. issued his orders for 
attack, explaining verbally a diagram he had prepared for the use 
of divisional commanders. Pickett held a front of 2 m. with 
a division of cavalry on either flank and Rosser's cavalry guarding 
the baggage behind Hatcher's Run, and when attacked at 4 p.m. 
he was with Rosser i J m. in rear. Before Pickett was made 
aware of a battle being in progress his left was destroyed. 
General Lee seems to have made no arrangements to support Pickett 
in this direction. Pickett's right was defended by w7 H. F. Lee 
against the attack of Custer's cavalry division. The position was 
finally carried by Sheridan's cavalry under Devin dismounting and 
storming the entrenchments frontally, taking three guns and loo 
prisoners. Warren's corps claimed to have captured a battery 
and 3244 prisoners. Yet Sheridan was dissatisfied with Warren's 
conduct of the battle and deprived him of his command. Pickett's 
routed brigades were rallied at the South Side railroad and incor- 
porated with General Anderson's command. But the Confederates 
had lost White Oak road, and unless General Lee was capable of 
a vigorous counterstroke on his extreme right it was evident he must 
also lose the South Side railroad. Grant, fearing such an enterprise, 
at once reinforced Sheridan and ordered Humphreys' corps (II.) 
to attack in his front if necessary to prevent Lee moving troops 



LEE'S RETREAT 

Scale, nyta. 




lost 2000 men and the Confederates perhaps twice as many on the 
25th of March. 

At this time Sherman visited Grant at City Point and proposed to 
move at the end of ten days on Burkesville Junction and so cut off 
Lee from Danville and Lynchburg; it was while Sherman was pre- 
paring for this operation that Grant finished the campaign. Secure 
behind his formidable entrenchments, Grant had no fear for his 
base on the James river, and transferred large bodies of troops to 
his left without Lee's knowledge. Sheridan was instructed on the 
29th of March to gain the enemy's right and rear, moving by Din- 
widdie Court-House and across Hatcher's Run. But the Confederates 
were on the alert ; A. P. Hill extended his right, and Fitzhugh Lee's 
cavalry was brought to Sutherland Station. Sheridan had already 
encountered the cavalry divisions of W. H.F. Lee and Rpsseron the 
south side of Stony Creek. Warren's corps, moving up the 
Quaker road, met a force under R. H. Anderson and drove it 
back to its works on White Oak road. Sheridan got into a 
flat country of dense forest, tangled undergrowth, streams and 
swamps, and the soil of clay and sand was impassable for wagons and 
guns until he had corduroyed the route. On the 29th of March General 
Lee perceived that the object of Grant was to seize the routes south 
of the Appomattox river, by which a movement south-west 
could be made to unite with Johnston's army, and he endeavoured 
to cover these roads, including the South Side railway, without 
losing his hold upon his works about Richmond and Petersburg, 
but in such a contest it was evident that numbers must prevail. 

Sheridan's cavalry had reached Five Forks on the White Oak 
road on the 3ist of March, and on his right Humphreys and Warren 
(II. and V.) held the Confederates to their works along Hatcher's 
Run astride the Boydton Plank road; yet General Lee was able to 
concentrate his three cavalry divisions, and supported them by 
Pickett's five infantry brigades. Sheridan was attacked and driven 
south as far as Dinwiddie Court-House; but Humphreys and 
Warren held their ground (action of White Oak Ridge) at a cost 
of 2000 men. Pickett and the cavalry fell back-to Five Forks during 
the night and hastily entrenched, for he had been ordered by General 
Lee to defend this position; since the Boydton Plank road could 
no longer be held, the possession of White Oak road and the South 
Side railway became necessary for the flank movement which Lee 



westward, but Lee made no effort, and so Sheridan was free to, 
operate farther in the direction of the enemy's right and rear, while 
Humphreys held the enemy in his front. Sheridan remained in- 
active for a few days, and Lee hoped still to gain time for the roads 
to dry before evacuating his lines and removing his stores and 
ammunition by wagons towards Lynchburg. 

But a crisis was approaching. Sheridan's success at Five Forks 
induced Grant to deliver a general assault on the 2nd of April. The 
Confederate lines were bombarded all night, and on the 2nd of April 
with Wright's corps (VI.), Grant attacked the weakest part of 
Lee's line and broke through, losing noo men in fifteen minutes. 
A. P. Hill was killed and his corps broke and was cut off from Peters- 
burg. At the same time Parke's corps (IX.), on the right of the VI., 
attacked the eastern front near Fort Stedman but was repulsed by 
General Gordon; then Humphreys' corps (II.) on the left attacked 
a Confederate division under General Cook and forced it to retreat 
to the South Side railroad, where at Sutherland Station a final 
attack dispersed it. Wright, supported by General Ord (command- 
ing the army of the James), afterwards won the strong redoubts called 
Fort Whitworth and Fort Gregg, and thus in a day the Confederate 
right had been destroyed from Five Forks to a point some two or 
three miles west of the Weldon railroad; 10 m. of works had been 
abandoned, and if Grant had been able to press his advantage at 
once the campaign must have ended. But Grant was not aware 
of the enemy s plight, and so resolved to wait until the morrow 
before completing his victory. 

Meanwhile Lee perceived that the hour had come at last when 
Richmond must fall, and at 3 p.m. he had issued orders for the march 
of the remains of his army to Lynchburg via Amelia Court-House, 
a march which evidently must partake of the character of a forlorn 
hope, hastily planned, ill prepared and undertaken by troops whom 
the disasters and hardships of the past six months had weakened 
physically and morally. Yet if General Lee had negotiated a peace 
on the 2nd of April military history would have lost one of the finest 
examples of the strategic pursuit. Lee's proposed movement 
involved the transfer of the army and its baggage 100 m. on 
bad roads across the front of an enemy, and nothing but mis- 
chance could prevent the Federals intercepting Lee's columns by a 
shorter route and seizing the South Side railroad, on which supplies 



34 



PETERSFIELD PETER'S PENCE 



were to be forwarded from Lynchburg to meet the retreating army 
at Appomattox Station, Pamplin's Station or Farmville Station. 
The Appomattox River must be crossed two or three times at its 
bends. Various creeks and swamps must be bridged, and the bridges 
destroyed after crossing. The wagons must move on separate 
roads so as to be covered by the columns during marches and combats 
and the infantry were to follow the artillery on the roads. Long- 
street, Gordon and Mahone's division from Richmond all crossed 
the Appomattox at Goode's Bridge. Ewell from Richmond crossed 
the Appomattox by the Danville railroad bridge north of Goode's 
Bridge. Anderson commanded the flank guard which moved south 
of the Appomattox with Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Lee gained a 
day's start by moving at 8 p.m., for Grant was making preparations 
to attack the entrenchments next day (April 3), but the start 
was lost in waiting for President Davis and the government to 
escape from Richmond. Sheridan's cavalry'got in touch with Lee's 
flank-guard early on the 3rd of April near Namozine Creek, and at 
nightfall the Federal advance-guard was at Deep Creek. On the 
4th of April Sheridan reached the Danville railroad at Jetersville, 
and on the 5th of April, when Lee had halted at Amelia Court-House 
on the railroad to get supplies, the Federals had three corps (II., V., 
VI.) in support of Sheridan 8 m. nearer than Lee to Sailor's Creek, 
the point where he must again cross the Appomattox. 

Interception was now a. fait accompli, though neither side suspected 
it. Lee was unaware of the enemy's proximity, and Grant believed 
that Lee would remain at Amelia Court-House, but Lee moved west, 
crossing Flat Creek at sunset on the 5th of April, to the Lynchburg 
railroad (Longstreet, marching all night, reached Rice's Station at 
sunrise on the 6th of April), while the Federals moved northwards 
on the same day to attack Lee at Amelia Court-House, and on 
discovering Lee's evasion the three Federal corps effected a wheel to 
the left and advanced on Deatonsville after bridging Flat Creek. 
Meanwhile the Federal cavalry under H. E. Davies had located a con- 
voy at Painesville, dispersed its escort (Gary's cavalry) and burned 
the wagons, but had in turn been attacked by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry 
at Amelia Springs and driven back on the main body at Flat Creek. 
Fitzhugh Lee had then marched to join Longstreet at Rice's Station. 
The rearguard of Lee's army was Gordon's command, which was at 
Amelia Springs after Ewell's command had passed through at 
8 a.m. on the 6th of April. Lee's army stretched put for 15 m., and 
when its advance-guard was at Rice's Station its rearguard was 
still at Amelia Court-House. Rice's Station is 62 m. from Lynch- 
burg. Here Longstreet waited all day for Anderson, Ewell and 
Gordon to close up, and then at night he moved 8 m. to Farm- 
ville Station (68 m. south-west of Richmond), where 80,000 rations 
had been railed from Lynchburg ; then Longstreet crossed the Appo- 
mattox, and on the 7th of April moved forward towards Lynchburg, 
covered by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Meanwhile the remainder of Lee s 
army had been practically destroyed within a few miles of the point 
where Longstreet had halted. Sheridan's cavalry and two corps 
(II., VI.) had caught the commands of Anderson, Ewell and Gordon, 
entangled with the trains of the army attempting the passage of 
Sailor s Creek; and General Ord would even have attacked Long- 
street (whom he had located late at night) had his march been 
delayed. 

Complete disorganization and demoralization seem to have taken 
hold of the Confederates on this fatal day, and General Lee was 
once more in eclipse. The Federal cavalry headed the column, 
the infantry attacked it, and Ewell became the victim of tactical 
envelopment after Anderson had been defeated and Gordon had 
failed to save the trains of the army. Surrender or massacre being 
the alternatives, Ewell surrendered, and here in fact the career 
of the army of Northern Virginia ended, as Grant plainly saw, for 
at 5.30 p.m. he addressed a demand to Lee for his capitulation. 
But Lee clung to his diminished forces for another 48 hours. Long- 
street in crossing at Farmville had burnt the bridges and thus 
delayed Ord in pursuit; but Gordon and Mahone, who had crossed 
at High Bridge (the railroad bridge), failed to check Humphreys' 
corps (II.), and so were compelled to take up a position of defence 
on the north bank until darkness enabled them to slip away. General 
Lee was with this remnant of the army. Meanwhile Sheridan 
with the cavalry and two corps (V., XX IV.) had hastened along the 
South Side railroad, seizing the supplies waiting for Lee at Pamplin's 
Station, and then moving on another 12 m. to Appomattox Station. 
At nightfall he found that he was astride the enemy s line of operation, 
which was also his line of supply, and so General Lee would be 
compelled to give battle or capitulate on the morrow. 

General Lee, quitting Farmville heights on the night of the 7th of 
April changed the order of march during the next day, so that Gordon 
(8000) was in the van and Longstreet (15,000) furnished the rear- 
guard. Ewell's corps was now represented by 300 effectives. 
The cavalry still numbered some 1600 sabres. Lee s column was 
pursued along the Lynchburg Road by two Federal Corps (II., VI.), 
which marched 26 m. in 18} hours, and at midnight halted within 
3 m. of Longstreet, who had entrenched near Appomattox Court- 
House, facing east and covering the road on which Gordon's corns 
and the cavalry was to press forward to Lynchburg at daylight. But 
Gordon on the morning of the 9th of April found Sheridan's cavalry 
in his front, and in accordance with plans made overnight he com- 
menced an attack, driving the Federals back until he encountered 



at 10 a.m. two corps of infantry (V., XXIV.) under General Ord, 
who had marched 29 m. in order to support Sheridan at the crisis; 
and when at the same moment Longstreet was threatened by 
Humphreys and Wright (II., VI.) the situation had arisen which 
General Lee considered would justify surrender, an event which 
had been anticipated on both sides as the result of the fighting 
about Farmville on the 6th and 7th of April. 

The closing operations from the 29th of March to the 9th of April 
were all in favour of the Federals, but, nevertheless, the historian 
counts their losses during this period as nearly 10,000 in the five 
corps and cavalry which constituted General Grant's field army. 
On the gth of April, at the Appomattox Court-House, the two 
leaders exchanged formal documents by which 2862 officers and 
25,494 enlisted men were paroled, all that remained in the field 
of some 55,000 Confederates who were drawing rations on the 2Oth 
of February as the army of Northern Virginia. (G. W. R.) 

PETERSFIELD, a market town in the Petersfield parlia- 
mentary division of Hampshire, England, 55 m. S.W. from 
London by the London & South Western railway. Pop. of 
urban district (1901), 3265. The church of St Peter retains 
some ornate Norman work. The picturesque market-place 
contains an equestrian statue ofj William III. 

Ecclesiastically a chapelry of Buriton, Petersfield (Peterfelde) 
owes its origin as a borough to the charter granted by William, 
earl of Gloucester, in the reign of Henry II. and confirmed later 
by his widow, Hawise. Petersfield is not mentioned in Domesday, 
but it was probably then included in the manor of Mapledurham. 
It was a mesne borough possessing by its first charter the 
liberties and customs of Winchester together with a merchant 
gild. These grants were confirmed by John in 1198 and in 
1415 Henry V. in addition freed the burgesses from all tolls. 
No charter of incorporation has been found. Gradually 
privileges and rights other than those of a mesne borough 
were usurped by the mayor and burgesses, but were recovered 
by a suit brought against them by Thomas Hanbury, owner of 
the borough, in 1611. A mayor continued to be elected until 
1885. Petersfield was represented in parliament in 1307. No 
return was then made until 1552-1553, from which date two 
members were regularly returned. In 1832 the number was 
reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in 
that of the county. Three-day fairs at the feasts of St Peter 
and St Andrew were granted in 1255. In 1892 the summer 
fair then held on the loth of July was abolished. The autumn 
fair now held on the 6th of October is for both business and 
pleasure. The market, which dates from before 1373, formerly 
held on Saturday, is now held on alternate Wednesdays. In 
the 1 6th century Petersfield had important cloth and leather 
manufactures. 

PETER'S PENCE, ROME SCOT, or ROM-FEOH, a tax of a penny 
on every hearth, formerly paid annually to the popes; now 
represented by a voluntary contribution made by the devout 
in Roman Catholic churches. Its date of origin is doubtful. 
The first written evidence of it is contained in a letter of Canute 
(1031) sent from Rome to the English clergy. At this time it 
appears to have been levied on all families possessed of land 
worth thirty pence yearly rental, out of which they paid one 
penny. Matthew Paris says the tax was instituted by Offa, 
king of Mercia (757-796) for the upkeep of the English school 
and hostel at Rome. Layamon, however, declares that Ina, 
king of Wessex (688-725), was the originator of the idea. At 
the Norman Conquest it appears to have fallen into arrears for 
a time, for William the Conqueror promised the pope in 1076 
that it should be regularly paid. By a bull of Pope Adrian IV. 
the tax was extended to Ireland. In 1213 Innocent III. com- 
plained that the bishops kept 1000 marks of it, only forwarding 
300 to Rome. In 1306 Clement V. exacted a penny from each 
household instead of the 201, gs. at which the tax appears to 
have been then fixed. The threat of withholding Peter's 
pence proved more than once a useful weapon against recalci- 
trant popes in the hands of English kings. Thus in 1366 and 
for some years after it was refused on the ground of the pope's 
obstinacy in withholding his consent to the statute of praemunire. 
During the roth century the custom of Peter's pence was intro- 
duced into Poland, Prussia and Scandinavia, and in the nth 
century Gregory VII. attempted to exact it from France and 



PETERWARDEIN PETIS DE LA CROIX 



305 



Spain. The tax was fairly regularly paid by the English until 
1 534, when it was abolished by Henry VIII. 

PETERWARDEIN (Hung. Petenarad, Serv. Petrovaradin), 
a royal free town and fortress of Hungary in the county of 
Syrmia, Croatia-Slavonia; situated on a promontory formed 
by a loop of the Danube, 62 m. N.W. of Belgrade by rail. Pop. 
(1900), 5019. It is connected with Neusatz on the opposite 
bank by a bridge of boats, a railway bridge and a steam ferry. 
The fortifications consist of the upper fortress, on a lofty serpen- 
tine rock rising abruptly from the plain on three sides, and of 
the lower fortress at the northern base of the rock. The two 
fortresses can accommodate a garrison of 10,000 men. In the 
lower fortress is the town, with a military hospital, and an 
arsenal containing trophies captured from the Turks. Peter- 
wardein, the " Gibraltar of Hungary," is believed to represent 
the Roman Acumincum, and received its present name from 
Peter the Hermit, who here in 1096 marshalled the levies of the 
first crusade. It was captured by the Turks in 1526 and retained 
by them for 160 years. In 1716 it witnessed a signal defeat 
inflicted on the Turks by Prince Eugene. During the revolu- 
tionary struggles of 1848-49 the fortress was held by the 
insurgents for a short time. 

PETHERICK, JOHN (1813-1882), Welsh traveller in East 
Central Africa, was born in Glamorganshire, and adopted the 
profession of mining engineer. In 1845 he entered the service 
of Mehemet Ali, and was employed in examining Upper Egypt, 
Nubia, the Red Sea coast and Kordofan in an unsuccessful 
search for coal. In 1848 Petherick left the Egyptian service 
and established himself at El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, 
as a trader, dealing largely in gum arabic. He was at the same 
time made British consular agent for the Sudan. In 1853 he 
removed to Khartum and became an ivory trader. He travelled 
extensively in the Bahr-el-Ghazal region, then almost unknown, 
exploring the Jur, Yalo and other affluents of the Ghazal. In 
1858 he penetrated to the Niam-Niam country. His additions 
to the knowledge of natural history were considerable, among 
his discoveries being the Cobus maria (Mrs Gray's waterbuck) 
and the Balaeniceps rex (white-headed stork). Petherick 
returned to England in 1859 where he made the acquaintance 
of J. H. Speke, then arranging for his expedition to discover 
the source of the Nile. While in England Petherick married, and 
published an account of his travels. He returned to the Sudan 
in 1 86 1, accompanied by his wife and with the rank of consul. 
He was entrusted with a mission by the Royal Geographical 
Society to convey to Gondokoro relief stores for Captains Speke 
and Grant. Petherick got boats to Gondokoro in 1862, but 
Speke and Grant had not arrived. Having arranged for a 
native force to proceed south to get in touch with the absentees, 
a task successfully accomplished, Mr and Mrs Petherick under- 
took another journey in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, making important 
collections of plants and fishes. They regained Gondokoro 
(where one of their boats with stores was already stationed) 
in February 1863, four days after the arrival of Speke and Grant, 
who had meantime accepted the hospitality of Mr (afterwards 
Sir) Samuel Baker. The charge that Petherick failed to meet 
his engagement to those travellers is unsubstantiated. A 
further charge that Petherick had countenanced and even taken 
part in the slave trade was subsequently shown to have no foun- 
dation (Petherick in fact had endeavoured to stop the traffic), but 
it led Earl Russell, then secretary for foreign affairs, to abolish 
the British consulate at Khartum (1864). In 1865 the Pethericks 
returned to England, and in 1869 published Travels in Central 
Africa and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries, in 
which book are set out the details of the Speke controversy. 
Petherick died in London, on the 1 5th of July 1882. 

PETION DE VILLENEUVE, JERfiME (1756-1794), French 
writer and politician, was the son of a procureur at Chartres. 
He became an avocat in 1778, and at once began to try to make 
a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, Sur 
les moyens de prevenir I' infanticide, which failed to gain the 
prize for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much 
that he printed it in vol. vii. of his Bibliotheque philosophique 



des legislateurs. P6tion's next works, Les Lois duties, and 
Essai sur le manage, in which he advocated the marriage of 
priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer, and when 
the elections to the States-General took place in 1789 he was 
elected a deputy to the Tiers Etat for Chartres. Both in the 
assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the Constituent Assembly 
Petion showed himself a radical leader. He supported Mirabeau 
on the 23rd of June, attacked the queen on the sth of October, 
and was elected president on the 4th of December 1790. On 
the isth of June 1791 he was elected president of the criminal 
tribunal of Paris. On the 2ist of June 1791 he was chosen one 
of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from 
Varennes, and he has left a fatuous account of the journey. After 
the last meeting of the assembly on the 3oth of September 1791 
Robespierre and Petion were made the popular heroes and were 
crowned by the populace with civic crowns. Petion received 
a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for himself 
on the 1 6th of November 1791, when he was elected second 
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly. In his mayoralty he 
exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the 
old monarchy, especially on the 2oth of June 1792, when he 
allowed the mob to overrun the Tuileries and insult the royal 
family. For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended 
from his functions by the Directory of the department of the 
Seine, but the leaders of the Legislative Assembly felt that 
Petion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on the 
1 3th of July. On the 3rd of August, at the head of the munici- 
pality of Paris, Petion demanded the dethronement of the king. 
He was elected to the Convention for Eure-et-Loir and became 
its first president. L. P. Manuel had the folly to propose that 
the president of the Assembly should have the same authority 
as the president of the United States; his proposition was at 
once rejected, but Petion got the nickname of " Roi Petion," 
which contributed to his fall. His jealousy of Robespierre 
allied him to the Girondin party, with which he voted for the 
king's death and for the appeal to the people. He was elected 
in March 1793 to the first Committee of Public Safety; and he 
attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known 
and having kept secret Dumouriez's project of treason. His 
popularity however had waned, and his name was among those 
of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on the 2nd of 
June. Petion was one of those who escaped to Caen and raised 
the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention; 
and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with M. E. Guadet, 
F. A. Buzot, C. J. M. Barbaroux, J. B. Salle and Louvet de 
Couvrai to the Gironde, where they were sheltered by a wig- 
maker of Saint Emilion. At last, a month before Robespierre's 
fall in June 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer 
safe, and deserted their asylum; Louvet found his way to Paris, 
Salle and Guadet to Bordeaux, where they were soon taken; 
Barbaroux committed suicide; and the bodies of Potion and 
Buzot, who also killed themselves, were found in a field, half- 
eaten by wolves. 

See Memoires inedits de Petion el memoires de Buzot et de Bar- 
baroux, accompagnes de notes inedites de Buzot et de nombreux docu- 
ments inedits sur Barbaroux, Buzot, Brissot, &c., precedes d'une 
introduction par C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1866); (Euvres de Petion 
(3 vols., 1792) ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (Paris, 
1882). 

PETIS DE LA CROIX, FRANCOIS (1653-1713), French 
Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1653. He was son of the 
Arabic interpreter of the French court, and inherited this office 
at his father's death in 1695, afterwards transmitting it to his 
own son, Alexandre Louis Marie, who also distinguished himself 
in Oriental studies. At an early age he was sent by Colbert to 
the East; during the ten years he spent in Syria, Persia and 
Turkey he mastered Arabic, Persian and Turkish, and also 
collected rich materials for future writings. He served a short 
time as secretary to the French ambassador in Morocco, and 
accompanied as interpreter the French forces sent against 
Algiers, contributing to the satisfactory settlement of the treaty 
of peace, which was drawn up by himself in Turkish and ratified 
in 1684. He conducted the negotiations with Tunis and Tripoli 



306 



PETIT PETITION 



in 1685, and those with Morocco in 1687; and the zeal, tact 
and linguistic knowledge he manifested in these and other 
transactions with Eastern courts were at last rewarded in 
1692 by his appointment to the Arabic chair in the College 
Royal de France, which he filled until his death in 1713. 

He published Conies turcs (Paris, 1707), and Les Mille et un jours 
(5 vols., Paris, 1710-1712); an Armenian Dictionary and an Account 
of Ethiopia. But the lasting monument of his literary fame is his 
excellent French version of Sharaf-uddin 'AH Yazdi's Zafarnama 
or History of Timur (completed 828 A.H.; A.D. 1425), which was 
given to the world nine years after his death (4 vols., Paris, 1722; 
Eng. trans, by J. Darby, London, 1723). This work, one of the 
rare specimens of a fairly critical history Persia can boast of, was 
compiled under the auspices of Mirza Ibrahim Sultan, the son of 
Shah Rukh and grandson of the great Timur. The only error 
committed by P6tis de la Croix in his otherwise very correct transla- 
tion is that he erroneously ascribed the important share which 
Ibrahim Sultan had in the Zafarnama to Timur himself. 

PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART. (1823-1901), 
Parsee philanthropist, was born on the 3oth of June 1823. As 
broker to European firms he amassed a large fortune during 
the period of speculation in Bombay at the time of the American 
Civil War. In 1886 he became a member of the governor- 
general's legislative council. He devoted his wealth to philan- 
thropic objects, among the public and private charities which 
he endowed being the Towers of Silence and fire temples of the 
Parsees, a hospital for animals, a college for women, and the 
Petit hospital. He was knighted in 1887, created a baronet 
in 1890, and died in February 1901. 

PETIT DE JULLEVILLE, LOUIS (1841-1900), French 
scholar, was born in Paris on the i8th of July 1841. Educated 
at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and at the French school at 
Athens, he received his doctorate in literature in 1868. After 
holding various posts as a teacher he became professor of French 
medieval literature and of the history of the French language 
in the university of Paris in 1886. He died on the 28th of 
August 1900. 

His most important works are: Histoire du theatre en France, 
including Les My stores (2 vols., 1880); Les Comediens en France au 
moyen dge (1885); La Comedie et les mceurs en France au may en 
Age (1886); Repertoire du theatre comique en France au moyen age 
(1886) ; and Le Theatre en France, histoire de la litterature dramatique 
depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours (1889). Petit de Julleville 
was also the general editor of the Histoire de_ la langue et de la 
litterature franQaise (8 vols., 1896-1900), to which he himself con- 
tributed some valuable chapters. 

PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying "), a term 
meaning generally a prayerful request, and in its more important 
constitutional aspect an application for redress by a person 
aggrieved to an authority capable of relieving him. It may be 
made in the United Kingdom to the Crown or its officers, or to 
either house of parliament, or in certain cases to courts of 
justice. 

Petitions to the Crown. The right of petitioning the Crown 
was recognized indirectly as early as Magna Carta in the famous 
clause, Nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus aut differemus, rectum 
vel justiliam (25 Edw. I. c. 29), and directly at various periods 
later, e.g. in the articles of the Commons assented to by Henry 
IV., by which the king was to assign two days in the week for 
petitions (Rot. Parl. 8 Hen. IV., p. 585). The case of the seven 
bishops in 1688 confirmed the right, and finally the Bill of Rights 
in 1689 declared " that it is the right of the subjects to petition 
the king, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petition- 
ing are illegal." Petitions to the Crown appear to have been at 
first for the redress of private and local grievances, or for remedies 
which the courts of law could not grant (May, Parl. Pr., nth ed., 
522). As equity grew into a system, petitions of this kind not 
seeking legislative remedies tended to become superseded by bills 
in chancery. Statutes were originally drawn up by the judges 
at the close of the session of parliament from the petitions of the 
Commons and the answers of the Crown. Under this system of 
drafting it was found that the tenor of the petition and answer 
were not always stated correctly. To obviate this inconvenience 
demands for legislation came in the reign of Henry VI. to be 
drawn up in the form of bills which the Crown could accept or 
reject, but could not alter (see Anson, Law and Custom of the 



Constitution, 3rd. ed., vol. i. p. 241). In the same reign the 
words " by authority of parliament " were added to the words of 
enactment, and from the time of Henry VII. public legislation 
has been by bill and not by petition. A relic of the old form of 
statute founded upon petition still remains however in the 
preamble of Appropriation Acts and other statutes creating a 
charge upon the public revenue. It runs thus: " We, your 
majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the 
United Kingdom ... do most humbly beseech your majesty 
that it may be enacted; and be it enacted," &c., from this point 
following the enacting words common to all statutes. The 
Crown may refer petitions presented to it to be adjudicated upon 
by a delegated authority. This course is pursued in the case of 
claims to peerages and offices of honour, which are referred to the 
House of Lords, and by that house to its committee for privi- 
leges, and in the case of petitions to the Crown in council, which 
are usually referred to the judicial committee. The Crown may 
delegate the power of receiving petitions in the first instance. 

Petitions to Parliament. Petitions to either house of the 
legislature seem to have been later in origin than petitions 
to the Crown. They are not referred to in the Bill of Rights, but 
the right of petition is a convention of the constitution. Petitions 
to the Lords or the whole parliament can be traced back to Henry 
III. No petition to the Commons has been found earlier than 
Richard II.; but from the time of Henry IV. petitions to the 
Commons have been freely made. The political importance of 
petitioning dates from about the reign of Charles I. The develop- 
ment of the practice of petitioning had proceeded so far in the 
reign of Charles II. as to lead to the passing in 1662 of an act 
(13 Car. II. c. 5) against " tumultuous petitioning," which is 
still on the statute book. It provides that no petition or address 
shall be presented to the king or either house of parliament by 
more than ten persons; nor shall any one procure above twenty 
persons to consent or set their hands to any petition for alteration 
of matters established by law in church or state, unless with the 
previous order of three justices of the county, or the major part 
of the grand jury. And in 1817 (57 Geo. III. c. 19, s. 23) 
meetings within a mile from Westminster Hall for the purpose of 
considering a petition to both houses or either house of parlia- 
ment while either house is sitting were declared to be unlawful 
assemblies. Up to 1688 petitions to either house usually dealt 
only with some specific grievance. From that time dates the 
present practice of petitioning with regard to general measures 
of public policy. Petitions to the Houses of Lords or Commons 
must be framed in the form prescribed by the standing orders, 
must be properly superscribed, and must conclude with a prayer 
(May, Parl. Pr., nth ed., 524, 525). They may be sent free by 
post to members of either house if they fulfil certain conditions 
as to weight, &c., (loc. cit. p. 531). 

Petitions to the Commons must be in writing, must contain 
none but genuine signatures, and must be free from disrespectful 
language or imputations upon any tribunal or constituted authority. 
They must be presented by a member of the house, except petitions 
to the House of Commons from the corporation of London, which 
may be presented at the bar by the sheriffs, and from the corpora- 
tion of Dublin, which may be presented by the lord mayor. There 
is no means of compelling a member to present a petition. The 
rules as to petitions to the House of Lords are similar. The lord 
who presents a petition is required to read it to see whether in form 
and contents it is fit for presentation. In the Lords receivers and 
triers of petitions from Great Britain and Ireland and from Gascony 
and the lands and countries beyond the sea were appointed until 
1886, though their functions had long been obsolete. Applications 
for leave to bring before either house bills for private or local and 
personal matters must under the standing orders of both houses 
be made by petition ; and the same rule obtains as to applications 
for leave to be heard in opposition to such bills. 

See Clifford, History of Private Bill Legislation (1887); May, 
Parl. Pr., (nth ed.), c. xxv. 

Petitions to Courts of Justice. Strictly speaking, these are an 
indirect mode of petitioning the Crown, for in the theory of 
English law the Crown is the fountain of justice. But it is more 
convenient to treat them separately, as they now form a part of 
the practice of the courts. Appeals to the House of Lords and 
the privy council are prosecuted by petition of appeal. The 



PETITTO PRINCIPII 



307 



original jurisdiction of the privy council to deal with petitions 
is confined to proceedings under certain statutes, such as the 
Endowed Schools Acts, the Public Schools Acts, the Universities 
Acts and the Patents Acts. In most cases the petitions are 
referred to the judicial committee of the council. Petitions may 
be addressed to the lord chancellor in a few instances, e.g. for 
the removal of coroners or county court judges. The House of 
Lords at one time claimed original jurisdiction in civil and 
criminal matters. As to civil matters the claim is abandoned; 
as to criminal matters it is now limited to impeachment for 
crime by the Commons on the trial for treason or felony of 
persons having privilege of peerage. 

The most important use of petitions in England is in the High 
Court of Justice. In the chancery division petitions are presented 
either as interlocutory proceedings in the course of an action, or as 
original proceedings where no litigation exists as being a more 
speedy form of remedy than an action. The cases in which a peti- 
tion is admissible and the procedure therein, are in the main regu- 
lated by orders 52 and 55 of the rules of the supreme court. Evidence 
in support of petitions is usually by affidavit. Petitions in the 
course of an action are presented to the court in which the action 
is brought. Examples of original petitions are those under the 
Lands Clauses Acts, the Trustee Acts and the Companies Acts. 
For many proceedings under these acts a simpler and cheaper 
form of proceeding by summons has been substituted for that by 
petition. The matters above-mentioned are usually dealt with by 
the chancery division as successor of the court of chancery. Peti- 
tions are also in use in other courts having equitable jurisdiction, 
e.g. the chancery courts of the counties palatine of Lancaster and 
Durham and the county courts as to cases falling within 67 of 
the County Courts Act 1888, and as to cases within county court 
jurisdiction under the Settled Land Acts or the Guardianship of 
Infants Act 1886 (County Court Rules, O. 38). In a few cases 
petitions may be brought by way of appeal, e.g. under the Charitable 
Trusts Act 1860. In the king's bench division the only use of 
petitions appears to be to initiate proceedings in bankruptcy. 
Leave to sue in formd pauperis used to be given on petition but is 
now usually dealt with summarily. In the probate, &c., division 
proceedings in matrimonial causes, &c., are begun by petition, but 
the course of the proceedings closely resembles those of an ordinary 
action. 

Scotland. In Scotland petitions in the Court of Session are either 
original or in a pending action. Original petitions are presented 
to one of the divisions of the inner house, unless they relate to 
matters mentioned in 20 & 21 Viet. c. 56, s. 4, when they are brought 
before the junior lord ordinary, or unless, by special statutory pro- 
vision, they may be brought before any lord ordinary, as in the case 
of petitions under the " Conjugal Rights (Scotland) Amendment 
Act 1861," or the Trusts (Scotland) Act 1867. A petition and 
complaint is a process of a quasi-criminal nature by which certain 
matters of summary and extraordinary jurisdiction are brought 
under the notice of the Court of Session. It lies against magistrates 
and officers of the law for breach of duty against parties guilty 
of contempt of court, &c. The concurrence of the lord advocate 
is necessary to a petition and complaint (see Mackay, Court of 
Session Practice, ii. 439). 

Ireland. The law of Ireland as to petitions is in substance the 
same as that of England with certain differences of detail as to the 
cases in which petitions may be made to courts of justice. 

United States. In the United States before the Civil War questions 
arose as to the right of petitioning Congress, particularly with refer- 
ence to petitions for the restriction of slavery which at that time 
was contended to be a matter of state and not of federal concern 
(see Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, 6th ed., 1890, 426). The 
right of petitioning the United States government is now secured 
by the first amendment to the United States constitution (ratified 
in 1789-1791), which provides that " Congress shall make no law 
. . . abridging . . . the right of the people peaceably to assemble 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances." In 
the view of the Supreme Court this amendment " assumes the 
existence of the right of the people to assemble for lawful purposes 
and protects it against encroachment by Congress. The right was 
not created by the amendment; neither was its continuance 
guaranteed except as against congressional interference. For their 
protection in its enjoyment, therefore, the people must look to the 
states. The power for that purpose was originally placed there, 
and has never been surrendered. The right of the people peaceably 
to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress 
of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or 
duties of the national government is an attribute of national citizen- 
ship, and as such under the protection of and guaranteed by the 
United States. The very idea of a government republican in form 
implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for 
consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress 
of grievances " (U.S. v. Cruikshank, 1875; 92 U.S. 542, 552). 

A Bill of Rights is incorporated in the constitutions of many 
states of the Union, and is made part of the supreme law of 



the states (see Hough, American Constitutions, ii. 571). Petitions 
can be presented to the federal or state courts of justice under much 
the same circumstances as in England. " It is a general rule in 
such cases that an affidavit should be made that the facts therein 
contained are true as far as known to the petitioner, and that those 
facts which he states as knowing from others he believes to be true " 
(Bouvier, Law Diet.). 

British Possessions. There is a right of petition to the king for 
the review of decisions (in matters criminal or civil) of courts of 
justice in the Channel Islands or Isle of Man, and in all other parts 
of the empire outside the British islands and of British courts in 
foreign countries. This right is cut down by imperial or colonial 
legislation in the case of Canada and Australia, see Tarring, Law 
Relating to Colonies (3rd ed., 1906) c. v. 

The term Petition of Right, in English law, is used in two senses, 
(i) It denotes the statute of 1625 (3 Car. I. c. i), a parliamentary 
declaration of the liberties of the people. (2) It also and more 
usually is employed to describe a mode of prosecuting a claim by 
a subject against the Crown, said to owe its origin to Edward I. 
Petition of right in this sense lies (a) to obtain restitution of real 
or personal property of the subject which has found its way into 
the hands of the Crown, or compensation if restitution cannot be 
made; (6) to recover damages for breach of a contract made on 
behalf of the Crown, whether the breach is due to the acts or the 
omissions of servants of the Crown. Where the Crown is in 
possession of property of the suppliant, and the title of the Crown 
appears by record, as by inquest of office, the remedy is somewhat 
different and is called monstrans de droit. Petition of right does 
not lie in respect of engagements in the naval, military or civil 
service of the Crown, which are as a general rule made " during 
pleasure," nor for breach of public duty, e.g. failure to perform 
treaty obligations, nor for trespass or negligence or other torts 
by Crown servants. Where such acts are wrongful the remedy is 
by action against the official as an individual and not in his 
official capacity (Raleigh v. Goschen, 1898, L.R. i ch. 73). 

The procedure on a petition of right is either at common law or 
by statute. At common law the petition went through its earliest 
stages in the chancery. It suggests such a right as controverts the 
title of the Crown, and the Crown endorses upon the petition Soil 
droit fait al partie. Thereupon a commission is issued to inquire 
into the truth of the suggestion. After the return to the commission, 
the attorney-general pleads or demurs, and the merits are then 
determined as in actions between subject and subject. If the 
right be determined against the Crown, judgment of amoveas manus 
is given in favour of the suppliant. The Petition of Right Act 
1860 (23 & 24 Viet. c. 34, extended to Ireland in 1873, 36 & 37 
Viet. c. 69) preserves to the suppliant his right to proceed at common 
law, but gives an alternative remedy. The procedure is regulated 
by the act of 1860, and as to England also by rules made under 
that act on the 1st of February 1862. The petition is left with the 
secretary of state for the home department for the consideration 
of his majesty, who if he thinks fit grants his fiat that right be done. 
The fiat is sealed in the home office and issued to the suppliant 
who files it in the central office of the High Court of Justice, and 
a sealed copy is served upon the solicitor to the treasury, with a 
demand for a plea or answer on behalf of the Crown. The subse- 
quent proceedings including those as to disclosing relevant docu- 
ments are assimilated as far as possible to those in an ordinary 
action. A judgment in favour of the suppliant is equivalent to 
a judgment of amoveas manus ouster le main. Costs are payable 
to and by the Crown. A petition of right is usually tried in the 
chancery or king's bench divisions; but where the subject-matter 
of the petition arises out of the exercise of belligerent rights on 
behalf of the Crown, or would be cognizable in a prize court if the 
matter were in dispute between private persons, the suppliant may 
at his option intitule his petition in the admiralty division, and the 
lord chancellor may direct the prosecution in that division of peti- 
tions of right under the act of 1860 even when they are not so 
intituled (27 & 28 Viet. c. 25, s. 52). 

The law as to petition of right applies to Ireland but not to 
Scotland, and a right to present such a petition appears to exist 
in colonies whose law is based on the common law of England. 
But in many colonies legislation has been passed with respect to 
suits against government which makes it unnecessary to resort to 
a petition of right. 

PETITIO PRINCIPII, or BEGGING THE QUESTION (Gr. rt> kv 
anpavtiv, TO apxys alreiaBai) , in logic, the fourth of 
Aristotle's fallacies e TTJS Xeecus or extra dictionem. Strictly 
this fallacy belongs to the language of disputation, when the 
questioner seeks (petit) to get his adversary to admit the very 
matter in question. Hence the word principium gives a wrong 
impression, for the fallacy consists not in seeking for the 



3 o8 



PETITOT PETO 



admission of a principle which will confute the particular pro- 
positiona perfectly legitimate form of refutation but in luring 
the adversary into confessing the contradictory. In the ordinary 
use, however, " begging the question " consists in assuming in 
the premises the conclusion which it is desired to prove. 

PETITOT, JEAN (1608-1691), French-Swiss enamel painter, 
was born at Geneva, a member of a Burgundian family which had 
fled from France on account of religious difficulties. His father, 
Faulle, was a wood carver; his mother's name was Etienette 
Royaume. Jean was the fourth son, and was apprenticed to a 
jeweller goldsmith named Pierre Bordier, with whom he struck 
up a close friendship. The two friends, dissatisfied with the 
progress they made in Geneva, went into France, and after 
working for a while with Toutin came to England with letters 
of introduction to Turquet de Mayern, physician to Charles I., 
who presented them to the king, for whom they made a St 
George for the badge of the order and carried out many com- 
missions for portraits; amongst others preparing two large ones 
representing Rachel de Ruvigny, countess of Southampton, now 
at Chatsworth, and Mary Villiers, duchess of Richmond and 
Lennox, dated 1643, at one time in the possession of the Crown 
and now in the Pierpont Morgan collection. On the execution of 
the king, Petitot left England for Paris with the royal household, 
Bordier remaining in England and carrying out certain important 
commissions for Cromwell and the parliament. On reaching 
Paris, Petitot entered into partnership with a goldsmith, Jacques 
Bordier, a cousin of Pierre, and it seems probable from recent 
research in contemporary documents that the enamel portraits 
attributed to Petitot were really the work of the two partners 
collaborating, the actual drawing being the work of Petitot, 
while for the enamel process Bordier was mainly responsible. 
The two painters were given apartments in the Louvre, received 
numerous commissions from Louis XIV., and painted portraits 
of almost every person of importance in his brilliant court. The 
friendship between the two lasted for thirty-five years, and was 
only put an end to by Bordier's death. The enamellers rendered 
special political services in France for the republic of Geneva, 
and were practically regarded as the official representatives of 
the republic, receiving warm thanks from the Syndics for their 
diplomatic work. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
1685, pressure was brought to bear upon Petitot that he should 
change his religion. The king protected him as long as possible, 
and when he was arrested, with his niece, Anne Bordier, sent 
Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, to convince the old man of the error of 
his ways. Eventually, in poor health and great despair, Petitot 
placed his signature to an act of abjuration, and Louis XIV., 
unwilling to acknowledge the true reason for the imprison- 
ment of Petitot and for his liberation, informed one of his sons, 
who came to thank him for the pardon given to his father, that 
he was willing to fall in for once with " the whim of an old man 
who desired to be buried with his ancestors." In 1687 therefore 
Petitot left Paris to return to Geneva, and, after a long and tedious 
inquiry, was absolved by the consistory of the church of Geneva 
from the crime of which they considered he had been guilty, 
and received back to the Huguenot communion in the church of 
St Gervais. In Geneva he received a very important com- 
mission from John Sobieski, king of Poland, who required 
portraits of himself and his queen. This was followed by number- 
less other commissions which the painter carried out. He died 
of paralysis on the 3rd of April 1691, while in the very act of 
painting on the enamel a portrait of his faithful wife. 

Petitot married in 165 r Marguerite Cuper, and Jacques 
Bordier married in the same year her younger sister Anne 
Madeleine. He had seventeen children, and for their benefit 
wrote out a little octavo volume containing some genealogical 
information, two delightful portraits, one of himself and one of 
his wife, and many pages occupied with prayers, meditations 
and religious advice. He also prepared a second manuscript 
volume of prayers and meditations for the use of his family, and 
from these two books and the records of the Huguenot societies 
of France and England information has been obtained respecting 
the painter and his family. 



Of the works of Petitot the most important collection is in the 
Jones Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum. There are 
many in the Louvre, sixteen at Chantilly, seventeen at Windsor, 
and others in the collections of Earl Beauchamp, the duke of Rut- 
land, the duke of Richmond, the earl of Dartrey, Mr Alfred de 
Rothschild and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Amongst 
Lord Dartrey's examples are portraits of Petitot and of his son, 
and two of the wife of Jean Petitot the younger. A second portrait 
of the artist belongs to the queen of Holland, and another is in the 
collection of the late Mr Stroehlin of Geneva. In Mr Pierpont 
Morgan's collection there are many exceedingly fine examples, 
but especially three drawings on paper, the only three which 
appear to have survived, and the large signed miniature of the 
duchess of Richmond already mentioned, the largest work Petitot 
ever executed save the one at Chatsworth. 

See Pctitotet Bordier, by Ernest Stroehlin (Geneva, 1905) ; " Some 
New Information respecting Jean Petitot," by G. C. Williamson, 
Nineteenth Century and After (January 1908), pp. 98-110; the 
privately printed Catalogue of the Collection of Mr J. Pierpont 
Morgan, vol. iii. ; The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C. 
Williamson, vol. ii. (London, 1904). (G. C. W.) 

PETITOT, JEAN LOUIS (1652-*. 1730), French enamel 
painter, was the eldest son of Jean Petitot (q.v.), and was 
instructed in enamelling by his father. Some of his works so 
closely resemble those of the elder Petitot that it is difficult to 
distinguish between them, and he was really the only serious 
rival his father ever had. He settled for a while in London, 
where he remained till 1682, and painted many enamel portraits of 
Charles II. In 1682 he removed to Paris, but in 1695 was back 
again in London, where he remained until the time of his death. 

His portrait by Mignard is in the museum at Geneva, and another 
in enamel by himself in the collection of the earl of Dartrey, who 
also owns two of his wife, Madeleine Bordier, whom he married 
in 1683. Another portrait believed to represent him is in the col- 
lection of Mr Pierpont Morgan. (G. C. W.) 

PETITS-CHEVAUX (Fr. for " little horses" ), a gambling game 
played with a mechanical device consisting of a board perforated 
with a number of concentric circular slits, in which revolve, each 
independently on its own axis, figures of jockeys on horseback, 
distinguished by numbers or colours. The bystanders having 
staked their money according to their choice on a board marked 
in divisions for this purpose, the horses are started revolving 
rapidly together by means of mechanism attached to the board, 
and the horse which stops nearest a marked goal wins, every 
player who has staked on that horse receiving so many times his 
stake. Figures of railway trains and other objects sometimes 
take the place of horses. In recent years there has been a ten- 
dency to supplant the pelits chevaux at French resorts by the boule 
or ball game, on the same principle of gambling; in this a ball 
is rolled on a basin-shaped table so that it may eventually settle 
in one of a number of shallow cups, each marked with a figure. 

PETO, SIR SAMUEL MORTON, BART. (1800-1889), English 
contractor, was born at Woking, Surrey, on the 4th of August 
1809, and was at an early age apprenticed to his uncle, a London 
builder, who on his death in 1830 bequeathed the business to 
Peto and another nephew, Thomas Grissell. The partnership 
between Peto and Grissell lasted till 1846, amongst the many 
London buildings erected by the firm being the Reform Club, the 
Lyceum and St James's theatres, and the Nelson column. Peto 
afterwards entered into partnership with Edward Ladd Belts 
(1815-1872), and between 1846 and 1872 Messrs Peto & Betts 
carried out many large railway contracts at home and abroad, 
notably the more important portions of the South-Eastern and 
of the London Chatham & Dover lines, and, in conjunction 
with Thomas Brassey, the Grand Trunk railway of Canada, and 
the London Tilbury & Southend railway. In 1854-1855 
Peto and Brassey constructed a railway in the Crimea between 
Balaclava and the British entrenchments before Sebastopol, 
charging the British government .only the actual out-of-pocket 
expenses, and for his services in this matter Peto was in 1855 made 
a baronet. Peto entered parliament as a Liberal in 1847, and, 
with a few years' interval, continued there till 1868, when, his 
firm having been compelled to suspend payment in the financial 
crisis of 1866, he was forced to resign his seat, though both Mr 
Disraeli and Mr Gladstone publicly eulogized his personal 
character. He died on the i3th of November 1889. 



PETOFI PETRA 



309 



PETOFI, ALEXANDER (1823-1849), Hungarian lyric poet, 
was born at Kis-K6roso, Pest county, on New Year's Day, 1823. 
The family received its diploma of nobility from the emperor 
Leopold in 1688, but the ultra-patriotic Alexander early changed 
the old family name, Petrovics, which pointed to a Croatian 
origin, into the purely Magyar form of Petofi. The lad's early 
days were spent at Felegyhaz and Szabadszallas, the most 
Hungarian parts of Hungary, where he got most of his early 
education, including a good grounding in Latin. German he 
learnt subsequently at Pesth, and French he taught himself. 
He began writing verses in his twelfth year, while a student at the 
Asz6d gymnasium, where he also displayed a strong predilection 
for the stage, to the disgust of his rigorous father, who formally 
disowned his son, early in 1839, for some trifling peccadillo, and 
whose tyrannical temper became downright furious when a 
series of misfortunes ruined him utterly in 1840. For the next 
three years Petofi led the wretched life of a strolling player, 
except for a brief interval when, to escape starvation, he enlisted 
as a common soldier in an infantry regiment. During the greater 
part of 1842 we find him a student at the Calvinist College at 
Papa, where he made the acquaintance of young Jokai, and wrote 
the poem " Borozo," which the great critic Bajza at once inserted 
in the leading literary review, the Athenaeum (May 22, 1842). In 
November of the same year the restless poet quitted Papa to 
join another travelling troupe, playing on one occasion the Fool 
in King Lear, and after wandering all over Hungary and suffering 
incredible hardships, finally settled down at Pesth (1844), where 
for a time he supported himself by all sorts of literary hack-work. 
Nevertheless, in the midst of his worst privations he had read 
voraciously, and was at this time profoundly influenced by the 
dominant Romanticism of the day; while, through Tieck, he 
learnt to know and value the works of Shakespeare. His first 
volume of original poems was published in 1844 by the Society 
Nemzeti Kor, through the influence of the poet Vorosmarty, 
when every publisher had refused his MS., and the seventy-five 
florins which he got for it had become a matter of life or death to 
him. He now became a regular contributor to the leading papers 
of Pesth, and was reconciled to his parents, whom he practically 
supported for the rest of their lives out of his literary earnings. 
His position, if not exactly brilliant, was now at least secure. 
The little volume published by the Nemzeti Kor was followed by 
the parody, A Helyseg Kalapdcsa (1844); the romantic epic 
Jdnos Vitez (1844); Ciprislombok Etelke Sirjdrol, a collection of 
passionate elegies over his lost love, Etelke Csapo (1845); Uti 
Jegyzetek, an imitation of Heine's Reisebilder (1845); Szerelem 
Gyongyei (1845); Felhok (1846); Szerelme es hdzassdga (1846), 
and many other volumes. The first edition of his collected 
poems appeared in 1847. Petofi was not yet twenty-five, and, 
despite the protests of the classicists, who regarded him with 
cold dislike, the best heads in Hungary, poets like Vorosmarty 
and critics like Szemere, already paid him the homage due 
to the prince of Magyar lyrical poets. The great public was 
enthusiastic on the same side, and posterity, too, has placed him 
among the immortals. Petofi is as simple and genuine a poet of 
nature as Wordsworth or Christian Winther, and his erotics, 
inspired throughout by a noble idealism, have all Byron's force 
and fervour, though it is perhaps in his martial songs that 
Petofi's essentially passionate and defiant genius asserts itself 
most triumphantly. On the 8th of September 1847 Petofi married 
Julia Szendrey, who bore him a son. When the revolutionary 
war broke out, he espoused the tenets of the extreme democratic 
faction with a heat and recklessness which estranged many of his 
friends. He took an active part in the Transylvanian campaigns 
of the heroic Bern; rose by sheer valour to the rank of major; was 
slain at the battle of Segesvar (July 31, 1849), and his body, 
which was never recovered, is supposed to have been buried in 
the common grave of the fallen honveds in the churchyard of 
Feheregyhaz. The first complete edition of Petofi's poems 
appeared in 1874. The best critical edition is that of Haras, 
1894. There are numerous indifferent German translations. 

See Ferenczi, Petofi Eletraiza; Fischer, Petofi's Leben und 
Werke. (R. N. B.) 



PETOSKEY, a city and the county-seat of Emmet county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on Little Traverse Bay, an arm of Lake 
Michigan, at the mouth of Bear Creek, in the north-west part of 
the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890), 2872; (190x5), 5285, of whom 
856 were foreign-born; (1904), 5186; (1910), 4778. It is served 
by the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana rail- 
ways and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo and 
other lake ports. Bear Creek furnishes considerable water-power, 
and among the manufactures are lumber, paper, leather and 
foundry and machine-shop products. Petoskey was settled 
about 1874, was incorporated as a village in 1879, was chartered 
as a city in 1895, and in 1902 replaced Harbor Springs 
as county-seat. It was named after an Ojibwa Indian chief. 

PETRA (17 II-pa= the rock), a ruined site, 3Oi9' N. and 35 
31' E., lying in a basin among the mountains which form the 
eastern flank of Wadi el-'Araba, the great valley running from 
the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Akaba. The descriptions of Strabo 
(xvi. p. 779), Pliny (N.H. vi. 32) and other writers leave no 
doubt as to the identity of this site with the famous capital of the 
Nabataeans (q.v.) and the centre of their caravan trade. Walled 
in by towering rocks and watered by a perennial stream, Petra 
not only possessed the advantages of a fortress but controlled 
the main commercial routes which passed through it to Gaza in 
the west, to Bostra and Damascus in the north, to Elath and 
Leuce Come on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian 
Gulf. 

From the 'Araba travellers approach by a track which leads 
round Jebel Harun (Mt Hor) and enters the plain of Petra from 
the south; it is just possible to find a way in from the high plateau 
on the north; but the most impressive entrance is from the east, 
down a dark and narrow gorge, in places only 10 or 12 ft. wide, 
called the Slk, i.e. the shaft, a split in the huge sandstone rocks 
which serves as the waterway of the Wadi Musa. Near the end 
of the defile stands the most elaborate of the ruins, el-Hazne or 
" the Treasury of Pharaoh," not built but hewn out of the cliff; 
a little farther on, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, 
comes the theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of 
tombs within view; and at the point where the valley opens out 
into the plain the site of the city is revealed with striking effect. 
Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-coloured mountain 
walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with rock- 
cut tombs in the form of towers. The stream of Wadi Musa crosses 
the plain and disappears among the mountains opposite; on 
either bank, where the ground is fairly level, the city was built, 
covering a space of about ij sq. m. Among the ruins on the 
south bank stand the fragments of a temple called Kasr Fir'aun 
of late Roman date; just beyond this rises a rocky height which 
is usually regarded as the acropolis. 

A position of such natural strength must have been occupied 
early, but we have no means of telling exactly when the history 
of Petra began ; the evidence seems to show that the city was of 
relatively late foundation, though a sanctuary (see below) may 
have existed there from very ancient times. This part of the 
country was assigned by tradition to the Horites, i.e. probably 
" cave-dwellers," the predecessors of the Edomites (Gen. xiv. 6, 
xxxvi. 20-30; Deut. ii. 12); the habits of the original natives may 
have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and 
offering worship in half -excavated caves. 1 But that Petra itself 
is mentioned in the Old Testament cannot be affirmed with 
certainty; for though Petra is usually identified with Sela' 2 which 
also means " a rock," the reference in Judges i. 36; Isa. xvi. i, 
xlii. 1 1 ; Obad. 3, is far from clear. 2 Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more 
explicit; in the parallel passage, however, Sela' is understood 
to mean simply " the rock" (2 Chr. xxv. 12, see LXX). Hence 
many authorities doubt whether any town named Sela' is men- 
tioned in the Old Testament. 3 What, then, did the Semitic 

1 Buhl, Gesch. der Edomiter (1893), p. 52. 

2 E.g. by Driver, Deut. p. 38; Noldeke, Ency. Bibl. col. 1185; 
Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstdmme, p. 357. 

3 Buhl, p. 35 sqq., G. F. Moore, Judges, p. 55 seq., Oxford Hebr. 
Lex. s. v. V^D; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bibl. s.v. Sela; A. Jeremias, 
Das A. T. im Lichte d. alien Orients, p. 457. 



310 



PETRARCH 



inhabitants call their city? Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr. 
286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94), apparently on the authority of 
Josephus (Ant. iv. 7, i; 4, 7), assert that Rekem was the native 
name. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of 
Kadesh; Josephus may have confused the two places. Some- 
times the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya, which 
recalls the name of the village El-ji, south-east of Petra; the 
capital, however, would hardly be denned by the name of a 
neighbouring village. The Semitic name of the city, if it was not 
Sela', must remain unknown. 1 The passage in Diodorus Siculus 
(xix. 94-97) which describes the expeditions which Antigonus 
sent against the Nabataeans in 312 B.C. is generally understood 
to throw some light upon the history of Petra, though it must be 
admitted that the petra referred to as a natural fortress and place 
of refuge cannot be a proper name, and the description at any 
rate implies that the town was not yet in existence. Briinnow 
thinks that " the rock " in question was the sacred mountain 
en-Nejr (above) ; but Buhl suggests a conspicuous height about 
16 m. north of Petra, Shobak, the Mont-royal of the Crusaders. 2 
More satisfactory evidence of the date at which the earliest 
Nabataean settlement began is to be obtained from an exami- 
nation of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished broadly, 
the Nabataean and the Graeco-Roman. The Nabataean type 
starts from the simple pylon-tomb with a door set in a tower 
crowned by a parapet ornament, in imitation of the front of a 
dwelling-house; then, after passing through various stages, the 
full Nabataean type is reached, retaining all the native features 
and at the same time exhibiting characteristics which are partly 
Egyptian and partly Greek. Of this type there exist close 
parallels in the tomb-towers at el-Hejr in north Arabia, which 
bear long Nabataean inscriptions, 3 and so supply a date for the 
corresponding monuments at Petra. Then comes a series of tomb- 
fronts which terminate in a semicircular arch, a feature derived 
from north Syria, and finally the elaborate facades, from which 
all trace of native style has vanished, copied from the front of 
a Roman temple. The exact dates of the stages in this develop- 
ment cannot be fixed, for strangely enough few inscriptions of 
any length have been found at Petra, 4 perhaps because they have 
perished with the stucco or cement which was used upon many of 
the buildings. We have, then, as evidence for the earliest period, 
the simple pylon- tombs, which belong to the pre-Hellenic age; 
how far back in this stage the Nabataean settlement goes we 
do no.t know, but not farther than the 6th century B.C. A 
period follows in which the dominant civilization combines Greek, 
Egyptian and Syrian elements, clearly pointing to the age of the 
Ptolemies. Towards the close of the 2nd century B.C., when the 
Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the 
Nabataean kingdom came to the front; under Aretas III. 
Philhellene, c. 85-60 B.C., the royal coins begin; at this time 
probably the theatre was excavated, and Petra must have 
assumed the aspect of a Hellenistic city. In the long and pros- 
perous reign of Aretas IV. Philopatris, 9 B.C.-A.D. 40, the fine 
tombs of the el-Hejr type may be dated, perhaps also the great 
High-place. Then the city became more and more Romanized. 
In A.D. 106, when Cornelius Palma was governor of Syria, 
"Arabia belonging to Petra," 6 was absorbed into the Roman 
Empire, and the native dynasty came to an end. But the city 
continued to flourish. It was visited in A.D. 131 by Hadrian, and 
stamped Adriane Petra on its coins in gratitude for the emperor's 
benefactions; the superb Hazne, probably a temple for the worship 
of Isis, and the Der, which resembles the Hazne in design, belong 
to this period. A century later, in the time of Alexander 

1 Yakut gives the name Sal' to a fortress in Wadi Musa, Noldeke, 
ZDMG. xxv. 259 seq. (1871). 

2 Briinnow, Die Prov. Arabia, i. 190; Buhl, op. cit. p. 34. 

3 CIS. ii. 197-226; Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions, 78-91, &c. 

4 Four important Nabat. inscrr. have been found, of which 
three are dated, viz. NSI. p. 250, n-CIS. ii. 349, l6th year of 
Aretas III., i.e. B.C. 70, so also CIS. ii. 442; NSI. 94. and 95 = CIS. 
ii. 350 and 354, the latter dated the 2gth year of Aretas IV., i.e. 
A.D. 20. The other Nabat. inscrr. are mostly graffiti, scratched 
on the rocks by visitors or worshippers at the holy places; CIS. 

ii. 355-44.1. 444-464- 

4 This is the meaning of Arabia Petraea. Dio Cass. Ixviii. 14. 



Severus (A.D. 222-235), when the city was at the height of its 
splendour, the issue of coinage comes to an end, and there is no 
more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some 
sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-Persian 
power under the Sassanid dynasty. Meanwhile as Palmyra 
(ft. A.D. 130-270) grew in importance and attracted the 
Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined; it seems, 
however, to have lingered on as a religious centre; for we are 
told by Epiphanius (c. A.D. 315-403) that in his time a feast was 
held there on the 25th of December in honour of the virgin 
Chaabou and her offspring Dusares (Haer. 51). 

The chief god of Petra was Dhu-shara (Aoucrdprjs), i.e. the lord 
or owner of Shara;* he was worshipped under the form of a black 
rectangular stone, a sort of Petraean Ka'aba (Suidas Lex. s.v. 
e6s "A^s, and cf. Epiphan. above). Associated with Dhu-shara 
was Allat, the chief goddess of the ancient Arabs. Sanctuary 
chambers may be seen at various points in the site of Petra, and 
many places of sacrifice open to the sky are met with among the 
tombs, marked by remains of altars. But most eminent of all 
was the great High-place which has recently been discovered on 
en-Nejr (or Zibb 'atuf). It consists of a rock-hewn altar of 
burnt-offering with a place for killing the victims beside it and 
a shallow court, perhaps intended to hold water, in front: the 
most complete specimen of an ancient Semitic sanctuary that is 
known.' Not far off are two obelisks cut out of the solid rock 
which has been removed to the level of their bases; these were 
either idols of Dhu-shara and Allat, or more probably were 
designed to mark the limits of the haram of the sanctuary. 
West of the obelisks are three other places of sacrifice; and on 
the rocks below worshippers have carved their names (CIS. 
ii. 390-404). En-Nejr, with the theatre at its foot, must have 
been the sacred mountain, the original sanctuary of Petra, 
perhaps " the very high mountain of Arabia called Dusare 
after the god Dusares " referred to by Steph. Byz. (s.v. 
Aouadpij). Christianity found its way into Petra in early 
times; Athanasius mentions a bishop of Petra (Herpuv 7-175 
'Apa/3ias, ad Antioch. 10) named Asterius; at least one of 
the tombs (the " tomb with the urn" ) was used as a church; 
an inscription in red paint records its consecration " in the time 
of the most holy bishop Jason" (A.D. 447). The Christianity of 
Petra, as of north Arabia, was swept away by the Mahommedan 
conquest in A.D. 629-632. Under the Latin kingdom Petra was 
occupied by Baldwin I. and formed the second fief of the barony 
of Krak with the title Chateau de la Valee de Moyse or Sela; it 
remained in the hands of the Franks till 1189; fragments of the 
Crusaders' citadel are still standing near the High-place on 
en-Nejr. 

The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the middle ages 
and were visited by the Sultan Bibars of Egypt towards the close 
of the 1 3th century. The first European to describe them was 
Burckhardt (1812). All former descriptions are now superseded 
by the magnificent work of Briinnow and Domaszewski, Die Pro- 
mncia Arabia (1904), who have minutely surveyed the whole site, 
classified the tombs, and compiled the accounts of earlier investi- 
gations; and by the independent researches of Dalman, Petra und 
seine Felsheiligtumer (1908), and of Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907-1908). 
The Corpus Inscr. Sent. ii. 305 sqq., should be consulted, and 
the descriptions in Baedeker-Socin's Palestina (7th edition), and 
Revue biblique for 1897, 1898, 1903. (G. A. C.*) 

PETRARCH (1304-1374). Francesco Petrarca, the great 
Italian poet and first true reviver of learning in medieval Europe, 
was born at Arezzo on the 2oth of July 1304. His father 
Petracco held a post of notary in the Florentine Rolls Court of 
the Riformagioni; but, having espoused the same cause as Dante 
during the quarrels of the Blacks and Whites, Petracco was 
expelled from Florence by that decree of the 27th of January 
1302 which condemned Dante to lifelong exile. With his wife he 

6 The whole range in which Petra lies is called Jebel esh-Sharat, 
but it is doubtful whether the name of the god was derived from 
that of the mountain, see Ed. Meyer, loc. cit. p. 268 and Cooke, 
N SI. p. 2 1 8. 

7 First mentioned by E. L. Wilson (1891), rediscovered by 
G. L. Robinson (1900), described by S. I. Curtis, P. E. F. Q. St. 
1900), and Savignac, Rev. bibl. (1903); with full plan and photo- 
graphs). 



PETRARCH 



took refuge in the Ghibelline township of Arezzo; and it was 
here, on the very night when his father, in company with other 
members of the White party, made an unsuccessful attempt to 
enter Florence by force, the Francesco first saw the light. He 
did not remain long in his birthplace. His mother, having 
obtained permission to return from banishment, settled at 
Incisa, a little village on the Arno above Florence, in February 
1305. Here Petrarch spent seven years of boyhood, acquiring 
that pure Tuscan idiom which afterwards he used with such 
consummate mastery in ode and sonnet. Here too, in 1307, his 
brother Gherardo was born. In 1312 Petracco set up a house 
for his family at Pisa; but soon afterwards, finding no scope there 
for the exercise of his profession as jurist, he removed them all in 
1313 to Avignon. This was a step of no small importance for 
the future poet-scholar. Avignon at that period still belonged 
to Provence, and owned King Robert of Naples as sovereign. 
But the popes had made it their residence after the insults offered 
to Boniface VIII. at Anagni in 1303. Avignon was therefore 
the centre of that varied society which the high pontiffs of 
Christendom have ever gathered round them. Nowhere else 
could the youth of genius who was destined to impress a cosmo- 
politan stamp on medieval culture and to begin the modern era 
have grown up under conditions more favourable to his task. 
At Incisa and at Pisa he had learned his mother-tongue. At Car- 
pentras, under the direction of Convennole of Prato, he studied 
the humanities between the years 1315 and 1319. Avignon, 
at a distance from the party strife and somewhat parochial 
politics of the Italian commonwealths, impressed his mind 
with an ideal of civility raised far above provincial prejudices. 

Petrarch's real name according to Tuscan usage was Francesco 
di Petracco. But he altered this patronymic, for the sake of 
euphony, to Petrarca, proving by this slight change his emanci- 
pation from usages which, had he dwelt at Florence, would most 
probably have been imposed on him. Petracco, who was very 
anxious that his eldest son should become an eminent jurist, 
sent him at the age of fifteen to study law at Montpellier. Like 
Ovid and many other poets, Petrarch telt no inclination for his 
father's profession. His intellect, indeed, was not incapable 
of understanding and admiring the majestic edifice of Roman 
law; but he shrank with disgust from the illiberal technicalities 
of practice. There is an authentic story of Petracco's flinging 
the young student's books of poetry and rhetoric upon the fire, 
but saving Virgil and Cicero half-burned from the flames at his 
son's passionate entreaties. Notwithstanding Petrarch's firm 
determination to make himself a scholar and a man of letters 
rather than a lawyer, he so far submitted to his father's wishes 
as to remove about the year 1323 to Bologna, which was then the 
headquarters of juristic learning. There he stayed with his 
brother Gherardo until 1326, when his father died, and he 
returned to Avignon. Banishment and change of place had 
already diminished Petracco's fortune, which was never large; 
and a fraudulent administration of his estate after his death left 
the two heirs in almost complete destitution. The most precious 
remnant of Petrarch's inheritance was a MS. of Cicero. There 
remained no course open for him but to take orders. This he 
did at once on his arrival in Provence; and we have good reason 
to believe that he advanced in due time to the rank of priest. 
A great Roman noble and ecclesiastic, Giacomo Colonna, after- 
wards bishop of Lombez, now befriended him, and Petrarch lived 
for some years in partial dependence on this patron. 

On the 6th of April 1327 happened the most famous event of 
Petrarch's history. He saw Laura for the first time in the church 
of St Clara at Avignon. Who Laura was remains uncertain still. 
That she was the daughter of Audibert de Noves and the wife of 
Hugh de Sade rests partly on tradition and partly on documents 
which the abbe de Sade professed to have copied from originals 
in the i8th century. Nothing is now extant to prove that, if 
this lady really existed, she was the Laura of the Canzoniere, 
while there are reasons for suspecting that the abbe was either 
the fabricator of a romance flattering to his own family, or the 
dupe of some previous impostor. We may, however, reject the 
sceptical hypothesis that Laura was a mere figment of Petrarch's 



fancy; and, if we accept her personal reality, the poems of her 
lover demonstrate that she was a married woman with whom he 
enjoyed a respectful and not very intimate friendship. 

Petrarch's inner life after this date is mainly occupied with 
the passion which he celebrated in his Italian poems, and with 
the friendships which his Latin epistles dimly reveal to us. 
Besides the bishop of Lombez he was now on terms of intimacy 
with another member of the great Colonna family, the cardinal 
Giovanni. A German, Ludwig, whom he called Socrates, and a 
Roman, Lello, who received from him the classic name of Laellius, 
were among his best-loved associates. Avignon was the chief 
seat of his residence up to the year of 1333, when he became 
restless and undertook his first long journey. On this occasion 
he visited Paris, Ghent, Liege, Cologne, making the acquaintance 
of learned men and copying the manuscripts of classical authors. 
On his return to Avignon he engaged in public affairs, pleaded 
the cause of the Scaligers in their lawsuit with the Rossi for the 
lordship of Parma, and addressed two poetical epistles to Pope 
Benedict XII. upon the restoration of the papal see to Rome. 
His eloquence on behalf of the tyrants of Verona was successful. 
It won him the friendship of their ambassador, Azzo di Correggio 
a fact which subsequently influenced his life in no small 
measure. Not very long after these events Petrarch made his 
first journey to Rome, a journey memorable from the account 
which he has left us of the impression he received from its ruins. 

It was some time in the year 1337 that he established himself 
at Vaucluse and began that life of solitary study, heightened by 
communion with nature in her loneliest and wildest moods, which 
distinguished him in so remarkable a degree from the common 
herd of medieval scholars. Here he spent his time partly among 
books, meditating on Roman history, and preparing himself for 
the Latin epic of Africa. In his hours of recreation he climbed 
the hills or traced the Sorgues from its fountain under those tall 
limestone cliffs, while odes and sonnets to Madonna Laura were 
committed from his memory to paper. We may also refer many 
of his most important treatises in prose, as well as a large portion 
of his Latin correspondence, to the leisure he enjoyed in this 
retreat. Some woman, unknown to us by name, made him the 
father of a son, Giovanni, in the year 1337; and she was probably 
the same who brought him a daughter, Francesca, in 1343. 
Both children were afterwards legitimized by papal bulls. 
Meanwhile his fame as a poet in the Latin and the vulgar tongues 
steadily increased, until, when the first draughts of the Africa 
began to circulate about the year 1339, it became manifest that 
no one had a better right to the laurel crown than Petrarch. A 
desire for glory was one of the most deeply-rooted passions of his 
nature, and one of the points in which he most strikingly antici- 
pated the humanistic scholars who succeeded him. It is not, 
therefore, surprising to find that he exerted his influence in several 
quarters with the view to obtaining the honours of a public 
coronation. The result of his intrigues was that on a single day 
in 1340, the ist of September, he received two invitations, from 
the university of Paris and from King Robert of Naples respec- 
tively. He chose to accept the latter, journeyed in February 
1341 to Naples, was honourably entertained by the king, and, 
after some formal disputations on matters touching the poet's 
art, was sent with magnificent credentials to Rome. There, in 
the month of April, Petrarch assumed the poet's crown upon the 
Capitol from the hand of the Roman senator amid the plaudits of 
the people and the patricians. The oration which he delivered 
on this occasion was composed upon these words of Virgil: 
" Sed me Parnassi deserta per ardua dulcis 
Raptat amor." 

The ancient and the modern eras met together on the Capitol 
at Petrarch's coronation, and a new stadium for the human spirit, 
that which we are wont to style Renaissance, was opened. 

With the coronation in Rome a fresh chapter in the biography 
of Petrarch may be said to have begun. Henceforth he ranked 
as a rhetorician and a poet of European celebrity, the guest of 
princes, and the ambassador to royal courts. During the spring 
months of 1341 his friend Azzo di Correggio had succeeded in 
freeing Parma from subjugation to the Scaligers, and was laying 



312 



PETRARCH 



the foundations of his own tyranny in that city. He invited 
Petrarch to attend him when he made his triumphal entry at the 
end of May; and from this time forward for a considerable 
period Parma and Vaucluse were the two headquarters of the 
poet. The one he called his Transalpine, the other his Cisalpine 
Parnassus. The events of the next six years of his life, from May 
1341 to May 1347, may be briefly recapitulated. He lost his old 
friend the bishop of Lombez by death and his brother Gherardo 
by the entrance of the latter into a Carthusian monastery. 
Various small benefices were conferred upon him; and repeated 
offers of a papal secretaryship, which would have raised him 
to the highest dignities, were made and rejected. Petrarch 
remained true to the instinct of his own vocation, and had no 
intention of sacrificing his studies and his glory to ecclesiastical 
ambition. In January 1343 his old friend and patron Robert, 
king of Naples, died, and Petrarch was sent on an embassy from 
the papal court to his successor Joan. The notices which he has 
left us of Neapolitan society at this epoch are interesting, and, it 
was now, perhaps, that he met Boccaccio for the first time. The 
beginning of the year 1345 was marked by an event more 
interesting in the scholar's eyes than any change in dynasties. 
This was no less than a discovery at Verona of Cicero's Familiar 
Letters. It is much to be regretted that Petrarch found the 
precious MS. so late in life, when the style of his own epistles had 
been already modelled upon that of Seneca and St Augustine. 

In the month of May 1347 Cola di Rienzi accomplished that 
extraordinary revolution which for a short space revived the 
republic in Rome, and raised this enthusiast to titular equality 
with kings. Petrarch, who in politics was no less visionary than 
Rienzi, hailed the advent of a founder and deliverer in the 
self-styled tribune. Without considering the impossibility of 
restoring the majesty of ancient Rome, or the absurdity of 
dignifying the medieval Roman rabble by the name of Populus 
Romanus, he threw himself with passion into the republican 
movement, and sacrificed his old friends of the Colonna family 
to what he judged a patriotic duty. 

Petrarch built himself a house at Parma in the autumn of 1347. 
Here he hoped to pursue the tranquil avocations of a poet 
honoured by men of the world and men of letters throughout 
Europe, and of an idealistic politician, whose effusions on the 
questions of the day were read with pleasure for their style. 
But in the course of the next two years this agreeable prospect 
was overclouded by a series of calamities. Laura died of the 
plague on the 6th of April 1348. Francesco degli Albizzi, 
Mainardo Accursio, Roberto de' Bardi, Sennuccio del Bene, 
Luchino Visconti, the cardinal Giovanni Colonna and several 
other friends followed to the grave in rapid succession. All of 
these had been intimate acquaintances and correspondents of 
the poet. Friendship with him was a passion; or, what is more 
true perhaps, he needed friends for the maintenance of his 
intellectual activity at the highest point of its effectiveness. 
Therefore he felt the loss of these men acutely. We may say with 
certainty that Laura's death, accompanied by that of so many 
distinguished associates, was the turning-point in Petrarch's 
inner life. He began to think of quitting the world, and pondered 
a plan for establishing a kind of humanistic convent, where he 
might dedicate himself, in the company of kindred spirits, to still 
severer studies and a closer communion with God. Though 
nothing came of this scheme, a marked change was henceforth 
perceptible in Petrarch's literary compositions. The poems 
written In Morte di Madonna Laura are graver and of more 
religious tone. The prose works touch on retrospective topics or 
deal with subjects of deep meditation. At the same time his 
renown, continually spreading, opened to him ever fresh relations 
with Italian despots. The noble houses of Gonzaga at Mantua, 
at Carrara at Padua, of Este at Ferrara, of Malatesta at Rimini, 
of Visconti at Milan, vied with Azzo di Correggio in entertaining 
the illustrious man of letters. It was in vain that his correspon- 
dents pointed out the discrepancy between his professed zeal for 
Italian liberties, his recent enthusiasm for the Roman republic, 
and this alliance with tyrants who were destroying the freedom 
of the Lombard cities. Petrarch remained an incurable rhetori- 



cian; and, while he. stigmatized the despots in his ode to Italy and 
in his epistles to the emperor he accepted their hospitality. 
They, on their part, seem to have understood his temperament, 
and to have agreed to recognize his political theories as of no 
practical importance. The tendency to honour men of letters 
and to patronize the arts which distinguished Italian princes 
throughout the Renaissance period first manifested itself in the 
attitude assumed by Visconti and Carraresi to Petrarch. 

When the jubilee of 1350 was proclaimed, Petrarch made a 
pilgrimage to Rome, passing and returning through Florence, 
where he established a firm friendship with Boccaccio. It has 
been well remarked that, while all his other friendships are 
shadowy and dim, this one alone stands out with clearness. Each 
of the two friends had a distinguished personality. Each played 
a foremost part in the revival of learning. Boccaccio carried his 
admiration for Petrarch to the point of worship Petrarch repaid 
him with sympathy, counsel in literary studies, and moral support 
which helped to elevate and purify the younger poet's over- 
sensuous nature. It was Boccaccio who in the spring of 1351 
brought to Petrarch, then resident with the Carrara family at 
Padua, an invitation from the seigniory of Florence to accept 
the rectorship of their recently founded university. This was 
accompanied by a diploma of restoration to his rights as citizen 
and restitution of his patrimony. But, flattering as was the 
offer, Petrarch declined it. He preferred his literary leisure at 
Vaucluse, at Parma, in the courts of princes, to a post which 
would have brought him into contact with jealous priors and 
have reduced him to the position of the servant of a common- 
wealth. Accordingly, we find him journeying again in 1351 to 
Vaucluse, again refusing the office of papal secretary, again plan- 
ning visionary reforms for the Roman people, and beginning that 
curious fragment of an autobiography which is known as the Epistle 
to Posterity. Early in 1353 he left Avignon for the last time, and 
entered Lombardy by the pass of Mont Genevre, making his way 
immediately to Milan. The archbishop Giovanni Visconti was 
at this period virtually despot of Milan. He induced Petrarch, 
who had long been a friend of the Visconti family, to establish 
himself at his court, where he found employment for him as 
ambassador and orator. The most memorable of his diplomatic 
missions was to Venice in the autumn of 1353. Towards the 
close of the long struggle between Genoa and the republic of St 
Mark the Genoese entreated Giovanni Visconti to mediate on 
their behalf with the Venetians. Petrarch was entrusted with 
the office; and on the 8th of November he delivered a studied 
oration before the doge Andrea Dandolo and the great council. 
His eloquence had no effect; but the orator entered into relations 
with the Venetian aristocracy which were afterwards extended 
and confirmed. Meanwhile, Milan continued to be his place of 
residence. After Giovanni's death he remained in the court of 
Bernabo and Galeazzo Visconti, closing his eyes to their cruelties 
and exactions, serving them as a diplomatist, making speeches 
for them on ceremonial occasions, and partaking of the splendid 
hospitality they offered to emperors and princes. It was in this 
capacity of an independent man of letters, highly placed and 
favoured at one of the most wealthy courts of Europe, that he 
addressed epistles to the emperor Charles IV. upon the distracted 
state of Italy, and entreated him to resume the old Ghibelline 
policy of Imperial interference. Charles IV. passed through 
Mantua in the autumn of 1354. There Petrarch made his 
acquaintance, and, finding him a man unfit for any noble enter- 
prise, declined attending him to Rome. When Charles returned 
to Germany, after assuming the crowns in Rome and Milan, 
Petrarch addressed a letter of vehement invective and reproach 
to the emperor who was so negligent of the duties imposed on 
him by his high office. This did not prevent the Visconti sending 
him on an embassy to Charles in 1356. Petrarch found him 
at Prague, and, after pleading the cause of his masters, was 
despatched with honour and the diploma of count palatine. His 
student's life at Milan was again interrupted in 1360 by a mission 
on which Galeazzo Visconti sent him to King John of France. 
The tyrants of Milan were aspiring to royal alliances; Gian 
Galeazzo Visconti had been married to Isabella of France; 



PETRARCH 



Violante Visconti, a few years later, was wedded to the English 
duke of Clarence. Petrarch was now commissioned to congratu- 
late King John upon his liberation from captivity to England. 
This duty performed, he returned to Milan, where in 1361 he 
received news of the deaths of his son Giovanni and his old friend 
Socrates. Both had been carried off by plague. 

The remaining years of Petrarch's life, important as they were 
for the furtherance of humanistic studies, may be briefly con- 
densed. On the nth of May 1362 he settled at Padua, from the 
neighbourhood of which he never moved again to any great 
distance. The same year saw him at Venice, making a donation 
of his library to the republic of St Mark. Here his friend 
Boccaccio introduced to him the Greek teacher Leontius Pilatus. 
Petrarch, who possessed a MS. of Homer and a portion of Plato, 
never acquired the Greek language, although he attempted to 
gain some little knowledge of it in his later years. Homer, he 
said, was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer; and he could 
only approach the Iliad in Boccaccio's rude Latin version. About 
this period he saw his daughter Francesca happily married, and 
undertook the education of a young scholar from Ravenna, 
whose sudden disappearance from his household caused him the 
deepest grief. This youth has been identified, but on insufficient 
grounds, with that Giovanni Malpaghini of Ravenna who was 
destined to form a most important link between Petrarch and 
the humanists of the next age of culture. Gradually his oldest 
friends dropped off. Azzo di Correggio died in 1362, and Laelius, 
Simonides, Barbato, in the following year. His own death was 
reported in 1365; but he survived another decade. Much of this 
last stage of his life was occupied at Padua in a controversy with 
the Averroists, whom he regarded as dangerous antagonists both 
to sound religion and to sound culture. A curious treatise, which 
grew in part out of this dispute and out of a previous duel 
with physicians, was the book Upon his own Ignorance and that of 
many others. At last, in 1369, tired with the bustle of a town so 
big as Padua, he retired to Arqua, a village in Euganean hills, 
where he continued his usual train of literary occupations, 
employing several secretaries, and studying unremittingly. All 
through these declining years his friendship with Boccaccio was 
maintained and strengthened. It rested on a solid basis of 
mutual affection and of common studies, the different tempera- 
ments of the two scholars securing them against the disagree- 
ments of rivalry or jealousy. One of Petrarch's last compositions 
was a Latin version of Boccaccio's story of Griselda. On the i8th 
of July 1374 his people found the old poet and scholar dead 
among his books in the library of that little house which looks 
across the hills and lowlands towards the Adriatic. 

When we attempt to estimate Petrarch's position in the 
history of modern culture, the first thing which strikes us is that 
he was even less eminent as an Italian poet than as the founder 
of Humanism, the inaugurator of the Renaissance in Italy. 
What he achieved for the modern world was not merely to 
bequeath to his Italian imitators masterpieces of lyrical art 
unrivalled for perfection of workmanship, but also, and far more, 
to open out for Europe a new sphere of mental activity. Stand- 
ing within the threshold of the middle ages, he surveyed the 
kingdom of the modern spirit, and, by his own inexhaustible 
industry in the field of scholarship and study, he determined 
what we call the revival of learning. By bringing the men of his 
own generation into sympathetic contact with antiquity, he gave 
a decisive impulse to that European movement which restored 
freedom, self-consciousness, and the faculty of progress to the 
human intellect. He was the first man to collect libraries, to 
accumulate coins, to advocate the preservation of MSS. For 
him the authors of the Greek and Latin world were living men 
more real, in fact, than those with whom he corresponded; and 
the rhetorical epistles he addressed to Cicero, Seneca and Varro 
prove that he dwelt with them on terms of sympathetic intimacy. 
So far-reaching were the interests controlled by him in this 
capacity of humanist that his achievement as an Italian lyrist 
seems by comparison insignificant. 

Petrarch's ideal of humanism was essentially a noble one. 
He regarded the orator and the poet as teachers, bound to 



complete themselves by education, and to exhibit to the world an 
image of perfected personality in prose and verse of studied 
beauty. Self-culture and self-effectuation seemed to him the 
highest aims of man. Everything which contributed to the 
formation of a free, impassioned, liberal individuality he regarded 
as praiseworthy. Everything which retarded the attainment of 
that end was contemptible in his eyes. The authors of antiquity, 
the Holy Scriptures and the fathers of the Church were valued 
by him as one common source of intellectual enlightenment. 
Eminently religious, and orthodox in his convictions, he did not 
seek to substitute a pagan for the Christian ideal. This was left 
for the scholars of the isth and i6th centuries in Italy. At the 
same time, the Latin orators, historians and poets were venerated 
by him as depositories of a tradition only second in importance 
to revelation. For him there was no schism between Rome and 
Galilee, between classical genius and sacred inspiration. Though 
the latter took the first rank in relation to man's eternal welfare, 
the former was necessary for the perfection of his intellect and 
the civilization of his manners. With this double ideal in view, 
Petrarch poured scorn upon the French physicians and the Italian 
Averroists for their illiberal philistinism, no less than for their 
materialistic impiety. True to his conception of independent 
intellectual activity, he abstained from a legal career, refused 
important ecclesiastical office, and contented himself with paltry 
benefices which implied no spiritual or administrative duties, 
because he was resolved to follow the one purpose of his life 
self-culture. Whatever in literature revealed the hearts of men 
was infinitely precious to him; and for this reason he professed 
almost a cult for St Augustine. It was to Augustine, as to a 
friend or a confessor, that he poured forth the secrets of his own 
soul in the book De contemptu mundi. 

In this effort to realize his truest self Petrarch was eminently 
successful. Much as he effected by restoring to the world a sound 
conception of learning, and by rousing that genuine love and 
curiosity which led to the revival, he did even more by im- 
pressing on the age his own full-formed and striking personality. 
In all things he was original. Whether we regard him as a 
priest who published poem after poem in praise of an adored 
mistress, as a plebeian man of letters who conversed on equal 
terms with kings and princes, as a solitary dedicated to the love 
of nature, as an amateur diplomatist treating affairs of state with 
pompous eloquence in missives sent to popes and emperors, or 
again as a traveller eager for change of scene, ready to climb 
mountains for the enjoyment of broad prospects over spreading 
champaigns; in all these divers manifestations of his peculiar 
genius we trace some contrast with the manners of the i4th 
century, some emphatic anticipation of the i6th. The defects 
of Petrarch's character were no less striking than its qualities, 
and were indeed their complement and counterpart. That 
vivid conception of intellectual and moral self-culture which 
determined his ideal took the form in actual life of all-absorbing 
egotism. He was not content with knowing himself to be 
the leader of the age. He claimed autocracy, suffered 
no rival near his throne, brooked no contradiction, demanded 
unconditional submission to his will and judgment. Petrarch 
was made up of contradictions. Praising solitude, playing the 
hermit at Vaucluse, he only loved seclusion as a contrast to the 
society of courts. While he penned dissertations on the futility of 
fame and the burden of celebrity he was trimming his sails to 
catch the breeze of popular applause. No one professed a more 
austere morality, and few medieval writers indulged in cruder 
satire on the female sex; yet he passed some years in the society 
of a concubine, and his living masterpiece of art is the apotheosis 
of chivalrous passion for a woman. These discords of an un- 
decided nature displayed themselves in his political theories and 
in his philosophy of conduct. In one mood he was fain to ape 
the antique patriot; in another he affected the monastic saint. 
He was clamorous for the freedom of the Roman people; yet at 
one time he called upon the popes to re-establish themselves in 
the Eternal City; at another he besought the emperor to make it 
his headquarters; at a third he hailed in Rienzi the founder of 
a new republic. He did not perceive that all these plans were 



PETRARCH 



incompatible. His relations to the Lombard nobles were equally 
at variance with his professed patriotism; and, while still a 
housemate of Visconti and Correggi, he kept on issuing invectives 
against the tyrants who divided Italy. It would not be difficult 
to multiply these antitheses in the character and the opinions of 
this singular man. But it is more to the purpose to remark that 
they were harmonized in a personality of potent and enduring 
force. 

The point to notice in this complex personality is that 
Petrarch's ideal remained always literary. As philosopher, poli- 
tician, historian, essayist, orator, he aimed at lucid and harmo- 
nious expression not, indeed, neglecting the importance of the 
material he undertook to treat, but approaching his task in the 
spirit of an artist rather than a thinker or a man of action. This 
accounts for his bewildering versatility, and for his apparent 
want of grasp on conditions of fact. Viewed in this light 
Petrarch anticipated the Italian Renaissance in its weakness 
that philosophical superficiality, that tendency to ornate 
rhetoric, that preoccupation with stylistic trifles, that want of 
profound conviction and stern sincerity, which stamp its minor 
literary products with the note of mediocrity. Had Petrarch 
been possessed with a passion for some commanding principle in 
politics, morality or science, instead of with the thirst for self- 
glorification and the ideal of artistic culture, it is not wholly 
impossible that Italian humanism might have assumed a manlier 
and more conscientious tone. But this is not a question which 
admits of discussion; for the conditions which made Petrarch 
what he was were already potent in Italian society. He did but 
express the spirit of the period he opened; and it may also be 
added that his own ideal was higher and severer than that of the 
illustrious humanists who followed him. 

As an author Petrarch must be considered from two points of 
view first as a writer of Latin verse and prose, secondly as an 
Italian lyrist. In the former capacity he was speedily out- 
stripped by more fortunate scholars. His eclogues and epistles 
and the epic of Africa, on which he set such store, exhibit a 
comparatively limited command of Latin metre. His treatises, 
orations, and familiar letters, though remarkable for a prose style 
which is eminently characteristic of the man, are not distinguished 
by purity of diction. Much as he admired Cicero, it is clear that 
he had not freed himself from current medieval Latinity. Seneca 
and Augustine had been too much used by him as models of 
composition. At the same time it will be conceded that he 
possessed a copious vocabulary, a fine ear for cadence, and the 
faculty of expressing every shade of thought or feeling. What he 
lacked was that insight into the best classical masterpieces, that 
command of the best classical diction, which is the product of 
successive generations of scholarship. To attain to this, 
Giovanni da Ravenna, Colluccio Salutato, Poggio and Filelfo 
had to labour, before a Poliziano and a Bembo finally prepared 
the path for an Erasmus. Had Petrarch been born at the close 
of the isth instead of at the opening of the i4th century there is 
no doubt that his Latinity would have been as pure, as versatile, 
and as pointed as that of the witty stylist of Rotterdam. 

With regard to his Italian poetry Petrarch occupies a very 
different position. The Rime in Vita e Morte di Madonna Laura 
cannot become obsolete, for perfect metrical form has here been 
married to language of the choicest and the purest. It is true 
that even in the Canzoniere, as Italians prefer to call that collec- 
tion of lyrics, Petrarch is not devoid of faults belonging to his age, 
and affectations which have imposed themselves with disastrous 
effect through his authority upon the literature of Europe. He 
appealed in his odes and sonnets to a restricted audience already 
educated by the chivalrous love-poetry of Provence and by 
Italian imitations of that style. He was not careful to exclude 
the commonplaces of the school, nor anxious to finish a work of 
art wholly free from fashionable graces and from contemporary 
conceits. There is therefore a certain element of artificiality in 
his treatment; and this, since it is easier to copy defects than 
excellencies, has been perpetuated with wearisome monotony 
by versifiers who chose him for their model. But, after making 
due allowance for peculiarities, the abuse of which has brought 



the name of Petrarchist into contempt, we can agree with Shelley 
that the lyrics of the Canzoniere " are as spells which unseal the 
inmost enchanted fountains of the delight which is the grief of 
love." Much might be written about the peculiar position held 
by Petrarch between the metaphysical lyrists of Tuscany and the 
more realistic amorists of succeeding generations. True in this 
respect also to his anticipation of the coming age, he was the first 
Italian poet of love to free himself from allegory and mysticism. 
Yet he was far from approaching the analysis of emotion with 
the directness of a Heine or De Mussel. Though we believe in 
the reality of Laura, we derive no clear conception either of her 
person or her character. She is not so much a woman as woman 
in the abstract; and perhaps on this very account the poems 
written for her by her lover have been taken to the heart by 
countless lovers who came after him. The method of his art is so 
generalizing, while his feeling is so natural, that every man can 
see himself reflected in the singer and his mistress shadowed forth 
in Laura. The same criticism might be passed on Petrarch's 
descriptions of nature. That he felt the beauties of nature keenly 
is certain, and he frequently touches them with obvious appreci- 
ation. Yet he has written nothing so characteristic of Vaucluse 
as to be inapplicable to any solitude where there are woods and 
water. The Canzoniere is therefore one long melodious monody 
poured from the poet's soul, with the indefinite form of a beautiful 
woman seated in a lovely landscape, a perpetual object of delight- 
ful contemplation. This disengagement from local circumstance 
without the sacrifice of emotional sincerity is a merit in Petrarch, 
but it became a fault in his imitators. Lacking his intensity of 
passion and his admirable faculty for seizing the most evanescent 
shades of difference in feeling, they degenerated into colourless 
and lifeless insipidities made insupportable by the frigid repeti- 
tion of tropes and conceits which we are fain to pardon in the 
master. 

Petrarch did not distinguish himself by love-poetry alone in 
the Italian language. His odes to Giacomo Colonna, to Cola di 
Rienzi and to the princes of Italy display him in another light. 
They exhibit the oratorical fervour, the pleader's eloquence in its 
most perfect lustre, which Petrarch possessed in no less measure 
than subjective passion. Modern literature has nothing nobler, 
nothing more harmonious in the declamatory style than these 
three patriotic effusions. Their spirit itself is epoch-making in 
the history of Europe. Up to this point Italy had scarcely begun 
to exist. There were Florentines and Lombards, Guelfs and 
Ghibellines; but even Dante had scarcely conceived of Italy 
as a nation, independent of the empire, inclusive of her several 
component commonwealths. To the high conception of Italian 
nationality, to the belief in that spiritual unity which underlay 
her many discords and divisions, Petrarch attained partly through 
his disengagement from civic and local partisanship, partly 
through his large and liberal ideal of culture. 

The materials for a life of Petrarch are afforded in abundance by 
his letters, collected and prepared for publication under his own 
eyes. These are divided into Familiar Correspondence, Correspond- 
ence in Old Age, Divers Letters and Letters without a Title; to which 
may be added the curious autobiographical fragment entitled the 
Epistle to Posterity. Next in importance rank the epistles and 
eclogues in Latin verse, the Italian poems and the rhetorical ad- 
dresses to popes, emperors, Cola di Rienzi and some great men of 
antiquity. For the comprehension of his character the treatise De 
contemptu mundi, addressed to St Augustine and styled his Secret, 
is invaluable. Without attempting a complete list of Petrarch's 
works, it may be well to illustrate the extent of his erudition and 
his activity as a writer by a brief enumeration of the most im- 
portant. In the section belonging to moral philosophy, we find 
De remediis utriusque fortunae, a treatise on human happiness 
and unhappiness; De vita solitaria, a panegyric of solitude; De 
olio religiosorum, a similar essay on monastic life, inspired by 
a visit to his brother Gherardo in his convent near Marseilles. On 
historical subjects the most considerable are Rerum memorandarum 
libri, a miscellany from a student's commonplace-book, and De 
viris illustribus, an epitome of the biographies of Roman worthies. 
Three polemical works require mention : Contra cujusdam anonymi 
Galli calumnias apologia. Contra medicum quendam invectivarum 
libri, and De sm ipsius et multorum ignorantia controversial 
and sarcastic compositions, which grew out of Petrarch's quarrels 
with the physicians of Avignon and the Averrpists of Padua. In 
this connexion it might also be well to mention the remarkable 



PETRE, SIR E. PETREL 



satires on the papal court, included in the Epistolae sine titulo. 
Five public orations have been preserved, the most weighty of 
which, in explanation of Petrarch's conception of literature, is the 
speech delivered on the Capitol upon the occasion of his coronation. 
Among his Latin poems Africa, an epic on Scipio Africanus, takes 
the first place. Twelve Eclogues and three books of Epistles in 
verse close the list. In Italian we possess the Canzoniere, which 
includes odes and sonnets written for Laura during her lifetime, 
those written for her after her death, and a miscellaneous section 
containing the three patriotic odes and three famous poetical 
invectives against the papal court. Besides these lyrical composi- 
tions are the semi-epical or allegorical Trionfi Triumphs of Love, 
Chastity, Death, Fame, Time and Divinity, written in terza rima 
of smooth and limpid quality. Though these Triumphs, as a 
whole, are deficient in poetic inspiration, the second canto of the 
Trionfo della morte, in which Petrarch describes a vision of his 
dead love Laura, is justly famous for reserved passion and pathos 
tempered to a tranquil harmony. 

The complete bibliography of Petrarch forms a considerable 
volume. Such a work was attempted by Domenico Rossetti 
(Trieste, 1828). It will be enough here to mention the Basel edition 
of 1581, in folio, as the basis for all subsequent editions of his 
collected works. Among editions of the Canzoniere special mention 
may be made of those of Marsand (Padua, 1820), Leopardi in Le 
Monnier's collection, Mestica (1895), and Cardnui (1899). Nor 
must Fracassetti's Italian version of the Letters (published in 5 vols. 
by Le Monnier) be neglected. De Sade's Life of the poet (Amster- 
dam, 1764-1767) marks an epoch in the history of his numerous 
biographies; but this is in many important points untrustworthy, 
and it has been superseded by Gustav Koerting's exhaustive 
volume on Petrarcas Leben und Werke (Leipzig, 1878). Georg 
Voigt's Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (Berlin, 1859) 
contains a well-digested estimate of Petrarch's relation to the 
revival of learning. Meziere's Petrarqtie (1868) is a monograph of 
merit. English readers may be referred to a little book on Petrarch 
by Henry Reeve, and to vols. ii. and iv. of Symond's Renaissance 
in Italy. See also Maud F. Jerrold, Francesco Petrarca, poet and 
humanist (1909). (J. A. S.) 

PETRE, SIR EDWARD (1631-1699), Jesuit confessor of King 
James II. of England, was born in Paris. He was the son of Sir 
Francis Petre, Bart., of Cranham, head of a junior branch of the 
family of the Barons Petre, and his wife Elizabeth Gage, 
daughter of Sir John Gage, both strong Roman Catholics. In 
1649 he was sent for his education to the Jesuit College at St 
Omer, and he entered the order under the name of Spencer in 
1652, but did not receive the full orders till 1671. In 1679 he 
succeeded his elder brother in the title and family estates. On 
the accession of James II. in 1685 he was chosen as confessor by 
the king, who looked upon him as " a resolute and undertaking 
man." During the whole of the king's reign Petre was one of 
his advisers who did the most to encourage him in the policy 
which ended by producing the revolution of 1688. The king 
contemplated making him archbishop of York, as the see was 
then vacant, but the pope, Innocent XI., who was not friendly to 
the order, would not grant a dispensation to hold it, and even 
directed Petre's superiors to rebuke him for his excessive am- 
bition. In 1687 he was made privy councillor. When the 
revolution broke out Petre was compelled to flee disguised as a 
woman. After his flight he had no further relations with 
James II. After a visit to Rome, he became head of the Jesuit 
College at St Omer in 1693, from whence he was transferred to 
Walten in Flanders in 1697. He died on the i5th of May 
1699. A younger brother Charles (1644-1712) was alsp a 
member of the order. 

PETRE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1305-1572), English politician, 
was a son of John Petre, a Devon man, and was educated at 
Exeter College, Oxford, afterwards becoming a fellow of All 
Souls' College. He entered the public service in early life, owing 
his introduction therein doubtless to the fact that at Oxford 
he had been tutor to Anne Boleyn's brother, George Boleyn, 
Viscount Rochford, and began his official career by serving the 
English government abroad. In 1536 he was made deputy, or 
proctor, for the vicar-general, Thomas Cromwell, and as such he 
presided over the convocation which met in June of this year. 
In 1543 Petre was knighted and was appointed a secretary of 
state; in 1545 he was sent as ambassador to the emperor 
Charles V. A very politic man, he retained his position 
under Edward VI. and also under Mary, forsaking the protector 
Somerset at the right moment and winning Mary's goodwill by 



favouring her marriage with Philip II. of Spain. He resigned 
his secretaryship in 1557, but took some part in public business 
under Elizabeth until his death at his residence, Ingatestone, 
Essex, on the i3th of January 1572. 

His son John Petre (1540-1613) was created Baron Petre of 
Writtle in 1603. The 2nd baron was his son William (1575- 
1637), whose grandson was William, the 4th baron (c. 1626- 
1684). Denounced by Titus Gates as a papist, the last named 
was arrested with other Roman Catholic noblemen in 1678 and 
remained without trial in the Tower of London until his death. 
His brother John (1629-1684) was the sth lord, and the latter's 
nephew, Robert (1689-1713), was the 7th lord. It was Robert's 
action in cutting a lock of hair from a lady's head which led Pope 
to write his poem " The Rape of the Lock." The Petres have been 
consistently attached to the Roman Catholic faith, William 
Joseph, the i3th baron (1847-1893), being a priest of the Roman 
church, and the barony is still (1911) in existence. One of the 
ist baron's grandsons was William Petre (1602-1677), who trans- 
lated the Flos sanctorum of Pedro de Ribadeneira as Lives of the 
Saints (St Omer, 1699; London, 1730). 

See Genealogical Collections illustrating the History of Roman 
Catholic Families of England, vol. i., edited by J. J. Howard and 
H. F. Burke. 

PETREL, the general name of a group of birds (of which more 
than 100 species are recognized), derived from the habit which 
some of them possess of apparently walking on the surface of the 
water as the apostle St Peter (of whose name the word is a 
diminutive form) is recorded (Matt. xiv. 29) to have done. The 
petrels, all of which are placed in the family Procellariidae, were 
formerly associated with the Laridae (see GULL), but they are 
now placed as the sole members of the suborder Tubinares (the 
name denoting the characteristic tubular structure of their 
nostrils) and of the order Procellariiformes (see BIRD). They are 
subdivided into four groups or subfamilies: (i) Pelecanoidinae 
(or Halodrominae), containing some three or four species known 
as diving-petrels, with habits very different from others of the 
family, and almost peculiar to high southern latitudes from Cape 
Horn to New Zealand; (2) Procellariinae, or petrels proper (and 
shearwaters); (3) Diomedeinae, or albatrosses (see MALLEMUCK); 
and (4) Oceanitinae, containing small sooty-black birds of the 
genera Cymodroma, Pealea, Pelagodroma, Garrodia and Oceaniles, 
the distinctive nature of which was first recognized by Coues 
in 1864. 

Petrels are archaic oceanic forms, with great powers of flight, 
dispersed throughout all the seas and oceans of the world, and 
some species apparently never resort to land except for the pur- 
pose of nidification, though nearly all are liable at times to be 
driven ashore, and often very far inland, by gales of wind. 1 It 
would also seem that during the breeding-season many of them 
are wholly nocturnal in their habits, passing the day in holes of 
the ground, or in clefts of the rocks, in which they generally 
nestle, the hen of each pair laying a single white egg, sparsely 
speckled in a few species with fine reddish dots. Of those 
species that frequent the North Atlantic, the common Storm- 
Petrel, Procellaria pelagica, a little bird which has to the 
ordinary eye rather the look of a Swift or Swallow, is the 
" Mother Carey's chicken " of sailors, and is widely believed to be 
the harbinger of bad weather; but seamen hardly discriminate 
between this and others nearly resembling it in appearance, such 
as Leach's or the Fork-tailed Petrel, Cymochorea leucorrhoa, a 
rather larger but less common bird, and Wilson's Petrel, Ocean- 
iles oceanicus, the type of the Family Oceanitidae mentioned 
above, which is more common on the American side. But it is in 
the Southern Ocean that Petrels most abound, both as species 
and as individuals. The Cape-Pigeon or Pintado Petrel, Daption 
capensis, is one that has long been well known to mariners and 
other wayfarers on the great waters, while those who voyage to 
or from Australia, whatever be the route they take, are 

1 Thus Oestrelata haesitata, the Capped Petrel, a species whose 
proper home seems to be Guadeloupe and some of the neighbouring 
West-Indian Islands, has occurred in the State of New York, near 
Boulogne, in Norfolk, and in Hungary (Ibis, 1884, p. 202). 



316 



PETRIE, G. PETROLEUM 



certain to meet with many more species, some, as Ossifraga 
gigantea, as large as Albatrosses, and several of them called by 
sailors by a variety of choice names, generally having reference 
to the strong smell of musk emitted by the birds, among which 
that of " Stink-pot " is not the most opprobrious. None of 
the Petrels are endowed with any brilliant colouring sooty- 
black, grey of various tints (one of which is often called 
" blue "), and white being the only hues the plumage exhibits. 

The distribution of the several species of Petrels in the Southern 
Ocean has been treated by A. Milne-Edwards in the Annales des 
sciences naturelles for 1882 (6th series Zoologie, vol. xiii. art. 4, pp. 
1-22). (A- N.) 

PETRIE, GEORGE (1790-1866), Irish antiquary, was the son 
of James Petrie, a native of Aberdeen, who had settled in Dublin 
as a portrait and miniature painter. He was born in Dublin in 
January 1790, and was educated as an artist. Besides attaining 
considerable reputation as a painter of Irish landscape, he 
devoted much time to the illustration of the antiquities of the 
country. In 1828 he was appointed to conduct the antiquarian 
and historical section of the ordnance survey of Ireland. In 
1832 he became editor of the Dublin Penny Journal, a periodical 
designed to disseminate information among the masses, to which 
he contributed numerous articles on the history of the fine arts 
in Ireland. Petrie may be regarded as the first scientific in- 
vestigator of Irish archaeology, his contributions to which are 
also in themselves of much importance. His Essay on Round 
Towers, for which in 1830 he received the prize of the Irish 
Academy, still ranks as a standard work. Among his other 
contributions to Irish archaeology are his Essay on the Military 
Architecture oj Ireland and his History and Antiquities of Tar a 
Hill. He died on the 1 7th of January 1866. 

See the Life and Labours in Art and Archaeology of George Petrie, 
by William Stokes (1868). 

PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1833- ), 
English egyptologist, was born at Charlton on the 3rd of June 
1853, being the son of William Petrie, C.E. His mother was the 
daughter of Captain Matthew Flinders, the Australian explorer. 
He took an early interest in archaeological research, and between 
1875 and 1880 was busily engaged in studying ancient British 
remains at Stonehenge and elsewhere.; in 1880 he published his 
book on Stonehenge, with an account of his theories on this 
subject. He was also much interested in ancient weights and 
measures, and in 1875 published a work on Inductive Metrology. 
In 1881 he began a long series of important surveys and excava- 
tions in Egypt, beginning with the pyramids at Giza, and follow- 
ing up his work there by excavations at the great temple at Tanis 
(1884), and discovering and exploring the long-lost Greek city of 
Naucratis in the Delta (1885), and the towns of Am and Daphnae 
(1886), where he found important remains of the time when they 
were inhabited by the Pharaohs. Between 1888 and 1890 he 
was at work in the Fayum, opening up Hawara, Kahun and 
Lachish; and in 1891 he discovered the ancient temple at Medum. 
Much of this work was done in connexion with the Palestine 
Exploration Fund. By this time his reputation was estab- 
lished. He published in 1893 his Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt, 
was given the honorary degree of D.C.L. by Oxford, and was 
appointed Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University 
College, London. In 1894 he founded the Egyptian Research 
Account, which in 1905 was reconstituted as the British School 
of Archaeology in Egypt (not to be confused with the Egypt 
Exploration Fund, founded 1892). Perhaps the most important 
work which the School has accomplished has been the investi- 
gation of the site of Memphis (<?..) 

The extent as well as the chronological order of Professor Petrie's 
excavations may best be shown by a list of his works. 

WORKS. His chief general works on Egyptian subjects are, 
Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt (1893); History of Egypt (1894 
1905); Egyptian Tales (1895); Religion and Conscience in Ancient 
Egypt (1898); Syria and Egypt (1898); Royal Tombs of the First 
Dynasty (1900); Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties (1901); 
Hyksos and Israelite Cities (1906) ; Religion of Ancient Egypt (1906) ; 
Personal Religion in Egypt (1908). On particular sites, Pyramids 
and Temples of Gizeh (1883); Tanis I. (1885); Nankratis I. (1886); 
Hawara (1889); Kahun (1890); Illahun (1891); Medum (1892); 



Tell el Amarna (1895); Koptos (1896); Nogada (1896); Six 
Temples at Thebes (1897); Deshasheh (1897); Dendereh (1900); 
Diospolis (1901); Abydos I. (1902); Abydos II. (1903); Ehnasya 
[1904); Egyptians in Sinai and Researches in Sinai (1906); Gizeh 
and Rifeh (1907); Athribis (1908); Memphis and Qurneh (1909). 

PETRIOU (also called Cha-chang-sao) , a town and port of 
Siam, in the division of Pachim, about 45 m. E. of Bangkok. 
It is the centre of that part of southern Siam which is watered 
by the Bang Pakong River. It is built on low-lying, swampy 
ground, about 10 m. from the mouth of the above river. The 
population is about 10,000, mixed Siamese and Chinese, the 
latter slightly predominating. Rice-mills give employment to 
a large number of indentured Chinese coolies, but the inhabi- 
tants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. A railway connecting 
with Bangkok was opened in the spring of 1908. 

PETROLEA, a town and port of entry in Lambton county, 
Ontario, Canada, situated 42 m. W. of London on Bear Creek, 
an affluent of Sydenham River, and on the Grand Trunk and 
Michigan Central railways. Pop. (1901), 4I3S- It is in the 
midst of the oil region of Canada, and numerous wells in the 
vicinity have an aggregate output of about 30,000,000 gallons 
of crude oil per annum, much of which is refined in the town. 

PETROLEUM (Lat. petra, rock, and oleum, oil), a term which, 
in its widest sense, embraces the whole of the hydrocarbons, 
gaseous, liquid and solid, occurring in nature (see BITUMEN). 
Here the application of the term is limited to the liquid which 
is so important an article of commerce, though references will 
also be made to natural gas which accompanies petroleum. 
Descriptions of the solid forms will be found in the articles on 
asphalt or asphaltum, albertite, elaterite, gilsonite, hatchettite 
and ozokerite. Particulars of the shales which yield oil on 
destructive distillation are given in the article on paraffin. 

Ancient History. Petroleum was collected for use in the most 
remote ages of which we have any records. Herodotus de- 
scribes the oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and the pitch 
spring of Zacynthus (Zante), whilst Strabo, Dioscorides and 
Pliny mention the use of the oil of Agrigentum, in Sicily, for 
illumination, and Plutarch refers to the petroleum found near 
Ecbatana (Kerkuk). The ancient records of China and Japan 
are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas 
for lighting and heating. Petroleum (" burning water ") was 
known in Japan in the 7th century, whilst in Europe the gas 
springs of the north of Italy led to the adoption in 1226 by the 
municipality of Salsomaggiore of a salamander surrounded by 
flames as its emblem. Marco Polo refers to the oil springs of 
Baku towards the end of the i3th century; the medicinal proper- 
ties of the oil of Tegernsee in Bavaria gave it the name of " St 
Quirinus's Oil " in 1436; the oil of Pechelbronn, Elsass, was dis- 
covered in 1498, and the " earthbalsam " of Galicia was known 
in 1506. The earliest mention of American petroleum occurs 
in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad pitch-lake in 
1595; whilst thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of 
a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of 
New York was published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada. In 
the 1 7th century, Thomas Shirley brought the natural gas of 
Wigan, in Shropshire, to the notice of the Royal Society. In 
1 7 24 Hermann Boernaave referred to the oleum terrae of Burma, 
and "Barbados tar" was then well known as a medicinal agent. 
A Russian traveller, Peter Kalm, in his work on America, 
published in 1748, showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsyl- 
vania, and about the same time Raicevich referred to the 
" liquid bitumen " of Rumania. 

Modern Development and Industrial Progress. The first 
commercial exploitation of importance appears to have been the 
distillation of the oil at Alfreton in Derbyshire by James Young, 
who patented his process for the manufacture of paraffin in 
1850. In 1853 and 1854 patents for the preparation of this 
substance from petroleum were obtained by Warren de la Rue, 
and the process was applied to the " Rangoon oil " brought to 
Great Britain from Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. The active 
growth of the petroleum industry of the United States began 
in 1859, though in the early part of the century the petroleum 
of Lake Seneca, N.Y., was used as an embrocation under the 



PETROLEUM 



3*7 



name of "Seneca oil," and the "American Medicinal Oil" 
of Kentucky was largely sold after its discovery in 1829. The 
Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company was formed in 1854, but its 
operations were unsuccessful, and in 1858 certain of the mem- 
bers founded the Seneca Oil Company, under whose direction 
E. L. Drake started a well on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. After 
drilling had been carried to a depth of 69 feet, on the 28th of 
August 1859, the tools suddenly dropped into a crevice, and on 
the following day the well was found to have " struck oil." 
This well yielded 25 barrels a day for some time, but at the end 
of the year the output was at the rate of 15 barrels. The pro- 
duction of crude petroleum in the United States was officially 
reported to have been 2000 barrels in 1859, 4,215,0x30 barrels 
in 1869, 19,914,146 barrels in 1879, 35,163,513 barrels in 1889, 
57,084,428 barrels in 1899, and 126,493,936 barrels in 1906. 
From Oil Creek, development spread first over the eastern 
United States and then became general, subsequently embracing 
Canada (1862), recently discovered fields being those of Illinois, 
Alberta and California (44,854,737 barrels in 1908). 

For about 10 years Pennsylvania was the one great oil pro- 
ducer of the world, but since 1870 the industry has spread all 
over the globe. From the time of the completion on the Baku 
field of the first flowing well (which was unmanageable and 
resulted in the loss of the greater part of the oil), Russia has 
ranked second in the list of producing countries, whilst Galicia 
and Rumania became prominent in 1878 and 1880 respectively. 
Sumatra, Java and Borneo, where active development began 
in 1883, 1886 and 1896, bid fair to rank before long among the 
chief sources of the oil supplies of the world. Similarly, Burma, 
where the Burmah Oil Company have, since 1890, rapidly 
extended their operations, is rising to a position of importance. 
Oil fields are being continually opened up in other parts of the 
world, and whilst America still maintains her position as the 
largest petroleum producer, the world's supplies are now being 
derived from a steadily increasing number of centres. 

Physical and Chemical Properties. Although our information 
respecting the chemical composition of petroleum has been 
almost entirely gained since the middle of the i8th century, a 
considerable amount of empirical knowledge of the substance 
was possessed by chemists at an earlier date, and there was much 
speculation as to its origin. In his Sylva syharum (1627), 
Francis Bacon states that " the original concretion of bitumen 
is a mixture of a fiery and watery substance," and observes 
that flame " attracts " the naphtha of Babylon " afar off." 
P. J. Macquer (1764), T. O. Bergman (1784) Charles Hatchett 
(1798) and others also expressed views with regard to the 
constitution and origin of bitumens. Of these early writers, 
Hatchett is the most explicit, the various bituminous substances 
being by him classified and defined. Jacob Joseph Winterl, 
in 1788, appears to have been the first to examine petroleum 
chemically, but the earliest systematic investigation was that 
carried out by Professor B. Silliman, Jun., in 1855, who then 
reported upon the results which he had obtained with the 
" rock oil or petroleum " of Venango county, Pennsylvania. 
This report has become a classic in the literature of petroleum. 

The physical properties of petroleum vary greatly. The 
colour ranges from pale yellow through red and brown to black 
or greenish, while by reflected light it is, in the majority of cases, 
of a green hue. The specific gravity of crude petroleum appears 
to range from -771 to 1-06, and the flash point from below o 
to 37oF. Viscosity increases with density, but oils of the same 
density often vary greatly; the coefficient of expansion, on the 
other hand, varies inversely with the density, but bears no 
simple relation to the change of fluidity of the oil under the 
influence of heat, this being most marked in oils of paraffin 
base. The calorific power of Baku oil appears to be highest, 
wliile this oil is poorest in solid hydrocarbons, of which the 
American petroleums contain moderate quantities, and the 
Upper Burma oils the largest amount. The boiling point, being 
determined by the character of the constituents of the oil, 
necessarily varies greatly in different oils, as do the amounts of 
distillate obtained from them at specified temperatures. 



Even prior to the discovery of petroleum in commercial 
quantities, a number of chemists had made determinations of 
the chemical composition of several different varieties, and these 
investigations, supplemented by those of a later date, show that 
petroleum consists of about 84% by weight of carbon with 12% 
of hydrogen, and varying proportions of sulphur, nitrogen and 
oxygen. The principal elements are found in various combina- 
tions, the hydrocarbons of the Pennsylvania oils being mainly 
paraffins (q.v.), while those of Caucasian petroleum belong for 
the most part to the naphthenes, isomeric with the olefines (g.v.). 

Paraffins are found in all crude oils, and olefines in varying 
proportions in the majority, while acetylene has been found in 
Baku oil; members of the benzene group and its derivatives, 
notably benzene and toluene, occur in all petroleums. Naph- 
thenes are the chief components of some oils, as already indicated, 
and occur in varying quantities in many others. Certain crude 
oils have also been found to contain camphenes, naphthalene 
and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is found that transparent 
oils under the influence of light absorb oxygen, becoming deeper 
in colour and opalescent, while strong acidity and a penetrating 
odour are developed, these changes being due to the formation 
of various acid and phenylated compounds, which are also 
occasionally found in fresh oils. The residues from petroleum 
distillation have been shown to contain very dense solids and 
liquids of high specific gravity, having a large proportion of 
carbon and possessed of remarkable fluorescent properties. 

Natural gas is found to consist mainly of the lower paraffins, 
with varying quantities of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, 
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, in some cases also sulphuretted 
hydrogen and possibly ammonia. This mixture dissolves in 
petroleum, escaping when the oil is stored, and conversely it 
invariably carries a certain amount of water and oil, which is 
deposited on compression. 

Occurrence. Bitumen is, in its various forms, one of the most 
widely-distributed of substances, occurring in strata of every 
geological age, from the lowest Archean rocks to those now in 
process of deposition, and in greater or less quantity throughout 
both hemispheres, from Spitzbergen to New Zealand, and from 
California to Japan. The occurrence of commercially valuable 
petroleum is, however, comparatively limited, hitherto exploited 
deposits being confined to rocks younger than the Cambrian and 
older than the Quaternary, while the majority of developed oil- 
fields have been discovered north of the equator. 

The main requisites for a productive oil or gas field are a porous 
reservoir and an impervious cover. Thus, while the mineral may 
be formed in a stratum other than that in which it is found, though 
in many cases it is indigenous to it, for the formation of a natural 
reservoir of the fluid (whether liquid or gas) it is necessary that 
there should be a suitable porous rock to contain it. Such a rock 
is typically exemplified by a coarse-grained sandstone or con- 
glomerate, while a limestone may be naturally porous, or, like 
the Trenton limestone of Ohio and Indiana, rendered so by its 
conversion into dolomite and the consequent production of cavities 
due to shrinkage a change occurring only in the purer limestones. 
Similarly it is necessary, in view of the hydrostatical relations of 
water and mineral oils, and the volatile character of the latter, 
that the porous stratum should be protected from water and air 
by an overlying shale or other impervious deposit. Water, often 
saline or sulphurous, is also found in these porous rocks and re- 
places the oil as the latter is withdrawn. 

In addition to these two necessary factors, structural conditions 
play an important part in determining the accumulation of oil 
and gas. The main supplies have been obtained from strata 
unbroken and comparatively undisturbed, but the occurrence 
of anticlinal or terrace structure, however slightly marked or limited 
in extent, exerts a powerful influence on the creation of reservoirs 
of petroleum. These tectonic arches often extend for long dis- 
tances with great regularity, but are frequently crossed by sub- 
sidiary anticlines, which themselves play a not unimportant part 
in the aggregation of the oil. Owing to difference of density the 
oil and water in the anticlines separate into two layers, the upper 
consisting of oil which fills the anticlines, while the water remains 
in the synclines. Any gas which may be present rises to the summits 
of the anticlines. When the slow folding of the strata is accom- 
panied by a gradual local descent, a modified or " arrested " 
anticlinal structure, known as a " terrace " is produced, the up- 
heaving action at that part being sufficient only to arrest the descent 
which would otherwise occur. The terraces may thus be regarded 
as flat and extended anticlines. They need not be horizontal, 
and sometimes have a dip of a few feet per mile, as in the case of 
the Ohio and Indiana oil fields, where the amount varies from 



3 i8 



PETROLEUM 



one to ten feet. These slight differences in level, however, are 
found to have a most powerful effect in the direction already 
mentioned. 

It is evident that accurate knowledge of the character and 
structure of the rock-formations in petroliferou^ territories is of 
the greatest importance in enabling the expert to select favourable 
sites for drilling operations; hence on well-conducted petroleum- 
properties it is now customary to note the character 4nd thickness 
of the strata perforated by the drill, so that a complete section 
may be prepared from the recorded data. In some cases the depths 
are stated with reference to sea-level, instead of being taken from 
the surface, thus greatly facilitating the utilization of the records. 

Oil and gas are often met with in drilled wells under great pressure, 
which is highest as a rule in the deepest wells. The closed pressure 
in the Trenton limestone in Ohio and Indiana is about 200 300 Ib. 
per sq. in., although a much higher pressure has been registered 
in many wells. The gas wells of Pennsylvania indicate about 
double the pressure of those drilled in the Trenton limestone, 
600-800 Ib. not being unusual, and even 1000 Ib having been 
recorded. The extremely high pressure under which oil is met 
with in wells drilled in some parts of the Russian oil fields is a matter 
of common knowledge, and a fountain or spouting well resulting 
therefrom is one of the " sights " of the country. A famous fountain 
in the Grozny! oil field in' the northern Caucasus, which began to 
flow in August 1895, was estimated to have thrown up during the 
first three days 1,200,000 poods (over 4,500,000 gallons, or about 
18,500 tons) of oil a day. It flowed continuously, though in 
gradually diminishing quantity, for fifteen months; afterwards 
the flow became intermittent. In April 1897 there was still an 
occasional outburst of oil and gas. 

Three theories have been propounded to account for this 
pressure : 

1. That it results from the weight of the overlying strata. 

2. That it is due to water-pressure, as in artesian wells (" hydro- 
static " or " artesian " theory). 

3. That it is caused by the compressed condition of the gradually 
accumulating gas. 

Of these the first has been proved untenable, and while in some 
instances (e.g. certain wells in Ohio), the second has held good, 
the third appears to be the most widely applicable. 

The conditions of formation and accumulation of petroleum 
point to the fact that the principal oil fields of the world are merely 
reservoirs, which will become exhausted in the course of years, as 
in the case of the decreasing yield of certain of the American fields. 
But new deposits are continually being exploited, and there may 
be others as yet unknown, which would entirely alter any view 
that might be expressed at the present time in regard to the probable 
duration of the world's supply of oil and gas. 

As already stated, every one of the great geological systems 
appears to have produced some form of bitumen, and in the follow- 
ing table an attempt has been made to classify on this basis the 
various localities in which petroleum or natural gas has been found 
in large or small quantities: 

Recent. Lancashire (Down Holland Moss), Holland, Sweden, 
Sardinia, Kaluga (Russia), Red Sea, Mediterranean. 

Pleistocene. Schleswig-Holstein, Minnesota, Illinois, Louisiana. 

Pliocene. Spain, Italy, Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Hesse, 
Hanover, Transcaspia, Algeria, Florida, Alabama, California, 
Mexico, Peru, Victoria, New Zealand. 

Miocene. France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece, 
Rumania, Turkey-in-Europe, Styria, Slavonia, Hungary, Transyl- 
vania, Galicia, Lower Austria, Wurttemberg, Brandenberg, West 
Prussia, Crimea, Kuban, Terek, Kutais, Tiflis, Elizabetpol, Siberia, 
Transcaspia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Assam, Burma, Anam, Japan, 
Philippine Islands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Algeria, Egypt, British 
Columbia, Alaska, Washington, California, Colorado, Texas, 
Louisiana, Barbados, Trinidad, Venezuela, Peru, South Australia, 
Victoria, New Zealand. 

Oligocene. France, Spain, Greece, Rumania, Hungary, Transyl- 
vania, Galicia, Bavaria, Elsass, Rhenish Bavaria, Hesse, Saxony, 
Crimea, Daghestan, Tiflis, Baku, Alaska, California, Florida. 

Eocene. Devonshire (retinasphalt), France, Spain, Italy, Asia 
Minor, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rumania, Dalmatia, 
Istria, Hungary, Transylvania, Galicia, Moravia, Bavaria, Elsass, 
Kutais, Armenia, Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab, 
Assam, Sumatra, Algeria, Egypt, Maryland, Colorado, Utah, 
Nevada, California, Louisiana, Texas, Cuba, Colombia, Brazil. 

Cretaceous. Holland, France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily, 
Greece, Hungary, Silesia, Moravia, Westphalia, Brunswick, Hanover, 
Schleswig-Holstein, (German) Silesia, Poland, Kutais, Uralsk, 
Turkestan, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Persia, Tunis, Egypt, West 
Africa, British Columbia, Alberta, Assiniboia, Athabasca, Manitoba, 
New Jersey, _South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Oklahoma, 
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, California, New Mexico, Arkansas, 
Texas, Louisiana, Mexico, Hayti, Trinidad, Colombia, Argentina [?], 
New Zealand. 

Neocomian. Sussex, France, Switzerland, Spain, Hungary, 
Transylvania, _Bukowina, Galicia, Hesse, Baden, Hanover, Bruns- 
wick, California, Texas, Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina. 

Jurassic. Yorkshire, Somerset, Buckingham, France, Switzer- 



land, Spain, Italy, Lower Austria, Baden, Elsass, Hesse, Hanover, 
Brunswick, Sizran, Tiflis, Siberia, Persia, Madagascar, Alaska, 
Wyoming, Colorado, Mexico, Argentina. 

Triassic. Yorkshire, Staffordshire, France, Portugal, Spain, 
Italy, Montenegro, Upper Austria, Tyrol, Bavaria, Wurttemberg, 
Baden, Elsass, Lothringen, Rhenish Bavaria, Rhenish Prussia, 
Hanover, Brunswick, Sweden, Spitzbergen, Punjab, China, Trans- 
vaal, Cape Colony, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Caro- 
lina, Wyoming, Argentina, New South Wales, Queensland. 

Permian. -Yorkshire, Denbigh, Moravia, Bohemia, Baden, 
Saxony, Vologda, Afa, Kazan, Simbirsk, Samara, Kansas, Wyoming, 
Oklahoma, Texas (Permo-Carboniferous). 

Carboniferous. Scotland, North of England, and Midlands, 
Wales, France, Belgium, Carniola, Moravia, Elsass, Saxony, Perm, 
Sizran, China, Cape Colony, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Pennsyl- 
vania, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, 
Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Kansas, Arkansas, 
Colorado, Oklahoma, Tasmania, Victoria (Permo-Carboniferous), 
West Australia (Permo-Carboniferous). 

Devonian. Scotland, Devonshire, Spain, Hanover, Archangel, 
Vitebsk, Athabasca, Mackenzie, Ontario, puebec, New Brunswick, 
Newfoundland, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky. 

Silurian. Shropshire, Wales, Bohemia, Sweden, Esthonia, 
Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland, New York, Pennsyl- 
vania [?], Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Tennessee, 
Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Oklahoma, New Mexico, New 
Caledonia. 

Cambrian. Shropshire, New York. 
Archean. France, Norway, Sweden, Ontario. 
In this list, while certain occurrences in rocks of undetermined 
age in little-known regions have been omitted, many of those 
included are of merely academic interest, and a still larger number 
indicate fields supplying at present only local needs. All have been 
arranged in geographical order without reference to productive 
capacity or importance. It should be pointed out that the deposits 
which have been hitherto of chief commercial importance occur 
in the old rocks (Carboniferous to Silurian) on the one hand, and 
in the comparatively new Tertiary formations on the other, the 
intermediate periods yielding but little or at any rate far less 
abundantly. 

Origin. The question of the origin of petroleum (and natural 
gas), though for the first half of the igth century of little more 
than academic interest, has engaged the attention of naturalists 
and others for over a hundred years. As early as 1804, Humboldt 
expressed the opinion that petroleum was produced by distillation 
from deep-seated strata, and Karl Reichenbach in 1834, suggested 
that it was derived from the action of heat on the turpentine of 
pine-trees, whilst Brunet, in 1838, adumbrated a similar theory of 
origin on the ground of certain laboratory experiments. The 
theories propounded may be divided into two groups, namely, those 
ascribing to petroleum an inorganic origin, and those which regard 
it as the result of the decomposition of organic matter. 

M. P. E. Berthelot was the first to suggest, in 1866, after con- 
ducting a series of experiments, that mineral oil was produced 
by purely chemical action, similar to that employed in the manu 
facture of acetylene. Other theories of a like nature were brought 
forward by various chemists, Mendeleeff, for example, ascribing 
the formation of petroleum to the action of water at high tempera- 
tures on iron carbide in the interior of the earth. 

On the other hand, an overwhelming and increasing majority ol 
those who have studied the natural conditions under which petroleum 
occurs are of opinion that it is of organic origin. The earlier sup- 
porters of the organic theory held that it was a product of the natural 
distillation of coal or carbonaceous matter; but though in a few 
instances volcanic intrusions appear to have converted coal or 
allied substances into oil, it seems that terrestrial vegetation does 
not generally give rise to petroleum. Among those who have 
considered that it is derived from the decomposition of both animal 
and vegetable marine organisms may be mentioned J. P. Lesley, 
E. Orton and S. F. Peckham, but others have held that it is of 
exclusively animal origin, a view supported by such occurrences 
as those in the orthoceratities of the Trenton limestone, and by the 
experiments of C. Engler, who obtained a liquid like crude petroleum 
by the distillation of menhaden (fish) oil. Similarly there is a 
difference of opinion as to the conditions under which the organisms 
have been mineralized, some holding that the process has taken 
place at a high temperature and under great pressure; but the 
lack of practical evidence in nature in support of these views has 
led many to conclude that petroleum, like coal, has been formed 
at moderate temperatures, and under pressures varying with the 
depth of the containing rocks. This view is supported by the fact 
that petroleum is found on the Sardinian and Swedish coasts as 
a product of the decomposition of seaweed, heated only by the sun, 
and under atmospheric pressure. 

Consideration of the evidence leads us to the conclusion that, 
at least in commercially valuable deposits, mineral oil has generally 
been formed by the decomposition of marine organisms, in some 
cases animal, in others vegetable, in others both, under practically 
normal conditions of temperature and pressure. 



PETROLEUM 



Extraction (Technically termed Production.) The earliest system 
adopted for the collection of petroleum appears to have consisted in 
skimming the oil from the surface of the water upon 
which it had accumulated, and Professor Lesley states 
** that at Paint Creek, in Johnson county, Kentucky, 
a Mr George and others were in the habit of collecting oil from the 
sands, " by making shallow canals 100 or 200 ft. long, with an up- 
right board and a reservoir at one end, from which they obtained 
as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring the sands with a pole." 
It is said that at Echigo in Japan, old wells, supposed to have been 
dug several hundred years ago, are existent, and that a Japanese 
history called Kokushiriyaku, states that " burning water was 
obtained in Echigo about A.D. 615. 

The petroleum industry in the United States may be considered 
to date from the year 1859, when the first well avowedly drilled 
for the production of oil was completed by E. L. Drake. 
The united -p ne p resen t method of drilling has been evolved from 
States. tne artes ; an we n system previously adopted for obtain- 
ing brine and water. The drilling of petroleum wells is carried on 
by individuals or companies, either on lands owned by them, or 
on properties whose owners grant leases, usually on condition that 
a certain number of wells shall be sunk within a stated period, 
and that a portion of the oil obtained (usually from one-tenth to 
one-fourth) shall be appropriated as royalty to the lessor. Such 
leases are often transferred at a larger royalty, especially after the 
territory has been proved productive. The " wild-cat " wells, 
sunk by speculators on untested territory or on lands which had not 
previously proved productive, played an important part in the 
earlier mapping out of the petroleum fields. To discourage the 
sinking of wells on land immediately adjoining productive territory, 
it has been usual to drill along the borders of the land as far as 
practicable, in order to first obtain the oil which might otherwise 
be raised by others; and on account of the small area often con- 
trolled by the operator, the number of wells drilled has frequently 
been far in excess of the number which might reasonably be 
sunk. Experience has proved that in some of the oil fields of the 
United States one well to five acres is as close as they should be 
drilled. 

After the selection of the site, the first operation consists in the 

erection of the rig. The chief portion of this rig is the derrick, 

which consists of four strong uprights or legs held in 

' position by ties and braces, and resting on strong 

Derrick. wooden sills, which are preferred, as a foundation, to 
masonry. For drilling the deeper wells, the derrick, on account 
of the length of the " string " of drilling tools, is usually at least 
70 ft. high, about 20 ft. wide at the base, and 4 ft. wide at the sum- 
mit. The whole derrick is set up by keys, no mortices or tenons 
being used, and thus the complete rig may be readily taken down 
and set up on a new site. The samson-post, which supports the 
walking beam, and the jack-posts, are dove-tailed and keyed into 
the sills. The samson-post is placed flush with one side of the 
main sill, the band-wheel jack-post being flush with the other 
side, so that the walking-beam, which imparts motion to the 
string of tools, works parallel with the main sill. 

The boiler generally used is of the locomotive type and is usually 
stationary, though sometimes a portable form is preferred. It is 
either set in the first instance at some distance from the engine and 
well, or is subsequently removed sufficiently far away before the 
drill enters the oil-bearing formation, and until the oil and gas 
are under control, in order to minimize the risk of fire. A large 
boiler frequently supplies the engines of several wells. The engine, 
which is provided with reversing gear, is of 12 or 15 horse-power 
and motion is communicated through a belt to the band-wheel, 
which operates the walking-beam by means of a crank. The 
throttle-valve is opened or closed by turning a grooved vertical 
pulley by means of an endless cord, called the telegraph, passing 
round another pulley fixed upon the " headache-post," and is thus 
under the control of the driller working in the derrick. The head- 
ache-post is a vertical wooden beam placed on the main sill directly 
below the walking-beam, to receive the weight of the latter in case 
of breakage of connexions. The position of the reversing link is 
altered by means of a cord, passing over two pulleys, fixed re- 
spectively in the engine-house and on the derrick. At one end of 
the band-wheel shaft is the bull-rope pulley, and upon the other 
end is a crank having six holes to receive a movable wrist-pin, the 
length of stroke of the walking-beam being thus adjusted. The 
revolution of the bull-wheels is checked by the use of a powerful 
hand-brake. 

The band-wheel communicates motion to the walking-beam, 
while drilling is in progress, through the crank and a connecting- 
rod known as the pitman; to the bull-wheels, while the tools are 
being raised, by the bull-rope; and to the sand-pump_ reel, by a 
friction pulley, while the sand-pump is being used. It is therefore 
necessary that the machinery should be so arranged that the con- 
nexions may be rapidly made and broken. The sand-pump reel 
is set in motion by pressing a lever, the reel being then brought 
into contact with the face of the band-wheel. The sand-pump 
descends by gravitation, and its fall is checked by pressing back 
the lever, so as to throw the reel against a post which serves as 
a brake. 



The drilling tools are suspended by an untarred manila rope, 
2 in. in diameter, passing from the bull-wheel shaft over a grooved 
wheel known as the crown-pulley, at the summit of the 
derrick. The string of drilling tools consists of two ~L g 
parts separated, by an appliance known as the jars. Tools, 
This piece of apparatus was introduced by William Morris in 1831, 
and consists of a long double link with closely-fitting jaws which, 
however, slide freely up and down. It may be compared to a 
couple of elongated and flattened links of chain. The links are 
about 30 in. long and are interposed between the heavy iron auger- 
stem carrying the bit and the upper rod, known as the sinker-bar. 
Their principal use is to give a sharp jar to the drill on the up- 
stroke so that the bit is dislodged if it has become jammed in the 
rock. In addition to the appliances mentioned the tools comprise 
reamers to enlarge the bore of the well, the winged-substitute 
which is fitted above the bit to prevent it from glancing off, and 
above the round reamer to keep it in place, a temper-screw with 
clamps and wrenches. Sand-pumps and bailers are also required 
to remove detritus, water and oil from the bore-hole. 

The action of the jars and temper-screw has been described by 
John F. Carll as follows: " Suppose the tools to have been just 
run to the bottom of the well, the jars closed and the cable slack. 
The men now take hold of the bull-wheels and draw up the slack 
until the sinker-bar rises, the ' play ' of the jars allowing it to 
come up 13 in. without disturbing the auger-stem. When the jars 
come together they slack back about 4 in., and the cable is in position 
to be clamped in the temper-screw. If now the vertical movement 
of the walking-beam be 24 in., when it starts on the up-stroke the 
sinker-bar rises 4 in., and the cross-heads come together with a 
smart blow, then the auger-stem is picked up and lifted 20 in. 
On the down-stroke, the auger-stem falls 20 in., while the sinker- 
bar goes down 24 in. to telescope the jars for the next blow coming 
up. A skilful driller never allows his jars to strike on the down- 
stroke, they are only used to jar down when the tools stick on some 
obstruction in the well before reaching the bottom, and in fishing 
operations. An unskilful workman sometimes ' loses the jar ' and 
works for hours without accomplishing anything. The tools may 
be standing at the bottom while he is playing with the slack of 
the cable or they may be swinging all the time several feet from the 
bottom. As the jar works off, or grows more feeble, by reason of 
the downward advance of the drill, it is ' tempered ' to the proper 
strength by letting down the temper-screw to give the jars more 
play. The temper-screw forms the connecting link between the 
walking-beam and cable, and it is ' let out ' gradually to regulate 
the play of the jars as fast as the drill penetrates. When its whole 
length is run down, the rope clamps play very near the well-mouth. 
The tools are then withdrawn, the well is sand-pumped, and pre- 
parations are made for the next ' run." " 

The ordinary sand-pump or bailer, consists of a plain cylinder 
of light galvanized iron with a bail at the top and a stem-valve at 
the bottom. It is usually about 6 ft. in length but is sometimes 
as much as 15 or 20 ft., and as its valve-stem projects downwards 
beyond the bottom, it empties itself when rested upon the bottom 
of the waste-trough. 

The operation of drilling is frequently interrupted by the occur- 
rence of an accident, which necessitates the use of fishing tools. 
If the fishing operation is unsuccessful the well has to be abandoned, 
often after months of labour, unless it is found possible to drill 
past the tools which have been lost. In readiness for a fracture 
of the drilling tools or of the cable, special appliances known as 
fishing tools are provided. These are so numerous and varied 
in form that a description would be impossible within the scope 
of this article. The fishing tools are generally attached to the 
cable, and are used with portions of the ordinary string of tools, 
but some are fitted to pump-rods or tubing, and others to special 
rods. 

The drilling of a well is commonly carried out under contract, 
the producer erecting the derrick and providing the engine and boiler 
while the drilling contractor finds the tools, and is 
responsible for accidents or failure to complete the ^11 
well. The drilling " crew " consists of two drillers 
and two tool-dressers, working in pairs in two " tours " (noon to 
midnight and midnight to noon). 

The earlier wells in Pennsylvania consisted of three sections, 
the first formed of surface clays and gravels, the second of stratified 
rocks containing water, and the third of stratified rocks, including 
the oil-sands, usually free from water. The conductor, which was 
a wooden casing of somewhat greater internal diameter than the 
maximum bore of the well, passed through the first of these divisions, 
and casing was used in the second to prevent percolation of water 
into the oil-bearing portion. In later wells the conductor has been 
replaced with an 8-in. wrought-iron drive-pipe, terminating in a 
steel shoe, which is driven to the bed-rock, and a 7f-in. hole is 
drilled below it to the base of the lowest water-bearing stratum. 
The bore is then reduced to Ijf-in., and a bevelled shoulder being 
made in the rock, a 5f-in. casing, having a collar to fit water-tight 
on the bevel shoulder, is inserted. The well is then completed 
with a 5i in. bit. As the water is shut off before the portion of 
the well below the water-bearing strata is bored the remainder of 
the drilling is conducted with only sufficient water in the well to 



320 



PETROLEUM 



Rotary 
System. 



admit of sand-pumping. The drill is thus allowed to fall freely, 
instead of being partly upheld by the buoyancy of the water, as in 
earlier wells. 

Wells in Pennsylvania now range in depth from 300 ft. to 3700 ft. 
Four strings of iron casing are usually employed, having the follow- 
ing diameters: 10 in., 8J in., 6\ in. and 5 in., the lengths of tube 
forming the casing being screwed together. Contractors will often 
undertake to drill wells of moderate depth at 90 cents to $i per foot, 
but the cost of a deep well may amount to as much as $7000. 

The rotary system of drilling which is in general use in the oil- 
fields of the coastal plain of Texas is a modification of that invented 
by Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the 
industry in some of the oil-producing countries of 
Europe. It is one of the most rapid and economical 
which can be employed in soft formations, but where hard rock 
is encountered it is almost useless. The principle of this system 
consists essentially in the use of rotating hollow drilling rods or 
casing, to which is attached the drilling-bit and through which a 
continuous stream of water, under a pressure of 40 to 100 ft. per 
sq. in., is forced. 

The yield of petroleum wells varies within very wide limits, and 
the relative importance of the different producing districts is also 
Yield of constantly changing. I. C. White, state geologist of 
Wells. West Virginia, estimates that in fairly good producing 
sand a cubic foot of rock contains from 6 to 12 pints 
of oil. He assumes that in what is considered a good producing 
district the amount of petroleum which can be obtained from a 
cubic foot of rock would not be more than a gallon, and that the 
average thickness of the oil-bearing rock would not exceed 5 ft. 
Taking these figures as a basis, the total yield of oil from an acre 
of petroliferous territory would be a little over 5000 barrels of 
42 U.S. gallons. 

A flow of oil may often be induced in a well which would otherwise 
require to be pumped, by preventing the escape of gas which issues 
with the oil, and causing its pressure to raise the oil. The device 
employed for this purpose is known as the waler-packer, and 
consists in its simplest form of an india-rubber ring, which is applied 
between the tubing and the well-casing, so that upon compression 
it makes a tight joint. The gas thus confined in the oil-chamber 
forces the oil up the tubing. 

For pumping a well a valved working-barrel with valved sucker 
is attached to the lower end of the tubing, a perforated " anchor " 
being placed below. The sucker carries a series of three or four 
leather cups, which are pressed against the inner surface of the 
working barrel by the weight of the column of oil. The sucker 
is connected by a string of sucker-rods with the walking- 
beam. There is usually fixed above the sucker a short iron valve- 
rod, with a device known as a rivet-catcher to prevent damage 
to the pump by the dropping of rivets from the pump-rods. 

On the completion of drilling, or when the production is found 
to decrease, it is usual to torpedo the well to increase the flow. 
,The explosive employed is generally nitroglycerin, 
' and the amount used has been increased from the 
original 4 to 6 quarts to 60, 80, 100 and even 200 quarts. 
It is placed in tin canisters of about 3J to 5 in. in diameter and 
about 10 ft. in length. The canisters have conical bottoms and 
fit one in the other. They are consecutively filled with nitro- 
glycerin, and are lowered to the bottom of the well, one after the 
other, by a cord wound upon a reel, until the required number 
have been inserted. Formerly the upper end of the highest canister 
was fitted with a " firing-head," consisting of a circular plate of 
iron, slightly smaller than the bore of the well, and having attached 
to its underside a vertical rod or pin carrying a percussion cap. 
The cap rested on the bottom qf a small iron cylinder containing 
nitroglycerin. To explode the charge an iron weight, known 
as a go-devil, was dropped into the well, and striking the disk 
exploded the cap and fired the torpedo. Now, however, a miniature 
torpedo known as a go-devil squib, holding about a quart of nitro- 
glycerin, and having a firing-head similar to that already described, 
is almost invariably employed. The disk is dispensed with, and 
the percussion cap is exploded by the impact of a leaden weight 
running on a cord. The squib is lowered after the torpedo, and, 
when exploded by the descent of the weight, fires the charge. It 
must be borne in mind that although the explosion may increase 
the production for a time, it is by no means certain that the 
actual output of a well is increased in all such cases, though from 
some wells there would be no production without the use of the 
torpedo. 

The petroleum industry in Canada is mainly concentrated 
in the district of Petrolea, Ontario. On account of the small 
Drilling in depth of the wells, and the tenacious nature of the 
Canada. principal strata bored through, the Canadian method 
of drilling differs from the Pennsylvanian or American 
system in the following particulars: 

1. The use of slender wooden boring-rods instead of a cable. 

2. The employment of a simple auger instead of a spudding-bit. 

3. The adoption of a diffeient arrangement for transmitting 
motion. 

4. The use of a lighter set of drilling tools. 

Although petroleum wells in Russia have not the depth of many 



Torpedoing 
Well*. 



of those in the United States, the disturbed character of the strata, 
with consequent liability to caving, and the occurrence of hard 
concretions, render drilling a lengthy and expensive rj r mi a / 
operation. It is usual to begin by making an excava- R USS I,. 
tion 8 ft. in diameter and 24 ft. in depth, and lining the 
sides of this with wood or brick. The initial diameter of the well 
drilled from the bottom of this pit is in some instances as much as 
36 in., bore-holes of the larger size being preferred, as they are less 
liable to become choked, and admit of the use of larger bailers for 
raising the oil. 

The drilling of wells of large size requires the use of heavy tools 
and of very strong appliances generally. The system usually 
adopted is a modification of the Canadian system already described, 
the boring rods being, however, of iron instead of wood, but the 
cable system has also to some extent been used. For the ordinary 
2-in. plain-laid manila cable a wire rope has in some cases been 
successfully substituted. 

Rivetted iron casing, made of ^-in. plate, is employed, and is 
constantly lowered so as to follow the drill closely, in order to 
prevent caving. Within recent years, owing to the initiative of 
Colonel English, a method of raising oil by the agency of com- 
pressed air has been introduced into the Baku oil-fields. 

In Gahcia the Canadian system is nearly exclusively adopted. 
In some instances under-reaming is found necessary. This consists 
in the use of an expanding reamer by means of which 
the well may be drilled to a diameter admitting of the 
casing descending freely, which obviously could not be 
accomplished with an ordinary bit introduced through the casing. 
Of late years the under-reamer has been largely superseded by the 
eccentric bit. 

The Davis calyx drill has also been employed for petroleum 
drilling. This apparatus may be described as a steel-pointed core- 
drill. The bit or cutter consists of a cylindrical Tlle calyx 
metallic shell, the lower end of which is made, by a n r m 
process of gulleting, into a series of sharp teeth, which are 
set in and out alternately. The outward set of teeth drill the hole 
large enough to permit the drilling apparatus to descend freely, and 
the teeth set inwardly pare down the core to such a diameter as will 
admit of the body of the cutter passing over it without seizing. 
The calyx is a long tube, or a series of connected tubes, situated 
above the core barrel, to which it is equal in diameter. 

In conclusion it may be stated that the two systems of drilling 
for petroleum with which by far the largest amount of work has 
been, and is being done, are the American or rope comparison 
system, and the Canadian or rod system. The former ol systems 
is not only employed in the United States, but is in use 
in Upper Burma, Java, Rumania and elsewhere. The latter was 
introduced by Canadians into Galicia and, with certain modifi- 
cations, has hitherto been found to be the best for that country. 
A form of the rod system is used in the Russian oil-fields, but 
owing to the large diameter of the wells the appliances differ from 
those employed elsewhere. 

The wells from which the supplies of natural gas are obtained in 
the United States are drilled and cased in the same manner as the 
oil wells. 

Transport and Storage. In the early days of the petroleum 
industry the oil was transported in the most primitive manner. 
Thus, in Upper Burma, it was conveyed in earthenware vessels 
from the wells to the river bank, where it was poured into the holds 
of boats. It is interesting to find that a rude pipe-line formerly 
existed in this field for conveying the crude oil from the wells to the 
river; this was made of bamboos, but it is said that the loss by 
leakage was so great as to lead to its immediate abandonment on 
completion. In Russia, until 1875, the crude oil was carried in 
barrels on Persian carts known as " arbas." These have two 
wheels of 8J to 9 ft. in diameter, the body carrying one barrel, 
while another is slung beneath the axle. In America, crude 
petroleum was at first transported in iron-hooped barrels, holding 
from 40 to 42 American gallons, which were carried by teamsters 
to Oil Creek and the Allegheny River, where they were loaded on 
boats, these being floated down stream whenever sufficient water 
was- present a method leading to much loss by collision and 
grounding. Bulk barges were soon introduced on the larger rivers, 
but the use of these was partially rendered unnecessary by the 
introduction of railways, when the oil was at first transported in 
barrels on freight cars, but later in tank-cars. These at first con- 
sisted of an ordinary truck on which were placed two wooden 
tub-like tanks, each holding about 2000 gallons ; they were replaced 
in 1871 by the modern type of tank-car, constructed with a hori- 
zontal cylindrical tank of boiler plate. 

The means of transporting petroleum in bulk commonly used at 
the present day is the pipe-line system, the history of which dates 
from 1860. In that year S. D. Karns suggested laying a 6-in. 
pipe from Burning Springs to Parkersburg, West Virginia, a distance 
of 36 m.; but his proposal was never carried into effect. Two 
years later, however, L. Hutchinson of New York, laid a short line 
from the Tarr Farm wells to the refinery, which passed over a hill, 
the oil being moved on the syphon principle, and a year later con- 
structed another three miles long to the railway. These attempts 
were, however, unsuccessful, on account of the excessive leakage 



PETROLEUM 



321 



at the joints of the pipes. With the adoption of carefully fitted 
screw-joints in 1865 the pipe line gradually came into general use, 
until in 189.1 the lines owned by the various transit companies of 
Pennsylvania amounted in length to 25,000 m. 

The pumps employed to force the oil through the pipes were 
at first of the single-cylinder or " donkey " type, but these were 
found to cause excessive wear a defect remedied by the use of 
the Worthington pump now generally adopted. The engines used 
on the main 6-in. lines are of 600 to 800 h.p., while those on the 
small-diameter local lines range from 25 to 30 h.p. 

Tanks of various types are employed in storing the oil, those at 
the wells being circular and usually made of wood, with a content 
of 250 barrels and upwards. Laige tanks of boiler-plate are used 
to receive the oil as it comes through the pipe-lines. Those adopted 
by the National Transit Company are 90 ft. in diameter and 30 ft. 
high, with slightly conical wooden roofs covered with sheet iron; 
their capacity is 35,000 barrels, and they are placed upon the 
carefully levelled ground without any foundation. 

Kerosene is transported in bulk by various means; specially 
constructed steel tank barges are used on the waterways of the 
United States, tank-cars on the railroads, and tank-wagons on the 
roads. The barrels employed in the transport of petroleum pro- 
ducts are made of well-seasoned white-oak staves bound by six or 
eight iron hoops. They ate coated internally with glue, and painted 
in the well-known colours, blue staves and white heads. The 
tins largely used for kerosene are made by machinery and contain 
5 American gallons. They are hermetically sealed for transport. 

In Canada, means of transport similar to those already described 
are employed, but the reservoirs for storage often consist of excava- 
tions in the soft Erie clay of the oil district, the sides of which are 
supported by planks. 

The primitive methods originally in use in the Russian oil-fields 
have already been described; but these were long ago supeiseded 
by pipe-lines, while a great deal of oil is carried by tank steamers 
on the Caspian to the mouth of the Volga where it is transferred 
to barges and thence at Tzaritzin to railway tank-cars. The 
American type of storage-tank is generally employed, in conjunction 
with clay-lined reservoirs. 

Natural gas is largely used in the United States, and for some 
time, owing to defective methods of storage, delivery and con- 
sumption, great waste occurred. The improvements introduced 
in 1890 and 1891. whereby this state of affairs was put an end to, 
consisted in the introduction of the principle of supply by meter, 
and the adoption of a comprehensive system of reducing the initial 
pressure of the gas, so as to diminish loss by leakage. For the 
latter purpose, Westinghouse gas-regulators are employed, the 
positions of the regulators being so chosen as to equalize the 
pressure throughout the service. The gas is distributed to the 
consumer from the wells in wrought-iron pipes, ranging in diameter 
from 20 in. down to 2 in. Riveted wrought-iron pipes 3 ft. in 
diameter are also used. The initial pressure is sometimes as high 
as 400 Ib to the sq. in., but usually ranges from 200 to 300 Ib. 
The most common method of distribution in cities and towns is 
by a series of pipes from 12 in. down to 2 in. in diameter, usually 
carrying a pressure of about 4 oz. to the sq. in. To these pipes the 
service-pipes leading into the houses of the consumers are connected. 

Refining of Petroleum. The distillation of petroleum, especially 
of such as was intended for medicinal use, was regularly 
carried on in the i8th century, and earlier. V. I. Ragozin states 
in his work on the petroleum industry that Johann Lerche, 
who visited the Caspian district in 1735, found that the crude 
Caucasian oil required to be distilled to render it satisfactorily 
combustible, and that, when distilled, it yielded a bright yellow 
oil resembling a spirit, which readily ignited. As early as 1823 the 
brothers Dubinin erected a refinery in the village of Mosdok, and in 
1846 applied to Prince Woronzoff for a subsidy for extending the 
use of petroleum-distillates in the Caucasus. In their application, 
which was unsuccessful, they stated that they had taught the Don 
Cossacks to " change black naphtha into white," and showed by 
a drawing, pieseryed in the archives cf the Caucasian government, 
how this was achieved. They used an iron still, set in brickwork, 
and from a working charge of forty " buckets " of crude petroleum 
obtained a yield of sixteen buckets of " white naphtha." The 
top of the still had a removable head, connected with a condenser 
consisting of a copper worm in a barrel of water. The " white 
naphtha ' was sold at Nijni Novgorod without further treatment. 

Some of the more viscous crude oils obtained in the United 
States are employed as lubricants under the name of " natural 
oils," either without any treatment or after clarification by subsi- 
dence and filtration through animal charcoal. Others are deprived 
of a part of their more volatile constituents by spontaneous 
evaporation, or by distillation, in vacua or otherwise, at the lowest 
possible temperature. Such are known as " reduced oils." 

In most petroleum-producing countries, however, and particu- 
larly where the product is abundant, the crude oil is fractionally 
distilled, so as to separate it into petroleum spirit of various grades, 
burning oils, gas oils, lubricating oils, and (if the crude oil yields 
that product) paraffin. The distillates obtained are usually purified 
by treatment, successively, with sulphuric acid and solution of 
caustic soda, followed by washing with water. 

XVT. rr 



Crude petroleum was experimentally distilled in the United States 
in 1833 by Prof. Silliman (d. 1864), and the refining of petroleum 
in that country may be said to date from about the year 1855, 
when Samuel M. Kier fitted up a small refinery with a five-barrel 
still, for the treatment of the oil obtained from his father's salt- 
wells. At this period the supply of the raw material was insuf- 
ficient to admit of any important development in the industry, and 
before the drilling of artesian wells for petroleum was initiated 
by Drake the " coal-oil " or shale-oil industry had assumed con- 
siderable proportions in the United States. Two large refineries, 
one on Newtown Creek, Long Island, and another in South Brooklyn, 
also on Long Island, were in successful operation when the abundant 
pi eduction of petroleum, which immediately followed the completion 
of the Drake well, placed at the disposal of the refiner a material 
which could be worked more profitably than bituminous shale. 
The existing refineries were accordingly altered so as to adapt 
them for the refining of petroleum; but in the manufacture of 
burning oil from petroleum the small stills which had been in use 
in the distillation of shale-oil were at first employed. 

In the earlier refineries the stills, the capacity of which varied 
from 25 to 80 barrels, usually consisted of a vertical cylinder, 
constructed of cast- or wrought-iron, with a boiler-plate bottom and 
a cast-iron dome, on which the " goose-neck " was bolted. The 
charge was distilled almost to dryness, though the operation was 
not carried far enough to cause the residue to " coke." The 
operation was, however, completely revolutionized in the United 
States by the introduction of the " cracking process," and by the 
division of the distillation into two parts, one consisting in the 
removal of the more volatile constituents of the oil, and the other 
in the distillation (which is usually conducted in separate stills) 
of the residues from the first distillation, for the production of 
lubricating oils and paraffin. 

Various arrangements have been proposed and patented for the 
continuous distillation of petroleum, in which crude oil is supplied 
to a range of stills as. fast as the distillates pass off. The system is 
largely employed in Russia, and its use has been frequently attempted 
in the United States, but the results have not been satisfactory, on 
account, it_ is said, of the much greater quantity of dissolved gas 
contained in the American oil, the larger proportion of kerosene 
which such oil yields, and the less fluid character of the residue. 

In the United States a horizontal cylindrical still is usually 
employed in the distillation of the spirit and kerosene, but what 
is known as the " cheese-box " still has also been largely used. 
American stills of the former type are constructed of wrought-iron 
or steel, and are about 30 ft. in length by 12 ft. 6 in. in diameter, 
with a dome about 3 ft. in diameter, furnished with a vapour-pipe 
15 in. in diameter. The charge for such a still is about 600 barrels. 
The stills were formerly completely bricked in, so that the vapours 
should be kept fully heated until they escaped to the condenser, 
but since the introduction of the " cracking process," the upper 
part has usually been left exposed to the air. The cheese-box still 
has a vertical cylindrical body, which may be as much as 30 ft. in 
diameter and 9 ft. in depth, connected by means of three vertical 
pipes with a vapour-chest furnished with a large number, frequently 
as many as forty, of 3-in. discharge-pipes arranged in parallel lines. 

The stills employed in Russia and Galicia are usually smaller 
than those already described. 

The " cracking " process, whereby a considerable quantity of 
the oil which is _ intermediate between kerosene and lubricating 
oil is converted into hydrocarbons of lower specific gravity and 
boiling-point suitable for illuminating purposes, is one of great 
scientific and technical interest. It is generally understood that the 
products of fractional distillation, even in the laboratory, are not 
identical with the hydrocarbons present in the crude oil, but are 
in part produced by the action of heat upon them. This was 
plainly stated by Professor Silliman in the earliest stages of develop- 
ment of the American petroleum industry. An important paper 
bearing on the subject was published in 1871, by T. E. Thorpe 
and J. Young, as a preliminary note on their experiments on the 
action of heat under pressure on solid paraffin. They found that 
the paraffin was thus converted, with the evolution of but little 
gas, into hydrocarbons which were liquid at ordinary temperatures. 
In an experiment on 3500 grams of paraffin pioduced from shale 
(melting point 44'5 C.) they obtained nearly 4 litres of liquid hydro- 
carbons, which they subjected to fractional distillation, and on 
examining the fraction distilling below 100 C., they found it to 
consist mainly of defines. The hydrocarbon CH <2 , for example, 
might be resolved into CsHn+CuHjo, or CeHu+Ci 4 H a , or 
CyHie+QsHiK, &c., the general equation of the decomposition 
being 



CH 2n+ . 2 (paraffin) ^C^pH^^+t (paraffin) +Cj>H 2p (olefine). 

The product actually obtained is a mixture of several paraffins 
and several olefines. 

The cracking process practically consists in distilling the oils 
at a temperature higher than the normal boiling point of the con- 
stituents which it is desired to decompose. This may be brought 
about by a distillation under pressure, or by allowing the condensed 
distillate to fall into the highly heated residue in the still. The 
result of this treatment is that the comparatively heavy oils 



322 



PETROLEUM 




undergo dissociation, as shown by the experiments of Thorpe and 
Young, into specifically lighter hydrocarbons of lower boiling points, 
and the yield of kerosene from ordinary crude petroleum may thus 
be greatly increased. A large number of arrangements for carrying 
out the cracking process have been proposed and patented, probably 

Young 

hydrocarbon __ f , __ 

being conducted in a vessel having a loaded valve or a partially 
closed stop-cock, through which the confined vapour escapes under 
any desired pressure. Under such conditions, distillation takes 
place at higher temperatures than the normal boiling-points of the 
constituent hydrocarbons of the oil, and a partial cracking results. 
The process patented by Dewar and Redwood in 1889 consists 
in the use of a suitable still and condenser in free communication 
with each other i.e. without any valve between them; the space 
in the still and condenser not occupied by liquid being charged 
with air, carbon dioxide or other gas, under the required pressure, 
and the condenser being provided with a regulated outlet for con- 
densed liquid. An objectionable feature of the system of allowing 
the vapour to escape from the still to the condenser through a 
loaded valve, viz: the irregularity of the distillation, is thus 
removed, and the benefits of regular vaporization and condensation 
under high pressure are obtained. In the American petroleum 
refineries it is found that sufficient cracking can be produced by 
slow distillation in stills of which the upper part is sufficiently cool 
to allow of the condensation of the vapours of the less volatile 
hydrocarbons, the condensed liquid thus falling back into the 
heated body of oil. 

In the earlier stages of the development of the manufacture 
of mineral lubricating oils, the residues were distilled in cast-iron 
stills, and the lubricating properties of the products thus obtained 
were injured by overheating. The modern practice is to employ 
horizontal cylindrical wrought-iron or steel stills, and to introduce 
steam into the oil. The steam is superheated and may thus be 
heated to any desired temperature without increase of pressure, 
which would be liable to damage the still. The steam operates 
by carrying the vapours away to the condenser as fast as they are 
generated, the injury to the products resulting from their remaining 
in contact with the highly-heated surface of the still being thus 
prevented. 

In order to separate the distillate into various fractions, and to 
remove as much of it as possible free from condensed steam, it is 
now usual to employ condensing appliances of special form with 
outlets for running off the different fractions. 

The process of distillation of lubricating oils under reduced 
atmospheric pressure is now in very general use, especially for 
obtaining the heavier products. The vapours from the still pass 
through a condenser into a receiver, which is in communication 
with the exhauster. 

The products obtained by the distillation of petroleum are not 
in a marketable condition, but require chemical treatment to remove 
acid and other bodies which impart a dark colour as well as an 
unpleasant odour to the liquid, and in the case of lamp-oils, reduce 
the power of rising in the wick by capillary attraction. 

At the inception of the industry kerosene came into the market 
as a dark yellow or reddish-coloured liquid, and in the first instance, 
the removal of colour was attempted by treatment with soda lye 
and lime solution. It was, however, found that after the oil so 
purified had been burned in a lamp, for a short time, the wick became 
encrusted, and the oil failed to rise properly. Eichler, of Baku, 
is stated to have been the first to introduce, in Russia, the use of 
sulphuric acid, followed by that of soda lye, and his process is in 
universal use at the present time. The rationale of this treatment 
is not fully understood, but the action appears to consist in the 
separation or decomposition of the aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty 
and other acids, phenols, tarry bodies, &c., which lower the quality 
of the oil, the sulphuric acid removing some, while the caustic soda 
takes out the remainder, and neutralizes the acid which has been 
left in the oil. This treatment with acid and alkali is usually 
effected by agitation with compressed air. Oils which contain 
sulphur-compounds are subjected to a special process of refining 
in which cupric oxide or litharge is employed as a desulphurizing 
agent. 

Testing. A large number of physical and chemical tests are 
applied both to crude petroleum and to the products manufactured 
therefrom. The industry is conducted upon a basis of recognized 
standards of quality, and testing is necessary in the interests of 
both refiner and consumer, as wejl as compulsory in connexion with 
the various statutory and municipal regulations. 

In the routine examination of crude petroleum it is customary 
to determine the specific gravity, and the amount of water and 
earthy matter in suspension; the oil is also frequently subjected 
to a process of fractional distillation in order to ascertain whether 
there has been any addition of distilled products or residue. 
Petroleum spirit is tested for specific gravity, range of boiling- 
points, and results of fractional distillation. To illuminating oil 
or kerosene a series of tests is applied in order that the colour, 
odour, specific gravity and flash-point or fire-test may be recorded. 
In the testing of mineral lubricating oils the viscosity, flash-point, 



" cold-test," and specific gravity are the characters of chief im- 
portance. Fuel oil is submitted to certain of the foregoing tests and 
in addition the calorimetric value is determined. Paraffin wax is 
tested for melting-point (or setting-point), and the semi-refined 
product is further examined to ascertain the percentage of oil, 
water and dirt present. 

In civilized countries provision is made by law for the testing of 
the flash-point or fire-test of lamp-oil (illuminating oil or kerosene), 
the method of testing and the minimum limit of flash-point or 
fire-test being prescribed (see below, Legislation). 

The earliest form of testing instrument employed for this purpose 
was that of Giuseppe Tagliabue of New York, which consists of a 
glass cup placed in a copper water bath heated by a spirit lamp. The 
cup is filled with the oil to be tested, a thermometer placed in it 
and heat applied, the temperatures being noted at which, on passing 
a lighted splinter of wood over the surface of the oil, a flash occurs, 
and after further heating, the oil ignites. The first temperature 
is known as the flash-point, the second as the " fire-test." Such 
an apparatus, in which the oil-cup is uncovered, is known as an 
open-test instrument. In Saybolt's Electric Tester (1879) ignition 
is effected by a spark from an induction-coil passing between 
platinum points placed at a fixed distance above the oil. 

Before long, however, it was found that the open-cup tests 
(though they are employed in the United States and elsewhere at 
the present time) were often very untrustworthy. Accordingly 
Keates proposed the substitution of a closed cup in 1871, but his 
suggestions were not adopted. In 1875 Sir Frederick Abel, at 
the request of the British Government, began to investigate the 
matter, and in August 1879 the " Abel test " was legalized. This 
apparatus has an oil-cup consisting of a cylindrical brass or gun- 
metal vessel, the cover of which is provided with three rectangular 
holes which may be closed and opened by means of a perforated 
slide moving in grooves; the movement of the slide causes a small 
oscillating colza- or rape-oil lamp to be tilted so that the flame 
(of specified size) is brought just below the surface of the lid. The 
oil-cup is supported in a bath or heating-vessel, consisting of two 
flat-bottomed copper cylinders, to contain water, heated by a spirit 
lamp, and provided with an air-space between the water-vessel and 
the oil-cup. Thermometers are placed in both oil-cup and water- 
bath, the temperature of the latter being raised to 130 at the 
commencement of the test, while the oil is put in at about 60 F. 
Testing is begun when the temperature reaches 66 by slowly drawing 
the slide open and reclosing it, the speed being regulated by the 
swing of a pendulum supplied with the instrument. It has been 
found that variations in barometric pressure affect the flash-point 
and accordingly corrections have to be made in obtaining strictly 
comparative results at different pressures. The Abel-Pensky 
instrument, used in India and in Germany, differs only in being 
provided with a clockwork arrangement for moving the slide. 
Numerous other forms of open-test and close-test instruments 
have from time to time been devised, some of which are in use 
in the United States and in other countries. 

It is still customary to determine the open flash-point and fire- 
test of lubricating oils, but the close flash-point is also usually ascer- 
tained, a modification of the Abel or Abel-Pensky apparatus, known 
as the Pensky-Martens, having been devised for the purpose. This 
instrument is so constructed that the higher temperature needed 
can be readily applied, and it is fitted with a stirrer to equalize 
the heating of the contents of the oil-cup. 

For the testing of the viscosity of lubricating oils the Boverton 
Redwood standardized viscometer is generally employed in Great 
Britain. By means of this instrument the time occupied in the flow 
of a measured quantity of the oil through a small orifice at a given 
temperature is measured. 

Uses. Petroleum has very long been known as a source of 
light and heat, while the use of crude oil for the treatment of 
wounds and cutaneous affections, and as a lubricant, was even 
more general and led to the raw material being an article of 
commerce at a still earlier date. For pharmaceutical purposes 
crude petroleum is no longer generally used by civilized races, 
though the product vaseline is largely employed in this way, 
and emulsions of petroleum have been administered internally 
in various pectoral complaints ; while the volatile product 
termed rhigolene has been largely used as a local anaesthetic. 

For illuminating purposes, the most extensively-used product 
is kerosene, but both the more and the less volatile portions of 
petroleum are employed in suitable lamps. Petroleum products 
are also largely utilized in gas manufacture for, (i) the production 
of " air-gas," (2) the manufacture of oil-gas, and (3) the enrich- 
ment of coal-gas. For heating purposes, the stoves employed 
are practically kerosene lamps of suitable construction, though 
gasoline is used as a domestic fuel in the United States. The 
use of petroleum as liquid fuel is dealt with under FUEL, as is 
the employment of its products in motors, which has greatly 



PETROLOGY 



323 



increased the demand for petroleum spirit. Petroleum has 
largely superseded other oils, and is still gaining ground, as a 
lubricant for machinery and railway rolling-stock, either alone 
or in admixture with fixed oils. The more viscous descriptions 
of mineral oils have also been found suitable for use in the 
Elmore process of ore-concentration by oil. 

Legislation. Since the inception of the petroleum industry, most 
civilized countries have prescribed by law a test of flash-point or 
inflammability, designed in most cases primarily to afford a 
definition of oils for lighting purposes which may be safely stored 
without the adoption of special precautions. In the United 
Kingdom the limit has, for the purpose in question, been fixed by 
the legislature at 73 F., by the Abel-test," which is the equivalent 
of the former standard of 100 F. by the " open-test. While 
the subject of the testing of petroleum for legislative purposes has 
been investigated in Great Britain by committees of both branches 
of the legislature, with a view to change in the law, the standard 
has never been raised, since such a course would tend to reduce the 
available supply and thus lead to increase in price or deterioration 
in quality. Moreover the- chief object of the Petroleum Acts passed 
in the United Kingdom has hitherto been to regulate storage, and 
it has always been possible to obtain oils either of higher or lower 
flash-point, when such are preferred, irrespective of the legal 
standard, in addition to which it may be asserted that in a properly 
constructed lamp used with reasonable care the ordinary oil of 
commerce is a safe illuminant. The more recent legislation with 
regard to " petroleum spirit " relates mainly to the quantity which 
may be stored for use on " light locomotives." 

The more important local authorities throughout the country 
have made regulations under the powers conferred upon them by 
the Petroleum Acts, with the object of regulating the " keeping, 
sale, conveyance and hawking " of petroleum products having a 
flash-point below 73 F., and the Port of London authority, together 
with other water-way and harbour authorities in the United King- 
dom, have their own by-laws relating to the navigation of vessels 
carrying such petroleum. 

In other countries the flash-point standards differ considerably, 
as do the storage regulations. In France, the standard is 35 C. 
(Granier tester, equivalent to 98 F.), and according to their flash- 
point, liquid hydrocarbons are divided into two classes (below and 
above 35 C.), considered differently in regard to quantities storable 
and other regulations. In Germany, the law prescribes a close-test 
of 21 C., equal to about 70 F., whilst in Russia the standard is 
28 C., equal to 84-4. F., by the close-test; in both these countries 
the weights of petroleum which may be stored in specified buildings 
are determined by law. In the United States, various methods 
of testing and various minimum standards have been adopted. 
In Pennsylvania, the prescribed limit is a "fire-test" of Iio" F., 
equivalent to about 70 F., close-test, while in the State of New 
York it is 100 F., close- test. 

See Sir Boverton Redwood's Petroleum and its Products (and ed., 
London, 1906) ; A. Beeby Thompson, Petroleum Mining (1910) ; L. C. 
Tassart, Exploitation du Petrole (1908) ; C. Engler and H. Hofer, Das 
Erdol, 5 vols. (1909 seq.); A. B. Thompson, The Oil Fields of Russia 
(1908) ; and J. D. Henry, Oil Fields of the Empire (1910). (B. R.) 

PETROLOGY, the science of rocks (Gr. Trlrpos), the branch 
of geology which is concerned with the investigation of the 
composition, structure and history of the rock masses which 
make up the accessible portions of the earth's crust. Rocks 
have been defined as " aggregates of minerals." They are the 
units with which the geologist deals in investigating the structure 
of a district. Some varieties cover enormous areas and are 
among the commonest and most familiar objects of nature. 
Granite, sandstone, clay, limestone, slate often form whole 
provinces and build up lofty mountains. Such unconsolidated 
materials as sand, gravel, clay, soil are justly included among 
rocks as being mineral masses which play an important r&le in 
field geology. Other rock species are of rare occurrence and 
may be known in only one or two localities in distant parts of 
the earth's surface. Nearly all rocks consist of minerals, 
whether in a crystalline or non-crystalline state, but the insoluble 
and imperishable parts of tlie skeletons of animals and plants 
may constitute a considerable portion of rocks, as for example, 
coral limestone, lignite beds and chalk. 

Treatment of the Subject. In this paragraph the subject matter 
of the science of petrology is briefly surveyed ; the object is to point 
out the headings under which particular subjects are treated 
(there is a separate article on the terms printed in italics). General 
questions as to the nature, origin and classification of rocks and the 
methods of examination are discussed in the present article; 
mineralogy comprises similar matter respecting the component 
minerals; metamorphism , metasomatism, pneumatolysis and the 



formation of concretions are agencies which effect rocks and modify 
them. Three classes of rocks are recognized: the igneous, sedimen- 
tary and metamorphic. The plutonic, or deep-seated rocks, which 
cooled far below the surface, and occur as batholites, bosses, laccolites, 
and veins, include the great classes granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro 
and peridotite; related to the granites are aplite, greisen, pegmatite, 
schorl rock and micropegmatite; to the syenites, borolanite, monzonite, 
nepheline-syenite and ijolite; to the diorites, aphanite, napoleonite 
and tonalite; to the gabbros, pyroxenite and theralite, and to 
peridotites, picrite and serpentine. The hypabyssal intrusive rocks, 
occurring as sills, veins, dikes, necks, &c., are represented by por- 
phyry and porphyrite (including bostonite, felsite and quartz-por- 
phyry), diabase and lamprpphyre; some pitchstones belong to this 
group and contain crystallites and spherulites. The volcanic rocks, 
found typically as lava flows, include rhyolite and obsidian (with 
sometimes perlite), trachyte and phonolite (and leucitophyre which 
is treated under leucite), andesite and docile, basalt (with the related 
dokrite, variolite and tachylyte), nephelinite and tephrite. Among 
sedimentary rocks we recognize a volcanic group (including tuff, 
agglomerate and some kinds of pumice); an arenaceous series such 
as sand (some with glauconite) , sandstone, quartzite, greywacke and 
gravel; an argillaceous group including clay, firebrick, phyllite, laterite, 
shale and slate; a calcareous series with chalk, limestone (often 
forming stalactites and stalagmites), dolomite and marls or argillaceous 
limestones (flint occurs as nodules in chalk) ; the natural phosphates 
may be mentioned here. The metamorphic rocks are commonly 
gneisses and schists (including mica-schist) ; other types are amphibo- 
lite, charnockite, eclogite, eptdiorite, epidosite, granulite, itacolumite, 
horn/els, mylonite and the scapolite rocks. 

Composition. Only the commonest minerals are of impor- 
tance as rock formers. Their number is small, not exceeding a 
hundred in all, and much less than this if we do not reckon the 
subdivisions into which the commoner species are broken up. 
The vast majority of the rocks which we see around us every 
day consist of quartz, felspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epi- 
dote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, haematite, limonite 
and a few other minerals. Each of these has a recognized 
position in the economy of nature. A main determining factor 
is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral 
can be formed only when the necessary elements are present 
in the rock. Calcite is commonest in limestones, as these consist 
essentially of carbonate of lime; quartz in sandstones and in 
certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica. 
Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural 
association or paragenesis of rock-making minerals, principally 
the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it 
has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses 
may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist 
of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is 
always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under 
the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite 
arises by the consolidation of a molten magma (a fused rock 
mass; Gr. fj.ayfj.a, from fj.6.ffativ, to knead) at high temperatures 
and great pressures and its component minerals are such as are 
formed in such circumstances. Exposed to moisture, carbonic 
acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures 
of the earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as 
quartz and white mica are permanent and remain unaffected; 
others " weather " or decay and are replaced by new combina- 
tions. The felspar passes into kaolin, muscovite and quartz, 
and if any black mica (biotite) has been present it yields chlorite, 
epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accom- 
panied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, inco- 
herent, earthy mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil. 
The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited 
as a sandstone or grit. The structure of the original rock is 
now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is 
profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may 
not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo 
a metamorphosis. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be 
recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat 
and movement, such as attend the building of folded mountain 
chains, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different 
in mineralogical composition though radically different in 
structure to the granite which was its original state. 

Structure. The two factors above enumerated, namely the 
chemical and mineral composition of rocks, are scarcely of greater 



324 



PETROLOGY 



importance than their structure, or the relations of the parts 
of which they consist to one another. Regarded from this 
standpoint rocks may be divided into the crystalline and the 
fragmental. Inorganic matter, if free to take that physical 
state in which it is most stable, always tends to 
jfr^i. ' ' crystallize. Crystalline rock masses have con- 
solidated from solution or from fusion. The vast 
majority of igneous rocks belong to this group and the degree 
of perfection in which they have attained the crystalline state 
depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. 
Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under 
great pressures, have completely crystallized, but many lavas 
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly; in this 
latter group a small amount of non-crystalline or glassy matter 
is frequent. Other crystalline rocks such as rock-salt, gypsum 
and anhydrite have been deposited from solution in water, 
mostly owing to evaporation on exposure to the air. Still 
another group, which includes the marbles, mica-schists and 
quartzites, are recrystallized, that is to say, they were at first 
fragmental rocks, like limestone, clay and sandstone and have 
never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution. Certain 
agencies however, acting on them, have effaced their primitive 
structures, and induced crystallization, This is a kind of 
metamorphism. 

The fragmental structure needs little explanation; wherever 
rocks disintegrate fragments are produced which are suitable 
for the formation of new rocks of this group. The 
original materials may be organic (shells, corals, 
plants) or vitreous (volcanic glasses) or crystalline 
(granite, marble, &c.); the pulverizing agent may be frost, rain, 
running water, or the steam explosions which shatter the lava 
within a volcanic crater and produce the fragmental rocks 
known as volcanic ash, tuffs and agglomerates. The materials 
may be loose and incoherent (sand, clay, gravel) or compacted 
by pressure and the deposit of cementing substances by percolat- 
ing water (sandstone, shale, conglomerate). The grains of 
which fragmental rocks are composed may be coarse or fine, 
fresh or decayed, uniform or diverse in their composition; the 
one feature which gives unity to the class is the fact that they 
are all derived from pre-existing rocks or organisms. Because 
they are made up of broken pieces these rocks are often said to 
be " clastic." 

Origin of Rocks. The study of the structure of rocks evidently 
leads us to another method of regarding them, which is more 
fundamental than those enumerated above, as the structure 
depends on the mode of origin. Rocks are divided into three 
great classes, the Igneous, the Sedimentary and the Metamorphic. 
The igneous (Lat. ignis, fire) rocks have all consoli- 
dated from a state of fusion. Some of them are 
crystalline or " massive "; others are fragmental. 
The massive igneous rocks include a few which, 1 are nearly com- 
pletely vitreous, and still more which contain a small amount 
of amorphous matter, but the majority are completely crystal- 
lized. Among the best known examples are obsidian, pumice, 
basalt, trachyte, granite, diorite. The fragmental igneous 
rocks consist of volcanic ashes more or less firmly compacted. 
The sedimentary rocks form a second group; they 
have all been laid down as deposits on the earth's 
surface subject to the conditions of temperature, 
moisture and pressure which obtain there. They include 
fragmental and crystalline varieties. The former consist of 
the ddbris of pre-existing rocks, accumulated in seas, lakes or 
dry land and more or less indurated by pressure and cementing 
substances. Gravel, sand and clay, conglomerate, sandstone, 
shale are well-known examples. Many of them are fossiliferous 
as they contain fragments of organisms. Some are very largely 
made up of remains of animals or plants, more or less altered by 
mineralization. These are sometimes placed into a special 
group as rocks of organic origin; limestone, peat and coal are 
typical of this class. The crystalline sediments are such as 
rock-salt and gypsum, deposits of saline lakes or isolated 
portions of the sea. They were formed under conditions 



unfavourable to life and hence rarely contain fossils. The 
metamorphic rocks are known to be almost entirely altered 
igneous or sedimentary masses. Metamorphism 
consists in the destruction of the original structures 
and the development of new minerals. The chemical 
composition of the rocks however suffers little change. The 
rock becomes as a rule more crystalline; but all stages in the 
process may be found and in a metamorphosed sediment, e.g. a 
sandstone, remains of the original sand grains and primary 
fragmental structure may be observed, although extensive 
recrystallization has taken place. The agencies which produce 
metamorphism are high temperatures, pressure, interstitial 
moisture and in many cases movement. The effects of high 
temperatures are seen best in the rocks surrounding great out- 
crops of intrusive granite, for they have been baked and crystal- 
lized by the heat of the igneous rock (thermo-metamorphism). 
In folded mountain chains where the strata have been greatly 
compressed and their particles have been forced to move over 
one another a different type of metamorphism prevails (regional 
or dynamic metamorphism). 

Methods of Investigation. The macroscopic (Gr. /joxpfc, large) 
characters of rocks, those visible in hand-specimens without 
the aid of the microscope, are very varied and 
difficult to describe accurately and fully. The 
geologist in the field depends principally on them 
and on a few rough chemical and physical tests; and to the 
practical engineer, architect and quarry-master they are all- 
important. Although frequently insufficient in themselves to 
determine the true nature of a rock, they usually serve for a 
preliminary classification and often give all the information 
which is really needed. With a small bottle of acid to test for 
carbonate of lime, a knife to ascertain the hardness of rocks 
and minerals, and a pocket lens to magnify their structure, the 
field geologist is rarely at a loss to what group a rock belongs. 
The fine grained species are often indeterminable in this way, 
and the minute mineral components of all rocks can usually be 
ascertained only by microscopic examination. But it is easy 
to see that a sandstone or grit consists of more or less rounded, 
waterworn sand-grains and if it contains dull, weathered 
particles of felspar, shining scales of mica or small crystals of 
calcite these also rarely escape observation. Shales and clay 
rocks generally are soft, fine grained, often laminated and not 
infrequently contain minute organisms or fragments of plants. 
Limestones are easily marked with a knife-blade, effervesce 
readily with weak cold acid and often contain entire or broken 
shells or other fossils. The crystalline nature of a granite or 
basalt is obvious at a glance, and while the former contains white 
or pink felspar, clear vitreous quartz and glancing flakes of mica, 
the other will show yellow-green olivine, black augite and grey 
striated plagioclase. 

But when dealing with unfamiliar types or with rocks so fine 
grained that their component minerals cannot be determined 
with the aid of a lens, the geologist is obliged to have 
recourse to more delicate and searching methods of characters. 
investigation. With the aid of the blowpipe (to 
test the fusibility of detached crystals), the goniometer, the 
magnet, the magnifying glass and the specific gravity balance, 
the earlier travellers attained surprisingly accurate results. 
Examples of these may be found in the works of von Buch, 
Scrope, Darwin and many others. About the end of the i8th 
century, Dolomieu examined crushed rock powders under the 
microscope and Cordier in 1815 crushed, levigated and investi- 
gated the finer ground-mass of igneous rocks. His researches 
are models of scrupulous accuracy, and he was able to announce 
that they consisted essentially of such minerals as felspar, 
augite, iron ores and volcanic glass, and did not differ in nature 
from the coarser grained rocks. Nicol, whose name is associated 
with the discovery of the Nicol's prism, seems to have been the 
first to prepare thin slices of mineral substances, and his methods 
were applied by Witham (1831) to the study of plant petri- 
factions. This method, of such far-reaching importance in 
petrology, was not at once made use of for the systematic 



PETROLOGY 



325 



investigation of rocks, and it was not till 1858 that Sorby 
pointed out its value. Meanwhile the optical study of sections 
of crystals had been advanced by Sir David Brewster and other 
physicists and mineralogists and it only remained to apply 
their methods to the minerals visible in rock sections. Very 
rapid progress was made and the names of Zirkel, Allport, 
Vogelsang, Schuster, Rosenbusch, Bertrand, Fouque and L6vy 
are among those of the most active pioneers in the new field of 
research. To such importance have microscopical methods 
attained that textbooks of petrology at the present time are very 
largely devoted to a description of the appearances presented 
by the minerals of rocks as studied in transparent micro-sections. 

A good rock-section should be about one-thousandth of an inch 
in thickness, and is by no means very difficult to make. A thin 
_., splinter of the rock, about as large as a halfpenny may 

be taken ; it should be as fresh as possible and free from 
obvious cracks. By grinding on a plate of planed steel or cast 
iron with a little fine carborundum it is soon rendered flat on one side 
and is then transferred to a sheet of plate glass and smoothed with 
the very finest emery till all minute pits and roughnesses are removed 
and the surface is a uniform plane. The rock-chip is then washed, 
and placed on a copper or iron plate which is heated by a spirit or 
gas lamp. A microscopic glass slip is also warmed on this plate 
with a drop of viscous natural Canada balsam on its surface. The 
more volatile ingredients of the balsam are dispelled by the heat, 
and when that is accomplished the smooth, dry, warm rock is pressed 
firmly into contact with the glass plate so that the film of balsam 
intervening may be as thin as possible and free from air-bubbles. 
The preparation is allowed to cool and then the rock chip is again 
ground down as before, first with carborundum and, when it becomes 
transparent, with fine emery till the desired thickness is obtained. 
It is then cleaned, again heated with a little more balsam, and 
covered with a cover glass. The labour of grinding the first surface 
may be avoided by cutting off a smooth slice with an iron disk armed 
with crushed diamond powder. A second application of the slitter 
after the first face is smoothed and cemented to the glass will in 
expert hands leave a rock-section so thin as to be already transparent. 
In this way the preparation of a section may require only twenty 
minutes. 

The microscope employed is usually one which is provided with a 
rotating stage beneath which there is a polarizer, while above the 
... objective or the eyepiece an analyser is mounted ; alter- 

scope. na (j ve ]y t ne s t a ge may be fixed and the polarizing and 
analysing prisms may be capable of simultaneous rotation by means 
of toothed wheels and a connecting-rod. If ordinary light and not 
polarized light is desired, both prisms may be withdrawn from the 
axis of the instrument; if the polarizer only is inserted the light 
transmitted is plane polarized; with both prisms in position the 
slide is viewed between " crossed nicols." A microscopic rock- 
section in ordinary light if a suitable magnification (say 30) be 
employed is seen to consist of grains or crystals varying in colour, 
Ch racte s ' ze an( ^ sna P e - Some minerals are colourless and trans- 
' . parent (quartz, calcite, felspar, muscovite, &c.), others 
' are yellow or brown (rutile, tourmaline, biotite) , green 
(diopside, hornblende, chlorite), blue (glaucophane), pink (garnet), 
&c. The same mineral may present a variety of colours, in the 
same or different rocks, and these colours may be arranged in 
zones parallel to the surfaces of the crystals. Thus tourmaline 
may be brown, yellow, pink, blue, green, violet, grey or colourless, 
but every mineral has one or more characteristic, because most 
common tints. The shapes of the crystals determine in a 
general way the outlines of the sections of them presented on 
the slides. If the mineral has one or more good cleavages they 
will be indicated by systems of cracks (see PI. III.). The refrac- 
tive index is also clearly shown by the appearance of the sections, 
which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much 
stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted. 
Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi- 
transparent (e.g. felspar) ; others remain always perfectly fresh and 
clear (e.g. quartz), others yield characteristic secondary products 
(such as green chlorite after biotite). The inclusions in the crystals 
are of great interest ; one mineral may enclose another, or may con- 
tain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases. 

Lastly the structure of the rock, that is to say, the relation of its 
components to one another, is usually clearly indicated, whether it 
be fragmental or massive ; the presence of glassy matter 
in contradistinction to a completely crystalline or 
" holo-crystalline " condition; the nature and origin of 
organic fragments; banding, foliation or lamination; the pumiceous 
or porous structure of many lavas; these and many other characters, 
though often not visible in the hand specimens of a rock, are rendered 
obvious by the examination of a microscopic section. Many refined 
methods of observation may be introduced, such as the measurement 
of the size of the elements of the rock by the help of micrometers; 
their relative proportions by means of a glass plate ruled in small 
squares; the angles between cleavages or faces seen in section by 
the use of the rotating graduated stage, and the estimation of the 



Micro- 
Structure. 



refractive index of the mineral by comparison with those of different 
mounting media. 

Further information is obtained by inserting the polarizer and 
rotating the section. The light vibrates now only in one plane, and 
in passing through doubly refracting crystals in the _. 
slide is, speaking generally, broken up into two rays, 
which vibrate at right angles to one another. In many ' 
coloured minerals such as biotite, hornblende, tourmaline, chlorite, 
these two rays have different colours, and when a section con- 
taining any of these minerals is rotated the change of colour is 
often very striking. This property, known as " pleochroism " (Gr. 
v\tiav, more; xpis, colour), is of great value in the determination of 
rock-making minerals. It is often especially intense in small spots 
which surround minute enclosures of other minerals, such as zircon 
and epidote; these are known as " pleochroic halos." 

If the analyser be now inserted in such a position that it is crossed 
relatively to the polarizer the field of view will be dark where there 
are no minerals, or where the light passes through isotro- 
pic substances such as glass, liquids and cubic crystals. 
All other crystalline bodies, being doubly refracting, 
will appear bright in some position as the stage is rotated. The 
only exception to this rule is provided by sections which are 
perpendicular to the optic axes of birefringent crystals; these 
remain dark or nearly dark during a whole rotation, and as will 
be seen later, their investigation is of special importance. The 
doubly refracting mineral sections, however, will in all cases 
appear black in certain positions as the stage is .... ,. 
rotated. They are said to be "extinguished" when * 
this takes place. If we note these positions we may measure 
the angle between them and any cleavages, faces or other 
structures of the crystal by means of the rotating stage. These 
angles are characteristic of the system to which the mineral belongs 
and often of the mineral species itself (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). 
To facilitate measurement of extinction angles various kinds of 
eyepieces have been devised, some having a stauroscopic calcite 
plate, others with two or four plates of quartz cemented together; 
these are often found to give more exact results than are obtained 
by observing merely the position in which the mineral section is most 
completely dark between crossed nicols. 

The mineral sections when not extinguished are not only bright 
but are coloured and the colours they show depend on several factors, 
the most important of which is the strength of the double refraction. 
If all the sections are of the same thickness as is nearly true of well- 
made slides, the minerals with strongest double refraction yield 
the highest polarization colours. The order in which the colours 
are arranged is that known as Newton's scale, the lowest being 
dark grey, then grey, white, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue and 
so on. The difference between the refractive indexes of the ordinary 
and the extraordinary ray in quartz is -009, and in a rock-section 
about ^iy of an inch thick this mineral gives grey and white 
polarization tints; nepheline with weaker double refraction gives 
dark grey; augite on the other hand will give red and blue, while 
calcite with still stronger double refraction will appear pinkish or 
greenish white. AH sections of the same mineral, however, will not 
have the same colour; it was stated above that sections perpendicular 
to an optic axis will be nearly black, and, in general, the more nearly 
any section approaches this direction the lower its polarization 
colours will be. By taking the average, or the highest colour 
given by any mineral, the relative value of its double refraction can 
be estimated ; or if the thickness of the section be precisely known 
the difference between the two refractive indexes can be ascertained. 
If the slides be thick the colours will be on the whole higher than in 
thin slides. 

It is often important to find out whether of the two axes of elas- 
ticity (or vibration traces) in the section is that of greater elasticity 
(or lesser refractive index). The quartz wedge or selenite plate 
enables us to do this. Suppose a doubly refracting mineral section 
so placed that it is "extinguished "; if now it is rotated through 
45 it will be brightly illuminated. If the quartz wedge be passed 
across it so that the long axis of the wedge is parallel to the axis 
of elasticity in the section the polarization colours will rise or fall. 
If they rise the axes of greater elasticity in the two minerals are 
parallel ; if they sink the axis of greater elasticity in the one is parallel 
to that of lesser elasticity in the other. In the latter case by pushing 
the wedge sufficiently far complete darkness or compensation will 
result. Selenite wedges, selenite plates, mica wedges and mica 
plates are also used for this purpose. A quartz wedge also may be 
calibrated by determining the amount of double refraction in all 
parts of its length. If now it be used to produce compensation 
or complete extinction in any doubly refracting mineral section, we 
can ascertain what is the strength of the double refraction of the 
section because it is obviously equal and opposite to that of a known 
part of the quartz wedge. 

A further refinement of microscopic methods consists of the use 
of strongly convergent polarized light (konoscopic methods). This 
is obtained by a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polar- 
izer, and a high power microscopic objective. Those sections are 
most useful which are perpendicular to an optic axis, and conse- 
quently remain dark on rotation. If they belong to uniaxial crystals 
they show a dark cross or convergent light between crossed nicols, 



326 



PETROLOGY 



the bars of which remain parallel to the'wires in the field of the eye- 
piece. Sections perpendicular to an optic axis of a biaxial mineral 
under the same conditions show a dark bar which on rotation 
becomes curved to a hyperbolic shape. If the section is perpendicu- 
lar to a " bisectrix " (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) a black cross is seen 
which on rotation opens out to form two hyperbolas, the apices of 
which are turned towards one another. The optic axes emerge at 
the apices of the hyperbolas and may be surrounded by coloured 
rings, though owing to the thinness of minerals in rock sections 
these are only seen when the double refraction of the mineral is 
strong. The distance between the axes as seen in the field of the 
microscope depends partly on the axial angle of the crystal and 
partly on the numerical aperture of the objective. If it is measured 
by means of an eye-piece micrometer, the optic axial angle of the 
mineral can be found by a simple calculation. The quartz wedge, 
quarter mica plate or selenite plate permit the determination of the 
positive or negative character of the crystal by the changes in the 
colour or shape of the figures observed in the field. These operations 
are precisely similar to those employed by the mineralogist in the 
examination of plates cut from crystals. It is sufficient to point 
out that the petrological microscope in its modern development is 
an optical instrument of great precision, enabling us to determine 
physical constants of crystallized substances as well as serving to 
produce magnified images like the ordinary microscope. A great 
variety of accessory apparatus has been devised to fit it for these 
special uses. 

The separation of the ingredients of a crushed rock powder 
from one to another in order to obtain pure samples suitable 
Separation f r analysis is also extensively practised. It may 
ofcompo- be effected by means of a powerful electro-magnet 
nents. the strength of which can be regulated as desired. 
A weak magnetic field will attract magnetite, then haematite 
and other ores of iron. Silicates containing iron will follow 
in definite order and biotite, enstatite, augite, hornblende, 
garnet and similar ferro-magnesian minerals may be succes- 
sively abstracted; at last only the colourless, non-magnetic 
compounds, such as muscovite, calcite, quartz and felspar, will 
remain. Chemical methods also are useful. A weak acid will 
dissolve calcite from a crushed limestone, leaving only dolomite, 
silicates or quartz. Hydrofluoric acid will attack felspar before 
quartz, and if employed with great caution will dissolve these 
and any glassy material in a rock powder before dissolving 
augite or hypersthene. Methods of separation by specific 
gravity have a still wider application. The simplest of these 
is levigation (Lat. leoigare, to make smooth, levis) or treatment 
by a current of water; it is extensively employed in the mechanical 
analysis of soils and in the treatment of ores, but is not so 
successful with rocks, as their components do not as a rule 
differ very greatly in specific gravity. 

Fluids are used which do not attack the majority of the rock- 
making minerals and at the same time have a high specific gravity. 
Solutions of potassium mercuric iodide (sp. gr. 3-196), cadmium 
borotungstate (sp. gr. 3-30), methlyene iodide (sp. gr. 3-32), bromo- 
form (sp. gr. 2-86), or acetylene bromide (sp.gr. 3-00) are the prin- 
cipal media employed. They may be diluted (with water, benzene, 
&c.) to any desired extent and again concentrated by evaporation. 
If the rock be a granite consisting of biotite (sp. gr. 3-1), muscovite 
(sp. gr. 2-85), quartz (sp. gr. 2-65), oligoclase (sp. gr. 2-64) and 
orthoclase (sp. gr. 2-56) the crushed minerals will all float in 
methylene iodide; on gradual dilution with benzene they will be 
precipitated in the order given above. Although simple in theory 
these methods are tedious in practice, especially as it is common 
for one rock-making mineral to enclose another. But expert 
handling of fresh and suitable rocks yields excellent results and much 
purer powders may be obtained by this means than by any other. 

Although rocks are now studied principally in microscopic 
sections the investigation of fine crushed rock powders, which 
Bxmmlaa- was the first branch of microscopic petrology to 
tionofKock receive attention, is by no means discontinued. 
Powder*. -p n e modern optical methods are perfectly applicable 
to transparent mineral fragments of any kind. Minerals 
are almost as easily determined in powder as in section, but 
it is otherwise with rocks, as the structure or relation of the 
components to one another, which is an element of great im- 
portance in the study of the history and classification of rocks, 
is almost completely destroyed by grinding them to powder. 

In addition to naked-eye and microscopic investigations 
chemical methods of research are of the greatest practical 
utility to the petrographer. The crushed and separated 
powders, obtained by the processes described above, may be 



analysed and thus the chemical composition of the minerals 
in the rock determined qualitatively or quantitatively. The 
chemical testing of microscopic sections and minute 

. * i i j- .1 ' Chemical 

grams by the help of the microscope is a very Analysis. 
elegant and valuable means of discriminating between 
the mineral components of fine-grained rocks. Thus the 
presence of apatite in rock-sections is established by covering 
a bare rock-section with solution of ammonium moiybdate; 
a turbid yellow precipitate forms over the crystals of the mineral 
in question (indicating the presence of phosphates). Many 
silicates are insoluble in acids and cannot be tested in this way, 
but others are partly dissolved, leaving a film of gelatinous 
silica which can be stained with colouring matters such as the 
aniline dyes (nepheline, analcite, zeolites, &c.). 

Complete chemical analyses of rocks are also widely made use of 
and are of the first importance, especially when new species are under 
description. Rock analysis has of late years (largely under the 
influence of the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological 
Survey) reached a high pitch of refinement and complexity. As 
many as twenty or twenty-five components may be determined, but 
for practical purposes a knowledge of the relative proportions of 
silica, alumina, ferrous and ferric oxides, magnesia, lime, potash, 
soda and water will carry us a long way in determining the position 
to which a rock is to be assigned in any of the conventional classifica- 
tions. A chemica} analysis is in itself usually sufficient to indicate 
whether a rock is igneous or sedimentary and in either case to show 
with considerable accuracy to what subdivision of these classes it 
belongs. In the case of metamorphic rocks it often establishes 
whether the original mass was a sediment or of volcanic origin. 

The specific gravity of rocks is determined in the usual way by 
means of the balance and the pycnometer. It is greatest in those 
rocks which contain most magnesia, iron and heavy Specific 
metals; jeast in rocks rich in alkalis, silica and water. gravity 
It diminishes with weathering, and generally those rocks 
which are highly crystalline have higher specific gravities than those 
which are wholly or partly vitreous when both have the same 
chemical composition. The specific gravity of the commoner rocks 
ranges from about 2-5 to 3-2. 

The above methods of investigation, naked eye, physical, 
microscopical, chemical, may be grouped together as analytical 
in contradistinction to the synthetic investigation 
of rocks, which proceeds by experimental work to 
reproduce different rock types and in this way to 
elucidate their origin and explain their structures. la many 
cases no experiment is necessary. Every stage in the origin of 
clays, sands and gravels can be seen in process around us, but 
where these have been converted into coherent shales, sand- 
stones and conglomerates, and still more where they have 
experienced some degree of metamorphism, there are many 
obscure points about their history upon which experiment may 
yet throw light. Up to the present time these investigations 
have been almost entirely confined to the attempt to reproduce 
igneous rocks by fusion of mixtures of crushed minerals or of 
chemicals in specially contrived furnaces. The earliest researches 
of this sort are of those of Faujas St Fond and of de Saussure, 
but Sir James Hall really laid the foundations of this branch 
of petrology. He showed (1798) that the whinstones (diabases) 
of Edinburgh ware fusible and if rapidly cooled yielded black 
vitreous masses closely resembling natural pitchstones and 
obsidians; if cooled more slowly they consolidated as crystalline 
rocks not unlike the whinstones themselves and containing 
olivine, augite and felspar (the essential minerals of these rocks). 
Many years later Daubree, Delesse and others carried on similar 
experiments, but the first notable advance was made in 1878, 
when Fouque and L6vy began their researches 

They succeeded in producing such rocks as porphyrite, leucite- 
tephrite, basalt and dolerite, and obtained also various structural 
modifications well known in igneous rocks, e.g. the porphyritic and 
the ophitic (Gr. &<j>is, serpent). Incidentally they showed that 
while many basic rocks (basalts, &c.) could be perfectly imitated in 
the laboratory, the acid rocks could not, and advanced the explana- 
tion that for the crystallization of the latter the gases never absent 
in natural rock magmas were indispensable mineralizing agents. 
It has subsequently been proved that steam, or such volatile sub- 
stances as certain borates, molybdates, chlorides, fluorides, assist 
in the formation of orthoclase, quartz and mica (the minerals of 
granite). Sir James Hall also made the first contribution to the 
experimental study of metamorphic rocks by converting chalk 



PETROLOGY 



PlATE I. 




J 



FIG. 



i. BANDED OBSIDIAN, KIRGHIZ 

(X2S). 

The rock consists of alternate bands of 
brown and colourless glass which have been 





FIG. 2. FLUIDAL RHYOLITE, 
HUNGARY (x 15). 

In the centre are crystals of felspar, rather 
turbid through weathering. 



The matrix is 



arranged in stripes by the fluxion movement partly glassy, partly felsitic, and shows the 

of the viscous mass before solidification, effects of streaming movements with eddies 

The glass is rendered granular by very minute behind the felspar crystals, 
crystals. 



FIG. 3. OBSIDIAN, MEXICO (x 15). 

This rock has a damascened pattern owing 
to the irregular mingling of streams of brown 
and of colourless glass. It is nearly quite 
free from minute crystals. 




FIG. 4 PERLITIC OBSIDIAN, TOKAI, 
HUNGARY ( x 15). 

The clear glassy rock is traversed by a large 
number of cracks, some long and straight, 
while others are nearly circular. These are 
rendered more distinct by the deposit of thin 
films of secondary limonite in them. The 
cracks are due to contraction on cooling. 




FIG. 7 SPHERULITIC RHYOLITE, 
HLINIK, HUNGARY (X 10). 

The white, angular patches are crystals of 
quartz and of sanidine felspar. Between 
them there is a yellowish glass showing 
circular areas with a well-defined radiate 
fibrous structure (spherulites). 

XXI. 326. 





FIG. 5. PERLITIC PITCHSTONE, 
MEISSEN, GERMANY (x 15). 

The perlitic, rounded cracks are very 
clearly seen, because the rock is decomposing 
and becoming slightly opaque along them. 
At the top there is a corroded crystal of felspar, 
showing cleavage, with large circular en- 
closures of brownish glass. 



d 

FIG. 6. OBSIDIAN, ICELAND (x 17). 

In the clear glassy base there are rounded 
yellow spots (spherulites) arranged in fluxion 
streams. 





FIG. 8. SPHERULITIC FELSITE, 
ARRAN, SCOTLAND (x 10). 

The round spherulites of this rock are 
large and sometimes composite; their radiate 
structure is obvious. This is a devitrified 
pitchstone, no longer glassy but finely crystal- 
line, and at the centres of the spherulites there 
are spaces occupied by a secondary deposit of 
quartz. 



FIG. 9 PORPHYRITIC AND FLUIDAL 
RHYOLITE, HUNGARY (x 12). 

The ground -mass is partly glassy, partly 
felsitic, and shows fluxion-banding. The 
large quartz is a double hexagonal pyramid, 
but its edges and corners are rounded by 
corrosion and large irregular areas of glass 
penetrate to its centre. 



PLATE II. 



PETROLOGY 




FIG. i. PORPHYRITIC PITCHSTONE, 
SCUIR OF EIGG, SCOTLAND ( xio). 

A large porphyritic felspar crystal is seen 
lying in a pale-brown glassy base and con- 
taining many glass inclusions of irregular 
shape. The felspar, in one margin especially, 
shows corroded outlines. 




FIG. 2. TRACHYTE, OROTAVA, TENE- 
RIFFE (x 12). 

There are larger porphyritic felspars of the 
first generation, and smaller ones of later 
origin composing part of the ground-mass, 
which also contains a considerable amount of 
yellow vitreous material. 




FIG. 3. TRACHYTE, PERLENHARDT, 
GERMANY (x 10). 

In this rock there are porphyritic crystals 
of felspar and of dark brown biotite (nearly 
black in the photograph), with a few of green 
augite and magnetite. The ground-mass is 
finely crystalline. 




FIG. 4. GRANITE RUBISLAW, ABER- 
DEEN (x 10). 

This is a non-porphyritic, holocrystaHine 
rock. Among its components the crystals 
of dark mica are conspicuous, and with them 
occur also a few plates of white mica, with 
perfect cleavage. The slightly turbid or 
granular substance is felspar, a little de- 
composed, and the large clear spaces are 
crystals of quartz. 




FIG. 5. HORNBLENDE-GRANITE, 
DALBEATTIE, SCOTLAND (x 15). 

The dark crystal with fine parallel lines of 
cleavage is biotite; the others, with two less 
perfect cleavages, are hornblende. At the 
top there is a long rod-shaped grain of sphene. 
The granular-looking substance is felspar, and 
the quartz, as usual, is clear and transparent. 




FIG. 6. GRAPHIC GRANITE, BODEN- 
MAIS, BAVARIA (X 10). 

This rock consists of angular patches of 
clear quartz scattered through a striated dull 
matrix of felspar. The different quartz areas 
have all the same optical orientation, as if 
they were parts of a single crystal. 




FIG. 7. LUXULLIANITE, LUXULYAN, 
CORNWALL (x 15). 

In this variety of tourmaline-granite there 
are many blue needles of tourmaline, grouped 
in stellate clusters which are embedded in a 
matrix of clear quartz. These pointed 
needles diverge from the surfaces of larger 
grains of tourmaline. 





FIG. 8. GRANOPHYRE, BRAEMAR, 
SCOTLAND (X37). 

This photograph is taken between crossed 
nicols to show the graphic structure of the 
ground-mass, similar to that of Fig. 6, but on 
a much finer scale. The quartz towards the 
centre of the field appears as white, angular 
areas, embedded in a grey matrix of felspar, 
and each mineral reacts in a uniform fashion 
to polarized light over an area of moderate 
extent. 



FIG. 9. DIORITE, HODRITCH, HUN- 
GARY (x 10). 

The dark crystals are green hornblende, 
and show the outlines which are characteristic 
of that mineral. The cloudy grey substance 
between them is felspar in a somewhat 
weathered state. 



PETROLOGY 



327 



into marble by heating it in a closed gun-barrel, which prevented the 
escape of the carbonic acid at high temperatures. Adams and 
Nicholson have carried this a stage farther by subjecting marble 
to great pressure in hydraulic presses and have shown how the 
foliated structures, frequent in natural marbles, may be produced 
artificially. 

Rock Classification. The three great classes of rocks above 
enumerated the igneous, the sedimentary and the metamorphic 
are subdivided into man;' eroups which to a small extent 
resemble the genera and species under which the naturalist 
classifies the members of the animal kingdom. There are, 
however, no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks. 
By increase or diminution in the proportions of their constituent 
minerals they pass by every gradation into one another; the 
distinctive structures also of one kind of rock may often be 
traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the 
definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely 
correspond to selected points (more or less arbitrary) in a con- 
tinuously graduated series. This is frequently urged as a 
reason for reducing rock classification to its simplest possible 
terms, and using only a few generalized rock designations. But 
it is clear that many apparently trivial differences tend regularly 
to recur, and have a real significance, and so long as any variation 
can be shown to be of this nature it deserves recognition. 

The igneous rocks (crystalline and fragmental) form a well-defined 
group, differing in origin from all others. The crystalline or massive 
varieties may occur in two different ways; the lavas have 
Igneous been poured out at the surface and have consolidated 
Rocks. after ejection, under] conditions which are fairly well 
understood, seeing that they may be examined at active volcanoes 
in many parts of the world ; the intrusive rocks, on the other hand, 
have been injected from below into cracks and fissures in the strata 
and have cooled there beneath masses which conceal them from view 
till exposed by denudation at a subsequent period. The members 
of these two groups differ in many respects from one another, so 
that it is often possible to assign a rock to one or other of them on 
mere superficial inspection. The lavas (or effusive rocks), having 
cooled rapidly in contact with the air, are mostly finely crystalline 
or have at least fine-grained ground-mass representing 
Lavas or tnat p art o f tne vi sc ous semi-crystalline lava flow which 
Effusive was st ij| liquid a t the moment of eruption. At this 
Types. time they were exposed only to atmospheric pressure, and 
the steam and other gases, which they contained in great quantity, 
were free to escape; many important modifications arise from this, 
the most striking being the frequent presence of numerous steam 
cavities (vesicular structure) often drawn out to elongated shapes 
subsequently filled up with minerals by infiltration (amygdaloidal 
structure). As crystallization was going on while the mass was 
still creeping forward over the surface of the earth, the latest 
formed minerals (in the ground-mass) are commonly arranged in 
subparallel winding lines following the direction of movement 
(fluxion or fluidal structure) (see PI. I. figs. 2 and 9, PI. II. fig. 2), and 
the larger early minerals which had previously crystallized may show 
the same arrangement. Most lavas have fallen considerably below 
their original temperatures before they are emitted. In their 
behaviour they present a close analogy to hot solutions of salts 
in water, which, when they approach the saturation temperature, 
first deposit a crop of large, well-formed crystals (labile stage) and 
subsequently precipitate clouds of smaller less perfect crystalline 
particles (metastable stage). In igneous rocks the first generation 
of crystals generally forms before the lava has emerged to the surface, 
that is to say, during the ascent from the subterranean depths to the 
crater of the volcano. It has frequently been verified by observation 
that freshly emitted lavas contain large crystals borne along in a 
molten, liquid mass. The large, well-formed, early crystals are 
said tobeporphyritic(Pl.III. figs. 1,2,3); the smaller crystals of the 
surrounding matrix or ground-mass belong to the post-effusion stage. 
More rarely lavas are completely fused at the moment of ejection ; 
they may then cool to form a non-porphyritic, finely crystalline rock, 
or if more rapidly chilled may in large part be non-crystalline or 
glassy (vitreous rocks such as obsidian, tachylyte, pitchstone (PI. I. 
figs, i, 4, 5). A common feature of glassy rocks is the presence of 
rounded bodies (spherulites : Gr. o-^oipa, ball), consisting of fine diver- 
gent fibres radiating from a centre (PI. I. figs. 7, 8); they consist of 
imperfect crystals of felspar, mixed with quartz or tridymite; similar 
bodies are often produced artificialjy in glasses which are allowed to 
cool slowly. Rarely these spherulites are hollow or consist of con- 
centric shells with spaces between (lithophysae : Gr. X0os, stone; 
<t>v6a, bellows). Perlitic structure, also common in glasses, consists 
in the presence of concentric rounded cracks owing to contraction 
on cooling (see PERUTE). 

The phenocrysts (Gr. <t>alvtiv, to show; Kp{rra\\ov, crystal) or por- 
phyritic minerals are not only larger than those of the ground- 
mass. As the matrix was still liquid when they formed they were 
free to take perfect crystalline shapes, not being interfered with by 



the pressure of adjacent crystals. They seem to have grown rapidly, 
as they are often filled with enclosures of glassy or finely crystalline 
material like that of the ground-mass (PI. II. fig. I). Microscopic 
examination of the phenocrysts often reveals that they have had a 
complex history. Very frequently they show successive layers 
of different composition, indicated by variations in colour or other 
optical properties; thus augite may be green at the centre and various 
shades of brown outside this; or may be pale green centrally and 
darker green with strong pleochroism (aegirine) at the periphery. 
In the felspars the centre is usually more basic and richer in lime 
than the surrounding faces, and successive zones may often be noted, 
each less basic than those which lie within it. Phenocrysts of quartz 
(and of other minerals), instead of sharp, perfect crystalline faces, 
may show rounded corroded surfaces (PI. I. fig. 9), with the points 
blunted and irregular tongue-like projections of the matrix into the 
substance of the crystal. It is clear that after the mineral had 
crystallized it was partly again dissolved or corroded at some period 
before the matrix solidified. Corroded phenocrysts of biotite and 
hornblende are very common in some lavas; they are surrounded 
by black rims of magnetite mixed with pale green augite. The 
hornblende or biotite substance has proved unstable at a certain 
stage of consolidation and has been replaced by a paramorph of 
augite and magnetite which may be partially or completely sub- 
stituted for the original crystal but still retains its characteristic 
outlines. 

Let us now consider the characteristics of a typical deep-seated 
rock like granite or diorite. (PI. II. figs. 4, 5,9). That these are 
igneous is proved by the manner in which they have 
burst through the superincumbent strata, filling the 
cracks with ramifying veins; that they were at a very ~ 
high temperature is equally clear from the changes which yp ^ 
they have induced in the rocks in contact with them. But as their 
heat could dissipate only very slowly, because of the masses which 
covered them, complete crystallization has taken place and no 
vitreous rapidly chilled matter is present. As they have had time 
to come to rest before crystallizing they are not fluidal. Their 
contained gases have not been able to escape through the thick layer 
of strata beneath which they were injected, and may often be ob- 
served occupying cavities in the minerals, or have occasioned many 
important modifications in the crystallization of the rock. Because 
their crystals are of approximately equal size these rocks are said to 
be granular ; there is typically no distinction between a first generation 
of large well-shaped crystals and a fine-grained ground-mass. Their 
minerals have formed, however, in a definite order, and each has had 
a period of crystallization which maybe very distinct or may have 
coincided with or overlapped the period of formation of some of the 
other ingredients. The earlier have originated at a time when 
most of the rock was still liquid and are more or less perfect ; the later 
are less regular in shape because they were compelled to occupy 
the interspaces left between the already formed crystals (PI. II. 
figs- 5. 9)- The former are said to be idiomorphic (or automorphic), 
the latter are anidiomorphic (allotriomorphic, xenomorphic). 1 
There are also many other characteristics which serve to distinguish 
the members of these two groups. Orthoclase, for example, is the 
typical felspar of granite, while its modification sanidine occurs in 
lavas of similar composition. The same distinction holds between 
elaeolite and nepheline. Leucite is common in lavas, very rare in 
plutonic rocks. Muscovite is confined to the intrusives. These 
differences show the influence of the physical conditions under 
which consolidation takes place. 

There is a certain class of intrusive rocks which have risen 
upwards towards the surface, but have failed to reach it, and have 
solidified in fissures as dikes and intrusive sills at no 
great depth. To this type the name intrusive (or hyp-' trus ' reor 
abyssal) is often given in distinction to the plutonic (or J? pa \ 
abyssal) which formed at greater depths. As might yp ^ 
be expected, they show structures intermediate between those of 
the effusive and the plutonic rocks. They are very commonly por- 
phyritic, not rarely vitreous, and sometimes even vesicular. In fact 
many of them are indistinguishable petrologically from lavas of 
similar composition. 

The attempt to form a special group of hypabyssal (intrusive and 
dike) rocks has met with much criticism and opposition. Such a 
group certainly cannot rank as equally important and equally well 
characterized with the plutonic and the effusive. But there are 
many kinds of rock which are not found to occur normally in any 
other manner. As examples we may cite the lamprophyres, the 
aplites and the porphyrites. These never occur as lava flows or as 
great plutonic bosses; if magmas of the same composition as these 
rocks occur in either of these ways they consolidate with different 
assemblages of minerals and different structures. 

In subdividing the plutonic, the hypabyssal and the effusive 
rocks, the principle is followed of grouping those 
together which resemble one another m mineral con- s " a " 
stitution and in chemical composition. In a broad a 
sense these two properties are interdependent. _ 

1 Idiomorphic, having its own characteristic form, Gr. tSios, 
belonging to one's self, (airrh ), nofxtrff (form); allotriomorphic, from 
Gr. AXX6rp>s, belonging to another (&XXos) , a stranger (Jiwtt). 



PETROLOGY 



The commoner rock constituents are nearly all oxides; chlorine, 
sulphur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and 

their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 
J* i%. F. W. Clarke has calculated that a little more 

than 47 % of the earth's crust consists of oxygen. It 
occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief 
are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda. 
The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and [all 
the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From 
a computation based on 1672 analyses of all kinds of rocks Clarke 
arrived at the following as the average percentage composition: 

SiO 2 = 597i> Al 2 O 3 = i5-4i, Fe 2 O 8 = 2-63, FeO = 3-S2. MgO = 4'36. 
CaO=4-90, Na 2 O = 3-55, K 2 O = 2-8o, H 2 = 1-52, TiOa = o-6o, P 2 O 6 = 
0-22, total 99-22%. All the other constituents occur only in very 
small quantities, usually much less than I %. 

These oxides do not combine in a haphazard 
way. The potash and soda, for example, with a 
sufficient amount of alumina and silica, combine to 
produce felspars. In some cases they may take 
other forms, such as nepheline, leucite and mus- 
covite, but in the great majority of instances they 
are found as felspar. The phosphoric acid with 
lime forms apatite. The titanium dioxide with 
ferrous oxide gives rise to ilmenite. Part of the 
lime forms lime felspar. Magnesia and iron oxides 
with silica crystallize as olivine or enstatite, or with 
alumina and lime form the complex ferro-magnesian 
silicates of which the pyroxenes, amphiboles and 
biotites are the chief. Any excess of silica above 
what is required to neutralize the bases will 
separate out as quartz; excess of alumina crystal- 
lizes as corundum. These must be regarded only as 
general tendencies, which are modified by physical 
conditions in a manner not as yet understood. 
It is possible by inspection of a rock analysis to 
say approximately what minerals the rock will contain, but there 
are numerous exceptions to any rule which can be laid down. 

Hence we may say that except in acid or siliceous rocks containing 
66% of silica and over, quartz will not be abundant. In basic 
Ml ral roc ks (containing 60% silica or less) it is rare and 
Ma- acc |dental. If magnesia and iron be above the average 
tlon while silica is low olivine may be expected; where silica 

is present in greater quantity other ferro-magnesian 
minerals, such as augite, hornblende, enstatite or biotite, occur 
rather than olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively 
low leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur with 
free quartz. Nepheline, likewise, is usually found in rocks with 
much soda and comparatively little silica. With high alkalis 
soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may be present. The 
lower the percentage of silica and the alkalis the greater is the 
prevalence of lime felspar as contracted with soda or potash 
felspar. Clarke has calculated the relative abundance of the 
principal rock-forming minerals with the following results: Apatite 
= 0-6, titanium minerals = 1-5, quartz = 12-0, felspars = 59-5, 
biotite = 3-8, hornblende and pyroxene = 1 6- 8, total = 94-2%. 
This, however, can only be a rough approximation. The other 
determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending con- 
solidation, plays on the whole a smaller part, yet is by no means 
negligible, as a few instances will prove. There are certain minerals 
which are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive rocks, e.g. 
microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very rare in plutonic 
masses; many minerals have special peculiarities in microscopic 
character according to whether they crystallized in depth or near 
the surface, e.g. hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some 
curious instances of rocks having the same chemical composition 
but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g. the hornblendite of 
Gran, in Norway, containing only hornblende, has the same com- 
position as some of the camptonites of the same locality which con- 
tain felspar and hornblende of a different variety. In this connexion 
we may repeat what has been said above about the corrosion of 
porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and trachytes 
early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be found in great 
numbers partially converted into augite and magnetite. The horn- 
blende and biotite were stable under the pressures and other con- 
ditions which obtained below the surface, but unstable at higher 
levels. In the ground-mass of these rocks augite is almost universally 
present. But the plutonic representatives of the same magma, 
granite and syenite contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly 
than augite. 

Those rocks which contain most silica and on crystallizing yield 

free quartz are erected into a group generally designated the " acid " 

Add rocks. Those again which contain least silica and most 

.--././.magnesia and iron, so that quartz is absent while olivine 

nicrmtiQiaic. tl . . - * . 111*11 I-M 

and Basic is . usually abundant, form the basic group. The 
igneous " intermediate " rocks include those which are character- 
Kocks. i 26 ^ by tne general absence of both quartz and olivine. 
An important subdivision of these contains a very high 
percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and consequently has minerals 
such as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is 
often separated from the others as the " alkali " or " soda " rocks, 



and there is a corresponding series of basic rocks. Lastly a small 
sub-group rich in olivine and without felspar has been called the 
" ultrabasic " rocks. They have very low percentages of silica but 
much iron and magnesia. 

Except these last practically all rocks contain felspars or fels- 
pathoid minerals. In the acid rocks the common felspars are ortho- 
clase, with perthite, microcline, oligoclase, all having much silica 
and alkalis. In the basic rocks labradorite, anorthite and bytownite 
prevail, being rich in lime and poor in silica, potash and soda. 
Augite is the commonest ferro-magnesian of the basic rocks, but 
biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in the acid. 

The rocks which contain leucite or nepheline, either partly or 
wholly replacing felspar are not included in this table. They are 
essentially of intermediate or of basic character. We might in con- 
sequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, &c., 





Acid. 


Intermediate. 


Basic. 


Ultrabasic. 




Quartz 


Little or no Quartz. 






Commonest 
Minerals. 


Orthoclase 
(and Oligo- 
clase), Mica, 




No Quartz 
Plagioclase 
Augite, 


No Felspar 
Augite, 
Hornblende, 


Orthoclase 
Hornblende, 


Plagioclase 
Hornblende, 




Hornblende, 


Augite, 


Augite, 


Olivine. 


Olivine. 




Augite. 


Biotite. 


Biotite. 






Plutonic or~| 












Abyssal}- 


Granite. 


Syenite. 


Diorite. 


Gabbro. 


Peridotite. 


type. 












Intrusive orT 
Hypabys- > 
sal type. 


Quartz- 
porphyry. 


Orthoclase- 
porphyry. 


Porphyrite. 


Dolerite. 


Picrite. 


Lavas or] 












E ff usi ve > 
type. J 


Rhyolite, 
Obsidian. 


Trachyte. 


Andesite. 


Basalt. 


Limburgite. 



in which felspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many 
transitions between syenites cf ordinary type and nepheline or 
leucite syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or 
essexite. But as many minerals develop in these " alkali " rocks 
which are uncommon elsewhere, it is convenient in a purely formal 
classification like that which is outlined here to treat the whole 
assemblage as a distinct series. 

Nepheline and Leucite-bearing Rocks. 



Commonest 
Minerals. 


Alkali Felspar, 
Nepheline or Leu- 
cite, Augite.Horn- 
blende, Biotite. 


Soda Lime Felspar 
Nepheline or Leu- 
cite.Augite, Horn- 
blende (Olivine). 


Nepheline or 
Leucite, Augite, 
Hornblende, 
Olivine. 


Plutonic \ 
type. { 
Intrusive 1 
type. 5 
Effusive ) 
type or [ 
Lavas. ) 


Nepheline-syenite. 
Leucite-syenite. 
Nepheline- 
porphyry. 

Phonolite, 
Leucitophyre. 


Essexite and 
Theralite. 

Tephrite and 
Basanite. 


Ijolite and 
Missourite. 

Nepheline- 
basalt. 
Leucite-basalt 



This classification is based essentially on the mineralogical constitu- 
tion of the igneous rocks. Any chemical distinctions between 
the different groups, though implied, are relegated to a subordinate 
position. It is admittedly artificial but it has grown up with the 
growth of the science and is still adopted as the basis on which 
more minute subdivisions are erected. The subdivisions are by no 
means of equal value. The syenites, for example, and the perido- 
tites, are far less important than the granites, diorites and gabbros. 
Moreover, the effusive andesites do not always correspond to the 
plutonic diorites but partly also to the gabbros. As the different 
kinds of rock, regarded as aggregates of minerals, pass gradually 
into one another, transitional types are very common and are often 
so important as to receive special names. The quartz-syenites and 
nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite, the 
tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzon- 
ites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between 
diorite and gabbro, and so on. 

There is of course a large number of recognized rock species not 
included in the tables given. These are of two kinds, either belong- 
ing to groups which are subdivisions of those enumerated (bearing 
the same relation to them that species do to genera) or rare and 
exceptional rocks that do not fall within any of the main subdivisions 
proposed. The question may be asked When is a rock entitled 
to be recognized as belonging to a distinct species or variety and 
deserving a name for itself? It must, first of all, be proved to 
occur in considerable quantity at some locality, or better still at 
a series of localities or to have been produced from different magmas 
at more than one period of the earth's history. In other words, it 
must not be a mere anomaly. Moreover, it should have a dis- 
tinctive mineral constitution, differing from other rocks, or some- 
thing individual in the characters of its minerals or of its structures. 
It is often surprising how peculiar types of rock, believed at first 



PETROLOGY 



329 



to be unique, turn up with identical features in widely scattered 
regions, alnoite, for example, occurs in Norway, Scotland, Montreal, 
British Columbia, New York and Brazil, tinguaite in Scotland, 
Norway, Brazil, Montana, Portugal, &c. This indicates that 
underlying all the variations in mineralogical, structural and 
chemical properties there are definite relationships which tend to 
repeat themselves, producing the same types whenever the same 
conditions are present. 

Although in former years the view was widely current, especially 
in Germany, that igneous rocks belonging to different geological 
epochs should receive different names, it is now admitted on all 
sides that this cannot be upheld. 

In 1902 a group of American petrographers brought forward 
a proposal to discard all existing classifications of igneous rocks 
and to substitute for them a " quantitative " classification based 
on chemical analysis. They showed how vague and often un- 
scientific was much of the existing terminology and argued that as 
the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most funda- 
mental characteristic it should be elevated to prime position. 
Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution, the 
hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species 
were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis 
is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals 
which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, 
e.g. quartz felspars of various kinds, olivine, akermannite, fels- 
pathoids, magnetite, corundum and so on, and the rocks are divided 
into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these 
minerals to one another. There is no need here to describe the 
minutia of the process adopted as the authors have stated them 
very clearly in their treatise (Quantitative Classification of Igneous 
Rocks, Chicago, 1902), and there is no indication that even in the 
United States it will ever displace the older classifications. 

We can often observe in a series of eruptives belonging to one 
period and a restricted area certain features which distinguish 
Con- them as a whole more or less completely from other 

saagulalty. similar assemblages. Such groups are often said to 
' be consanguineous, and to characterize a definite 
" petrological province. " Excellent examples of this are furnished 
by the Devonian igneous rocks of southern Norway as described by 
Brogger, the Tertiary rocks of the Hebrides (Harker), the Italian 
lavas studied by H. S. Washington. On a larger scale the volcanoes 
which girdle the Pacific (Andes, Cordillera, Japan, &c.), and those 
which occur on the volcanic islands of the Atlantic, show the same 
phenomena. Each of these groups has been formed presumably 
from a single deep-seated magma or source of supply and during 
a period which while necessarily prolonged was not of vast duration 
in a geological sense. 

On the other hand, each of the great suites of eruptive rocks 
which constitute such a petrological province embraces a great 
Differentia- ran g e f types. Prolonged eruptions have in a few 
tloa. cases a somewhat monotonous character, owing to the 

predominance of one kind of rock. Thus the lavas of 
the Hawaiian Islands are mostly basaltic, as are those of Oregon, 
Washington and the Deccan, all of which form geological masses 
of enormous magnitude. But it is more usual to find basalts, 
andesites, trachytes, dacites and many other rocks occurring in 
a single eruptive complex. The process by which a magma splits 
up into a variety of partial products is known as " differentiation." 
Its importance from the standpoint of theoretical petrology is very 
great, but as yet no adequate explanation of it has been offered. 
Differentiation may show itself in two ways. In the first type 
the successive emissions from a volcanic focus may differ consider- 
ably from one another. Thus in the Pentland Hills, near Edinburgh, 
the lavas which are of lower Devonian age, were first basaltic, 
then andesitic, trachytic and dacitic, and finally rhyolitic, and this 
succession was repeated a second time. Yet they all must have 
come from the same focus, or at any rate from a group of foci 
very closely connected with one another. Occasionally it is found 
that the earlier lavas are of intermediate character and that basic 
alternate with acid during the later stages of the volcanic history. 

Not less interesting are those cases in which a single body of 
rock has in consolidation yielded a variety of petrographical types 
often widely divergent. This is best shown by great plutonic 
bosses which may be regarded as having once been vast subterranean 
spaces filled with a nearly homogeneous liquid magma. Cooling 
took place gradually from the outer surfaces where the igneous 
rock was in contact with the surrounding strata. The resultant 
laccolite (Gr. XOKKOS, pit, crater, XWos, stone), stock or boss, may 
be a few hundred yards or many miles in diameter and often 
contains a great diversity of crystalline rocks. Thus peridotite, 
gabbro, diorite, tonalite and granite, are often associated, usually 
in such a way that the more basic are the first-formed and lie nearest 
the external surfaces of the mass. The reverse sequence occurs 
occasionally, the edges being highly acid while the central parts 
consist of more basic rocks. Sometimes the later phases pene- 
trate into and vein the earlier; evidently there has been some 
movement due to temporary increase of pressure when part of the 
laccolite was solid and part still in a liquid state. This links these 
phenomena with those above described where successive emissions 
of different character have proceeded outwards from the focus. 



According to modern views two explanations of these facts art 
possible. Some geologists hold that the different rock facies 
found in association are often due to local absorption of surrounding 
rocks by the molten magma (" assimilation ). Effects of this 
kind are to be expected, and have been clearly proved in many 
places. There is, however, a general reluctance to admit that they 
are of great importance. The nature and succession of the rock 
species do not as a rule show any relation to the sedimentary or 
other materials which may be supposed to have been dissolved; 
and where solution is known to have gone on the products are 
usually of abnormal character and easily distinguishable from the 
common rock types. 

Hence it is generally supposed that differentiation is to be 
ascribed to some physical or chemical processes which lead to the 
splitting up of a magma into dissimilar portions, each of which 
consolidates as a distinct kind of rock. Two factors can be selected 
as probably most potent. One important factor is cooling and 
another is crystallization. According to physico-chemical laws the 
least soluble substances will tend to diffuse towards the cooling 
surfaces (Ludwig-Sorets's principle). This is in accordance with 
the majority of the observed facts and is probably a vera causa of 
differentiation, though what its potency may be is uncertain. As a 
rock solidifies the minerals which crystallize follow one another in 
a more or less well-defined order, the most basic (according to 
Rosenbusch's law) being first to separate out. That in a general 
way the peripheral portions of a laccolite consist mainly o? those 
early basic minerals suggests that the sequence of crystallization 
helps largely in determining the succession (and consequently the 
distribution of rock species in a plutonic complex). Gravity also 
may play apart, for it is proved that in a solution at rest the heaviest 
components will be concentrated towards the base. This must, 
however, be of secondary importance as in laccolites the top portions 
often consist of more basic and heavier varieties of rock than the 
centres. It has also been argued that the earliest minerals being 
heaviest and in any case denser than the fused magma around 
them, will tend to sink by their own weight and to be congregated 
near the bottom of the mass. Electric currents, magnetic attraction 
and convection currents have also been called in to account for the 
phenomena observed. Magmas have also been compared to liquids 
which, when they cool, split up into portions no longer completely 
soluble in one another (liquation hypothesis). Each of these partial 
magmas may dissolve a portion of the others and as the temperature 
falls and the conditions change a range of liquids differing in 
composition may be supposed to arise. 

All igneous magmas contain dissolved gases (steam, carbonic 
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, boric acid, &c.). 
Of these water is the principal, and was formerly believed to have 
percolated downwards from the earth's surface to the heated rocks 
below, but is now generally admitted to be an integral part of the 
magma. Many peculiarities of the structure of the plutonic rocks 
as contrasted with the lavas may reasonably be accounted for by 
the operation of these gases, which were unable to escape as the 
deep-seated masses slowly cooled, while they were promptly given 
up by the superficial effusions. The acid plutonic or Intrusive rocks 
have never been reproduced by laboratory experiments, and the 
only successful attempts to obtain their minerals artificially have 
been those in which special provision was made for the retention 
of the " mineralizing " gases in the crucibles or sealed tubes employed. 
These gases often do not enter into the composition of the rock- 
forming minerals, for most of these are free from water, carbonic 
acid, &c. Hence as crystallization goes on the residual liquor 
must contain an ever-increasing proportion of volatile constituents. 
It is conceivable that in the final stages the still uncrystallized 
part of the magma has more resemblance to a solution of mineral 
matter in superheated steam than to a dry igneous fusion. Quartz, 
for example, is the last mineral to form in a granite. It bears 
much of the stamp of the quartz which we know has been deposited 
from aqueous solution in veins, &c. It is at the same time the most 
infusible of all the common minerals of rocks. Its late formation 
shows that in this case it arose at comparatively low temperatures 
and points clearly to the special importance of the gases of the 
magma as determining the sequence of crystallization. 

When solidification is nearly complete the gases can no longer 
be retained in the rock and make their escape through fissures 
towards the surface. They are powerful agents in attacking the 
minerals of the rocks which they traverse, and instances of their 
operation are found in the kaolinization of granites, tourmaliniza- 
tion and formation of greisen, deposit of quartz veins, stanniferous 
and auriferous veins, apatite veins, and the group of changes 
known as propylitization. 1 These " pneumatolytic " (Gr. icvtvua, 
spirit, vapour, \<>eu>, to loose, dissolve) processes are of the first 
importance in the genesis of many ore deposits. They are a real 
part of the history of the magma itself and constitute the terminal 
phases of the volcanic sequence. 

The complicated succession from basic (or ultrabasic) to acid 
types exemplified in the history of many magmas is reflected with 



1 The term " propylite " (Gr. irptnrv\ov, a gateway) was given 
by Richthofen to a volcanic rock which is supposed to have marked 
a new epoch in volcanic geology (see ANDESITE). 



330 



PETROLOGY 



astonishing completeness in the history of individual products. 

In each class of rock crystallization follows a definite course. The 

first minerals to separate belong to a group known 

c TtfTa as t * ie m ' nor accessories; this includes zircon, apatite, 

sphene. iron oxides; then follow in order olivine, augite, 

hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, felspar (beginning with 

the varieties most rich in lime and ending with those which contain 

most soda), orthoclase, microcline and quartz (with micropegmatite). 

Many exceptions to this rule are known; the same mineral may 

crystallize at two different periods ; two or more minerals may 

crystallize simultaneously or the stages in which they form may 

overlap. But the succession above given holds in the vast majority 

of cases. Expressed in this way: the more basic minerals precede 

the less basic; it is known as Rosenbusch s law. 

Types of Structure. In some rocks there seems to be little tendency 
for the minerals to envelop one another. This is true of many 
gabbros, aplites and granites (PI. Ill, fig. 7). The grains then lie 
side by side, with the faces of the latter moulded on or adapted to 
the more perfect crystalline outlines of the earlier. More commonly 
some closer relationship exists between them. When the smaller 
idiomorphic crystals of the first-formed are scattered irregularly 
through the larger and less perfect crystals of later origin, the 
structure is said to be poikllitic (Gr. irowiXos, many- 
coloured, mottled). A variety of this, known as ophitic 
(PL III, fig. 6), is very characteristic of many dolerites and diabases, 
in which large plates of augite enclose many small laths of plagio- 
clase felspar. Biotite and hornblende frequently enclose felspar 
ophitically; less commonly iron oxides and sphene do so. In peri- 
dotites the " lustre-mottled " structure arises from pyroxene or 
hornblende enveloping olivine in the same manner (PI. Ill, fig. 8). 
In these cases no crystallographic relation exists between the two 
minerals (enclosing and enclosed). 

But often the surrounding mineral has been laid down on the 
surface of the other in such a way that they have certain crystalline 
Parallel f aces or axes parallel to one another. This is known 
Growths. as " parallel growth." It is best seen in zoned crystals 
of plagioclase felspar, which may range in composition 
from anorthite to oligoclase, the more acid layers being deposited 
regularly on the surfaces of the more basic. Biotite and muscovite, 
hornblende and augite, enstatite and diallage, epidote and orthite, 
very frequently are associated in this way. 

When two minerals crystallize simultaneously, they may be 
intergrown in " graphic " fashion. The best example is quartz 
_, .. and orthoclase occurring together as micropegmatite 
(PI. II, figs. 6 and 8). The quartz forms angular 
growths. Patches in the felspar, which though separated have 
the same crystalline orientation and one position of 
extinction, while the felspar on its part behaves in the same way. 
Two porous crystals thus interpenetrate but the scattered parts of 
each mineral maintain their connexion with the others. There 
may be also a definite relation between the crystalline axes of the 
two crystals, though this is not known in all cases. Augite also 
occurs in graphic intergrpwth with hornblende, olivine and felspar; 
and hornblende, cordierite, epidote and biotite in graphic inter- 
growth with quartz. 

Physical Chemistry of Igneous Rocks. The great advances that 
have been made in recent years in our knowledge of physical 
chemistry have very important bearings on petrological investiga- 
tions. Especially in the study of the genesis of igneous rocks we 
anticipate that by this means much light will be thrown on problems 
which are now very obscure and a complete revolution in our ideas 
of the conditions which affect crystallization may yet be the con- 
sequence. Already many important results have been gleaned. 
As yet little work of an exact and quantitative nature has been 
done on actual rocks or on mixtures resembling them in composition, 
but at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, an elaborate series 
of experiments in the synthesis of minerals and the properties of 
mixtures of these is being carried on, with all the refinements 
which modern science can suggest. The work of Doelter and of 
Vogt may also be mentioned in this connexion. At the same time 
the mathematical theory of the physical processes involved has 
received much attention, and serves both to direct and to elucidate 
the experimental work. ' 

A fused mixture of two minerals may be regarded as a solution 
of one on the other. If such a solution be cooled down, crystalliza- 
tion will generally set in and if the two components be 
independent (or do not form mixed crystals) one of 
' them may be expected to start crystallizing. On further 
cooling, more of this mineral will separate out till at last a residue 
is left which contains the two components in definite proportions. 
This mixture, which is known as the eutectic mixture, has the lowest 
melting-point of any which can be formed from these minerals. 
If heat be still abstracted the eutectic will consolidate as a whole; 
its two mineral components will crystallize simultaneously. At 
any giyen pressure the composition of the eutectic mixture in such 
a case is always the same. 

Similarly, if there be three independent components (none of 
which forms mixed crystals with the others), according to their 
relative amounts and to the composition of the eutectic mixture 
one will begin to crystallize; then another will make its appearance 



in solid form, and when the excess of these has been removed, the 
ternary eutectic (that mixture of the three which has the lowest 
melting-point) will be produced and crystallization of all three 
components will go on simultaneously. 

These processes have without doubt a very close analogy to 
the formation of igneous rocks. Thus in certain felsites or por- 
phyries which may be considered as being essentially mixtures of 
quartz and felspar, a certain amount of quartz has crystallized out 
at an early period in the form of well-shaped porphyritic crystals, 
and thereafter the remainder of the rock has solidified as a very 
fine-grained, cryptocrystalline or sometimes micrographic ground- 
mass which consists of quartz and felspar in intimate intermixture. 
The latter closely resembles a eutectic, and chemical studies have 
proved that within somewhat narrow limits the composition of 
these felsitic ground-masses is constant. 

But the comparison must not be pushed too far, as there are 
always other components than quartz and felspar (apatite, zircon, 
biotite and iron oxides being the most common), and in rocks of 
this type the gases dissolved in the magma play a very important 
part. As crystallization goes on, these gases are set free and their 
pressure must increase to some extent. Moreover, the felspar is 
not one mineral but two or perhaps three, there being always soda 
felspar and potash felspar and usually also a small amount of lime 
felspar in these porphyries. 

In a typical basic rock the conditions are even more complex. 
A dolerite, for example, usually contains, as its last products of 
crystallization, pyroxene and felspar. Of these the latter consists 
of three distinct species, the former of an unknown number; and in 
each case they can form mixed crystals, to a greater or less extent 
with one another. From these considerations it will be clear that the 
properties of solutions of two or three independent components, do 
not necessarily explain the process of crystallization in any igneous 
rock. 

Very frequently in porphyries not only quartz but felspar also 
is present in large well-formed early crystals. Similarly in basalts, 
augite and felspar may appear both as phenocrysts and as com- 
ponents of the ground-mass. As an explanation of this it has been 
suggested that supersaturation has taken place. We may suppose 
that the augite which was in excess of the proportion necessary to 
form the felspar-augite, eutectic mixture, first separated out. When 
the remaining solution reached the eutectic composition the felspar 
did not at once start crystallizing, perhaps because nuclei are 
necessary to initiate crystal-growth and these were not at hand; 
augite went on crystallizing while felspar lagged behind. Then 
felspar began and as the mixture was now supersaturated with that 
mineral a considerable amount of it was rapidly thrown out of the 
solution. At the same time there would be a tendency for part of 
the augite, already crystallized, to be dissolved and its crystals 
would be corroded, losing their sharp and perfect edges, as is often 
observed in rocks of this group. When the necessary adjustments 
had been made the eutectic mixture would be established and 
thereafter the two minerals would consolidate simultaneously (or 
nearly so) till crystallization was complete. 

There is a good deal of evidence to show that supersaturation 
is not unimportant in igneous magmas. The frequency with which 
they form glasses proves that under certain conditions the molten 
rocks are highly viscous. Much will depend also on the presence, 
accidental or otherwise, of nuclei on which a mineral substance 
can be deposited. It is known that minerals differ in their tendency 
to crystallize, some doing so very readily while others are slow and 
backward. The rate at which crystallization goes on depends on 
many factors, and there are remarkable differences in this respect 
between minerals. 

On the other hand, there is plenty of evidence to show that 
supersaturation, though probably one of the causes, is not the prin- 
cipal cause of the appearance of more than one mineral in two 
generations of crystals. In some of the quartz-porphyries, for 
example, there are phenocrysts not only of quartz and felspar but 
also of micropegmatite. These prove that quartz and felspar were 
not crystallizing successively or alternately but simultaneously. 

The great majority of the minerals found in igneous rocks are not 
of simple composition, but are mixtures of various elementary 
minerals in very different proportions. This enormously compli- 
cates the theoretical problems of consolidation. It has been found, 
for example, that in the case of three minerals one of which is 
independent, while the two others can form mixed crystals there 
is a large number of possible sequences; and, what is very important, 
one mineral may separate out entirely at an early stage, or its 
crystallization may be interrupted and not continuous. The 
ternary eutectic, which is produced by a mixture of three independent 
minerals, may not in such a case be the last substance to crystallize, 
and may not be present at all. This is very much in accordance 
with the observed facts of petrology; for usually in a rock there is 
one mineral which indubitably was the last of all to finish crystal- 
lizing and contained no appreciable quantity of the others. 

As yet we know little about such important questions as the 
composition of the eutectic mixtures of rock-minerals, their latent 
heat of fusion, specific heats, mutual solubilities, inversion tempera- 
tures, &c. Until we are in possession of a large body of accurate 
information on such points as these the theoretical treatment of 



PETROLOGY 



the processes involved in the formation of igneous rocks cannot be 
successfully handled. But every day sees an increase in the amount 
of data available, and encourages us to believe that sooner or later 
some of the simpler igneous rocks at any rate will be completely 
explicable on physico-chemical principles. 

Rock masses of igneous origin have no sooner consolidated than 
they begin to change. The gases with which the magma is charged 

are slowly dissipated, lava-flows cften remain hot and 

steaming for many years. These gases attack the com- 
vo n c ponents of the rock and deposit new minerals in cavities 

and fissures. The beautiful zeolites, so well known to 
collectors of minerals, are largely of this origin. Even before 
these " post-volcanic " processes have ceased atmospheric decom- 
position begins. Rain, frost, carbonic acid, oxygen and other 
agents operate continuously, and do not cease till the whole mass 
has crumbled down and most of its ingredients have been resolved 
into new products. In the classification of rocks these secondary 
changes are generally considered unessential; rocks are classified 
and described as if they were ideally fresh, though this is rarely 
the case in nature. 

Epigenitic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under 

a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks 

.or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than 

ary one of these alterations will be found in progress in the 

same rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals 
by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in acid 
rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, &c. Kaolini- 
zation is the decomposition of the felspars, which are the commonest 
minerals of igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz, muscovite, 
&c.); it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinization 
is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is 
typical of peridotites, but occurs in most of the basic rocks. In 
uralitization secondary hornblende replaces augite; this occurs 
very generally in diabases; chloritization is the alteration of augite 
(biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases, 
diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of 
this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite, 
hornblende, augite or plagioclase felspar. 

The sedimentary rocks, which constitute the second great group, 
have many points in common that distinguish them from the 
igneous and the metamorphic. They have all originated on 
the surface of the earth, and at the period of their formation 
were exposed only to the temperature of the air and to atmo- 
spheric pressure (or the pressures which exist at the bottoms of 
seas and lakes) . Their minerals are in most cases not susceptible 
to change when exposed to moist air or sea, and many of them 
are hydrated (chlorite, micas, &c.), or oxidized (iron ores), or 
contain carbonic acid (calcite, dolomite). The extent, however, 
to which this is the case depends largely on the rapidity with 
which they have accumulated; coarse rocks quickly piled up 
often consist of materials only partly weathered. When 
crystalline, the sedimentary rocks are usually soluble at low 
temperatures. The members of this group occur in beds or 
strata, hence they are often known as the stratified rocks; the 
upper beds are always of later formation than those which 
underlie them, except (as may happen when great disturbance 
has taken place) the whole series is inverted or overturned. 
Many of the stratified rocks have been formed by the agency of 
moving water (rivers, currents, &c.) and are grouped together 
as " aqueous " rocks; others have been deposited by the wind 
in deserts, on sandy beaches, &c. (these are " aeolian "). 
Others are the remains of animals or of plants, modified by the 
action of time, pressure and percolating water. Lastly, we find 
beds of crystalline nature, such as rock-salt and gypsum, which 
have been formed by the desiccation of saline waters; other 
crystalline stratified rocks, such as dolomite and many bedded 
iron-stones, are replacement products due to the introduction 
of mineral matter in solution, which replaced the original rock 
mass partially or wholly. 

When the rocks exposed at the earth's surface give way before 
the attack of the agencies of denudation, they crumble down and 
are resolved into two parts. One of these consists of solid material 
(sand, clay and angular debris) insoluble in carbonated waters; 
the other part is dissolved and washed away. The undissolved 
residues, when they finally come to rest, form clastic sedimentary 
rocks (sandstone, conglomerate, shale, &c.). The dissolved por- 
tions are partly transferred to the sea, where they help to increase 
its store of salts, and may again be precipitated as crystalline 
sedimentary rocks; but they are also made use of by plants and 
by animals to form their skeletal and vital tissues. From this 
latter portion the rocks of organic origin are built up. These 



may also contain certain ingredients derived from the atmosphere 
(nitrogen, carbon in coals, &c.). 

We have thus three types of sediments of distinct origin, which 
may be named the clastic (or fragmental), the.crystalline and the 
organic. 

The clastic materials may accumulate in situ, and then differ 
chiefly in their disintegrated and weathered state from the parent 
rock masses on which they rest. The best example of . , fc 
these are the soils, but in elevated regions angular broken 
rock often covers large areas. More usually they are transported 
by wind or water, and become sorted out according to their size 
and density. The coarsest debris comes first to rest and is least 
worn and weathered; it includes screes, gravels, coarse sands, &c., 
and consolidates as conglomerates, breccias and pebbly grits. The 
bedding of these rocks is rudimentary and imperfect, and as each 
bed is traced along its outcrop it frequently changes its character 
with the strata on which it rests. The most finely divided sediment 
travels farthest, and is laid down in thin uniform sheets of wide 
extent. It is known as mud and clay; around the shores of our 
continents, at distances of a hundred miles and more from land, great 
sheets of mud are spread over the ocean floors. This mud contains 
minute particles of quartz and of felspar, but consists essentially 
of finely divided scaly minerals, which by their small size and flat 
shape tend to remain suspended in water for a very long time. 
Chlorite, white micas and kaolin are the best examples of this class 
of substances. Wind action is even more effective than water in 
separating and removing these fine particles. They to a very large 
extent escape mechanical attrition, because they are transported in 
suspension and are not swept along the ground or the bottom of the 
sea; hence they are mostly angular. Fragments of intermediate 
magnitudes (from rfo of an inch to 5 of an inch) are classed as 
sands. They consist largely of quartz, because it does not weather 
into scaly minerals like felspar, and having but a poor cleavage 
does not split up into flakes like mica or chlorite. These quartz 
grains have been rolled along and are usually rounded and worn 
(PI. IV., fig. i). More or less of garnet felspar, tourmaline, zircon, 
rutile, &c., are mixed with the quartz, because these are hard 
minerals not readily decomposed. 

The mechanical sorting by the transporting agencies is usually 
somewhat incomplete, and mixed types of sediment result, such as 
gravels containing sand, or clays with coarser arenaceous particles. 
Moreover, successive layers of deposit may not always be entirely 
similar, and alternations of varying composition may follow one 
another in thin laminae: e.g. laminae of arenaceous material in beds 
of clay and shale. Organic matter is frequently mingled with the 
finer-grained sediments. 

These three types have been named the psephitic (or pebbly; 
Gr. jfiWws, pebble); psammitic (or sandy, Gr. ^d/i/jos, sand), and 
pelitic (or muddy: Gr. mjXAs, mud). 

Two groups of clastic sediments deserve special treatment. 
The pyroclastic (Gr. irOp, fire, and xXaoris, broken) rocks of volcanic 
origin, consist mostly of broken pieces of lava (bombs, ash, &c.) 
(PI. IV. fig. 2), and only accidentally contain other rocks or fossils. 
They are stratified, and may be coarse or fine, but are usually much 
less perfectly sorted out, according to their fineness, than ordinary 
aqueous or aeolian deposits. The glacial clays (boulder clays), 
representing the ground moraines of ancient glacievs and ice sheets, 
are characterized by the very variable size of their ingredients and 
the striated, blunted sub-angular form of the larger rock frag- 
ments. In them stratification is exceptional and fossils are very 
rare. 

The crystalline sedimentary rocks have been deposited from solu- 
tion in water. The commonest types, such as rock-salt, gypsum, 
anhydrite, carnallite, are known to have arisen by the c .... 
evaporation of enclosed saline lakes exposed to a dry 
atmosphere. They occur usually in beds with layers of red clay and 
marl; some limestones have been formed by calcareous waters 
containing carbonate of lime dissolved in an excess of carbonic 
acid; with the escape of the volatile gas the mineral matter is pre- 
cipitated (sinters, Sprudelstein, &c.). Heated waters on cooling 
may yield up part of their dissolved mineral substances; thus sili- 
ceous sinters are produced around geysers and hot springs in many 
parts of the world. There seems no reason to separate from these 
the veinstones which fill the fissures by which these waters rise to 
the surface. They differ from those above enumerated in being 
more perfectly crystallized and in having no definite stratification, 
but only a banding parallel to the more or less vertical walls of the 
fissure. Another subdivision of this class of rocks is due to recrystal- 
lization or crystalline replacement of pre-existing sediments. Thus 
limestones are dolomitized or converted into ironstones, flints and 
cherts, by percolating waters which remove the lime salts and 
substitute for them compounds of iron, magnesia, silicon, and so on. 
This may be considered a kind of metamorphism ; it is generally 
known as metasomatism (q.v.). 

The rocks of organic origin may be due to animals or plants. 
They are of great importance, as limestones and coals belong to 
this group. They are the most fossiliferous of all _ 
rocks; but clastic sediments are often rich in fossils 
though crystalline sediments rarely are. They may be sub- 
divided, according to their dominant components, into calcareous, 



332 



PETROLOGY 



carbonaceous, siliceous, ferruginous, and so on. The calcareous 
organic rocks may consist principally of foraminifera, crinoids, 
corals, brachiopoda, mollusca, polyzoa, &c. Most of them, however! 
contain a mixture of organisms. By crystallization and metaso- 
matic changes they often lose their organic structures ; metamorphism 
of any kind has the same effect. The carbonaceous rocks are 
essentially plant deposits; they include peat, lignite and coal. 
The siliceous organic rocks include radiolarian and diatom oozes; 
in the older formations they occur as radiolarian cherts. Flint 
nodules owe their silica to disseminated fossils of this nature which 
have been dissolved and redeposited by concretionary action. 
Some kinds of siliceous sinter may be produced by organisms in- 
habiting hot silicated waters. Calcareous oolites in the same way 
may have arisen through the agency of minute plants. Bog iron 
ores also may_ be of organic rather than of merely chemical origin. 
The phosphatic rocks so extensively sought after as sources of fertil- 
izing agents for use in agriculture are for the most part of organic 
origin, since they owe their substance to the remains of certain 
varieties of animals which secrete a phosphatic skeleton; but most 
of them no longer show organic structures but have been converted 
into nodular or concretionary forms. 

All sediments are at first in an incoherent condition (e.g. sands, 
clays and gravels, beds of shells, &c.), and in this state they may 
Cemeata- remam f r an indefinite period. Millions of years have 
elapsed since some of the early Tertiary strata gathered 
on the ocean floor, yet they are quite friable {e.g. the 
London Clay) and differ little from many recent accumulations. 
There are few exceptions, however, to the rule that with increasing 
age sedimentary rocks become more and more indurated, and 
the older they are the more likely it is that they will have 
the firm consistency generally implied in the term " rock." The 
pressure of newer sediments on underlying masses is apparently 
one cause of this change, though not in itself a very powerful 
one. More efficiency is generally ascribed to the action of 
percolating water, which takes up certain soluble materials and 
redeposits them in pores and cavities. This operation is probably 
accelerated by the increased pressure produced by superincumbent 
masses, and to some extent also by the rise of temperature which 
inevitably takes place in rocks buried to some depth beneath 
the surface. The rise of temperature, however, is never very 
great; we know more than one instance of sedimentary deposits 
which have been buried beneath four or five miles of similar strata 
(e.g. parts of the Old Red Sandstone), yet no perceptible difference 
in condition can be made out between beds of similar composi- 
tion at the top of the series and near its base. The redeposited 
cementing material is most commonly calcareous or siliceous. 
Limestones, which were originally a loose accumulation of shells, 
corals, &c., become compacted into firm rock in this manner; and 
the process often takes place with surprising ease, as for example 
in the deeper parts of coral reefs, or even in wind-blown masses of 
shelly sand exposed merely to the action of rain. The cementing 
substance may be regularly deposited in crystalline continuity on 
the original grains, where these were crystalline; and even in sand- 
stones (such as Kentish Rag) a crystalline matrix of calcite often 
envelopes the sand grains. The change of aragonite to calcite and of 
calcite to dolomite, by forming new crystalline masses in the 
jnterior of the rock, usually also accelerates consolidation. Silica 
is less easily soluble in ordinary waters, but even this ingredient 
of rocks is dissolved and redeposited with great frequency. Many 
sandstones are held together by an infinitesimal amount of colloid 
or cryptocrystalline silica; when freshly dug from the quarry they 
are soft and easily trimmed, but after exposure to the air for some 
time they become much harder, as their siliceous cement sets and 
passes into a rigid condition. Others contain fine scales of kaolin 
or of mica. Argillaceous materials may be compacted by mere 
pressure, like graphite and other scaly minerals. Oxides and 
carbonates of iron play a large part in many sedimentary rocks and 
are especially important as colouring matters. The red sands and 
Coloration ''n 16510 " 68 ' f r example, which are so abundant, contain 
' small amounts of ferric oxide (haematite), which in a 
finely divided state gives a red hue of all rocks in which it is 

C resent. Limonite, on the other hand, makes rocks yellow or 
rown; oxides of manganese, asphalt and other carbonaceous 
substances are the cause of the black colour of many sediments. 
Bluish tints result sometimes from the presence of phosphates or of 
fluorspar; while green is most frequently seen in rocks which contain 
glauconite or chlorite. 

Metamorphic Rocks. The metamorphic rocks, which form the 
third great subdivision, are even more varied than the igneous 
and the sedimentary. They include representatives of nearly 
all kinds of the other two classes, their common characteristic 
being that they have all undergone considerable alterations in 
structure or in mineral composition. The agencies of meta- 
morphism (q.v.) are of two kinds thermal and regional. In the 
former case contact with intrusive igneous masses, such as 
granite, laccolites or dikes, have indurated and recrystallized 
the original rock. In the second case the actions are more 



complex and less clearly understood; it is evident that pressure 
and interstitial movement have had a powerful influence, 
possibly assisted by rise of temperature. In thermal or contact 
alteration the rocks are baked, indurated, and often in large 
measure recrystallized. In regional metamorphism recrystal- 
lization also goes on, but the final products are usually schists 
and gneisses. It is as a rule not difficult to distinguish the 
two classes of metamorphic rocks at a glance, and they may 
conveniently be considered separately. 

When a rock is contact altered by an igneous intrusion it very 
frequently becomes harder, more crystalline and more lustrous, 
owing to the development of many small crystals in its 
mass. Many altered rocks of this type were formerly rhern ">- 
called hornstones, and the term hornfelses (Ger. me<ara< "- 
Hornfels) is often used by geologists to signify those pnlsm - 
fine grained, compact, crystalline products of thermal metamor- 
phism. A shale becomes a dark argillaceous hornfels, full of tiny 
plates of brownish biotite; a marl or impure limestone changes to 
a grey, yellow or greenish lime-silicate-hornfels, tough and splintery, 
with abundance of augite, garnet, wollastonite and other minerals 
in which lime is an important component. A diabase or andesite 
becomes a diabase hornfels or andesite hornfels with a large 
development of new hornblende and biotite and a partial recrystal- 
lization of the original felspar. A chert or fiint becomes a finely 
crystalline quartz rock; sandstones lose their clastic structure and 
are converted into a mosaic of small close-fitting grains of quartz. 

If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a 
laminated sandstone or a foliated calc-schist) this character may not 
be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product ; fossils even may 
have their shapes preserved, though entirely recrystallized, and in 
many contact altered lavas the steam cavities are still visible, though 
their contents have usually entered into new combinations to form 
minerals which were not originally present. The minute structures, 
however, disappear, often completely, if the thermal alteration is very 
profound; thus small grains of quartz in a shale are lost or blend 
with the surrounding particles of clay, and the fine ground-mass of 
lavas is entirely reconstructed. 

By recrystallization in this manner peculiar rocks of very distinct 
types are often produced. Thus shales may pass into cordierite 
rocks, or may show large crystals of andalusite (and chiastolite, 
PI. IV., fig. 9), staurolite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite. A consider- 
able amount of mica (both muscovite and biotite) is simultaneously 
formed, and the resulting product has a close resemblance to many 
kinds of schist. Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely 
crystalline marbles (PI. IV., fig. 4); but if there was an admixture 
of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as garnet, epidote, 
idocrase, wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when greatly 
heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear 
grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not 
so commonly seen in igneous rocks, possibly because their minerals, 
being formed at high temperatures, are not so easily transformed or 
recrystallized. 

In a few cases rocks are fused and in the dark glassy product 
minute crystals of spinel, sillimanite and cordierite may separate 
out. _ Shales are occasionally thus altered by basalt dikes, and fels- 
pathic sandstones may be completely vitrified. Similar changes 
may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams or even by 
an ordinary furnace. 

There is also a tendency for interfusion of the igneous with the 
sedimentary rock. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or 
pieces of basalt. In that case hybrid rocks arise which have not 
the characters of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Such effects 
are scarce and are usually easily recognized. Sometimes an invading 
granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints 
and planes of bedding, &c., with threads of quartz and felspar. 
This is very exceptional, but instances of it are known and it may 
take place on a large scale. 

The other type of metamorphism is often said to be regional; 
sometimes it is called dynamic, but these terms have not strictly 
the same connotation. It may be said as a rule to make 
the rock more crystalline and at the same time to give 
it a foliated, schistose or gneissic structure. This latter 
consists in a definite arrangement ot the minerals, so that 
such as are platy or prismatic (e.g. mica and hornblende, which are 
very common in these rocks) have their longest axes arranged parallel 
:o one another. For that reason many of these rocks split readily 
n one direction (schists). The minerals also tend to aggregate 
n bands; thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist, 
very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral. These seams 
are called folia (leaflets), and though never very pure or very persis- 
tent they give the rock a streaked or banded character when they 
are seen edgewise (PI. IV. figs. 6, 7, 8). Along the folia composed of 
:he soft or fissile minerals the rocks will sever most readily, and the 
Teshly split specimen will appear to be faced or coated with this 
nineral; for example, a piece of mica schist looked at face wise might 
36 supposed to consist entirely of shining scales of mica. On the 
edge of the specimen, however, the v/hite folia of granular quartz 



PETROLOGY 





FIG. i. PHONOLITE, TEPLITZER 
SCHLOSSBERG, BOHEMIA (x 12). 

The large white crystal is felspar, the 
smaller ones are nepheline having six-sided 
and four-sided sections. The dark mineral 
in the ground-mass is aegirine. 



FIG. 2. LEUCITOPHYRE, RIEDEN, 
EIFFEL, GERMANY (x 15). 

A porphyritic clear crystal of leucite lies 
near the centre of the field; towards the 
margins are nosean crystals with clear centres 
and broad black edges. The black spots are 
aegirine and aegirine-augite, and in the 
ground-mass small prisms of white nepheline 
may be seen. 




FIG. 3. LEUCITE-BASANITE.VESUVIUS 

(x8). 

The rounded central crystal is leucite, 
showing zones of inclusions and well-marked 
cracks; below it is a dark-brown augite, and 
olivine occurs near the bottom of the field. 
There are numerous rectangular white sections 
of plagioclase felspar. The dark ground- 
mass is partly vitreous. 




FIG. 4.-HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE, 
ALWYN, CHEVIOTS, ENGLAND 
(x 10). 

A porphyritic rock with phenocrysts of 
white plagioclase felspar and of pale-brown 
augite and hypersthene in a fine ground-mass, 
partly glassy. 




FIG. 5 OLIVINE-BASALT, CRAIG- 
LOCKHART, EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND 
(x 10). 

Two large crystals of augite above and 
below, and of olivine (right and left) lie in a 
crystalline ground-mass of plagioclase fel- 
spar, augite, and magnetite. The olivine has 
been altered to fibrous green serpentine, and 
the pseudomorphs show traces of the original 
cleavage cracks. 




FIG. 6. OPHITIC OLIVINE-DOLERITE, 
DUN FION, ARRAN, SCOTLAND. 

The white mineral is plagioclase felspar, 
which penetrates a large dark crystal of 
augite in ophitic manner. At the bottom of 
the field there are a few grains of olivine, 
colourless, but with strongly marked cracks. 





FIG. 7. OLIVINE-GABBRO, VOLPERS- 
DORF, SILESIA (x 10). 

Felspar occurs towards the edges of the 
field and surrounds a cluster of diallage (with 
strong, dark, parallel lamination) and of oli- 
vine (covered with a black network of second- 
ary magnetite). 

XXI. 332. 



FIG. 8. PERIDOTITE, ELBA (x 10). 

The rounded crystals are olivine, weathering 
as usual to magnetite and serpentine along its 
cracks and borders. The dark interstitial 
substance is enstatite weathered to bastite. 




FIG. 9. SERPENTINE, COLMONELL, 
AYRSHIRE, SCOTLAND (x 12). 

In this rock the process of serrjentinization, 
seen in the previous figure, is complete. 
No olivine remains, but a meshwork of 
magnetite indicates the position of the cracks 
in the original crystals. The cloudy, dark 
streak above the centre is bastite replacing 
primary enstatite. 




PETROLOGY 





FIG. i. PEBBLY GRIT, BANFF. SCOT- 
LAND (X 12). 

The white pebbles are quartz with irregular 
cracks and streaks of fluid inclusions. The 
matrix is a dark, semi-opaque mixture of clay 
and small sand-grains. 



FIG. 2 VOLCANIC TUFF, ARTHUR'S 
SEAT, EDINBURGH (x8). 

A fragmental volcanic rock with small 
lapilli of basalt; these are vesicular and 
contain little felspar crystals. Broken fel- 
spars also lie scattered through the rock. 



FIG. 3. CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE (CAR- 
BONIFEROUS), CLIFTON, NEAR 
BATH, ENGLAND (x 10). 

The oolitic grains are round or oval, with 
concentric zoning; in their interior there is 
sometimes a shell fragment or other nucleus. 
The interstitial matrix is clear, granular, 
crystalline calcite. The rock contains frag- 
ments of echinoderms, brachiopods, and other 
fossils. 






FIG. 4. MARBLE, CARRARA, ITALY 

(x 8). 

A section of well-known statuary marble 
which consists entirely of calcite in small 
irregular crystals closely fitted together. 



FIG. 5. OOLITIC CHERT (CAMBRIAN), 
SUTHERLANDSHIRE, SCOTLAND 

(x 15)- 

This has been once an oolitic limestone, but 
the calcite has been entirely replaced by silica 
with perfect preservation of the oolitic 
structure. 



FIG. 6. MYLONITE DURNESS, 
SUTHERLANDSHIRE (x 8). 

This well-banded rock was once a crystalline 
gneiss which has been greatly crushed by 
earth-movements, and has been ground down 
into a fine aggregate of quartz, felspar, and 
mica. The banding is due to internal flow 
under great pressure. 




FIG. 7. SLATE, WADEBRIDGE, CORN- 
WALL (x 20). 

A fine-grained clay rock with small clear 
spots of quartz and minute scales of mica, 
chlorite, &c. The parallel arrangement of the 
latter is the cause of cleavage. Obscure dark 
lines cut across the rock and indicate the 
development of a secondary cross-cleavage or 
slip-cleavage. 





FIG. 8. MICA-SCHIST, BLAIR-ATHOLL, 
PERTHSHIRE, SCOTLAND (X32). 

A clay rock like the preceding one, but more 
metamorphic and coarsely crystalline. The 
clear spots are quartz and the bladed mineral 
between them is brown and white mica 
(biotite and muscovite). 



FIG. 9. CHIASTOLITE-SLATE, 
SKIDDAW, CUMBERLAND (x 17). 

A cjay rock affected by contact meta- 
morphism attended bv the production of 
needles of chiastolite, which have in transverse 
section a diamond-shape with dark enclosures 
at their centres and a dark cross radiating to 
their corners. 



PETRONEL PETRONIUS 



333 



will be visible. In gneisses these alternating folia are thicker and 
less regular than in schists; they are often lenticular, dying put 
rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more felspar than schists 
do, and they are tougher and less fissile. Contortion or crumpling 
(PI. IV. fig. 6) of the foliation is by no means uncommon, and then 
the splitting faces are undulose or puckered. The origin of schistosity 
or foliation is not perfectly understood, but it is clear that in many 
cases it is due to pressure, acting in a direction perpendicular to the 
banding, and to interstitial movement or internal flow arranging 
the mineral particles while they are crystallizing. 

Rocks which were originally sedimentary and rocks which were 
undoubtedly igneous are converted into schists and gneisses, and if 
originally of similar composition they may be very difficult to dis- 
tinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great. 
A quartz- porphyry, for example, and a fine felspathic sandstone, 
may both be converted into a grey or pink mica-schist. Usually, 
however, we may distinguish between sedimentary and igneous 
schists and gneisses. Often the metamorphism is progressive, and 
if the whole district occupied by these rocks be searched traces of 
bedding, of clastic structure, unconformability or other evidence 
may be obtained showing that we are dealing with a group of altered 
sediments. In other cases intrusive junctions, chilled edges, con- 
tact alteration or porphyritic structure may prove that in its original 
condition a metamorphic gneiss was an igneous rock. The last 
appeal is often to the chemist, for there are certain rock types which 
occur only as sediments, while others are found only among igneous 
masses, and, however advanced the metamorphism may be, it rarely 
modifies the chemical composition of the mass very greatly. Such 
rocks, for example, as limestones, calc-schists, dolomites, quartzites 
and aluminous shales have very definite chemical characters which 
distinguish them even when completely recrystallized. 

The schists and gneisses are classified according to the minerals 
they consist of, and this depends principally on their chemical 
composition. We have, for example, a group of metamorphic 
limestones, marbles, calc-schists and cipolins, with crystalline 
dolomites; many of these contain silicates such as mica, tremolite, 
diopside, scapolite, quartz and felspar. They are derived from 
calcareous sediments of different degrees of purity. Another group 
is rich in quartz (quartzites, quartz schists and quartzose gneisses), 
with variable amounts of white and black mica, garnet, felspar, 
zoisite and hornblende. These were once sandstones and arenaceous 
rocks. The graphitic schists may readily be believed to represent 
sediments once containing coaly matter or plant remains; there 
are also schistose ironstones (haematite-schists), but metamorphic 
beds of salt or gypsum are exceedingly uncommon. Among schists 
of igneous origin we may mention the silky calc-schists, the foliated 
serpentines (once ultrabasic masses rich in plivine), and the white 
mica-schists, porphyroids and banded halleflintas, which have been 
derived from rhyolites, quartz-porphyries and acid tuffs. The 
majority of mica-schists, however, are altered clays and shales, and 
pass into the normal sedimentary rocks through various types of 
phyllite and mica-slates. They are among the most common meta- 
morphic rocks; some of them are graphitic and others calcareous. 
The diversity in appearance and composition is very great, but they 
form a well-defined group not difficult to recognize, from the abun- 
dance of black and white micas and their thin, foliated, schistose 
character. As a special subgroup we have the andalusite-, stauro- 
lite-, kyanite- and sillimanite-scnists, together with the cordierite- 
gneisses, which usually make their appearance in the vicinity of 
gneissose granites, and have presumably been affected by contact 
alteration. The more coarsely foliated gneisses are almost as 
frequent as the mica-schists, and present a great variety of types 
differing in composition and in appearance. They contain quartz, 
one or more varieties of felspar, and usually mica hornblende or 
augite, often garnet, iron oxides, &c. Hence in composition they 
resemble granite, differing principally in their foliated structure. 
Many of them have " augen " or large elliptical crystals, mostly 
felspar but sometimes quartz, which are the crushed remains of 
porphyritic minerals; the foliation of the matrix winds around these 
augen, closing in on each side. Most of these augen gneisses are 
metamorphic granites, but sometimes a conglomerate bed simulates 
a gneiss of this kind rather closely. There are other gneisses, which 
were derived from felspathic sandstones, grits, arkoses and sedi- 
ments of that order; they mostly contain biotite and muscovite, 
but the hornblende and pyroxene gneisses are usually igneous rocks 
allied in composition to the hornblende-granites and quartz-diorites. 
The metamorphic forms of dolerite, basalt and the basic igneous 
rocks generally have a distinctive facies as their pyroxene and olivine 
are replaced by dark green hornblende, with often epidpte, garnet 
and biotite. These rocks have a well developed foliation, as the 
prismatic hornblendes lie side by side in parallel arrangement. The 
majority of amphibolites, hornblende-schists, foliated epidiorites 
and green schists belong to this group. Where they are least 
altered they pass through chloritic schists into sheared diabases, 
flaser gabbros and other rocks in which remains of the original 
igneous minerals and structures occur in greater or less profusion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Most text-books of geology treat of petrology in 
more or less detail (see GEOLOGY: Bibliography). Elementary 
books on petrology include F. H. Hatch, Petrology (5th ed., London, 
1909); L. V. Pirsson, Rocks and Rock-minerals (New York, 1908); 



J. D. Dana, Handbook of Mineralogy and Petrography (i2th ed., 
New York, 1908); A. Harker, Petrology for Students (4th ed., 
Cambridge, 1908); G. A. J. Cole, Aids to Practical Geology 
(6th ed., London, 1909). For rock minerals consult J. P. Iddings, 
Rock Minerals (New York, 1906); A. Johannsen, Determination 
of Rock-forming Minerals (New York, 1908); E. Hussak and 
t. G. Smith, Determination of Rock-forming Minerals (2nd ed., 
New York, 1893) ; N. H. and A. N. Winchell, Optical Mineralogy 
(New York, 1909). On the classification and origin of rocks 
see A. Harker, Natural History of Igneous Rocks (London, 1909); 
J. P. Iddings, Igneous Rocks, (New York, 1909); Cross, Iddings, 
Washington and Pirsson, Quantitative Classification of Igneous 
Rocks (Chicago, 1902); C. Van Hise, Metamorphism (Washington, 
1904); A. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-weathering and Soils (London, 
1897); C. Doelter, Pe.trogenesis (Brunswick, 1906); J. H. L. Vogt, 
Silikatschmelzlosungen (Christiania, 1903); F. Fouque' and A. 
Michel L6vy, Synthese des mineraux et des roches (Paris, 1882). 
The principal authorities on the analysis and chemical composition 
of rocks are J. Roth, Beitrdge zur Petrographie (Berlin, 1873-1884); 
A. Osann, Beitrdge zur chemischen Petrographie (Stuttgart, 1903); 
H. S. Washington, Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks (New 
York, 1904) and Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks (Washington, 
1904); F. W. Clarke, Analyses of Rocks (Washington, 1904); Max 
Dittrich, Anleitung zur Gesteinsanalyse (Leipzig, 1905) ; W. F. Hille- 



brand, Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks (Washington, 1907). 

The great systematic treatises on Petrology are F. Zirkel, 
Lehrbuch der Petrographie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1894, 3 vols.) ; H. Rosen- 
busch, Mikroskopische Physiographie (4th ed., Stuttgart, 1909, 2 vols.) 

Useful German handbooks include: E. Weinschenk, Polarisations- 
mikroskop, Gesteinsbildendc Mineralien and Gesteinskunde (2nd ed., 
Freiburg, 1907, &c.); R. Reinisch, Petrographisches Praktikum (2nd 
ed., Berlin, 1907); H. Rosenbusch, Elemente der Gesteinslehre (3rd 
ed., Stuttgart, 1909); A. Grubenmann, Die krystallinen Schiefer 
(Berlin, 1907) ; F. Loewisson Lessing, Petrographisches Lexikon 
(1893 and 1898, also a Fr. ed., 1901); F. Rinne, Praktische Gesteins- 
kunde (2nd ed., Hanover, 1905). 

The principal French works are E. Jannettaz, Les Roches (3rd 
ed., Paris, 1900) ; F. Fouque' and A. Michel Levy, Mineralogie 
micrographique (Paris, 1 879) ; A. Michel Levy and A. Lacrpix, Les 
Mineraux des roches (Paris, 1 888) ; A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de la 
France (L, II., Paris, 1893); and Les Enclaves des roches truptives 
(Macon, 1893). 

British petrography is the subject of a special work by J. J. H. 
Teall (London, 1888). Much information about rocks is contained 



Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (Stuttgart), Journal of Geology 
(Chicago), &c. (J. S. F.) 

PETRONEL, a i6th or I7th century fire-arm, defined by 
R. Barret (Theorike and Practike of Modern Warres, 1598) as 
a " horseman's peece." It was the fire-arm which developed 
on the one hand into the pistol and on the other into the carbine. 
The name (Fr. petrinel for poitrinal) was given to the weapon 
either because it was fired with the butt resting against the chest 
(poitrine, Lat. pectus) or because it was carried slung from a belt 
across the chest. 

PETRONIUS (G. (P) 1 Petronius Arbiter), Roman writer of 
the Neronian age. His own work, the Salirae, tells us nothing 
directly of his fortunes, position, or even century. Some lines 
of Sidonius Apollinaris refer to him and are often taken to imply 
that he lived and wrote at Marseilles. If, however, we accept 
the identification of this author with the Petronius of Tacitus, 
Nero's courtier, we must suppose either that Marseilles was his 
birthplace or, as is more likely, that Sidonius refers to the novel 
itself and that its scene was partly laid at Marseilles. The chief 
personages of the story are evidently strangers in the towns 
of southern Italy where we find them. Their Greek-sounding 
names (Encolpius, Ascyltos, Giton, &c.) and literary training 
accord with the characteristics of the old Greek colony in the ist 
century A.D. The high position among Latin writers ascribed 
by Sidonius to Petronius, and the mention of him beside 
Menanderby Macrobius, when compared with the absolute silence 
of Quintilian, Juvenal and Martial, seem adverse to the opinion 
that the Satirae was a work of the age of Nero. But Quintih'an 
was concerned with writers who could be turned to use in the 

1 The MSS. of the Salirae give no praenomen. Tacitus's Petronius 
is Gaius, though the elder Pliny and Plutarch call him Titus. The 
name Arbiter, given him by later writers, is not an ordinary cog- 
nomen; it may have been bestowed on him by contemporaries 
from the fact that his judgment was regarded as the criterion of 
good taste. 



334 



PETRONIUS 



education of an orator. The silence of Juvenal and Martial 
may be accidental or it is possible that a work so abnormal in 
form and substance was more highly prized by later generations 
than by the author's contemporaries. 

A comparison of the impression the book gives us of the 
character and genius of its author with the elaborate picture 
of the courtier in Tacitus certainly suggests the identity of the 
two. Tacitus, it is true, mentions no important work as the 
composition of his C. Petronius; such a work as the Satirae he 
may have regarded as beneath that dignity of history which he 
so proudly realized. The care he gives to Petronius's portrait 
perhaps shows that the man enjoyed greater notoriety than was 
due merely to the part he played in history. " He spent his 
days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in 
amusement, by his dissolute life he had become as famous as 
other men by a life of energy, and he was regarded as no ordinary 
profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His reckless 
freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him 
popularity. Yet during his provincial governorship, and later 
when he held the office of consul, he had shown vigour and 
capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious 
indulgence, he became one of the chosen circle of Nero's intimates, 
and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of 
taste (arbiter eleganliae) in connexion with the science of luxurious 
living." 1 Tacitus goes on to say that this excited the jealousy 
of Tigellinus, an accusation followed, and Petronius committed 
suicide in a way that was in keeping with his life and character. 
He selected the slow process of opening veins and having them 
bound up again, whilst he conversed on light and trifling topics 
with his friends. He then dined luxuriously, slept for some 
time, and, so far from adopting the common practice of flattering 
Nero or Tigellinus in his will, wrote and sent under seal to Nero 
a document which professed to give, with the names of his 
partners, a detailed account of the abominations which that 
emperor had practised. 

A fact confirmatory of the general truth of this graphic 
portrait is added by the elder Pliny, who mentions that just 
before his death he destroyed a valuable murrhine vase to 
prevent its falling into the imperial hands. Do the traits of 
this picture agree with that impression of himself which the 
author of the Satirae has left upon his work ? That we possess 
therein part of the document sent to Nero is an impossible 
theory. Our fragments profess to be extracts from the 
fifteenth and sixteenth books of the Satirae: Petronius could 
not have composed one-tenth even of what we have in the time 
in which he is said to have composed his memorial to Nero. 
We may be sure too that the latter was very frank in its language, 
and treated Nero with far greater severity than the Banquet 
treats Trimalchio. On the other hand, it is clear that the creator 
of Trimalchio, Encolpius and Giton had the experience, the 
inclinations and the literary gifts which would enable him to 
describe with forcible mockery the debaucheries of Nero. And 
the impression of his personality does in another respect corre- 
spond closely with the Petronius of the Annals in the union 
of immoral sensualism with a rich vein of cynical humour and 
admirable taste. 

The style of the work, where it does not purposely reproduce 
the solecisms and colloquialisms of the vulgar rich, is of the 
purest Latin of the Silver age. 2 Nor would there be any point 
in the verses on the capture of Troy and the Civil War at any 

1 Ann. xvi. 18. 

2 The false taste in literature and expression fostered by the 
declamationes is condemned by both Persius and Petronius on the 
same grounds. Cf. too Pers. i. 121, hoc ego apertum, hoc ridere meum, 
tarn nil, nulla tibi uendo Iliade with Sat. 52, meum intellegere nulla 
pecunia uendo; Pers. ii. 9, O si ebulliat patruus, praeclarum funus, et 
o si sub rastro crepet argenti miki seria with Sat. 88, Alius donum 
promittit, si propinquum divitem extulerit, alius si thesaurum effoderit 
and 42, homo animam ebulliit; Pers. iv. 26, arat . . . quantum non 
milvus oberral with Sat. 3j,fundos habet qua milvi volant. Both use 
the rare word ba.ro. Animam ebullire occurs in Seneca's Apocolo- 
cyntosis, and the verbal resemblances illustrate perhaps rather the 
common use by both writers of the vulgar style. Cf . for resemblances 
to the style of the younger Seneca and the date of the work in general, 
Studer, Rh. Mus. (1843). 



other era than that in which Nero's Troica and Lucan's Pharsalia 
were fashionable poems. The reciting poet indeed is a feature 
of a later age also, as we learn from Martial and Juvenal. But we 
know from Tacitus that the luxury of the table, so conspicuous in 
Trimalchio's Banquet, fell out of fashion after Nero (Ann. 3. 55). 
Of the work itself there have been preserved 141 sections of a 
narrative, in the main consecutive, although interrupted by 
frequent gaps. The name Satirae, given in the best MSS., 
implies that it belongs to the type to which Varro, imitating 
the Greek Menippus, had given the character of a medley of 
prose and verse composition. But the string of fictitious narra- 
tive by which the medley is held together is something quite 
new in Roman literature. This careless prodigal was so happily 
inspired in his devices for amusing himself as to introduce to 
Rome and thereby transmit to modern times the novel based 
on the ordinary experience of contemporary life 3 the pre- 
cursor of such novels as Gil Blas-a.nd Roderick Random. There 
is no evidence of the existence of a regular plot in the fragments, 
but we find one central figure, Encolpius, who professes to narrate 
his adventures and describe all that he saw and heard, whilst 
allowing various other personages to exhibit their peculiarities 
and express their opinions dramatically. 

The fragment opens with the appearance of the hero, Encolpius, 
who seems to be an itinerant lecturer travelling with a companion 
named Ascyltos and a boy Giton, in a portico of a Greek town, 
in Campania. An admirable lecture on the false taste in literature, 
resulting from the prevailing system of education, is replied to by a 
rival declaimer, Agamemno, who shifts the blame from the teachers 
to the parents. The central personages of the story next go through 
a series of questionable adventures, in the course of which they are 
involved in a charge of robbery. A day or two after they are present 
at a dinner given by a freedman of enormous wealth, Trimalchio, 
who entertained with ostentatious and grotesque extravagance 
a number of men of his own rank but less prosperous. We listen to 
the ordinary talk of the guests about their neighbours, about the 
weather, about the hard times, about the public games, about the 
education of their children. We recognize in an extravagant form 
the same kind of vulgarity and pretension which the satirist of all 
times delights to expose in the illiterate and ostentatious millionaires 
of the age. Next day Encolpius separates from his companions 
in a fit of jealousy, and, after two or three days' sulking and brooding 
on his revenge, enters a picture gallery, where he meets with an old 
poet, who, after talking sensibly on the decay of art and the inferior- 
ity of the painters of the age to the old masters, proceeds to illustrate 
a picture of the capture of Troy by some verses on that theme. This 
ends in those who are walking in the adjoining colonnade driving 
him out with stones. The scene is next on board ship, where 
Encolpius finds he has fallen into the hands of some old enemies. 
They are shipwrecked, and Encolpius, Giton and the old poet get 
to shore in the neighbourhood of Crotona, where, as the inhabitants 
are notorious fortune-hunters, the adventurers set up as men of 
fortune. The fragment ends with a new set of questionable adven- 
tures, in which prominent parts are played by a beautiful enchantress 
named Circe, a priestess of Priapus, and a certain matron who leaves 
them her heirs, but attaches a condition to the inheritance which 
even Encolpius might have shrunk from fulfilling. 4 If we can sup- 
pose the author of this work to have been animated by any other 
motive than the desire to amuse himself, it might be that of convinc- 
ing himself that the world in general was as bad as he was himself. 
Juvenal and Swift are justly regarded as among the very greatest 
of satirists, and their estimate of human nature is perhaps nearly 
as unfavourable as that of Petronius; but their attitude towards 
human degradation is not one of complacent amusement; their 
realism is the realism of disgust, not, like that of Petronius, a realism 
of sympathy. Martial does not gloat over the vices of which he 
writes with cynical frankness. He is perfectly aware that they are 
vices, and that the reproach of them is the worst that can be cast 
on any one. And, further, Martial, with all his faults, is, in his 
affections, his tastes, his relations to others, essentially human, 
friendly, generous, true. There is perhaps not a single sentence 
in Petronius which implies any knowledge of or sympathy with 
the existence of affection, conscience or honour, or even the most 
elementary goodness of heart. 



8 For the whole question of possible predecessors and Petronius's 
relation to the extant Greek romances see W. Schmid, " Der grie- 
chische Roman " in Jahrbiicher fur das klass. Altertum, &c. (1904). 
One would certainly have expected the realistic tendency which 
appears in the New Comedy, the Characters of Theophrastus and 
the Mimes, to have borne this fruit before the first century of our 
era. (W. C. Su.) 

4 Omnes qui in testamento meo legata habent praeter libertos 
meos, hac conditione percipient quae dedi, si corpus meum in partes 
conciderint et astante populo comederint (141). 



PETROPAVLOVSK PETRUCCI 



335 



The work has reached us in so fragmentary and mutilated a shape 
that we may of course altogether have missed the key to it; it may 
have been intended by its author to be a sustained satire, written in 
a vein of reserved and powerful irony, of the type realized in our 
modern Jonathan Wild or Barry Lyndon. Otherwise we must admit 
that, in the entire divorce of intellectual power and insight from any 
element of right human feeling, the work is an exceptional pheno- 
menon in literature. For, as a work of original power, of humorous 
representation, of literary invention and art, the fragment deseryes 
all the admiration which it has received. We recognize the arbiter 
eleganliae in the admirable sense of the remarks scattered through 
it on education, on art, on poetry and on eloquence. There is a true 
feeling of nature in the description of a grove of plane-trees, cypresses 
and pines: 

" Has inter ludebat aquis errantibus amnis 

Spumeus et querulo vexabat rore lapillos." 

And some of the shorter pieces anticipate the terseness and 
elegance of Martial. The long fragment on the Civil War does 
not seem to be written so much with the view of parodying as of 
entering into rivalry with the poem of Lucan. In the epigram 
extemporized by Trimalchio late on in the banquet: 
" Quod non expectes, ex transverse fit 
Et supra nos Fortuna negotia curat, 
Quare da nobis vina Falerna, puer," 

we have probably a more deliberate parody of the style of verses 
produced by the illiterate aspirants to be in the fashion of the day. 
We might conjecture that the chief gift to which Petronius owed 
his social and his literary success was that of humorous mimicry. 
In Trimalchio and his various guests, in the old poet, in the culti- 
vated, depraved and moody Encolpius, in the Chrysis, Quartilla, 
Polyaenis, &c., we recognize in living examples the play of those 
various appetites, passions and tendencies which satirists deal with 
as abstract qualities. Another gift he possesses in a high degree, 
which must have availed him in society as well as in literatute the 
gift of story-telling ; and some of the stories which first appear in the 
Satirae e.g. that of the Matron of Ephesus have enjoyed a great 
reputation in later times. His style, too, is that of an excellent 
talker, who could have discussed questions of taste and literature 
with the most cultivated men of any time as well as amused the most 
dissolute society of any time in their most reckless revels. One 
phrase of his is often quoted by many who have never come upon 
it in its original context, " Horatii curiosa felicitas." 

AUTHORITIES. Until about 1650 only part of the Banquet of 
Trimalchio, with the other fragments of the work, was known. 
The best MS. of this type is a Leiden MS., a copy by Scaliger of one 
which seems to have belonged to Cujacius. Marinus Statilius 
(see, however, Ellis, Journal of Philology, 12, p. 266) discovered at 
Trau in Dalmatia a MS. containing the whole Banquet, which was 
first published at Padua in 1664. 

The important editions are (i) with explanatory notes: Burmann 
(Amsterdam, 1743, with Heinsius's notes), and, of the Cena only, 
Friedlander (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1906) and Lowe (Cambridge, 1904); 
(2) with critical notes: Biicheler (Berlin, 1862, 4th ed., 1904). 
Translations into German in Friedlander's edition (Cena only), 
into French by de Guerle (complete, in Garnier's Bibliotheque) , 
into English in Lowe's edition (Cena only) and Bohn's series (com- 
plete). Lexicon to Petronius by Segebade and Lommatsch (Leip- 
zig, 1898). Criticism, &c., in Haley, " Quaestt. Petron." (Harvard 
Studies, 1891); Collignon, Etude sur Petrone (Paris, 1892); Emile 
Thomas, L'Envers de la societe romaine d'apres Petrone (Paris, 1 892) ; 
H\rze\,Der Dialog, ii. (Leipzig, 1895) ; Tyrrell, , Latin Poetry (London, 
1895); Norden, Antike Kunstprosa i. (Leipzig, 1898); Henderson, 
Life and Principals of the Emperor Nero (London, 1903) ; Dill, Roman 
Society from Nero to MarcusAurelius(London,iC)O5) ; and the various 
histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz, 395 j>qq.). 

S. ; W. 



(W. Y. S. 



C. Su.). 



PETROPAVLOVSK, a town of West Siberia, in the govern- 
ment of Akmolinsk, on the right bank of the Ishim river, and 
on the great Siberian highway, 170 m. by rail W. of Omsk. The 
population, 7850 in 1865, was 21,706 in 1900, of whom one-third 
were Mahommedan Kirghiz. The town carries on an active 
trade in cattle, furs, tea, wool, skins, cottons, woollen stuffs, 
corn, metals, metallic wares and spirits. The small fort of 
Petropavlovsk was founded in 1752, and was the military centre 
of the Ishim line of fortifications. 

PETROPAVLOVSK is also the name of a Russian seaport in Kam- 
chatka, on the eastern shore of the Bay of Avacha, in 53 N. and 158 
44' E. Its harbour, one of the best on the Pacific, is little used, and 
the town consists merely of a few huts with some 400 inhabitants. 
Its naval institutions were transferred to Nikolayevsk after the 
attack of the Anglo French fleet in 1854. 

PETROPOLIS, a city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 
in an elevated valley of the Serra de Estrella, 2634 ft. above 
sea-level and 27 m. N. of the city of Rio de Janeiro, with which 
it is connected by a combined railway and steamship line, and 



also by a longer railway line. Pop. of the municipality (1900), 
20,331, a large percentage being summer residents, as the 
census was taken late in December; (1902, municipal census), 
18,373. Petropolis is served by the Principe do Grao Par! 
railway, now a part of the Leopoldina system , which connects 
with Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy on the coast, and with the 
station of Entre Rios on the Central of Brazil railway. Its 
altitude gives the city a cool invigorating climate, making it 
a favourite summer residence for the well-to-do classes of Rio. 
The rainfall is abundant, and especially so in summer (December 
to March) when the humidity is extreme. Vegetation is luxu- 
riant and comprises a great variety of tropical and sub-tropical 
species. The city is built in a large, irregularly shaped basin 
formed by streams which converge to form the Piabanha river, 
a tributary of the Parahyba do Sul. Among the public 
buildings are the old imperial palace, a modern summer resi- 
dence of the national executive and a municipal hall. Although 
Petropolis is not a commercial centre, its water-power and cool 
climate are making it an important manufacturing town. 
Among the products are cotton fabrics and garments, beer, 
and Camembert and Brie cheeses. 

Petropolis was founded in 1845 by Julius Frederick Koler 
under the auspices of the emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro II., 
on lands purchased by his father, Dom Pedro I., in 1822. The 
place was previously known as Corrego Secco, which Dr George 
Gardner described in 1837 as " a small, miserable village." 
The first emperor planned to establish there a German colony, 
but the plan was not realized until 1845, when about 2700 
colonists from Germany were located there. Its growth was 
slow, but the choice of the place by the emperor as a summer 
residence drew thither many of the wealthy residents of the 
capital. The Maua railway was opened to the foot of the serra 
(Raiz da Serra) in 1854, and the macadamized road up the 
serra to the town in 1856. The mountain section of the railway, 
on the Riggenbach system, was completed in 1883. Petropolis 
has since become the summer residence of the diplomatic 
corps and of the higher officials of the Federal government, and 
was the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro from 1893 to 1903. 

PETROVSK, a seaport of Russia in Transcaucasia, on the 
Caspian Sea, in the province of Daghestan, 180 m. by rail 
E. of Vladikavkaz, and 235 m. N.W. from Baku. Pop. 9806. 
The town has become the port of embarcation for Krasnovodsk, 
the Transcaspian territory, and the Central Asian khanates. 
There are naphtha wells; and the hot sulphur baths at Ak-gol 
and Taiga, close by, attract many visitors in summer. 

PETROVSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government 
of Saratov, on the Medvyeditsa, a tributary of the Don, 60 m. 
N.W. of the town of Saratov. Pop. (1864), 10,128; (1897), 
13,212. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1698 as a 
defence against the Kuban Tatars. Its industrial establishments 
include distilleries, tanneries, tallow and brickworks. 

PETROZAVODSK, a town and episcopal see of Russia, 
capital of the government of Olonets, on the west shore of Lake 
Onega, 190 m. N.E. of St Petersburg. Pop. (1865), 11,027; 
(1897), 12,521. Two cathedrals, built towards the end of the 
1 8th century, a mining school, an ecclesiastical seminary and 
a government cannon-foundry are the chief public buildings 
and institutions. Peter the Great founded ironworks here in 
1703, but they continued in operation only twenty-four years. 
The cannon-foundry was instituted in 1774. Petrozavodsk 
became the capital of the government of Olonets in 1802. 

PETRUCCI, PANDOLFO (d. 1512), tyrant of Siena, spent the 
greater part of his youth in exile, on account of the civil strife by 
which his native town of Siena was torn; but on the triumph of 
the party of the Noveschi (those who supported the Council of 
Nine) in 1487 he was able to return home. On the death of his 
brother Giacopo, one of the most powerful men in the city, 
Pandolfo succeeded to all the latter's offices and emoluments 
(1497), thus becoming in fact if not in name master of Siena. By 
his marriage with Aurelia, daughter of Nicola Borghese, another 
very influential citizen, he still further strengthened his authority. 
But he soon began to abuse his power by selling public offices to 



33 6 



PETRUS AUREOLUS PETTY 



the highest bidders, or conferring them on his followers. A plot 
was made to murder him, but he discovered the conspiracy in 
time, and his own father-in-law, who had been leader of the 
movement, was put to death. In 1498 he prevented the out- 
break of war with Florence over the possession of Montepulciano, 
which had been a bone of contention between the two cities for 
over a hundred years. His attitude towards Cesare Borgia was 
exceedingly astute; at first he assisted him, and obtained from 
him with the favour of the French king the cession of Piombino; 
but having subsequently aroused the suspicions of Borgia, the 
latter attempted to suppress Petrucci by inviting him to the fatal 
meeting of SenigaUia. The Sienese tyrant, however, did not 
fall into the trap, and although Borgia in 1502 obliged him to 
quit Siena, he returned two months later, more powerful than 
before. Petrucci supported Pisa in the war against Florence, but 
eventually, through the intervention of the pope and of the king 
of Spain, he made peace with the latter city, to which he gave 
back Montepulciano in 1512. As a reward for this action 
Pope Julius II. created his nephew cardinal. During his last 
days Petrucci abdicated his authority in favour of his son 
Borghese. He died at San Quirico di Osenna on the 2ist of 
May 1512. 

See Pecci, Memorie storico-critiche di Siena (Siena, 1755) ; U. G. 
Mondolfo, P. Petrucci signore di Siena (Siena, 1899). 

PETRUS AUREOLDS (ORIOL), scholastic philosopher and 
monk of the Franciscan order, lived in the latter half of the i3th 
century, and died in Paris in 1321 just after his appointment as 
archbishop of Aix. He was one of the first to attack the 
realist doctrines of Duns Scotus, and is interesting mainly as the 
precursor of William of Occam in his revival of Nominalism. His 
ability earned for him the titles of Doctor Facundus and Doctor 
Abundans. 

PETTENKOFEN, AUGUST VON (1821-1889), Austrian painter, 
born in Vienna, was brought up on his father's estate in Galicia. 
Having decided to give up the military career on which he had 
started, he devoted himself to painting, taking for his subjects 
the simple scenes of the life on the dreary Puszta. His paintings 
are treasured for their fine qualities of colour, and for the 
sincerity with which the artist sets before us the uneventful 
melancholy life of Hungarian peasants and gipsies without any 
theatrical pathos or forced humour. He was the inventor of the 
Pettenkofen box, an appliance for dissolving and redistributing 
cracked or discoloured varnish without friction or the dangerous 
use of chemicals. He died in Vienna in 1889. 

PETTENKOFER, MAX JOSEPH VON (1818-1901), Bavarian 
chemist and hygienist, was born on the 3rd of December 1818 
at Lichtenheim, near Neuburg. He was a nephew of Franz 
Xaver Pettenkofer (1783-1850), who from 1823 was surgeon and 
apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some 
chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids. He studied 
pharmacy and medicine at Munich, where he graduated M.D. in 
1843, and after working under Liebig at Giessen was appointed 
chemist to the Munich mint in 1845. Two years later he was 
chosen extraordinary professor of chemistry in the medical 
faculty, in 1853 he received the ordinary professorship, and in 
1865 he became also professor of hygiene. In 1894 he retired 
from active work, and on the xoth of February 1901 he shot him- 
self in a fit of depression at his home on the Starnberger See, near 
Munich. In his earlier years he devoted himself to chemistry, 
both theoretical and applied, publishing papers on the prepara- 
tion of gold and platinum, numerical relations between the atomic 
weights of analogous elements, the formation of aventurine 
glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the preser- 
vation of oil-paintings, &c. The reaction known by his name for 
the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely 
used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid 
the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or lime water of 
known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means 
of oxalic acid. But his name is most familiar in connexion with 
his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh 
air and proper sewage disposal. His attention was drawn to this 
subject about 1850 by the unhealthy condition of Munich. 



Pettenkofer gave vigorous expression to his views on hygiene and 
disease in numerous books and papers; he was an editor of the 
Zeitschrift fur Biologic from 1865 to 1882, and of the Archiv fur 
Hygiene from 1883 to 1894. 

PETTICOAT, an underskirt, as part of a woman's dress. The 
petticoat, i.e. " petty-coat " or small coat, was originally a short 
garment for the upper part of the body worn under an outer 
dress; in the Promptorium parvulorum the Latin equivalent is 
tunicula. It was both a man's and a woman's garment, and was 
in the first case worn as a small coat under the doublet, 
and by women apparently as a kind of chemise. It was, 
however, early applied to the skirt worn by women hanging 
from the waist, whether as the principal lower garment or as 
an underskirt. In the middle of the I7th century the wide 
breeches with heavy lace or embroidered ends worn by men 
were known as " petticoat breeches," a term also applied to the 
loose canvas or oilskin overalls worn by fishermen. 

PETTIE, JOHN (1839-1893), Scottish painter, was born in 
Edinburgh on the I7th of March 1839, the son of Alexander 
and Alison Pettie. In 1852 the family removed to East 
Linton, Haddingtonshire, and a portrait by the lad of the 
village carrier and his donkey overcame his father's objections 
to art as a career for his son. When sixteen he entered the 
Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scott 
Lauder with W. Q. Orchardson, J. MacWhirter, W. M'Taggart, 
Peter Graham, Tom Graham and G. P. Chalmers. His first 
exhibits at the Royal Scottish Academy were " A Scene from 
the Fortunes of Nigel " one of the many subjects for which 
he sought inspiration in the novels of Sir Walter Scott and 
two portraits in 1858, followed in 1859 by " The Prison Pet." 
To the Royal Academy in 1860 he sent "The Armourers "; 
and the success of this work and of " What d'ye Lack, 
Madam ? " in the following year, encouraged him to settle in 
London (1862), where he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he was 
elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 received 
full academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landseer. 
His diploma picture was " Jacobites, 1745." Pettie was a hard 
and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high 
order and a brilliant executant. In his early days he produced 
a certain amount of book illustration. His connexion with 
Good Words began in 1861, and was continued till 1864. With 
J. MacWhirter he illustrated The Postman's Bag (Strahan, 
1862), and Wordsworth's Poetry for the Young (Strahan, 1863). 
His principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned, 
are " Cromwell's Saints " (1862); " The Trio " (1863); " George 
Fox refusing to take the Oath " (1864); " A Drumhead Court- 
martial "(1865); "The Arrest for Witchcraft " (1866); "Treason" 
(1867, now in the Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield); " Tussle with a 
Highland Smuggler " (1868); " The Sally " (1870); " Terms to 
the Besieged " (1872); " The Flag of Truce " (1873); " Ho! Ho ! 
Old Noll" and "A State Secret" (1874); "A Sword and Dagger 
Fight" (1877); " The Death Warrant " (1879); " Monmouthand 
James II."(i882); " The Vigil " (1884, in the Chantrey Collec- 
tion, National Gallery of British Art); " Challenged " (1885); 
" The Chieftain's Candlesticks " (1886); " Two Strings to Her 
Bow " (1887); " The Traitor " and " Sir Charles Wyndham as 
David Garrick " (1888); and " The Ultimatum " and " Bonnie 
Prince Charlie " (1892). Pettie died at Hastings on the 2ist 
of February 1893. In 1894 a selection of his work was included 
in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy. His portrait 
by himself is in the Tate Gallery. 

John Pettie, R.A. (London, 1908), by his nephew Martin Hardie, 
gives the story of his life, a catalogue of his pictures, and fifty 
reproductions in colours. 

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687), English statistician and 
political economist, born on the 26th of May 1623, was the son 
of a clothier at Romsey in Hampshire, and received his early 
education at the grammar school there. About the age of 
fifteen he went to Caen (Normandy), taking with him a little 
stock of merchandise, on which he traded, and so maintained 
himself whilst learning French, improving himself in Latin and 
Greek, and studying mathematics and other sciences. On his 
return to England he seems to have had for a short time a place 



PETTY-OFFICER PETWORTH 



337 



in the royal navy. He went abroad again in 1643, and remained 
for three years in France and the Netherlands, pursuing his 
studies. In Paris he read Vesalius with Hobbes, who was then 
preparing his Tractatus opticus, and it is said that Petty drew 
the diagrams for him. In 1647 Petty obtained a patent for the 
invention of double writing, i.e. a copying machine. In politics 
he espoused the side of the parliament. His first publication 
was a letter to Samuel Hartlib in 1648, entitled Advice for the 
Advancement of some Particular Parts of Learning, the object 
of which was to recommend such a change in education as would 
give it a more practical character. In the same year he took 
up his residence at Oxford, where he was made deputy professor 
of anatomy, and where he gave instruction in that science and 
in chemistry. In 1649 he obtained the degree of doctor of physic, 
and was soon after elected a fellow of Brasenose College. He 
gained some notoriety in 1650 by restoring to life a woman who 
had been hanged for infanticide. In 1651 he was made professor 
of anatomy at Oxford, and also became professor of music at 
Gresham College. In 1652 he went to Ireland, having been 
appointed physician to the army in that country. In 1654, 
observing that the admeasurement and division of the lands 
forfeited in 1641 and granted to the soldiers had been " most 
inefficiently and absurdly managed," he entered into a contract 
to execute a fresh survey, which he completed in thirteen 
months. 1 By this he gained 9000, and part of the money he 
invested profitably in the purchase of soldiers' debentures. He 
thus became possessor of so large a domain in the county of 
Kerry that, according to John Aubrey, he could behold from 
Mt Mangerton 50,000 acres of his own land. He set up iron- 
works in that neighbourhood, opened lead-mines and marble- 
quarries, established a pilchard fishery, and commenced a trade 
in timber. Besides the office of commissioner of distribution 
of the lands he had surveyed, he held that of secretary to the 
lord-lieutenant, Henry Cromwell, and was also during two years 
clerk of the council. In January 1658 he was elected to Richard 
Cromwell's parliament as member for West Looe in Cornwall. 
After the Restoration he returned to England and was favourably 
received and knighted by Charles II., who was " much pleased 
with his ingenious discourses," and who, it is said, intended to 
create him earl of Kilmore. He obtained from the king a new 
patent constituting him surveyor-general of Ireland. In 1663 he 
attracted much notice by the success of his invention of a double- 
bottomed ship, which twice made the passage between Dublin 
and Holyhead, but was afterwards lost in a violent storm. He 
was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and sat on 
its council. He died in London on the i6th of December 1687, 
and was buried in the church of his native place. His will, a 
curious and characteristic document, is printed in Chalmers's 
Biographical Dictionary. 

His widow, Elizabeth (d. 1708), daughter of Sir Hardress 
Waller (1604-1666), the Irish Cromwellian soldier and regicide, 
was created Baroness Shelburne by James II. in 1688; and her 
two sons were successively created earls of Shelburne, but on 
their death without issue the Petty estates passed to their 
sister, Anne, and after her marriage to the ist earl of Kerry the 
Shelburne title was revived in her son's favour (see under 
LANSDOWNE, ist MARQUESS). 

Petty's Irish survey was based on a collection of social data 
which entitles him to be considered a real pioneer in the science 
of comparative statistics. He was also one of the first in whom 
we find a tendency to a view of industrial phenomena which was 
at variance with the then dominant mercantilist ideas, and he 
exhibits a statesmanlike sense of the elements in which the 
strength of a nation really consists. Roscher names him as 
having, along with Locke and Dudley North, raised the English 
school to the highest point it attained before the time of Hume. 

1 The survey executed by Petty was, somewhat whimsically, 
called the " Down Survey," because the results were set down in 
maps; it is called by that name in Petty's will. He left in MS. a 
full account of the proceedings in connexion with it, which was 
edited by Sir Thomas A. Larcom for the Irish Archaeological 
Society in 1851. The maps, some of which were injured by a fire 
in 1711, are preserved in the Public Record Office, Dublin. 



His Treatise of Taxes and Contributions contains a clear state- 
ment of the doctrine that price depends on the labour necessary 
for production. Petty is much concerned to discover a fixed 
unit of value, and he thinks he has found it in the necessary 
sustenance of a man for a day. He understands the cheapening 
effect of the division of labour. He states correctly the notion of 
" natural and true " rent as the remainder of the produce of land 
after payment of the cost of production; but he seems to have no 
idea of the " law of diminishing returns." He has much that 
is just on the subject of money: he sees that there may be an 
excess of it as well as a deficiency, and regards the prohibition 
of its exportation as contrary to sound policy. But he errs in 
attributing the fall of the rate of interest which takes place in the 
progress of industry to the increase in the quantity of money. 
He protested against the fetters imposed on the trade of Ireland, 
and advocated a union of that country with Great Britain. 
Whilst the general tendency in his day was to represent England 
as in a state of progressive decline an opinion put forward 
particularly in the tract entitled Britannia languens Petty 
declared her resources and prospects to be not inferior to those 
of France. 

A complete list of his works is given in the Athenae oxonienses. 
The most important are: the Treatise of Taxes and Contributions 
(1662, 1667 and 1685); Political Arithmetic, presented in MS. to 
Charles II., but, because it contained matter likely to be offensive 
to France, kept unpublished till 1691, when it was edited by Petty's 
son Charles; Quantulumcunque, or a Tract concerning Money (1682); 
Observations upon the Dublin Bills ofj Mortality in 1681 and the State 
of that City (1683); Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind 
( 1 686) ; Political A natomy of Ireland (i 69 1 ) . Several papers appeared 
in the Philosophical Transactions. See Economic Writings of Sir 
William Petty, ed. C. H. Hull (2 vols., 1899). 

PETTY-OFFICER, the title in the navy of a large number of 
minor (Fr. petit, small) officers, of less than commissioned or 
warrant rank such as the master-at-arms, sailmaker, caulker, 
armourer, cook, &c. They were originally named, and removable, 
by the captain. 

PETUNIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Solanaceae and containing about 16 species, chiefly 
South American (southern Brazil and Argentina). The garden 
forms are derived from the white-flowered P. nyctaginiflora and 
the violet- or purple-flowered P. violacea. The varieties of 
petunia, especially the double forms, make admirable specimens 
for pot culture. 

Named or specially fine varieties are propagated by cuttings 
taken from stock plants kept through the winter on a dry warm 
shelf, and moved into a brisk moist heat in early spring; the young 
shoots are planted in pans or pots filled with sandy soil, and, aided 
by a brisk bottom heat, strike root in a few days. They are then 
potted singly into thumb-pots, and when once established are 
gradually hardened off, and afterwards repotted as required. The 
shoots should be topped to make bushy plants, and their tops may 
be utilized as cuttings. The single varieties are raised from seeds 
sown in light sandy soil in heat, in the early spring, and very slightly 
covered. The plants need to be pricked out or potted off as soon as 
large enough to handle. Good strains of seeds supply plants suitable 
for bedding; but, as they do not reproduce themselves exactly, any 
sorts particularly required must be propagated, like the double 
ones, from cuttings. 

PETWORTH, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary 
division of Sussex, England, 55 m. S.S.W. from London by 
the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 
2503. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, and contains 
numerous memorials of members of the Percy family and others. 
Petworth House, situated in a beautiful park, dates from the 
i8th century, and contains a magnificent collection of pictures. 
At Bignor in the neighbourhood are remains of an important and 
splendidly adorned Roman villa. 

The first mention of Petworth (Peartingawyrth, Peteorde, 
Puetewird, Pedewurde, Putteworth, Pytteworth, Petteworth) 
occurs in a grant by Eardwulf, king of Northumbria, to St Peter's 
Church, about 791. In the time of Edward the Confessor Petworth 
was an allodial manor held by his queen Edith, and in 1086 Robert 
Fitz-Tetbald held it of Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury. 
It then included a church and a mill, and was rated at nine hides. 
Through Queen Adelisa, Petworth came first into the hands of 



PEUTINGER PEWTER 



her steward, Reginald de Wyndsor, and was afterwards given 
to her brother Josceline, who held it of the honour of Arundel. 
Josceline married Agnes de Percy and assumed the surname of 
Percy. The honour and manor of Petworth followed the descent 
of this family until 1708. In 1377 Henry Percy was created earl 
of Northumberland. The only daughter of the last earl married 
Charles, duke of Somerset, in 1682, and Petworth descended 
through their daughter Catherine to the earls of Egremont. The 
adopted son of the third earl was created Baron Leconfield in 

1859. 

PEUTINGER KONRAD (1465-1547), German humanist and 
antiquarian, was born at Augsburg. In 1497 he was town clerk 
of his native place, and was on intimate terms with the emperor 
Maximilian. He was one of the first to publish Roman inscrip- 
tions, and his name remains associated with the famous Tabula 
peutingeriana (see MAP), a map of the military roads of the 
western Roman Empire, which was discovered by Konrad Celtes, 
who handed it over to Peutinger for publication. Peutinger also 
edited the Historia Gothorum of Jordanes, and the Historia 
gentis Langobardorum of Paulus Diaconus. 

The Tabula peutingeriana was first published as a whole by 
F. de Scheyb (1753); later editions by E. Desjardins (1869- 
1874) and C. Miller (1888); see also E. Paulus, Erkldrung der Peu- 
tinger Tafel (1867); and Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature 
(Eng. trans., 1900). 

PEVENSEY, a village in the Eastbourne parliamentary 
division of Sussex, England, 65 m. S.S.E. from London by the 
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 
468. The village is a member of the Cinque Ports, but the sea 
has receded a mile from it in historic times. The outer wall, 
with solid towers, of the celebrated castle, is of Roman construc- 
tion, and originally enclosed a complete oval; it is generally 
considered to have enclosed the strong town of Anderida. Within 
rise the fine ruins, principally of the i3th century, but in part 
Norman, of the castle proper, with a keep and four massive 
round towers. The church of St Nicholas, close to the castle, 
shows beautiful Early English work. It has been supposed that 
Pevensey was the scene of the landing of Caesar in 55 B.C., but the 
question is disputed. 

The name of Pevensey (Paevenisel, Pevensel, Pevenes, Pemsey) 
first occurs in a grant of land there by the south Saxon Duke 
Berthuald to the abbey of St Denis in 795. In later Saxon times, 
at least by the reign of Edward the Confessor, it was a royal 
borough and had a harbour and a market. Its early importance 
was due to its fencible port. It was the landing place of William 
the Norman on his way to conquer, and was the caput of the rape 
of Pevensey, which was granted by William to the earl of Mortain 
and subsequently became the Honour of the Eagle. Some time 
before the reign of Edward I. the town of Pevensey was made 
a member of Hastings and shared the liberties of the Cinque 
Ports, but apart from them it possesses no charter. It was 
governed by a bailiff and twelve jurats, elected annually, until 
by an act of 1883 it ceased to exist as a borough. Its seal 
dates apparently from the reign of Henry III. The gradual 
decline of Pevensey was complete in the isth century and 
was caused by the recession of the sea and consequent loss of the 
harbour. 

PEW (Mid. Eng. puwe, through O. Fr. puya, pui, mod. puy, 
in the sense of hill, cf. appuyer, to lean against; from Lat. podium, 
a high place, balcony; Gr. TTOOI.OV, pedestal, iroOs, foot), a term, 
in its most usual meaning, for a fixed seat in a church, usually 
enclosed, slightly raised from the floors, and composed of wood 
framing, mostly with ornamented ends. Some bench ends are 
certainly of Decorated character, and some have been considered 
to be of the Early English period. They are sometimes of plain 
oak board, zj to 3 in. thick, chamfered, and with a necking 
and finial generally called a poppy head; others are plainly 
panelled with bold cappings; in others the panels are ornamented 
with tracery or with the linen pattern, and sometimes wkh 
running foliages. The large pews with high enclosures, curtains, 
&c., known familiarly as " horse-boxes," and common in English 
parish churches during the i8th and early part of the igth 
centuries, have nearly all been cleared away. The parish church 



of Whitby, in Yorkshire, is perhaps the best surviving example of 
an unaltered interior. 

The Latin word podium was particularly applied to a balcony 
or parapet next to the arena in the Roman theatre where the emperor 
and other distinguished persons sat. According to Du Cange 
(Glossarium, s.v. podium), it is found in medieval Latin for a 
bench (subsellium) for the minor canons at a church in Lyons (1343), 
and also for a kneeling stool in a monastic church. The word 
" pew " in English was often used for a stall for the minister, for a 
reading desk, or for a pulpit. The floor space of the nave and tran- 
septs of medieval churches was usually open, mats being sometimes 
provided for kneeling, and if any fixed seats were provided these 
would be for the patrons of the church or for distinguished people. 
Some enclosed seats, however, seem to have been reserved for women, 
as is seen in Piers Plowman, ch. vii. 144, " Among wyves and wodewes 
ich am ywoned sitte yparroked in puwes." They did not come into 
general use till the middle of the 15th or beginning of the l6th 
century (see Gasquet, Parish Life in Medieval England, (1906, pp. 62 
and 133). Over the few seats thus allotted dispute arose and 
attempts were made to appropriate them. Thus the constitutions 
for the synod of Exeter, drawn up by Bishop Peter Quivel in 1287, 
forbid any one " to claim any sitting in the church as his own. . . . 
Whoever first comes to pray, let him take what place he wishes in 
which to pray." 

At common law all seats in a parish church are for the common 
use of all the parishioners, and every parishioner has a right to a 
seat without paying for it. The disposition of the seats is in the 
discretion of the churchwardens acting for the ordinary for the 
purpose of orderly arrangement (as to the exercise of this dis- 
cretion see Reynolds v. Monckton, 1841, 2 M. & R. 384), and this 
can be exercised in cases where all the seats are free (Asher v. 
Calcraft, 1887, 18 Q.B.D. 607). The right to a seat does not 
belong to a non-parishioner. As against the assignment and 
disposition of seats by the ordinary, acting through the church- 
wardens, two kinds of appropriation can be set up (a) by the 
grant of a faculty by the ordinary, and (6) by prescription, based 
on the presumption of a lost faculty. Such faculties are rarely 
granted now; they were formerly common; the grant was to a 
man and his family " so long as they remain inhabitants of a 
certain house in the parish "; the words " of a certain house " are 
now usually omitted. The claim to a pew by prescription must 
be in respect of a house in the parish; the right is subject to the 
burden of repairing the pew; it is not an easement, nor does the 
Prescription Act 1832 apply to it (see for the whole subject of a 
claim by prescription Phillips v. Halliday, 1891, A.C. 228). The 
letting of pews in parish churches became common in the i6th 
century, but there are some earlier instances of the use, for 
example at St Ewens, Bristol, in 1455 {Churchwardens' Accounts, 
Sir J. Maclean, Trans. Bristol and Gloucester Archaeol. Assoc., vol. 
xv., 1890-1891). The taking of pew rents in parish churches is 
illegal (Lord Stowell, in Walter v. Gunner, 1798, 3 Hag. Consist. 
817); but under the various Church Building Acts seats may be 
let and rents charged to pay the salary of the minister, &c. 

See A. Heales, History and Law of Church Seats and Pews (1872); 
Phillimore, Eccles. Law (1896), ii. 1424 seq. 

PEWTER, a general name used to denote a number of alloys 
of varfous metals in diverse proportions, the sole common feature 
of which lies in the fact that tin is always the chief constituent. 
The etymology of the word is doubtful, but it is probably an 
English modification of spelter, which was adopted with more or 
less local alteration by the continental European nations, who 
at an early period were eager purchasers of the ware, becoming 
peauler in Dutch, peutre, peaulre or piautre in French, peltro in 
Italian and peltre in Spanish. Roman pewter, the oldest known, 
which has been disinterred at various places in England and 
elsewhere, was composed of tin and lead alone, for the occasional 
traces of iron are believed to be accidental, in proportions which, 
though varying considerably, group themselves around two 
definite formulae, one containing 71-5 parts of tin to 27-8 of 
lead, the other 78-2 of tin to 21-7 of lead, or one libra of tin to 
45 and 3 unciae of lead respectively. On the European continent 
in the middle ages, some ten centuries later than the supposed 
date of the Roman pewter found in Britain, when we first get 
definite records of the composition of pewter, lead remained 
the chief, if not the only secondary ingredient. In 1437 the 
pewterers of Montpelier added 4 parts of lead to 96 of tin, 



PEZENAS PFAFF 



339 



when making dishes and porringers 10 parts of lead to 90 of 
tin for salt-cellars and ewers; those of Limoges used 4 parts of 
lead to 100 of tin; at Nuremberg in 1576 it was ordained that 
not more than i ft of lead should be mixed with every 10 ft 
of tin; in France during the i8th century a limit of 15% of 
lead was imposed, while at the present time 16-5% with a margin 
of 1-5 for errors is regarded as safe for the storage of wine and 
consequently legal. 

In England the earliest known ordinances for the regulation 
of the craft were drawn up in 1348 and received the approval 
of the mayor and aldermen. From them we learn that for 
rounded vessels lead might be mixed with the tin in the pro- 
portion of 26 ft to each hundredweight, though this quantity 
appears to have been found excessive, since in 1351 a pewterer 
was punished because his alloy contained more than 16 ft 
to the hundredweight, unless this be a clerical error in the 
contemporary records of the Pewterers' Company. Articles 
made of this material were to be known as " vessels of tyn for 
ever " but the alloy soon came to be known as " ley." Another 
formula, however, authorized in the same document, would 
appear to have been at that time an exclusively English secret, 
to which was presumably due the universal recognition of the 
superiority of the island wares which is so notable a fact in the 
history of pewter. It was known as " fyne peauter " and used 
for dishes, saucers, platters, chargers, and for all " things that 
they make square," such as cruets, chrismatories, &c., which 
owing either to the rough usage they would be submitted to, or 
to the sharpness of their angles, called for greater toughness in 
the material. The recipe for this alloy as originally propounded 
was as much brass to the tin " as it wol receiuve of his nature," 
but the lack of precision in this perhaps rendered it difficult to 
distinguish accidental variations from deliberate adulteration, 
and in 1474-1475 it was resolved that 26 ft of brass must 
be mixed with every hundredweight of tin. The penalties for 
infringement of the rules were severe and frequently enforced, 
but in spite of them alterations and improvements crept in. 
The chief and perhaps the earliest of these was the addition of a 
certain proportion of bismuth, or as it was then called " tin 
glass." When this was first used is not recorded, but by 1561 
it was accepted as a matter of course; in 1630 a maker " was 
found in fault for not sufficiently tempering his metal with tin 
glass "; and in 1653 it was ordered that 3 Ib weight of tin 
glass at least must be mixed with every 1000 ft of tin. Anti- 
mony was subsequently introduced though there is no mention 
of it in the records of the Pewterers' Company sometimes 
alone as in tin and temper (1-6 to 150 parts) and trifle (17 parts 
to 83 of tin), sometimes with other metals as in hard metal 
(96 parts of tin, 8 of antimony and 2 of copper), a mixture 
very closely resembling that still used under the name of " Brit- 
annia metal," and in plate pewter (100 parts of tin, 8 of antimony, 
4 of copper and 4 of bismuth). The wares were originally fash- 
ioned in two ways, by hammering or by casting, and the workers 
in each were strictly differentiated, the former, who worked in 
fine pewter, being known as Sadware men, the latter who used 
" ley " as Hollow-ware men. A third class, known as Triflers, 
from the alloy they were limited to, probably at first only manu- 
factured such small articles of domestic use or ornament as did 
not definitely fall under either of the other headings, but from an 
authorized list of wares, drawn up by a committee of Triflers in 
1612, it is clear that the barrier between them and the Hollow- 
ware men had been largely broken down. Another method of 
working pewter which seems to have been introduced later, and 
never followed to any great extent, was spinning, by which the 
vessel was shaped in a mould on a wheel by the mere pressure of a 
blunt tool, the softness of the metal allowing of its flowing 
sufficiently for this purpose. 

Pewter first appears in history in 1074, when a synod at Rouen 
permitted its use as a substitute for gold or silver in church vessels, 
a concession accepted also at Winchester two years later, again 
withdrawn in 1175, but once more tacitly adopted some twenty 
years after. The records of its domestic use commence with the 
caldrons employed for boiling the meat at the coronation of 



Edward I. in 1274, though we gather that the trade was even 
then flourishing in Paris and Bruges, whence during the following 
century it extended to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Poitiers, Mons and 
other continental centres. Confined at first to the more wealthy 
classes, we can trace as time goes on its extension lower and 
lower in the social scale, until at the end of the 1 7th century its 
use was almost universal. Thenceforward its vogue steadily 
declined. The growing cheapness of glass and chinaware and the 
invention of more showy metals brought upon it by degrees the 
fatal stigma of vulgarity, until with very few exceptions its 
manufacture entirely ceased. 

Artistically, pewter was at its best when its makers were least 
conscious of the art revealed in it, thinking more of the durability 
and appropriateness to purpose of their wares than of their 
decorative qualities. Though intentionally ornamental vessels 
may be found earlier, it was not until the iSth century that 
the pewterers set themselves to slavishly copying the designs 
and methods of the silversmiths, whether suitable to their 
material or not, and thereby undoubtedly hastened their own 
downfall. 

Of recent years pewter has taken its place among the articles 
sought after by collectors, and its cost has so materially and 
rapidly increased that the manufacture of vessels, guaranteed 
of course genuinely antique, bids fair to become once more 
a paying industry. Unfortunately the various enactments 
compelling each maker to stamp his ware with a definite touch- 
mark seem at all times to have been very generally evaded or 
ignored, and experience alone is therefore the only safe guide 
to distinguishing new from old. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. History of the Worshipful Company of Pewterers 
of the City of London, by Charles Welch (London, 1902) ; Pewter Plate, 
by R. J. L. Masse (London, 1904); Scottish Pewter Ware and Pew- 
terers, by L. Ingleby Wood (Morton, Edinburgh, n.d.); Old Pewter, 
by Malcolm Bell (Newnes, London, n.d.); Les Metaux dans I'anti- 
quile et au moyen age. L'Etain, by Germain Bapst (Paris, 1884); 
Dictionnaire de I'ameublement et de la decoration, by Henri Havard; 
Histoire du mobilier, by Albert Jacquemart (Paris, 1877); " Analysis 
of Roman Pewter," by W. Gowland, Archaeologia, vol. Ivi. (1898); 
Pewter Marks and Old Pewter Ware: Domestic and Ecclesiastical, 
by Christopher A. Markham (1909). (M. BE.) 

PEZENAS, a town of southern France, in the department of 
Herault 33 m. W.S.W. of Montpellier on the southern railway. 
Pop. (1906), 6432. The commerce in cognac, spirits and wines 
is so important that the prices current for these at the weekly 
sales are registered throughout the wine marts of France and 
Europe. There is a handsome monument to Moliere, who lived 
at Pezenas several years and produced his first plays there in 1655 
and 1656. A gateway (isth century) and old mansion of the 
1 5th and i6th centuries are of interest. 

Pezenas (Piscennae) was founded by the Gauls. In the 
loth century it became the capital of a countship subsequently 
held by important families including those of Montmorency, 
Conde and Conti. In the i7th century the town was on several 
occasions the meeting place of the estates of Languedoc. 

PFAFF, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1765-1825), German mathe- 
matician, was born on the 22nd of December 1765 at Stuttgart. 
He received his early education at the Carlsschule, where he met 
F. Schiller, his lifelong friend. His mathematical capacity was 
early noticed; he pursued his studies at Gottingen under Abraham 
Gotthelf Kastner (1719-1800), and in 1787 he went to Berlin and 
studied practical astronomy under J. E. Bode. In 1788 Pfaff 
became professor of mathematics in Helmstedt, and so continued 
until that university was abolished in 1810. From that time till 
his death on the 2ist of April 1825 he held the chair of mathe- 
matics at HaUe. Pfaff's researches bore chiefly on the theory of 
series, to which he applied the methods of the so-called combina- 
torial school of German mathematicians, and on the solution of 
differential equations. His two principal works are Disquisitiones 
analytical maxime ad calculum integralem et doctrinam serierum 
pertinentes (410., vol. i., Helmstadt, 1797) and " Methodus 
generalis, aequationes differentiarum particularum, necnon 
aequationes differentiales vulgares, utrasque primi ordinis inter 
quotcumque variabiles, complete integrand! " in Abh. d. Bcrl. 
Acad. (1814-1815). The former work contains Pfaff's discussion 



340 



PFALZBURG PFORTA 



of a certain differential equation which generally bears his 
name, but which had originally been treated in a less complete 
manner by L. Euler (see DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS). The latter 
work contains an important addition to the theory of partial 
differential equations as it had been left by J. L. Lagrange. 

His brother, JOHANN WILHELM ANDREAS PFAFF (1774-1835), 
was professor of pure and applied mathematics successively at 
Dorpat, Nuremberg, Wurzburg and Erlangen. Another brother, 
CHRISTIAN HEINRICH PFAFF (1773-1852), graduated in medicine 
at Stuttgart in 1793, and from 1801 till his death was professor 
of medicine, physics and chemistry at the university of Kiel. 

PFALZBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of 
Alsace-Lorraine, lies high on the west slopes of the Vosges, 25 m. 
N.W. of Strassburg by rail. Pop. (1905), 3716. It contains an 
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue and a 
teachers' seminary. Its industries include the manufacture of 
gloves, straw hats and liqueurs, and also quarrying. 

The principality of Pfalzburg, of which this town was the 
capital, originally a part of Luxemburg, afterwards belonged in 
turn to the bishop of Metz, the bishop of Strassburg and the 
duke of Lorraine, and passed into the possession of France in 
1 66 1. The town was of importance as commanding the passes 
of the Vosges, and was strongly fortified by Vauban in 1680. 
The works resisted the Allies in 1814 and 1815, and the Germans 
for four months in 1870, but they were taken on the i2th of 
December of that year. They have since been razed. 

PFEIFFER, FRANZ (1815-1868), German scholar, was born at 
Bettlach near Soleure on the 27th of February 1815. After 
studying at the university of Munich he went to Stuttgart, 
where in 1846 he became librarian to the royal library. In 
1856 Pfeiffer founded the Germania, a quarterly periodical 
devoted to German antiquarian research. In 1857, having 
established his fame as one of the foremost authorities on 
German medieval literature and philology, he was appointed 
professor of these subjects at the university of Vienna; and in 
1860 was made a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. 
He died at Vienna on the 2gth of May 1868. 

Among the many writings edited by him may be mentioned the 
Surinam und Josaphat of Rudolf von Ems (1843), the Edelstein of 
Ulrich Boner (1844), Die deutschen Mystiker des 14. Jahrhunderts 
(1845-1857; new ed., 1906), the Btich der Natur of Konrad von 
Megenberg, a 14th-century writer (1861), Die Predigten des Berthold 
von Regensburg (1862), and the poems of Walther von der Vogel- 
weide (1864; 6th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1880). Of his independent 
writings the most important are Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte, 
Vber Wesen und Bildung der hofischen Sprache in mittelhochdeutscher 
Zeit, Der Dichter des Nibelungenliedes, Forschung und Kritik auf 
dem Gebiete des deutschen Altertums, and Altdeutsches ffbungsbuch. 
A biographical sketch by Karl Bartsch is in Uhlands Briefwechsel 
mil Freiherrn von Lassberg, edited by Franz Pfeiffer (1870). 

PFEIFFER, IDA LAURA (1797-1858), Austrian traveller, 
daughter of a merchant named Reyer, was born at Vienna on 
the i4th of October 1797. In 1820 she married Dr Pfeiffer, a 
lawyer of Lemberg, who subsequently incurred official persecu- 
tion and was reduced to poverty. In her later life Mme 
Pfeiffer devoted her limited means to travel. In 1842 she visited 
Palestine and Egypt, and published an account of her journey in 
Reise einer Wienerin in das Heilige Land (Vienna, 1843). In 1845 
she set out to Scandinavia and Iceland, describing her tour in 
two volumes, Reise nach dem skandinavischen Norden und der 
Insel Island (Pest, 1846). In 1846 she started on a journey round 
the world, visiting Brazil, Chile and other countries of South 
America, Tahiti, China, India, Persia, Asia Minor and Greece, 
and reaching home in 1848. The results were published in 
Eine Frauenfahrt urn die Welt (Vienna, 1850). In 1851 she went 
to England and thence to South Africa, intending to penetrate 
into the interior; this proved impracticable, but she proceeded 
to the Malay Archipelago, spending eighteen months in the 
Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. After a visit to Australia, 
Madame Pfeiffer proceeded to California, Oregon, Peru, Ecuador, 
New Granada, the Missiones Territory, and north again to the 
Great Lakes, reaching home in 1854. Her narrative, Meine 
zweile Weltreise, was published at Vienna in 1856. In May of the 
same year she set out to explore Madagascar, where at first she 



was cordially received by the queen. But she unwittingly 
allowed herself to be involved in a plot to overthrow the govern- 
ment, and was expelled the country. She died at Vienna on 
the 27th of October 1858. 

The Reise nach Madagascar was issued in 1861 (Vienna), with a 
biography by her son. 

PFLEIDERER, OTTO (1839-1908), German Protestant theo- 
logian, was born at Stetten near Cannstadt in Wiirttemberg 
on the ist of September 1839. From 1857 to 1861 he studied at 
Tubingen under F. C. Baur; and afterwards in England and 
Scotland. He then entered the ministry, became repetent at 
Tubingen, and for a short time held a pastorate at Heilbronn 
(1868). In 1870 he became chief pastor and superintendent at 
Jena and soon afterwards professor ordinarius of theology, but 
in 1875 he was called to the chair of systematic theology at 
Berlin, having made his name by a series of articles on New Testa- 
ment criticism and Johannine and Pauline theology, which 
appeared in Adolf Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift fur wissenschafttiche 
Theologie, and by his Der Paulinismus, published in 1873 (2nd 
ed., 1890; Eng. trans., Paulinism: a Contribution to the History of 
Primitive Christian Theology, 2 vols., 1873, &c.). Das Urchris- 
tenlum, seine Schriften und Lehren, in geschichtlichem Zusam- 
menhang beschrieben was published in 1878 and considerably 
enlarged for a second edition in 1902 (Eng. trans., 1906). In 
1890 appeared The Development of Theology since Kant, and its 
Progress in Great Britain since 1823, which was written for 
publication in England. A more elaborate work was his 
Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlichen Grundlage (1878; 2nd ed., 
enlarged, 1883-1884; Eng. trans., from 2nd German ed., The 
Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History, 4 vols., 1886- 
1888). " The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development 
of Christianity " was the title of a course of Hibbert Lectures 
given in London in 1885. In 1894 he delivered the Gifford 
Lectures at Edinburgh, the subject being " The Philosophy and 
Development of Religion." His later publications included: 
The Early Christian Conception of Christ (1905), Die Entstehung 
des Christentums ( 1 905 ; Eng. trans. , 1 906) , Religion und Religionen 
(1906; Eng. trans., 1907), and Die Entwicklung des Christentums 
(1907). He died on the i8th of July 1908, at Gross Lichterfelde, 
near Berlin. In New Testament criticism Pfleiderer belonged 
to the critical school which grew out of the impulse given by 
F. C. Baur. But, like other modern German theologians, he 
showed a greater disposition to compromise. All his work shows 
a judicial tone of mind, and is remarkable for the charm of its 
style. 

Pfleiderer's younger brother EDMUND (1842-1902) dis- 
tinguished himself both in philosophy and theology. He too 
entered the ministry (1864) and during the Franco-German 
War served as army chaplain, an experience described in his 
Erlebnisse eines Feldgeistlichen (1890). He was afterwards 
appointed professor ordinarius of philosophy at Kiel (1873), 
and in 1878 he was elected to the philosophical chair at 
Tubingen. He published works on Leibnitz, empiricism and 
scepticism in Hume's philosophy, modern pessimism, Kantic 
criticism, English philosophy, Heraclitus of Ephesus and many 
other subjects. 

PFORTA, or SCHULPFORTA, formerly a Cistercian monastery 
dating from 1140, and now a celebrated German public school. 
It is in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Saale, 2 m. 
S.W. of Naumburg. The remains of the monastery include the 
i3th century Gothic church, recently restored, the Romanesque 
chapel (i2th century) and other buildings now used as dormi- 
tories, lecture rooms, &c. There is also the Furstenhaus, built in 
T S73- Schulpforta was one of the three Fiirstenschulen founded 
in 1543 by Maurice duke, and later elector, of Saxony, the two 
others being at Grimma and at Meissen. The property of the 
dissolved monastery provided a good revenue for the new educa- 
tional foundation,which now amounts to about 15,000 a year. 
Free education is provided for 140 boys, the total number of 
pupils being 185. After being in the possession of Saxony, Pforta 
passed to Prussia in 1815, and since this date the school has been 
entirely reorganized. 



PFORZHEIM PHAEDRUS 



34 1 



PFORZHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of 
Baden, at the confluence of the Nagold and the Enz, on the 
northern margin of the Black Forest, 19 m. S.E. of Karlsruhe by 
rail, and at the junction of lines to Wildbad and Ettlingen. 
Pop. (1895), 33,345 ; (1905), 59>395) most of whom are Protestants. 
Its most interesting buildings are the old palace of the margraves 
of Baden, and the Schlosskirche, the latter an edifice of the 
I2th-isth centuries, containing the tombs and monuments of 
the margraves. Pforzheim is the chief centre in Germany for 
the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments and jewelry, an 
industry which gives employment to about 22,000 hands, 
besides which there are iron and copper works, and manu- 
factures of chemicals, paper, leather, machinery, &c. A brisk 
trade is maintained in timber, cattle and agricultural produce. 

Pforzheim (Porta Hercyniae) is of Roman origin. From about 
1300 to 1565 it was the seat of the margraves of Baden. It was 
taken by the troops of the Catholic League in 1624, and was 
destroyed by the French in 1689. The story of the 400 citizens 
of Pforzheim who sacrificed themselves for their prince after 
the battle of Wimpfen in May 1622 has been relegated by 
modern historical research to the domain of legend. 

See Coste, Die 400 Pforzheimer (1879) ; Brombacher, Der Tod der 
400 Pforzheimer (Pforzheim, 1886); Stolz, Geschichte der Stadt 
Pforzheim (Pforzheim, 1901). 

PHAEDO, Greek philosopher, founder of the Elian school, was 
a native of Elis, born in the last years of the sth century B.C. In 
the war of 401-400 between Sparta and Elis he was taken 
prisoner and became a slave in Athens, where his beauty brought 
him notoriety. He became a pupil of Socrates, who conceived 
a warm affection for him. It appears that he was intimate with 
Cebes and Plato, and he gave his name to one of Plato's dialogues. 
Athenaeus relates, however, that he resolutely declined responsi- 
bility for any of the views with which Plato credits him, and that 
the relations between him and Plato were the reverse of friendly. 
Aeschines also wrote a dialogue called Phaedo. Shortly after 
the death of Socrates Phaedo returned to Elis, where his disciples 
included Anchipylus, Moschus and Pleistanus, who succeeded 
him. Subsequently Menedemus and Asclepiades transferred 
the school to Eretria, where it was known as the Eretrian school 
and is frequently identified (e.g. by Cicero) with the Megarians. 
The doctrines of Phaedo are not known, nor is it possible to 
infer them from the Platonic dialogue. His writings, none of 
which are preserved, were in the form of dialogues. As to their 
authenticity nothing is known, in spite of an attempt at selection 
by Panaetius (Diog. Laert. ii. 64), who maintains that the 
Zopyrus and the Simon are genuine. Seneca has preserved one 
of his dicta (Epist. 94. 41), namely that one method of acquiring 
virtue is to frequent the society of good men. 

See Wilamowitz, Hermes, xiv. 189 seq. 

PHAEDRA, in Greek legend, daughter of Minos and Pasiphae. 
With her sister Ariadne she was carried off by Theseus to Athens, 
and became his wife. On the way to Eleusis she met Hippolytus, 
son of Theseus by a former wife (Hippolyte, queen of the Ama- 
zons, or her sister Antiope), and fell in love with him. Finding 
her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving behind a 
letter in which she accused Hippolytus of having made dis- 
honourable proposals. The same story, in the main, is told of 
Bellerophon and Anteia. It formed the subject of tragedies by 
Sophocles, Euripides (two, one of which is extant), Seneca and 
Racine. 

PHAEDRUS, Roman fabulist, was by birth a Macedonian and 
lived in the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Gaius and Claudius. 
According to his own statement (prologue to book iii.), not 
perhaps to be taken too literally, he was born on the Pierian 
Mountain, but he seems to have been brought at an early age to 
Italy, for he mentions that he read a verse of Ennius as a boy at 
school. According to the heading of the chief MS. he was a 
slave and was freed by Augustus. He incurred the wrath of 
Sejanus, the powerful minister of Tiberius, by some supposed 
allusions in his fables, and was brought to trial and punished. 
We learn this from the prologue to the third book, which is 
dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with the famous 



charioteer and favourite of Gaius. The fourth book is dedicated 
to Particulo, who seems to have dabbled in literature. The dates 
of their publication are unknown, but Seneca, writing between 
A.D. 41 and 43 (Consol. ad Polyb. 27), knows nothing of Phaedrus, 
and it is probable that he had published nothing then. His work 
shows little or no originality; he simply versified in iambic 
trimeters the fables current in his day under the name of "Aesop," 
interspersing them with anecdotes drawn from daily life, history 
and mythology. He tells his fable and draws the moral with 
businesslike directness and simplicity; his language is terse and 
clear, but thoroughly prosaic, though it occasionally attains a 
dignity bordering on eloquence. His Latin is correct, and, 
except for an excessive and peculiar use of abstract words, 
shows hardly anything that might not have been written in the 
Augustan age. From a literar-y point of view Phaedrus is 
inferior to Babrius, and to his own imitator, La Fontaine; he 
lacks the quiet picturesqueness and pathos of the former, and 
the exuberant vivacity and humour of the latter. Though he 
frequently refers to the envy and detraction which pursued him, 
Phaedrus seems to have attracted little attention in antiquity. 
He is mentioned by Martial (iii. 20, 5), who imitated some of his 
verses, and by Avianus. Prudentius must have read him, for 
he imitates one of his lines (Prud. Cath. vii. 115; cf. Phaedrus, 
iv. 6, 10). 

The first edition of the five books of Phaedrus was published 
by Pithou at Troyes in 1596 from a manuscript now in the possession 
of the marquis of Rosanbo. In the beginning of the I Sth century 
there was discovered at Parma a MS. of Perotti (1430-1480), arch- 
bishop of Siponto, containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which 
some thirty were new. These new fables were first published at 
Naples by Cassitto in 1808, and afterwards (much more correctly) 
by Jannelli in 1809. Both editions were superseded by the dis- 
covery of a much better preserved MS. of Perotti in the Vatican, 
published by Angelo Mai in 1831. For some time the authenticity of 
these new fables was disputed, but they are now generally accepted, 
and with justice, as genuine fables of Phaedrus. They do not form 
a sixth book, for we know from Avianus that Phaedrus wrote five 
books only, but it is impossible to assign them to their original 
places in the five books. They are usually printed as an appendix. 

In the middle ages Phaedrus exercised a considerable influence 
through the prose versions of his fables which were current, though 
his own works and even his name were forgotten. Of these prose 
versions the oldest existing seems to be that known as the " Anony- 
mus Nilanti," so called because first edited by Nilant at Leiden 
in 1709 from a MS. of the I3th century. It approaches the text of 
Phaedrus so closely that it was probably made directly from it. 
Of the sixty-seven fables which it contains thirty are derived from 
lost fables of Phaedrus. But the largest and most influential 
of the prose versions of Phaedrus is that which bears the name of 
Romulus. It contains eighty-three fables, is as old as the loth 
century, and seems to have been based on a still earlier prose version, 
which, under the name of " Aesop," and addressed to one Rufus, 
may have been made in the Carolingian period or even earlier. 
About this Romulus nothing is known. The collection of fables 
in the Weissenburg (now Wolfenbuttel) MS. is based on the same 
version as Romulus. These three prose versions contain in all 
one hundred distinct fables, of which fifty-six are derived from the 
existing and the remaining forty-four presumably from lost fables 
of Phaedrus. Some scholars, as Burmann, Dressier and L. Muller, 
have tried to restore these lost fables by versifying the prose versions. 

The collection bearing the name of Romulus became the source 
from which, during the second half of the middle ages, almost all 
the collections of Latin fables in prose and verse were wholly or 
partially drawn. A 12th-century version of the first three books 
of Romulus in elegiac verse enjoyed a wide popularity, even into the 
Renaissance. Its author (generally referred to since the edition 
of NeVelet in 1610 as the " Anonymus Neveleti ") was long unknown, 
but Hervieux has shown grounds for identifying him with Walther 
of England, chaplain to Henry II. and afterwards archbishop of 
Palermo. 

Another version of Romulus in Latin elegiacs was made by Alex- 
ander Neckam, born at St Albans in 1157. Amongst the collections 
partly derived from Romulus the most famous is probably that m 
French verse by Marie de France. About 1200 a collection of fables 
in Latin prose, based partly on Romulus, was made by the Cistercian 
monk Odo of Sherrington ; they have a strong medieval and clerical 
tinge. In 1370 Gerard of Minden wrote a poetical version of Romulus 
in Low German. 

Since Pithou's edition in 1596 Phaedrus has been often edited and 
translated ; among the editions may be mentioned those of Burmann 
(1718 and 1727), Bentley (1726), Schwabe (1806), Berger de Xivrey 
(1830), Orelli (1832), Eyssenhardt (1867), L. Muller (1877), Rica 
(1885), and above all that of L. Havet (Paris, 1895). For the 



342 



PHAER PHAGOCYTOSIS 



medieval versions of Phaedrus and their derivatives see L. Roth, in 
Philologus, i. 523 seq. ; E. Grosse, in Jahrb. f. class. Philol., cv. 
(1872); and especially the learned work of Hervieux, Les Fabulistes 
latins depuis le siecle d'Auguste jusqu'a la fin du moyen Age (Paris, 
1884), who gives the Latin texts of all the medieval imitators (direct 
and indirect) of Phaedrus, some of them being published for the 
first time. (J. P. P.) 

PHAER (or PHAYER), THOMAS (15107-1560), English trans- 
lator of Virgil, was educated at Oxford and at Lincoln's Inn. He 
published in 1535 Nalura brevium, and in 1543 Newe Boke of 
Presidents. He says on the title-page of his version of the 
Aeneid that he was " solicitor to the king and queen's majesties, 
attending their honourable council in the marches of Wales." 
He settled at Kilgarran in Pembrokeshire, and combined the 
study of medicine with his legal practice. He wrote several 
medical works, and was admitted M.D. of Oxford in 1559. He 
contributed to Sackville's Mirrour for Magistrates, "Howe 
Owen Glendower, being seduced by false prophecies, toke upon 
him to be Prince of Wales." In 1558 appeared The Seven First 
Bookes of the Eneidos of Virgil converted into English Meter. He 
had completed two more books in April 1560 and had begun the 
tenth, but he died in the autumn of that year, leaving his task 
incomplete. The translation was finished by Thomas Twyne in 
1584. Phaer's translation, which was in rhymed fourteen- 
syllabled lines, was greatly admired by his contemporaries, and 
he deserves credit as the first to attempt a complete version, 
the earlier renderings of Surrey and Gawain Douglas being 
fragmentary although of greater poetic value. 

PHAETHON (Gr. <t>ai9uv, shining, radiant), in Greek mytho- 
logy, the son of Helios the sun-god, and the nymph Clymene. 
He persuaded his father to let him drive the chariot of the sun 
across the sky, but he lost control of the horses, and driving too 
near the earth scorched it. To save the world from utter 
destruction Zeus killed Phaethon with a thunderbolt. He fell 
to earth at the mouth of the Eridanus, a river of northern Europe 
(identified in later times with the Po), on the banks of which his 
weeping sisters, the Heliades, were transformed into poplars 
and their tears into amber. This part of the legend points 
to the mouth of the Oder or Vistula, where amber abounds. 
Phaethon was the subject of a drama of the same name by 
Euripides, of which some fragments remain, and of a lost tragedy 
of Aeschylus (Heliades); the story is most fully told in the 
Metamorphoses of Ovid (i. 75o-ii. 366 and Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 
xxxviii). Phaethon has been identified with the sun himself 
and with the morning star (Phosphorus). In the former 
case the legend is supposed to represent the sun sinking 
in the west in a blaze of light. His identification with the 
morning star is supported by Hyginus (Astron. ii. 42), where it 
is stated that the morning (and evening) star was the son of 
Cephalus and Eos (the father and mother of Phaethon according 
to Hesiod, Theog. 984-986). The fall of Phaethon is a favourite 
subject, especially on sarcophagus reliefs, as indicating the 
transitoriness of human life. 

See G. Knaack, " Quaestipnes Phaethonteae," in Philologische 
Untersuchungen (1885); F. Wieseler, Phaethon (1857); Wilamowitz- 
Mollendorff and C. Robert in Hermes, xviii. (1883); Frazer's 
Pausanias, ii. 59 ; S. Reinach, Revue de I'hist. desreligions, Iviii. (1908). 

PHAGOCYTOSIS (Gr. <t>aytiv, to eat, devour, and K(JTOS, 
cell). Many cells of the body possess the property of engulfing 
particles, a character to be associated with their power of 
performing amoeboid movement. This property is termed 
phagocytosis. Primarily this phagocytic power was simply the 
means by which the cell took within its cell body food particles 
which were ultimately digested and assimilated. In the higher 
organisms, however, this property has been developed for different 
purposes, and in pathology at the present day a meaning wider 
than that above given is often included in the term. The 
particle having been taken into the cell, one of three things may 
happen, (i) The particle may consist of digestible material, in 
which case the cell secretes a digestive fluid, a food vacuole is 
formed, the particle is gradually dissolved by the secretion and 
the products absorbed into the cell substance. (2) The particle 
may be indigestible, in which case it is retained within the cell 



body for a time and ultimately discharged. The particle 
englobed may comprise almost any material, but if it is to serve 
as a food it must be of animal or vegetable origin. At the time 
of ingestion it may be dead or living. In the case in which it is 
living the organism is first killed and then digested, or (3) the 
organism may prove resistant, in which case it may multiply 
and finally destroy the cell, when a number of organisms are set 
free. This is one of the means by which, in the higher organisms, 
a local infection may become distributed through the organism. 
The digestion effected within a cell is fermentative in character. 
Thus a proteolytic ferment has been prepared from the bodies of 
amoebae the ferment possessing fairly active properties both 
in acid, neutral or alkaline media, but especially in the latter. 

In studying the process of phagocytosis generally much infor- 
mation may be gained as to its general characters by the study of 
the processes of intracellular digestion in the simpler Inverte- 
brates, a study largely extended by Metchnikoff and his co- 
workers in the elaboration of Metchnikoff' s view of the nature of 
immunity. Thus, to take an instance from the sponges. Food 
substances, in the form of minute organisms, which have 
penetrated the pores of the sponge are seized by the ciliated or 
amoeboid cells lining those spaces, and are then killed and 
digested. In this case also the process of digestion is proved 
to be fermentative. It is readily understandable that we should 
find such cells on the external surface of an organism or on the 
surface lining the alimentary tract, particularly in the latter 
position. But in addition there are many cells within the body 
in which phagocytic power is retained and markedly developed. 
Such cells may be fixed or wandering cells. They are employed 
for removing foreign material or debris which may occur within 
a tissue. For instance, as the result of an injury, inflammatory 
process, &c., cells and other structures of a tissue may be 
destroyed. One of the processes of repair consists in the removal 
of the resulting debris, which is effected by phagocytes. A 
similar process is seen with red blood corpuscles which may have 
escaped into a tissue through rupture of capillaries. Foreign 
particles accidentally gaining admission to a tissue are in many 
cases removed in a similar manner, e.g. soot particles which have 
passed through the respiratory surface are then largely removed 
by phagocytes and carried to the bronchial lymphatic glands. 
Very commonly living organisms effect an entrance through 
wound surfaces, the alimentary surface, &c., and one of the 
processes employed for their destruction and removal is that of 
phagocytosis. 

As an illustration of the removal of foreign red blood corpuscles 
we may take the experiments of Metchnikoff in which a small 
drop of defibrinated blood of the goose was injected under 
the skin of a snail. The corpuscles quickly spread through 
the haemolymph of the snail, which by itself, however, 
effects no change in them. At the end of several hours exami- 
nation shows that the leucocytes of the snail have englobed a 
large number of the red corpuscles. The following day intact 
corpuscles can still be found in the haemolymph, but the major 
number have already been devoured by the leucocytes. When 
taken up by a phagocyte the red corpuscle becomes round and 
its wall permeable. A vacuole is formed around the .corpuscle, 
in which dissolved haemoglobin can be seen; a part of this 
haemoglobin also passes into the nucleus of the red corpuscle, 
proving that it too has been profoundly altered. Many of the 
nuclei are discharged. After some time the only parts of the 
corpuscle remaining are pieces of the nucleus and the peripheral 
layer of the corpuscle. Frequently the phagocytes, after having 
devoured one or several red corpuscles, themselves become a prey 
to their fellows. Analogous changes are observed in the tissues 
of a mammal when blood which has been extravasated is being 
removed, e.g. after a bruise. The first effect of the haemorrhage 
is an exudative inflammation, during which leucocytes arrive in 
large numbers and engulf the corpuscles. In the process of 
digestion which follows the haemoglobin is altered and new 
pigments formed from it. In mammals this pigment is dark red 
or brownish, in the pigeon it is green. Finally the corpuscles 
are completely digested. Analogous phenomena may be observed 



PHALANGER 



343 



in connexion with the removal of cell debris resulting from any 
injury. Numbers of phagocytes may be found at work in this 
direction, for instance in the pus formed within an aseptic 
abscess. Hence we may regard the phagocytes as acting as the 
scavengers of the tissues. 

In the instances we have been dealing with the phagocytes 
are chiefly of the class of wandering cells and are brought to the 
seat of their activity by the blood. In examining any tissue 
where the process is going on it is seen that the phagocytes have 
accumulated there in large numbers. They have been attracted 
to the damaged area. The mechanism which effects this attrac- 
tion is a chemical one chemiotaxis. At the seat of the change 
chemical substances are produced which act upon the phagocytes, 
causing them to migrate towards the source positive chemio- 
taxis. Apparently the material dissolving from cell debris can 
act in this manner. Thus if a capillary tube filled with a tissue 
extract be inserted under the skin of an animal, within a short 
time it will be found to be surrounded with numbers of leuco- 
cytes, which may also have encroached into the tube itself. 
As in other instances of chemiotaxis the same chemical stimulus 
in a higher concentration may repel the cells negative chemio- 
taxis. Instances of this are especially frequent in relation to 
micro-organisms and phagocytes, to which we may now turn. 

That phagocytes can paralyse, kill and digest many micro- 
organisms is the main fact in Metchnikoff's theory of the nature 
of immunity. The reaction may be readily studied by injecting 
a small quantity of a fluid culture of some mildly pathogenic 
organism into the peritoneal cavity of an animal, and in the course 
of an hour or so examining a smear from the surface of the 
omentum, when an abundance of phagocytes enclosing the organ- 
ism in different stages of digestion will be found. Or we may 
adopt Leishman's method, in which a few drops of human blood 
are diluted with saline solution and centrifuged. The layer of 
white corpuscles is pipetted off, suspended in serum, and a 
minute drop of a suspension of a pathogenic organism is added. 
The preparation is then incubated at 37 C. for a quarter of an 
hour. Upon examining a drop of this mixture a number of 
bacteria are found within the phagocytes. Thus this attack and 
destruction of bacteria by phagocytes may take place within the 
body or by cells removed from the body. Whether or no a 
phagocyte can engulf bacteria is dependent upon a number of 
factors partly specific properties of the phagocyte, partly 
factors varying with the constitution of the body serum. Thus 
Wright and Douglas, employing Leishman's method, have proved 
that leucocytes do not take up bacteria freely unless the serum 
in which they are suspended contain opsonins. They found, for 
example, that leucocytes taken from a patient suffering from a 
pyococci infection if suspended in normal human serum take 
up the cocci abundantly, whereas if the same leucocytes are 
suspended under similar conditions in the patient's own serum 
the reaction may be almost absent. Further, leucocytes taken 
from a normal individual and suspended in the patient's serum 
are practically inactive, while the same phagocytes in normal 
serum are very active. Exactly how the substance in the serum 
acts is undecided, but it has been proved that there are in serum 
substances which become fixed to bacteria and which render them 
an easier prey to the phagocytes. This specific opsonin is used up 
when the bacteria are added to the serum, so that if the bacteria 
are subsequently removed the serum is no longer active. There 
is evidence too that there is a multiplicity of opsonins. As to the 
origin of the opsonins we have no certain evidence. It is sug- 
gested that they are a secretion from the leucocytes themselves 
and that it is an evidence of another and preliminary mode of 
attack possessed by the leucocyte, viz. the discharge of a secre- 
tion from the cell which is to damage or paralyse the bacterium 
and thus enable the phagocyte to engulf it. 

The mechanism of destruction of a bacterium once it has been 
taken up by a phagocyte is probably, just as in the instance of 
dead cellular material, one of intracellular digestion. The 
bacterium before being engulfed is probably inert in most 
instances, though it may yet prove too strong for the phagocyte. 
The next stage we can trace is the formation of a vacuole around 



the organism, or, if the latter be large, around a part of the 
organism, and the part thus surrounded quickly shows signs of 
destruction. For instance, its staining reactions become weaker. 
When a part only of the organism is surrounded by a vacuole 
the part thus surrounded soon ceases to stain, while the remain- 
ing part stains normally, and we thus have a marked contrast 
evidencing the two stages. 

In the next place we must ask which are the cells possessing 
phagocytic powers ? Leaving apart the cells lining the alimentary 
tract (because we know practically nothing of their power in this 
respect) a number of free cells possess amoeboid properties as 
well as also a number of fixed cells. These latter are attached to 
certain spots of a tissue, but are capable of throwing out processes 
which can seize upon particles of foreign matter or even upon 
certain elements of the same organism. Of this category 
Metchnikoff distinguishes the nerve cells, the large cells of the 
spleen pulp and of lymph glands, certain endothelial cells, the 
neuroglia cells, and perhaps certain cells of connective tissues. 
All these elements can under certain conditions act as phago- 
cytes, and with the exception of the nerve cells all are of meso- 
blastic origin. Those of greater importance on account of their 
greater activity in this respect are the large splenic and lymph 
cells, the neuroglia cells and certain endothelial cells. With 
regard to the wandering cells Metchnikoff considers that some are 
certainly non-phagocytic, for instance the lymphocytes. Accord- 
ing to Metchnikoff it is only when these cells become older and 
have developed a nucleus rich in chromatin and an abundant cell 
body that these cells develop phagocytic properties. This is 
the large hyaline leucocyte. The polymorphonuclear and the 
eosinophil leucocyte are both phagocytes. Metchnikoff there- 
fore divides the phagocytes into two classes the microphages, 
comprising the polymorphonuclear and the eosinophil cell, and 
the macrophages, containing the large hyaline cell, the cell of the 
splenic pulp, the endothelial cell and the neuroglia cell. From 
further observation of these cells he concludes that the micro- 
phages are chiefly concerned in opposing the micro-organisms of 
acute infections, whereas the macrophages are chiefly concerned 
in combating chronic infections. It is the macrophage also 
which is concerned in removing cell debris, e.g. red corpuscles 
from a haemorrhage or the red corpuscles of another animal which 
may have been introduced experimentally. 

Metchnikoff and his co-workers have shown that the two 
principal groups of leucocytes are generally spread throughout 
the vertebrates. Thus instances of each kind are found even in 
the lamprey, though here their staining properties are feebler; 
also cells which show but small differences from the analogous 
cells of mammals are found in the alligator. (T. G. BE.) 

PHALANGER, a book-name applied to the more typical 
representatives of the group of diprotodont marsupial mammals, 
including the cuscuses of trie Moluccas and Celebes, and the so- 
called opossums of Australia, and thus collectively the whole- 
family Phalangeridae. (See MARSUPIALIA.) 

Phalangers generally are small or medium-sized woolly- 
coated marsupials, with long, powerful, and often prehensile 
tails, large claws, and opposable nailless first hind toes. They 
seem in the day to be dull and sleepy, but are alert at night. 
They live mostly upon fruits, leaves and blossoms, although a few 
feed habitually upon insects, and all relish, in confinement, an 
occasional bird or other small animal. Several possess flying- 
membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs, by the 
help of which they can make long and sustained leaps through 
the air, like flying-squirrels; but the possession of these flying- 
membranes does not seem to be any indication of special affinity, 
the characters of the skull and teeth sharply dividing the flying 
forms and uniting them with other species of the non-flying 
groups. The skull (see fig. i) is, as a rule, broad and flattened, 
with the posterior part swollen out laterally owing to the 
numerous air-cells situated in the substance of the squamosal 
bones. The dental formula is very variable, especially as regards 
the premolars, of which some at least in each genus are reduced 
to functionless rudiments, and may even vary in number on the 
two sides of the jaw of the same individual. The incisors are 



344 



PHALANGER 



always f, the lower one very large and inclined forwards, and 
the canines normally }, of which the inferior is always minute, 
and in one genus generally absent. The molars number either 
f or f . All the species here discussed are included in the 
sub-family Phalangerinae, of which the distinctive features, as 
well as those of the family Phalangeridae, are referred to under 
MARSUPIALIA. 

The most generalized representatives of the group appear to be 
the ring-tailed phalangers, constituting the genus Pseudochirus, 
which is common to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, and 




FIG. i. Skull of Grey Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis). 

includes at least half a score of species. The dentition is generally 
'. f, c. J, p.+m. $, but one upper incisor and the canine may be 
wanting. The crowns of the molars show a crescentickStructure, 
but they are said to retain the three primitive cusps, which are 
fused in the other genera. The prehensile tail has its tip naked 
for a short distance, and the whole of the terminal third and the 
under surface of the remainder short-haired, the tip being generally 
white. The hair is thick and woolly, and generally yellowish-olive 
in colour. These phalangers are the ring-tailed opossums of the 
Australians. From this genus is apparently derived the taguan 
flying-squirrel, or flying-phalanger (Petauroides volans), which 
ranges from Queensland to Victoria, and is the largest of the flying 
group. Its dentition is essentially similar to that of Pseudochirus, 
although there is one pair less of cheek-teeth, and the bushy tail is 
naked and prehensile at the tip. Reverting to the non-flying species, 
we have Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, a small animal from Victoria 
representing a genus by itself, with the same dental formula as 
Pseudochirus, but cheek-teeth of a different type, the ears naked 
(instead of hairy) behind, glands on the chest and between the ears, 
and the tail long and evenly bushy to the tip. From this are 
evidently derived the flying-phaiangers flying-squirrels of the 
genus Petaurus, which differ merely in the possession of a para- 
chute, and are represented by several species, ranging from 
Australia (exclusive of Tasmania) to the Aru Islands, New Guinea, 
and New Ireland. Of the yellow-bellied species, P. australis, 
the habits are described by J. Gould as follows: " This animal is 
common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those 
which stretch along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. 
In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually 
flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms 
upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums, some 
of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites. Like 
the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes 
and in the spouts of the larger branches during the day, and dis- 
playing the greatest activity at night while running over the small 
leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in search of 
insects and the honey of the newly opened blossoms. Its structure 
being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the 
ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be 
attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops of 
the trees are traversed by this animal with as much ease as the 
most level ground is by such as are destined for terra firma. If 
chased or forced to flight it ascends to the highest branch and 
performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with 
wonderful address; a slight elevation gives its body an impetus 
which with the expansion of its membrane enables it to pass to a 
considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of 
the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving 
the shock which it would otherwise sustain." 

A second species, P. sciureus, in some ways one of the most 
beautiful of all mammals, is shown in fig. 2. 

A precisely similar relationship exists between the tiny feather- 
tailed phalanger, Distoechurus pennatus, of New Guinea, and the 
equally minute pigmy flying-phalanger or flying-mouse, Acrobates 
pygmaeus, of Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria; both 
being characterized by the hairs of the tail forming a vane on each 
side, as well as by tufts of long hairs at the base of the thinly- 



haired ears. There are six pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the last 
three are small and rounded, with blunted cusps, while the anterior 
teeth are sharp and of insectivorous type. The pigmy flying- 
phalanger feeds on honey from flowers and insects. 

To some extent intermediate in structure between Acrobates 
and Petaurus, although without a parachute, are the beautiful little 
dormouse-phalangers, as typified by Dromicia nana, which range 
from Western Australia and Tasmania to New Guinea. They 
appear to be a generalized type, which has died out where they have 
come into competition with the more specialized forms. Although 
unable to fly they are exceedingly active, and take long leaps from 
bough to bough ; externally they are characterized by their dormouse- 




FIG. 2. Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (Petaurus sciureus). 

like form, large, thin, and nearly naked ears, without tufts inside 
or at the base, sharp and rudimentary front claws and long sharp 
hind ones, and mouse-like tail, which is furry at the base, then 
scaly, and naked and prehensile at the tip. There may be either 
six or seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the hinder carry four 
small smooth cusps, and the first upper incisor is much longer than 
the other two. The striped phalangers (Dactylopstia) are larger 
animals, of the approximate size of a squirrel, easily recognized by 
the longitudinal yellow and black striping of the fur, and the slender 
and elongated fourth front toe. The typical D. trivirgata is 
common to north Australia and New Guinea, but D. palpator, 
which has the fourth toe still more elongated, is exclusively Papuan. 
They have seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the four last are 
oblong and four-cusped ; and the first lower incisor is longer than in 
any other phalanger. They apparently feed on both leaves and 
grubs, probably extracting the latter from crannies with the elon- 
gated toe. The tail is more or less bare on the under side of the 
tip. 

The last group of the sub-family is represented firstly by the 
cuscuses, or cususes (Phalanger), which are arboreal animals of the 
approximate size of cats, and range from the Solomon Islands 
through New Guinea and the Moluccas to Celebes, being, in fact, 
the only Old World marsupials found westwards of New Guinea. 
Externally they are characterized by their thick woolly fur, short 
or medium ears, which are hairy outside, and sometimes inside as 
well, by the naked and striated soles of the feet, and the long and 
markedly prehensile tail, of which the basal half is furred like the 
body, and the terminal half entirely naked. The number of cheek- 
teeth varies, owing to the frequent absence of some of the front 
ones, but there are generally seven pairs, of which the last four carry 
crescents internally and cusps externally. About ten species are 
known, of which the grey cuscus (P. orientalis) of Amboyna and 
Timor was discovered about 300 years ago, and was thus the first 
known Old World marsupial. In the spotted cuscus (P. maculatus) 
the males are marked with orange and white, while the females are 
uniformly greyish. Cuscuses are sleepy animals, feeding mainly 
on leaves, but also devouring birds and small mammals. 

Nearly allied to the cuscuses are the typical Australian phalangers, 
or opossums, forming the genus Trichosurus, They differ from 
the cuscuses, among other features, by the thick and non-tapering 
tail being covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip, which is 
naked, as is a narrow line along the middle of the terminal third 



PHALANX PHALTAN 



345 



(or rather more) of the lower surface, by the presence of a gland 
on the chest, and by the soles of the hind feet being hairy. In the 
skull the upper canine is separated from the outermost incisor, 
instead of close to it as in the cuscuses (fig. l). The best-known 
species is the brush-tailed phalanger, or brush-tailed opossum 
(T. vulpecula'), of Australia, an animal of the size of a small fox, 
represented in Tasmania by the brown phalanger (7". vulpecula 
fuliginosus). The short-eared phalanger (T. canina) represents the 
group in Southern Queensland and New South Wales. The dental 
formula in both is i. f , c. J, *. |, m. f. These animals are wholly 
arboreal and mainly nocturnal in their habits; and it is these which 
form the chief game in " opossum-shooting " among the gum-trees 
by moonlight. 

The long-snouted phalanger is referred to under MARSUPIALIA. 

(R. L.*) 

PHALANX (Gr. <t>a\ay!;, of unknown origin), the name, in 
Greek history of the arrangement of heavy-armed infantry in a 
single close mass of spearmen (see ARMY: History). In anatomy, 
the Latin plural phalanges is the term applied to the bones of 
the finger and toe, and in botany to a group of united 
stamen clusters. The term " phalanx " was adopted by 
F. C. M. Fourier (q.v.) as the name of the socialistic community 
living in a " phalanstery." 

PHALARIS, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily, c. 570- 
554 B.C. He was entrusted with the building of the temple 
of Zeus Atabyrius in the citadel, and took advantage of his 
position to make himself despot (Aristotle, Politics, v. 10). 
Under his rule Agrigentum seems to have attained considerable 
prosperity. He supplied the city with water, adorned it with 
fine buildings, and strengthened it with walls. On the northern 
coast of the island the people of Himera elected him general 
with absolute power, in spite of the warnings of the poet 
Stesichorus (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to Suldas he 
succeeded in making himself master of the whole of the island. 
He was at last overthrown in a general rising headed by 
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron (tyrant c. 488-472), and 
burned in his brazen bull. 

After ages have held up Phalaris to infamy for his excessive 
cruelty. In his brazen bull, invented, it is said, by Perillus of 
Athens, the tyrant's victims were shut up and, a fire being kindled 
beneath, were roasted alive, while their shrieks represented the 
bellowing of the bull. Perillus himself is said to have been the first 
victim. There is hardly room to doubt that we have here a tradition 
of human sacrifice in connexion with the worship of the Phoenician 
Baal (Zeus Atabyrius) such as prevailed at Rhodes; when misfortune 
threatened Rhodes the brazen bulls in his temple bellowed. The 
Rhodians brought this worship to Gela, which they founded con- 
jointly with the Cretans, and from Gela it passed to Agrigentum. 
Human sacrifices to Baal were common, and, though in Phoenicia 
proper there is no proof that the victims were burned alive, the 
Carthaginians had a brazen image of Baal, from whose down- 
turned hands the children slid into a pit of fire; and the story that 
Minos had a brazen man who pressed! people to his glowing breast 
points to similar rites in Crete, where the child-devouring Minotaur 
must certainly be connected with Baal and the favourite sacrifice 
to him of children. 

The story of the bull cannot be dismissed as pure invention. 
Pindar (Pythia, i. 185), who lived less than a century afterwards, 
expressly associates this instrument of torture with the name of 
the tyrant. There was certainly a brazen bull at Agrigentum, 
which was carried off by the Carthaginians to Carthage, whence 
it was again taken by Scipio and restored to Agrigentum. In 
later times the tradition prevailed that Phalaris_was a naturally 
humane man and a patron of philosophy and literature. He is 
so described in the declamations ascribed to Lucian, and in the 
letters which bear his own name. Plutarch, too, though he takes 
the unfavourable view, mentions that the Sicilians gave to _ the 
severity of Phalaris the name of justice and a hatred of crime. 
Phalaris may thus have been one of those men who combine justice 
and even humanity with religious fanaticism (Sui'das, s.v. ; Diod. Sic. 
ix. 20, 30, xiii. 90, xxxii. 25; Polybius vii. 7, xii. 25; Cicero, De 
Officiis, ii. 7, iii. 6). 

The letters bearing the name of Phalaris (148 in number) are 
now chiefly remembered for the crushing exposure they received at 
the hands of Richard Bentley in his controversy with the Hon. 
Charles Boyle, who had published an edition of them in 160)5. The 
first edition of Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris appeared in 1697, 
and the second edition, replying to the answer which Boyle published 
in 1698, came out in 1699. From the mention in the letters of 
towns (Phintia, Alaesa and Tauromenium) which did not exist in 
the time of Phalaris, from the imitations of authors (Herodotus, 
Democritus, Euripides, Callimachus) who wrote long after he was 
dead, from the reference to tragedies, though tragedy was not yet 
invented in the lifetime of Phalaris, from the dialect, which is not 



Dorian but Attic, nay, New or Late Attic, as well as from absurdities 
in the matter, and the entire absence of any reference to them by 
any writer before Stobaeus (c. A.D. 500), Bentley sufficiently proved 
that the letters were written by a sophist or rhetorician (possibly 
Adrianus of Tyre, died c. A.D. 192) hundreds of years after the death 
of Phalaris. Sui'das admired the letters, which he thought genuine, 
and in modern times, before their exposure by Bentley, they were 
thought highly of by some (e.g. Sir William Temple in his Essay on 
Ancient and Modern learning), though others, as Politianus and 
Erasmus, perceived that they were not by Phalaris. The latest 
edition of the Epistles is by R. Hercher, in Epistolographi graeci 
(1873), and of Bentley's Dissertation by W.Wagner (with introduction 
and notes, 1883) ; see especially R. C. Jebb, Life of Bentley (1882). 

PHALLICISM, or PHALLISM (from Gr. #aXX6s), an anthropo- 
logical term applied to that form of nature worship in which 
adoration is paid to the generative function symbob'zed by the 
phallus, the male organ. It is common among primitive 
peoples, especially in the East, and had been prominent also 
among more advanced peoples, e.g. the Phoenicians and the 
Greeks. In its most elementary form it is associated with 
frankly orgiastic rites. This aspect remains in more advanced 
forms, but gradually it tends to give place to the joyous recog- 
nition of the principle of natural reproduction. In Greece for 
example, where phallicism was the essence of the Dionysiac 
worship and a phallic revel was the origin of comedy (see also 
HERMES), the purely material and the symbolical aspects no 
doubt existed side by side; the Orphic mysteries had to the 
intellectual Greeks a significance wholly different from that which 
they had to the common people. Phallic worship is specially 
interesting as a form of sympathetic magic: observing the 
fertilizing effect of sun and rain, the savage sought to promote 
the growth of vegetation in the spring by means of symbolic 
sexual indulgence. Such were the rites which shocked Jewish 
writers in connexion with the worship of Baal and Astaroth 
(see BAAL, and cf. ATARGATIS, ISHTAR). The same principle is 
at the root of the widespread nature worship of Asia Minor, whose 
chief deity, the Great Mother of the Gods (?..), is the personifi- 
cation of the earth's fertility: similarly in India worship is paid 
to divine mothers. Generally it should be observed that phallic 
worship is not specially or perhaps primarily paid to male deities, 
though commonly the more important deity is accompanied by 
a companion of the other sex, or is itself androgynous, the two 
symbols being found together. 

In the Dionysiac rites the emblem was carried at the head of 
the processions and was immediately followed by a body of men 
dressed as women (the ithy phalli). In Rome the phallus was 
the most common amulet worn by children to avert the evil 
eye: the Latin word was fascinum (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xix. 50, 
satyrica signa; Varro, Ling. Lot. vii. 97, ed. Miiller). Pollux 
says that such emblems were placed by smiths before their 
forges. Before the temple of Aphrodite at Hierapolis (q.v.) 
were two huge phalli (180 ft. high), and other similar objects 
existed in all parts of the ancient world both in statuary and in 
painting. Among the Hindus (see HINDUISM) the phallus is 
called linga or lingam, with the female counterpart called yoni', 
the linga symbolizes the generative power of Siva, and is a charm 
against sterility. The rites classed together as Sakti puja 
represent the adoration of the female principle. In Mexico, 
Central America, Peru and other parts of America phallic 
emblems are found. The tendency, however, to identify all 
obelisk-like stones and tree-trunks, together with rites like 
circumcision, as remains of phallic worship, has met with much 
criticism (e.g. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., 
pp. 456 sqq.). 

For authorities see works quoted under RELIGION: A and B 
ad fin. 

PHALTAN, a native state of India, in the central division of 
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara jagirs. Area, 397 sq. m.; 
pop. (1901), 45,739, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade. 
The estimated revenue is 13,000, and the tribute 640. The 
chief, whose title is nimbalkar, is a Mahratta, tracing his descent 
to a grantee from a Delhi emperor in the I4th century. The 
town of Phaltan is 37 m. north-east of Satara; pop. (1901), 
9512. 



PHANARIOTES PHARISEES 



PHANARIOTES, a name derived from Phanar, the chief 
Greek quarter at Stamboul, where the oecumenical patriarchate 
is situated, and applied to those members of families resident 
in the Phanar quarter who between the years 1711 and 1821 
were appointed hospodars of the Danubian principalities; that 
period of Moldo-Wallachian history is also usually termed the 
Phanariote epoch. It is not to be understood as marking the 
introduction into the principalities of the Greek element, which 
had already established itself firmly in both provinces, to both of 
which Greek princes had been appointed before the i8th century. 
But whereas the Greek families of earlier introduction gradually 
became merged in their country of adoption, the later immi- 
grants retained their separate nationality and grew to be powerful 
agents for furthering the spread of Graecism in the principalities. 
The person raised to the princely dignity was usually the chief 
dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and was consequently well 
versed in contemporary politics and the statecraft of the Otto- 
man government. The new prince, who was compelled to pur- 
chase his elevation with a heavy bribe, proceeded to the country 
which he was selected to govern, and of the language of which 
he was in nearly every case totally ignorant, accompanied by a 
horde of needy hangers-on; he and his acolytes counted on re- 
couping themselves in as short a time as possible for their initial 
outlay and in laying by a sufficiency to live on after the termina- 
tion of the prince's brief authority. It was the interest of the 
Porte to change the princes as often as possible, as the accession 
donation thus became due more frequently. When, owing to the 
numerous cases of treachery among the princes, the choice became 
limited to a few families the plan was hit upon of frequently 
shifting the prince from one province to the other: the prince of 
Wallachia, the richer of the two principalities, was always ready 
to pay a handsome douceur to avert his transfer to Yassy; the 
prince of Moldavia was equally ready to bribe his supporters 
at Constantinople to secure his appointment to Wallachia. To 
raise funds to satisfy the rapacity of the Porte the princes became 
past masters in the art of spoliation, and the inhabitants, liable 
to every species of tax which the ingenuity of their Greek rulers 
could devise, were reduced to the last stage of destitution. The 
active part taken by the Greek princes in the revolt of 1820-21 
induced the Porte to revert to the appointment of native 
princes. 

PHAN1AS, of Eresus in Lesbos, Greek philosopher, important 
as an immediate follower of and commentator on Aristotle, 
came to Athens about 332 B.C., and joined his compatriot, 
Theophrastus, in the Peripatetic school. He wrote works entitled 
Analytica, Categoriae and De inter pretatione, which were either 
paraphrases or critical commentaries, and seem to have added 
little to Aristotle's own writings. Alexander of Aphrodisias 
refers to a work irpk AtoSupov, and Athenaeus quotes from 
another treatise, Against (he Sophists. Outside philosophy, he 
and Theophrastus carried on the physical investigations of 
Aristotle; Athenaeus frequently quotes from a work on botany 
which manifests great care in definitions and accuracy of obser- 
vation. From Plutarch (Life of Themistocles) we learn that 
he was regarded as an historian of importance. The chief of 
his historical works is the Prylaneis Eresii, which was either a 
history of his native place or a general history of Greece arranged 
according to the period of the Eresian magistracy. He wrote 
also works on the Tyrants of Sicily and on tyranny in general. 
The value of these books is attested by the frequency with which 
they are quoted on questions of chronology (e.g. by Plutarch, 
Suidas, Athenaeus). To the history of Greek literature he 
contributed works on the poets and on the Socratics, both of 
which are quoted. 

He must be distinguished from another Phanias, a Stoic philo- 
sopher, disciple of Posidonius. Diogenes Laertius mentions a 
work of his wherein he compares Posidonius with Panaetius in 
arguing from physical principles. 

PHANOCLES, Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about 
the time of Alexander the Great. His extant fragments show 
resemblances in style and language to Philetas, Callimachus and 
Hermesianax. , He was the author of a poem on paederasty. 
A lengthy fragment in Stobaeus (Florilegium, 64) describes 



the love of Orpheus for the youthful Calais, son of Boreas, 
and his subsequent death at the hands of the Thracian 
women. It is one of the best extant specimens of Greek elegiac 
poetry. 

See N. Bach, Philetae, Hermesianactis, et Phanoclis reliquiae (1829) ; 
L. Preller, Ausgewdhlte Aufsdtze aus dem Gebiete der classiscken 
Alterthumswissenschaft (1864). 

PHANTASMAGORIA, a name invented by a certain Philipstal 
in 1802 (from Gr. <tta.vTa.atia., phantasm, apparition; and afopa, 
assembly) for a show or exhibition of optical illusions produced 
by means of the projecting lantern (q.v.). The word has since 
been applied to any rapidly or strikingly changing scene, and 
especially to a disordered or fantastic scene or picture of the 
imagination. 

PHARAOH (Par'oh), the Hebraized title of the king of Egypt 
(q.ii.), in Egyptian Per-'o; Pheron in Herodotus represents the 
same. Its combination with the name of the king, as in Pharaoh- 
Necho, Pharaoh-Hophra, is in accordance with contemporary 
native usage: the name of the earlier Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk) 
is rightly given without the title. In hieroglyphic a king bears 
several names preceded by distinctive titles. In the IVth 

Dynasty there might be four of the latter: (i) v\ identifying 
him with the royal god Horus; the name is commonly written 
in a frame ||||||||| representing the facade of a building, 
perhaps a palace or tomb, on which the falcon stands. (2) 
connecting him with the vulture and uraeus god- 
desses, Nekhabi and Buto of the south and north, 
a hawk oil the symbol of gold, signifying the victorious Horus. 



(4) 



the old titles of the rulers of the separate king- 



doms of Upper and Lower Egypt, to be read stni, " butcher(?) " 
and byti, " beekeeper(?) " The personal name of the king 
followed (4), and was enclosed in a cartouche d> ap- 
parently symbolizing the circuit of the sun which alone 
bounded the king's rule. Before the IVth Dynasty the car- 
touche is seldom found: the usual title is (i), and (3) does not 
occur. In the Vth Dynasty the custom began of giving the 
king at his accession a special name connecting him with the sun : 
this was placed in the cartouche after (4), and a fifth title was 

added: (5) 5r* Si-re, "son of the Sun-god," to precede 

a cartouche containing the personal name. The king was briefly 
spoken of by his title stni (see 4), or ftnm-f, "his service," or Ity, 
" liege-lord." These titles were preserved in the sacred writing 
down to the latest age. An old term for the royal palace 
establishment and estate was Per-'o, " the Great House, " and 
this gradually became the personal designation of Pharaoh 
(cf. the Grand Porte), displacing all others in the popular 
language. (F. LL. G.) 

PHARI, a town of Tibet. It is supposed to be the highest and 
coldest town in the world, being 15,00 ft. above the sea. As it 
commands the road between the Chumbi Valley and Lhasa and 
also one of the chief passes into Bhutan, Phari is of considerable 
military importance, and is defended by a large fort or Jong, 
which was occupied by the British expedition of 1904. Phari 
Jong is supposed to have been built about 1500 A.D., and was 
enlarged or rebuilt in 1792, under Chinese advice, as a defence 
against the British. It has the appearance of a medieval castle, 
and seems to have been built in imitation of the European 
style. 

PHARISEES, a sect of the Jews first mentioned by Josephus, 
in his account (Ant. xiii. 5, 9) of the reign of Jonathan, the 
brother and successor of Judas Maccabaeus. The name, which 
may be translated " Separatists," indicates their devotion to 
the ideal, enforced by Ezra and Nehemiah upon the reluctant 
Jews, of a nation separate from all other nations in virtue of its 



PHARMACOLOGY 



347 



peculiar relation to Yahweh (Neh. ix.). This ideal nation 
consisted of all who were prepared to obey the Law of 
Moses, irrespective of their natural descent. Consequently the 
Pharisees, who seem to have been an order of religious teachers, 
were concerned to make converts (proselytes), and some of their 
greatest teachers were of non-Jewish parentage. They were 
also concerned to insist upon the strict observance of the Law, 
so far as it was compatible with the exigencies of ordinary life, 
and to train disciples who should set a proper example to the 
mass of the people. 

The ideal of separation descended from the Great Synagogue 
(Assembly) of the time of Ezra to the Synagogue of the $asi- 
daeans (Assidaeons), who allied themselves with Judas Macca- 
baeus when his followers decided to suspend the law of the 
Sabbath, in order that the true Jews might preserve themselves 
from annihilation and survive to keep the Law as a whole. This 
action of the Hasidaeans is clearly the practical outccme of the 
principle which Josephus describes in the language of philosophy 
as the characteristic of the Pharisees " some things and not all 
are the work of Fate " (Ant. xiii. 5, 9). Fate is the Stoic term 
for God; and these forerunners of the Pharisees judged that the 
time had come for them to take action rather than to wait 
passively on God. But then and always the prime concern of the 
Pharisees was the extension of God's sovereignty (the Kingdom 
of God) throughout the world. God's will, which all men should 
obey, was revealed in the Law, and though He might appoint 
governors over them, He remained their King, and no governor 
who was not a prophet God's mere mouthpiece could com- 
mand their unquestioning obedience. When Judas reconquered 
Jerusalem and re-dedicated the desecrated Temple, his work, 
from the Pharisees' point of view, was done. The Temple- 
worship was part and parcel of the Divine plan, and a legitimate 
High Priest was necessary. Alanius was, therefore, welcomed 
by the Hasidaeans, and only his treacherous murder of sixty of 
their number taught them that any Syrian nominee was their 
enemy. Later they acquiesced in the election of Simon to the 
high-priesthood with the condition " until there should arise a 
faithful prophet "; but some of them remonstrated against the 
combination of the sacred office with the position of political 
ruler in the person of John Hyrcanus as contrary to the precedent 
set by Moses at his death. When Alexandra came to the throne 
the Pharisees were the real rulers and imposed upon the people 
the deductions from the written Law which formed the growing 
body of their oral tradition. Their reign was long enough to 
establish this tradition in respect of ritual, and even when this 
golden age as it seemed to later Scribes was over they 
exercised a paramount influence upon the common people. 
They had learned to read God's will in the events of history, and 
deduced (for example) the doctrine of the resurrection of the 
dead from the death of the martyrs under Antiochus Epiphanes 
and Alcimus. And what they learned from current history and 
from the ancient history of the nation recorded in Scripture they 
taught in the synagogues, which corresponded not merely to the 
parish churches but also to the schools day schools and Sunday 
schools of to-day. Apart from their control of public education, 
their power was enhanced by their efforts to better the position 
of women, and by their notorious leniency in the matter of 
punishments. Everything the repeated statements of Josephus 
and the facts of Jewish history after A.D. 70 goes to show that 
the Pharisees moulded the religion of the people. Attempts 
have been made in modern times to represent the Apocalyptists 
as opposed to the Pharisees and as occupying the position in 
popular estimation which Josephus ascribes to the Pharisees. But 
for such representations there is no solid ground. Superficially 
the language of apocalypses differs from that of rabbinic deci- 
sions., and where the seer takes a comprehensive view of the ages 
the rabbi legislates for particular cases. But even in the Talmud 
the reign of Alexandra is described in apocalyptic language such 
as is commonly applied to the future age, and if allowance be 
made for the symbolism proper to revelations it is clear that 
essentially the scribe and the seer have the same purpose and 
even the same doctrines. The Pharisees were occupied with the 



piecemeal realization of the dreams of their supposed opponents, 
which gain a vague glory from their being far off. 

The gospels generally have left upon the minds of men an 
impression unfavourable to the Pharisees. They contain de- 
nunciations attributed to our Lord and assigned with obvious 
injustice in some cases to the scribes of this sect. It is to be 
remembered that the Pharisees were the only sect of the Jews 
who survived in Christian times and that the Pharisees were 
never a homogeneous body possessed of a definite policy or body 
of doctrine. Moreover it is clear that our Lord denounced no't 
all the Pharisees but the hypocrites only, as did the rabbis 
whose sayings are reported in the Talmud and other Jewish 
books. Again the third gospel in particular betrays relations 
between the Pharisees and Jesus very different from those of the 
common Christian view, which conjures up an impossible picture 
of an absolute breach between the Prophet of Nazareth and 
the whole corporation of the Pharisees as a result of a quarrel 
with certain members of that dissident sect of independent 
thinkers. Gamaliel and his pupil St Paul nre better representa- 
tives of the non-hypocritical Pharisee; and the Pauline Epistles 
or the writings of Philo are the best extant examples of the manner 
and matter of their teaching. As for the denunciations, apart 
from the charge of insincerity, it appears that the scribes in 
question are pilloried for the defects or the excesses of their 
qualities. Indeed they are corroborative evidence for the 
reverence with which the Pharisees were regarded by the 
people generally, and for the zeal with which they strove to 
fulfil God's will as contained in the Law and elucidated by the 
Tradition. (J. H. A. H.) 

PHARMACOLOGY. Systematic writers on the subject differ 
considerably in the exact meaning which they attach to the term 
pharmacology ((ftapnaKov, a drug; Xo^os, a discourse), some 
making it much more comprehensive than others. Binz, for 
instance, defines it as treating of the origin, nature, chemical 
and physical qualities, physiological actions, and therapeutical 
uses of drugs; in France and in Italy it is restricted to the mere 
description of medicines and their preparations, the action and 
uses of which as remedies are included in the term therapeutics. 
In English-speaking countries, and by the majority of German 
writers, the meaning is now restricted to the study of the action 
of chemical substances (as apart from foods) on all kinds of 
animals, from bacteria up to man; it is, in fact, a comparative 
study of the action of chemical bodies on invertebrate and verte- 
brate animals. One of its practical aims is to obtain a wide and 
accurate knowledge of remedial substances in relation to their 
application in the treatment of disease, while another is to 
discover new or improved remedies. This meaning of the word 
has now become fixed in the English language by use and wont. 
The term pharmaco-dynamics (<i>apfia.Koi>, dvvafus, power), 
which is etymologically more correct, is often used as its equiva- 
lent, but it has never become widely adopted. The study of 
pharmacological actions was at first almost entirely confined 
to those of remedial agents, and especially to the remedies in the 
different national pharmacopoeias, but in many cases it has now 
been extended to substances which are not used for curative 
purposes. The introduction into practical use of many medi- 
cines, such as paraldehyde, phenazone and strophanthus, has 
followed the study of their actions on animals, and this tends 
to be more and more the case. Pharmacology is a branch of 
biology; it is also closely connected with pathology and bacteri- 
ology, for certain drugs produce structural as well as functional 
changes in the tissues, and in germ diseases the peculiar symptoms 
are caused by foreign substances (toxins) formed by the infective 
organisms present in the body. The effects of many of these 
toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain well- 
known drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and 
are studied by the same methods of observation and research. 
It is impossible also to dissociate pharmacology from clinical 
therapeutics; the former investigates the agents which are used 
in the treatment of disease, the latter is concerned with their 
remedial powers and the conditions under which they are to 
be used. Hence the word " pharmaco-therapy " has come into 



PHARMACOLOGY 



use, and most of the newer standard textbooks combine together 
the consideration of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pharma- 
cology is also related to toxicology, as many remedial and other 
agents are more or less poisonous when given in large doses, but 
it does not include the detection, tests, and the other strictly 
medico-legal aspects of poisoning. 

Pharmacology proper began as the result of the application 
of strictly experimental methods to physiology. The discovery 
Histo (early in the ipth century) that plants owe their 
remedial and poisonous qualities to small quantities of 
definite active principles, such as alkaloids and neutral bodies, 
which can be extracted in a chemically pure condition, had also a 
very important effect on its development. We meet first with 
experiments made by investigators who perceived that observa- 
tions on man and animals might lead to a better understanding 
of the action of drugs. In 1676 Wepfer and Conrad Brunner 
demonstrated on dogs the tetanizing action of nux vomica, and 
similar rough experiments were repeated from time to time with 
other substances by later investigators. In 1755 Menghini 
published an elaborate study of the action of camphor on a great 
variety of different kinds of animals. Albert von Haller (b. 
1708) sought to elucidate the action of remedies by observations 
on healthy men, and in 1767 William Alexander made experi- 
ments on himself with drugs, which were, however, brought to 
an abrupt termination by his nearly killing himself. In 1776 
Daries, by observations on himself and on cats, established the 
mydriatic action of belladonna and other atropaceous plants. 
Hitherto no attempt had been made to determine what particular 
parts of the body were especially affected by drugs, but Fontana 
showed, in his great work (Florence, 1765) on the venom of the 
viper and on other poisons, that the general symptoms were 
brought about by an action on particular organs. He performed 
more than six thousand experiments, more than four thousand 
of which were on animals, and he determined the effects on the 
heart and other important structures. These analytical methods 
of research were well known to the second Monro in Edinburgh, 
and to his pupils, one of whom, William Alexander, wrote a thesis 
in 1790 entitled " De partibus corporis animalis quae viribus 
opii parent." His methods were doubtless known also to the 
French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and 
who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Tieute and other 
strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their 
effects were due to an action on the spinal cord. The researches 
of his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare, were equally exact and 
logical, and have served as the model for many subsequent 
investigations. In consequence, from the time of Magendie 
pharmacology may be said to have been put on a more exact basis. 
By the middle of the i9th century there were many workers on 
the subject, and the actions of such drugs as digitalis, morphine, 
alcohol, and many others had been frequently and minutely 
investigated. About this time Buchheim, professor of materia 
medica in Dorpat from 1846 to 1879, founded the first pharmaco- 
logical laboratory on modern lines in Europe, and he introduced 
a more rational classification of drugs than had hitherto been in 
use, arranging them in groups according to their pharmaco- 
logical actions. In the herbals and older treatises on materia 
medica and therapeutics no explanation is usually offered of the 
action of medicines, and in such works as that of Cullen (1789) 
only a few of the more obvious actions are occasionally explained 
according to the current theories of physiology and pathology. 
In works such as Pareira's Elements of Materia Medica and Thera- 
peutics (1842), the physiological effects of medicines are usually 
described, but very briefly as compared with the materia medica. 
At the present day most textbooks dealing with medicinal agents 
and treatment devote a large part of their space to pharma- 
cology, and a corresponding change has taken place in the 
teaching of the subject in universities and medical schools. 
Since Magendie's time numerous papers dealing with pharmaco- 
logical subjects have appeared in the Journal of Anatomy and 
Physiology, the Journal of Physiology, Virchow's Archiv, and the 
principal medical periodicals of all countries. In 1873 the Archiv 
fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie first appeared, 



in 1895 the Archives Internationales de Pharmakodynamie, and 
in 1909 The Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (pub- 
lished at Baltimore, U.S.A.), all of which are chiefly or entirely 
devoted to pharmacology. 

The methods of research are essentially those employed by 
physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the usual 
way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits and other animals. 
Not only are the general symptoms investigated, but it is neces- 
sary to carry out experiments on the nerves, muscles, circulation, 
secretions, &c., so as to get a more exact knowledge of the 
reasons of the general action. It is true that many of these 
animals react somewhat differently to drugs, both as regards each 
other and as regards man, but for the most part the differences 
are quantitative rather than qualitative. After carrying out a 
series of observations on animals, the drug can be assigned to its 
special group, and a good idea can be obtained of its possible 
practical value or the reverse; hence there is a saving of time and 
an avoidance of the necessity of testing its effects on man. The 
action of a drug may be called direct when it acts on any part 
to which it is immediately applied, or which it may 
reach through the blood; and indirect when one organ 
is affected secondarily to another, as, for instance, in 
strychnine poisoning when the muscles are violently contracted 
as the result of the action of the alkaloid upon the spinal cord. 
In a few cases the action is merely physical, but most frequently 
it is chemical in its nature, and is exerted on the living cell, the 
activity of which is either stimulated or depressed. In some 
cases the substances actually enter into a chemical combination 
with the protoplasm, which may be temporary or (much less 
frequently) permanent; in other cases they seem simply to 
modify or disturb the usual chemical activity of the cells. Pro- 
longed or excessive stimulation invariably leads to depression 
or paralysis, the tissues becoming fatigued, and from this con- 
dition they may recover or they may not. When we come to 
consider more in detail the results of these actions we find that 
the various secretions of the body, such as the sweat, gastric 
juice, bile, milk, urine, &c., may be increased or diminished; 
that the heart may have its muscular or nervous apparatus 
stimulated or depressed; that the nerve-centres in the brain, 
medulla and spinal cord may be rendered more sensitive or the 
reverse; and that the general metabolism of the body may be 
altered in various ways. In addition, the fluid constituents, 
such as the lymph and blood, may have their composition and 
bulk considerably altered, while the special senses, the tempera- 
ture, and, in short, every function and tissue, may be more or 
less affected. 

Some drugs given in excess are poisons to all forms of proto- 
plasm, but when given in doses much short of the lethal they 
usually exhibit a distinct tendency to affect specially, and at an 
early period, certain organs or tissues, and hence result differences 
in action; others may act only on certain organs, leaving the others 
practically untouched. It is often possible by appropriate dosage 
to contrive that these special parts or organs may be affected 
and the rest of the body left practically intact, and it is by 
taking advantage of these selective actions that remedial or 
therapeutical effects are usually obtained. Some substances 
have a very wide range of action, and involve a great variety of 
structures, while others, such as purgatives, have a very limited 
sphere. The action of drugs is often modified by circumstances 
peculiar to the individuals or animals to whom they are ad- 
ministered. In man the most important of these circumstances 
is age, but speaking broadly this is really a question of bulk, the 
child being affected like the adult, but by smaller doses. There 
are exceptions to this, however, as children are more affected 
in proportion by opium and some other substances, and less by 
mercury and arsenic. In old age also the nervous system and 
the tissues generally do not react so readily as in youth. Habit, 
race, personal temperament, emotional conditions, disease, the 
time and circumstances of administration, and other accidental 
causes may also modify the action in man. Some species of 
animals are much more susceptible to the action of certain 
drugs than others, a condition which depends on obvious 



PHARMACOLOGY 



349 



or unknown structural or metabolic differences. In the same 
way some individuals show a special tendency to poisoning by 
doses of certain drugs which are harmless to the great majority 
of mankind, and hence we get unexpected or unusual results, 
these arising from special susceptibility on the part of certain 
organs. These idiosyncrasies are not confined to drugs, but are 
seen with a few articles of food, such as eggs and shellfish. It 
is well known that the habitual consumption of certain drugs, 
such as tobacco, Indian hemp, opium, arsenic, alcohol and 
many others, gradually induces a condition of tolerance to their 
effects, so that large doses can be taken without causing symp- 
toms of poisoning. In all cases, however, there is a limit, and 
after it is reached the ordinary effects of these substances are 
seen. Some individuals, however, never become tolerant, and 
show poisonous effects on each repetition of the dose. The 
degree of tolerance often differs in individuals at different 
times and in different circumstances, and may become lost by 
breaking off the habit for a short time. The explanation 
generally given is that the nerve and other cells become 
accustomed to the drug, so that they cease to react, or that an 
antitoxin is formed which antagonizes the poison, or that the 
poison is rapidly destroyed in the body. Recent researches 
on arsenic and atropine, however, point to the leucocytes as 
playing an important part in the production of tolerance, as 
these gradually become capable of ingesting large amounts of 
the foreign substances, and thus render them more or less 
harmless to the tissues, until they are gradually excreted from 
the body. When the amount is too large to be dealt with 
by the leucocytes, poisoning seems to occur even in the most 
habituated. Tolerance is therefore analogous to, but not 
identical with, the immunity which takes place with the toxins 
of infectious diseases and snake poison. Certain substances, 
notably digitalis, lead, mercury and strychnine, exhibit what is 
called a cumulative action that is to say, when small quanti- 
ties have been taken over a period of time, poisoning or an 
excessive action suddenly ensues. The explanation in these 
cases is that the drug is absorbed more rapidly than it is 
excreted, hence there is a tendency to accumulation in the 
body until a point is reached when the amount becomes 
poisonous. 

Bodies which have a close resemblance in their chemical con- 
stitution exhibit a similar resemblance in their pharmacological 
action, and as the constitution of the substance becomes modified 
chemically so does its action pharmacologically. Numerous 
researches have demonstrated these points with regard to 
individual groups of substances, but hitherto it has not been 
possible to formulate any fixed laws regarding the relationship 
between chemical constitution and physiological action. 

When drugs are swallowed no absorption may take place 
from the alimentary canal; but, as a rule, they pass from there 
into the blood. Absorption may also take place from the skin, 
from the rectum, from the respiratory passages, or from wounds, 
and from direct injection into the subcutaneous tissue or into a 
blood vessel. Very rarely, as in the case of silver salts, excre- 
tion does not take place; but usually the drug is got rid of by 
the ordinary channels of elimination. Just as drugs act upon 
the tissues, so they themselves are in many cases reacted upon, 
and broken up or altered. While in the alimentary canal they 
are subjected to the action of the digestive fluids and the varied 
contents of the stomach and intestines, and after absorption 
they come under the influence of the constituents of the blood 
and lymph, and of the chemical action of the tissue cells. In- 
organic bodies, such as metals, may enter into albuminous 
combinations which may greatly modify their effects, and 
organic substances may be split up into simpler compounds by 
oxidation or reduction, or may be rendered more complex by 
synthesis. 

The antagonism between certain drugs has been much 
studied in relation to their use as antidotes in poisoning, the aim 
being to counteract the effects rather than to obtain a direct 
physiological antagonistic action. Substances which directly 
antagonize each other by acting on the same tissue are few in 



* 



number, but there are numerous instances in which the effects or 
symptoms may be obviated by acting on another tissue. Thus 
curare may stop strychnine convulsions by paralysing the 
terminations of motor nerves, and chloroform may exercise the 
same effect by abolishing the irritability of the spinal cord. If 
two poisons act on the same tissue, one stimulating and the 
other paralysing it, the paralysing substance removes the 
action of the stimulant substance, not by bringing the tissue 
back to its normal state, but by abolishing its excitability; 
hence, although life may be saved by such an action, yet it 
can only be so within certain limits of dosage, because the 
antagonism is never complete at every point. 

Speaking in the widest sense, every substance has an action 
on living protoplasm, but for convenience pharmacological 
substances have come to be limited to those which are used 
as drugs, or which have a distinct action upon the animal 
organism. Such substances are derived from (i) the chemical 
elements and their compounds; (2) plants; and (3) animals. 
The first class includes such substances as iodine, mercury, iron, 
carbon, and their various compounds, and such bodies as 
alcohol, chloroform and chloral, all of which are found in 
nature or can be prepared by ordinary chemical processes of 
manufacture. From plants many substances are obtained which 
at the present time we are unable to make in the chemical 
laboratory, and of the constitution or composition of which 
we are in many cases ignorant. Some of these, such as resins, 
gums, essential oils and fats, are readily obtained as natural 
exudations or by very simple manipulations, while others, such 
as the alkaloids, glucosides and vegetable acids, often require 
to be extracted by very complex processes. Substances ob- 
tained from animals include gland secretions, pepsin and other 
ferments, musk, cod-liver oil, &c., and to these may be added 
various antitoxins. The classification of substances having 
pharmacological actions presents so many difficul- 
ties that no satisfactory or universally adopted 
method has yet been proposed. Our knowledge 
presents so many gaps, and the mode of action of many remedies 
is so obscure and imperfectly understood, that any arrange- 
ment adopted must be more or less tentative in character. The 
close alliance between pharmacology, therapeutics and clinical 
medicine has induced many authors to treat the subject from 
a clinical point of view, while its relationships to chemistry and 
physiology have been utilized to elaborate a chemical and 
physiological classification respectively as the basis for system- 
atic description. Certain writers in despair have adopted an 
alphabetical arrangement of the subject, while others have 
divided it up into inorganic, vegetable and animal substances. 
These last-mentioned methods are far behind our present state 
of knowledge, and need not be discussed here. The objection 
to a strictly chemical classification is, that while many sub- 
stances closely allied chemically have a somewhat similar action 
in certain respects, yet in others they differ very widely a 
striking example of which is given in the case of sodium and 
potassium. A physiological classification according to an action 
on the brain, heart, kidney or other important organ becomes 
still more bewildering, as many substances produce the same 
effects by different agencies, as, for instance, the kidneys may 
be acted upon directly or through the circulation, while the heart 
may be affected either through its muscular substance or its 
nervous apparatus. A clinical or therapeutical classification 
into such divisions as anaesthetics, expectorants, bitters, and 
so on, according to their practical applications, also leads to 
difficulties, as many drugs are employed for numerous purposes. 
The ideal method of grouping pharmacological substances 
would be in reference to their chemical action on living proto- 
plasm, but as yet our knowledge is too scanty for this. At 
the present time the method adopted by Buchheim, or some 
modification of it, is the most scientific. As the result of 
painstaking investigations he grouped together all those sub- 
stances having similar actions, giving to each group the name of its 
best-known or most thoroughly investigated member. Once the 
groups were more or less fixed any new substance could, when 



350 



PHARMACOLOGY 



its action was determined, be referred to its own group, and 
thus be placed or classified. As few substances are absolutely 
identical in action, but only broadly similar, it is often difficult 
to divide sharply one group from another. In a resumt it is 
manifestly impossible to pass in review every pharmacological 
substance, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to those 
groups which are of practical importance. Many individual 
drugs are described under their own headings. 

GROUP I. Acids. This includes sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, 
phosphoric, tartaric, citric, acetic and lactic acids, all of which owe 
their action to their acidity. Many of the other acids, such as 
carbolic and salicylic, have specific effects which have no relationship 
to their acid reaction. The concentrated acids have an intense 
local action, varying from complete destruction of the tissues to 
more or less irritation. When considerably diluted they are only 
slightly irritating; externally applied and in the stomach they have 
an antiseptic action; they increase the secretion of saliva, and thus 
assuage thirst. In the intestine they combine with ammonia and 
other alkalis present, and are absorbed into the blood as neutral 
salts, being excreted chiefly in the urine. In small doses they some- 
what increase general metabolism. Boric acid only belongs partially 
to this group, as it and its compound borax have certain specific 
actions in addition. 

GROUP II. Alkalis. This includes caustic potash, caustic soda, 
solution of ammonia, their carbonates and bicarbonates, borax, 
soaps, lithium carbonate and citrate, quicklime, slaked lime, chalk, 
magnesia and magnesium carbonate. All these substances, apart 
from any other actions, exert a similar effect upon the body in 
virtue of their alkalinity. When they are taken internally in small 
amounts they neutralize the acids in the stomach and other parts of 
the alimentary canal, and at the same time they increase the normal 
acid secretion of the stomach. After absorption into the blood, 
which they make somewhat more alkaline, they are excreted chiefly 
in the urine, to which they impart an alkaline reaction if given in 
sufficient quantity. Some of them by stimulating the kidney 
cells act as diuretics, but others apparently lack this action. Caustic 
potash and caustic soda are locally very irritating, and destroy the 
tissues, but lose this quality when combined with acids as in the case 
of their carbonates, bicarbonates and borax. Quicklime is also 
caustic, but magnesia is bland and unirritating. Weak solutions 
applied locally saponify fats, soften the epidermis, and thus act as 
slight stimulants and cleansers of the skin. Calcium salts form 
insoluble soaps with fats, and combine with albumen in a manner 
which makes them soothing and astringent rather than irritating. 
Apart from alkaline effects, these metals differ considerably 
pharmacologically. Potassium and lithium have a depressing 
action upon the nervous system, ammonium salts have a stimulating 
action, while sodium practically speaking is indifferent. Calcium 
and magnesium have actions somewhat similar to that of potassium. 
Most of these substances are normal constituents of the body, 
and indispensable for healthy existence. They are contained in 
sufficient amount in our ordinary dietary to supply the needs of 
the organism. 

GROUP III. Easily absorbed Salts. Sodium chloride may be 
taken as the type of those salts which diffuse readily, and are 
therefore easily absorbed. Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, 
potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, the alkaline iodides and 
bromides, also belong partly to this group, although most of them 
have also specific actions. Locally they cause considerable irritation, 
and when swallowed in concentrated solution may cause vomiting. 
From the stomach and intestines they are rapidly absorbed, and 
rapidly excreted from the blood, increasing all secretions and the 
general metabolism. These effects are apparently due to their 
irritating action upon individual cells. 

GROUP IV. Salts absorbed with difficulty. This group includes 
the sulphates of sodium, potassium and magnesium, the acetate 
and tartrate of potash, citrate of magnesium, sodium phosphate, 
sodium tartrate and similar salts. Locally their action is slight, 
but when taken internally, dissolved in water, they are not absorbed 
from the alimentary canal except in very limited amount. They 
therefore remain for the most part in the intestine, and as they 
attract and retain large quantities of water, and at the same time 
slightly stimulate the mucous membrane, they come to have a 
purgative action and form the well-known group of saline cathartics. 
The small portion which is absorbed exerts a diuretic action. 

GROUP V. Heavy Metals. These include iron, manganese, 
aluminium, chromium, zinc, copper, silver, gold, platinum, lead, 
mercury, and probably antimony, arsenic and bismuth. Although 
some of these differ very greatly in their actions after absorption, 
still locally they have certain effects in common due chiefly to their 
chemical action on albumen. Their soluble salts combine with 
albumen and preserve it, strong solutions being extremely irritant 
or caustic, while weaker ones are astringent simply, or even soothing. 
They are all antiseptics. Their insoluble compounds are much 
less active locally than the soluble, and in many cases are only 
effective to the extent to which they are dissolved by the secretions. 
Some metals are only absorbed from the alimentary canal to such 



a very limited amount that they exert no general action, while others 
readily pass into the blood and give rise to more or less marked 
effects. All of them injected into the blood in large doses act as 
muscle and nerve poisons, and during their excretion by the kidney 
usually irritate it severely, but only a few are absorbed in sufficient 
amount to produce similar effects when given by the mouth. When 
iron is injected directly into a vein it depresses the heart's action, 
the blood pressure and the nervous system, and during its excretion 
greatly irritates the bowel and the kidneys. When taken by the 
mouth, however, no such actions are seen, owing to the fact that 
very minute quantities are absorbed and that these become stored 
in the liver, where they are converted into organic compounds and 
ultimately go to form haemoglobin. Soluble salts of manganese, 
aluminium, zinc, copper, gold, platinum and bismuth have, when 
given by the mouth, little action beyond their local astringent or 
irritating effects; but when injected into a blood vessel they all exert 
much the same depressing effect upon the heart and nervous system. 
Silver resembles them closely, but differs by the circumstance that 
it is deposited permanently in minute granules in the tissues, and, 
without affecting the general health, stains the skin of a bluish 
colour (argyria). Mercury and lead are absorbed from the bowel 
in considerable quantities, and are capable of inducing acute 
irritant poisoning as well as chronic poisoning. Lead poisons the 
muscular and nervous systems, and gives rise to paralysis, wasting, 
colic and other symptoms, while in the case of mercury, tremors, 
salivation, anaemia and very marked cachexia are induced. 
Arsenic and antimony do not form combinations with albumen, 
but they both greatly depress the central nervous system and 
circulation; and, if their action be long continued in large doses, 
they cause fatty degeneration of the viscera and disappearance 
of glycogen from the liver. Locally they are both very irritating, 
and antimony has a special tendency to cause vomiting. 

GROUP VI. Halogens. This group includes iodine, bromine and 
chlorine, in their free state or as compounds. Locally they are 
all three strongly irritant or caustic, owing to their chemical action 
on albumen. They are in addition powerful germicides, and by 
splitting up water may act as oxidizing agents. Owing to their 
strong affinity for the hydrogen of organic compounds they often 
act as bleachers and deodorizers. Iodine has a special interest, as 
it is a necessary constituent of food, and is present in the secretion 
of the thyroid gland. Apart from certain conditions of ill health, 
the iodides, as such, have no yery marked influence on the healthy 
body beyond their saline action. Alkaline bromides, in addition 
to their saline action, have in sufficient doses a depressing effect 
upon the central nervous system, and less markedly upon the 
heart. Chlorine compounds are not known to exercise any action 
of a similar kind. 

GROUP VII. Sulphur. Sulphur itse|f has no action, but when 
brought into contact with the secretions it forms sulphides, sulphites 
and sulphuretted hydrogen, and thereby becomes more or less irritant 
and antiseptic. In the bowel its conversion into sulphides causes it 
to act as a mild laxative. Baths containing sulphuretted hydrogen 
or alkaline sulphides have a slightly irritating effect upon the skin, 
and stimulate the general metabolism. 

GROUP VIII. Phosphorus. This includes phosphides, and, 
according to some authorities, hypophosphites. Phosphorus is 
present in all cells, in considerable quantity in the nervous tissue, 
and in the bones as phosphates. It is therefore, in some form or 
other, a necessary part of dietary. When taken by the mouth 
phosphorus is an irritant poison in large doses; in small doses the 
only effects noticeable consist in an increased formation of bony 
and connective tissue, although it is also supposed to exert a gently 
stimulating effect upon the nervous system. 

GROUP IX. Oxygen. When pure oxygen is inhaled the only 
effect is a slight increase of the amount of the gas in the blood, but 
this has no particular physiological effect. The pharmacological 
action of hydrogen peroxide (HjOs), potassium permanganate, 
powdered charcoal and some other oxidizing agents depends on the 
readiness with which they give up oxygen. 

GROUP X. Carbonic Acid. Carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide 
(CO) and some other irrespirable gases produce their effects practi- 
cally by asphyxiation. When dissolved in water, however, carbonic 
acid gas is a gentle stimulant to the mouth, stomach and bowel, 
the mixture being absorbed more rapidly than plain water; hence 
its greater value in assuaging thirst. Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) 
was at one time believed to act simply by cutting off the supply of 
oxygen to the tissues, but it also has a specific effect in producing 
paralysis of certain parts of the central nervous system, and hence 
its value as an anaesthetic; when given in small amounts mixed 
with air it produces a condition of exhilaration. 

GROUP XI. Water. Water acts directly as a diluent and solvent. 
It therefore increases all the secretions, especially those of the skin 
and kidneys, while it also stimulates the general metabolism of the 
body and the excretion of nitrogenous products. Mineral waters 
act in the same way, but their effects are very much modified by, and 
depend largely upon, other constituents, such as alkaline salts, 
iron, arsenic, sulphides, carbonic acid, &c. 

GROUP XII. Tannic Acid. Tannic acid is present in small 
quantities in the great majority of plants, but in notable quantity in 
gall-nuts, oak bark, bearberry leaves, rhatany root, catechu, kino, 



PHARMACOLOGY 



red gum, bael fruit, logwood and witch hazel, all of which are 
largely used as medicines. In these the variety of tannic acid is 
not exactly the same, but although there are slight chemical differ- 
ences, they all possess the power of tanning raw hides and of pre- 
serving albuminous tissues. The action of tannic acid is strictly 
local, and depends upon its power of precipitating albumen and of 
destroying germs. It thus acts as an astringent on all mucous 
membranes. After absorption into the blood it loses this effect, 
as it is partly broken up into gallic acid and partly combined with 
alkalis, both of which changes nullify its action upon albumen. 

GROUP XIII. Local Irritants. Although some of the drugs 
already considered have a local irritant action, they produce other 
more important effects, but the substances here ranged under this 
heading depend entirely for their action on their local irritant 
effects. 

a. Those which act upon the alimentary canal: Simple bitters 
such as quassia wood, columbo root, taraxacum, gentian, chiretta, 
and many others, irritate gently the mucous membrane of the 
stomach and bowels, and by increasing the secretions improve 
the appetite and digestion. The aromatic bitters such as chamo- 
mile flowers, cascarilla bark, hops, orange peel and others contain 
in addition small quantities of essential oils which increase their 
local action. The active principles in some of these bitters have 
been isolated pure, and have been found to be alkaloids or neutral 
compounds. Substances like pepper, cayenne pepper, mustard, 
horse-radish and ginger irritate the stomach and bowel much in 
the same way, but are more pungent, and are consequently used as 
condiments. Some of these have a similar but less marked effect 
upon the skin. The large number of vegetable substances used as 
purgatives owe their action to an irritating effect upon the mucous 
membrane and the neuro-muscular apparatus of the bowel, whereby 
the secretions and peristalsis are more or less increased, as the result 
of which diarrhoea ensues. Some of them cause so much irritation 
that the discharge is very watery (hydragogue cathartics), while 
others, for example aloes, by acting gently on the lower part of 
the bowel and on its muscular coat, produce simply a laxative 
effect. A few of them, such as aloin and colocynthin, are also 
purgative when injected subcutaneously or into the blood, probably 
owing to their being excreted into the intestinal canal. 

b. Those which act on the skin: The best known of these is 
cantharides (Spanish fly), the active principle of which is a colour- 
less crystalline body cantharidin which is extremely irritating. 
On a mucous membrane or a delicate skin it exerts an irritant 
action, which occurs more quickly than on a thickened epidermis, 
such as the scalp, and according to the strength and period of 
application there may result redness, a blister, or an ulcer. Many 
other substances, such as chrysarobin, mustard, pepper, &c., are 
also capable of irritating the skin, the effect produced varying from 
mere dilatation of the cutaneous vessels to destruction of tissue. 

GROUP XIV. Male-fern. This includes the male-fern, santonin, 
cusso, pomegranate bark, pumpkin seeds and many other substances 
containing active principles which have a specific poisonous action 
on intestinal parasitic worms. Apart from this their actions vary 
considerably, but are of little practical importance. 

GROUP XV. Ethereal Oils. This includes a very large number 
of substances which owe their action to the fact that they contain 
ethereal or essential oils. The best known of these are cloves, 
pimento (allspice), myrtle, eucalyptus, caraway, fennel, dill, cori- 
ander, rosemary, lavender, peppermint, spearmint, nutmeg, cinna- 
mon, sandal-wood, turpentine, juniper berries, valerian and sumbul. 
In this group may be included the oleo-resins, such as copaiba, 
cubebs and Canada balsam; the gum-resins, such as asafetida, 
myrrh, ammoniacum and galbanum; and the true balsams, such 
as benzoin, storax, balsam of Tolu and balsam of Peru. The resins 
when taken internally have much the same action as essential oils, 
which are closely allied chemically, while the benzoic and cinnamic 
acids in the balsams modify their actions very slightly. Although 
individual essential oils may differ somewhat in action, chemically 
and pharmacologically they are fundamentally similar. They all 
have a poisonous action on protoplasm, which makes them useful 
in medicine as antiseptics, disinfectants, germicides, anti-fermenta- 
tives and parasiticides; when locally applied they are more or less 
irritating, and, when very dilute, astringent. When swallowed 
in small doses they slightly irritate the mouth and gastric mucous 
membrane, increasing the secretions and producing a feeling of 
warmth. At the same time they increase the movements of the 
stomach, and also in this way hasten digestion, an action which 
extends to the upper part of the bowel. They are readily absorbed 
into the blood, and they are excreted chiefly by the kidneys in a 
more or less altered form, and probably also by the different mucous 
membranes, and even by the skin. After absorption their action, 
speaking generally, is exerted on the brain and spinal cord, and is 
at first slightly stimulant and afterwards depressing, even to the 
causing of sleepiness and stupor. Locally applied they depress 
the terminations of sensory nerves, and may thereby lessen pain. 
On the heart and circulation the effects are stimulant unless large 
doses are given, when the pulse becomes slow and blood-pressure 
much lessened. During excretion they irritate the kidneys and the 
sweat-glands, and thereby increase the excretion of urine and of 
sweat. They also increase the number of leucocytes in the blood, 



and the more irritating of them increase the flow of blood to the 
pelvic organs, and may thus stimulate the uterus, or in large doses 
cause abortion. The various camphors, such as laurel camphor, 
Borneo camphor, menthol and cumarin, are oxidized derivatives of 
essential oils, and differ only superficially from them in their action. 

GROUP XVI. Phenol. This includes a very large number of 
bodies chemically allied to benzol, such as carbolic acid, sulpho- 
carbolates, creosote, wood tar, coal tar, oil of cade, thymol, salicylic 
acid, benzoic acid, naphthol, hydroquinon, cresol, guaiacol, ichthyol, 
saccharin and many others. These all resemble carbolic acid more 
or less closely, and may be described as general protoplasm poisons. 
Locally their destructive and irritating effects vary a good deal, but 
even when very dilute they all have a marked poisonous action on 
bacteria, white blood corpuscles, yeast and similar organisms. 
After absorption most of them exercise a depressing effect upon the 
nervous system, and are capable of reducing high temperature. 
They are mostly excreted in the urine. 

GROUP XVII. Alcohol. This group also includes a very large 
number of chemical bodies, only a few of which are mentioned here. 
Ethyl alcohol is taken as a type of the action of methyl alcohol, 
amyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, ether, acetic ether, paraldehyde, 
sulphonal, chloroform, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, chloral 
hydrate, butylchloral hydrate, and almost any number of derivatives 
from these. Some of them are so volatile that they produce their 
effects when inhaled, others when sprayed upon the skin cause 
intense cold and then anaesthesia; but taken in the broadest sense 
the action of all of them after absorption into the blood is very 
similar, and is exerted upon the central nervous system, more especi- 
ally the cerebrum. In all cases there is a longer or shorter period 
of excitement, followed by intoxication or narcosis, and with large 
doses this passes into paralysis and death from depression of the 
respiratory centre or of the heart. Small doses of any of them 
dilate the blood vessels from an action on the vaso-motor centre in 
the medulla oblongata, as a result of which the heart beats more 
rapidly and the blood circulates more freely; but larger doses have 
a general depressing effect upon the circulatory system. Under 
their action more heat is lost from the body, the general metabolism 
is diminished and the temperature falls. With some of them, such 
as chloral and chloroform, the stimulation period is short compared 
with the narcotic period, while with others, such as ether, the reverse 
is the case. 

GROUP XVIII. Nitrites. This group contains amyl nitrite, 
ethyl nitrite, methyl nitrite, nitroglycerin, sodium and potassium 
nitrites, erythrol-tetranitrate, and many other compounds con- 
taining nitrous or nitric acid. The latter becomes reduced to 
nitrous in the body, and thereby exercises its characteristic effects. 
These consist chiefly in an action upon non-striped muscle, vaso- 
motor centres, blood vessels and the blood. When they are given 
by inhalation or by the mouth their first effect is to produce marked 
dilatation of the small arteries, with a fall of blood-pressure and a 
greatly increased rapidity of the heart's action. At the same 
time the non-striped muscles slightly lose their tonicity, and when 
very large doses are given the haemoglobin of the blood becomes 
converted into the chocolate-coloured methaemoglobin. The 
volatile members of the group act much more rapidly and more 
transiently than the others. 

GROUP XIX. Alkaloids. This embraces a very large number 
of important pharmacological substances, which differ a good deal 
in the details of their action, but they all act upon muscle and 
nerve tissue. Some of them affect only certain portions of the 
nervous system, others have a much wider range of action; they 
may act in either case as stimulants or as depressants, and hence 
the symptoms produced by them vary very greatly. 

1. Morphine and the other opium alkaloids (codeine, narcotine, 
laudanine, &c.) have two prominent actions-a narcotic followed by 
a tetanic action. In morphine, on the higher animals at least, the 
narcotic action is very marked, the tetanizing action slightly so; 
while in thebaine there is little narcotic effect, but a tetanizing action 
like that of strychnine. Morphine exercises its effects chiefly upon 
the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata in man. It has in addition 
a markedly depressing action upon the respiratory centre, it lessens 
all the secretions except the sweat, and diminishes bowel peristalsis 
and the size of the pupil. Men are much more affected by it than 
birds, rabbits, dogs and most other animals. Cats, however, show 
marked symptoms of cerebral excitement and increase of the 
reflexes. Compared with morphine, codeine and the other alkaloids 
are only slightly narcotizing. 

2. Strychnine and brucine very closely resemble each other in 
action, and under this heading curarine may also be included. 
These bodies stimulate the grey matter in the spinal cord and 
cause tetanic convulsions. In the case of curare these are masked 
almost at once by paralysis of the terminations of the motor nerves. 

3. Caffeine is the active principle in tea, coffee, kola, mate and 
guarana; while theobromine, a body closely allied to it, is found 
in cocoa and chocolate. They both stimulate the grey nerve-cells 
in the brain and cord, this being the foundation of their dietetic 
value and their use as nervine stimulants. They also markedly 
increase the secretion of urine by stimulating the secreting cells 
of the kidneys. 

4. Cocaine is the active principle of the coca leaf, which is chewed 



352 



PHARMACOLOGY 



as a stimulant-narcotic in Peru and Bolivia. Small doses excite 
the nervous system, while larger doses are depressing. The chief 
action of cocaine from a practical point of view is its power of 
paralysing the terminations of sensory nerves. 

5. Atropine, hyoscyamine, homatropine, duboisine, daturine 
and some- other bodies have a paralysing action upon the ends 
of, the motor and secretory nerves. They therefore lessen al! 
the secretions, and among other actions dilate the pupil and 
increase the rapidity of the heart by paralysing the vagus. In 
addition they have a stimulating action on the central nervous 
system. 

6. Nicotine, piturine and lobeline are the active principles of 
tobacco and other substances which are smoked as stimulant 
narcotics. In large doses they are powerful nerve poisons, but as 
usually taken they exercise a gently stimulant effect upon the 
nervous system. Pilocarpine has an action closely allied to that 
of nicotine, but as it is much less poisonous (the effects produced 
by small doses being chiefly excessive sweating and salivation), it 
is capable of being utilized in medicine. Muscarine has a very 
close resemblance in action to pilocarpine. 

7. Physostigmine, the active principle of the Calabar bean, acts 
chiefly as a stimulant to voluntary and involuntary muscles, and 
at the same time exercises a depressing effect upon the spinal cord. 
It contracts the pupil. 

8. Conine, gelseminine and sparteine all exert a paralysing 
effect on the terminations of the motor nerves, to the implication 
of which the weakened gait and other symptoms are due. 

9. Aconitine, delphinine and many of their derivatives have a 
very widespread depressing action on muscle and nerve. 

10. Apomorphine is essentially a muscle poison, but owing to the 
fact that minute doses stimulate the vomiting centre and cause 
emesis before any other symptoms are observable, its emetic action 
is the most prominent effect in man. 

11. Emetine acts as a gradual depressant to the nervous system 
in animals. In man its chief effect is its emetic action, which 
seems to be due entirely to local irritation of the stomach. 

12. Quinine . Several of the other alkaloids found in cinchona 
bark act very much like quinine. They all depress the conducting 
power and the grey matter of the spinal cord, and to a much less 
extent that of the brain. They lessen the general metabolism and 
lower febrile temperature. The cinchona alkaloids have a specific- 
ally poisonous effect on the parasites of malaria when present in 
human blood, and are poisonous to all low organisms. 

13. Phenacetin, acetanilide, phenazone and many similar bodies 
act as antipyretics in virtue of an action on the heat-regulating 
centres in the cerebrum. 

GROUP XX. Digitalis. This group-name has been given to a 
large number of substances which have an action similar to that of 
the foxglove leaves, including the active principles of strophanthus, 
squill, Vrechites suberecta, Convallaria majalis, Nerium Oleander, 
Helleborus niger, Antiaris ioxicaria (the upas tree), and several 
others. The active principles of these vary a good deal in chemical 
composition, but they are all non-nitrogenous neutral bodies. 
Their action is exerted upon muscle, and chiefly upon the muscle 
of the heart and blood vessels. The individual muscle-fibres con- 
tract and expand more perfectly, and thus the diastole and systole 
of the heart are rendered more complete, the pulse is slowed, and 
the blood-pressure is raised. The slowing of the heart is partly 
brought about by an action on the vagus centre. 

GROUP XXI. Picrotoxin. In large doses the action of picrotoxin 
is exerted chiefly on the medullary nerve centres, whereby irregular 
tonic-clonic convulsions are produced; in minute doses it stops the 
secretion of sweat. 

GROUP XXII. Saponin. Saponin and many allied bodies 
form an abundant soapy-looking froth when shaken up with water, 
and they are contained in a very large number of plants, the chief 
of which are the Quillaia saponaria, Polygala senega, sarsaparilla, 
and others, known collectively as soapworts. They all act as local 
irritants in the alimentary canal, and after absorption are more 
or less depressing to the muscular and nervous systems. They 
produce slight nausea and increased secretion of mucus. 

GROUP XXIII. Cyanogen. This includes compounds of cyano- 
gen such as hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, cyanides of potassium, 
sodium, &c., cherry-laurel water, amygdalin, bitter almonds and 
other chemical and vegetable substances which readily yield hydro- 
cyanic acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a general protoplasmic poison, 
all the lower organisms being very susceptible to its action, while 
in the higher animals it speedily depresses or paralyses all forms of 
nerve tissue. It enters into combination with haemoglobin, forming 
a bright scarlet compound and interfering with respiration. It kills 
by its paralysing effect on the motor ganglia of the heart and on the 
respiratory centre. 

_ GROUP XXIV. Ferments. These include such bodies as pepsin, 
diastase, the pancreatic ferments, papain, the pine-apple ferment, 
taka-diastase and oxhers, and serve to convert starch into sac- 
charine substances, or albumen into peptone and albumoses. 

GROUP XXV. Animal Glands and Secretions. Of these the 
thyroid gland, the suprarenal bodies, the spleen, the bile, the bone 
marrow, the ovaries and some others have been investigated fully. 
Speaking generally, when given in small doses their action on the 



healthy organism is slight or nil, but in disease some of them are 
capable of acting as substitutes for deficient secretions. 

GROUP XXVI. Antitoxins. These are substances which antago- 
nize the toxins formed in the body by pathogenic organisms, the 
toxins of snake venom and other animal poisons, and vegetable 
toxins such as abrin, ricin, &c. A healthy person can be rendered 
insusceptible by gradually accustoming him to increasing doses of 
these poisons, and this immunity is due to antitoxins which are 
found in the blood-serum and which are products of the blood cells. 
The nature of these antitoxic substances is not definitely known, 
but they combine with and destroy the poisons. In specific germ 
diseases a similar antitoxin forms, and in cases which recover it 
counteracts the toxin, while the germs are destroyed by the tissues. 
Antitoxins can be prepared by immunizing a large animal, such as a 
horse, by injecting gradually increasing doses of specific toxins into 
its subcutaneous tissue. In due time the horse is bled, the serum 
is filtered free of blood corpuscles, and then constitutes the anti- 
toxic serum, which can be standardized to a certain potency. Such 
serums are injected subcutaneously in diphtheria, tetanus, strepto- 
coccic infections, plague, snake-poisoning, cholera and other similar 
diseases. They do not as a rule harm healthy men even in large 
quantities, but when repeated they often cause serious symptoms 
due to the body becoming more sensitive to the action of the horse- 
serum in which they are contained. 

GROUP XXVII. Neutral Fats. This includes cod-liver oil, 
almond oil, olive oil, lard, &c., all of which act as foods when taken 
internally, and have a merely physical emollient action when applied 
externally. Lanolin, linseed oil, wax, spermaceti, &c., also belong 
to this group. The paraffins, glycerin and vaseline, although not 
fats, have much the same effect when applied externally, but they 
are not nutritive. 

GROUP XXVIII. Sugars, Starches, Gums, Gelatin, &c. Although 
these and allied bodies are used in various ways as remedies, their 
action is for the most part purely mechanical or dietetic. 

AUTHORITIES. T. Lauder Brunton, Pharmacology, Therapeutics 
and Materia Medica (3rd ed., London, 1891) ; The Action of Medicines 
(London, 1897) ; H. C. Wood, Therapeutics: its Principles and Practice 
(loth ed., London, 1905); A. Cushny, A Textbook of Pharmacology 
and Therapeutics (1906); C. D. F. Phillips, Materia Medica, Pharma- 
cology, and Therapeutics (Inorganic Substances) (London, 1894); 
Binz, Lectures on PJiarmacology (Trans., New Sydenham Society, 
London, 1895); Schmiedeberg, Grundriss der Arzneimittellehre 
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1895, Eng. trans, by Thos. Dixon, Edin- 
burgh, 1887) ; Stokvis, Legons de pharmacotherapie (Haarlem and 
Pans, 1898); Rabuteau, Traite de therapeutique et de pharmacologie 
(Paris, 1884); Vulpian, Les Substances toxiques et mtdicamenteuses 
(Paris, 1882) ; J. Harley, The Old Vegetable Neurotics (London, 1869) ; 
J. Mitchell Bruce, Materia Medica and Therapeutics; W. Hale White, 
Materia Medica, Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Therapeutics (London, 
1909) ; Walter E. Dixon, A Manual of Pharmacology (London, 1906). 

(R. S.*) 

Terminology in Therapeutics. 

It may be useful to give here a general explanation of the 
common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs. 
It is convenient to divide drugs and other substances used in 
medicine into groups according to the part of the system on 
which they chiefly act, though, as stated above, many drugs 
act in more than one manner and could come under several 
groups. 

I. Drugs acting on the blood vessels, which either dilate the 
vessels when taken internally or applied locally, or contract the 
superficial arterioles. Irritants (Lat. irritare, to excite) include: 
Rubefacients (Lat. rubefacere, to make red), which cause the skin 
to become red from dilatation of the blood vessels; Vesicants 
(Lat. vesica, a bladder), which irritate sufficiently to cause the 
blood-serum to exude and form vesicles or blisters, e.g. cantharides; 
Pustulants (Lat. pustula, a blister), still more powerful in their 
effects, causing the blisters to become filled with pus, e.g. croton 
oil. Escharotics (Gr. fcrxApa, hearth, brazier; hence mark of a 
burn, " scar ") or Caustics (Gr. naifiv, to burn), cause the death 
of the part, e.g. silver nitrate and nitric acid. The term counter- 
irritant is used when an irritant is applied to the skin for the pur- 
pose of relieving pain or congestion by dilating the superficial 
vessels. Drugs which contract the vessels and diminish exudation 
comprise Astringents (Lat. astringere, to draw close), while Styptics 
(crTiifaw, to contract) or Haemostatics (Gr. 0*^0, blood, oroTiicAs, 
causing to stand) are substances applied either locally or internally 
in order to arrest bleeding; cold, adrenalin, ergot and the per-salts 
of iron may be taken as examples. 

II. Drugs acting on the digestive tract. Sialogogues (Gr. <raXof, 
spittle, d-j-wyAs, leading) increase the flow of saliva, e.g. mercury; 
Antisialogogues decrease the flow, e.g. belladonna. Aromatics 
(Gr. tpufta, spice) or Bitters increase the flow of the gastric juice. 
Stomachics (Gr. orAMoxos) have the same effect. The term Carmina- 
tives (Lat. carminare, to card wool), adopted from the old medical 
theory of humours, is generally applied to pungent substances which 
help to expel gas from the stomach by stimulating the movement 



PHARMACOPOEIA 



353 



of its contents. Emetics (Gr. Z^eroj, vomiting) are substances 
given for the purpose of causing vomiting, e.g. ipecacuanha or 
apomorphine. Anti-emetics or Sedatives (Lat. sedare, to compose) 
arrest vomiting either by their central or local action, e.g. opium, 
cocaine or cerium oxalate. Purgatives (Lat. purgare, to cleanse) 
aid the onward passage of the contents of the intestinal canal, 
either by increasing the contractions of its muscular coat as laxatives 
(Lat. laxare, to loosen), e.g. as magnesia, or by increasing the flow 
of fluid. Some are termed drastics (Gr. apao-T6s, active) or cathartics 
(Gr. KaBapTiKk, cleansing), which produce watery evacuations. 
Cholago^ues (Gr. xAi?, bile, &yuy6s, leading) are purgatives which 
act by increasing the flow of bile, either by causing an increased 
secretion (e.g. podophyllum) or by sweeping it onwards by 
stimulating the intestinal contractions (e.g. calomel). 

III. Drugs acting on parasites. Anthelmintics (Gr. &vrl, against, 
J-X/K"?, fX^'^os, a worm) are drugs which kill parasites inhabiting 
the intestine. The term vermicide (Lat. vermis, worm, caedere, to 
kill) is applied to drugs which directly kill the entozoa, while 
vermifuge (Lat. vermis, worm, fugare, to put to flight) is applied 
to the purgative usually given after the vermicide for the purpose 
of expelling the worm. Parasiticides or anti-par 'asitics destroy 
parasites; the terms are usually restricted to those acting on skin- 
parasites as contrasted with intestinal ones. 

IV. Drugs acting on the urinary system. Diuretics (Gr. Jid, 
through, dupov, the urine) increase the flow of urine, while lithon- 
triptics (Gr. XWos, stone, rpiffeiv, to rub, grind down) are drugs 
given to prevent the formation of urinary calculi. 

V. Drugs acting on -the generative system. Aphrodisiacs (Gr. 
'AQpoSirri, the goddess of love) increase the action of the generative 
centre in the spinal cord; Anaphrodisiacs decrease its action. 
Ecbolics (Gr. ix/SdXXeu', to throw out) or oxytocics (Gr. 66$, 
sharp, quick, TOKOS, parturition) stimulate uterine action. Emmena- 
gogues (Gr. IAWO, menses, 4701765, leading) are substances which 
increase the menstrual flow. Galactogogues (Gr. 7AXa, milk) in- 
crease the secretion of milk, while antigalactogogues (e.g. belladonna) 
have the opposite effect. 

VI. Drugs acting on the respiratory system. Expectorants 
increase the bronchial secretions; antispasmodics relax the spasm 
of the muscular coat of the bronchial tubes, e.g. stramonium. 
This latter term is also used for drugs which act as general 
depressants. 

VII. Drugs or substances acting on the bodily heat. Anti- 
pyretics (Gr. furl, against, xuptros, fever) either increase the heat 
loss or diminish its production; e.g. phenacetin, cold water, &c. 

VIII. Drugs or substances acting on the skin. Diaphoretics 
(Gr. Sicutapeiv, to carry through) increase the amount of sweat, 
either by acting directly on the sweat centres or on the nerve 
terminals. The word Sudorific (Lat. sudor, sweat) is applied to 
them when they act very powerfully. Anhidrotics or Antihidrotics 
(Gr. topi!>?, sweat) diminish the secretion of sweat. Emollients 
(Lat. mollis, soft) are substances which soften and protect the 
parts. Demulcents (Lat. demulcere, soften), soothe the skin or 
mucous membrane. 

IX. Drugs acting on metabolism. Alteratives are drugs which 
alter the course of a disease, the mode of action being unknown. 
Tonics are drugs which increase the muscular tone of the body by 
acting either on the stomach, heart, spinal cord, &c. 

X. Drugs acting on the blood. Antitoxins are organic products 
designed to neutralize the formation of the toxins of certain dis- 
eases in the blood. Toxins are also injected in order to stimulate 
the blood plasma to form antitoxins (see BACTERIOLOGY). Anti- 
periodics inhibit a disease having periodic recurrences; e.g. quinine 
in malaria. Haematinics are drugs which increase the amount of 
haemoglobin in the blood. 

XI. Drugs acting on the nervous system. Anaesthetics (q.v.) 
diminish sensibility, either central or peripheral-; Anodynes (Gr. 
av-, priv., ttiimj, pain) relieve pain only, but, as in Analgesics 
(Gr. 4X7770-15, sense of pain), sensibility is unaltered. Stimulants 
are those which lead to excitation of the mental faculties and in 
quantity may lead to delirium and incoherence. Hypnotics (Gr. 
CJTTOS, sleep) or Soporifics (Lat. sopor, a deep sleep) are drugs which 
produce sleep without causing cerebral excitement. Narcotics 
(Gr. vapuri, numbness) are those which besides producing sleep 
may in large doses depress the functions of respiration and 
circulation. 

XII. Drugs which arrest the progress of putrefaction. This is 
either by inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms (Antiseptics) 
or by destroying them when present (Disinfectants). (H. L. H.) 

PHARMACOPOEIA (lit. the art of the tj>a.pp.a.Kairou>s, or drug- 
compounder), in its modern technical sense, a book containing 
directions for the identification of simples and the preparation 
of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a 
government or of a medical or pharmaceutical society. The 
name has also been applied to similar compendiums issued by 
private individuals. The first work of the kind published under 
government authority appears to have been that of Nurem- 
berg in 1542; a passing student named Valerius Cordus showed 

XXI. 12 



a collection of medical receipts, which he had selected from the 
writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the phy- 
sicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit 
of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of 
the senatus. An earlier work, known as the Anlidotarium 
florentinum, had been published under the authority of the 
college of medicine of Florence. The term " pharmacopoeia" 
first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel in 
1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into 
general use until the beginning of the i;th century. Before 1542 
the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises 
on simples by Avicenna and Serapion; the De synonymis 
and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis; the Liber semitoris 
of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the pre- 
parations made from plants, animals and minerals, and was the 
type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and 
the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, containing Galenical 
compounds arranged alphabetically. Of this last work there 
were two editions in use Nicolaus magnus and NicoJaus parvus; 
in the latter several of the compounds described in the larger 
edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale. 
Until 1617 such drugs and medicines as were in common use 
were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that 
year the apothecaries obtained a separate charter, and it was 
enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The 
preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to 
the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to 
make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia 
in May 1618 by the College of Physicians, and by the power 
which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with 
the censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shops 
of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the 
compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the 
first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly 
from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was 
found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled, 
and a fresh edition was published in the following December. 
At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often 
heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70, 
or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used 
in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess 
different qualities according to the source from which it was 
derived. Thus crabs' eyes, pearls, oyster-shells and coral were 
supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredi- 
ents entering into some of these formulae were the excrements 
of human beings, dogs, mice, geese and other animals, calculi, 
human skull and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms, 
&c. Although other editions of the London Pharmacopoeia 
were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639 and 1677, it was not until the 
edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane, 
that any important alterations were made. In this issue many 
of the ridiculous remedies previously in use were omitted, 
although a good number were still retained, such as dogs' 
excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the 
botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added 
to the official ones; the simple distilled waters were ordered of 
a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratifias 
were omitted as weU as several compounds no longer used in 
London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improve- 
ment was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which 
only those preparations were retained which had received the 
approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee; to 
these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed 
to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify 
further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous 
ingredients. In the edition published in 1788 the tendency to 
simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the 
extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal 
remedies of physicians for 2000 years were discarded, while a 
few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to 
be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to their 
previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclature 



354 



PHARMACOPOEIA 



was adopted, and in 1815 a corrected impression of the same 
was issued. Subsequent editions were published in 1824, 
1836 and 1851. 

The first Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699 
and the last in 1841; the first Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1807 
and the last in 1850. 

The preparations contained in these three pharmacopoeias 
were not all uniform in strength, a source of much inconvenience 
and danger to the public, when powerful preparations such as 
dilute hydrocyanic acid were ordered in the one country and 
dispensed according to the national pharmacopoeia in another. 
In consequence of this inconvenience the Medical Act of 1858 
ordained that the General Medical Council should cause to be 
published a book containing a list of medicines and compounds, 
to be called the British Pharmacopoeia, which should be a 
substitute throughout Great Britain and Ireland for the separate 
pharmacopoeias. Hitherto these had been published in Latin. 
The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English 
language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to 
the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the 
General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition 
in 1867. This dissatisfaction was probably owing partly to the 
fact that the majority of the compilers of the work were not 
engaged in the practice of pharmacy, and therefore competent 
rather to decide upon the kind of preparations required than 
upon the method of their manufacture. The necessity for this 
element in the construction of a pharmacopoeia is now fully 
recognized in other countries, in most of which pharmaceutical 
chemists are represented on the committee for the preparation 
of the legally recognized manuals. 

National pharmacopoeias now exist in the following countries: 
Austria, Belgium, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, 
Greece, Holland, Hungary, India, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, 
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, the United States of 
America and Venezuela. All the above-mentioned were issued 
under the authority of government, and their instructions have the 
force of law in their respective countries, except that of the United 
States, which was prepared by commissioners appointed by medical 
and pharmaceutical societies, and has no other authority, although 
generally accepted as the national textbook. 

The French Codex has probably a more extended use than any 
other pharmacopoeia outside its own country, being, in connexion 
with Dorvault's L'Officine, the standard for druggists in a large 
portion of Central and South America; it is also official in Turkey. 
The sum-total of the drugs and preparations it contains is about 
1250, or double the average of other modern pharmacopoeias. 
The progress of medical knowledge has led to a gradual but very 
perceptible alteration in the contents of the pharmacopoeias. The 
original very complex formulae have been simplified until only 
the most active ingredients have been retained, and in many 
cases the active principles have to a large extent replaced the crude 
drugs from which they were derived. From time to time such 
secret remedies of druggists or physicians as have met with popular 
or professional approval have been represented by simpler official 
preparations. 

The rapid increase in medical and pharmaceutical knowledge 
renders necessary frequent new editions of the national pharma- 
copoeias, the office of which is to furnish definite formulae for pre- 
parations that have already come into extensive use in medical 
practice, so as to ensure uniformity of strength, and to give the 
characters and tests by which their purity and potency may be 
determined. But each new edition requires several years to carry 
out numerous experiments for devising suitable formulae, so that 
the current Pharmacopoeia can never be quite up to date. This 
difficulty has hitherto been met by the publication of such non- 
official formularies as Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia 
and Martindale's Extra Pharmacopoeia, in which all new remedies 
and their preparations, uses and doses are recorded, and in the 
former the varying strengths of the same preparations in the different 
pharmacopoeias are also compared. The need of such works to 
supplement the Pharmacopoeia is shown by the fact that they are 
even more largely used than the Pharmacopoeia itself, the first 
having been issued in 1 8 and the second in 13 editions at compara- 
tively short intervals. In England the task of elaborating a new 
Pharmacopoeia is entrusted to a body of a purely medical character, 
and legally the pharmacist has not, as in other countries, a voice 
in the matter, notwithstanding the fact that, although the medical 
practitioner is naturally the best judge of the drug or preparations 
that will afford the best therapeutic result, he is not so competent 
as the pharmacist to say how that preparation can be produced in 
the most effective and satisfactory manner, nor how the purity of 
drugs can be tested. In the preparation of the fourth edition of 



the British Pharmacopoeia in 1898 some new departures were made. 
A committee of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was 
appointed at the request of the General Medical Council to advise 
on pharmaceutical matters and the valuable assistance rendered 
by it is acknowledged in the preface of that work. A census of 
prescriptions was taken to ascertain the relative frequency with 
which different preparations and drugs were used in prescriptions, 
and suggestions and criticisms were sought from various medical 
and pharmaceutical bodies at home and in the colonies. As regards 
the purely pharmaceutical part of the work a committee of refer- 
ence in pharmacy, nominated by the pharmaceutical societies of 
Great Britain and Ireland, was appointed to report to the Pharma- 
copoeia Committee of the Medical Council. 

Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration 
of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia 
as a legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it. 
The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only " intended to 
afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged 
in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire 
one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composi- 
tion of substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and 
determined." It is obvious that it cannot be an encyclopaedia 
of substances used in medicine, and can only be used as a standard 
for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no 
others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v. 
Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official pre- 
parations asked for under their pharmacopoeia! name. But there 
are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only 
employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as sulphur, benzoin, 
tragacanth, gum arabic, ammonium carbonate, beeswax, oil of 
turpentine, linseed oil, and for these a commercial standard of 
purity as distinct from a medicinal one is needed, since the prepara- 
tions used in medicine should be of the highest possible degree of 
purity obtainable, and this standard would be too high and too 
expensive for ordinary purposes. The use of trade synonyms in 
the Pharmacopoeia, such as saltpetre for purified potassium nitrate, 
and milk of sulphur for precipitated sulphur, is partly answerable 
for this difficulty, and has proved to be a mistake, since it affords 
ground for legal prosecution if a chemist sells a drug of ordinary 
commercial purity for trade purposes, instead of the purified 
preparation which is official in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal 
use. This would not be the case if the trade synonym were omitted. 
For many drugs and chemicals not in the Pharmacopoeia there is 
no standard of purity that can be used under the Adulteration of 
Food and Drugs Act, and for these, as well as for the commercial 
quality of those drugs and essential oils which are also in the 
Pharmacopoeia, a legal standard of commercial purity is much 
needed. This subject formed the basis of discussion at several 
meetings of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the results have been 
embodied in a work entitled Suggested Standards for Foods and 
Drugs, by C. G. Moor, which indicates the average degree of purity 
of many drugs and chemicals used in the arts, as well as the highest 
degree of purity obtainable in commerce of those used in medicine. 

An important step has also been taken in this direction by the 
publication under the authority of the Council of the Pharmaceutical 
Society of Great Britain of the British Pharmaceutical Codex, in 
which the characters of and tests for the purity of many non- 
official drugs and preparations are given as well as the character 
of many glandular preparations and antitoxins that have come 
into use in medicine, but have not yet been introduced into the 
Pharmacopoeia. This work may also possibly serve as a standard 
under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act for the purity and 
strength of drugs not included in the Pharmacopoeia and as a 
standard for the commercial grade of purity of those in the Pharma- 
copoeia which are used for non-medical purposes. 

Another legal difficulty connected with modern pharmacopoeias 
is the inclusion in some of them of synthetic chemical remedies, 
the processes for preparing which have been patented, whilst the 
substances are sold under trade-mark names such as veronal. The 
scientific chemical name is often long and unwieldy, and the 
physician prefers when writing a prescription to use the shorter 
name under which it is sold by the patentees. In this case the 
pharmacist is compelled to use the more expensive patented article 
and the patient complains of the price. If he uses the same article 
under its pharmacopoeia! name when the patented article is pre- 
scribed he lays himself open to prosecution by the patentee for 
infringement of patent rights. The only plan, therefore, is for the 
physician to use the chemical name (which cannot be patented) 
as given in the Pharmacopoeia, or for those synthetic remedies 
not included in the Pharmacopoeia to use the scientific and 
chemical name given in the British Pharmaceutical Codex. 

International Pharmacopoeia. Increased facilities for travel have 
brought into greater prominence the importance of an approach 
to uniformity in the formulae of the more powerful remedies, in 
order to avoid danger to patients when a prescription is dispensed 
in a different country from that in which it was written. Attempts 
have been made by international pharmaceutical and medical 
conferences to settle a basis on which an international pharmacopoeia 
could be prepared, out, owing to national jealousies and the attempt 
to include too many preparations in such a work it has not as yet 



PHARMACOSIDERITE PHARMACY 



355 



been produced. The standardization of preparations of patent 
medicines, as regards the amount of active principles they contain, 
can only conveniently and economically be done in operating on 
large quantities, and must naturally lead to the preparations being 
standardized at wholesale houses, who issue a guarantee with them ; 
but it is not yet certain that deterioration may not take place after 
standardization, in such as those of ergot or digitalis, so that it is 
somewhat questionable whether the standardization is of permanent 
value in all cases. Probably more dependence is to be placed on 
careful selection of the drug, and skill in its preparation and pre- 
servation by the retail pharmacist, who should be personally 
responsible for the quality and purity of the preparations he sells. 
Although the attempt to form an international pharmacopoeia 
has failed, a project for an imperial pharmacopoeia which should 
be adapted to the general and local requirements of all parts of 
the British Empire has met with better success. With the aid of 
the medical and pharmaceutical authorities in each of the seventy 
administrative divisions of the British Empire an Indian and Colonial 
addendum to the British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 was compiled 
and published in 1900 in which each article receives official sanction 
in the countries indicated at the foot of the monographs. This 
was regarded as a preparatory step to the publication of a complete 
imperial pharmacopoeia. 

Several unofficial universal pharmacopoeias have been published 
in England and in France, which serve to show the comparative 
strength of parallel preparations in different countries. The metric 
or decimal mode of calculation and the centigrade scale of tempera- 
ture are adopted in all pharmacopoeias except those of Great 
Britain (in which the metric equivalents are now given) and in 
some instances of Greece. The majority omit chemical formulae. 
An alphabetical arrangement is followed in all. The maximum 
doses of preparations are given in several pharmacopoeias and the 
physician must indicate on his prescription, if he exceeds this limit, 
by using a note of exclamation after each article, that he purposely 
intends such a dose to be employed. The great increase of medical 
literature and international exchange of medical journals has led 
to the adoption in almost every country of all the really valuable 
remedial agents, and the more extended use of active principles 
has given rise to an approximation in strength of their solutions. 
The difficulty of nomenclature could probably be overcome by a 
list of synonyms being given with each article, and that of language 
by the use of Latin. The greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of 
uniformity are the tinctures and extracts a class of preparations 
containing many very powerful drugs, but in which the same name 
does not always indicate the same thing; thus, extract of aconite 
signifies an extract of the root in the pharmacopoeias of the United 
States, Japan and Russia, extract of the leaves in the Danish and 
Portuguese, inspissated juice of the fresh leaves in the Greek, 
and alcoholic extract of the root in that of Spain and Italy, and 
alcoholic extract of the dried leaves in the Chilean pharmacopoeias. 
It appears probable, however, that the growth of pharmaceutical 
chemistry will indicate, in time, which of those in use form the most 
active and trustworthy preparations, while the general adoption 
of the metric system will lead to clearer approximation of strength 
than hitherto. The method adopted by the Portuguese Pharma- 
copoeia conies nearest to that uniformity which is so desirable in 
such preparations, as the tinctures of the fresh plants are all pre- 
pared with equal parts of the drug and alcoholic menstruum; 
simple tinctures in general, with unfortunately a few exceptions, 
with one part of the drug in five parts of alcohol of given strength ; 
ethereal tinctures are in the proportion of one part in ten; and the 
tinctures of the alkaloids and their salts contain one part of the 
alkaloid in ninety-nine of menstruum. 

Homoeopathic and eclectic practitioners as well as dentists 
have also their special pharmacopoeias. 

See Bell and Redwood, Progress of Pharmacy (London, 1880); 
Scherer, Literatura pharmacopoearum (Leipzig and Sorau, 1822); 
Flint, Report on the Pharmacopoeias of all Nations (Washington, 
1883). (E. M. H.) 

PHARMACOSIDERITE, a mineral species consisting of 
hydrated basic ferric arsenate, 2FeAsO4-Fe(OH) 3 -5H 2 O. Crys- 
tals have the form of small, sharply defined cubes of an olive- or 
grass-green colour, and occur together in considerable numbers 
on the matrix of the specimens. On account of its cubic form 
the mineral was early known as " cube ore " (Ger., Wurfelerz); 
the name pharmacosiderite, given by J. F. L. Hausmann in 
1813, alludes to the arsenic and iron present (fyapnattov, 
poison, and cr^rjpos, iron). The faces of the cube are striated 
parallel to one diagonal, and alternate corners are sometimes 
replaced by face? o f a tetrahedron. The crystals are feebly 
doubly refracting, and in polarized light exhibit a banded 
structure parallel to the cube faces. The hardness is i\ and the 
specific gravity 2-8. Recent analyses prove the presence of a 
small but variable amount of potassium (K 2 O, 2-684-13%) 
in the Cornish crystals, though in those from Hungary there is 



only a trace; this constituent appears to take the place of basic 
hydrogen in the above formula. A curious property is to be 
observed when a crystal of pharmacosiderite is placed in a 
solution of ammonia in a few minutes the green colour changes 
throughout the whole crystal to red; on placing the red crystal 
in dilute hydrochloric acid the green colour is restored. Natural 
crystals are sometimes honey-yellow to brown in colour, but 
this appears to be due to alteration. 

Pharmacosiderite is a mineral of secondary origin, the crystals 
occurring attached to gozzany quartz in the upper part of veins of 
copper ore. It was found in some abundance at the end of the l8th 
century in the copper mines of the St Day district in Cornwall, 
and has since been found at a few other localities, for example, at 
Konigsberg near Schemnitz in Hungary, and in the Tintic district 
in Utah. (L. J. S.) 

PHARMACY, a term which in the original Greek form signified 
the use of any kind of drug (<j>apij.aiiov), potion or spell, 
and hence also poison and witchcraft. In the modern 
signification it is applied to the act of preparing, preserving 
and compounding medicines, according to the prescriptions 
of physicians. It was used first in this sense in 1597. 

In the earliest periods of the world's history of which we have 
any record, this art, like that of the perfumer, was practised 
by a special class of the priesthood, as in the case of Eleazar 
(Num. iv. 16), and that of medicine by another class (Lev. xiii.). 

Egyptian inscriptions indicate that the physician-priests 
sent their prescriptions to be dispensed by the priests of Isis 
when, accompanied by the chanter of incantations and spells, 
they visited the sick 1 . A papyrus of Sent, 3300 B.C., gives 
directions as to the preparation of prescriptions. In the Ebers 
papyrus, 1550 B.C., mention is made of blisters, ointments, 
clysters, mineral and vegetable drugs. The art of the apothe- 
cary is alluded to very early in the Old Testament history 
(Exod. xxx. 25-35 an d m xxxvii. 20) and again in the time of 
Solomon (Eccles. x. 9), but this word, which is translated par 
fumeur in the French version, only indicates that the preparation 
of fragrant unguents and incense formed, even at that early 
date, a part of pharmacy, since the drugs mentioned, viz. 
galbanum, myrrh, stacte, frankincense, calamus, cassia and 
cinnamon, were all of them used in perfumes, even the myrrh 
being probably the kind distinguished at the present time in 
the Bombay market as perfumed myrrh or bissabol, which 
still forms an ingredient of the joss sticks used as incense in the 
temples in China. The myrrh mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 35 
is described under another Hebrew word, and refers to ladanum, 
a fragrant resin produced in Cyprus, and the use of this drug, 
as well as that of cinnamon and cassia, indicates even at that 
early period a knowledge of the products of Somaliland, Arabia 
and the East Indies and the existence of trade between the 
farther East and Egypt. In China also at a very early period 
the art of pharmacy was practised. Ching-Hong, a contem- 
porary of Menes I. of Egypt, was learned in the art, and made 
decoctions and extracts of plants. The materia medica of the 
Chinese at the present date affords an excellent illustration of 
the changes that have taken place in the use of drugs, and of the 
theories and superstitions that have guided the selection of 
these from the earliest ages, inasmuch as it still comprises 
articles that were formerly used in medicine, but have now been 
utterly discarded. Thus the doctrine of signatures is evident 
in the use of the celebrated Ginseng root of China, which, like 
that of the mandrake (Gen. xxx. 14-16), owed its employment 
to the fact that the root often divides into branches resembling 
the arms and legs of a man, and this resemblance gave rise to 
the belief that it conferred strength and virility. The same 
belief is shown in the botanical names applied to many plants, 
e.g. Pulmonaria, Hepatica, Scrophularia, and others. 

The astrological belief that plants, animals and minerals are 
under the influence of the planets is shown in the older names 
of some of the metals, e.g. Saturn for lead, Venus for copper, 
and Mars for iron, and the belief that the colours of flowers 

1 The Egyptians believed that the medicinal virtues of plants were 
due to the spirits who dwelt within them. 



356 



PHARMACY 



indicated the particular planet they were under led to their use 
in diseases and for constitutions supposed to be under the same 
planet. Physicians to this day head their prescriptions with a 
sign that originally meant an invocation to Jupiter, but now 
represents the word recipe. 

The belief, which is still held by the Chinese, that the excrements 
of animals retain the properties and peculiarities of the animals 
from which they are derived, led to the use in medicine of these 
disgusting remedies, which are still sold in drug shops in China, 
and were only omitted from the English Pharmacopoeia as late as 
1721. At that date the science of chemistry was very imperfectly 
known, and the real constituents of ordinary remedies so little 
understood that different virtues were attributed to different pro- 
ducts containing the same constituents. Thus, prepared oyster- 
shells, coral, pearls, crabs' " eyes " and burnt hart's horn were 
regarded as specifics in different complaints, in ignorance of 
the fact that they all contain, as the chief ingredients, calcium 
phosphate and carbonate. The celebrated Gascoigne's powder, 
which was sold as late as the middle of the ipth century in the 
form of balls like sal prunella, consisted of equal parts of crabs' 
" eyes," the black tips of crabs' claws, Oriental pearls, Oriental 
bezoar and white coral, and was administered in jelly made of 
hart's horn, but was prescribed by physicians chiefly for wealthy 
people, as it cost about forty shillings per ounce. Superstition 
also entered largely into the choice of remedies. Thus various 
parts of criminals, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man, 
moss grown on a human skull, &c., were used, and even the 
celebrated Dr Culpeper in the iyth century recommended 
" the ashes of the head of a coal black cat as a specific for such 
as have a skin growing over their sight." 

In course of time the knowledge of drugs, and consequently 
the number in use, gradually increased, and some of the prepara- 
tions made in accordance with the art attained a celebrity that 
lasted for centuries. Thus diachylon plaster was invented by 
Menecrates in A.D. i, and was used by him for the same purposes 
as it is employed to-day. An electuary of opium, known as 
Mithradatum, was invented by Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, 
who lived in constant fear of being poisoned, and tested the 
effects of poisons on criminals, and is said to have taken poisons 
and their antidotes every day in the year. The prescription 
for the general antidote known as Mithradatum was found with 
his body, together with other medical MSS., by Pompey, after 
his victory over that king. The prescription was improved by 
Damocrates and Andromachus, body physicians to Nero. The 
first was subsequently known as Mithradatum Damocratis, and 
the second as Theriaca Andromachi, the name Theriaca or 
Tiriaca being derived from the snake called Tyrus, the flesh 
of which was added to it by Andromachus. The former con- 
tained 55, or, according to some formulae, 72 ingredients, and 
occurs in all the dispensatories, from that of Corvus Valerius 
up to the pharmacopoeias of fhe igth century; and aromatic 
preparations of opium are still used, under the name of Theriaka 
in Persia. The Theriaca prepared at Venice had the highest 
reputation, probably because in Venice the component parts 
were exposed to the inspection of wise men and doctors for two 
months, to determine whether they were or were not fit for use. 
The apothecaries' ordinance at Nuremberg provided that no 
Theriaca should in future be branded with the seal of the city 
unless it had been previously examined and declared worthy 
of the same by the doctors of medicine, and that every druggist 
must know the age of the Theriaca he sold. Inasmuch as its 
action changed very materially with age, " the buyer should in 
all instances be informed, so that he may not be deceived." 
The last public preparation of Theriaca took place at Nurem- 
berg in 17 54. 

In A.D. 77-78 Dioscorides of Anazarba, in Cilicia, wrote his 
great work on materia medica, which still remains the most 
important work on the plants and drugs used in ancient times 
(of which about 400 were enumerated) and until the I7th century 
was held as the most valuable guide to medicinal plants and 
drugs extant. Nearly 100 years afterwards Galen, the imperial 
physician at Rome (A.D. 131-200), who was learned in surgery, 



pharmacy and materia medica, added about 200 more plants 
to those described by Dioscorides. 

Galen believed in the doctrine of humours originated by 
Hippocrates, which supposes the condition of the body to depend 
upon the proper mixture of the four elements, hot, cold, moist 
and dry, and that drugs possess the same elementary qualities, 
and that on the principle of contraries one or other was indicated, 
e.g. a cooling remedy for a feverish state. This doctrine was 
held for many centuries, and drugs are classed by all the old 
herbalists as having one or other of these qualities in a greater 
or less degree. Galen is said to have invented hiera-picra, 
which he employed as an anthelmintic; it is still used in 
England as a domestic remedy. In the 6th century Alexander 
of Tralles used colchicum for gout, iron for anaemia, and rhubarb 
in liver weakness and dysentery. The practice of pharmacy was 
extended by the Arabian physicians, and the separation of it 
from medicine was recognized in the 8th, and legalized in the 
nth century. The practice of " polypharmacy," or the use of a 
large number of ingredients in prescriptions, which was common 
in the middle ages, was greatly due to the view enunciated by 
Alkekendo, and held by one of the Arabian schools of medicine: 
that the activity of medicine increases in a duplicate ratio 
when compounded with others; and it was only in the first half 
of the i8th century that the practice was altogether discontinued 
in the pharmacopoeias, although the theory was shown to be 
incorrect by Averroes in the I2th century. 

The establishments for dispensing medicines at Cordova, 
Toledo and other large towns under Arab rule, were placed under 
severe legal restrictions. Frederick II. in A.D. 1233 passed a 
law, which remained in force for a long time in the two Sicilies, 
by which every medical man was required to give information 
against any pharmacist who should sell bad medicine. The 
pharmacists were divided into two classes, the stationarii, who 
sold simple drugs and non-magisterial preparations at a tariff 
determined by competent authorities, and the confectionarii, 
whose business it was to dispense scrupulously the prescrip- 
tions of medical men; all pharmaceutical establishments were 
placed under the surveillance of the college of medicine. In 
the monastic period pharmacy was to a great extent under the 
control of the religious orders, particularly the Benedictines, who, 
from coming into contact with the Arabian physicians, devoted 
themselves to pharmacy, pharmacology and therapeutics; but, 
as monks were forbidden to shed blood, surgery fell largely into 
the hands of barbers, so that the class of barber-surgeons came 
into existence, and the sign of their skill in blood-letting still 
appears in provincial districts in England in the form of the 
barber's pole, representing the application of bandages. 

In England the separation between medicine and pharmacy 
was somewhat later than on the continent of Europe. The 
earliest record of an apothecary's shop in London was in 1345. 
The status of the apothecary, as subordinate to the physician 
in the time of Henry VIII., is evident from the following, out of 
21 rules laid down by a prominent apothecary, who was a cousin 
of Anne Boleyn: " His garden must be at hand, with plenty of 
herbs and seeds and roots. He must read Dioscorides. He 
must have mortars, pots, filters, glasses and boxes clean and 
sweet. He must have two places in the shop, one most clean 
for physic, and the base place for chirurgic stuff. He is neither 
to increase nor to diminish the physician's prescription; he is 
neither to buy nor to sell rotten drugs. He is only to meddle 
in his own vocation; and to remember that his office is only to 
be the physician's cook." 

The drugs used by the physicians and apothecaries were 
purchased from the grossarii or sellers in gross, who were sub- 
sequently called grocers, some of whom specialized as druggists 
and others as chymists or chemists. The apothecaries, who 
were the pharmacists of those days, were not represented by 
any corporate body, but in the reign of King James I., in 1606, 
were incorporated with the Company of Grocers. This arrange- 
ment was not, however, approved of by the physicians, who 
obtained in 1617 a separate charter for the apothecaries, to 
the number of 114, which was the number of physicians then 



PHARMACY 



357 



practising in London. At the same time it was enacted that no 
grocer should keep an apothecary's shop, and that no surgeon 
should sell medicines, and that the physicians should have the 
power to search the shops of the apothecaries within 7 m. of 
London under a penalty of 100 in case of a refusal to permit 
it. Soon after the apothecaries were formed into a separate 
company they took into consideration means to prevent the 
frauds and adulterations practised by the grocers and druggists, 
and, to remedy the evil, established a manufactory of their own 
in 1626 so that they might make preparations for their own 
members. The frauds and adulterations were probably due in 
part to the apothecaries, for Dr Merrit, a collegiate physician 
of London, stated that " such chymists which sell preparations 
honestly made complain that few apothecaries will go to the 
price of them." The medicinal preparations which required 
the aid of a furnace, such as mineral earths, were undertaken by 
the chymists, who probably derived their name from the 
Alchymists, who flourished from the I4th to the i6th centuries. 
When the word was discovered to be derived from an Arabic 
prefix and a Greek word the prefix was dropped. In the ipth 
century the word chymist became altered to chemist, although 
the original spelling is still continued to a small extent. The 
curious signs on the coloured carboys in chemists' windows, 
which were commonly to be seen until the middle of the ipth 
century, were signs used by the alchemists to indicate various 
chemical substances. In 1694 the apothecaries had increased 
from 114 to nearly 1000, and many of them, having acquired 
a knowledge of the uses of medicine, began to prescribe medicines 
for their customers and to assume the functions of the physician, 
who retorted in 1697 by establishing dispensaries, where medicines 
could be procured at their intrinsic value, or at cost price. The 
assistants employed at these dispensaries after a time appear 
to have gone into business on their own account, and in this way 
the dispensing chemists, as a class, appear to have originated. 

In 1748 the Apothecaries' Corporation obtained a charter 
empowering them to license apothecaries to sell medicines in 
London, or within 7 m., and intended to use it to restrain 
chemists and druggists from practising pharmacy, and to 
prohibit physicians and surgeons from selling the medicines 
they prescribed; but the apothecaries, by paying increased 
attention to medical and surgical practice, had not only alien- 
ated the physicians and surgeons, but materially strengthened 
the position of chemists and druggists as dispensers of pre- 
scriptions. When a further attempt was made in 1815 to bring 
a bill into parliament including provisions for prohibiting the 
practice of pharmacy by uneducated persons, and giving power 
to examine dispensing chemists, the latter became alarmed, 
and, finding that the provisions of the bill were entirely in the 
interests of the apothecaries, and directed against chemists and 
druggists, the latter took measures to oppose it in parliament, 
which were so far successful as to prevent apothecaries from 
interfering in any way with, or obtaining any control over, 
chemists and druggists. In 1841 another attempt was made by 
the apothecaries to control the trade of chemists and druggists 
on the ground that no adequate examination or education in 
pharmacy existed, and that such should be instituted, and be 
controlled by the apothecaries and physicians, but the latter 
disclaimed any desire to take an active part in the matter. The 
chemists and druggists, recognizing that no institution for the 
systematic education and examination of chemists and druggists 
existed in England, and that no proof could be given that each 
individual possessed the necessary qualifications, decided that 
this objection must be met, and that pharmacy must be placed 
upon a more scientific footing. They therefore resolved upon the 
foundation of a voluntary society, under the title of the Pharma- 
ceutical Society of Great Britain, " for advancing the know- 
ledge of chemistry and pharmacy, and promoting a uniform 
system of education for those who should practise the same, also 
for protecting the collective and individual interests and privi- 
leges of all its members, in the event of any hostile attack in 
parliament or elsewhere." This society was instituted in 1841, 
the original founders being chemists and druggists in the 



metropolis and provincial towns. On the i8th of February 1843 
a royal charter of incorporation was granted to the society, and 
a permanent status was thus acquired. Chemists in business 
before the granting of the charter were entitled to join the 
society as members, but those who wished to join it subsequently 
could do so only on condition of passing an examination for the 
purpose of testing their knowledge of pharmacy. A school of 
pharmacy was instituted, and a museum and library were 
started. The chemical laboratory in connexion with the school 
was, when first instituted, the only one in England for teaching 
purposes, and the museum is now reputed to be the best 
pharmaceutical one in the world, the library now containing 
about 1 3, coo volumes. 

The examinations are three in number. The first is of a pre- 
liminary character, qualifying for registration as a student or 
apprentice; in lieu of this examination, certificates of matriculation 
at a university, and those of certain other educational bodies, 
are accepted. The second examination qualifies for registration as 
a chemist and druggist. This is known as the minor examination, 
and must be passed before anyone can legally dispense, compound 
and sell scheduled poisons. The subjects included are systematic 
botany, vegetable morphology and physiology, chemistry, physics, 
matena medica, pharmacy, dispensing, posology, the reading of 
prescriptions, and a knowledge of poisons and their antidotes. The 
Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 (section 4) has given the society 
power to regulate the preliminary training, arrange a curriculum, 
and divide the qualifying examination into two parts, so that an 
approximation to the standard of pharmaceutical education on the 
Continent is likely to take place within a short period. Degrees in 
science and pharmacy are granted by the universities of Manchester 
and Glasgow, and other universities were in 1910 considering 
the question of granting degrees. 

The third, or major examination, which qualifies for registration 
as a pharmaceutical chemist, is not, like the minor, a compulsory 
one, but ranks as an honours examination. The education for this 
examination has kept pace with the rapid actvances of science, all 
the following subjects now receiving attention: the microscopical 
structure of plants and drugs, so as to detect adulterations and 
impurities in powdered drugs; organic and quantitative analysis, 
including those of food and drugs, water, soils, gas and urine ; optics, so 
as to enable them to carry out the prescriptions of oculists ; spectrum 
analysis; the use of the polariscope and ref ractometer ; the method 
of applying Rontgen rays; the preparation of glandular secretions 
and antitoxins; and the chemistry of remedies for the fungoid 
diseases and insect pests of plants. 

Those who have passed this examination are competent to perform 
analysis of all kinds, and generally obtain the preference for various 
appointments, such as head dispensers in government or other 
large hospitals, or as analysts. The society has also established a 
chemical research laboratory, in which much useful work has 
been done in connexion with the national pharmacopoeia under 
the direction of the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical 
Council. t 

A pharmacy act, which was passed in 1852, established a 
distinction between registered and examined, and unregistered 
and unexamined chemists and druggists, creating a register 
of the former under the name of pharmaceutical chemists, 
so that the public might discriminate between the two classes. 
A subsequent pharmacy act, passed in 1868, added a register 
of chemists and druggists, and rendered it unlawful for any 
unregistered person to sell or keep open shop for selling the 
poisons mentioned in the schedule of this act. The adminis- 
tration of the act was entrusted to the pharmaceutical society, 
and the duty of prosecuting unauthorized practitioners has 
been performed by the society ever since, without any pecu- 
niary assistance from the state, although the legal expenses 
involved in prosecution amount to a considerable portion of its 
income. 

The Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 extended the schedule 
of poisons instituted by the act of 1868, and it now includes 
arsenic, aconite, aconitine and their preparations; all poisonous 
vegetable alkaloids, and their salts and poisonous derivatives; 
atropine and its salts and their preparations; belladonna and all 
preparations or admixtures (except belladonna plasters) con- 
taining o-i % or more of belladonna alkaloid; cantharides and 
its poisonous derivatives; any preparation or admixture of 
coca-leaves containing o-i % or more of coca alkaloids; corrosive 
sublimate; cyanide of potassium and all poisonous cyanides 
and their preparations; tartar emetic, nux vomica, and all 



358 



PHARMACY 



preparations or admixtures containing 0-2% or more of 
strychnine; opium and all preparations and admixtures contain- 
ing i% or more of morphine; picro-toxine; prussic acid and all 
preparations and admixtures containing 0-1% or more of 
prussic acid; savin and its oil, and all preparations or admixtures 
containing savin or its oil. None of these may be sold to any 
person who is unknown to the seller, unless introduced by a 
person known to the seller, and not until after an entry is 
made in a book kept for the purpose, stating, in the prescribed 
form, the date of sale, name and address of purchaser, the 
name and quantity of the article sold, and the purpose for 
which it is stated by the purchaser to be required. The 
signature of the purchaser and introducer (if any) must be 
affixed to the entry. 

The following poisons may not be sold, either retail or 
wholesale, unless distinctly labelled with the name of the article, 
and the word poison, with the name and address of the seller: 

Almonds, essential oil of (unless deprived of prussic acid). Anti- 
monial wine. Cantharides, tincture and all vesicating liquids, 
preparations or admixtures of. Carbolic acid, and liquid pre- 
parations of carbolic acid and its homologues containing more than 
3 % of those substances, except preparations for use as sheep-wash 
or for any other purpose in connexion with agriculture or horti- 
culture, contained in a closed vessel distinctly labelled with the 
word " poisonous," the name and address of the seller, and a notice 
of the special purposes for which the preparations are intended. 
Chloral hydrate. Chloroform, and all preparations or admixtures 
containing more than 20% of chloroform. Coca, any preparation 
or admixture of, containing more than 0-1% but less than i% 
of coca alkaloids. Digitalis. Mercuric iodide. Mercuric sulpho- 
cyanide. Oxalic acid. Poppies, all preparations of, excepting red 
poppy petals and syrup of red poppies (Papayer Rhoeas). Precipi- 
tate, red, and all oxides of mercury. Precipitate, white. Stro- 
phanthus. Sulphonal. All preparations or admixtures which are 
not included in part I of the schedule, and contain a poison within 
the meaning of the pharmacy acts, except preparations or admix- 
tures, the exclusion of which from this schedule is indicated by the 
words therein relating to carbolic acid, chloroform and coca, and 
except such substances as come within the provisions of section 5 
of the act. 

It has been erroneously represented by interested persons 
that the Pharmaceutical Society desires a monopoly of the sale 
of poisons. This is not the case. Any poisonous substance 
that is not included in the schedules can be sold by anyone, 
as, for instance, red lead, sulphate of copper, &c. The duty of 
the Pharmaceutical Society is a purely legal one, and relates 
only to the schedules of poisons framed by the government to 
protect the public by rendering it a difficult matter to obtain 
the poisons most frequently used ior criminal purposes. In 
continental countries the laws are even more stringent. 

In response to an agitation originated by certain manufacturers 
(one of whom was a member of parliament), who were prosecuted 
for omitting to label arsenical and nicotine preparations as poisons, 
as required by the Pharmacy Act of 1868, a new act was passed in 
1908, by which persons, without any training in toxicology, and 
being neither pharmaceutical chemists, nor chemists and druggists, 
may be granted licences by local authorities to sell poisonous 
substances used exclusively in agriculture or horticulture, for the 
destruction of insects, fungi or bacteria, or as sheep dips or weed- 
killers, but which are poisonous by reason of containing the 
scheduled poisons, arsenic or nicotine, &c. One condition concerning 
the granting of such licences has been, it is said, deliberately ignored 
in many towns, viz. that the local authority, before granting a 
licence, " shall take into consideration whether, in the neighbour- 
hood, the reasonable requirements of the public are satisfied with 
regard to the purchase of poisonous substances, and also any 
objections they may receive from the chief officer of police, or from 
any existing vendors of the substances to which the application 
relates." It is left to the Pharmaceutical Society to take legal 
action against any infringement of the law, although it is obvious 
that this should be carried out at the government expense, since 
it is for the benefit of a section of the public, and obviously to the 
loss of the members of the Pharmaceutical Society. Moreover, 
the present act nullifies the object of the previous act of 1868, 
which was to reduce the facilities for obtaining poisons. The fact 
that a voluntary society with limited funds must contest the 
illegal decisions of local councils, without government support, 
seems likely to render this portion of the act of 1908 a dead letter. 

At the time of the passing of the Pharmacy Act of 1 852 co-operative 
associations did not come under consideration, and no provision 
was made concerning them as regards the title of chemist, or as to 
any action such associations might take to evade the law. It 
has been decided in the law courts that a limited liability company 



is not a person in the eye of the law, and therefore does not come 
under the operation of the act of 1868. The result of this decision 
was that any chemist who failed to pass the qualifying examination 
could constitute himself with a few others, even if ignorant of 
pharmacy, into a limited liability company, which would then have 
been outside the powers of the act, and not subject to its provisions. 
This false position was remedied by the act of 1908, which brings 
companies into line with individuals. 

On the continent of Europe the dispensing of prescriptions 
is confined to pharmacists (pharmaciens and apothe- 
kers). They are not allowed to prescribe, nor the 
medical men to dispense, except under special licence, 
and then only in small villages, where the pharmacist could not 
make a living. The principle of " one man one shop " is general; 
a pharmacist may not own more than one shop in the same town. 
In Holland he may not enter into any agreement, direct or 
indirect, with a medical man with regard to the supply of medi- 
cines. In Austria, Germany, Italy, Rumania and Russia the 
number of pharmacies is limited according to the population. 
In France, Switzerland, Belgium and Holland the number is not 
limited, and every qualified pharmacist has the right to open a 
shop or buy a pharmacy. Where the number of pharmacies 
is limited by law prescriptions may only be dispensed at 
these establishments. The original prescription is kept by 
the pharmacist for either three or ten years, according to the 
country, and a certified copy given to the patient, written on 
white paper if for internal use, or on coloured paper (usually 
orange yellow) if for external use. The price of the drugs 
and the tariff for dispensing prescriptions is fixed by govern- 
ment authority. In Russia a prescription containing any of the 
poisons indicated in the schedules A and B in the Russian 
pharmacopoeia may not be repeated, except by order of the 
doctor. The use of pharmacopoeia preparations made by 
manufacturers is allowed, but the seller is held responsible for 
their purity and strength. The prices charged for dispensing 
are lower in countries where the number of pharmacies is 
limited by law, the larger returns enabling the profit to be 
lessened. 

The educational course adopted in different countries varies as 
to the details of the subjects taught. The preliminary, or 
classical examination, is usually that of university matriculation, 
or its equivalent. The period of study is eighteen months 
in Denmark or Norway, and two in Austria, Finland, Germany, 
Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland, three in Belgium, 
France, Greece and Italy, four to six in Holland, and five in 
Spain. In Great Britain the period of study is voluntary, and 
usually occupies only one year. Two or three years of appren- 
ticeship is required in most countries, including Great Britain, 
but none in Belgium, Greece, Italy or Spain. 

The subject of patent medicines is but little understood by the 
general public. Any medicine, the composition of which is kept 
secret, but which is advertised on the label for the 
cure of diseases, must in Great Britain bear a patent 
medicine stamp equal to about one-ninth of its face 
value. The British Medical Association published in 1907 a work 
on Secret Remedies; what they cost and what they contain. The 
analyses published in this work show that nearly all the widely 
advertised secret remedies contain only well-known and inexpen- 
sive drugs. The Pharmaceutical Society on the other hand has 
also published a Pharmaceutical Journal Formulary, including 
several hundred formulae of proprietary medicines sold by 
pharmacists, so that it is now possible for any medical man 
to ascertain what they contain. The government accepts all the 
therein published formulae as " known, admitted and approved " 
remedies, and therefore not requiring a patent medicine stamp. 
In this way widely advertised secret remedies can be replaced by 
medicines of known composition and accepted value in any part 
of the world. Most continental countries have issued stringent 
laws against the sale of secret remedies, and these have been 
lately strengthened in Germany, France and Italy. In 
Switzerland secret remedies cannot be advertised without 
submitting the formula and a sample of the remedy to the 
board of health. (E. M. H.) 



PHARNABAZUS PHARYNX 



359 



PHARNABAZUS, Persian soldier and statesman, the son of 
Pharnaces, belonged to a family which from 478 governed the 
satrapy of Phrygia on the Hellespont, from its headquarters at 
Dascylium, and, according to a discovery by Th. Noldeke, was 
descended from Otanes, one of the associates of Darius in the 
murder of Smerdis. Pharnabazus first appears as satrap of this 
province in 413, when, having received orders from Darius II. 
to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the 
coast, he, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations 
with Sparta and began war with Athens. The conduct of the 
war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps, 
of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and up- 
right. After the war he came into conflict with Lysander (q.v. : 
see also PELOPONNESIAN WAR), who tried to keep the Greek 
cities under his own dominion, and became one of the causes of 
his overthrow, by a letter which he sent to the ephors at Sparta 
(Plut. Lys. 19; Nepos, Lys. 4; Polyaen. vii. 19). He received 
Alcibiades at his court and promised him means to go up to the 
king to reveal the intrigues of Cyrus, but when the Spartans 
insisted on his death he yielded to their demand for his assassi- 
nation (Plut. Alcib. 37 sqq.; Diod. xiv. n). When in 399 the 
war with Sparta broke out he again tried to conduct it strenu- 
ously. With the help of Conon and Evagoras of Salamis he 
organized the Persian fleet, and while he was hard pressed on 
land by Agesilaus he prepared the decisive sea-battle, which was 
fought in August 394 at Cnidus under his and Conon's command, 
and completely destroyed the Spartan fleet. He sent support to 
the allies in Greece, by which the walls of the Peiraeus were rebuilt. 
But in the war on land he struggled in vain against the lethargy 
and disorganization of the Persian Empire; and when at last, 
in 387, in consequence of the embassy of Antalcidas to Susa, 
the king decided to conclude peace with Sparta and to enter 
again into close alliance with her, Pharnabazus, the principal 
opponent of Sparta, was recalled from his command in high 
honours, to marry Apame, a daughter of the king (Plut. Arlux. 
27). In 385 he was one of the generals sent against Egypt, and 
in 377 he was ordered to prepare a new expedition against the 
valley of the Nile. The gathering of the army took years, and 
when in 373 all was ready, his attempt to force the passage of 
the Nile failed. A conflict with Iphicrates, the leader of the 
Greek mercenaries, increased the difficulties; at last Pharna- 
bazus led the army back to Asia. From these campaigns date 
the silver coins with the name of Pharnabazus in Aramaic 
writing. When he died is not known. 

In the time of Alexander we meet with a Persian general Pharna- 
bazus, son of Artabazus (Arrian ii. I seq.), who probably was the 
grandson of the older Pharnabazus. 

The name Pharnabazus is also borne by a king of Iberia (Georgia) 
on the Caucasus, where the dynasty seems to have been of Persian 
origin, defeated by a general of Marcus Antpnius (Mark Antony) 
in 36 B.C. (Dio Cass. xlix. 24). In the Georgian dynasty the name 
occurs as late as the igth century. (Eo. M.) 

PHARYNGITIS. The pharynx, or upper portion of the gullet 
(seen to a large extent on looking at the back of the mouth) is 
frequently the seat of a chronic inflammatory condition, usually 
associated with derangements of the digestive organs, or with 
syphilis or gout; sometimes it is due to much speaking or to 
excessive tobacco-smoking especially of cigarettes. On in- 
spection, the inflamed mucous membrane is seen unduly red 
and glazed, and do'tted over with enlarged follicles. The con- 
dition produces considerable irritation and " dryness," with 
cough and discomfort, which may eventually become chronic. 
Treatment consists in removing all sources of irritation, in 
rectifying gastric disturbance, and in the application of the 
electric cautery, of astringent lotions or of mild caustic solutions. 
The pain may be relieved by spraying with certain anodyne 
solutions. In the case of adenoid growths (see ADENOIDS) there 
is often an associated granular appearance of the pharynx, due 
to enlargement of the minute glands of the mucous membrane. 
The inflamed pharynx of the orator (" clergyman's sore-throat ") 
may be put right by lessons in elocution or by complete rest for 
a time. The gouty throat may call for a change of diet, or for a 
stay at one of the watering-places where early rising, moderate 



food, regular exercise and the drinking of laxative waters join in 
restoring health. (E. O.*) 

PHARYNX (Gr. <t>a.pvy%, throat), in anatomy, the cavity into 
which both the nose and mouth lead, which is prolonged into 
the oesophagus or gullet below, and from which the larynx or 
air tube comes off below and in front; it therefore serves as a 
passage both for food and air. It may be likened to an empty 
sack turned upside down and narrowing toward its mouth. The 
back and sides of the sack are formed by the three constrictor 
muscles of the pharynx, each of which overlaps the outer surface 
of the one above it, and these are lined internally by thick 
mucous membrane. The upturned bottom of the sack is 
attached firmly to the base of the skull and the internal ptery- 
goid plates, so that this part cannot collapse, but below the 
anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and a transverse 
section of the pharynx is a mere slit. 

From the front wall, on a level with the floor of the nose and roof 
of the mouth, a slanting shelf of muscular and glandular tissue, 
covered with mucous membrane, projects downward and backward 
into the cavity, and divides it into an upper part or naso-pharynx 
and a lower or oral pharynx (see fig.). This shelf is the soft palate, 
and from the middle of its free border hangs a worm-like projection, 
of variable length but averaging about half an inch, the uvula. 
The whole of the front wall of the naso-pharynx is wanting, and 
here the cavity opens into the nose through the posterior nasal 
apertures (see OLFACTORY SYSTEM). On each side of the naso- 
pharynx, and therefore above the soft palate, is the large triangular 
opening of the Eustachian tube through which air passes to the 
tympanum (see EAR). Behind this opening, and reaching up to 
the roof of the naso-pharynx, is a mass of lymphoid tissue, most 
marked in children, known as the pharyngeal tonsil. This tissue, 
when it hypertrophies, causes the disease known as " adenoids." 

From the mid-line of the roof of the pharynx a small pouch, the 
bursa pharyngea, best seen in childhood, projects upward, while 
on each side, above and behind the opening of the Eustachian 
tube, is a depression known as the lateral recess of the pharynx. 

The oral pharynx communicates with the naso-pharynx by the 
pharyngeal isthmus behind the free edge of the soft palate. Above 
and in front it is continuous with the cavity of the mouth, and the 
demarcation between the two is a ridge of mucous membrane on 
each side running from the soft palate to the side of the tongue, 
and caused by the projection of the palato-glossus muscle. This 
is known as the anterior pillar of the fauces or anterior palatine 
arch. About half an inch behind this ridge is another, made by 
the palato-pharyngeus muscle, which gradually fades away in the 
'side of the pharynx below. This is the posterior pillar of the 
fauces or posterior palatine arch, and between it and the anterior 
is the fossa (tonsilar sinus) in which the tonsil lies. 

The Tonsil is an oval mass of lymphoid tissue covered by mucous 
membrane which dips in to form mucous crypts; externally its 
position nearly corresponds to that of the angle of the jaw. It 
is very vascular, deriving its blood from five neighbouring arteries. 
Below the level of the tonsil the anterior wall of the pharynx is 
formed by the posterior or pharyngeal surface of the tongue (q.v.), 
while below that is the epiglottis and upper opening of the larynx 
which is bounded laterally by the aryteno-epiglottic folds (see 
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). On the lateral side of each of these folds 
is a pear-shaped fossa known as the sinus pyriformis. Below this 
the pharynx narrows rapidly until the level of the lower border of 
the cricoid cartilage in front and of the sixth cervical vertebra 
behind is reached ; here it passes into the oesophagus, having reached 
a total length of about five inches. 

The mucous membrane of the naso-pharynx, like that of the rest 
of the respiratory tract, is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium, 
but in the oral pharynx the epithelium is of the stratified squamous 
variety. Numerous racemose glands are present (see EPITHELIAL 
TISSUES), as well as patches of lymphoid tissue especially in child- 
hood. Outside the mucous membrane and separating it from the 
constrictor muscles is the pharyngeal aponeurosis, which blends 
above with the periosteum of the base of the skull. 

Embryology. The pharynx is partly formed from the ecto- 
dermal stomatodaeal invagination (see EMBRYOLOGY and MOUTH) 
and partly from the fore gut, which is the cephalic part of the 
entodermal mesodaeum. Up to the fifteenth day (see MOUTH), the 
bucco-pharyngeal membrane separates these structures, and, though 
no vestiges of it remain, it is clear that the upper and front part of 
the naso-pharynx is stomatodaeal while the rest is mesodaeal. 
The five visceral arches with their intervening clefts or pouches 
surround the pharynx, and the Eustachian tube is a remnant of 
the first of these. The second pouch is represented in the adult 
by the tonsilar sinus, and until lately the lateral recess of the 
pharynx was looked upon as part of the same, but it has now been 
shown to be an independent diverticulum. The sinus pyriformis 
probably represents that part of the fourth groove from which the 
lateral lobes of the thyroid body are derived. 



3 6 



PHEASANT 



The Bursa pharyngea was at one time looked upon as the place 
whence the pituitary body had been derived from the roof of the 
pharynx, but this is now disproved and its meaning is unknown. 
The tonsil is formed in the second branchial cleft or rather pouch, 
for the clefts are largely incomplete in man, about the fourth month ; 
its lymphoid tissue, as well as that elsewhere in the pharynx, is 
formed from lymphocytes in the subjacent mesenchyme (see EM- 
BRYOLOGY), though whether these wander in from the blood or are 
derived from original mesenchyme cells is still doubtful. The 



Middle turbinated bone 



Middle meatus of nose 



Inferior meatus 
of nose 



Superior meatus of nose 




Genioglossus 



Geniohyoid 

Lymphoid follicle 



Hyoid bone 



(From Ambrose Birmingham, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.) 

Sagittal Section, through Mouth, Tongue, Larynx, Pharynx and Nasal Cavity. 
The section is slightly oblique, and the posterior edge of the nasal septum has been pre- 
served. The specimen is viewed slightly from below, hence in part the low position 
of the inferior turbinated bone. 



development of the ventral part of the pharynx is dealt with in 
the articles TONGUE and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 

For literature see Quain's Elements of Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 
1908), and J. P. McMurrich, Development of the Human Body 
(London, 1906). 

Comparative Anatomy. In the lower, water-breathing, verte- 
brates the pharynx is the part in which respiration occurs. The 
water passes in through the mouth and out through the gill slits 
where it comes in contact with the gills or branchiae. 

The lowest subphylum of the phylum Chordata, to which the 
term Adelochorda is sometimes applied, contains a worm-like 
creature Balanoglossus, in which numerous rows of gill slits open 
from the pharynx, though Cephalodiscus, another member of the 
same subphylum, has only one pair of these. 

In the subphylum Urochorda, to which the Ascidians or sea- 
squirts belong, there are many rows of gill slits, as there are also in the 
Acrania, of which Amphioxus, the lancelet, is the type. In all these 
lower forms there are no true gills, as the blood-vessels lining the 
large number of slits provide a sufficient area for the exchange 
of gases. 

In the Cyclostomata a reduction of the number of gill slits takes 
place, and an increased area for respiration is provided by the gill 
pouches lined by pleated folds of entodermal mucous membrane; 



these form the simplest type of true internal gills. In the larval 
lamprey (Ammocoetes) there are eight gill slits opening from the 
pharynx, but in the adult (Petromyzon) they are reduced to seven, 
and a septum grows forward separating the ventral or branchial 
part of the pharynx from the dorsal or digestive part. Both these 
tubes, however, communicate near the mouth. 

In fishes there are usually five pairs of gill slits, though a rudi- 
mentary one in front of these is often present and is called the 
spiracle. Occasionally, as in Hexanchus and Heptanchus, there 
may be six or seven slits, and the evidence of 
comparative anatomy is that fishes formerly 
had a larger number of gill slits than at 
present. 

In the Teleostomi, which include the 
bony fishes, there is an external gill cover or 
operculum. 

In the Dipnoi or mud fish the work of the 
gills is shared by that of the lungs, and in 
the African form, Protopterus, external gills, 
developed from the ectodermal parts of the 
gill slits, first appear. In the tailed Am- 
phibians (Urodela) the first and fifth gill 
clefts are never perforated and are therefore 
in the same condition as all the gill clefts of 
the human embryo, while in the gilled 
salamanders (Necturus and Proteus) only 
two gill clefts remain patent. The gills in 
all the Amphibia are external and of ecto- 
dermal origin, but in the Anura (frogs and 
toads) these are succeeded before the meta- 
morphosis from the tadpole stage by internal 
gills, which, unlike those of fish, are said to 
be derived from the ectoderm. 

In the embryos of the Sauropsida (reptiles 
and birds) five gill clefts are evident, though 
the posterior two are seldom at any time 
perforated, while in the Mammalia the rudi- 
ments of the fifth cleft are no longer found 
in the embryo, and in man, at all events, 
none of them are normally perforated except 
that part of the first which forms the 
Eustachian tube. It will thus be seen that 
in the process of phytogeny there is a gradual 
suppression of the gill clefts beginning at the 
more posterior ones. 

iThe soft palate is first found in crocodiles 
as a membranous structure, and it becomes 
muscular in mammals. The bursa pharyngea 
and pharyngeal tonsil are found in several of 
the lower mammals. In the sheep the latter 
is particularly large. 

.For literature and further details, see 
R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of 
Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker 
(London, 1907); also Parker and Haswell's 
Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.) 

PHEASANT (Mid. Eng. fesaunt and 
fesaun; Ger. fasan and anciently fasant; 
Fr. faisan all from the Lat. phasianus 
orphasiana,sc.avis), the bird brought from 
the banks of the river Phasis, now the Rioni, 
in Colchis, where it is still abundant, and 
introduced, according to legend, by the 
Argonauts into Europe. Judging from the 



Sphenoidal sinus 



Inferior turbinated bone 



Posterior edge of nasal septum 



Orifice of Eustachian tube 



Bursa pharyngea 

Part of the 
pharyngeal tonsil 



Lateral recess of 
pharynx 

Levator cushion 

Salpingo- 

pharyngeal fold 

Glands in soft 

palate 

Anterior palatine 

arch 

Supratonsillar 

fossa 

Plica triangularis 
Tonsil 

Posterior palatine 
arch 

Epiglottis 



Aryteno- 
epiglottic fold 



Cricoid cartilage 



recognition of the remains of several species referred to the genus 
Phasianus both in Greece and in France, 1 it seems not impossible 
that the ordinary pheasant, the P. colchicus of ornithologists, 
may have been indigenous to this quarter of the globe. If it was 
introduced into England, it must almost certainly have been 
brought by the Romans; 2 for, setting aside several earlier records 
of doubtful authority, 3 Stubbs has shown that by the regulations 
of King Harold in 1059 unus phasianus is prescribed as the 

1 These are P. archiaci from Pikermi, P. altus and P. medius 
from the lacustrine beds of Sansan, and P. desnoyersi from Touraine, 
see A. Milne Edwards, Ois.foss. de la France (ii. 229, 239-243). 

2 Undoubted remains have been found in excavations at Silcnester. 
8 Among these perhaps that worthy of most attention is in 

Probert's translation of The Ancient Laws of Cambria (ed. 1823, 
pp. 367, 368), wherein extracts are given from Welsh triads, pre- 
sumably of the age of Howel the Good, who died in 948. One of 
them is, " There are three barking hunts: a bear, a squirrel and a 
pheasant." The explanation is, A pheasant is called a barking 
hunt, because when the pointers come upon it and chase it, it takes 
to a tree, where it is hunted by baiting." The present writer has 
not been able to trace the manuscript containing these remarkable 



PHEIDIAS 



361 



alternative of two partridges or other birds among the " pitantiae" 
(rations or commons, as we might now say) of the canons of 
Waltham Abbey, and, as W. B. Dawkins has remarked (Ibis, 1869, 
p. 358), neither Anglo-Saxons nor Danes were likely to have intro- 
duced it into England. It seems to have been early under legal 
protection, for, according to Dugdale, a licence was granted in 
the reign of Henry I. to the abbot of Amesbury to kill hares and 
pheasants, and from the price at which the latter are reckoned 
in various documents, we may conclude that they were not very 
abundant for some centuries, and also that they were occasion- 
ally artificially reared and fattened, as appears from Upton, 1 
who wrote about the middle of the isth century, while Henry 
VIII. seems from his privy purse expenses to have had in his 
household in 1532 a French priest as a regular " fesaunt breder," 
and in the accounts of the Kytsons of Hengrave in Suffolk for 
1607 mention is made of wheat to feed pheasants, partridges and 
quails. 

The practice of bringing up pheasants by hand is now ex- 
tensively followed, and the numbers so reared vastly exceed those 
that are bred at large. The eggs are collected from birds that 
are either running wild or kept in pens, and are placed under 
domestic hens; but, though these prove most attentive foster- 
mothers, much additional care on the part of their keepers is 
needed to ensure the arrival at maturity of the poults; for, 
being necessarily crowded in a comparatively small space, they 
are subject to several diseases which often carry off a large 
proportion, to say nothing of the risk they run by not being 
provided with proper food, or by meeting an early death from 
various predatory animals attracted by the assemblage of so 
many helpless victims. As they advance in age the young 
pheasants readily take to a wild life, and indeed can only be 
kept from wandering in every direction by being plentifully 
supplied with food, which has to be scattered for them in the 
coverts in which it is desired that they should stay. The pro- 
portion of pheasants artificially bred that " come to the gun " 
would seem to vary enormously, not only irregularly according 
to the weather, but regularly according to the district. In the 
eastern counties of England, and some other favourable localities, 
perhaps three-fourths of those that are hatched may be satis- 
factorily accounted for; but in many of the western counties, 
though they are the objects of equal or even greater care, 
it would seem that more than half of the number that 
live to grow their feathers disappear inexplicably before 
the coverts are beaten. For the sport of pheasant-shooting see 
SHOOTING. 

Formerly pheasants were taken in snares or nets, and by 
hawking; but the crossbow was also used, and the better to 
obtain a " sitting shot," for with that weapon men had not 
learnt to " shoot flying "dogs appear to have been employed 
in the way indicated by the lines under an engraving by Hollar, 
who died in 1677: 

" The Peasant Cocke the woods doth most frequent, 
Where Spaniells spring and pearche him by the sent." 2 

Of the many other species of the genus Phasianus, two only 
can be dwelt upon here. These are the ring-necked pheasant 
of China, P. torqualus, easily known by the broad white collar, 
whence it has its name, as well as by the pale greyish-blue of its 
upper wing-coverts and rump and the light buff of its flanks, 
and the P. versicolor of Japan, often called the green pheasant 

statements so as to find out the original word rendered " pheasant " 
by the translator; but a reference to what is probably the same 
passage with the same meaning is given by Ray (Synops. meth. 
animalium, pp. 213, 214) on the authority of Llwyd or Lloyd, 
though there is no mention of it in Wotton and Clarke's Leges 
Watticae (1730). A charter (Kemble, Cod. diplom. iv. 236), pro- 
fessedly of Edward the Confessor, granting the wardenship of 
certain forests in Essex to Ralph Peperking, speaks of " fesant hen " 
and " fesant cocke," but is now known to be spurious. 

1 In his De studio militari (not printed till 1654) he states (p. 195) 
that the pheasant was brought from the East by " Palladius an- 
corista." 

1 Quoted by the writer (Broderip ?) of the article " Spaniel " 
in the Penny Cyclopaedia. The lines throw light on the asserted 
Welsh practice mentioned in a former note. 



from the beautiful tinge of that colour that in certain lights 
pervades almost the whole of its plumage, and, deepening into 
dark emerald, occupies all the breast and lower surface that in 
the common and Chinese birds is bay barred with glossy black 
scallops. Both of these species have been introduced into 
England, and cross freely with P. colchicus, while the hybrids 
of each with the older inhabitants of tht woods are not only 
perfectly fertile inter se, but cross as freely with the other 
hybrids, so that birds are frequently found in which the blood 
of the three species is mingled. The hybrids of the first cross 
are generally larger than either of their parents, but the superi- 
ority of size does not seem to be maintained by their descendants. 
White and pied varieties of the common pheasant, as of most 
birds, often occur, and with a little care a race or breed of each 
can be perpetuated. A much rarer variety is sometimes seen; 
this is known as the Bohemian pheasant, not that there is the 
least reason to suppose it has any right to such an epithet, for 
it appears, as it were, accidentally among a stock of the pure 
P. colchicus, and offers an example analogous to that of the 
Japan peafowl (see PEACOCK), being, like that breed, capable 
of perpetuation by selection. Two other species of pheasant 
have been introduced to the coverts of England P. reevesi from 
China, remarkable for its very long tail, white with black bars, 
and the copper pheasant, P. soemmerringi, from Japan. The 
well-known gold and silver pheasants, P. pictus and P. nycthe- 
merus, each the type of a distinct section or subgenus, are both 
from China and have long been introduced into Europe, but are 
only fitted for the aviary. To the former is allied the still more 
beautiful P. amherstiae, and to the latter about a dozen more 
species, most of them known to Indian sportsmen by the general 
name of " kaleege." The comparatively plain pucras pheasants, 
Pucrasia, the magnificent monauls, Lophophorus, and the fine 
snow-pheasants, Crossoptilum of each of which genera there 
are several species, may also be mentioned. 

All the species known at the time are beautifully figured from 
drawings by J. Wolf in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae 
(2 vols., fol., 1870-1872) the last term being used in a somewhat 
general sense. With a more precise scope W. B. Tegetmeier's 
Pheasants: their Natural History and Practical Management 
(4th ed., 1904) is to be commended as a very useful work. (A. N.) 

PHEIDIAS, son of Charmides, universally regarded as the 
greatest of Greek sculptors, was born at Athens about 500 B.C. 
We have varying accounts of his training. Hegias of Athens, 
Ageladas of Argos, and the Thasian painter Polygnotus, have 
all been regarded as his teachers. In favour of Ageladas it may 
be said that the influence of the many Dorian schools is certainly 
to be traced in some of his work. Of his life we know little 
apart from his works. Of his death we have two discrepant 
accounts. According to Plutarch he was made an object of 
attack by the political enemies of Pericles, and died in prison at 
Athens. According to Philochorus, as quoted by a scholiast 
on Aristophanes, he fled to Elis, where he made the great 
statue of Zeus for the Eleans, and was afterwards put . to 
death by them. For several reasons the first of these tales is 
preferable. 

Plutarch gives in his life of Pericles a charming account of 
the vast artistic activity which went on at Athens while that 
statesman was in power. He used for the decoration of his own 
city the money furnished by the Athenian allies for defence 
against Persia: it is very fortunate that after the time of Xerxes 
Persia made no deliberate attempt against Greece. " In all 
these works," says Plutarch, " Pheidias was the adviser and 
overseer of Pericles." Pheidias introduced his own portrait 
and that of Pericles on the shield of his Parthenos statue. 
And it was through Pheidias that the political enemies of 
Pericles struck at him. It thus abundantly appears that 
Pheidias was closely connected with Pericles, and a ruling spirit 
in the Athenian art of the period. But it is not easy to go 
beyond this general assertion into details. 

It is important to observe that in resting the fame of Pheidias 
upon the sculptures of the Parthenon we proceed with little evi- 
dence. No ancient writer ascribes them to him, and he seldom, 
if ever, executed works in marble. What he was celebrated 



362 



PHEIDON PHELPS, A. 



for in antiquity was his statues in bronze or gold and ivory. 
If Plutarch tells us that he superintended the great works of 
Pericles on the Acropolis, this phrase is very vague. On the 
other hand, inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended 
for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought 
to Athens until 434 B.C., which was probably after the death 
of Pheidias. And there is a marked contrast in style between 
these statues and the certain works of Pheidias. It is therefore 
probable that most if not all of the sculptural decoration of the 
Parthenon was the work of pupils of Pheidias, such as Alcamenes 
and Agoracritus, rather than his own. 

The earliest of the great works of Pheidias were dedications 
in memory of Marathon, from the spoils of the victory. At 
Delphi he erected a great group in bronze including the figures 
of Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and Miltiades the 
general. On the Acropolis of Athens he set up a colossal bronze 
image of Athena, which was visible far out at sea. At Pellene 
in Achaea, and at Plataea he made two other statues of Athena, 
also a statue of Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people 
of Elis. But among the Greeks themselves the two works of 
Pheidias which far outshone all others, and were the basis of 
his fame, were the colossal figures in gold and ivory of Zeus at 
Olympia and of Athena Parthenos at Athens, both of which 
belong to about the middle of the sth century. Of the Zeus 
we have unfortunately lost all trace save small copies on coins 
of Elis, which give us but a general notion of the pose, and the 
character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every 
part of which was used as a ground for sculptural decoration. 
His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of 
somewhat archaic type: the Otricoli mask which used to be 
regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue is certainly 
more than a century later in style. Of the Athena Parthenos 
two small copies in marble have been found at Athens (see 
GREEK ART, fig. 38) which have no excellence of workmanship, 
but have a certain evidential value- as to the treatment of their 
original. 

It will be seen how very small is our actual knowledge of the 
works of Pheidias. There are many stately figures in the Roman 
and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as 
the Parthenos; but they are copies of the Roman age, and not 
to be trusted in point of style. A. Furtwangler proposes to 
find in a statue of which the head is at Bologna, and the body 
at Dresden, a copy of the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias; but his 
arguments (Masterpieces, at the beginning) are anything but 
conclusive. Much more satisfactory as evidence are some sth 
century torsos of Athena found at Athens. The very fine torso 
of Athena in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, which has 
unfortunately lost its head, may perhaps best serve to help 
our imagination in reconstructing a Pheidian original. 

As regards the decorative sculptures of the Parthenon, which 
the Greeks rated far below their colossus in ivory and gold, see 
the article PARTHENON. 

Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Pheidias. 
What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral 
level of his works as compared with those of the later " pathetic " 
school. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same 
time precise. That he rode on the crest of a splendid wave of 
art is not to be questioned: but it is to be regretted that we have 
no morsel of work extant for which we can definitely hold him 
responsible. (P. G.) 

PHEIDON (Sth or 7th century B.C.), king of Argos, generally, 
though wrongly, called " tyrant." According to tradition he 
flourished during the first half of the Sth century B.C. He was 
a vigorous and energetic ruler and greatly increased the power 
of Argos. He gradually regained sway over the various cities of 
the Argive confederacy, the members of which had become 
practically independent, and (in the words of Ephorus) " re- 
united the broken fragments of the inheritance of Temenus." 
His object was to secure predominance for Argos in the north 
of Peloponnesus. According to Plutarch, he attempted to 
break the power of Corinth, by requesting the Corinthians to 
send him 1000 of their picked youths, ostensibly to aid him in 



war, his real intention being to put them to death; but the plot 
was revealed. Pheidon assisted the Pisatans to expel the Elean 
superintendents of the Olympian games and presided at the 
festival himself. The Eleans, however, refused to recognize the 
Olympiad or to include it in the register, and shortly afterwards, 
with the aid of the Spartans, who are said to have looked upon 
Pheidon as having ousted them from the headship of Greece, 
defeated Pheidon and were reinstated in the possession of 
Pisatis and their former privileges. Pheidon is said to have 
lost his life in a faction fight at Corinth, where the monarchy 
had recently been overthrown. The affair of the games has an 
important bearing on his date. Pausanias (vi. 22, 2) definitely 
states that Pheidon presided at the festival in the Sth Olympiad 
(i.e. in 748 B.C.), but in the list of the suitors of Agariste, daughter 
of Cleisthenes of Sicyon, given by Herodotus, there occurs the 
name of Leocedes (Lacedas), son of Pheidon of Argos. Accord- 
ing to this, Pheidon must have flourished during the early part 
of the 6th century. It has therefore been assumed that 
Herodotus confused two Pheidons, both kings of Argos. The 
suggested substitution in the text of Pausanias of the 28th for 
the Sth Olympiad (i.e. 668 instead of 748) would not bring it into 
agreement with Herodotus, for even then Pheidon 's son could 
not have been a suitor in 570 for the hand of Agariste. But 
the story of Agariste's wooing resembles romance and has slight 
chronological value. On the whole, modern authorities assign 
Pheidon to the first half of the 7th century. Herodotus further 
states that Pheidon established a system of weights and measures 
throughout Peloponnesus, to which Ephorus and the Parian 
Chronicle add that he was the first to coin silver money, and that 
his mint was at Aegina. But according to the better authority 
of Herodotus (i. 94) and Xenophanes of Colophon, the Lydians 
were the first coiners of money at the beginning of the 7th century, 
and, further, the oldest known Aeginetan coins are of later date 
than Pheidon. Hence, unless a later Pheidon is assumed, the 
statement of Ephorus must be considered unhistorical. No 
such difficulty occurs in regard to the weights and measures; 
it is generally agreed that a system was already in existence in 
the time of Pheidon, into which he introduced certain changes. 
A passage in the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (x. 2) 
states that the measures used before the Solonian period of 
reform were called " Pheidonian." 



See Herodotus yi. 127; Ephorus in Strabo viii. 358, 376; Plutarch, 
Amatoriae narrationes, 2; Marmpr parium, ep. 30; Pol" 
Nicolaus Damascenus, frag. 41 (in C. W. Muller s Frag. 



ollux ix. 83; 

_ . . ig. hist, grae- 

corum, iii.) ; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii. ch. 4 ; B. V. Head, 
Historia Numorum (1887); F. Hultsch, Griechische und rdmische 
Metrologie (1882); G. Rawlinson's Herodotus, appendix, bk. i., 
note 8. On the question of Pheidon 's date, see J. B. Bury, History 
of Greece, ii. 468 (1902); J. P. Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History, 
ch. 3 (1892); J. G. Frazer's note on Pausanias vi. 22, 2; and especi- 
ally G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte (2nd ed., 1893), ch. iii. 12. C. 
Trieber, Pheidon von Argos (Hanover, 1880), and J. Beloch, in 
Rheinisches Museum, xlv. 595 (1890), favour a later date, about 
580. 

PHELPS, AUSTIN '(1820-1890), American Congregational 
minister and educationalist, was born on the 7th of January 
1820 at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, son of Eliakim Phelps, 1 
a clergyman, who, during the boyhood of his son was principal 
of a girls' school in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and later pastor 
of a Presbyterian church in Geneva, New York. The son 
studied at Hobart College in 1833-1835, then at Amherst for 
a year, and in 1837 graduated at the university of Pennsylvania. 
He studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, at the Yale 
Divinity School, and at Andover, and was licensed to preach 
in 1840 by the Third Presbytery of Philadelphia. He was 
pastor of the Pine Street (Congregational) Church in Boston 
in 1842-1848, and in 1848-1879 was professor of sacred rhetoric 
and homiletics at Andover Theological Seminary, of which he 
was president from 1869 to 1879, when his failing health forced 
him to resign. He died on the i3th of October 1890 at Bar 
Harbor, Maine. His Theory of Preaching (1881) and English 

1 Eliakim Phelps afterwards lived in Stratford, Herkimer county, 
New York, where hig house was " possessed " and was long a place 
of curious interest to students of " spiritualism." 



PHELPS, E. J. PHENACETIN 



Style in Public Discourse (1883) became standard textbooks; 
and personally he was a brilliant preacher. He married in 
1842 Elizabeth Stuart (1815-1852), eldest daughter of Moses 
Stuart, then president of Andover; she was the author of the 
popular story Sunny side (1851) and of other books. In 1854 
he married her sister, who died only eighteen months later; and 
in 1858 he married Mary A. Johnson, of Boston. 

With Professors E. A. Park and D. L. Furber he edited Hymns 
and Choirs (1860), and with Professor Park and Lowell Mason The 
Sabbath Hymn Book (1859). The Still Hour (1859), a summary of 
a series of sermons on prayer, is a devotional classic. His other 
works are: The New Birth (1867), portraying conversion (in some 
instances) as a gradual change; Sabbath Hours (1874); Studies of 
the Old Testament (1878) ; Men and Books (1882) ; My Portfolio (1882) ; 
My Study (1885); and My Note Book (1890). 

See Austin P helps: A Memoir (New York, 1891), by his daughter, 
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward. 

PHELPS, EDWARD JOHN (1822-1900), American lawyer 
and diplomat, was born on the nth of July 1822 at Middlebury, 
Vermont. He graduated from Middlebury College in 1840, 
was a schoolmaster for a year in Virginia, and was admitted to 
the bar in 1843. He began practice at Middlebury, but in 
1845 removed to Burlington, Vermont. From 1851 to 1853 he 
was second comptroller of the United States Treasury, and then 
practised law in New York City until 1857, when he returned 
to Burlington. Becoming a Democrat after the Whig party 
had ceased to exist, he was debarred from a political career in 
his own state, where his party was in the minority, but he 
served in the state constitutional convention in 1870, and in 
1880 was the Democratic candidate for governor of his state. 
He was one of the founders of the American Bar Association, 
and was its president in 1880-1881. From 1881 until his 
death he was Kent Professor of Law in Yale University. He 
was minister to Great Britain from 1885 to 1889, and in 1893 
served as senior counsel for the United States before the inter- 
national tribunal at Paris to adjust the Bering Sea controversy. 
His closing argument, requiring eleven days for its delivery, 
was an exhaustive review of the case. Phelps lectured on 
medical jurisprudence at the university of Vermont in 1881- 
1883, and on constitutional law at Boston University in 1882- 
1883, and delivered numerous addresses, among them that on 
" The United States Supreme Court and the Sovereignty of 
the People " at the centennial celebration of the Federal 
Judiciary in 1890 and an oration at the dedication of the 
Bennington Battle Monument, unveiled in 1891 at the centennial 
of Vermont's admission to the Union. In politics Phelps was 
always Conservative, opposing the anti-slavery movement 
before 1860, the free-silver movement in 1896, when he supported 
the Republican presidential ticket, and after 1898 becoming 
an ardent " anti-expansionist." He died at New Haven, 
Connecticut, on 'the 9th of March 1900. 

See the Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, edited by 
J. G. McCullough, with a Memoir by John W. Stewart (New York, 
1901) ; and " Life and Public Services of the Hon. Edward J. Phelps," 
by Matthew H. Buckham, in Proceedings of the Vermont Historical 
Society (Burlington, Vt., 1901). 

PHELPS, SAMUEL (1804-1878), English actor and manager, 
was born at Devonport on the i3th of February 1804. He was 
early thrown upon his own resources, and worked in various 
newspaper offices. Shortly after his marriage in 1826 to Sarah 
Cooper (d. 1867), he accepted a theatrical engagement in the 
York circuit at eighteen shillings a week, and afterwards 
appeared in south of England towns in prominent tragic r61es, 
attracting sufficient attention to be spoken of as a rival to 
Kean. He made his first London appearance on the 28th 
of August 1837 as Shylock at the Haymarket. After a short 
season there he was with Macready for about six years at 
Covent Garden, the Haymarket and Drury Lane successively. 
In 1844 he became co-lessee of Sadler's Wells Theatre with 
Thomas L. Greenwood and Mrs Mary Amelia Warner (1804- 
1854). Greenwood supplied the business capacity, Phelps was 
the theatrical manager, and Mrs Warner leading lady. In 
this position Phelps remained for twenty years, during which 
time he raised the Sadler's Wells house to an important position, 



and himself appeared in a very extensive and varied repertory. 
Thirty-four of Shakespeare's plays were presented there under 
his direction, with great educational effect, both on public and 
players. In 1861 Greenwood retired from the partnership, 
and Phelps, unable to cope with the business of management, 
retired from it in the following year. For the next fifteen years 
he acted under various managements, achieving considerable 
success in some of Halliday's dramatic versions of Scott's novels, 
such as The Fortunes of Nigel and Ivanhoe. His last appear- 
ance was in 1878 as Wolsey in Henry VIII., and he died on the 
6th of November 1878. He was a sound and capable actor, 
rather than one of any marked genius; and, in spite of his 
predilection for tragedy, was most successful in such characters 
of comedy as called for dry humour. Perhaps Sir Pertinax 
Macsycophant in Charles Macklin's The Man of the World was 
his finest impersonation. He published an annotated edition 
of Shakespeare's plays (2 vols., 1852-1854). 

PHELYPEAUX, a French family of Blesois. Its two principal 
branches were those of the siegneurs of Herbault, La Vrilliere 
and Saint Florentin, and of the counts of Pontchartrain and 
Maurepas. Raimond Phelypeaux, seigneur of Herbault and 
La Vrilliere (d. 1629), was treasurer of the Epargne in 1599, 
and became secretary of state in 1621. His son Louis succeeded 
him in this latter office, and died in 1681. Balthazar Phely- 
peaux, marquis de Chateauneuf (d. 1700), and Louis, marquis 
de La Vrilliere (d. 1725), respectively son and grandson of 
Louis, were also secretaries of state. Louis Phelypeaux (1705- 
1777), count of Saint Florentin and afterwards duke of La 
Vrilliere (1770), succeeded his father as secretary of state; 
became minister of the king's household in 1749, a minister 
of state in 1751, and discharged the functions of minister of 
foreign affairs on the disgrace of Choiseul (1770). He incurred 
great unpopularity by his abuse of lettres de cachet, and had to 
resign in 1775. Raimond Balthazar Phelypeaux, seigneur 
du Verger, a member of the La Vrilliere branch, was sent as 
ambassador to Savoy in 1700, where he discovered the intrigues 
of the duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II., against France; and 
when war was declared he was kept a close prisoner by the duke 
(1703-1704). At the time of his death (1713) he was governor- 
general in the West Indies. The branch of Pontchartrain- 
Maurepas was founded by Paul Phelypeaux (1569-1621), 
brother of the first-mentioned Raimond; he became secretary 
of state in 1610. 

PHENACETIN, C 2 H 6 O-C 6 H 4 -NHCOCH 3 (para-acetamino- 
phenetol), a drug prepared by acetylating para-phenetidin, 
or by heating para-acetylaminophenol and potassium ethyl 
sulphate with alcoholic soda to 150 C. Para-phenetidin is 
prepared by treating the sodium salt of para-nitrophenol with 
ethyl iodide, and reducing the nitrophenetol to para-phenetidin 
or aminophenetol. The yield may be doubled by diazotizing 
para-phenetidin, coupling with phenol, ethylating and reducing: 

EtO-C 6 H4-NH 2 ->EtO-C6H4-N 2 OH-}EtO-C 6 H4-N 2 -C 6 H-OH-> 
EtO-C 6 H4-N 2 -C 6 Hi-OEt-^2EtO-C 6 H 4 -NH 2 . 

It crystallizes from water in colourless plates, melting at 135 C. 
It is soluble in about 70 parts of hot and in about 1400 parts of 
cold water. 

Several compounds related to phenacetin have been intro- 
duced into medicine. Triphenin is propylphenetidin; lacto- 
phenin is lactylphenetidin; pyrantin is para-ethoxyphenyl 
succinimide, EtO-CeHrNlCO-CHj];!; salop'hen or saliphenin is 
salicylphenetidin; amygdophenin is mandelylphenetidin. In 
addition, several other derivatives have been suggested which 
have a greater solubility than phenacetin, e.g. phesin, which is the 
sodium salt of phenacetin sulphonic acid, apolysin and citrophen 
(citrophenin), which are citric acid derivatives of para-phene- 
tidin, &c. 

Phenacetin is contained in both the British and United States 
pharmacopoeia, in the latter under the name of acetphenetidin. 
The dose is 5 to 10 grs. given in cachets or in suspension. When 
the drug is carelessly made it may contain impurities, producing 
considerable irritation of the kidneys. The physiological action 
of phenacetin consists in a sedative action on the sensory tracts of 
the spinal cord, and a depressant action on the heart, where it 



364 



PHENACITE PHENAZINE 




tends to paralyse the action of the cardiac muscle. Upon the 
bodily heat it exercises a marked effect, decreasing the action of 
the heat-producing centre as well as increasing the dissipation of 
heat, and thus causing a marked fall in temperature. In toxic 
doses the blood becomes dark and blackish from the formation of 
methaemoglobin, and the urine is changed in colour from the passage 
of altered blood. The chief therapeutic use of phenacetin is as an 
antineuralgic, and it is of service in migraine, rheumatism of the 
sub-acute type, intercostal neuralgia and locomotor ataxia. 

PHENACITE, a mineral consisting of beryllium orthosilicate, 
Be 2 SiO 4 , occasionally used as a gem-stone. It occurs as isolated 
crystals, which are rhombohedral with parallel-faced hemihedrism, 
and are either lenticular or prismatic in habit: the lenticular 
habit is determined by the development of faces of several 
obtuse rhombohedra and the absence of prism faces (the accom- 
panying figure is a plan of such 
a crystal viewed along the triad, 
or principal, axis). There is no 
cleavage, and the fracture is 
conchoidal. The hardness is 
high, being 75-8; the specific 
gravity is 2-98. The crystals are 
sometimes perfectly colourless 
and transparent, but more often 
they are greyish or yellowish 
and only translucent; occasion- 
ally they are pale rose-red. In 
general appearance the mineral 
is not unlike quartz, for which 
indeed it had been mistaken; on this account it was named, by 
N. Nordenskiold in 1833, from Gr. <t?a (a deceiver). 

Phenacite has long been known from the emerald and chryso- 
beryl mine on the Takovaya stream, near Ekaterinburg in 
the Urals, where large crystals occur in mica-schist. It is also 
found with topaz and amazon-stone in the granite of the Ilmen 
mountains in the southern Urals and of the Pike's Peak region 
in Colorado. Large crystals of prismatic habit have more 
recently been found in a felspar quarry at Kragero in Norway. 
Framont near Schirmeck in Alsace is another well-known locality. 
Still larger crystals, measuring 12 in. in diameter and weighing 
28 Ib, have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are 
pseudomorphs of quartz after phenacite. 

For gem purposes the stone is cut in the brilliant form, of 
which there are two fine examples, weighing 43 and 34 carats, 
in the British Museum. The indices of refraction (0=1-6540, 
6 = 1-6527) are higher than those of quartz, beryl or topaz; a 
faceted phenacite is consequently rather brilliant and may 
sometimes be mistaken for diamond. (L. J. S.) 

PHENACODUS, one of the earliest and most primitive of 
the ungulate mammals, typifying the family Phenacodontidae 
and the sub-order Condylarthra. The typical Phenacodus 
primaevus, of the Lower or Wasatch Eocene of North America, 
was a relatively small ungulate, of slight build, with straight 
limbs each terminating in five complete toes, and walking in 
the digitigrade fashion of the modern tapir. The middle toe 
was the largest, and the weight of the body was mainly supported 
on this and the two adjoining digits, which appear to have been 
encased in hoofs, thus foreshadowing the tridactyle type 
common in perissodactyle and certain extinct groups of ungulates. 
The skull was small, with proportionately minute brain; and 
the arched back, strong lumbar vertebrae, long and powerful 
tail, and comparatively feeble fore-quarters all proclaim kinship 
with the primitive creodont Carnivora (see CREODONTA), from 
which Phenacodus and its allies, and through them the more 
typical Ungulata, are probably derived. All the bones of the 
limbs are separate, and those of the carpus and tarsus do not 
alternate; that is to say, each one in the upper row is placed im- 
mediately above the corresponding one in the row below. The 
full series of forty-four teeth was developed; and the upper molars 
were short-crowned, or brachyodont, with six low cones, two 
internal, two intermediate and two external, so that they were 
of the typical primitive bunodont structure. In habits the 
animal was cursorial and herbivorous, or possibly carnivorous. 



In the Puerco, or Lowest Eocene of North America the place 
of the above species was taken by Euprologonia puercensis, an 
animal only half the size of Phenacodus primaevus, with the 
terminal joints of the limbs intermediate between hoofs and 
claws, and the first and fifth toes taking their full share in the 
support of the weight of the body. These two genera may be 
regarded as forming the earliest stages in the evolution of the 
horse, coming below Hyracotherium (see EQUIDAE). 

As ancestors of the Artiodactyle section of the Ungulata, we 
may look to forms more or less closely related to the North 
American Lower Eocene genera Mioclaenus and Pantolestes, 
respectively typifying the families Mioclaenidae and Panto- 
lestidae. They were five-toed, -bunodont Condylarthra, with a 
decided approximation to the perissodactyle type in the struc- 
ture of the feet. A third type of Condylarthra from the North 
American Lower Eocene is represented by the family Menisco- 
theriidae, including the genera Meniscotherium and Hyracops. 
These, it is suggested, may have been related to the ancestral 
Hyracoidea. Teeth and jaws probably referable to the Condyl- 
arthra have been obtained in European early Tertiary forma- 
tions. All Ungulata probably originated from Condylarthra. 

See H. F. Osborn, Skeleton of Phenacodus primaevus; comparison 
with Euprotogonia, Bull. Amer. Mus. x. 159. (R. L.*) 

PHENANTHRENE, Ci 4 H 10 , a hydrocarbon isomeric with 
anthracene, with which it occurs in the fraction of the coal tar 
distillate boiling between 27o-4oo C. It may be separated 
from the anthracene oil by repeated fractional distillation, 
followed by fractional crystallization from alcohol (anthracene 
being the less soluble), and finally purified by oxidizing any 
residual anthracene with potassium bichromate and sulphuric 
acid (R. Anschutz and G. Schultz, Ann., 1879, 196, p. 35); or 
the two hydrocarbons may be separated by carbon bisulphide, 
in which anthracene is insoluble. It is formed when the 
vapours of toluene, stilbene, dibenzyl, ortho-ditolyl, or coumarone 
and benzene are passed through a red-hot tube; by distilling 
morphine with zinc dust; and, with anthracene, by the action 
of sodium on ortho-brombenzyl bromide (C. L. Jackson and 
J. F. White, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1880, 2, p. 391). It crystallizes 
in colourless plates or needles, which melt at 99 C. Its solutions 
in alcohol and ether have a faint blue fluorescence. When 
heated to 250 C. with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid it 
gives a hydride Cu H^. It is nitrated by nitric acid and sulphon- 
ated by sulphuric acid. With picric acid it forms a sparingly 
soluble picrate, which melts at 145 C. On the condition of 
phenanthrene in alcoholic solution see R. Behrend, Zeit. phys. 
Chem., 1892, 9, p. 405; 10, p. 265. Chromic acid oxidizes 
phenanthrene, first to phenanthrene-quinone, and then to 
diphenic acid, HOzC-CeH^rL.-^!!. 

Phenanthrene-quinone, [CeH^tCO^, crystallizes in orange needles 
which melt at 198 C. It possesses the characteristic properties 
of a diketone, forming crystalline derivatives with sodium bisulphite 
and a dioxime with hydroxylamine. It is non-volatile in steam, 
and is odourless. Sulphurous acid reduces it to the corresponding 
dihydroxy compound. It combines with ortho-diamines, in the 
presence of acetic acid, to form phenazines. 

On the constitution of phenanthrene see CHEMISTRY: Organic. 



PHENAZINE (Azophenylene), C^HjNz, in organic chemistry, 
the parent substance of many dyestuffs, e.g. the eurhodines, 
toluylene red, indulines and safranines. It is a dibenzopara- 
diazine having the formula given below. It may be obtained 
by distilling barium azobenzoate (A. Claus, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 723); 
by passing aniline vapour over lead oxide, or by the oxidation 
of dihydrophenazine, which is prepared by heating pyrocatechin 
with orthophenylene diamine (C. Ris, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2206). 
It is also formed when ortho-aminodiphenylamine is distilled 
over lead peroxide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp). It crystallizes in 
yellow needles which melt at 171 C., and are only sparingly 
soluble in alcohol. Sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming a deep- 
red solution. The more complex phenazines, such as the 
naphthophenazines, naphthazines and naphthotolazines, may 
be prepared by condensing ortho-diamines with ortho-quinones 
(O. Hinsberg, Ann., 1887, 237, p. 340); by the oxidation of an 
ortho-diamine in the presence of a-naphthol (0. Witt), and by 



PHENOLPHTHALEIN PHERECYDES OF SYROS 



the decomposition of ortho-anilido-(-toluidido- &c.)-azo com- 
pounds with dilute acids. If alkyl or aryl-ortho-diamines be 
used azonium bases are obtained. The azines are mostly 
yellow in colour, distil unchanged and are stable to oxidants. 
They add on alkyl iodides readily, forming alkyl azonium salts. 

By the entrance of amino or hydroxyl groups into the molecule 
dyestuffs are formed. The mono-amino derivatives or eurhodines 
are obtained when the arylmonamines are condensed with ortho- 
amino zo compounds; by condensing quinone dichlorimide or 
para-nitrosodimethyl aniline with monamines containing a free 
para position, or by oxidizing ortho-hydroxydiaminodiphenylamines 
(R. Nietzki, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2976; O. Fischer, ibid., 1896, 29, 
p. 1874). They are yellowish-red solids, which behave as weak 
bases, their salts undergoing hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous 
solution. When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid the 
amino group is replaced by the hydroxyl group and the phenolic 
eurhodols are produced. 

The symmetrical diaminophenazine is the parent substance of 
the important dyestuff toluylene red or dimetnyldiaminotoluphen- 
azine. It is obtained by the oxidation of orthophenylene diamine 
with ferric chloride; when a mixture of para-aminodimethylaniline 
and meta-toluylenediamine is oxidized in the cold, toluylene blue, 
an indamine, being formed as an intermediate product and passing 
into the red when boiled; and also by the oxidation of dimethyl- 
paraphenylene diamine with metatoluylene diamine. It crystal- 
lizes in orange-red needles and its alcoholic solution fluoresces 
strongly. It dyes silk and mordanted cotton a fine scarlet. It 
is known commercially as neutral red. For the phenazonium salts 
see SAFRANINE. 

Phenazone is an isomer of phenazine, to which it bears the same 
relation that phenanthrene bears to anthracene. It is formed by 
reducing diortho-dinitrodiphenyl with sodium amalgam and methyl 
alcohol, or by heating diphenylene-ortho-dihydrazine with hydro- 
chloric acid to 150 C. It crystallizes in needles which melt at 
156 C. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyridazine tetra- 
carboxylic acid. 

^ ^ xN:N 





Phenazine. 



Phenazone. 



PHENOLPHTHALEIN, in organic chemistry, a compound 
derived from phthalophenone, or diphenyl phthalide (formula 
I.), the anhydride of triphenyl-carbinol-ortho-carboxylic acid, 
which is obtained by condensing phthalyl chloride with benzene 
in the presence of aluminium chloride. The phthaleins are 
formed from this anhydride by the entrance of hydroxyl or 
amino groups into the two phenyl residues, and are prepared 
by condensing phenols with phthalic anhydride, phenol itself 
giving rise to phenolphthalein (formula II.) together with a 
small quantity of fluorane (formula III.), whilst resorcin under 
similar conditions yields fluorescein (<?..). The phthaleins on 
reduction yield phthalines, which are derivatives of triphenyl- 
methane carboxylic acid ; these reduction products are colourless 
and may be regarded as the leuco-compounds of the phthaleins, 
thus phenolphthalein itself gives phenolphthaline (formula IV.). 
Dehydrating agents usually convert the phenolphthalines into 
anthraquinone derivatives. 



/CPh 
,H 4 < 

Nco 



, C 6 H 



>0, 



I. Diphenylphthalide, II. Phenolphthalein, 



^CO- 
IIl. Fluorane. 



C,H 4 

\CO 2 H 
IV. Phenolphthaline. 

Phenolphthalein is obtained when phenol and phthalic anhydride 
are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in 
colourless crusts and is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves in 
dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis with a fine red colour, being 
reprecipitated from these solutions by the addition of mineral 
acid. It dissolves in concentrated caustic alkalis to a colourless 
solution which probably contains salts of a non-quinonoid character. 
This difference in behaviour has led to considerable discussion 
(see H. Meyer, Monats., 1899, 20, p. 337; R. Meyer, Ber., 1903, 
36, p. 2949; A. G. Perkin and Green, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1904, p. 398). 
On fusion with caustic alkali, phenolphthalein yields benzoic acid 
and para-dihydroxybenzpphenone, which shows that in the original 
condensation the phthalic acid residue has taken the para position 
to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol. 

Fluorane is a product of the condensation of the phthalic acid 
residue in the ortho position to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol, 



anhydride formation also taking place between these hydroxyl 
groups. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a yellowish- 
green fluorescence. The rhodamines, which are closely related to 
the phthaleins, are formed by the condensation of the alkyl meta- 
aminophenols with phthalic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric 
acid. Their salts are fine red dyes. 

PHENOMENON (Gr. <t>au>biMvov , a thing seen, from <t>aivtaOai., 
to appear), in ordinary language a thing, process, event, &c., 
observed by the senses. Thus the rising of the sun, a thunder- 
storm, an earthquake are natural " phenomena." From this 
springs the incorrect colloquial sense, something out of the 
common, an event which especially strikes the attention ; hence 
such phrases as " phenomenal " activity. In Greek philosophy 
phenomena are the changing objects of the senses as opposed 
to essences (TO. avra) which are one and permanent, and are 
therefore regarded as being more real, the objects of reason 
rather than of senses which are " bad witnesses." In modern 
philosophy the phenomenon is neither the " thing-in-itself," 
nor the noumenon (q.v.) or object of pure thought, but the thing- 
in-itself as it appears to the mind in sensation (see especially 
KANT; and METAPHYSICS). In this sense the subjective character 
is of prime importance. Among derivative terms are " Pheno- 
menalism" and " Phenomenology." Phenomenalism is either 
(i) the doctrine that there can be no knowledge except by 
phenomena, i.e. sense-given data, or (2) the doctrine that all 
known things are phenomena, i.e. that there are no " things-in- 
themselves." " Phenomenology " is the science of phenomena: 
every special science has a special section in which its particular 
phenomena are described. The term was first used in English 
in the 3rd edition of the Ency. Brit, in the article " Philosophy " 
by J. Robison. Kant has a special use of the term for that 
part of the Melaphysic oj Nature which considers motion and 
rest as predicates of a judgment about things. 

PHERECRATES, Greek poet of the Old Attic Comedy, was a 
contemporary of Cratinus, Crates and Aristophanes. At first 
an actor, he seems to have gained a prize for a play in 438 B.C. 
The only other ascertained date in his life is 420, when he pro- 
duced his play The Wild Men. Like Crates, whom he imitated, 
he abandoned personal satire for more general themes, although 
in some of the fragments of his plays we find him attacking 
Alcibiades and others. He was especially famed for his inven- 
tive imagination, and the elegance and purity of his diction 
are attested by the epithet dTTi/cwraros (most Attic) applied 
to him by Athenaeus and the sophist Phrynichus. He was the 
inventor of a new metre, called after him Pherecratean, which 
frequently occurs in the choruses of Greek tragedies and in 
Horace. 

A considerable number of fragments from his 16 (or 13) plays 
has been preserved, collected in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum 
Fragmenta, i. (1880), and A. Meineke, Poetarum Comicorum Grae- 
corum Fragmenta (1855). 

PHERECYDES OF LEROS, Greek mythographer, fl. c. 454 
B.C. He is probably identical with Pherecydes of Athens, 
although the two are distinguished by Suidas (also by I. Lipsius, 
Quaestiones logographicae, 1886). He seems to have been born 
in the island of Leros, and to have been called an Athenian 
because he spent the greater part of his life and wrote his great 
work there. Of his treatises, On Leros, On Iphigeneia, On the 
Festivals of Dionysus, nothing remains; but numerous fragments 
of his genealogies of the gods and heroes, variously called 
Toroptai, TtmaKtryiaL, Avroxdovts, in ten books, written in the 
Ionic dialect, have been preserved (see C. W. Miiller's Frag, 
hist, graec., vol. i. pp. xxxiv., 70). He modified the legends, not 
with a view to rationalizing them, but rather to adjust them to 
popular beliefs. He cannot, therefore, be classed with Hecataeus, 
whose method was far more scientific. 

'See C. Lutke, Pherecydea (diss. Gottingen, 1893); W. Christ, 
Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898) ; and specially H. Bertsch, 
Pherekydeische Studien (1898). 

PHERECYDES OF SYROS, Greek philosopher (or rather 
philosophical theologian), flourished during the 6th century B.C. 
He was sometimes reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men, and is 
said to have been the teacher of Pythagoras. With the possible 



366 



PHIGALIA 



exception of Cadmus (q.v.) of Miletus, he was the first Greek 
prose-writer. He belonged to the circle of Peisistratus at 
Athens, and was the founder of an Orphic community. He 
is characterized as " one of the earliest representatives of a 
half-critical, half-credulous eclecticism " (Gomperz). He was 
credited with having originated the doctrine of metempsychosis 
(5.1;.), while Cicero and Augustine assert that he was the first to 
teach the immortality of the soul. Of his astronomical studies 
he left a proof in the " heliotropion," a cave at Syros which 
served to determine the annual turning-point of the sun, like 
the grotto of Posillipo (Posilipo, Posilippo) at Naples, and was 
one of the sights of the island. 

In his cosmogonic treatise on nature and the gods, called 
HtvTffivxos (Preller's correction of Sui'das, who has lirTa.iwx.os) 
from the five elementary or original principles (aether, fire, air, 
water, earth; Gomperz substitutes smoke and darkness for 
aether and earth), he enunciated a system in which science, 
allegory and mythology were blended. In the beginning were 
Chronos, the principle of time; Zeus (Zas), the principle of 
life; and Chthonie, the earth goddess. Chronos begat fire, air 
and water, and from these three sprang numerous other gods. 
Smoke and darkness appear in a later tradition. A fragment 
of the " sacred marriage " of Zas and Chthonie was found on 
an Egyptian papyrus at the end of the ipth century. 

See H. Diels, Fragment* der Vorsokratiker (1903) ; also Q. Kern, De 
Orphei, Epimenidis, Pherecydis theogoniis (1888); D. Speliotopoulos, 
Ufpi *tpWoi> rov Zupiou (Athens, 1890); T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers 
(Eng. trans.), i. 85; B. P. Grenfell, New Classical Fragments (1897); 
H. Weil, Etudes sur I'antiquite grecque (1900). 

PHIGALIA, or PHIGALEIA (<i>i7aXia or <EvyaXa ; mod. Pavlitsd), 
an ancient Greek city in the south-west angle of Arcadia, situated 
on an elevated rocky site, among some of the highest mountains 
in the Peloponnesus the most conspicuous being Mt Cotylium 
and Mt Elasum; the identification of the latter is uncertain. 

In 659 B.C. Phigalia was taken by the Lacedaemonians, 
but soon after recovered its independence by the help of the 
Orasthasians. During the struggle between Achaeans and 
Aetolians in 221 B.C. it was held by Dorimachus, who left it 
on the approach of Philip V. of Macedon. In common with 
the other cities of Arcadia, it appears from Strabo to have 
fallen into utter decay under the Roman rule. Several curious 
cults were preserved near Phigalia, including that of the fish- 
tailed goddess Eurynome and the Black Demeter with a horse's 
head, whose image was renewed by Onatas. Notices of it in 
Greek history are rare and scanty. Though its existing ruins 
and the description of Pausanias show it to have been a place 
of considerable strength and importance, no autonomous coins 
of Phigalia are known. Nothing remains above ground of the 
temples of Artemis or Dionysus and the numerous statues and 
other works of art which existed at the time of Pausanias's 
visit, about A.D. 170. A great part of the city wall, built in fine 
Hellenic masonry, partly polygonal and partly isodomous, and 
a large square central fortress with a circular projecting tower, 
are the only remains now traceable at least without the aid 
of excavation. The walls, once nearly 2 m. in circuit, are strongly 
placed on rocks, which slope down to the little river Neda. 

One very important monument still exists in a fairly perfect 
state; this is a temple dedicated to Apollo Epicurius (the Pre- 
server), built, not at Phigalia itself, but at Bassae, 5 or 6 m. 
away, on the slope of Mt Cotylium; it commemorates the aid 
rendered by Apollo in stopping a plague which in the sth century 
B.C. was devastating Phigalia. This temple is mentioned by 
Pausanias (viii. 41) as being (next to that of Tegea) the finest 
in the Peloponnesus, " from the beauty of its stone and the 
symmetry of its proportions." It was designed by Ictinus, who, 
with Callicrates, was joint architect of the Parthenon at Athens. 
Though visited by Chandler, Dodwell, Cell, and other English 
travellers, the temple was neither explored nor measured till 
1811-1812, when C. R. Cockerell and some other archaeologists 
spent several months in making excavations there. After 
nearly fifty years' delay, Professor Cockerell published the 
results of these labours, as well as of his previous work at Aegina, 
in Temples of Aegina and Bassae (1860), one of the most careful 



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POSTICUM ' 






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and beautifully illustrated archaeological works produced. The 
labours of Cockerell and his companions were richly rewarded; 
not only were sufficient remains of the architectural features 
discovered to show clearly the whole design, but the internal 
sculptured frieze of the cella was found almost perfect. This 
and other fragments of its sculpture are now in the British 
Museum. The colonnade of the temple has been recently 
restored by the Greek authorities. 

The figure shows the plan of the temple, which is of the Doric order, 
but has an internal arrangement of its cella unlike that of any other 
known temple. It stands on an 
elevated and partly artificial plateau, 
which commands an extensive view 
of the oak-clad mountains of 
Arcadia, reaching away to the blue 
waters of the Messenian Gulf. 
Unlike other Doric temples, which 
usually stand east and west, this is 
placed north and south; but it has 
a side entrance on the east. It is 
hexastyle, with fifteen columns on 
its flanks; thirty -four out of the 
thirty-eight columns of the peristyle 
are still standing, with the greater 
part of their architrave, but the rest 
of the entablature and both pedi- 
ments have fallen, together with the 
greater part of the internal columns 
of the cella. It will be seen from 
the plan that these are very 
strangely placed, apparently without 
symmetry, as regards the interior, 
though they are set regularly op- 
posite the voids in the peristyle. 

With the exception of one at the 
south end, which is Corinthian, the 
internal columns are of the Ionic 
order, and are engaged with the cella- 
wall, forming a series of recesses, 
which may have been designed to 
contain statues. Another peculi- 
arity of this interior is that these 
columns reach to the top of the 
cella in one order, not in two ranges 
of columns, one over the other, as 
was the usual Doric fashion. These 
inner columns carried an Ionic 
entablature, of which the frieze now 
in the British Museum formed a 
part. The pediments and external metopes of the peristyle appear 
to have contained no sculpture, but the metopes within the peristyle 
on the exterior of the cella had sculptured subjects ; only a few frag- 
ments of these were, however, discovered. The position occupied by 
the great statue of Apollo is a difficult problem. Cockerell, with much 
probability, places it in the southern portion of the cella, facing the 
eastern side door, so that it would be lighted up by the rays of the 
rising sun. The main entrance is at the northern end through the 
pronaos, once defended by a door in the end of the cella and a metal 
screen, of which traces were found on the two columns of the pronaos. 
There was no door between the posticum and the cella. The general 
proportions of the fronts resemble those of the Theseum at Athens, 
except that the entablature is less massive, the columns thicker, 
and the diminution less all proportionally speaking. In plan the 
temple is long in proportion to its width measuring, on the top of 
the stylobate, 125 ft. 7 in. by 48 ft. 2 in., while the Theseum (built 
probably half a century earlier) is about 104 ft. 2 in. by 45 ft. 2 in. 

The material of which the temple is built is a fine grey limestone 
(once covered with painted stucco), except the roof-tiles, the capitals 
of the cella columns, the architraves, the lacunaria (ceilings) of the 
posticum and pronaos, and the sculpture, all of which are of white 
marble. The roof-tiles, specially noticed by Pausanias, are remark- 
able for their size, workmanship, and the beauty of the Parian marble 
of which they are made. They measure 2 ft. I in. by 3 ft. 6 in., and 
are fitted together in the most careful and ingenious manner. Unlike 
those of the Parthenon and the temple of Aegina, the ipnoi or " joint- 
tiles " are worked out of the same piece of marble as the flat ones, 
for the sake of more perfect fitting and greater security against wet. 

Traces of painting on various architectural members were found 
by Cockerell, but they were too much faded for the colours to be 
distinguished. The designs are the usual Greek patterns the 
fret, the honeysuckle, and the egg and dart. 

The sculpture is of the greatest interest, as being designed to deco- 
rate one of the finest buildings in the Peloponnesus in the latter half 
of the sth century B.C.; see Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Sculpture, vol. i 

The frieze, now in the British Museum, is complete; it is nearly 
101 ft. long by 2 ft. high, carved in relief on twenty-three slabs of 
marble 4$ to 5 in. thick. The subjects are the battle of the Lapithae 
and the Centaurs, and that between the Amazons and the Greeks, the 



Plan of the Temple at 
Bassae. 



PHILADELPHIA 



367 



two favourite subjects in Greek plastic art of the best period. They 
are designed with wonderful fertility of invention, and life-like 
realism and spirit ; the composition is arranged so as to form a series 
of diagonal lines or zigzags M, thus forming a pleasing contrast 
to the unbroken horizontal lines of the cornice and architrave. 
The various groups are skilfully united together by some dominant 
line or action, so that the whole subject forms one unbroken com- 
position. 

The relief is very high, more than 3$ in. in the most salient parts, 
and the whole treatment is quite opposite to that of the Parthenon 
frieze, which is a very superior work of art to that at Bassae. Many 
of the limbs are quite detached from the ground ; the drill has been 
largely used to emphasize certain shadows, and in many places, 
for want of due calculation, the sculptor has had to cut into the flat 
background behind the figures. From this it would appear that no 
finished clay-model was prepared, but that the relief was sculptured 
with only the help of a drawing. The point of sight, more than 20 ft. 
below the bottom of the frieze, and the direction in which the light 
fell on it have evidently been carefully considered. Many parts, 
invisible from below, are left comparatively rough. The workman- 
ship throughout is unequal, and the hands of several sculptors can 
be detected. On the whole, the execution is not equal to the beauty 
of the design, and the whole frieze is somewhat marred by an evident 
desire to produce the maximum of effect with the least possible 
amount of labour very different from the almost gem-like finish 
of the Parthenon frieze. Even the design is inferior to the 
Athenian one; most of the figures are ungracefully short in their 
proportions, and there is a great want of refined beauty in many of 
the female hands and faces. It is in the fire of its varied action and 
its subtlety of expression that this sculpture most excels. The 
noble movements of the heroic Greeks form a striking contrast to 
the feminine weakness of the wounded Amazons, or the struggles 
with teeth and hoofs of the brutish Centaurs; the group of Apollo 
and Artemis in their chariot is full of grace and dignified power. 
The marble in which this frieze is sculptured is somewhat coarse and 
crystalline; the slabs appear not to have been built into their place 
but fixed afterwards, with the aid of two bronze bolts driven through 
the face of each. 

Of the metopes, which were 2 ft. 8 in. square, only one exists 
nearly complete, with eleven fragments; the one almost perfect 
has a relief of a nude warrior, with floating drapery, overcoming a 
long-haired bearded man, who sinks vanquished at his feet. The 
relief of these is rather less than that of the frieze figures, and the 
work is nobler in character and superior in execution. 

In addition to the works mentioned in the text, see Leake, Morea 
(i. 490 and ii. 319; Curtius, Peloponnesos. i. 319; Ross, Reisen in 
Peloponnesos; Stackelberg, Der Apollo-Tempel zu Bassae (1826); 
Lenormant, Bas-reliefs du Parthenon et de Phigalie (1834) ; and 
Histories of Sculpture mentioned under GREEK ART. 

(J.H.M.;E.GR.) 

PHILADELPHIA, the Greek name (i) of a city in Palestine 
in the land of Ammon (see AMMONITES), and (2) of a city so-called 
in honour of Attalus II. of Pergamum, the modern Ala-Shehr 
(?.). 

PHILADELPHIA, the third city in population in the United 
States, the chief city of Pennsylvania, and a port of entry, 
co-extensive with Philadelphia county, extending W. from the 
Delaware river beyond the Schuylkill River, and from below 
the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers N.E. 
about 23 m. along the Delaware river and Poquessing Creek. 
Independence Hall, which is a few squares east by south of the 
city hall, is in 39 56' 57-5" N. and 75 8' 54-75* W. The port is 
about 102 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and the city hall is 90 m. 
by rail S.S.W. of New York and 135 m. N.E. of Washington. 
The city has an area of 132-7 sq. m. At the southern extremity 
are lowlands protected by dikes from the tide; the business centre 
between the rivers is about 40 ft. higher but level; the district 
west of the Schuylkill is generally rolling; and in the upper 
district the surface rises from the Delaware toward the north- 
west until in the extreme north-west is a picturesque district 
overlooking Wissahickon Creek from hills exceeding 40x3 ft. in 
height. 

Population. When the first United States census was taken, 
in 1790, Philadelphia was the second largest city in the Union, 
and had a population of 28,522. It held this rank until 1830, 
when it was exceeded in size by Baltimore as well as by New 
York. In 1850 it was smaller also than Boston; but in 1854 
the Consolidation Act extended its boundaries so as to include 
all Philadelphia county and in 1860 the city had risen again 
to second rank. This rank it held until 1890 when, although 
its population had grown to 1,046,964, it was 50,000 less than 
that of Chicago. In 1900, with a population of 1,293,679, it 



was still farther behind both New York and Chicago. In 1900, 
of the total population, 998,357, or 77-18%, were native-born, 
as against only 63% native-born in New York and 65-43% 
native-born in Chicago. Of Philadelphia's native-born white 
population, however, 414,093, or 44-24%, were of foreign- 
born parentage. The foreign-born population included 98,427 
born in Ireland, 71,319 born in Germany, 36,752 born in 
England, 28,951 born in Russia (largely Hebrews), 17,830 born 
in Italy, 8479 born in Scotland and 5154 born in Austria; and 
the coloured consisted of 62,613 negroes, 1165 Chinese, 234 
Indians and 12 Japanese. In 1910 the population was 1,549,008. 

Streets. With the exception of a limited number of diagonal 
thoroughfares and of streets laid out in outlying districts in 
conformity with the natural contour of the ground the plan of 
the city is regular. Market Street which Penn called High 
Street is the principal thoroughfare east and west, Broad Street 
the principal thoroughfare north and south, and these streets in- 
tersect at right angles at City Hall Square in the business centre. 
The streets parallel with Broad are numbered from First or Front 
Street west from the Delaware River to Sixty-Third Street, 
taking the prefix " North " north of Market Street and the prefix 
" South " south of it; the streets parallel with Market are named 
mostly from trees and from the governors and counties of 
Pennsylvania. 

The wholesale district is centred at the east end of Market Street 
near the Delaware river. The best retail shops are farther west 
on the south side of Chestnut Street and on Market and Arch 
streets. Most of the leading banks and trust companies are on 
Chestnut Street and on Third Street between Chestnut and Walnut 
streets. Several of the larger office buildings and the stations of 
the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways are in 
the vicinity of the city hall; here too, are the Baldwin Locomo- 
tive Works. The large textile mills, the great coal wharves 
and the Cramp Ship- Yards are to the north-east along the 
Delaware, and in districts west of these are the leading manu- 
factories of iron and steel. There are large sugar refineries in 
the south-eastern part of the city. Rittenhouse Square, a short 
distance south-west of the city hall, is the centre of the 'old 
aristocratic residential district, and the south side of Walnut 
Street between Fourteenth and Nineteenth streets is a fashion- 
able parade. There are fine residences on North Broad Street 
and on some of the streets crossing it, and many beautiful villas 
in the picturesque suburbs of the north-west. The most con- 
gested tenements, occupied largely by Italians, Hebrews and 
negroes, are along the alleys between the rivers and south of 
Market Street, often in the rear of some of the best of the older 
residences. 

The principal structure is the city hall (or " Public Buildings ") 
one of the largest buildings in the world in ground space (4! 
acres). It rises 548 ft. to the top of a colossal bronze statue 
(37 ft. high) of William Penn (by Alexander Calder) surmounting 
the tower. It accommodates the state and county courts as 
well as the municipal and county offices. The foundation stone 
was laid in August 1872. On its first floor is Joseph A. Bailly's 
statue of Washington, which was erected in front of Indepen- 
dence Hall in 1869. About the Public Buildings are statues 
of Generals McClellan and Reynolds, President McKinley, and 
Joseph Leidy and St Gaudens's " Pilgrim." On all sides are 
great buildings: on the north the masonic temple (1868-1873); 
on the south the stately Betz Building; on the west the enormous 
Broad Street station cf the Pennsylvania railway. The Penn- 
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Oddfellows' Temple 
are among other notable buildings in the vicinity. The post 
office, facing Ninth Street and extending from Market Street 
to Chestnut Street, was opened in 1884; in front is a seated 
statue of Benjamin Franklin, by John J. Boyle. The mint is 
at the corner of Sixteenth and Spring Garden streets. The 
custom-house, on Chestnut Street, was designed by William 
Strickland (1787-1854), in his day the leading American architect. 
It was modelled after the Parthenon of Athens, was built for 
the Second United States Bank, was completed in 1824, and was 
put to its present use in 1845. Other prominent buildings of 



3 68 



PHILADELPHIA 



which Strickland was the architect are the stock exchange, 
St Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church, St Stephen's Church, the 
almshouse and the United States Naval Asylum. The main 
building of Girard College (on Girard Avenue, between North 
igth and North 25th streets), of which Thomas Ustick Walter 
(1804-1887), a pupil of Strickland's, was the architect, is one of 
the finest specimens of pure Greek architecture in America. Near 
the Schuylkill river, in West Philadelphia, are the buildings of 
the university of Pennsylvania. Its free museum of science and 
art, at South 23rd and Spruce, on the opposite side of the river, 
was built from the designs of Walter Cope, Frank Miles Day 
and Wilson Eyre, and its north-western part was first opened 
in 1899. Tall steel-frame structures, of which the Betz Building, 
completed in 1893, was the first, have become numerous. The 
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, east of 
Logan Square, was begun in 1846 and was eighteen years in 
building. The Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church is 
one of the most handsome churches in the city. The South 
Memorial Church of the Advocate (1897), on North i8th and 
Diamond streets, is a reproduction on a smaller scale of Amiens 
Cathedral. 

Perhaps the most famous historical monument in the United 
States is Independence Hall, on Chestnut Street between Fifth 
and Sixth streets, designed for the state house by Andrew 
Hamilton (c. 1676-1741), speaker of the assembly, and was used 
for that purpose until 1799. The foundations were laid in 1731 
and the main building was ready for occupancy in 1735, although 
the entire building was not completed until 1751. The steeple 
was taken down in 1774 but was restored by Strickland in 1828, 
and further restorations of the building to its original condition 
were effected later. In the east room on the first floor of this 
building the second Continental Congress met on the loth of 
May 1775, George Washington was chosen commander-in-chief 
of the Continental army on the isth of June 1775, and the 
Declaration of Independence was adopted on the 4th of July 
1776. The room contains much of the furniture of those days, 
and on its walls are portraits of forty-five of the fifty-six signers 
of the Declaration and a portrait of Washington by Peale. At 
the head of the stairway is the famous Liberty bell, which bears 
the inscription, " Proclaim liberty through all the land unto all 
the inhabitants thereof " and is supposed (without adequate 
evidence) to have been the first bell to announce the adoption 
of the Declaration of Independence. It was cast in England 
in 1752, was cracked soon after it was brought to America, was 
recast with more copper in Philadelphia, and was cracked again 
in 1835 while bejng tolled in memory of Chief Justice John 
Marshall, and on the 22nd of February 1843 this crack was so 
increased as nearly to destroy its sound. On the second floor 
is the original of the charter which William Perm granted to 
the city in 1701 and the painting of Penn's treaty with the 
Indians by Benjamin West. The building has been set apart 
by the city, which purchased it from the state in 1816, as a 
museum of historical relics. On the north-west corner of 
Independence Square is old Congress hall, in which Congress 
sat from 1790 to 1800, and in which Washington was inaugurated 
in 1793 and Adams in 1797. At the north-east corner is the 
old city-hall, on the second floor of which the Supreme Court 
of the United States sat from 1791 to 1900. A short distance 
east of Independence Square in Carpenters' Hall, in which the 
first continental congress assembled on the $th of September 
1774 and in which the national convention in 1787 framed 
the present constitution of the United States; the building was 
also the headquarters of the Pennsylvania committee of corre- 
spondence, the basement was used as a magazine for ammunition 
during the War of Independence, and from 1791 to 1797 the 
whole of it was occupied by the First United States Bank. The 
Carpenters' Company (established in 1724) erected the building 
in 1770, and since 1857 has preserved it wholly for its historic 
associations. On Arch Street near the Delaware is preserved 
as a national monument the house in which Betsy Ross, in 1777, 
made what has been called the first United States flag, in accor- 
dance with the resolution of Congress of the I4th of June. Not 



far from this house is Christ Church (Protestant Episcopal), 
a fine colonial edifice designed mainly by Dr John Kearsley 
(1684-1772). The corner stone was laid in 1727, but the steeple, 
in part designed by Benjamin Franklin and containing a famous 
chime of eight bells, was not completed until 1754. The 
interior was restored to its ancient character in 1882, the pews 
of Washington and Franklin are preserved, and a set of com- 
munion plate presented to the church by Queen Anne in 1708 
is used on great occasions. In the churchyard are the graves 
of Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Brigadier- General John 
Forbes, John Penn, Peyton Randolph, Francis Hopkinson and 
Benjamin Rush. St Peter's, the second Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the city, has a massive tower and a simple spire; 
within are the original pews. In the south-east part of the city 
near the Delaware is the ivy-clad Old Swedes' Church, built of 
brick in 1698-1700. The house which William Penn built 
about 1683 for his daughter Letitia was removed to Fairmount 
Park and rebuilt in 1883. In Germantown (q.v.), a suburb 
which was annexed in 1854, are several other historic buildings. 
The dominant feature of the domestic architecture is the long 
rows, in street after street, of plain two-storey or three-storey 
dwellings of red (" Philadelphia ") pressed brick with white 
marble steps and trimmings, and with white or green shutters, 
each intended for one family. 

Parks. Fairmount Park extends along both banks of the Schuyl- 
kill for about 5 m. and from the confluence of the Schuylkill and 
Wissahickon Creek it continues up the latter stream through a 
romantic glen for 6 m. Its area is about 3418 acres. Five acres 
of an estate belonging to Robert Morris during the War of Indepen- 
dence and known as " Fair Mount," or " The Hills," were purchased 
by the municipality for " a city waterworks and for park purposes " 
in 1812, and from this beginning the park grew to its present dimen- 
sions by purchases and gifts. The principal buildings in the park 
are : the McPherson mansion, once the property of Benedict Arnold 
and in October 1780 confiscated by the committee of safety; the 
Peters (or Belmont) Mansion, built in 1745 and much frequented 
by the notables of the Revolutionary and early national period; 
the birth-place of David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, and a monas- 
tery of the German pietists, both on the banks of Wissahickon; 
and memorial hall and horticultural hall, both survivals of the 
centennial exhibition of 1876. On Lemon Hill, near the south end 
of the park, stands the Robert Morris mansion ; in the vicinity is the 
cabin which was General U. S. Grant's headquarters at City Point, 
Virginia, during the winter of 1864-1865. Near the] Columbia 
Avenue entrance to the park and near the East Park Reservoir are 
the children's playhouse and playground, endowed by the will 
of Mrs Sarah A. Smith (d. 1895). At the Green Street entrance is 
an imposing monument to Washington, designed by Rudolph Siemer- 
ing and erected by the Society of the Cincinnati in 1896-1897, with 
a bronze equestrian statue. The Smith Memorial entrance, white 
granite with bronze statues, was erected in memory of the officers 
of the Civil War. The park also contains l a monument to Lincoln 
by Randolph Rogers; an equestrian statue of Grant by Daniel 
Chester French and Edward C. Potter; an equestrian statue of Major- 
General James Gordon Meade by Alexander Milne Calder; an 
equestrian statue of Joan of Arc by Emmanuel Fremiet ; an heroic 
bust of James A. Garfield by Augustus St Gaudens; statues of 
Columbus, Humboldt, Schiller and Goethe; a Tarn O' Shanter group 
of four figures in red sandstone by James Thorn; John J. Boyle s 
" Stone Age in America " ; Cyrus Edwin Dallin's " Medicine Man " ; 
Wilhelm Wolff's " Wounded Lioness " (at the entrance to the 
Zoological Gardens); Albert Wolff's "Lion Fighter"; Auguste 
Nicolas Cain's " Lioness bringing a Wild Boar to her Cubs " ; Edward 
Kemeys's " Hudson Bay Wolves "; Frederick Remington's " Cow 
Boy "; and several artistic fountains, and a Japanese temple-gate. 
In the down-town district, Franklin, Washington, Rittenhouse 
and Logan squares, equidistant from the city-hall, have been 
reserved for public parks from the founding of the city; in Ritten- 
house Square is the bronze " Lion and Serpent " of A. L. Barye. 
In Clarence H. Clark Park, West Philadelphia, is Frank Edwin 
Elwell's group " Dickens and Little Nell." In Broad and Spring 
Garden streets opposite the Baldwin Locomotive Works is Herbert 
Adams's statue of Matthias William Baldwin (1795-1866), founder 
of the works. Close to the bank of the Delaware, some distance 
N.N.E. of the city-hall, is the small Penn Treaty Park with a 
monument to mark the site of the great elm tree under which 
Penn, according to tradition, negotiated his treaty with the 
Indians in 1683. In the south-west part of the city, along the 
Schuylkill, is Bartram's botanical garden (27 acres), which the city 

1 Many of the statues and other works of art in Fairmount and 
other parks are the gift of the Fairmount Park Art Association 
(1871 ; reorganized in 1888 and 1906). 



PHILADELPHIA 



369 



added to its park system in 1891 ; in it is the stone house, with ivy- 
covered walls, which the famous botanist built with his own hands. 

Through the efforts of the City Park Association, organized in 
1888, a number of outlying parks, connecting parkways and small 
triangular or circular parks, have been placed on the city plan. 
Among these are League Island Park (300 acres), opposite the United 
States navy yard on League Island; Penny Pack Creek Park 
(about 1200 acres), extending 6| m. along Penny Pack Creek, in the 
north-east ; Cobb's Creek Park, extending about 4 m. along the west- 
ern border ; Fairmount Parkway, 300 ft. wide on a direct line south- 
east from Fairmount Park to Logan Square and somewhat narrower 
from Logan Square to the city-hall ; and Torresdale Parkway (300 ft. 
wide and 10$ m. long), from Hunting Park, 4! m. north of the city- 
hall, along a direct line north-east to the city limits. A plaza at 
the intersection of Broad and Johnson streets, radiating streets 
therefrom, and the widening of Broad Street to 300 ft. from this 
plaza to League Island Park are also on the city plan. Laurel 
Hill cemetery, on a high bank of the Schuylkill and contiguous to 
Fairmount Park, is the city's principal burying ground ; in it are the 
tombs of Dr Elisha Kent Kane, the Arctic explorer, and Major- 
General Meade. 

Theatres. The first Shakespearean performance in the United 
States was probably at Philadelphia in 1749; another company 
played there in 1754 and 1759; and in 1766 was built the Old South- 
wark theatre, in which Major John Andre' and Captain John Peter 
De Lancey acted during the British occupation of the city, and which 
after twenty years of illegal existence was opened " by authority " 
in 1789. The Walnut Street theatre (1808) is said to be the oldest 
play-house in the United States. Other theatres are the Garrick, 
the large Academy of Music, the Chestnut Street opera house, the 
Lyiic, the Adelphi, the Park and the German. 

Clubs. Among social clubs are the Union League, the University 
(1881), the Philadelphia, the City, the Markham, the Manufacturers 
(1887), the Rittenhouse, the Lawyers, the Clover, the Pen and Pencil, 
the Art, the Mercantile, several country clubs and athletic clubs 
(notably the Racket), and the foremost cricket clubs in the United 
States, the Belmont, the Philadelphia, the Keystone, the Merion 
(at Haverford), and the Germantown (at Manheim). 

Museums, Learned Societies and Libraries. In the southern part 
of Fairmount Park is a zoological garden with an excellent collection. 
Its site is the former estate of John Penn, grandson of William Penn. 
The collection is an outgrowth of the museum, the first in the United 
States, opened by Charles Willson Peale in Independence Hall in 
1802. It is now owned by the Zoological Society (incorporated in 
1859) and was opened in 1874. Other museums in Fairmount Park 
are: the botanical collection in horticultural hall; and in memorial 
hall the general art collections of the Pennsylvania Museum and 
School of Industrial Arts and the Wilstach collection of paintings 
(about 500), including examples of the Italian schools from the I5th 
to the I7th centuries and of modern French and American painters. 
Bartram's botanical garden, mentioned above as a city park, was 
established in 1728 by John Bartram (1699-^1777) and is the oldest 
botanical garden in America. The Philadelphia Commercial 
Museums, founded in 1894, is a notable institution for promoting 
the foreign commerce of the United States, having a collection of 
raw materials and manufactured products from all countries, a 
laboratory and a library. The institution investigates trade condi- 
tions and the requirements of markets in all parts of the world, 
maintains a bureau of information, issues a weekly bulletin for 
American exporters and a monthly publication for foreign buyers, 
and has published several " foreign commercial guides " and other 
commercial works. The museum is maintained chiefly by municipal 
appropriations and by fees. Its control is vested in " The Board 
of Trustees of the Philadelphia Museums," composed of fourteen 
citizens of Philadelphia chosen for life and eight ex officio members 
who are the incumbents of the leading state and municipal offices. 
There are home and foreign advisory boards, and the immediate 
management is under a director. In 1727 Franklin, then in his 
twenty-second year, formed most of his " ingenious acquaintance 
into a club," which he called the Junto, " for mutual improvement," 
and out of the Junto grew in 1731 the library of the Library Company 
of Philadelphia, which he spoke of as the " mother of all North 
American subscription libraries," but which was not the first sub- 
scription library in North America. The Library Company of 
Philadelphia absorbed in 1769 the Union Library, which had been 
founded some years before; and in 1792 the Loganian library, a 
valuable collection of classical and other works provided for under 
the will of James Logan, a friend of Penn, was transferred to it. 
Subsequently it acquired by bequest the libraries of the Rev. Samuel 
Preston of London and of William Mackenzie of Philadelphia. 
Among the rarities in the latter was a copy of Caxton's Golden 
Legend (1486). In 1869 the Library Company was made the 
beneficiary, under the will of Dr James Rush (1786-^1869), of an 
estate valued at about a million dollars, and with this money the 
Ridgway branch was established in 1878. The library has owned 
its building since 1790; the building on the present site was opened 
in 1880 and was enlarged in 1889. 

The American Philosophical Society, founded by Franklin in 1743, 
is the oldest and the most famous academy of science in America. 
Its organization was the immediate consequence of a circular by 



Franklin entitled, A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge 
among the British Plantations in America. In 1769 it united with 
(and officially took the name of) " The American Society held at 
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge." Among its early 
presidents were Franklin, Rittenhouse and Jefferson. It has a 
valuable library about 50,000 vols. containing the great mass 
of the correspondence of Franklin; here, too, are many interesting 
relics, among them the chair in which Jefferson sat while writing, 
the Declaration of Independence and an autograph copy of the 
Declaration. The society has published 27 quarto vols. of Transac- 
tions (1771-1908); its Proceedings have been published regularly 
since 1838, and in 1884 those from 1744 to 1838, compiled from the 
manuscript minutes, were also published. The Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, founded in 1812, has been noted for its 
collection of birds since it acquired, in 1846, the collection of the due 
de Rivoli numbering more than 12,000 specimens; several smaller 
collections have since been added. The academy has a notable 
collection of shells and fossils and the " types " of Leidy, Cope, Say, 
Conrad and other naturalists, and a library. It is composed of the 
following " sections ": biological and microscopical (1868), entomo- 
logical (1876), botanical (1876), mineralogical and geological (1877) 
and ornithological (1891). It has published a Journal since 1817 
and its Proceedings since 1841, and periodicals on entomology, 
conchology and ornithology. To a few young men and women it 
gives training in scientific investigation without charge. The 
Pennsylvania Historical Society, organized in 1824, has a valuable 
collection of historical material, including the papers of the Perm 
family and the Charlemagne Tower collection of American colonial 
laws, and many early American printed handbills and books 
(especially of Bradford, Franklin and Christopher Saur), portraits 
and relics. With the proceeds of the society's publication fund the 
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography has been published 
since 1877. The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Phila- 
delphia, organized in 1858, is the oldest numismatic organization in 
the United States; it has a collection of coins, and since 1865 it has 
published its Proceedings. The College of Physicians and Surgeons 
has an excellent medical library. The free library of Philadelphia 
(established 1891) includes a main library and several branches. 
Other important libiaries are that of the umveisity of Pennsylvania, 
the Mercantile, that of Franklin Institute, that of the Law Associa- 
tion of Philadelphia, the Athenaeum, that of the German Society 
of Pennsylvania, and Apprentices'. The free museum of science 
and art of the university of Pennsylvania has valuable archaeological 
collections, notably the American and the Babylonian collections 
made by university expeditions. 

Schools. William Penn in his frame of government provided for 
a committee of manners, education and art. The assembly, in 
March 1683, passed an act which provided that all children should 
be taught to read and write by the time they were twelve years of 
age, that then they should be taught some useful trade, and that 
for every child not so taught the parent or guardian should be fined 
five pounds. At a meeting of the provincial council held in 
Philadelphia in 1683 the governor and council appointed as school- 
master, Enoch Flower, who for twenty years had held that position 
in England. But schools were left almost wholly to private 
initiative until 1818. The first grammar school, commonly known 
in its early years as the Friends' free school, was established in 
1689 under the care of the celebrated George Keith; although 
maintained by the Friends it was open to all, and for more than sixty 
years was the only public place for free instruction in the province. 
It was chartered by Penn in 1701, 1708 and 1711, in time became 
known as the William Penn Charter School, and is still a secondary 
school on Twelfth Street. In 1740 a building was erected for a 
" charity school " and for a " house of worship," but the school 
had not been opened when, in 1749, Franklin published his Proposals 
relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania. Under the 
influence of this publication a new educational association was formed 
which purchased the building and in January 1751 opened in it an 
institution that was chartered as an " academy and charitable 
school " in 1753, was rechartered as a college and academy in 1755, 
and became the university of Pennsylvania by act of the state 
legislature passed in 1791. The university occupied the site of the 
present post office from 1802 until 1872, but was then removed 
to grounds near the western bank of the Schuylkill. 

The foundation of the present public school system was laid in 
1818 by an act of the legislature which constituted the city and 
county of Philadelphia the first school district of Pennsylvania 
and provided for the establishment therein of free schools for indigent 
orphans and the children of indigent parents; the same act author- 
ized the establishment of a model school for the training of teachers, 
which was the pioneer school for this purpose in America. In 1834 
free elementary schools were authorized for all children of school 
age, and since then the system has developed until it embraces the 
Central High School for boys, which has a semi-collegiate course 
with a department of pedagogy and confers the degrees of B.A. and 
B.S. ; a Normal High School for girls, into which the model school 
was converted in 1848, in which most of the teachers of the 
city are trained and which only graduates of the Girls' High 
School are permitted to enter; the William Penn High School 
for girls (opened 1909) with academic, commercial, applied arts, 



37 



PHILADELPHIA 



household science and library economy departments; a School of 
industrial arts; two manual training schools; about one hundred 
night schools (attended mainly by adults) ; several special schools 
for habitual truants or insubordinate and disorderly children ; and a 
number of vacation schools and playgrounds for the summer season. 
In 1909 district high schools were planned as a part of the public 
school system. The city has also many private high schools and 
academies. 

Besides the university of Pennsylvania and the Central High 
School for boys the collegiate institutions are La Salle College 
(Roman Catholic; opened in 1867) and the Temple University (non- 
sectarian; chartered in 1888 as Temple College after four years of 
teaching; in 1891 received the power to confer degrees); which is 
designed especially for self-supporting men and women and was 
founded by Russell Hermann Conwell (b. 1842), a lawyer and jour- 
nalist, who entered the Baptist ministry in 1879, was pastor of the 
Grace Baptist Church of Philadelphia in 1881-1891, became pastor 
of the Grace Baptist Temple in 1891, and was a public lecturer. 
He was the first president of the Temple College, which was begun 
in connexion with the work of his church. Temple University 
offers instruction both day and evening, has classes from the kinder- 
garten to the highest university grades, and courses in business, civil 
engineering, domestic art and domestic science, physical training, 
pedagogy and music; it has a theological school (1893), a law school 
(1894), a medical school (1901) and a school of pharmacy (i 902 ); 
and in 1907 the Philadelphia Dental College, one of the best known 
dental schools in the country, joined the university. In 1893 
a trust fund left by Hyman Gratz was used to found the Gratz 
College for the education of teachers in Jewish schools and for the 
study of the Hebrew language, and Jewish history, literature and 
religion ; the college is under the control of the Kaal Kidosh Mikoe 
Israel of Philadelphia. Bryn Mawr College (q.v.), one of the leading 
institutions in America for the higher education of women, is a few 
miles beyond the city limits. Schools of medicine, for which Phila- 
delphia has long been noted, include the department of medicine 
of the university of Pennsylvania (opened in 1765); Jefferson 
Medical College (1825); the Woman's Medical College (1850), the 
first chartered school of medicine for women to confer the degree of 
M.D. ; the Medico-Chirurgical College (1881) ; Hahnemann (homoeo- 
pathic) Medical College (1888); and the department of medicine of 
Temple University (1901). Among other professional schools are 
the department of law of the university of Pennsylvania (1790), 
the law school of Temple University (1894); the divinity school of 
the Protestant Episcopal Church (1862); the Lutheran theological 
Seminary (1864); Saint Vincent's (Theological) Seminary (R.C., 
1868); the theological school of Temple University (non-sectarian, 
1893); Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery (1856); Philadelphia 
Dental College (1863; since 1907 a part of Temple University); 
the department of dentistry of the university of Pennsylvania 
(1878); the department of dentistry of the Medico-Chirurgical 
College (1897); the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy (1821); the 
department of pharmacy of the Medico-Chirurgical College (1898); 
and the school of pharmacy of Temple University (1902). Girard 
College (see GIRARD, STEPHEN) is a noted institution for the educa- 
tion of poor white orphan boys. The Pennsylvania Academy of the 
Fine Arts, founded in 1805 in Independence Hall, was the first art 
school in America ; it occupies a fine building on Broad and Cherry 
streets, with a gallery of about 500 paintings, including examples of 
early American masters (especially Gilbert Stuart, of whom it has 
the largest collection), of modern American artists (especially in 
the Temple collection), and, in the collection of Henry C. Gibson, 
of French landscapes. The Drexel Institute of Arts and Sciences, 
founded in 1891 by Anthony T. Drexel and endowed by him with 
$2,000,000, occupies a beautiful building (Chestnut Street and 32nd ; 
opened in 1891) and embraces the following departments: archi- 
tecture, science and technology, commerce and finance, domestic 
science, domestic arts, library school, English language and literature, 
history, civil government and economics, physical training, evening 
classes, department of free public lectures and concerts, library and 
reading room, and museum and picture gallery. The institution 
bestows free scholarships on a considerable number of students 
and charges the others very moderate fees. Its building houses 
a library, a collection of rare prints and autographs, and a museum 
with a picture gallery and exhibits of embroidery, textiles, ceramics, 
wood and metal work, &c. The Pennsylvania Museum and School 
of Industrial Art founded in 1876 and opened in 1877, has schools 
at Broad and Pine streets the museum is housed in Memorial 
Hall in Fairmount Park. The school is a pioneer in America; it 
was originally a school of applied art, but in 1884 the Philadelphia 
textile school was established as another department. The Wagner 
Free Institute of Science, founded by William Wagner in 1855, has a 
library and a natural history museum, provides free lectures on 
scientific subjects, and publishes Transactions, containing scientific 
memoirs. The Franklin Institute for the promotion of mechanic 
arts (1824) has a technical library (with full patent records of several 
nations); since 1824 it has held exhibitions of manufactures; it has 
published since 1826 the Journal of the Franklin Institute; the 
institute provides lecture courses and has night schools of drawing, 
machine design and naval architecture. The Spring Garden Insti- 
tute (1851), with day classes in mechanical drawing, handiwork, 



and applied electricity, and night classes in those subjects and in 
freehand and architectural drawing; the Philadelphia School of 
Design for Women (1836), of which Emily Sartain, a daughter of 
John Sartain, became principal in 1886; and a school of horology 
(1894) are other manual and industrial training schools within the 
city, and not far beyond the city limits is the Williamson Free School 
of Mechanical Trades (1888), endowed by Isaiah Vansant Williamson 
(1803-1889) with more than $5,000,000 for the free training of 
bricklayers, machinists, carpenters, pattern makers, stationary 
engineers and other mechanics. The Lincoln Institution and 
Educational Home until 1907 was devoted mainly to the education 
of Indians. 

Newspapers and Periodicals, The American Weekly Mercury was 
the first newspaper published in Philadelphia and the third in 
the colonies. It was first issued on the 22nd of December 1719 by 
Andrew Sowle Bradford, a son of William Bradford, the first 
printer in the Middle Colonies, and was the first newspaper in these 
colonies. The second newspaper in the city and in the province 
was the Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences and Penn- 
sylvania Gazette. It was established in 1728 by Samuel Keimer, but 
less than a year afterwards it became the property of Benjamin 
Franklin and Hugh Meredith, who shortened its title to the Penn- 
sylvania Gazette. The only one of the newspapers established 
during the colonial era which survived the loth century was the 
Pennsylvania Packet or General Advertiser, which was started in 1771 
by John Dunlap, and during the War of Independence was published 
semi-weekly, with occasional "postscripts" of important news; 
in 1839 it was absorbed by the North American (1829), with which 
the United States Gazette (1789) was united in 1847 and which is still 
published as the North American. The Aurora and General Adver- 
tiser, established in 1790 by Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798), 
a grandson of Franklin, was a notorious anti-Federalist organ in its 
early years. A pioneer among newspapers at modern prices is the 
Public Ledger, founded in 1836, and in 1864 purchased by George 
William Childs. Other prominent daily papers now published are 
the Inquirer (Republican; 1829), the Press (Republican; 1857), 
the Record (Independent Democrat; 1870), the Demokrat (German; 
1838), the Evening Bulletin (Republican; established in 1815 as the 
American Sentinel), the Evening Item (1847), the Evening Telegraph 
(Independent Republican; 1 864), and the Tageblatt (Labour; German; 
1877). Many of the earlier literary periodicals of America were 
published in Philadelphia; among them were the American Magazine 
(1757-1758 and 1769), Thomas Paine's Pennsylvania Magazine 
(1775-1776), the Columbian Magazine (1786-1790; called the 
Universal Asylum in 1790) which was edited by Matthew Carey and 
by A. J. Dallas, the excellent American Museum (1787-1792 and 
1798), with which Carey was connected, the Port Folio (18011827; 
edited until 1812 by Joseph Dennie) and the A nalectic (1802-1812) 
which succeeded Select Reviews and Spirit of the Foreign Magazines 
(1809), of which Washington Irving was editor in 18131814, and 
to which Pauldine and Verplanck contributed, and the American 
Quarterly Review (1827-1837). Among others were: Godey's Lady's 
Book (1830-1877), for which Poe, Irving, Longfellow, Willis and 
others wrote; and Graham's Lady's and Gentleman's Magazine 
(1840-1859), with the contributors just named and Cooper, JohnG. 
Saxe, E. P. Whipple and others. Lippincott's Magazine (1868) is 
a monthly, best known for its fiction. The Saturday Evening Post, 
which has the largest circulation of the weekly publications, and the 
Ladies' Home Journal (1883), the semi-monthly with the largest 
circulation, are owned by the same company. The Farm Journal 
(1877) is a well-known agricultural monthly. 

Trusts, Charities, &c. Girard College and thirty-eight other 
charities are maintained out of the proceeds of as many trusts, 
which are administered by a board of directors composed of twelve 
members, appointed by the courts of common pleas, and the mayor, 
president of the select council, and president of the common 
council as ex-officio members. In 1907 the invested capital of the 
Girard Trust alone amounted to $24,467,770 and the income from it 
was $1,988,054. The total capital of all the minor trusts in the same 
year was $1,583,026 and the income from this was $56,730. Among 
the minor trust funds are: Wills Hospital (established in 1825); 
Benjamin Franklin Fund (1790) for aiding young married artificers; 
Thomas D. Groyer Fund (1849) for providing the poor with fuel and 
food; Mary Shields Almshouse Fund (1880); and the John Scott 
Medal Fund (1816) for bestowing medals upon young inventors. 
To Franklin Philadelphia is largely indebted for the Pennsylvania 
hospital, the first hospital in the United States, which was projected 
in 1751 and is one of the foremost of nearly one hundred such institu- 
tions in the city. The municipal hospital for contagious diseases 
and hospitals for the indigent and the insane are maintained by the 
municipality, but most of the other institutions for the sick are 
maintained by medical schools and religious sects. Municipal 
charities are under the supervision of the department of public 
health and charities. Philadelphia is the seat of the state peniten- 
tiary for the eastern district, in which, in 1829, was inaugurated 
the " individual " system, i.e. the separate imprisonment and dis- 
criminating treatment of criminals with a view to effecting their 
reform. 

Transportation and Commerce. Nearly every street in the 
business centre and about one-third of the streets throughout the 



PHILADELPHIA 



built-up portion of the city have a single track of electric railway 
(overhead trolley), and most of the wider ones, except Broad Street, 
which has none, have a double track. A subway line has been 
opened for a short distance under Market Street, and other subway 
lines, as well as elevated lines, have been projected. The entire 
system, embracing in 1909 a total of 624-21 m., is operated by the 
Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company. Several inter-urban electric 
lines afford cheap service to neighbouring towns and cities. The 
extensive railway system under the control of the Pennsylvania 
railway together with the Baltimore & Ohio railway affords 
transportation facilities north to New York, south to Baltimore, 
Washington and the south, west to the bituminous coalfields of 
Pennsylvania, the grain fields of the Middle West, and to Pittsburg, 
Cleveland, Cincinnati and Chicago. The Philadelphia & Reading 
railway connects the city with the great anthracite coal region, 
and both the Philadelphia & Reading and the Pennsylvania control 
a line to Atlantic City. The Schuylkill is navigable for small craft 
to the " Fall line," about 7! m. above its mouth and for vessels 
drawing 26 ft. to the oil refineries at Point Breeze, 3 m. from the 
mouth ; from Point Breeze to the head of navigation the channel 
depth varies from 14 to 22 ft. The Delaware river is navigable to 
Trenton, New Jersey, about 30 m. above the upper end of the port 
of Philadelphia, and although in its natural condition this river 
was only 17 ft. deep at low water in its shallowest part below the 
port this depth was increased between 1836 and 1899 to 26 ft. 
(except in three shoal stretches), and a project of the Federal govern- 
ment was adopted in 1899 for increasing the depth to 30 ft. and the 
width to 6op ft. In 1905 the city of Philadelphia and the state of 
Pennsylvania appropriated $750,000 for the improvement of the 
river between the city and the southern boundary of the state. 1 
Steamships ply regularly between Philadelphia and several European 
ports, ports in the West Indies, and ports of the United States. 

The port extends from the Pennsylvania railway terminal at 
Greenwich Point up the Delaware River to the Philadelphia & 
Reading terminal at Port Richmond, a distance of about 8 m., and 
there are minor harbour facilities on the Schuylkill. The natural 
facilities, together with the improvements that have been made, were 
long offset by an inefficient port administration under an antiquated 
law of 1803 which permitted the wharves to pass largely under 
private control; but in 1907 the old board of port wardens was 
abolished and in its place was created a municipal department of 
wharves, docks and ferries. 

Until the opening of the Erie Canal, in 1825, Philadelphia was 
the emporium of the United States; it was then displaced by New 
York. Some years later Philadelphia lost its lucrative China trade, 
and its decline in commercial importance continued until 1883, 
when the value of its imports amounted to only $32,811,045, the 
value of its exports to only $38,662,434, and the city was out- 
ranked in foreign trade by New York, Boston, San Francisco and 
New Orleans. By 1900, however, the value of its imports had 
risen to $49,191,236 and the value of its exports to $81,327,704; 
in 1909 the value of the imports was $78,003,464, an amount less 
than one-eleventh that of New York, but exceeded only by New 
York and Boston, and the value of the exports was $80,650,274, 
an amount less than one-eighth that of New York, but exceeded 
only by New York, Galveston and New Orleans. The principal 
imports are sugar, drugs and chemicals, goatskins, wool, tobacco, 
jute and burlap, and cotton goods, iron ore, manufactured iron, 
hides and bananas; the principal exports are iron (manufac- 
tured), steel, petroleum, wheat, flour, lard, cattle and meat pro- 
ducts. The proximity of the city to New York, whence many of 
its products are shipped, makes the statistics of its direct imports 
and exports no true index of its commercial importance. 

Manufactures. Philadelphia has always been one of the foremost 
manufacturing centres in the United States, and in 1905 it was 
outranked only by New York and Chicago. 2 The total value of its 
factory product was $519,981,812 in 1900, and $591,388,078 in 1905. 
Measured by the value of the products, Philadelphia ranked first 
among the cities of the country in 1905 in refining sugar and molasses 
($37,182,504; 13-4% of the total of the country) and in the manu- 
facture of carpets and rugs ($25,232,510; 41 % of the total of 
the country), leather ($23,903,239; 9-5% of the total of the 
country), hosiery and knit goods ($15,770,873; 11-5% of the total 
of the country), woollen goods ($12,239,881; 8-6% of the total of 
the country), and felt hats ($5,847,771; 16% of the total of the 
country) ; second in the manufacture of worsted goods ($26,964,533 ; 
16% of the total of the country) and in dyeing and finishing textiles 
($4,371,006; 8-6% of the total of the country); and third in the 
manufacture of clothing ($31,031,882; 5-1% of the total of the 
country) and silk goods ($5,079,193; 3-8% of the total of the 
country). Other large industries are the manufacture of foundry 
and machine-shop products, cotton goods, malt liquors, iron and 
steel, chemicals, cigars and cigarettes, soap, confectionery, furniture, 

'The city had previously expended $1,555,000 on the improve- 
ment of the^Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. 

1 The Philadelphia Museums claim that excluding slaughter- 
house and sweat-shop products the value of Philadelphia's manu- 
factured products is greater than that of any other city in the 
country. 



i i 



paints, boots and shoes, electrical apparatus, and cordage and twine, 
and among notable individual establishments are the Baldwin 
Locomotive Works, the Cramp Ship- Yards and the Disston or 
Keystone Saw Works. There are petroleum refineries at Point 
Breeze near the mouth of the Schuylkill; petroleum is piped to them 
from the north-west part of the state. 

Water Supply. The first municipal waterworks, installed in 
1799-1801, pumped water by steam power from the Schuylkill 
into an elevated tank in Centre Square, where the city-hall now 
stands; this was one of the earliest applications of steam to municipal 
water pumping. In 1812-1815 new steam works were installed on 
Quarry Hill, or Fairmount; in 1819-1822 pumping works operated 
by water power were substituted for those operated by steam ; and 
it was in great part for the preservation of the purity of the water 
supply that Fairmount Park was created. The park, however, did 
not serve its purpose in this respect. The water was impure and 
inadequate: additional works were installed from time to time, 
mostly on the Schuylkill, whence water was pumped by steam to 
reservoirs from which distribution was made by gravity ; and to meet 
the increasing demands new filtration works and accessories were 
installed in 1901-1908. These take the water mainly from the 
Delaware river. 

Government and Finances. Inasmuch as it has been proved 
that in 1683 there was in use in Philadelphia a seal bearing the 
inscription " Philadelphia .83. William. Penn. Proprietor, and. 
Governor " and in all respects different from the provincial 
seal or the county seal, it seems that there was then a distinct 
government for the city. In July 1684 the provincial council, 
presided over by William Penn, appointed a committee to draft 
a borough charter, but there is no record of the work of this 
committee, and it is uncertain what the government of Phila- 
delphia was for the next seventeen years. 3 In 1 701 Penn himself 
issued a charter creating a close corporation modelled after the 
English borough and under this the city was governed until 
the War of Independence. Upon the annulment of the Penn 
charter by the Declaration of Independence, government by 
commissions was established, but in 1789 a new charter was 
granted and, although the government has since undergone 
many and great changes, it is by virtue of this charter that the 
city remains a corporation to-day. The Consolidation Act of 
1854 extended the boundaries to the county lines without 
destroying the county government, changed the corporate name 
from " Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of Philadelphia " to " the 
City of Philadelphia," created the offices of controller and 
receiver of taxes, and considerably modified the powers and 
duties of the corporation and its officers. The Bullitt Act, 
passed in 1885 to go into effect in 1887, and since 1885 amended 
and supplemented, is a new charter except in name; particularly 
notable is its transfer of the balance of power from the councils 
and various self-perpetuating commissions to the mayor. 

The mayor is elected for a term of four years and is not eligible 
to the office for the next succeeding term. With the advice and 
consent of the select council he appoints the directors of the 
departments of public safety, public works, 4 health and charities, 
supplies and (since 1907) wharves, docks and ferries, and the three 
members of the civil service commission. He may appoint three 
persons to examine any department and for reasons given in writing 
may remove any officer whom he has appointed. His veto power 
extends to items in appropriation bills, but any item or ordinance 
may be passed over his veto within five days of such veto by an affir- 
mative vote of three-fifths of the members elected to each council. 
The select council is composed of one member from each of the 47 
wards, and in the common council each ward has one member for 
every four thousand names on the last completed assessment list 
(including names of those paying poll taxes as well as those paying 
taxes on real or personal property) ; in 1909 there were 80 members 
of the common council. The several administrative departments 



* A document purporting to be a charter, bearing the date of the 
2Oth of May 1691, and signed by Thomas Lloyd, deputy-governor, 
was discovered in 1887, but the great seal is missing and there is no 
evidence that the charter was even in operation. The minutes of 
" a meeting of the Council held at Philadelphia on the third day of 
Sixth Month 1691 " mention " Humphrey Morrey the present 
Mayor of the city of Philadelphia "; and this would seem to show 
that there was a regular municipal government in 1691. See 
Philadelphia: Its Founding and Seals: Report of the Committee 
. . . to determine the Year of the Physical and Legal Founding of the 
City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1908). 

4 In 1905 the state legislature took the appointment of these officers 
from the mayor and vested it in the councils, but this legislation 
was repealed in 1906. 



372 



PHILADELPHIA 



are: public safety, public works, receiver of taxes, city treasurer, 
city controller, law, education, charities and corrections, sup- 
plies, wharves, docks and ferries, civil service commission and 
sinking fund commission (composed of the mayor, the city 
controller and a commissioner elected by a majority vote of the 
city councils). Members of the select council are elected for 
three years one-third each year; members of the common council 
for two years one half each year ; and the receiver of taxes, the city 
treasurer, the city controller, and the city solicitor, who is the head 
of the department of law, for a term of three years. The police 
constitute a bureau of the department of public safety, and at their 
head is a superintendent appointed by the director of the depart- 
ment with the approval of the select council. The department of 
education is administered by a central board appointed (at large) 
by the judges of the courts of common pleas. 

The assessed value of taxable property in the city increased from 
$153,369.048 in 1856 to $536,667,834 in 1880, to $880,935,265 in 
1900, and to $1,358,675,057 in 1910. The city's yearly expenditure 
increased from $5,170,680 in 1856 to $14,640,479 in 1880, to 
$30,628,246 in 1900, and to $48,012,630 in 1909. The principal 
items of expenditure in 1909 were: for public schools $8,242,218; 
for the bureau of water, $2,827,200; for streets and highways, 
$4,219,260; for police, $3,810,535; and for protection against fire, 
$I,873,7 2 O. The receipts for the same year were $44,372,927, of 
which $18,851,442 were from the property tax (municipal and 
state), and $4,396,124 were from the water tax. The city's indebted- 
ness increased rapidly for a period of twenty-five years following 
consolidation. At the beginning of 1856 the funded debt was 
$16,781,470, by the beginning of 1870 it had grown to $42,401,933, 
and by the beginning of 1880 to $70,970,041. By the new state 
constitution adopted in 1873 no municipality is permitted to create 
a debt exceeding 7 % of the assessed value of its taxable property,' 
in 1879 the state legislature passed an act to prevent the city from 
living beyond its income, and as a consequence of these restrictions 
the funded debt, less loans held by the sinking fund, was reduced 
by the beginning of 1895 to $33,139,695. The great expense of 
installing the new filter plant, developing the park system, and 
making other improvements has, however, caused it to grow again ; 
at the beginning of 1910 the total funded debt was $95,483,820 and 
the net funded debt was $84,901,620. 

History. The patent granted to William Penn for the territory 
embraced within the present commonwealth of Pennsylvania 
was signed by Charles II. on the 4th of March 1681 and Penn 
agreed that " a quantity of land or ground plat should be laid 
out for a large town or city in the most convenient place upon 
the river for health and navigation," and that every purchaser 
of 500 acres in the country shall be allowed a lot of 10 acres in 
the town or city, " if the place will allow it." In September 
Penn appointed William Crispin, Nathaniel Allen and John 
,Bezan a commission to proceed to the new province and lay 
out the city, directing them to select a site on the Delaware 
where " it is most navigable, high, dry and healthy; that is 
where most ships can best ride, of deepest draught of water, 
if possible to load or unload at the bank or key side without 
boating or lightering of it." Crispin, a kinsman of the pro- 
prietor, died on the voyage out, but William Heage had been 
named a fourth commissioner some time after the appointment 
of the others and the three survivors arrived in the province 
toward the close of the year. They had been preceded by 
Penn's cousin, Captain William Markham, as deputy-governor, 
and were soon followed by the surveyor-general, Thomas Holme. 
Although the Swedes had established a settlement at the mouth 
of the Schuylkill not later than 1643 and the site now selected 
by the commissioners was held by three brothers of the Swaenson 
family, these brothers agreed to take in exchange land in what 
is now known as Northern Liberties, and as early as July 1682 
Holme, according to modified instructions from Penn for making 
the lots smaller than originally intended, laid out the city 
extending from the Delaware river on the east to the Schuylkill 
river on the west, a distance of about 2 m., and from Vine 
Street on the north to Cedar (now South) Street on the south, 
a distance of about i m. Penn landed at New Castle on the 
Delaware on the 27th of October 1682 and two days later came 
up as far as Upland, now Chester, 13 m. south of Philadelphia, 
but when he came to his newly founded city is not known. He 
is known, however, to have presided at a meeting of the pro- 
vincial council held here on the zoth of March 1683, and from 
that time Philadelphia was the capital of Pennsylvania until 

1 If the debt of a city already exceeded the 7 % limit it could be 
increased only by permission of the legislature. 



1799, when Lancaster became the capital. During nearly the 
whole of this period it was also the most important city com- 
mercially, politically and socially in the colonies. Quaker 
influence remained strong in the city, especially up to the be- 
ginning of the ipth century; and it was predominant in Phila- 
delphia long after it had given way before the Scotch-Irish in 
the rest of Pennsylvania. But even in Philadelphia the academy 
(later the university of Pennsylvania) soon came under the 
control of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The first Contin- 
ental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall on the sth of September 
1774; the second in the old state house (Independence Hall) 
on the loth of May 1775; and throughout the War of Indepen- 
dence, except from the 26th of September 1777 to the i8th of 
June 1778, when it was in possession of the British, 2 Philadelphia 
was the virtual capital of the colonies; it was a brilliant social 
city, especially during the British possession. The national 
convention which framed the present constitution of the United 
States sat in Philadelphia in 1787, and from 1790 to 1800 the 
city was the national capital. Here Benjamin Franklin and 
David Rittenhouse made their great contributions to science, 
and here Washington delivered his farewell address to the people 
of the United States. Here, in July and August 1789, the 
clerical and lay delegates from the Protestant Episcopal Churches 
in the United States met and formally organized the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in the United States. Here the first bank 
in the colonies the Bank of North America was opened in 
1781, and here the first mint for the coinage of the money of the 
United States was established in 1792. The city was visited 
with an epidemic of yellow fever in 1793 and again in 1798; 
and in 1832 nearly 1000 inhabitants died of Asiatic cholera. 

The original boundaries remained unchanged for 172 years, 
but the adjoining territory as it became populated was erected 
into corpo rated districts in the following order: South wark 
(1762), Northern Liberties (1771), Moyamensing (1812), Spring 
Garden (1813), Kensington (1820), Penn (1844), Richmond 
(1847), West Philadelphia (1851) and Belmont (1853). In 1854 
all these districts, together with the boroughs of Germantown, 
Frankford, Manayunk, White Hall, Bridesburg and Aramingo, 
and the townships of Passyunk, Blockley, Kingsessing, Rox- 
borough, Germantown, Bristol, Oxford, Lower Dublin, Moreland, 
Byberry, Delaware and Penn was abolished and the boundaries 
of Philadelphia were extended to the county lines by a single 
act of the state legislature. The consolidation was in part the 
outcome of a demand for efficiency in preserving order. There 
had been occasional outbreaks of disorder: on the i7th of May 
1838 an anti-aboh'tion mob had burned Pennsylvania Hall, 
which had been dedicated three days before to the discussion 
of abolition, temperance and equality; in May 1844 anti- 
Catholic rioters had burned St Michael's and St Augustine's 
churches, and minor riots had occured in 1835, 1842 and 1843. 
Philadelphia was from the first strongly anti-slavery in sentiment, 
and it was here in December 1833 that the American Anti- 
Slavery Society was organized, and in 1856, on the anniversary 
of the battle of Bunker Hill, that the first national convention 
of the Republican party met. During the Civil War the arsenal 
and the Southwark navy yard were busy manufacturing material 
for the Federal armies, the city was crowded with wounded 
soldiers, and here in 1864 was held the great sanitary fair for 
the benefit of the United States sanitary commission, an organiza- 
tion for the relief and care of wounded and sick soldiers. In 
1876, the centennial year of American independence, a great 
exhibition of the industries of all nations was held in Fairmount 
Park from the loth of May to the loth of November, and about 
fifty buildings were erected for the purpose. In October 
1882 the city celebrated the bi-centennial of the landing of 
William Penn, and in October 1908 the 2 2 sth anniversary of its 
foundation. 

1 Lord Howe, who had been in command of the British, embarked 
for England on the 24th of May, and on the l8th of this month was 
held for his farewell entertainment the famous Mischianza, a feast 
of gaiety with a tournament somewhat like those common in the 
age of chivalry, which was in large part planned by Captain John 
Andre. 



PHILADELPHIANS PHILARET 



373 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott, History of 
Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1884), the standard history; J. F. 
Watson, Annals of Philadelphia, revised by W. P. Hazard (Phila- 
delphia, 1898), often the record of tradition; E. P. Allinson and B. 
Penrose, Philadelphia 1681-1887; a- History of Municipal Develop- 
ment (Philadelphia, 1887); J. H. Young (ed.), Memorial History 
of the City of Philadelphia (New York, 1895) ; Lillian I. Rhoades, 
The Story of Philadelphia (New York, 1900); T. Williams, 
" Philadelphia," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle 
States (New York, 1899) ; F. M. Etting, An Historical Account of the 
Old State House (Philadelphia, 1891) ; E. K. Price, History of the 
Consolidation of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1873); and Agnes 
Repplier, Philadelphia, the Place and People (New York, 1898). 

PHILADELPHIANS, a sect of religious mystics, founded in 
London in the latter part of the I7th century. In 1652 Dr John 
Pordage (1607-1681), rector of Bradfield, Berkshire, gathered 
together a few followers of Jakob Boehme, the chief of whom 
was Jane Lead or Leade (nee Ward; 1623-1704). Pordage was 
ejected from his living by the Triers in 1655, but was restored 
in 1660. Mrs Leade had been from girlhood of a mystical 
temperament, and experienced phantasms which she recorded 
in a diary entitled A Fountain of Gardens, beginning in 1670, 
in which year the Philadelphian society was definitely organized. 
She drew up for it " The Laws of Paradise," which show that 
the enterprise was designed " to advance the Kingdom of God 
by improving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, and enforc- 
ing the duty of universal brotherhood, peace and love." Its 
members had a strong faith in what they called the " Divine 
Secrets," the wonders of God and nature, the profound spiritual 
experiences of regeneration and soul-resurrection, and the 
second Advent. In 1693 some of Mrs Leade's writings were 
translated into Dutch, and by this means and her acquaintance 
with Francis Lee (1661-1719), an Oxford scholar who studied 
medicine at Leiden and became her son-in-law, a connexion 
was opened up with Germany and Holland. In 1703 the Phila- 
delphians drew up their confession, but they made no further 
progress and soon declined. The Holland branch withdrew, 
and the English government forbade the society to meet. For 
many years, however, a considerable number of people regarded 
Mrs Leade's visions, which were published in a long series of 
writings, as proofs of her divine calling. In her later years she 
had a severe struggle with poverty, which was relieved by a 
pension granted by Baron Kniphausen. 

PHILAE, an islet in the Nile above the First Cataract, of great 
beauty and interest, but since the completion of the Assuan 
dam in 1902 submerged except for a few months yearly during 
High Nile (July to October), when the water is allowed to run 
freely through the sluices of the Assuan dam. Philae is the 
nearest island to the point where the ancient desert road from 
Assuan rejoins the river south of the cataract. It marks also 
the end of the cataract region. Below it the channel is broad 
and straight with rocky granite islands to the west. The name 
in Egyptian was Pilak, " the angle (?) island ": the Arabs call 
it Anas el Wagud, after the hero of a romantic tale in the Arabian 
Nights. Ancient graffiti abound in all this district, and on 
Bigeh, a larger island adjoining Philae, there was a temple as 
early as the reign of Tethmosis III. The name of Amasis II. 
(570-535 B.C.) is said to have been found at Philae, and it is 
possible that there were still older buildings which have been 
swallowed up in later constructions. About 350 B.C. Nekhtnebf, 
the last of the native kings of Egypt, built a temple to Isis, 
most of which was destroyed by floods. Ptolemy Philadelphus 
reconstructed some of this work and began a large temple which 
Ptolemy Euergetes I. completed, but the decoration, carried 
on under later Ptolemies and Caesars, was never finished. The 
temple of Isis was the chief sanctuary of the Dodecaschoenus, 
the portion of Lower Nubia generally held by the Ptolemies 
and Romans. The little island won great favour as a religious 
resort, not only for the Egyptians and the Ethiopians and others 
who frequented the border district and the market of Assuan, 
but also for Greek and Roman visitors. One temple or chapel 
after another sprang up upon it dedicated to various gods, 
including the Nubian Mandulis. Ergamenes ( Arkamane) , king 
of Ethiopia, shared with the Ptolemies in the building. Besides 



the temple of Isis with its birth-temple in the first court, there 
were smaller temples or shrines of Arsenuphis, Mandulis, Imuthes, 
Hathor, Harendotes (a form of Horus) and Augustus (in the 
Roman style), besides unnamed ones. There were also monu- 
mental gateways, and the island was protected by a stone quay 
all round with the necessary staircases, &c., and a Nilometer. 
The most beautiful of all the buildings is an unfinished kiosque 
inscribed by Trajan, well known under the name of " Pharaoh's 
Bed." Graffiti of pilgrims to the shrine of Isis are dated as late 
as the end of the 5th century A.D. The decree of Theodosius 
(A.D. 378) which suppressed pagan worship in the empire was 
of little effect in the extreme south. In A.D. 453 Maximinus, 
the general of the emperor Marcian, after inflicting a severe defeat 
on the Nobatae and Blemmyes who were settled in Lower Nubia, 
and thence raided Upper Egypt, made peace on terms which 
included permission for these heathen tribes to visit the temple 
and even to borrow the image of Isis on certain occasions. It 
was not till the reign of Justinian, A.D. 527-565, that the temple 
of Philae was finally closed, and the idols taken to Constantinople. 
Remains of Christian churches were disclosed by the thorough 
exploration carried out in 1895-1896 in view of the Barrage 
scheme, under the direction of Captain Lyons. The accumula- 
tions of rubbish on the island were cleared away and the walls 
and foundations of the stone buildings were all repaired and 
strengthened before the dam was completed. The annual 
flooding now appears to be actually beneficial to the stonework, 
by removing the disintegrating salts and incrustations. The 
tops of most of the buildings and the whole nucleus of the 
temple of Isis to the floor remained all the year round above 
the water level until the dam was raised another 26 ft. a work 
begun in 1907 when the temples were entirely submerged 
except during July-October. But the beauty of the island and 
its ruins and palm trees, the joy of travellers and artists, is 
almost gone. 

See H. G. Lyons, A Report on the Island and Temples of Philae 
(Cairo, 1896), with numerous plans and photographs; a second 
report, A Report on the Temples of Philae (1908), deals with the 
condition of the ruins as affected by the immersions occasioned by 
the filling of the Assuan dam ; Baedeker's Egypt ; and on the effects 
of the submersion, &c., reports in Annales du service des antiquites, 
vols. iv. v. (F. LL. G.) 

PHILARET [THEODORE NIKITICH ROMANOV] (? 1553-1633), 
patriarch of Moscow, was the second son of the boyar Nikita 
Romanovich. During the reign of his first cousin Theodore I. 
(1584-1598), Theodore Romanov distinguished himself both as 
a soldier and a diplomatist, fighting against the Swedes in 
1590, and conducting negotiations with the ambassadors of the 
emperor Rudolph II. in 1 593-1 594. On the death of the childless 
tsar, he was the popular candidate for the vacant throne; but 
he acquiesced in the election of Boris Godunov, and shared the 
disgrace of his too-powerful family three years later, when Boris 
compelled both him and his wife, Xenia Chestovaya, to take 
monastic vows under the names of Philaret and Martha respec- 
tively. Philaret was kept in the strictest confinement in the 
Antoniev monastery, where he was exposed to every conceivable 
indignity; but when the pseudo-Demetrius overthrew the 
Godunovs he released Philaret and made him metropolitan of 
Rostov (1605). In 1609 Philaret fell into the hands of pseudo- 
Demetrius II., who named him patriarch of all Russia, though 
his jurisdiction only extended over the very limited area which 
acknowledged the impostor. From 1610-1618 he was a prisoner 
in the hands of the Polish king, Sigismund III., whom he refused 
to acknowledge as tsar of Muscovy on being sent on an embassy 
to the Polish camp in 1610. He was released on the conclusion 
of the truce of Deulino (Feb. 13, 1619), and on the and of June 
was canonically enthroned patriarch of Moscow. Henceforth, 
till his death, the established government of Muscovy was a 
diarchy. From 1619 to 1633 there were two actual sovereigns, 
Tsar Michael and his father, the most holy Patriarch Philaret. 
Theoretically they were co-regents, but Philaret frequently 
transacted affairs of state without consulting the tsar. He 
replenished the treasury by a more equable and rational system 
of assessing and collecting the taxes. His most important 



374 



PHILATELY PHILEMON 



domestic measure was the chaining of the peasantry to the soil, 
a measure directed against the ever increasing migration of the 
down-trodden serfs to the steppes, where they became free- 
booters instead of tax-payers. The taxation of the tsar's 
slyuzhnuie lyudi, or military tenants, was a first step towards 
the proportional taxation of the hitherto privileged classes. 
Philaret's zeal for the purity of orthodoxy sometimes led him 
into excesses: but he encouraged the publication of theological 
works, formed the nucleus of the subsequently famous Patri- 
archal Library, and commanded that every archbishop should 
establish a seminary for the clergy, himself setting the example. 
Another great service rendered by Philaret to his country was 
the reorganization of the Muscovite army with the help of foreign 
officers. His death in October 1633 put an end to the Russo- 
Polish War (1632-33), withdrawing the strongest prop from an 
executive feeble enough even when supported by all the weight 
of his authority. 

See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905) ; S. M. Solovev, 
Hist, of Russia (Rus.), vol. ix. (St Petersb. 1895, &c.) (R. N. B.) 

PHILATELY (Gr. <tXos, loving, and dreXifr, free of tax), the 
study and collection of postage-stamps and other marks of pre- 
payment issued by post-offices. The fancy for collecting postage- 
stamps began a short time after the issue of the first British 
penny and two-penny stamps in 1840 (see POST and POSTAL 
SERVICE). Dr Gray, an official of the British Museum, began 
collecting them soon after their appearance, and an advertise- 
ment in an issue of The Times of 1841 asks for gifts of cancelled 
stamps for a young lady. In 1842 the new hobby was ridiculed 
in Punch. It was not until about 1860, however, that stamp 
collecting began to be systematically carried on with full regard 
to such minutiae as the different kinds of paper, water-marks, 
perforation, shade of colour and distinctive outline. About 
1862 a teacher in Paris directed that foreign stamps should be 
collected and pasted upon the pages of his pupils' atlases and 
geographies according to countries, and this may have been the 
first form of the systematic classification of stamps in a collection. 
Of existing collections the oldest were begun between 1853 and 
1860, by which year French collectors had assumed especial 
prominence,. Professional dealers now made their appearance, 
and in 1861 philatelic literature, now of vast extent, was in- 
augurated by the publication in Strasburg of a catalogue of 
stamps issued up to that time. The Paris collectors were the 
first to classify stamps, measure them by the gauge, note the 
water-marks and separate the distinct issues of each country. 
Collecting with due regard to the relationship of different issues 
is called plating. The first English catalogue was issued in 
1862, followed in December of the same year by The Stamp 
Collector's Review and Monthly Advertiser, published in Liverpool, 
the first philatelic periodical, the second, The Stamp Collector's 
Magazine, appearing in 1863. In 1863 also appeared Le Timbre- 
Paste, a Brussels journal. Up to 1910 over 800 philatelic 
periodicals had appeared. 

Although small bodies of enthusiasts had banded together 
in England, France and the United States for the study and 
collection of postage-stamps as early as 1865, it was not until 
1869 that the first great club, the Philatelic Society of London, 
still the most important in the world, was founded. Other 
societies in Great Britain are the Junior Philatelic of London, 
and those of Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh and Leith. 
The leading society in America is the American Philatelic 
Association; in France the Societe fran^aise de timbrologie; in 
Germany the Inlernalionaler Philatelisten-Verein. More than 
400 such organizations are now in existence, the majority of 
them in the United States and Germany. At a philatelic con- 
gress, held in London in 1910, the formation of .a universal union 
of philatelic societies " to discourage unnecessary or speculative 
issues " was considered. 

Not only the stamps themselves were collected, but " entires," 
i.e. postcards, envelopes with the stamps still adhering, &c. 
Marks of prepayment at last became so numerous that, about 
1880, specialists began to appear, who restricted their collections 
to the stamps of some particular country or continent, or to 



postcards or newspaper-wrappers alone. The most extensive 
and valuable stamp collection in the world, that of Baron P. 
von Ferrary of Paris, was begun about 1865. This collection, 
which cost its owner at least 250,000, contains a cancelled and 
an uncancelled specimen of each stamp. The next greatest 
collection is that bequeathed to the British nation in 1891 by 
T. K. Tapling, M.P., now in the British Museum. Among other 
important collections may be mentioned those in the German 
Postal Museum in Berlin, of King George V. of England, W. B. 
Avery, H. J. Duveen and the earl of Crawford. The largest 
sum realized for an entire collection was 27,500, which was paid 
for that of M. P. Castle, consisting of European stamps only. 
The value of a stamp depends partly upon its age, but much 
more upon its rarity, which again is dependent upon the number 
of the particular stamps originally issued. Most stamps have 
a quoted value, but some possess a conventional value only, 
such as those of which only one or two specimens are known to 
exist; for instance, the one-cent stamp of the 1856 issue of British 
Guiana (one known copy); the Italian 15 centesimi stamp of 
1865 converted by an overprint into 20 centesimi (one copy); 
the Cape of Good Hope triangular, printed by mistake on paper 
intended for stamps of other colonies (four copies) ; and the 2 cent 
stamps of the earliest issue of British Guiana (ten copies). The 
best known of the very rare stamps are the id. and 2d. " Post- 
Office " Mauritius, for which higher prices have been paid than 
for any other stamps, although 23 copies are known to exist 
out of the loco issued. For a fine specimen of these Mauritius 
stamps 2000 has been offered. Two of them have been sold 
for 2400. Philatelic exhibitions such as those held in London 
in 1890 and 1897 and in Manchester in 1909 have proved 
popular. 

" Reprints " are reimpressions, taken from the original plates, 
of obsolete stamps, and have a much smaller value than speci- < 
mens of the original issue. Forgeries of the rarer stamps are 
common but are easily detected. Modern postage-stamp albums 
are often beautiful specimens of the printer's art, reproductions 
of every known stamp being given in the original colours. 

See W. J. Hardy and E. D. Bacon, The Stamp Collector (London, 
1898); Oliver Firth, Postage Stamps and Their Collection, (1897); 
F. J. Melville, A B C of Stamp Collecting (1903) ; Caiman and Collin, 
Catalogue for Advanced Collectors (New York, 1902); Hastings 
E. Wright and A. B. Creeke, History of the Adhesive Stamps of the 
British Isles (London, 1899); J. K. Tiffany, Stamp Collector's Library 
Companion (Chicago, 1889); Luff, The Postage Stamps of the United 
States (New York, 1902) ; W. E. Daniells, History of British Post- 
marks (London, 1898); L. Salefranque, Le Timbre a travers I'histoire 
(Rouen, 1890) ; R. Senf , Illustrierter Postwerthzeichenkatalog (Leipzig, 
annually) ; Krotzsch, Permanentes Handbuch der Postfreimarkenkunde 
(Leipzig, annually); periodicals: The London Philatelist (monthly); 
Illustrierte Brief marken-Zeitung (Leipzig). 

PHILEMON (c. 361-263 B.C.), Greek poet of the New Comedy, 
was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse. He settled at Athens 
early in life, and his first play was produced in 330. He was a 
contemporary and rival of Menander, whom he frequently 
vanquished in poetical contests. Posterity reversed the verdict 
and attributed Philemon's successes to unfair influence. He 
made a journey to the east, and resided at the court of Ptolemy, 
king of Egypt, for some time. Plutarch (De Cohibenda Ira, 9) 
relates that on his journey he was driven by a storm to Cyrene, 
and fell into the hands of its king Magas, whom he had formerly 
satirized. Magas treated him with contempt, and finally dis- 
missed him with a present of toys. Various accounts of his death 
are given; a violent outburst of laughter, excess of joy at a 
dramatic victory, or a peaceful end while engaged in composing 
his last work (Apuleius, Florida, 16; Lucian, Macrob. 25; 
Plutarch, An Seni, p. 725). Of the ninety-seven plays which 
he is said to have composed, the titles of fifty-seven and 
considerable fragments have been preserved. Some of these 
may have been the work of his son, the younger Philemon, 
who is said to have composed fifty-four comedies. The 
Merchant and The Treasure of Philemon were the originals 
respectively of the Mercator and Trinummus of Plautus. The 
fragments preserved by Stobaeus, Athenaeus and other writers 
contain much wit and good sense. Quintilian (Instil, x. i, 72) 



PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO PHILETAS 



375 



assigned the second place among the poets of the New Comedy 
to Philemon, and Apuleius, who had a high opinion of him, has 
drawn a comparison between him and Menander. 

See A. Meineke, Menandri et Philemonis reliquiae (1823, including 
Bentley's emendations); T. Kock, Comicorum eraecorum fraementa, 
vol. iii. (1884). 

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, a scripture of the New Testament. 
Onesimus, a slave, had robbed (w. n, 18-19) an d run away 
from his master Philemon, a prosperous and influential Christian 
citizen of Colossae (Col. iv. 9), either offence rendering him liable 
to be crucified. Voluntarily or accidentally, he came across 
Paul, who won him over to the Christian faith. In the few 
tactful and charming lines of this brief note, the apostle sends 
him back to his master with a plea for kindly treatment. After 
greeting Philemon and his wife, with Archippus (possibly their 
son) and the Christians who met for worship at Philemon's house 
(vv. 1-2), Paul rejoices over (vo. 4-7) his correspondent's 
character; it encourages him to make an appeal on behalf of 
the unworthy Onesimus (8-21), now returning (Col. iv. 9) along 
with Tychicus to Colossae, as a penitent and sincere Christian, 
in order to resume his place in the household. With a line or 
two of personal detail (22-25) the note closes. 

Rome would be a more natural rendezvous for fugitivarii 
(runaway slaves) than Caesarea (Hilgenfeld and others), and 
it is probable that Paul wrote this note, with Philippians and 
Colossians, from the metropolis. As Laodicea is close to Colossae 
it does not follow, even if Archippus be held to have belonged 
to the former town (as Lightfoot argues from Col. iv. 13-17), 
that Philemon's residence must have been there also (so A. 
Maier, Thiersch, Wieseler, &c.). Paul cannot have converted 
Philemon at Colossae (Col. ii. i), but elsewhere, possibly at 
Ephesus; yet Philemon may have been on a visit to Ephesus, 
for, even were the Ephesian Onesimus of Ignatius (Eph. ii.) the 
Onesimus of this note, it would not prove that he had always 
lived there. No adequate reason has been shown for suspecting 
that the note is interpolated at any point. The association of 
Timotheus with Paul (v. i) does not involve any official tinge, 
which would justify the deletion of /cat Tijii60eos 6 a5f\<bbs //ou in 
that verse, and of ri^Siv in w>. 1-2 (so Holtzmann), and Hausrath's 
suspicions of the allusion to Paul as a prisoner and of 11 . 12 are 
equally arbitrary. The construction in m. 5-6 is difficult, but 
it yields to exegetical treatment (cf. especially Haupt's note) 
and does not involve the interpolation of matter by the later 
redactor of Colossians and Ephesians (Holtzmann, Hausrath 1 
and Bruckner, Reihenfolge d. paid. Brief e, 200 seq.). 

The brevity of the note and its lack of doctrinal significance 
prevented it from gaining frequent quotation in the early 
Christian literature, but it appears in Marcion's canon as well 
as in the Muratorian, whilst Tertullian mentions, and Origen 
expressly quotes it. During the igth century, the hesitation 
about Colossians led to the rejection of Philemon by some critics 
as a pseudonymous little pamphlet on the slave question 
an aberration of literary criticism (reproduced in Ency. Bib., 
3693 seq.) which needs simply to be chronicled. It is interesting 
to observe that, apart from the letter of commendation for 
Phoebe (Rom. xvi.), this is the only letter in the New Testa- 
ment addressed, even in part, to a woman, unless the second 
epistle of John be taken as meant for an individual. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to most commentaries on Colossians 
and to Dr M. R. Vincent's edition of Philippians, compare special 
exegetical studies by R. Rollock (Geneva, 1602), G. C. Storr (1781), 
J. K. I. Demme, Erkldrung d. Philemon-Briefes (1844) ; H. A. Peter- 
mann, Ad fidem versionum . . . cum earum textu orig. graece (Berlin, 
1844) ; M. Rothe, Pauli ad Philem. epistolae interpretatip histprico- 
exegetica (Bremen, 1844); and H. J. Holtzmann, Zeitschrift fur 
wissen. Theologie (1873), pp. 428 sqq., besides the essays of J. G. C. 
Klotzsch, De occasipne et indole epistolae ad Philem. (1792); D. H. 
Wildschut, De in dictionis et sermonis elegantia in epistola ad Philem. 
(1809) ; and J. P. Esser, Der Brief an Philemon (1875). An up-to-date 
survey of criticism is furnished by Dr J. H. Bernard in Hastings's 
Dictionary of the Bible, iv. 832-834, and a good exposition may be 
found in Z. Weber's Der Brief an d. Philemon, ein Vorbild fur die 



1 History of the New Testament Times (1895), iv. 122-123. See, 
on this, Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, iv. 531-532- 



christl. Behandlung sozialer Fragen (1896), as well as in Dr A. H. 
Drysdale's devotional commentary (London, 1906). (J. MT.) 

PHILEMON and BAUCIS, the hero and heroine of a beautiful 
story told by Ovid (Melam. viii. 610-715), the scene of which 
is laid in Phrygia. Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, visited earth 
in human form; tired and weary, they sought shelter for the 
night, but all shut their doors against them except an aged 
couple living in a humble cottage, who afforded them hospitality. 
Before their departure the gods revealed themselves, and bade 
their hosts follow them to the top of a mountain, to escape the 
punishment destined to fall on the rest of the inhabitants. The 
country was overwhelmed by a flood; the cottage, which alone 
remained standing, was changed into a magnificent temple. 
The gods appointed Philemon and Baucis priest and priestess, 
and granted their prayer that they might die together. After 
many years they were changed into trees Philemon into an 
oak, Baucis into a lime. The story, which emphasizes the 
sacred duty of hospitality, is probably of local Phrygian origin, 
put together from two widely circulated legends of the visits 
of gods to men, and of the preservation of certain individuals 
from the flood as the reward of piety. It lingers in the account 
(Acts xiv.) of the healing of the lame man by Paul at Lystra, the 
inhabitants of which identified Paul and Barnabas with Zeus 
and Hermes, " come down in the likeness of men." 

Similar stories are given in T. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie (Eng. 
trans., 1883, ii. 580, and iii. 38). 

PHILES, MANUEL (c. 1275-1345), of Ephesus, Byzantine 
poet. At an early age he removed to Constantinople, where 
he was the pupil of Georgius Pachymeres, in whose honour he 
composed a memorial poem. Philes appears to have travelled 
extensively, and his writings contain much information concern- 
ing the imperial court and distinguished Byzantines. Having 
offended one of the emperors by indiscreet remarks published 
in a chronography, he was thrown into prison and only released 
after an abject apology. Philes is the counterpart of Theodorus 
Prodromus in the time of the Comneni; his character, as shown 
in his poems, is that of a begging poet, always pleading poverty, 
and ready to descend to the grossest flattery to obtain the favour- 
able notice of the great. With one unimportant exception, his 
productions are in verse, the greater part in dodecasyllabic 
iambic trimeters, the remainder in the fifteen-syllable " political " 
measure. 

Philes was the author of poems on a great variety of subjects: on 
the characteristics of animals, chiefly based upon Aelian and Oppian, 
a didactic poem of some 2000 lines, dedicated to Michael Palaeo- 
logus; on the elephant; on plants; a necrological poem, probably 
written on the death of one of the sons of the imperial house; a 
panegyric on John Cantacuzene, in the form of a dialogue; a con- 
versation between a man and his soul; on ecclesiastical subjects, 
such as church festivals, Christian beliefs, the saints and fathers 
of the church; on works of art, perhaps the most valuable of all his 
pieces for their bearing on Byzantine iconography, since the 
writer had before him the works he describes, and also the most 
successful from a literary point of view ; occasional poems, many of 
which are simply begging letters in verse. 

Editions: the natural history poems in F. Lehrs and F. Dubner, 
Poetae bucolici et didactici (Didot series, 1846) ; Manuelis Philae 
Carmina inedita, ed. A. Martini (1900) ; Manuelis Philae Carmina 
ed. E. Miller (1855-1857). See also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der 
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

PHILETAS of Cos, Alexandrian poet and critic, flourished 
in the second half of the 4th century B.C. He was tutor to the 
son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and also taught Theocritus and the 
grammarian Zenodotus. His thinness made him an object of 
ridicule; according to the comic poets, he carried lead in his 
shoes to keep himself from being blown away. Over-study of 
Megarian dialectic subtleties is said to have shortened his life. 
His elegies, chiefly of an amatory nature and singing the praises 
of his mistress Battis (or Bittis), were much admired by the 
Romans. He is frequently mentioned by Ovid and Propertius, 
the latter of whom imitated him and preferred him to his rival 
Callimachus, whose superior mythological lore was more to the 
taste of the Alexandrian critics. Philetas was also the author 
of a vocabulary called "A.TO.KTO., explaining the meanings of rare 



37^ 



PHILIDOR PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA) 



and obscure words, including words peculiar to certain dialects; 
and of notes on Homer, severely criticized by Aristarchus. 

Fragments edited by N. Bach (1828), and T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici 
graeci; see also E. W. Maass, De tribus Philetae carminibus (1895). 

PHILIDOR, FRANCOIS ANDRfi DANICAN (1726-1795), 
French composer and chess-player, was born at Dreux, on the 
7th of September 1726, of a musical family. The family name 
was Danican, but that of Philidor, added in the middle of the 
1 7th century, eventually supplanted the older name. Francois 
Andre received a musical education as a member of the corps 
of pages attached to the orchestra of the king; and subsequently 
he earned his living by giving lessons and copying music. Much 
of his time was, however, devoted to chess, at which he soon 
became an expert. He spent many years in travelling on the 
Continent and in England, meeting and defeating the most 
noted players of the time, and is regarded as the strongest player 
and greatest theoretician of the i8th century. Returning to 
France in 1754, he resolved to devote himself seriously to musical 
composition, and after producing several works of minor im- 
portance brought out at Paris, in the year 1759, his successful 
light opera, Blaise le Savetier, which was followed by a number 
of others, notably Le Soldat magicien (1760), Le Jardinier et son 
seigneur (1761), Le Sorcier (1762), and Tom Jones (1764). He 
died in London on the 3ist of August 1795. 

PHILIP (Gr. KXiTnros, fond of horses, from <j>i\fiv, to love, 
and IITTTOS, horse ; Lat. Philippus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, 
Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. 
Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe), a masculine proper name, 
popularized among the Christian nations as having been that 
of one of the apostles of Christ. Notices of distinguished men 
who have borne this name are arranged below in the following 
order: (i) Biblical; (2) Kings of Macedonia, France, Germany 
and Spain; (3) other rulers. 

PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, mentioned fifth in all 
the lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). He 
is a mere name in the Synoptists, but a figure of some prominence 
in the Fourth Gospel. There he is said to have been " of Beth- 
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter," and to have received his 
call to follow Jesus at Bethany, having previously been, it would 
seem, a disciple of the Baptist (John i. 43, 44; cf. 28). Philip 
was at that time the means of bringing Nathanael to Jesus 
(John i. 45), and at a later date he, along with Andrew, carried 
the request of the inquiring Greeks to the Master (John xii. 22). 
Philip and Andrew alone are mentioned by name in connexion 
with the feeding of the five thousand (John vi. 5, 7), and Philip 
is also one of the few interlocutors in John xiv. Slight though 
these references are, all agree in presenting Philip as of an inquir- 
ing and calculating character, slow to take the initiative, but, 
when convinced of the path of duty, thoroughly loyal in following 
it. After the resurrection he was present at the election of 
Matthias as successor to Judas, but he does not again appear 
in the New Testament history; it is, however, implied that he 
still continued in Jerusalem after the outbreak of the first 
persecution. 

Little reliance can be placed on the traditional accounts of 
Philip, owing to the evident confusion that had arisen between 
him and the evangelist of the same name, who appears in the 
book of Acts (see below). According to Polycrates, bishop of 
Ephesus, in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome 
towards the end of the and century (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31, 
v. 24), the graves of Philip " of the twelve apostles," and of 
his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis; 
a third daughter, " who had lived in the Holy Ghost," was buried 
at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of 
Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally (Strom, iii. 6) speaks 
of " Philip the Apostle " as having begotten children and as 
having given daughters in marriage. On the other hand, 
Proclus, one of the interlocutors in the " Dialogue of Caius," a 
writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates, 
mentions (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31) " four prophetesses, the 
daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that 
of their father are to be seen there," where the mention of the 



daughters prophesying identifies the person meant with the 
Philip of Acts (cf. Acts xxi. 8). The reasons for setting aside 
this latter identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived 
at Hierapolis was the Apostle are clearly stated by Lightfoot, 
Colossians (2) note 3, p. 45 seq., and fresh confirmation of his view 
has recently been afforded by the discovery of an inscription 
at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to 
the memory " of the holy and glorious apostle and theologian 
Philip " (Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i., 
pt. ii. p. 552). . 

See also Corssen, " Die Tochter des Philippus " in the Zeitschrift 
fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft (1901), p. 289 sqq. The other 
view, that the Philip of Hierapolis is the Philip of Acts, is taken by 
Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons 
(1900), vi. 158 sqq. 

A later stage of the tradition regarding Philip appears in 
various late apocryphal writings which have been edited by 
Tischendorf in his A eta apostolorum apocrypha, and in his 
Apocalypses apocryphae. According to the Ada Philippi, a 
work belonging at the earliest to the close of the 4th century 
(see Zahn, op. cit. p. 18 sqq.), Philip, with Bartholomew and his 
own sister Mariamne, exercised a widespread missionary activity, 
preaching not only throughout Asia Minor, but also in Hellas 
the city of the Athenians, in Scythia, and in Gaul, &c. According 
to one account he died a natural death; according to another 
he was hanged or crucified, head downwards. An apocryphal 
gospel, which describes the progress of the soul through the next 
world, bears his name (Hennecke, Neutestamentliche Apokryphen, 
1904, p. 40 seq.). 

Since the 6th century Philip has been commemorated in the 
West, along with St James the Less, on the ist of May, their 
relics being deposited in the same church in Rome; in the Eastern 
Church Philip's day is the I4th of November, and that of James 
the Less the 23rd of October. 

PHILIP, " the evangelist," is first mentioned in the Acts 
(vi. 5) as one of " the seven " who were chosen to attend to 
certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusalem in conse- 
quence of the murmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebrews. 
After the martyrdom of Stephen he went to " the city of 
Samaria," where he preached with much success, Simon Magus 
being one of his converts. He afterwards instructed and baptized 
the Ethiopian eunuch on the road between Jerusalem and Gaza; 
next he was " caught away " by the Spirit and " found at Azotus " 
(Ashdod), whence " passing through he preached in all the cities 
till he came to Caesarea " (Acts viii.). Here some years after- 
wards, according to Acts xxi. 8, 9, where he is described as " the 
evangelist " (a term found again in the New Testament only 
in Eph. iv. n; 2 Tim. iv. 5), he entertained Paul and his com- 
panion on their way to Jerusalem; at that time " he had four 
daughters which did prophesy." At a very early period he 
came to be confounded with the apostle Philip (see above) ; the 
confusion was all the more easy because, as an esteemed member 
of the apostolic company, he may readily have been described 
as an apostle in the wider sense of that word (see further Salmon, 
Introd.tolheNew Testament, 7thed.,p. 313 sqq.). A late tradition 
describes him as settling at Tralles in Asia Minor, where he be- 
came the overseer or ruler of the church. " Philip the deacon " 
is commemorated on the 6th of June. 

PHILIP I., king of Macedonia, a semi-legendary prince, son 
of Argaeus, was, according to Herodotus (viii. 137-139) and 
Thucydides (ii. 100), the third of the Macedonian kings. In the 
texts of Dexippus and Eusebius he ranks sixth, Caranus, Coenus 
and Thurimas (or Turimmas) being there regarded as the pre- 
decessors of Perdiccas I., whom Herodotus and Thucydides 
regard as the first king of Macedonia. Eusebius and Dexippus 
assign to Philip I. a reign of 38 and 35 years respectively. There 
is, however, no real evidence for his existence. (E. R. B.) 

PHILIP II. (382-336 B.C.), king of Macedonia, the son of 
Amyntas II., and the Lyncestian Eurydice, reigned 350-336. 
At his birth the Macedonian kingdom, including the turbulent 
peoples of the hill-country behind, was very imperfectly con- 
solidated. In 370 Amyntas died, and the troubled reign of 



PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA) 



Philip's eldest brother, Alexander II., was cut short in 368 by 
his assassination. His murderer, Ptolemy of Alorus, ruled as 
regent for the young Perdiccas, Amyntas's second son. In 367 
Philip was delivered as hostage to the Thebans, then the leading 
power of Greece (by whom does not seem clear). During the 
three years he spent at Thebes the boy no doubt observed and 
learnt much. When he returned to Macedonia (364) Perdiccas 
had succeeded in getting rid of Ptolemy; but he fell in 360-359 
before an onset of the hill tribes instigated by the queen-mother 
Eurydice, leaving only an infant son. Various pretenders sprang 
up and the kingdom fell into confusion. Philip seized the throne 
and drove back his rivals. He now began the great task of his 
life the creation of the Macedonian national army. The first 
experiment he made with this new organism was brilliantly 
successful. The hill tribes were broken by a single battle in 358, 
and Philip established his authority inland as far as Lake 
Ochrida. In the autumn of the same year he took the Athenian 
colony, Amphipolis, which commanded the gold-mines of Mt 
Pangaeus. Their possession was all-important for Philip, and 
he set there the new city, called after him, Philippi. Athens 
was temporarily pacified by assurances that Amphipolis would 
be handed over to her later on. The work of fashioning the 
Macedonian army occupied Philip for the next few years, whilst 
his diplomacy was busy securing partisans within the states of 
Greece. He avoided as yet a forward policy, and having taken 
Pydna and Potidaea soon after Amphipolis, he made them over 
to the Olynthian confederation (see OLYNTHUS). His marriage 
with the fierce witch-woman, Olympias, daughter of the Epirote 
king, falls in this period, and in 356 she bore him his greater son, 
Alexander. In 353 Philip was ready for strong action. He first 
attacked Ahdera and Maronea, on the Thracian sea-board, and 
then took Methone, which belonged to Athens. An overt breach 
with Athens was now inevitable. In the same summer he in- 
vaded Thessaly, where the Aleuadae of Larissa ranged themselves 
on his side against the tagus Lycophron," tyrant " of Pherae. 
Pherae called in the help of the Phocian mercenaries, who had 
profaned Delphi, and Philip met with a check. He had, however, 
the advantage of now being able to present himself to the Greeks 
as the champion of Apollo in a holy war, and in 352 the Mace- 
donian army won a complete victory over the Pheraeans and 
Phocians. This battle made Philip tagus of Thessaly, and he 
claimed as his own Magnesia, with the important harbour of 
Pagasae. Hostilities with Athens did not yet take place, but 
Athens was threatened by the Macedonian party which Philip's 
gold created in Euboea. 

From 352 to 346 Philip did not again come south. He was 
active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country 
to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the 
coast as far as the Hebrus (Maritza). For the chief of these, 
indeed, Olynthus, he continued to profess friendship till its 
neighbour cities were in his hands. Then, in 349, he opened war 
upon it. Athens, to whom Olynthus appealed, sent no adequate 
forces, in spite of the upbraidings of Demosthenes (see his 
Olynthiacs), and in the spring of 347 Olynthus fell. Philip razed 
it to the ground (see OLYNTHUS). Macedonia and the regions 
adjoining it having now been securely consolidated, Philip 
celebrated his " Olympian " games at Dium. In 347 Philip 
advanced to the conquest of the eastern districts about the 
Hebrus, and compelled the submission of the Thracian prince 
Cersobleptes. Meanwhile Athens had made overtures for peace 
(see the De falsa legatione of Demosthenes), and when Philip, 
in 346, again moved south, peace was sworn in Thessaly. The 
time was come for Philip to assert himself in Greece, and the 
Phocians, who still dominated Delphi and held Thermopylae, 
could furnish a pretext to the champion of Pan-Hellenism and 
Apollo. The Phocian mercenaries at Thermopylae were bought 
off and Philip crossed into central Greece. Here he made Thebes 
his ally and visited the Phocians with crushing vengeance. 
The Pythian games of 346 were celebrated at the delivered 
Delphi under Philip's presidency. Pan-Hellenic enthusiasts 
already saw Philip as the destined captain-general of a national 
crusade against Persia (Isocrates, Philippus, about 345). And 



377 

such a position Philip had determined to secure: the Macedonian 
agents continued to work throughout the Greek states, and in 
the Peloponnesus Sparta soon found herself isolated. Euboea, 
too, submitted to Macedonian influence, and even received some 
garrisons. But more work had to be done in the Balkan high- 
lands. In 344, or one of the following years, the Macedonian 
arms were carried across Epirus to the Adriatic. In 342 Philip 
led a great expedition north " comparable to nothing in antiquity 
since Darius' famous march to Scythia." In 341 his army was 
.still campaigning in eastern Thrace, when Philip felt compelled 
to show his presence in Thessaly. During these years, although 
Athens had not overtly broken the peace of 346, there had been 
various diplomatic bickerings and hostile intrigues between the 
two powers (cf. the Philippics of Demosthenes). Athens had 
even sent emissaries to the Persian court to give warning of the 
proposed national crusade. She now egged on the cities of the 
Propontis (Byzantium,Perinthus, Selymbria), who felt themselves 
threatened by Philip's Thracian conquests, to declare against 
him. The sieges of Perinthus and Byzantium (340, 339) ended 
in Philip's meeting with a signal check, due in some measure to 
the help afforded the besieged cities by Athens and her allies. 
Philip's influence all over Greece was compromised. But before 
marching south he led another expedition across the Balkans 
into the country now called Bulgaria, and returned to Pella with 
much spoil but severely wounded in the thigh. In 338 he once 
more crossed into central Greece. The pretext was the con- 
tumacy shown by the Locrian town Amphissa to the rulings 
of the Amphictyonic Council. Philip's fortification of Elatea 
filled Athens with alarm. Thebes was induced to join Athens; 
so were some of the minor Peloponnesian states, and the allies 
took the field against Philip. This opposition was crushed by 
the epoch-making battle of Chaeroneia, which left Greece at 
Philip's feet. In the following year (337) Philip was in the 
Peloponnesus, and a congress of the Greek states at the Isthmus 
(from which, however, Sparta held sullenly aloof) recognized 
Philip as captain-general for the war against Persia. Philip 
returned to Macedonia to complete his preparations; an advanced 
force was sent into Asia in the spring of 336. But Philip's plans 
were suddenly blasted by his assassination in the same year 
during the marriage festival of his daughter at Aegae, the old 
capital of Macedonia. He left, however, in the Macedonian 
army a splendid instrument which enabled his son within ten 
years to change the face of the world. 

Philip stands high among the makers of kingdoms. Restless 
energy, determination, a faculty for animating and organizing 
a strong people, went with unscrupulous duplicity and a full- 
blooded vehemence in the pleasures of sense. Yet Philip was not 
untouched by ideal considerations, as is proved by the respect, 
no doubt sincere, which he showed for Hellenic culture, by the 
forbearance and deference with which he treated Athens, the 
sacred city of that culture and his mortal foe. A special interest 
belongs to the Macedonian kingdom as it was shaped by Philip, 
since it forestalls a system which was not to find the time ripe 
for it in European history till many centuries later the national 
kingdom quickened with the culture developed by the ancient 
city-states. The national kingdoms founded by the Northern 
races, after the fall of the Roman Empire, under the influence 
of the classical tradition, are the beginnings of the modern 
European system; Philip of Macedon foreshadows Theodoric, 
Charlemagne and William the Conqueror. But this first national 
kingdom within the sphere of Greek culture could not ultimately 
live between the surge of the Northern barbarians and the 
Roman power. 

See the authorities under GREECE: History. A vivid and masterly 
sketch of Philip's personality and work is given in D. G. Hogarth's 
Philip and Alexander (1897). (E. R. B.) 

PHILIP III. [ARRHIDAEUS], king of Macedonia, was the 
feeble-minded son of Phiiip II. of Macedonia by a Thessalian 
wife. He was chosen by the Macedonian army at Babylon in 
323 to be nominal king conjointly with the infant Alexander, 
and was killed in Macedonia by order of Olympias (317). 
(See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)- 



378 PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA) PHILIP II. (FRANCE) 



PHILIP IV., king of Macedonia, was the son of Cassander, 
king of Macedonia: he reigned only one year (297-296). 

PHILIP V. f king of Macedonia, son of Demetrius II. and 
Chryseis, was an infant at his father's death in 230-229. His 
cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent 
till his death in 221-220, when Philip was eighteen years old. 
Philip now ascended the throne and reigned till 179. His 
reign was occupied in the vain struggle to maintain the old 
Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula, which became 
hopeless after the intervention of Rome and the decisive 
battle of Cynoscephalae (197). See Rome: History, II. 
" The Republic " (period B, b). (E. R. B.) 

PHILIP I. (1052-1108), king of France, eldest son of Henry I. 
of France and Anne, daughter of Jaroslav I. (d. 1054), grand 
duke of Kiev, came to the throne, when a child of eight, by the 
death of his father on the 4th of August 1060. He had been 
crowned at Reims, in the presence of a number of magnates, 
on the 23rd of May 1059. Philip passed most of his early years 
in and around Paris, where the castles of lawless barons, such 
as that of Montlhery, threatened even his personal safety. His 
minority came to an end in 1066. In the long reign that fol- 
lowed he showed no great ability or energy, and a looseness of 
morals which embroiled him with the Church. Before he was 
fifty years of age he became " fond of nothing but good cheer 
and sleep." But he increased the lands of his house around 
Paris, maintained order in them, and held his own against 
William I. and William II. of England, whose power in France 
far exceeded his own. This he accomplished for the most part 
by taking advantage of the quarrels among his vassals. When 
Baldwin VI. of Flanders died, in 1070, his son Arnulf was 
attacked by his uncle Robert the Frisian, count of Holland. 
Philip interfered, at the prayer of Arnulf 's mother, Richildis; 
but the allies were defeated near Cassel on the 22nd of February 
1071 and Arnulf slain. After a second war peace was sealed, 
apparently, by the marriage of Philip to Robert's step-daughter 
Bertha, daughter of Gertrude of Saxony and Florence, count 
of Holland. In 1074 a new rupture led to Philip seizing Corbie, 
part of the dower of his aunt Adele, who had married Baldwin IV. 
of Flanders. By this he secured a sort of outpost in the direction 
of Flanders. The other main episodes of his reign were the 
quarrel over the Angevin inheritance and his wars with the dukes 
of Normandy. In the struggle between Fulk Rechin and his 
brother Geoffrey the Bearded for the inheritance of their uncle, 
Geoffrey Martel (d. 1060), count of Anjou, Philip received from 
Fulk in 1069. as the price of his neutrality, Chateau Landon 
and the Gatinais. This acquisition linked the county of Sens, 
acquired in 1055, with the rest of the domain round Paris, 
Melun and Orleans. War with William I. was chronic but 
intermittent. In 1076 Philip forced him to raise the siege of 
Dol in Brittany. Peace was made in 1077, and in December 
1079 they together besieged Robert Curthose in the castle of 
Gerberoy. On the 8th of May 1080 the siege was raised and 
peace made. War with William began again in 1081 over the 
county of Vexin, which Philip had seized on the retirement of 
its count, Simon of Valois, to a monastery in 1076. William 
demanded reparation for the raid of Philip's vassals and the 
cession of Pontoise, Chaumont-en-Vexin and Mantes, but died 
after sacking Mantes in the same year. In 1098 there was war 
between Philip and William Rufus in both Maine and the Vexin. 
William came in person from Maine to lead the attack in the 
Vexin in September, and crossed the Seine, penetrating to 
within 30 m. of Paris on the west; but the campaign brought no 
results. In his last years Philip left the duty of repelling the 
attacks of his Norman and other enemies to his son Louis, 
associating him with himself, as " king-designate," some time 
between the 24th of May 1098 and the 25th of September noo. 

It was his second marriage which was the cause of Philip's 
greatest difficulties. On the isth of May 1092 he carried off 
Bertrada, daughter of Simon, baron de Montfort, wife of Fulk 
Rechin, and prepared to marry her, though his wife Bertha was 
still living. The bishops, headed by Ivo, bishop of Chartres, 
refused to attend the ceremony of 'marriage, but one was found 



to perform it. Philip's open simony had long been a cause of 
friction with the papacy. When he added bigamy and adultery, 
Urban II. excommunicated him. The bishop of Chartres, in 
consequence, refused to bring his vassals to help Philip's ally, 
Robert, duke of Normandy, against his brother William in 1094. 
Bertha died in that year, but Fulk was still living, and the 
sentence was renewed at the council of Autun on the isth of 
October. Philip replied by summoning the bishops to Paris 
to try Ivo of Chartres for treason. He gained a respite from 
the papal sentence by promises of submission, but the sentence 
was renewed by Urban at the council of Clermont in 1095, in 
1096, and in 1097, and at Poitiers in noi, despite the protest 
of William IX., count of Poitiers, who entered the church with 
his knights to prevent his suzerain from being excommunicated 
on his lands. Philip was reconciled with the Church in 1 104, and 
took an oath not to have any converse or society with Bertrada 
except in the presence of " non-suspect " persons. But they 
seem to have gone on living together, and even visited Fulk 
Rechin (Bertrada's husband) in company on the isth of October 
1 1 06. Philip died at the end of July 1108. 

His reign is chiefly remarkable for the steady growth of the \ 
royal domain. In addition to the gains mentioned, he bought 
in 1 101 a large slice of territory, including Bourges and Dun-le- 
Roi, from Eudes Arpin, viscount of Bourges, who was going 
on the crusade; and toward the end of his reign took Montlhery, 
whose lord beset the southern approach to Paris. By his first 
queen he had four children: Louis VI., who succeeded him; Henry, 
who died young; Charles; and Constance, who married Hugh I., 
count of Champagne, and later Bohemund I., prince of Antioch. 
By Bertrada de Montfort he had three children: Philip, count of 
Monies; Fleury or Florus, who married the heiress of Nangis; 
and Cecilia, who married, first Tancred, prince of Galilee and 
Antioch, and secondly Pons de Saint Gilles, count of Tripoli. 

The materials for the reign of Philip I. are in the Recueil des 
historiens des Gaules et de la France, yols. xi. to xvi. See especially 
the critical examination by Dom Brial of the historians who have 
spoken of Philip I. at the beginning of vol. xvi Consult also 
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv., passim, and William Rufus, 
ii. 165-302; A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros (Paris, 1890), and " Les 
Premiers Capetiens " in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France (II. ii., pp. 
168175). More recent is the Recueil des actes de Philippe I., edited 
by M. Pron (1908), and B. Monod's Essai sur les rapports de Pascal II. 
avec Philippe I. (Paris, 1907). For notices of the principal chronicles 
of the time see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (II., 
esp. p. 307 et seq.). 

PHILIP II. (1165-1223), known as PHILIP AUGUSTUS, king of 
France, son of Louis VII. and Adela, daughter of Theobald II., 
count of Champagne, was born on the 2ist of August 1165. 
On the ist of November 1179 he was associated with his father 
as king by being crowned at Reims, and at once his father's 
illness threw the responsibility of government on him, the death 
of Louis on the igth of September 1180 leaving him sole king. 

The boy-king found himself and his kingdom in a difficult; 
and humiliating position. His long strip of royal domain was 
hemmed in by the Angevin Empire on the west and by the kingdom 
of Aries on the south-east. Henry II. of England was feudal 
lord of the greater part of France, practically all west of a line 
which began at Dieppe and ended at the foot of the Pyrenees 
more than half-way across to the Mediterranean, while at one 
point it nearly touched the Rhone. Philip's predecessors had 
consolidated the Capetian power within these narrow limits, but 
he himself was overshadowed by the power of his uncles, William, 
archbishop of Reims; Henry I., count of Champagne; and Theo- 
bald V., count of Blois and Chartres. He secured an ally against 
them, and an addition to the royal domain, by marrying, on the 
28th of April 1180, Isabella or Elizabeth, daughter of Baldwin V., 
count of Hainaut, and of Marguerite, sister of Philip of Alsace, 
the reigning count of Flanders, who ceded Arras, St Omer, Aire 
and Hesdin, and their districts, as Isabella's dowry, a district 
afterwards called Artois. On the 28th of June 1180 Philip made 
a treaty with Henry II. at Gisors, and his reign thus opened 
auspiciously. But from 1181 to 1185 he had to struggle against 
a feudal league of his Champagnard uncles and other great 



PHILIP II. (FRANCE) 



barons, whose most active member was Stephen I., count of 
Sancerre (1152-1191). Though attacked from both north and 
south, the king's activity enabled him to compel the count of 
Sancerre to implore peace in uSi. On the death of Isabel of 
Vermandois, wife of Count Philip of Flanders, in 1182, Philip 
claimed Vermandois and seized Chaune and St Quentin, and 
forced his father-in-law, Baldwin of Hainaut, to support him 
by threatening to divorce Queen Isabel. The count of Flanders 
was obliged to sign the treaty of Boves in July 1185, which gave 
the king, in addition to the expectation of Artois, his wife's 
dower, sixty-five castles in Vermandois and the town of Amiens. 
By 1 1 86 Hugh, duke of Burgundy, the only member of the 
coalition not yet subdued, was forced to submit. Then, secure 
at home, the king turned against Henry II., and by the truce of 
Chateauroux in June 1187, gained Issoudun and the seigniory of 
Freteval in the Vend6mois. Though the truce was for two years, 
Philip assembled an army in 1 188 to invade Normandy, demand- 
ing Gisors and the conclusion of the marriage which had been 
arranged between his sister Alice and Richard of England, who 
had meanwhile deserted his father. But the news came that 
Saladin had taken Jerusalem and Richard took the cross. 
Shortly afterwards Philip took advantage of a rising against his 
quondam friend Richard, who was duke of Aquitaine, to seize 
the county of Berry. At a conference at Bonmoulins on the 
1 8th of November Richard again abandoned his father, and after 
a second conference at La Ferte Bernard, Philip invaded Maine 
and forced Henry II. to conclude the treaty of Azay on the 4th of 
July 1189, by which the English king did homage and sur- 
rendered the territories of Gracy and Issoudun. Henry died two 
days later. Pledges of mutual good faith and fellowship were 
renewed between Philip and Richard of England on the 3Oth of 
December 1189, and they both prepared to go on the crusade. 
Before setting out Philip arranged for the government of 
France during his absence by his famous testament of 1190, by 
which he proposed to rule France as far as possible from Palestine. 
The power of the regents, Adela, the queen-mother, and William, 
archbishop of Reims, was restricted by a council composed mostly 
of clerks who had the king's confidence. An annual report on 
the state of the kingdom was to be sent him. On the way to 
Palestine the two kings quarrelled. At the siege of Acre Philip 
fell ill, and on the 22nd of July, nine days after its fall, he an- 
nounced his intention of returning home. He reached Paris at 
Christmas 1191, having concluded on his way an alliance with 
the emperor Henry VI. against Richard, despite his pledges not 
to molest his lands. When Leopold I., duke of Austria, took 
Richard prisoner and delivered him to the emperor, Philip did 
his utmost by offers of money to prolong his captivity, and, 
allied with the English king's brother John, attacked Richard's 
domains, but upon Richard's return the Normans rallied enthusi- 
astically to his aid. Philip was defeated at Freteval on the 3rd 
of July 1 194, but he continued the war, generally with ill success, 
for the next five years. Again a formidable coalition was formed 
against him, including Baldwin IX., count of Flanders and Hain- 
aut, Renaud of Dammartin, count of Boulogne, Louis, count of 
Blois, and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse. In Germany, Otto 
of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., allied himself 
with Richard, while Philip was supported by Otto's rival, Philip 
of Swabia. Richard's death, in April 1199, removed his arch- 
enemy, and Richard's successor, John, concluded the treaty of 
Le Goulet with Philip on the 22nd of May 1200, ceding to him 
the county of Evreux, Gracy and Issoudun, and the suzerainty 
of Berry and Auvergne. John renounced his suzerainty over 
Brittany and the guardianship of his nephew, Arthur; he engaged 
not to aid the count of Flanders or Otto IV. without Philip's 
consent, paid him a relief of 20,000 marks, and recognized himself 
as his vassal for his continental fiefs. Philip's son Louis, after- 
wards Louis VIII., married Blanche of Castile, John's niece. 
But in 1 202 the war was renewed, John having seized some castles 
from the family of Lusignan, whose head was the count of La 
Marche, and taken for his queen a prospective bride, Isabelle 
Taillefer, from Hugh, son of Hugh IX., count of La Marche. At 
an interview at Le Goulet on the 25th of March, Philip.demanded 



379 

the cession of Anjou, Poitou and Normandy to his ward, Arthur. 
John refused; he was summoned to Paris before the royal 
judges, and failing to appear was sentenced at the end of April 
1 202 to lose all his fiefs. Brittany, Aquitaine and Anjou were 
conferred on Arthur. Philip invaded Normandy, took Lyons- 
la- Foret and Eu, and, establishing himself in Gournay, besieged 
Arques. But John, joined by William des Roches and other 
lords of Maine and Poitou, jealous at the increase of Philip's 
power, defeated and took Arthur prisoner at Mirebeau. Philip 
abandoned the siege of Arques in a fit of fury, marched to the 
Loire, burning everywhere, and then returned to Paris. But 
John soon alienated the Poitevin barons, and William des 
Roches signed a treaty with Philip on the 22nd of March 1203. 
Then Philip continued his great task, the conquest of Normandy, 
capturing the towns around the fortress of Chateau-Gaillard which 
Richard had built to command the valley of the Seine. Pope 
Innocent III. tried to bring about peace, but Philip was obdurate, ' 
and after murdering Arthur of Brittany John took refuge in 
England in December 1203. The fall of Chateau-Gaillard, after 
a siege which lasted from September 1203 to April 1204, decided 
the fate of Normandy. Rouen, bound by ties of trade to Eng- 
land, resisted for forty days; but it surrendered on the 24th of 
June 1204. The conquest of Maine, Touraine, Anjou and Poitou 
in 1204 and 1205 was little more than a military promenade, 
though the castles of Loches and Chinon held out for a year. 
Philip secured his conquest by lavishing privileges on the con- 
vents and towns. He left the great lords, such as William des 
Roches, in full possession of their feudal power. In 1206 he 
marched through Brittany and divided it amongst his adherents. 
A truce for two years was made on the 26th of October 1 206 by 
which John renounced all claims in Normandy, Maine, Brittany, 
Touraine and Anjou, but it did not last six months. Then 
Poitou was thoroughly subdued, and another truce was made in 
1208, little more than southern Saintonge and Gascony being 
left in the hands of John. Philip had reduced to a mere remnant 
the formidable continental empire of the Angevins, which had 
threatened the existence of the Capetian monarchy. 

Philip then undertook to invade England. In the assembly 
of Soissons on the 8th of April 1213 he made every preparation 
for carrying out the sentence of deposition pronounced by the 
pope against John. He had collected 1 500 vessels and summoned 
all his barons when Innocent III., having sufficiently frightened 
John, sent Pandulf with the terms of submission, which John 
accepted on the I3th of May. 

Disappointed of his hopes of England, Philip turned his arms 
against Ferdinand, count of Flanders. Ferdinand, son of 
Sancho I., king of Portugal, owed his county to Philip, who, 
hoping to find him a docile protege, had married him to Jeanne, 
heiress of Flanders, daughter of Count Baldwin IX., who became 
emperor of the East, using the weak Philip of Namur, her guar- 
dian, to accomplish that end. They were married in January 1212. 
On the morrow of the marriage Louis, afterwards Louis VIII., 
seized Aire and St Omer in right of his mother, Isabella, and 
on this account Ferdinand refused his feudal duty in the English 
expedition. Moreover, the trade interests of his subjects, who 
got their raw wool from England, drew him to an alliance with 
England. Philip's attack brought this about on the 22nd of 
May 1213. He invaded Flanders and took the chief towns 
within a week; but he had part of his fleet burned by the English 
at Damme, and had to burn the rest to save it from falling into 
their hands. He returned to Paris, and Ferdinand retook most 
of the towns which had been taken by the king. A war of fire 
and pillage began, in which Philip and his son Louis burned their 
way through Flanders, and Ferdinand did the same through 
Artois. 

In 1214 came the great crisis of Philip's life. All the forces 
against which he had been struggling united to overwhelm him. 
Paris was to be attacked from Flanders and Guienne at the same 
time. A league including his rebel vassals, Renaud of Dammartin, 
count of Boulogne, and Ferdinand, count of Flanders, with the 
emperor Otto IV. and a number of German princes of the Rhine 
region, had been formed in the north-east, while John of England 



3 8o 



PHILIP II. (FRANCE) 



made one more attempt to recover his heritage at the head of an 
army of mercenaries aided by the fickle baronage of Poitou. 
John landed at La Rochelle on the i6th of February 1214, and 
was at first successful. On the ipth of June he laid siege to La 
Roche-aux-Moines, the fortress which defended Angers and com- 
manded the Loire valley; but on the approach of a royal army 
under Prince Louis on the 2nd of July his Poitevin barons 
refused to risk a pitched battle, and he fled hastily to La Rochelle. 
The Angevin Empire in France was lost. Meanwhile Philip 
himself won his greatest victory at the bridge of Bouvines, among 
the morasses of Flanders. At first taken by surprise, he turned 
the abortive attack into a complete rout. Renaud and Ferdinand 
were taken prisoner, and Otto IV. fled from the battlefield. 
The army of the allies was utterly destroyed (July 27, 1214). 
Nothing shows the progress of the Capetian monarchy more 
than the enthusiasm and joy of the people of France, as described 
by William the Breton, over this crowning victory. The battle 
of Bouvines, a decisive battle for the history of Germany as well 
as for France and England, sealed the work of Philip Augustus. 
The expedition of his son Louis to conquer England can hardly 
be considered as an incident of his reign, though he was careful 
to safeguard the rights of the French Crown. More important 
was the Albigensian crusade, in which he allowed Louis to take 
part, though he himself, preoccupied with the king of England, 
had refused time after time to do anything. He treated Simon 
de Montfort as if he were a royal bailli; but it was not in virtue 
of any deep-laid scheme of his that in the end Amaury de Mont- 
fort, Simon's son, resigned himself to leave his lands to the Crown 
of France, and gave the Crown a power it had never before 
possessed in Languedoc. 

Even more than by his conquests Philip II. marks an epoch 
in French history by his work as an organizer and statesman. He 
surrounded himself with clerks and legists of more or less humble 
origin, who gave him counsel and acted as his agents. His 
baillis, who at first rather resembled the itinerant justices of 
Henry II. of England, were sent into the royal domain to super- 
vise the conduct of the prevdts and hear complaints, while in the 
newly acquired lands in the south local feudal magnates were 
given similar powers with the title of senechal. Feudal service 
was more and more compounded for by a money payment, 
while additional taxes were raised, all going to pay the mercen- 
aries with whom he fought Richard I. and John. The extension 
of the system of sauvegarde, by which abbeys, towns or lay 
vassals put themselves under the special protection of the king, 
and that of pariage, by which the possessor surrendered half the 
interest in his estate to the king in return for protection or some 
further grant, increased the royal power. The small barons 
were completely reduced to submission, whilst the greater 
feudatories could often appoint a castellan to their own castles 
only after he had taken an oath to the king. Philip supported 
the clergy against the feudal lords, and in many cases against 
the burgesses of the towns, but rigidly exacted from them the 
performance of their secular duties, ironically promising to aid 
the clergy of Reims, who had failed to do so, " with his prayers 
only " against the violence of the lords of Rethel and Roucy. 
He clung to his right of regale, or enjoyment of the revenues of 
bishoprics during their vacancy, though it was at times com- 
muted for a fixed payment. The attempt to raise a tithe for 
the crusade in 1189 failed, however, before a general resistance 
owing to an unfair assessment. 

It has been said with some justice that Philip II. was the first 
king of France to take the bourgeoisie into partnership. He 
favoured the great merchants, granting them trade privileges 
and monopolies. The Jews he protected and plundered by turns, 
after the fashion of medieval kings. Amongst the subject towns 
administered by prevdts a great extension of the " custom of 
Lorris " took place during his reign. But it is as the ally and 
protector of the communes that he takes his almost unique place 
in French history. Before him they were resisted and often 
crushed; after him they were exploited, oppressed, and finally 
destroyed. In the case of Senlis he extended the jurisdiction 
of the commune to all crimes committed in the district. It is 



true that he suppressed some communes in the newly conquered 
fiefs, such as Normandy, where John had been prodigal of 
privileges, but he erected new communes in his own private 
domain, quite contrary to the custom of other kings. He seems 
to have regarded them as a kind of garrison against feudal 
unruliness, while the rents they furnished increased his financial 
resources. He created no new types of commune, however, 
except Peronne, which received a maximum of political inde- 
pendence, the twenty-four electors, who named the juris and 
other officers, being elected by the corps de metiers. 

The newly organized powers of the Crown were in evidence 
everywhere, interfering in the family affairs of the great feuda- 
tories and taking advantage of minorities, such as that of 
Theobald IV. of Champagne. The great feudatories accepted 
his legislation on dower in 1214 and 1219 and the Itablissement 
of 1 209 making co-heirs of fiefs hold direct from the king and not 
from one of their number. The Tournois was substituted for 
the Angevin money in Normandy after 1204. The army which 
safeguarded this active monarchy consisted chiefly of mercenaries. 
The old feudal ost was but rarely convoked. The communes, 
though they appear as taking part in the battle of Bouvines, com- 
pounded for their service by a money payment as early as 1194. 

Philip's policy of building up a strong monarchy was pursued 
with a steadiness of aim which excluded both enthusiasm and 
scruple. But he seems to have prided himself on a certain human- 
ity , or even generosity of temper, which led him to avoid putting his 
enemies to death, though he did not scruple to condemn Renaud 
of Dammartin to the most inhuman of imprisonments. He was 
impulsive and could display extraordinary activity at times, but 
he possessed also a certain coldness and caution. He shrank 
from no trickery in carrying out his ends, and had no room for 
pity. He could not even trust his own son with any power, 
and was brutal in his relations with his queen, Ingeborg. He is- 
described by Paien Gatineau as " a well-knit, handsome man, 
bald (from his illness at Acre), of agreeable face and ruddy 
complexion, loving good cheer, wine and women. Generous to 
his friends, he was miserly to those who displeased him; very 
skilled in the art of the engineer, catholic in his faith, far-seeing, 
obstinate in his resolution. His judgment was sound and quick. 
He was also quick in his anger, but easily appeased." As the 
result of his steadiness of aim and patient sagacity, at the end of 
his reign the Crown was victorious over the feudal nobility and 
the royal domain extended to the frontiers along with royal 
authority. Artois, the Amienois, Valois, Vermandois, the greater 
part of the Beauvaisis, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and 
an important part of Poitou and Saintonge, were added to the 
domain during his reign. The number of privates was increased 
from thirty-eight to ninety-four, and the royal revenue increased 
from 19,000 livres a month to 1200 livres a day. 

Philip Augustus died on the i4th of July 1223. He was thrice 
married. His first wife, Isabella, by whom he had one son, 
Louis, died in 1189 or 1190. After her death he married Ingib- 
jorg or Ingeborg (q.v.), daughter of Valdemar I. of Denmark. 
This unlucky marriage was negotiated, it is said, chiefly to acquire 
the old claims of Denmark over England, to be used as a weapon 
against Richard I. However that may be, he soon repudiated 
this Danish princess, for whom he seems to have conceived an 
unconquerable aversion on the very morrow of his marriage to' 
her, and in 1196, in defiance of the pope, who had refused to 
nullify his union with Ingeborg, married Agnes, daughter of 
Bertold IV., duke of Meran. This led to his excommunication 
and brought the interdict upon France, and did more to weaken 
him than any other act of his. In 1 200 he was forced to put away 
Agnes and to recognize Ingeborg as his lawful wife, but he kept 
her in prison until 1213. By Agnes (d. 1201) he had a son Philip, 
called " Hurepel," count of Clermont, and a daughter Mary, who 
married Philip, count of Namur (d. 1213), and then Henry II., 
duke of Brabant. Ingeborg lived until 1236. 

See A. Luchaire in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii. 
83-284 (Paris, 1904), and literature there indicated; L. Deslisle, 
Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856 and 1901) ;. 
A. Cartellieri, Philip II. August, Bd. I. Bis zum Tode Ludwigs VII f 



PHILIP III. IV. (FRANCE) 



(Leipzig, 1899), Bd. II. Der Kreuzzug (1906); and W. H. Hutton, 
Philip Augustus (in the Foreign Statesmen series, London, 1896). 
A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (tome iii. pp. 1-38), 
gives a complete bibliography of the sources for Philip s reign, 
including the history of the Third Crusade. 

PHILIP III. (1245-1285), surnamed " the Bold " (le Hardi), 
king of France, son of Louis IX. and Margaret, daughter of 
Raymond -Berenger IV., count of Provence, was born on the 
3rd of April 1245. His funeral monument at St Denis depicts 
a man with beardless, square-cut features, but lacking character 
and animation. The authenticity of this effigy is fairly well 
borne out by what is known of him from other sources. He had 
many of the virtues of St Louis, but neither decision of character 
nor devotion to duty. He was pious, charitable, of unimpeach- 
able morality, quick-tempered but placable, no great scholar, 
and only energetic as a hunter. The absence in him of the qualities 
that fit a man to rule made his court the arena of intriguing 
factions, which in reality ruled France during his reign of fifteen 
years. Matthew of Vendome, abbot of St Denis, an old servant 
of Louis IX., acted as Philip's counsellor, so the chroniclers state, 
throughout the reign; but he is only a shadowy figure, and it is 
difficult to reconcile the statement that " everything was done 
according to his will " with the known facts. It was probably 
with administration, and not policy, that Matthew was chiefly 
concerned. In one instance at least his advice was openly 
flouted. Coming to the throne by the death of his father on the 
25th of August 1270, Philip began his reign by falling entirely 
under the influence of Pierre de la Brosse, who had been surgeon 
and valet-de-chambre to his father, upon whom he lavished 
lands and honours, making him lord (sieur) of Langeais, Chatillon- 
sur-Indre and Damville. Even Edward I. of England and William 
Dampierre, count of Flanders, strove to win his favour by gifts. 
But his fall was assured when Philip, who in 1271 lost his first 
wife, Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, married 
in 1274 Marie, daughter of Henry III., duke of Brabant. She 
was young and beautiful, and supplied a centre round which 
those who wished the downfall of the favourite grouped them- 
selves. In June 1278 he was charged with various crimes, 
including one of poisoning the king's eldest son, and hanged at 
Montfaucon. His death left the parties of Marie, the queen, and 
Margaret, the queen-mother, to struggle for the mastery. The 
first subject of dispute was the inheritance of the count of 
Provence, Raymond-Berenger IV., father of Margaret and of 
Eleanor, wife of Henry III. of England. Upon his death, in 1245, 
his youngest daughter, Beatrice, wife of Charles of Anjou, the 
king's uncle, succeeded to his lands, to the exclusion of her elder 
sisters, who claimed some portion of them for themselves. In 
1281 war nearly broke out on this question. Margaret and her 
friends formed the league of Macon against Charles of Anjou, 
but the king managed to keep them at peace. The settlement of 
the claims of the king of England in Aquitaine by the treaty of 
Amiens in 1279 was a victory for the party of Margaret. 

Agenais and southern Saintonge, which fell to the Crown by 
the death of Alfonse of Poitiers in 1276, as part of his vast 
possessions in Aquitaine and Languedoc, were ceded to Edward 
I. of England in accordance with the treaty of Paris 1259. 
Another portion of the heritage of Alfonse, the Venaissin, was 
ceded to the papacy to redeem an old promise. In general the 
strong will of Charles of Anjou directed Philip's policy. He 
secretly urged his nephew's candidature for the imperial crown, 
left vacant by the death of Richard of Cornwall, king of the 
Romans, in 1272, but without success. In May 1275 the party 
of Marie secured for Philip, the king's second son, the hand of 
Jeanne, the heiress of Navarre and Champagne, along with the 
guardianship of the kingdom of Navarre during the minority of 
Jeanne. But early in 1276 Jeanne's mother, Blanche, the widow 
of Henry III. of Navarre and Champagne, married Edmund, 
first earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I.; and she and her 
English husband kept Champagne until, in 1284, Jeanne came 
of age. 

An expedition of Philip against Castile in aid of the children 
of his sister, Blanche, proved abortive. Regardless of this 
warning, he was induced in 1284 to take up the quarrel of his 



uncle Charles in Sicily, after the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. Two 
assemblies of barons and prelates were held at Bourges in Novem- 
ber 1283 and February 1284 to deliberate on the question. This 
was a mere matter of form; Marie of Brabant and her party had 
decided the matter beforehand, and the crown of Aragon, which 
the French pope Martin IV. had declared forfeited by Peter, was 
accepted for Charles of Valois, Philip's third son. The project 
was strongly opposed by Matthew of Venddme, who was in 
correspondence with the king of England on the subject. It was 
the first warlike expedition undertaken by the house of Capet 
outside France. It proved a disastrous failure. The French 
army laid siege to Gerona on the 26th of June 1285. The town 
surrendered on the 7th of September, but disease and the defeat 
of the fleet by the Aragonese navy at Las Farmiguas Islands led 
to a retreat, during which, on the sth of October, the king died. 
In the same month the garrison placed at Gerona surrendered. 
It is typical of Philip's character and career that he should die 
thus, in an expedition undertaken against the interests of his 
kingdom, at the instigation of his ambitious uncle. 

Philip was twice married. On the 28th of May 1262 he 
married Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, who died 
in 1271. By her he had four children: Louis, who died in 1276; 
Philip, born in 1268; Charles of Valois, born on the i2th of March 
1270; and Robert, who died young. By his second wife, Marie 
(d. 1322), daughter of Henry III. of Brabant, whom he married 
in 1274, he had three children: Louis, count of Evreux; Margaret, 
who married in 1299 Edward I., king of England; and Blanche, 
who married Rudolph III., duke of Austria. 

See Ch. V. Langlois, Le Regne de Philippe le Hardi (Paris, 1887); 
and in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii., ii. 113-117 (Paris, 
1901); Fr. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X. (Berlin, 
1894); Registers of Gregory X. and Nicholas III., published by the 
French school at Rome; R. Sternfeld, Ludwigs des Heiligen Kreuzzug 
nach Tunis und die Politik Karls I. von Sizilien (1896); P. Fournier, 
Le Royaume d'Arles (Paris, 1891). For complete bibliography of 
sources see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tome 
iii. 171-187 (Paris, 1903). 

PHILIP IV. (1268-1314), called " le Ed " or " the Fair," king 
of France, was the son of Philip III. and his wife, Isabella of 
Aragon. His reign, which began in October 1285, is one of 
the most momentous in the history of medieval Europe, yet 
it belongs rather to the history of France and to that of the 
papacy than to the biography of the king. Little is known of the 
personal part played by Philip in the events associated with his 
name, and later historians have been divided between the view 
which regards him as a handsome, lethargic nonentity and that 
which paints him as a master of statecraft who, under a veil of 
phlegmatic indifference and pious sentiment, masked an inflexible 
purpose, of which his ministers were but the spokesmen and 
executors. The first view seems to be borne out by the language 
of contemporary chroniclers. To his enemy, Bernard Saisset, he 
was neither man nor beast, but a statue, " the handsomest man 
in the world, but unable to do anything but stare fixedly at people 
without saying a word." Guillaume de Nogaret, his minister, 
draws a far more flattering picture, enlarging on his charm, his 
amiability, his modesty, his charity to all men, and his piety; 
and the traits of this over-coloured portrait are more or less 
repeated by Yves, a monk of St Denis. There is, however, no 
word of any qualities of will or initiative. All of which suggests 
a personah'ty mentally and physically phlegmatic, a suggestion 
strengthened by the fact that Bartholomaeus de Neocastro 
(quoted by Wenck) describes him as corpulent in 1 290. 

Yet this was the king who with equal implacability brought 
the papacy under his yoke, carried out the destruction of the 
powerful order of the Temple, and laid the foundations of the 
national monarchy of France. In this last achievement Professor 
Finke finds the solution of a problem which Langlois had declared 
to be insoluble. In 1302, in the midst of a hostile assembly, 
Philip cursed his sons should they consent to hold the Crown of 
any one but God 1 ; and in this isolated outburst he sees the key 
to his character. " Philip was not a man of violent initiative, 
the planner of daring and fateful operations; otherwise there 
1 Wenck, p. 49. 



3 82 



PHILIP V. (FRANCE) 



would have been some signs of it. His personality was that of a 
well-instructed, outwardly cold, because cool and calculating 
man, essentially receptive, afire for only one idea: the highest 
possible development of the French monarchy, internally and 
externally, as against both the secular powers and the Church. 
His merit was that he carried through this idea in spite of dangers 
to himself and to the state. A resolution once arrived at he 
carried out with iron obstinacy." Certainly he was no roi 
faineant. His courage at the battle of Mons-en-Pevele was the 
admiration of friend and foe alike. It was against the advice of 
his tutor, Aegidius Colonna, that on coming to the throne he 
chose as his counsellors men of the legal class, and the names 
of his great ministers Guillaume de Nogaret, Enguerrand de 
Marigny, Pierre Flotte (d. 1302) attest the excellent quality 
of his judgment. He was, too, one of the few monarchs who have 
left to their successors reasoned programmes of reform for the 
state. 

The new materials from the Aragonese archives, published by 
Finke, give the same general impression of " uncanny " reticence 
on Philip's part; when other contemporary kings would have 
spoken he keeps silence, allowing his ministers to speak for him. 
Isolated passages in some of the Aragonese letters included in 
the collection, however, throw a new light on contemporary 
estimate of his character, describing him as all-powerful, as 
" pope and king and emperor in one person." l 

The reign of Philip IV. is of peculiar interest, because of the 
intrusion of economic problems into the spheres of national 
politics and even of religion. The increased cost of government 
and the growing wealth of the middle class, rather than the 
avarice of the king and the genius of his ministers, were respon- 
sible for the genesis and direction of the new order. The greatest 
event of the reign was the struggle with Pope Boniface VIII. 
(q.v.). The pope, in his opposition to the imposition of royal 
taxation upon the clergy, went so far in the bull Clericis laicos 
of 1296 as to forbid any lay authority to demand taxes from the 
clergy without his consent. When Philip retaliated by a decree 
forbidding the exportation of any coin from France, Boniface 
gave way to save the papal dues, and the bulls issued by him in 
1 297 were a decided victory for the French king. Peace between 
the two potentates followed until 1301. After the arrest, by 
'Philip's orders, of Bernard Saisset (q.v.), bishop of Pamiers, in 
that year, the quarrel flamed up again; other causes of difference 
existed, and in 1302 the pope issued the bull Unam sanctam, one 
of the most extravagant of all statements of papal claims. To 
ensure the support of his people the king had called an assembly 
of the three estates of his kingdom at Paris in April 1302; then 
in the following year Guillaume de Nogaret seized the person of 
the pope at Anagni, an event immortalized by Dante. Boniface 
escaped from his captors only to die (October n), and the short 
pontificate of his saintly successor, Benedict XL, was occupied in 
a vain effort to restore harmony to the Church. The conclave 
that met at Perugia on his death was divided between the parti- 
sans of the irreconcilable policy of Boniface VIII. and those of a 
policy of compromise with the new state theories represented by 
France. The election was ultimately determined by the diplo- 
macy and the gold of Philip's agents, and the new pope, Clement 
V., was the weak-willed creature of the French king, to whom he 
owed the tiara. When in 1309 the pope installed himself at 
Avignon, the new relation of the papacy and the French 
monarchy was patent to the world. It was the beginning of 
the long " Babylonish captivity " of the popes. The most 
notable of its first-fruits was the hideous persecution of 
the Templars (q.v.), which began with the sudden arrest of the 
members of the order in France in 1307, and ended with 
the suppression of the order by Pope Clement at the council of 
Vienne in 1313. 

It is now tolerably clear that Philip's motives in this sinister 
proceeding were lack of money, and probably the deliberate 

1 Finke, ii. no. 78, p. 122. Anon, to the commanderies of 
Gardeyne and Ascho: " Pus el es rey et papa et emperador! Car 
tot lo mon sap, quel papa no es negun et que el fa tot go ques vol 
del papa et de la esglea. 



wish to destroy a body which, with its privileged position and 
international financial and military organization, constituted a 
possible menace to the state. He had already persecuted and 
plundered the Jews and the Lombard bankers, and repeated 
recourse to the debasing of the coinage had led to a series of small 
risings. But under his rule something was done towards 
systematizing the royal taxes, and, as in England, the financial 
needs of the king led to the association of the people in the work 
of government. 

In 1294 Philip IV. attacked Edward I. of England, then busied 
with the Scottish War, and seized Guienne. Edward won over 
the counts of Bar and of Flanders, but they were defeated and 
he was obliged to make peace in 1297. Then the Flemish cities 
rose against the French royal officers, and utterly defeated the 
French army at Courtrai in 1302. The reign closed with the 
French position unimproved in Flanders, except for the transfer 
to Philip by Count Robert of Lille, Douai and Bethune, and their 
dependencies. Philip died on the 2gth of November 1314. His 
wife was Jeanne, queen of Navarre (d. 1304), through whom that 
country passed under the rule of Philip on his marriage in 1284; 
three of his sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., succeeded 
in turn to the throne of France, and a daughter, Isabella, married 
Edward II. of England. 

See the Chronique of Geoffrey of Paris, edited by M. Bouquet, in 
vol. xxii. of the Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Of 
modern works see E. Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bel 
(1861); G. Digard, Philippe le Bel et le Saint-Siege (1900); C. V. 
Langlois in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, vol. iii. (1901) ; K. Wenck, 
Philipp der Schone von Frankreich (Marburg, 1905) ; H. Finke, 
Papsttum and Untergang des Templerordens, 2 vols. (Munster i. 
W. 1907), esp. I. ch. ii. 

PHILIP V. (c. 1294-1322), " the Tall," king of France, second 
son of Philip the Fair and Jeanne of Navarre, received the county 
of Poitiers as an appanage, and was affianced when a year old 
to Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Otto IV., count of Burgundy. 
The marriage took place in 1307 when he was thirteen years of 
age. When his elder brother, Louis X., died, on the 5th of July 
1316, leaving his second wife, Clemence of Hungary, with child, 
Philip was appointed regent for eighteen years by the parliament 
of Paris, even in the event of a male heir being born. Clemence's 
son, born on the isth of November, lived only four days, and 
Philip immediately proclaimed himself king, though several of 
the great barons declared that the rights of Jeanne, daughter of 
Louis X. by his first wife, Margaret of Burgundy, ought to be 
examined before anything else was done. The coronation at 
Reims, on the gih of January 1317, took place with the gates of 
the city closed for fear of a surprise. The states-general of the 
2nd of February 1317, consisting of the nobles, prelates, and the 
burgesses of Paris, approved the coronation of Philip, swore to 
obey him, and declared that women did not succeed to the Crown 
of France. The university of Paris approved this declaration, 
but its members did not take the oath. The Salic law was not 
involved, and it was later that the lawyers of the i4th century 
tried to connect this principle to an article of the Salic law, which 
accords inheritance in land (i.e. property) to males. In the 
Frankish law the article refers to private property, not to public 
law. The death of Philip's son Louis, in 1317, disarmed the 
opposition of Charles, count of La Marche, who now hoped to 
succeed to the Crown himself. Odo or Eudes IV., duke of Bur- 
gundy, was married to Jeanne, Philip's daughter, and received 
the county of Burgundy as her dower. The barons all did homage 
except Edward II. of England, and Philip's position was secured. 
The war with Flanders, which had begun under Philip IV. the 
Fair, was brought to an end on the 2nd of June 1320. The revolt 
of the Pastoureaux who assembled at Paris in 1320 to go on a 
crusade was crushed by the seneschal of Carcassonne, whither 
they marched. One of the special objects of their hatred, 
the Jews, were also mulcted heavily by Philip, who extorted 
150,000 livres from those of Paris alone. He died at Long- 
champ on the night of the 2nd of January 1322. 

Philip was a lover of poetry, surrounded himself with Provencal 
poets and even wrote in Provencal himself, but he was also one 
of the most hard-working kings of the house of Capet. The 



PHILIP VI. (FRANCE) PHILIP (OF SWABIA) 



383 



insecurity of his position made him seek the support of national 
assemblies and of provincial estates. His reign in some ways 
resembled that of Edward I. of England. He published a series 
of ordinances organizing the royal household and affecting the 
financial administration, the " parlement " and the royal forests. 
He abolished all garrisons in the towns except those on the frontier 
and provided for public order by allowing the inhabitants of his 
towns to arm themselves under the command of captains. He 
tried hard to procure a unification of coinage and weights and 
measures, but failed owing to the opposition of the estates, who 
were afraid of the new taxation necessary to meet the loss 
involved in raising the standard of the coinage, and who held 
to their local measures and currency partly from conservatism, 
partly as a relic of local liberty. Philip as a reformer was in 
many ways before his time, but his people failed to understand 
him, and he died under the reproach of extortion. 

See P. Lehugeur, Histoire de Philippe le Long (Paris, 1897); E. 
Lavisse, Histoire de France (Tome III, 2); and sources indicated 
in A. Molinier, Repertoire des sources de I'histoire de France (Paris, 
I903)- ' 

PHILIP VI. (1293-1 3 50), king of France, was the son of Charles 
of Valois, third son of Philip III., the Bold, and of Margaret of 
Sicily, and was thus the nephew of Philip IV., the Fair, whose 
sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., died successively without 
leaving male heirs. He succeeded to the throne on the death 
of his cousin, Charles IV., in 1328. Before his accession Philip 
had enjoyed considerable influence, for he was count of Valois, 
Anjou, Maine, Chartres and Alenfon. He had married in 
1313 Jeanne (d. 1348), daughter of Robert II. of Burgundy, a 
determined woman who was long known as the real ruler of 
France. An expedition to Italy in 1319-20 against Galeas 
Visconti brought him little glory; he was more successful in a 
small expedition to Guienne, undertaken against a revolted 
vassal who was supported by the English. 

When Charles IV. died, in February 1328, his wife was enceinte, 
and it became necessary to appoint a regency until the birth of 
the child, who would, if a son, succeed to the throne. At the 
assembly of barons called to choose a regent, Edward III. of 
England, the nephew and nearest male relation of Charles IV., 
put in a claim. Edward III., however, descended from the 
royal house of France by his mother Isabel, and the barons, 
probably actuated by an objection to the regency of an English 
king, decided that neither a woman, " nor by consequence her 
son, could succeed to the kingdom of France," and Philip of 
Valois, in spite of his belonging to a junior branch of the family, 
was elected regent. On the birth of a girl to the queen widow 
the regency naturally led to the throne of France, and Philip was 
crowned at Reims on the 29th of May 1328. Navarre had not 
accepted the regency, that kingdom being claimed by her husband 
for Jeanne, countess of Evreux, the eldest daughter of Louis X., 
the count of Evreux himself being, like Philip of Valois, a 
grandson of Philip the Bold. The new king secured the friendship 
of the count by allowing Jeanne's claim to Navarre, in return 
for a renunciation of any right to Champagne. Edward III. of 
England, after more than one citation, tendered verbal homage 
for part of Guienne at Amiens in 1329, but he declined to place 
his hands between those of Philip VI., and thus formally to 
acknowledge him as his liege lord. Two years later, however, 
he forwarded the acknowledgment by letters patent. Mean- 
while Philip VI. had won a victory, which he turned into a 
massacre, at Cassel (August 23, 1328) over Bruges and the 
other towns of West Flanders, which under the leadership of 
Jakob van Artevelde had thrown off the authority of their 
count, Louis of Nevers. The count of Flanders was reinstated, 
and maintained his authority by a reign of terror. 

Much harm was done to Philip VI. 's authority by the scandal 
arising out of the prosecution of Robert of Artois, count of 
Beaumont, who was the king's brother-in-law. The count had 
presented to the parlement of Paris forged deeds in support of 
his claim to the county of Artois, held by his aunt, Mahaut, 
countess of Burgundy. The sudden death of Mahaut, and of 
her daughter and heiress, Jeanne, widow of Philip V., lent colour 



to other suspicions, and Robert was driven from France and his 
goods confiscated. He found refuge, first in Brabant and then 
at the English court, where he was received as a relative and a 
victim of false accusations. 

Philip VI. enjoyed powerful alliances. In Italy he was allied 
with his uncle, Robert of Anjou, king of Sicily, and with his 
former enemy, Galeas Visconti; in the north with the duke of 
Brabant and the princes of the Netherlands; on the cast with the 
reigning princes of Lorraine and Savoy; with the king of Bohemia 
and with Pope John XXII. at Avignon, and his successor, 
Benedict XII. In 1336 it seemed that the Crusade, for which 
Philip VI. had long been preparing, would at last start; but the 
relations with Edward III. of England, which had always "been 
strained, became worse, and within a year France was embarked 
on the struggle of the Hundred Years' War. The causes which 
led to war, the conflict for commercial supremacy in Flanders, 
disputed rights in Guienne, the help given by France to the 
Scots, and the unnatural situation of an English king who was 
also a vassal of the French Crown are dealt with elsewhere (see 
FRANCE: History). The immediate rupture in Flanders was 
due chiefly to the tyranny of the count of Flanders, Louis of 
Nevers, whom Philip VI. had reinstated. Edward III. had won 
over most of Philip's German and Flemish allies, and the English 
naval victory at Sluys (June 24, 1340), in which the 'French 
fleet was annihilated, effectually restored English preponderance 
in Flanders. A truce followed, but this was disturbed after 
a short duration by the disputed succession to the duchy of 
Brittany. Edward III. supported John of Montfort; Philip IV. 
his own nephew, Charles of Blois. A truce made at Malestroit in 
1343 at the invitation of the pope, was rudely broken by Philip's 
violence. Olivier de Clisson, who with fourteen other Breton 
gentlemen, was suspected of intrigue with Edward III., was 
invited to a great tournament in Paris. On their arrival they 
were seized by Philip's orders, and without form of trial beheaded. 
Then followed Edward III.'s invasion of Normandy and the 
campaign of Crecy (<?..). Philip's army was destroyed ; he 
himself was wounded and fled from the field. He sought in 
vain to divert Edward from the siege of Calais by supporting 
the Scots in their invasion of England; but eventually a truce 
was arranged, which lasted until 1351. Philip VI. died at 
Nogent-le-roi on the I2th of August 1350. 

Philip VI. met his necessities by the imposition of the hated 
gabelle or salt tax, which was invented by his legal advisers. 
The value of the coinage fluctuated continuously, to the great 
hindrance of trade; and although at a meeting of the States- 
General it was asserted that the king could levy no extraordinary 
taxes without the consent of the estates, he obtained heavy 
subsidies from the various provinces. Towards the close of his 
reign he acquired from Humbert II., comte de Vienne, the pro- 
vince of Dauphine, and Montpellier from the king of Majorca. 
These acquisitions made the ultimate annexation of Provence a 
certainty. Philip married a second wife, Blanche of Navarre. 
By his first wife he left two sons his successor, John II., and 
Philip of Orleans, count of Valois. 

See Continuations de la chronique de Guillaume de Nangis edited 
in 1843 by Gdraud for the Soc. del' hist, de France; Grandes chroniques 
de Saint Denis, vol. v. (1837), edition by Paulin Paris; E. De'prez, 
Les Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1343 (Paris, 1902), 
based on texts from the English Record Office and the Vatican; 
Paul Viollet, Histoire des institutions politiques de la France vol. ii. 
(Paris, 1898); and E. Lavisse, Hist. de. France, vol. iv. pt. i. (1902), 
by A. Colville. Further references will be found in Nos. 3095-3112 
and 3165-3240 of A. Molinier's Sources de I'histoire de France, vol. iv. 
(Paris, 1904). 

PHILIP (c. 1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the 
rival of the emperor Otto IV., was the fifth and youngest son 
of the emperor Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., 
count of Upper Burgundy, and consequently brother of the 
emperor Henry VI.. He entered the church, was made provost 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1190 or 1191 was chosen bishop of 
Wurzburg. Having accompanied his brother Henry to Italy 
in 1191, Philip forsook his ecclesiastical calling, and, travelling 
again to Italy, was made duke of Tuscany in 1195 and received 



384 



PHILIP I. II. (SPAIN) 



an extensive grant of lands. In 1196 he became duke of Swabia, 
on the death of his brother Conrad; and in May 1197 he married 
Irene, daughter of the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, and widow 
of Roger II., king of Sicily, a lady who is described by Walther 
von der Vogelweide as " the rose without a thorn, the dove 
without guile." Philip enjoyed his brother's confidence to a very 
great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian 
of the young Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., 
in case of his father's early death. In 1197 he had set out to 
fetch Frederick from Sicily for his coronation when he heard of 
the emperor's death and returned at once to Germany. He 
appears to have desired to protect the interests of his nephew 
and" to quell the disorder which arose on Henry's death, but 
events were too strong for him. The hostility to the kingship 
of a child was growing, and after Philip had been chosen as 
defender of the empire during Frederick's minority he con- 
sented to his own election. He was elected German king at 
Muhlhausen on the 8th of March 1198, and crowned at Mainz 
on the 8th of September following. Meanwhile a number of 
princes hostile to Philip, under the leadership of Adolph, arch- 
bishop of Cologne, had elected an anti-king in the person of 
Otto, second son of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. In the war 
that followed, Philip, who drew his principal support from south 
Germany, met with considerable success. In 1199 he received 
further accessions to his party and carried the war into his 
opponent's territory, although unable to obtain the support of 
Pope Innocent III., and only feebly assisted by his ally Philip 
Augustus, king of France. The following year was less favourable 
to his arms; and in March 1201 Innocent took the decisive step 
of placing Philip and his associates under the ban, and began to 
work energetically in favour of Otto. The two succeeding years 
were still more unfavourable to Philip. Otto, aided by Ottakar I., 
king of Bohemia, and Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, drove 
him from north Germany, thus compelling him to seek by 
abject concessions, but without success, reconciliation with 
Innocent. The submission to Philip of Hermann of Thuringia 
in 1204 marks the turning-point of his fortunes, and he was soon 
joined by Adolph of Cologne and Henry I., duke of Brabant. 
-On the 6th of January 1205 he was crowned again with great 
-ceremony by Adolph at Aix-la-Chapelle, though it was not till 
1 207 that his entry into Cologne practically brought the war to a 
close. A month or two later Philip was loosed from the papal 
ban, and in March 1208 it seems probable that a treaty was 
concluded by which a nephew of the pope was to marry one of 
Philip's daughters and to receive the disputed dukedom of 
Tuscany. Philip was preparing to crush the last flicker of the 
rebellion in Brunswick when he was murdered at Bamberg, on the 
2ist of June 1208, by Otto of Wittelsbach, count palatine in 
Bavaria, to whom he had refused the hand of one of his 
daughters. He left no sons, but four daughters; one of whom, 
Beatrix, afterwards married his rival, the emperor Otto IV. 
Philip was a brave and handsome man, and contemporary 
writers, among whom was Walther von der Vogelweide, praise his 
mildness and generosity. 

See W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, 
Bd. V. (Leipzig, 1888); E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben 
and Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878); O. Abel, 
Konig Philipp der Hohenstaufen (Berlin, 1852) ; Regesta imperil. V., 
edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881); R- Schwemer, Innocenz III. 
und die deutsche Kirche wdhrend des Thronstreites von 11981208 
(Strassburg, 1882); and R. Riant, Innocent III., Philippe de Souabe, 
et Boniface de Montferrat (Paris, 1875). 

PHILIP I., the Handsome (1478-1506), king of Spain,"son of 
the emperor Maximilian I., and husband of Joanna the Mad, 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the founder of the 
Habsburg dynasty in Spain, and was born at Bruges on the 
22nd of July 1478. In 1482 he succeeded to the Burgundian 
possessions of his mother Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
under the guardianship of his father. In 1496 he married Joanna. 
The marriage was one of a set of family alliances with Austria 
and Portugal designed to strengthen Spain against France. 
The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
opened the succession to the Spanish Crown to Joanna. In 



1502 she and her husband received the homage of the cortes 
of Castile and of Aragon as heirs. Philip returned to Flanders 
before the close of the year. His life with Joanna was rendered 
extremely unhappy by his infidelity and by her jealousy, which, 
working on a neurotic temperament, precipitated her insanity. 
The princess gave way to paroxysms of rage, in which she was 
guilty of acts of atrocious violence. Before her mother's death, 
in 1504, she was unquestionably quite insane, and husband and 
wife lived apart. When Isabella died, Ferdinand endeavoured 
to lay hands on the regency of Castile, but the nobles, who 
disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip was 
summoned to Spain, where he was recognized as king. He 
landed, with his wife, at Corunna on the 28th of April 1506, 
accompanied by a body of German mercenaries. Father and 
son-in-law had interviews at Remesal, near Pueblo de*6enabria, 
and at Renedo, the only result of which was an indecent family 
quarrel, in which Ferdinand professed to defend the interests 
of his daughter, who he said was imprisoned by her husband. 
A civil war would probably have broken out between them; 
but Philip, who had only been in Spain long enough to prove 
his incapacity, died suddenly at Burgos, apparently of typhoid 
fever, on the 25th of September 1506. His wife refused for long 
to allow his body to be buried or to part from it. Philip was 
the father of the emperors Charles V. and Ferdinand I. 

PHILIP II. (1527-1598) king of Spain, was born at Valladolid 
on the 2ist of May 1527. He was the son of the emperor 
Charles V., and of his wife Isabella of Portugal, who were first 
cousins. Philip received his education in Spain. His tutor, 
Dr Juan Martinez Pedernales, who latinized his name to Siliceo, 
and who was also his confessor, does not appear to have done 
his duty very thoroughly. The prince, though he had a good 
command of Latin, never equalled his father as a linguist. 
Don Juan de Zuniga, who was appointed to teach him the use 
of arms, was more conscientious; but he had a very poor pupil. 
From his earliest years Philip showed himself more addicted to 
the desk than the saddle and to the pen than to the sword. 
The emperor, who spent his life moving from one part of his 
wide dominions to another and in the camps of his armies, 
watched his heir's education from afar. The trend of his letters 
was to impress on the boy a profound sense of the high destinies 
to which he was born, the necessity for keeping his nobles apart 
from all share in the conduct of the internal government of his 
kingdom, and the wisdom of distrusting counsellors, who would 
be sure to wish to influence him for their own ends. Philip 
grew up grave, self-possessed and distrustful. He was beloved 
by his Spanish subjects, but utterly without the power of 
attracting men of other races. Though accused of extreme 
licentiousness in his relations with women, and though he lived 
for years in adultery with Dona Maria de Osorio, Philip was 
probably less immoral than most kings of his time, including his 
father, and was rigidly abstemious in eating and drinking. His 
power of work was unbounded, and he had an absolute love of 
reading, annotating and drafting despatches. If he had not 
become sovereign of the Low Countries, as heir of Mary of Bur- 
gundy through his father, Philip would in all probability have 
devoted himself to warfare with the Turks in the Mediterranean, 
and to the conquest of northern Africa. Unhappily for Spain, 
Charles, after some hesitation, decided to transmit the Nether- 
lands to his son, and not to allow them to go with the empire. 
Philip was summoned in 1548 to Flanders, where he went un- 
willingly, and was ill regarded. In 1551 he was back in Spain, 
and intrusted with its government. In 1 543 he had been married 
to his cousin Mary of Portugal, who bore him a son, the unhappy 
Don Carlos, and who died in 1545. In 1554, when Charles was 
meditating his abdication, and wished to secure the position of 
his son, he summoned Philip to Flanders again, and arranged the 
marriage with Mary, queen of England, who was the daughter 
of his sister Catherine, in order to form a union of Spain, the 
Netherlands and England, before which France would be power- 
less. The marriage proved barren. The abdication of his father 
on the i6th of January 1556 constituted Philip sovereign of 
Spain with its American possessions, of the Aragonese inheritance 



PHILIP III. IV. (SPAIN) 



385 



in Italy, Naples and Sicily, of the Burgundian inheritance the 
Netherlands and Tranche Comte, and of the duchy of Milan, 
which his father separated from the empire for his benefit. It 
was a legacy of immense responsibilities and perils, for France 
was bound in common prudence to endeavour to ruin a power 
which encircled her on every side save the sea and threatened 
her independence. France was for a time beaten at the battles 
of St Quentin and Gravelines, and forced to make the Peace of 
Cateau Cambresis (April 2, 1559). But the death of Mary of 
England on the iyth of November 1558 had deprived Philip 
of English support. The establishment of Elizabeth on the 
English throne put on the flank of his scattered dominions 
another power, forced no less than France by unavoidable 
political necessities to be his enemy. The early difficulties of 
Elizabeth's reign secured him a deceitful peace on that side for a 
time. His marriage with Elizabeth of Valois on the 22nd of 
June 1559, and the approach of the wars of religion, gave him a 
temporary security from France. But the religious agitation 
was affecting his own Flemish possessions, and when Philip 
went back to Spain, in August 1559, he was committed to a life- 
long struggle in which he could not prove victorious except by 
the conquest of France and England. 

If Philip II. had deserved his name of the Prudent he would 
have made haste, so soon as his father, who continued to inter- 
vene in the government from his retreat at Yuste in Estremadura, 
was dead, to relieve himself of the ruinous inheritance of the 
Low Countries. It was perhaps impossible for him to renounce 
his rights, and his education, co-operating with his natural 
disposition, made it morally impossible for him to believe that he 
could be in the wrong. Like the rest of his generation, he was 
convinced that unity of religion was indispensable to the mainten- 
ance of the authority of the State and of good order. Family 
pride, also, was carried by him to its highest possible pitch. 
Thus external and internal influences alike drove him into con- 
flict with the Netherlands, France and England; with the first 
because political and religious discontent combined to bring 
about revolt, which he felt bound in duty to crush; with the second 
and third because they helped the Flemings and the Hollanders. 
The conflict assumed the character of a struggle between Pro- 
testantism and Roman Catholicism, in which Philip appeared 
as the champion of the Church. It was a part he rejoiced to play. 
He became, and could not but become, a persecutor in and out of 
Spain; and his persecutions not only hardened the obstinacy of 
the Dutch, and helped to exasperate the English, but they 
provoked a revolt of the Moriscoes, which impoverished his 
kingdom. No experience of the failure of his policy could shake 
his belief in its essential excellence. That whatever he did was 
done for the service of God, that success or failure depended 
on the inscrutable will of the Almighty and not on himself, were 
his guiding convictions, which he transmitted to his successors. 
The " service of God and his majesty " was the formula which 
expressed the belief of the sovereign and his subjects. Philip 
must therefore be held primarily responsible for the insane 
policy which brought Spain to ruin. He had a high ideal of his 
duty as a king to his own people, and had no natural preference 
for violent courses. The strong measures he took against 
disorderly elements in Aragon in 1591 were provoked by extreme 
misconduct on the part of a faction. When he enforced his 
claim to the crown of Portugal (1579-1581) he preferred to placate 
his new subjects by paying attention to their feelings and their 
privileges. He even made dangerous political concessions to 
secure the support of the gentry. It is true that he was ready to 
make use of assassination for political purposes; but he had been 
taught by his lawyers that he was " the prince," the embodied 
state, and as such had a right to act for the public good, legibus 
solutus. This was but in accordance with the temper of the times. 
Coligny, Lord Burghley and William the Silent also entered into 
murder plots. In his private life he was orderly and affectionate 
to his family and servants. He was slow to withdraw the confi- 
dence he had once given. In the painful episode of the imprison- 
ment and death of his firstborn son, Don Carlos, Philip behaved 
honourably. He bore the acute agony of the disease which 
xxi. 13 



killed him with manly patience, and he died piously at the 
Escorial on the i3th of September 1598. 

As an administrator Philip had all the vices of his type, that ot 
the laborious, self-righteous man, who thinks he can supervise 
everything, is capable of endless toil, and jealous of his authority, 
and who therefore will let none of his servants act without his 
instructions. He set the example of the unending discussions in 
committee and boundless minute writing which finally choked 
the Spanish administration. 

The Histoire de Philippe II. of M. H. Forneron (Paris, 1881), 
contains many references to authorities and is exhaustive, but the 
author has some violent prejudices. Philip II., by Martin Hume 
(London, 1897), is more just in its treatment of Philip's personal 
character, and gives a useful bibliography. The main sources for. 
the political history are the Documentos Intditos para la historia de 
Espafla (Madrid, 1842, &c.), vols. i., iii., vi., vii., xv., xxi., xxiv., 
xl., xcviii., ci., ciii., ex., cxi. and others; L. P. Gachard, Actes des 
etats generaux des Pays Bas, 1576-1585 (Brussels, 1861-1866); and 
the Calendars of State Papers, Foreign Series, Elizabeth (London, 
1863-1901). See also Martin Hume, Two English Queens and 
Philip (1908). 

PHILIP III. (1578-1621), king of Spain, son of Philip II. and 
his fourth wife, Anne, daughter of the emperor Maximilian II., 
was born at Madrid on the I4th of April 1578. He inherited the 
beliefs of his father, but no share of his industry. The old king 
had sorrowfully confessed that God had not given him a son 
capable of governing his vast dominions, and had foreseen that 
Philip III. would be led by his servants. This calculation was 
exactly fulfilled. The new king put the direction of his govern- 
ment entirely into the hands of his favourite, the duke of Lerma, 
and when he fell under the influence of Lerma 's son, the duke of 
Uceda, in 1518, he trusted himself and his states to the new 
favourite. The king's own life was passed amid court festivities, 
on which enormous sums of money were wasted, or in the practice 
of childish piety. It was said that he was so virtuous as hardly 
to have committed a venial sin. He cannot be justly blamed for 
having been born to rule a despotic monarchy, without even 
the capacity which would have qualified him to manage a small 
estate. He died at Madrid on the 3ist of March 1621. The 
story told in the memoirs of the French ambassador Bassom- 
pierre, that he was killed by the heat of a brasero (a pan of hot 
charcoal), because the proper official to take it away was not at 
hand, is a humorous exaggeration of the formal etiquette of the 
court. 

R. Watson and W. Thompson, History of Philip III. (1786), 
give the most available general account of his reign; see also the 
continuation of Mariana s History of Spain by Minana (Madrid, 
1817-1822). 

PHILIP IV. (1605-1665), king of Spain, eldest son of Philip 
III. and his wife Margaret, sister of the emperor Ferdinand II., 
was born at Valladolid on the 8th of April 1605. His reign, 
after a few passing years of barren successes, was a long story 
of political and military decay and disaster. The king has been 
held responsible for the fall of Spain, which was, however, due 
in the main to internal causes beyond the control of the most 
despotic ruler, however capable he had been. Philip certainly 
possessed more energy, both mental and physical, than his father. 
There is still in existence a translation of Guicciardini which 
he wrote with his own hand in order to qualify himself for 
government by acquiring a knowledge of political history. He 
was a fine horseman and keen hunter. His artistic taste was 
shown by his patronage of Velasquez, and his love of 
letters by his favour to Lope de Vega, Calderon, and other 
dramatists. He is even credited, on fairly probable testimony, 
with a share at least in the composition of several comedies. 
His good intentions were of no avail to his government. Coming 
to the throne at the age of sixteen, he did the wisest thing he 
could by allowing himself to be guided by the most capable man 
he could find. His favourite, Olivares, was a far more honest 
man than the duke of Lerma, and was more fit for the place of 
prime minister than any Spaniard of the time. But Philip IV. 
had not the strength of mind to free himself from the influence of 
Olivares when he had grown to manhood. The amusements 
which the favourite had encouraged became the business of the 



3 86 



PHILIP V. (SPAIN) PHILIP THE BOLD 



king's life. When, in 1643, the disasters falling on the monarchy 
on all sides led to the dismissal of Olivares, Philip had lost the 
power to devote himself to hard work. After a brief struggle 
with the task of directing the administration of the most ex- 
tensive and the worst organized monarchy in Europe, he sank 
back into his pleasures and was governed by other favourites. 
His political opinions were those he had inherited from his 
father and grandfather. He thought it his duty to support 
the German Habsburgs and the cause of the Roman Catholic 
Church against the Protestants, to assert his sovereignty over 
Holland, and to extend the dominions of his house. The utter 
exhaustion of his people in the course of a hopeless struggle with 
Holland, France and England was seen by him with sympathy, 
but he considered it an unavoidable misfortune and not the result 
of his own errors, since he could not be expected to renounce 
his rights or to desert the cause of God and the Church. In 
public he maintained a bearing of rigid solemnity, and was seen 
to laugh only three times in the course of his life. But in private 
he indulged in horseplay and very coarse immorality. His 
court was grossly vicious. The early death of his eldest son, 
Baltasar Carlos, was unquestionably due to debauchery 
encouraged by the gentlemen entrusted by the king with his 
education. The lesson shocked the king, but its effect soon 
wore off. Philip IV. died broken-hearted on the I7th of 
September 1665, expressing the hope that his surviving son, 
Carlos, would be more fortunate than himself. 

The best accounts of Philip IV. will be found in the Estudios del 
reinado de Felipe IV., by Don A. Cdnovas del Castillo (Madrid, 
1889), and in the introduction by Don F. Silvela to his edition of 
the Cartas de Sor Maria de Agreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid, 
1885-1886). 

PHILIP V. (1683-1746), king of Spain, founder of the present 
Bourbon dynasty, was the son of the Dauphin Louis and his 
wife, Maria Anna, daughter of Ferdinand Maria, elector of 
Bavaria. He was born at Versailles on the igth of December 
1683. On the extinction of the male line of the house of Habs- 
burg in Spain he was named heir by the will of Charles II. He 
had shared in the careful education given to his elder brother, 
Louis, duke of Burgundy, by F6nelon, and was himself known 
as duke of Anjou. Philip was by nature dull and phlegmatic. 
He had learnt morality from Fenelon's teaching, and showed 
himself throughout his life strongly adverse to the moral laxity 
of his grandfather and of most of the princes of his time. But 
his very domestic regularity caused him to be entirely under the 
influence of his two wives, Maria Louisa of Savoy, whom he 
married in 1702, and who died in February 1714, and Elizabeth 
Farnese of Parma, whom he married in December of the same 
year, and who survived him. He showed courage on the field 
of battle, both in Italy and Spain, during the War of the Spanish 
Succession, and was flattered by his courtiers with the title of 
El Animoso, or the spirited. But he had no taste for military 
adventure. If he had a strong passion, it was to provide for his 
succession to the throne of France, if his nephew, Louis XV., 
should die, and he indulged in many intrigues against the house 
of Orleans, whose right to the succession was supposed to be 
secured by Philip's solemn renunciation of all claim to the 
French throne, when he became king of Spain. It was in 
pursuit of one of these intrigues that he abdicated in 1724 in 
favour of his son Louis. But Louis died in a few months, 
and Philip returned to the throne. At a later period he tried 
to abdicate again, and his wife had to keep him in a species of 
disguised confinement. Throughout his life, but particularly 
in the later part of it, he was subject to prolonged fits of melan- 
cholia, during which he would not even speak. He died of 
apoplexy on the gth of July 1746. 

The best account of Philip's character and reign is still that given 
by Coxe in his Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon 
(London, 1815). 

PHILIP THE BOLD (1342-1404), duke of Burgundy, fourth 
son of John II. of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born 
on the 1 5th of January 1342. He earned his surname by his 
bravery while fighting by his father's side on the field of Poitiers. 
After the defeat of King John he accompanied him into captivity 



in England. In 1360 he received the title of duke of Touraine, 
and in June 1363 was entrusted with the government of Burgundy, 
which John had united to the crown at the death of the last 
duke of the Capetian family, Philip of Rouvre, in 1361. In 
September 1363 John bestowed on Philip the title of duke of 
Burgundy, together with that of first peer of France. John 
was anxious not to displease the Burgundians, who were accus- 
tomed to their independence; and, moreover, with Philip as 
duke of Burgundy he was in a better posture to resist the king 
of Navarre, Charles the Bad, who laid claim to the duchy. The 
donation, which was at first kept secret in spite of a request 
made in 1363 for its confirmation by the emperor Charles IV., 
was ratified at the accession of Charles V. of France; but in 
consequence of Philip's preoccupation with the Grand Com- 
panies, which had invaded France, it was not until November 
1364 that he definitely took possession of the duchy. Charles 
continued to show favour to his brother, appointing him (in 1366) 
his lieutenant in Champagne and marrying him to Margaret, 
daughter and heiress of Louis of Male, count of Flanders, 
and widow of Philip of Rouvre. Edward III. of England was 
negotiating for the marriage of this princess with his son Edmund, 
earl of Cambridge; but Charles prevailed upon Pope Urban V. 
to refuse the dispensation necessary on grounds of kinship, and 
even consented to give up Lille, Douai and Orchies to Flanders 
on condition that Margaret should marry his brother. Philip 
eventually won the day, thanks to the support of the late 
count's mother, and the marriage took place with high revel 
at Ghent on the ipth of June 1369. 

During the succeeding years Philip proved a faithful ally 
to Charles. He took part in the almost bloodless campaign 
against the duke of Lancaster, who had landed at Calais; in 
1377 he took several towns in French Flanders from the English; 
and in 1379 relieved Troyes, which had been besieged by the 
English. On Charles's death Philip found himself, with his 
brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Berry, in charge of the govern- 
ment of France in the name of Charles VI., who was a minor; 
and in the absence of the duke of Anjou, who left France in 
1382 to conquer the kingdom of Naples, Philip occupied the 
most powerful position in the realm. He persuaded the young 
king to intervene in Flanders, where the citizens of Ghent, 
whose rebellious spirit had necessitated Philip's intervention 
in 1379, had again revolted under Philip van Artevelde and had 
expelled Louis of Male. On the 27th of November 1382 the 
Franco-Burgundian chivalry crushed the rebels at Rosebecke, 
and on his return the duke of Burgundy took part in repress- 
ing the popular movements which had broken out in Paris and 
other French towns. In 1383 an insurrection in Flanders 
supported by England gave rise to another French expedition; 
but in January 1384 the death of Louis of Male made Philip 
master of the countships of Flanders, Artois, Rethel and 
Nevers; and in the following year the citizens of Ghent decided 
to submit. At this period Philip sought to ingratiate himself 
with the emperor, who was a near neighbour, and of whom he 
held a part of his dominions, by giving two of his daughters 
in marriage to two princes of the house of Bavaria; he also 
took an important part in bringing about the marriage of a 
princess of the same family, Isabel, to King Charles VI. 

Hostilities, however, were renewed between France and 
England. A formidable expedition was prepared under the 
direction of the duke of Burgundy, and a fleet of 1400 sail 
assembled at Sluys; but the enterprise failed owing to the 
dilatoriness of the duke of Berry. The fatiguing and inglorious 
expedition in the Netherlands, into which the duke dragged 
Charles for the purpose of supporting his kinswoman, Joan of 
Brabant, against the duke of Gelderland, shook Philip's credit 
with his nephew, who on his return declared himself of age and 
confided the government to the ancient councillors of his father, 
the " Marmousets." The king's madness (1392) restored his 
uncles to power, and particularly Philip, who after assuring 
peace by treating with the duke of Brittany and by concluding a 
truce of twenty-eight years with England, made strenuous efforts 
to put an end to the Great Schism, visiting Pope Benedict XIII. 



PHILIP THE GOOD 



387 



at Avignon in 1395 in the hope of obtaining a voluntary 
resignation from him. But the growing influence of the king's 
brother, Louis of Orleans, who was on terms of great intimacy 
with Queen Isabel and was accused of being her lover, was a 
serious obstruction. Discord broke out in the council, and but 
for the intervention of the dukes of Berry and Bourbon the two 
princes would have come to an open struggle. For a brief 
period Philip was dispossessed of authority, but he regained 
it in 1402 and kept it till his death, which took place on the 
27th of April 1404. The cathedral of St Benigne at Dijon 
contains his remains, and his tomb (formerly in the Chartreuse 
of Dijon) is now in the museum in the H6tel-de-ville. 

Although he had to curb the independent spirit of the seigneurs 
of Franche-Comte, and in spite of frequent collisions with his 
vassals in Flanders and with the citizens of Besancon (who in 
1386 extracted from him a promise to respect their privileges), 
Philip appears to have governed his territories with sagacity 
and a certain moderation, and he was particularly successful in 
employing the resources of France in the interests of Burgundy. 
He granted numerous privileges to the inhabitants of Dijon, and 
created in 1386 two chambres des comptes, one at Dijon and the 
other at Lille. He was, in the phrase of a contemporary, 
" kindly and amiable to high and low and those of middle rank, 
liberal as an Alexander, noble and pontifical, in court and state 
magnificent." But his liberality and his love of display in- 
volved him in enormous expense, and he left so many debts that 
his widow was compelled to renounce her personal estate to avoid 
the responsibility of discharging them. By his wife Margaret 
(d. 1405) he had a numerous family: John the Fearless, who 
succeeded him; Charles and Louis, who both died in infancy; 
Anthony, count of Rethel, and Philip, count of Nevers, both 
killed at Agincourt; Margaret, who married William of Bavaria, 
count of Ostrevant; Catherine, wife of Leopold, duke of 
Austria; Mary, wife of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy; and Bonne, 
who was betrothed to John of Bourbon and died young. 

(R. Po.) 

PHILIP THE GOOD (1396-1467), duke of Burgundy, son of 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria, 
was born at Dijon on the I3th of June 1396, and succeeded his 
father on the loth of September 1419. The natural outcome of 
the assassination of John the Fearless (q.v.) was to drive his suc- 
cessor to the English side. In 1419 Philip signed with Henry V. 
of England the treaty of Arras, by which he recognized Henry 
as regent and future heir of the kingdom of France, and in 1420 
gave his adherence to the treaty of Troyes. Early in December 
1420 Philip entered Paris with the king of England, and sub- 
sequently took part in the defeat of the French at Mons-en- 
Vimeu. By a treaty concluded by Philip at Amiens in April 
1423 with the dukes of Brittany and Bedford, John, duke of 
Bedford, married Philip's sister Anne, and Arthur of Brittany, 
earl of Richmond, became the husband of Philip's sister Mar- 
garet. A few years later discord arose among the allies. When 
the duke of Bedford besieged Orleans the inhabitants offered 
to surrender, but to the duke of Burgundy; whereupon Bedford 
retorted that " he did not beat the bushes for others to take the 
birds." When this speech reached Philip's ears he withdrew 
his troops in dudgeon, and concluded a truce with France 
(1429). Bedford, however, succeeded in conciliating him by 
promises and presents, and in 1430 Philip took part in the 
campaign against Compiegne. 

But another conflict arose between the duke of Burgundy 
and the English. Jacqueline, countess of Hainaut, the divorced 
wife of the duke of Brabant and the heiress of Holland and 
Zeeland, had married the duke of Gloucester, who attempted 
to take forcible possession of his wife's territories. Philip, 
however, himself claimed Brabant as having been bequeathed 
to him by his cousin Philip, the late duke, with the result that 
the Burgundians repulsed the troops of the duke of Gloucester, 
and Jacqueline was forced to recognize the duke of Burgundy 
as her lieutenant and heir. Moreover, the duchess of Bedford 
had died in 1433. Charles VII., who in spite of the efforts of 
the cardinal of Ste-Croix and the conferences held by him at 



Auxerre and Semur had hitherto refused to return to France, 
finally decided to take part in the conferences which were 
opened at St Vaast d'Arras on the 6th of August 1435, anj d to 
which the whole of Christendom attached very high import- 
ance, all the princes of Europe and the pope and the council 
of Basel being represented. Philip consented to a reconcilia- 
tion with the king of France, and agreed to recognize him as 
his legitimate sovereign on condition that he should not be 
required to pay him homage during his lifetime. Charles, on 
his part, solemnly craved pardon for the murder of John the 
Fearless through the mouth of the dean of the church in Paris, 
and handed over to the duke the counties of Macon, Auxerre, 
Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu, and the towns on and near the 
Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Peronne), reserving the option of 
redeeming the Somme towns for 400,000 gold crowns. Philip 
proved a faithful ally of the king, aiding him in re-entering Paris 
and preparing an expedition against Calais, which, however, 
failed through the ill-will of his Flemish subjects (1436). In 
1440 he paid the ransom of Charles of Orleans (the son of his 
father's old enemy), who had been a prisoner in England since 
the battle of Agincourt; received him with great honour at 
Gravelines; and married him to Mary of Cleves, upon whom he 
bestowed a handsome dowry. In 1442 Philip entered into a 
conspiracy to give the duke of Orleans a larger share in the 
affairs of the kingdom. To Ren6 of Anjou, the duke of Lor- 
raine, he showed himself less generous, setting up another 
claimant to the duchy of Lorraine in the person of Anthony of 
Vaudemont, and taking Ren6 prisoner in 1431; it was not until 
1436 that he consented definitively to release Rene on con- 
dition that he should abandon several strong places and pay an 
enormous ransom. In 1445, at the conferences of Chalons-sur- 
Marne, the duchess of Burgundy renounced these claims in her 
husband's name in order to assure the execution of the treaty 
of Arras. 

Philip was frequently disturbed by the insubordination of 
the Flemish communes. He had to quell seditions at Liege 
(1430), Ghent (1432) and Antwerp (1435). In 1438 he was 
driven with the duchess out of Bruges by the revolted citizens, 
a revolt which he repressed with great severity. In 1448 the 
citizens of Ghent rose in rebellion, but, disappointed of French 
support, they were defeated at Ruppelmonde and in 1453 
were overwhelmed at the battle of Gavre, where they left 
20,000 dead on the field. At a banquet shortly afterwards 
Philip vowed that he would lead a crusade against the Turks, 
who had seized Constantinople, and the knights of his court 
swore to follow his example. 1 The expedition, however, did not 
take place, and was but a pretext for levying subsidies and for 
knightly entertainments. In 1459 Philip sent an embassy 
under the duke of Cleves into Italy to take part in the con- 
ferences preparatory to a fresh expedition against the Turks, 
but this enterprise likewise fell to the ground. In 1456 the 
duke of Burgundy had given an asylum to the Dauphin Louis 
(afterwards Louis XL), who had quarrelled with his father 
and had been forced to leave France. The " fox who would 
rob his host's hen-roost," as the old king called Louis, repaid 
his protector by attempting to sow discord in the ducal family 
of Burgundy, and then retired to the castle of Genappe in 
Brabant. At Charles VII. 's death, however, Philip was one of 
the first to recognize the new king, and accompanied him to 
Paris. During the journey Louis won over the seigneurs of 
Croy, the principal counsellors of the duke of Burgundy, 
and persuaded Philip to allow him to redeem the Somme 
towns for the sum stipulated in the treaty of Arras. This 
proceeding infuriated Philip's son Charles, count of Charo- 
lais, who prevailed upon his father to break his pledge and 
declare war on the king of France. On the I2th of April 1465 
Philip handed over to his son the entire administration of his 

1 This was the singular vow known as " the vow of the pheasant," 
from the fact that Philip placed his hand solemnly on a pheasant, 
which had been brought to him by his herald, and vowed that 
he would fight the Turks and challenge their sultan to single 
combat. 



3 88 



PHILIP (OF HESSE) 



estates. The old duke died at Bruges on the isth of June 
1467, and was buried at Dijon. 

Philip was a great lover of pomp and luxury and a friend of 
letters, being the patron of Georges Chastelain, Olivier de la 
Marche and Antoine de la Salle, and the founder of the col- 
lection of MSS. known as the " Bibliotheque. de Bourgogne " 
(now at Brussels), and also of the university of D61e (1421). 
He administered his estates wisely; promoted commerce and 
industry, particularly in Flanders; and left his son a well- 
lined treasury. He was thrice married: in 1409 to Michelle 
(d. 1422), daughter of Charles VI. of France; in 1424 to Bonne 
of Artois (d. 1425); and in 1429 to Isabel (d. 1472), daughter of 
John I., king of Portugal. On the occasion of his third marriage 
Philip founded the order of the Golden Fleece. He was succeeded 
by Charles, afterwards known as Charles the Bold, his only sur- 
viving son by Isabel. He had several illegitimate children, 
among them being Corneille, called the Grand Bastard, who was 
killed in 1452 at the battle of Ruppelmonde. 

(R. Po.) 

PHILIP, LANDGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567), son of the 
landgrave William II., was born at Marburg on the I3th of 
November 1504. He became landgrave on his father's death 
in 1509, and having been declared of age in 1518, was married 
in 1523 to Christina, daughter of George, duke of Saxony 
(d. 1539). In 1522 and 1523 he assisted to quell the rising of 
Franz von Sickingen (q.v.), who had raided Hesse five years 
previously, and in 1525 he took a leading part in crushing the 
rebellion of the peasants in north Germany, being mainly 
responsible for their defeat at Frankenhausen. About this 
time Philip adopted the reformed faith, of which he was after- 
wards the zealous and daring defender. Indifferent to theo- 
logical, or even to patriotic, considerations, his plans to protect 
the reformers rested upon two main principles unity among the 
Protestants at home and military aid from abroad. The 
schemes he put forward as one of the heads of the league of 
Schmalkalden, aimed primarily at overthrowing the house of 
Habsburg; to this end aid was sought from foreigner and 
native, from Protestant and Catholic alike. Envoys were sent 
repeatedly to France, England and Denmark; Turkey and 
Venice were looked to for assistance; the jealousy felt towards 
the Habsburgs by the Bavarian Wittelsbachs was skilfully 
fomented; and the German Protestants were assured that 
attack was the best, nay the only, means of defence. Before 
the formation of the league of Schmalkalden Philip was very 
intimate with Zwingli, and up to the time of the reformer's 
death, in 1531, he hoped that material aid would be forthcoming 
from his followers. In 1526 he had aided John the Constant, 
elector of Saxony, to form an alliance of reforming princes; 
and in 1529 he called together the abortive conference at Mar- 
burg, hoping thus to close the breach between Lutherans and 
Zwinglians. More aggressive was his action in 1528. De- 
ceived by the forgeries of Otto von Pack (q.v.), he believed in 
the existence of a conspiracy to crush the reformers, and was 
only restrained from attacking his enemies by the influence of 
John of Saxony and Luther. He succeeded, however, in com- 
pelling the archbishop of Mainz and the bishops of Wiirzburg 
and Bamberg to contribute to the cost of his mobilization. 
Philip was freely accused of having employed Pack to concoct 
the forgery; and, although this charge is doubtless false, his 
eager acceptance of Pack's unproved statements aroused con- 
siderable ill-feeling among the Catholics, which he was not slow 
to return. In 1529 the landgrave signed the " protest " which 
was presented to the diet at Spires, being thus one of the original 
" Protestants; " in 1530 he was among the subscribers to the 
confession of Augsburg; and the formation of the league of 
Schmalkalden in the same year was largely due to his energy. 

His next important undertaking, the restoration of Ulrich, 
duke of Wiirtemberg (q.v.) to his duchy, was attended with 
conspicuous success. Wiirtemberg had passed into the posses- 
sion of the Habsburgs, but after Philip's brief and victorious 
campaign in 1 534 the humiliation of Charles V. and his brother, 
the German king, Ferdinand I., was so complete that it was 



said the landgrave had done more for Protestantism by this 
enterprise than a thousand of Luther's books would do. After 
this victory Philip entertained the idea of coming to terms 
with Charles V. on the basis of extensive concessions to the 
Protestants; but he quickly returned to his former plans for 
leading a general attack on the Habsburgs. The Concord of 
Wittenberg, made in 1536, was favourable for these schemes, 
but after five years spent in assiduous preparation war was 
prevented by the serious illness of the landgrave and the 
lukewarmness of his allies. Recovering from his malady, he 
had returned to his intrigues when an event happened which 
materially affected the fortunes of the Reformation. His union 
with Christina was not a happy one, and having fixed his 
affections upon Margaret von der Saal (d. 1566), he obtained 
an opinion from Protestant theologians that bigamy was not 
forbidden by Holy Writ. Luther and Melancthon at length 
consented to the marriage, but stipulated that it should be 
kept secret, and it was celebrated in March 1540. The marriage, 
however, became known, and a great outcry arose against 
Philip, whose friends quickly deserted him. He objected to 
Luther's counsel to deny the existence of a second marriage; 
abused John Frederick, elector of Saxony, for not coming to 
support him; and caused bigamy to be publicly defended. 
Alarmed, however, by the strength of his enemies, and by 
their evident determination to punish him as a bigamist, he 
in June 1541 made a treaty with Charles V. at Regensburg. 
In return for a general pardon he undertook to break off 
relations with France and England and loyally to support the 
emperor. 

During these years Philip had been forwarding the progress 
of the Reformation in Hesse. This was begun about 1526, when 
an important synod was held at Homburg; the university of 
Marburg was founded in the interests of the reformers in 1527; 
and after the diet of Spires in 1529 the work was conducted with 
renewed vigour. The Catholic worship was suppressed, and the 
secularized church revenues supplied an endowment of the new 
university. 

The peace between the emperor and the landgrave was soon 
broken. In 1542 Philip persuaded the league of Schmalkalden 
to attack Henry II., duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, ostensibly 
in the interests of the Protestant towns of Brunswick and Goslar. 
The duchy was quickly overrun, and Henry a Catholic prince 
driven out; but the good understanding between the emperor 
and the landgrave was destroyed, and the relations between 
Protestants and Catholics became worse than before. Nor was 
the fissure in the Protestant ranks closed, and Charles took 
advantage of this disunion to conquer Gelderland and to mature 
his preparations for overthrowing the league of Schmalkalden. 
Unlike John Frederick of Saxony, Philip divined, or partly 
divined, the emperor's intentions, and urged repeatedly that the 
forces of the league should be put in order. This advice passed 
unheeded, and when Charles suddenly showed his hand, and in 
July 1546 issued the imperial ban against the landgrave and the 
elector, it was sesn that the two princes were almost isolated. 
Fighting began along the upper Danube, and when indecision 
and want of funds had ruined the league's chances of success, 
Philip returned to Hesse and busied himself with seeking help 
from foreign powers; while in April 1547 John Frederick was 
captured at Miihlberg. After this defeat the landgrave was 
induced to surrender to Charles in June by his son-in-law, 
Maurice, now elector of Saxony, and Joachim II., elector of 
Brandenburg, who promised Philip that he should be pardoned, 
and were greatly incensed when the emperor refused to assent 
to this condition. There is, however, no truth in the story that 
the word einiges was altered by an imperial servant into ewiges, 
thus making the phrase " without any imprisonment " in the 
treaty of surrender to read " without perpetual imprisonment." 
Philip was sentenced to detention for fifteen years, and as he was 
heartily disliked by Charles his imprisonment was a rigorous 
one, and became still more so after he had made an attempt to 
escape. His acceptance of the Interim in 1 548 did not bring him 
freedom; but this came in consequence of the humiliation of 



PHILIP, J. PHILIP, K. 



Charles V. at the hands of Maurice in 1552; and after the con- 
clusion of the peace of Passau in this year he returned to Hesse. 
Although less active than formerly, the landgrave did not cease 
to intrigue on behalf of the Protestants while continuing the work 
of reforming and organizing the Church in Hesse. In 1562 
he aided the Huguenots with troops, and he was frequently in 
communication with the insurgents in the Netherlands; but his 
efforts to form a union of the Protestants were fruitless. Philip, 
who is sometimes called the Magnanimous, died at Cassel on the 
3ist of March 1567. By Christina he had four sons and five 
daughters, and according to his directions the landgraviate was 
partitioned at his death between his sons. He had also by 
Margaret von der Saal seven sons, who were called counts of 
Dietz, and one daughter. 

See Ch. von Rommel, Philipp der Grossmiithige (Giessen, 1830) ; 
Briefwechsel Landgraf Philipps mil Bucer, edited by M. Lenz (Leipzig, 
1881-1890); Politisches Archiv des Landgrafen Philipp, edited by 
F. Kiich (Leipzig, 1904) ; L. G. Mogen, Historia captivitatis Philippi 
Magnanimi (Frankfort, 1766); W. Falckenheiner, Philipp der 
Grossmiithige im Bauernkriege (Marburg, 1887); H. Schwarz, 
Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Handel (Leipzig, 
1881); J. Wille, Philipp der Grossmiithige von Hessen und die Resti- 
tution Ulrichs von Wiirttemberg (Tubingen, 1882); W. W. Rockwell 
Die Doppelelie des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen (Marburg, 1904) ; 
A. Heidenhain, Die Unions politik Philipps von Hessen (Halle, 1890) ; 
K. Varrentrapp, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Universitdt 
Marburg (Cassel, 1904) ; Von Drach and Konnecke, Die Bildnisse 
Philipps des Grossmiitigen (Cassel, 1905) ; Festschrift zum Ge- 
ddchtnis Philipps, published by the Verein fur hessische Geschichte 
und Landeskunde (Cassel, 1904) ; and Philipp der Grossmiitige, 
Beitrdge zur Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Zeit, published by the 
Historischer Verein fur das Grossherzogtum Hessen (Marburg, 1904). 

PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851), British missionary in South 
Africa, was born on the i4th of April 1775, at Kirkcaldy, Fife, the 
son of a schoolmaster in that town. After having been apprenticed 
to a linendraper, and for three years a clerk in a Dundee business 
house, he entered the Hoxton (Congregational) Theological 
College, and in 1804 was appointed to a Congregational chapel 
in Aberdeen. In 1818 he joined the Rev. John Campbell in his 
second journey to South Africa to inspect the stations of the 
London Missionary Society, and reported that the conduct of the 
Cape Colonists towards the natives was deserving of strong 
reprobation. In 1822 the London Missionary Society appointed 
him superintendent of their South African stations. He made 
his headquarters at Cape Town, where he also established and 
undertook the pastorate of the Union Chapel. His indignation 
was aroused by the barbarities inflicted upon the Hottentots 
and Kaffirs (by a minority of the colonists), and he set himself to 
remedy their grievances; but his zeal was greater than his 
knowledge. He misjudged the character both of the colonists 
and of the natives, his cardinal mistake being in regarding the 
African as little removed from the European in intellect and 
capacity. It was the period of the agitation for the abolition 
of slavery in England, where Philip's charges against the 
colonists and the colonial government found powerful support. 
His influence was seen in the ordinance of 1828 granting all free 
coloured persons at the Cape every right to which any other 
British subjects were entitled. During 1826-1828 he was in 
England, and in the last-named year he published Researches 
in South Africa, containing his views on the native question. 
His recommendations were adopted by the House of Commons, 
but his unpopularity in South Africa was great, and in 1830 he 
was convicted of libelling a Cape official. The British govern- 
ment, however, caused the Cape government to conform 
to the views of Philip, who for over twenty years exercised 
a powerful, and in many respects unfavourable, influence over 
the destinies of the country. One of Philip's ideals was the 
curbing of colonial " aggression " by the creation of a belt of 
native states around Cape Colony. In Sir Benjamin D'Urban 
Philip found a governor anxious to promote the interests of the 
natives. When however at the close of the Kaffir War of 1834-35 
D'Urban annexed the country up to the Kei River, Philip's 
hostility was aroused. He came to England in 1836, in company 
with a Kaffir convert and a Hottentot convert, and aroused 
public opinion against the Cape government. His views 



triumphed, D'Urban was dismissed, and Philip returned to the 
Cape as unofficial adviser to the government on all matters 
affecting the natives. For a time his plan of buffer states was 
carried out, but in 1846 another Kaffir rising convinced him of 
the futility of his schemes. The Kaffir chief who had accom- 
panied him to England joined the enemy; and many of his 
converts showed that his efforts on their behalf had effected no 
change in their character. This was a blow from which he did 
not recover. The annexation of the Orange River Sovereignty 
in 1848 followed, finally destroying his hope of maintaining 
independent native states. In 1849 he severed his connexion 
with politics and retired to the mission station at Hankey, Cape 
Colony, where he died on the 27th of August 1851. 

See SOUTH AFRICA : History ; G. M 'C. Theal's History of SouthAfrica 
since 1795 (London, ed. 1908); Missionary Magazine (1836-1851); 
R. Wardlaw's Funeral Sermon, 1852. 

PHILIP, KING (c. 1630-1676), chief sachem of the Wam- 
panoag Indians in America, and the son of Massasoit (d. 1662) 
as the English, mistaking this title (great chief) for a proper 
name, called Woosamequin (Yellow Feather) who for forty 
years was the friend and ally of the English colonists at 
Plymouth. To Massasoit's two sons, Wamsutta and Metacomet, 
the English gave the names respectively of Alexander and 
Philip. Alexander succeeded his father as sachem, and in the 
same year, while in Marshfield, whither he had gone to explain 
certain alleged unfriendly acts toward the English, was taken 
ill; he died on his way home. Philip, who succeeded Alexander, 
suspected the English of poisoning his brother. The English 
had grown stronger and more numerous, and had begun to meddle 
in the internal affairs of the Indians. In 1667 one of Philip's 
Indians accused him to the English of attempting to betray them 
to the French or Dutch, but this charge was not proved. In 
1671 the Plymouth authorities demanded that the Wampanoags 
should surrender their arms; Philip consented, but his followers 
failed to comply, and measures were taken to enforce the promise. 
Philip thereupon went before the general court, agreed to pay an 
annual tribute, and not to sell lands or engage in war with other 
Indians without the consent of the Plymouth government. In 
1674, when three Wampanoags were executed at Plymouth for 
the alleged murder of Sassamon, an Indian convert who had 
played the part of informer to the English, Philip could no 
longer hold his followers in check. There were outbreaks in the 
middle of June 1675, and on the 24th of June the massacre of 
whites began. There was no concerted movement of the various 
tribes and the war had not been previously planned. The 
Nipmuck Indians rose in July; the tribes along the Connecticut 
river in August; those in the present states of Maine and New 
Hampshire in September and October, and the Narragansets 
in December, when (on the igth) they were attacked and seriously 
crippled, in what is now the township of South Kingstown, 
Rhode Island, by the English (under Governor Josiah Winslow 
of Plymouth), who suspected their loyalty. 

The colony of Connecticut took quick measures of defence, 
guarded its frontier, maintained its alliance with the Mohegans, 
and suffered little injury. Massachusetts and Plymouth were 
slower in acting and suffered great loss. Rhode Island raised 
no troops, and suffered severely. Early in the autumn Philip 
went nearly as far west as Albany in an unsuccessful attempt to 
get aid from the French and the Mohawks and supplies from the 
Dutch traders. At Deerfield on the i8th of September about 
60 English were killed and the settlement was abandoned. In 
the spring of 1676 it became evident that the Indian power was 
waning. The warriors had been unable to plant their crops; 
they were weaker numerically and more poorly armed than the 
English, and the latter had also made an alliance with the friendly 
Naticks and the Niantics. On the ist of August 1676 Philip's 
wife and nine-year old son were captured, and on the nth of 
August an Indian traitor guided the English to the sachem's 
hiding place in a swamp at the foot of Mount Hope (in what is 
now the township of Bristol, Rhode Island), where early the next 
morning he was surprised, and while trying to escape was killed 
by an Indian. The head of Philip was sent to Plymouth and set 



39 



PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT PHILIPPIANS 



on a pole in a public place, where it remained for a quarter of a 
century; his right hand was given to his slayer, who preserved it 
in rum and won many pennies by exhibiting it in the New 
England towns. The struggle was now over in southern New 
England, but it continued along the north-eastern frontier till 
the spring of 1678, and nearly every settlement beyond the 
Piscataqua was destroyed. In the colonies of Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut six hundred 
men (or about 9% of the fighting population), besides many 
women and children, had been killed; thirteen settlements had 
been completely destroyed, and about forty others were partly 
burned. Plymouth had incurred a debt greater than the value 
of the personal property of her people. The Indians suffered 
even worse: in addition to the large number of men, women and 
children slain, great numbers, among them the wife and son of 
Philip, were sold into slavery in the Spanish Indies and the 
Bermudas. Many others migrated from New England to New 
York; and the few remaining Indians, feeble and dispirited, were 
no longer a power to be reckoned with. Philip was an Indian 
patriot and statesman, not a warrior; he united the tribes in their 
resistance to the colonists, but was not a great leader in battle. 

See George M. Bodges, Soldiers in King Philip's War (Leo- 
minster, Mass., 1896); John Gorham Palfrey, History of New 
England, vol. iii. (Boston, 1864); and especially George W. Ellis 
and John E. Morris, King Philip's War (New York, 1906). See 
also Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip's War (Boston, 
1716; new edition, edited with notes by H. M. Dexter, Boston, 
1865), the account by Colonel Benjamin Church (1639-1718), one of 
the principal leaders of the English, of the warfare in south-eastern 
New England, in which he took part ; it is one of the most famous 
and realistic accounts of early Indian warfare. 

PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT (c. 1314-1369), queen of the English 
king Edward III., was the daughter of William the Good, count 
of Holland and Hainaut, and his wife Jeanne de Valois, grand- 
daughter of Philip III. of France. Edward visited the court of 
Count William in 1326 with his mother Isabella, who immediately 
arranged a marriage between him and Philippa. After a dispen- 
sation had been obtained for the marriage of the cousins (they 
were both descendants of Philip III.) Philippa was married by 
proxy at Valenciennes in October 1327, and landed in England 
in December. She joined Edward at York, where she was 
married on the 3oth of January 1328. Her marriage dower had 
been seized by the queen dowager Isabella to pay a body of 
Hainauters, with whose help she had compassed her husband's 
deposition. The alliance ensured for Edward in his French wars 
the support of Philippa's influential kindred; and before starting 
on his French campaign he secured troops from William the 
Good, as well as from the count of Gelderland, the count of 
Julick, and the emperor Louis the Bavarian. Her mother 
Jeanne de Valois, visited her in 1331 and further cemented the 
community of interests between England and Flanders. Before 
J 33S Philippa had established a small colony of Flemish weavers 
at Norwich, and she showed an active interest in the weaving 
trade by repeated visits to the town. She also encouraged coal- 
mining on her estates in Tynedale. Her eldest son, Edward the 
Black Prince, was born in 1330, and she subsequently bore six 
sons and five daughters. In November 1 34 2 she became guardian 
of John of Gaunt and her younger children, with their lands. 
Her agents are said to have shown great harshness in collecting 
the feudal dues with which to supply her large household. The 
anecdotes of her piety and generosity which have been preserved 
are proof, however, of her popularity. She interceded in 1331 
with the king for some carpenters whose careless work on a 
platform resulted in an accident to herself and her ladies, and on 
a more famous occasion her prayers saved the citizens of Calais 
from Edward's vengeance. There is a generally accepted story, 
based on the chronicles of Jehan le Bel and Froissart, that she 
summoned the English forces to meet the Scottish invasion of 
1346, and harangued the troops before the battle of Neville's 
Cross. She certainly exercised considerable influence over her 
husband, whom she constantly accompanied on his campaigns; 
and her death on the isth of August 1369 was a misfortune for 
the kingdom at large, since Edward from that time came under 



the domination of the rapacious Alice Ferrers. Philippa was the 
patron and friend of Froissart, who was her secretary from 1361 
to 1366. Queen's College, Oxford, was not, as is stated in 
Skelton's version of her epitaph, founded by her, but by her 
chaplain, Robert of Eglesfield. Her chief benefactions were 
made to the hospital of St Katharine's by the Tower, London. 

See Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, vol. i. 
In addition to the account given in his Chroniques, Froissart wrote 
a formal eulogy of her, which has been lost. 

PHILIPPEVILLE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an 
arrondissement in the department of Constantine, and 54 m. 
N. by E. of that city, on the Bay of Stora, in 36 53' N. 6 54' E. 
It is connected by railway with Constantine, Batna and Biskra. 
The town derives its importance from being the port of Constan- 
tine. The harbour works, with every vessel in port, having 
been destroyed by a storm in 1878, a more commodious harbour 
was built, at a cost of about 1,200,000. From Cape Skikda, on 
the east a mole or breakwater projects 4592 ft. to the W.N.W., 
while from Chateau Vert on the west another mole runs out 
1312 ft. to the north, leaving an entrance to the port about 656 ft. 
wide. The protected area comprises an outer and an inner 
basin. The depth of water at the entrance is about 33 ft., along- 
side the quays about 20 ft. The quays are faced with blocks 
of white marble brought from the quarries at Filfila, 16 m. 
distant. Pop. (1906), of the town 16,539, f the commune 26,050, 
of the arrondissement, which includes 12 communes, 147,607. 

Philippeville occupies the site of successive Phoenician and 
Roman cities. By the Romans, under whom it attained a high 
state of prosperity, it was named Rusicada. In the middle ages 
the town ceased to be inhabited. The site was purchased from 
the Arabs by Marshal Valee in 1838 for 6. Some parts of the 
Roman theatre remain, but the stones of the amphitheatre, 
which stood without the walls of the modern town, and which the 
French found in an almost perfect state of preservation, were 
used by them for building purposes, and the railway was cut 
through the site. On a hill above the town are the Roman 
reservoirs, which have been restored and still supply the town 
with water. They are fed by a canal from the Wadi Beni Meleh. 
The Roman baths, in the centre of the modern town, serve as 
cellars for military stores. 

PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik), a city of ancient Macedonia, on a 
steep hill near the river Gangites (mod. Angista), overlooking 
an extensive plain and at no great distance from the coast of the 
Aegean, on the highway between Neapolis (Kavalla) and Thessa- 
lonica. Originally called Crenides (Fountains), it took its 
later name from Philip II. of Macedon, who made himself master 
of the neighbouring gold mines of the Hill of Dionysus, and 
fortified the city as one of his frontier-towns. In 42 B.C., after 
the victory gained over the senatorial party by Octavius and 
Antony, it became a Roman colony, Colonia Julia Philippensis, 
which was probably increased after the battle of Actium (Col. 
Aug. Julia Phil.). The inhabitants received the Jus Italicum, 
and Philippi was one of the specially designated " first cities " 
(Acts xvi. 12; see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. 187). 
The city was twice visited by St Paul, whose Epistle to 
the Philippians was addressed to his converts here. The site, 
now uninhabited, is marked by ruins the substructions of an 
amphitheatre, parts of a great temple which have furnished 
interesting inscriptions. A little to the east is the huge stone 
monument of C. Vibius, known to the Turks as Dikelitashlar and 
to the Greeks as the Manger of Bucephalus. 

See Heuzey and Daumet, Mission arch, en Macedoine, Paris (1865), 
and other authorities in bibliography of MACEDONIA; Corp. Inscr. 
Lot. iii. i. (J. D. B.) 

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, a book of the New Testa- 
ment. Communications had already passed between the Chris- 
tians of Philippi and Paul, not only when he was at Thessalonica 
(iv. 15-16), but at some subsequent period (iv. 18), when Epaph- 
roditus had brought him a present of money from them. It is 
possible that this gift was accompanied by a letter. At any rate 
the extant epistle is the answer to one received from the Philippian 
Christians, who had evidently desired information about the 



PHILIPPIANS 



39 1 



apostle's health and prospects (i. 1 2) , assured him of their prayers 
(i. 19), and wondered whether he, their pride and glory (icaiixw a )> 
would return to them (i. 25 seq.). 

After a brief greeting (i. I, 2), Paul assures them of his loving 
interest in their present attainments and future progress in the 
faith of the gospel (i. 3-11); then, relieving their anxiety about his 
own prospects, he expresses the confident hope that he will be 
released and thus be able to return to them (i. 12-26). Meantime 
they were to avoid any pride or factiousness which might break 
their unity 1 as a church (i. 27-!!. 18), and they are promised a visit 
from two of Paul's coadjutors, 2 who are well known to them (ii. 1930). 
At this point the letter suddenly swerves 3 into a passionate warning 
against some errorists of Judaism (iii. i-iv. i), after which the 
appeal for unity at Philippi is reiterated (iv. 2-9),* and the epistle 
closes with some personal details (iv. 1023). 

Paul is a prisoner when he writes, and the place of composition 
may therefore be Caesarea or Rome (Acts xxviii. 16, 30-31). 
The evidence upon the whole seems to point to the latter. The 
phrase oida. Kalaapos (iv. 22) suits Rome better than Caesarea, 
and, while irpairupiov (i. 13) does not necessarily imply the 
capital, it is most naturally understood of Rome. 6 But the 
whole tone of the epistle suggests that Paul expected a speedy 
end to his case. Now at Caesarea this was out of the question. 
His appeal to Caesar involved a protracted process, and it is 
very difficult to put expressions like those e.g. of ii. 23 into such 
a situation. The critical outlook of Philippians does not corre- 
spond with the position of the apostle at Caesarea, nor can the 
latter town be said to have been a centre of vigorous Christian 
propaganda (i. 17). Finally, the contention that no visit of 
Timothy to Rome is known is an argument from silence which 
is of little more weight than the plea of Spitta that the cupidity 
of Felix (Acts xxiv. 26) was excited by the arrival of the money 
from Philippi (Phil. iv. 16). 

A further examination of the epistle shows that it must have 
been written towards the close of the Saria 6X?j of Acts xxviii. 30, 
not in the earlier part of the Roman captivity. Paul is on 
the edge and eve of the great decision. Behind him (i. 12-13) 
lies a period during which considerable progress has been made 
in the local preaching and extension of the gospel, nor does the 
language of the apostle suggest that this fresh departure in the 
propaganda was stimulated by the mere novelty of his arrival. 
Furthermore, the relations between the Philippians and himself 
presuppose, on any fair estimate, an interval of time which 
cannot be crushed into a few months. News of his arrival must 
have reached them; money was collected (ii. 25, iv. 18) and then 
forwarded by Epaphroditus, who fell sick after he reached the 
capital; news of this again floated back to Philippi, and subse- 
quently Paul heard of the Philippians' concern (ii. 26). Not till 
then did he compose this letter. 

Philippians is thus the last extant letter we possess from Paul, 
unless some of the notes embedded in the pastoral epistles are 
to be dated subsequent to its composition. It unites the close 
of his career in Rome with the beginning of his mission work in 
Europe (iv. 15; cf. Acts xvi. 12), and illustrates not merely the 
situation of the apostle at Rome, but the terms of exceptional 
affection which existed from first to last between him and the 

1 For the strong Christian consciousness of solidarity, presupposed 
in the Philippians, see Von Dobschutz's Christian Life in the Primitive 
Church (1904), pp. 93 seq. 

2 The touch of acerbity in ii. 21 (after i. 14) is probably to be 
explained by the fact that " Paul had found some of the brethren 
reluctant to undertake a journey to Macedonia, or to perform some 
other service which he desired, and the words only express the 
momentary disappointment of a man who was imprisoned and ready 
to die for the gospel " (Drummond). Cf. Renan's Antichrist (Eng. 
trans, p. 48). 

8 The so-called logion in (Justin's?) De resurrect. 9 : iifn\KOi kv 
ovpavy T-jJi/ KaToiKijffiv inrapxav, seems a mere echo of iii. 2O. 

4 On iv. 8 Von Soden notes (History of Early Christian Literature, 
p. 114) that " it is as if we heard the ripple of the waves at the 
meeting of the two streams which have their source in Zion and the 
Parthenon." 

5 If the expression meant (a) the praefecti praetorio or officials 
charged with the care of prisoners under trial, i.e. the supreme 
imperial court, or (b) the praetorian guard, or (c) their barracks, 
this would almost follow. But conceivably it might mean the 
palace, i.e. of Herod (Acts xxiii. 35). The balance of probabilities 
falls, however, in favour of the court hypothesis. 



Macedonian churches. The main argument for putting it earlier 
is derived from the admitted affinities between it and Romans, 
the Colossian and Ephesian epistles containing, it is held, a more 
advanced christology (so Lightfoot especially, and Hort, Judaistic 
Christianity, pp. 115-129). But such considerations are not 
decisive. Paul wrote from time to time, not in the execution 
of a literary plan, but as different objects or interests called out 
his powers. The Philippians did not require, and therefore did 
not receive, the same elaborate warnings as the Asiatic churches. 
Hence on the one hand it is unreal to lay stress on coincidences 
with Romans, as if these necessarily implied that both epistles 
must have been composed shortly after one another, while again 
the further stage of thought on Christ and the Church, which is 
evident in Colossians, does not prove that the latter must have 
followed the former. Upon the whole, the internal evidence of 
the epistle strongly favours its position as the last of the captivity 
epistles. 

The attempts made during the igth century to disprove the 
Pauline authorship now possess merely an historic interest, nor 
have the various hypotheses of more or less extensive inter- 
polation won any serious support. 6 More significance attaches 
to the view that the epistle is made up of two separate notes, 
written to Philippi at different times. The fusion of the two is 
found in the abrupt hiatus of iii. i, and evidence is led from 
supposed inconsistencies between the earlier and the latter parts 
of the epistle. But the flexibility of a letter-writer, under 
different moods of feeling, which would naturally lead to rapid 
transitions, may be adduced as some explanation of the latter 
phenomena. The exegesis does not absolutely necessitate a parti- 
tion of the epistle, which (so Heinrichs and Paulus) would make 
iii. i-iv. 20 a special letter addressed to some inner circle of the 
apostle's friends (in spite of iv. 10 seq.), or take iii.-iv. (Hausrath, 
History of N. T. Times, iv. 162 seq. and Bacon, Story of St Paul, 
pp. 367 seq.) as earlier than i.-ii. Besides, as Pfleiderer points out, 
the hypothesis is shipwrecked on the difficulty of imagining that 
" each of the epistles had but one essential part: the first, in 
particular, lacking an expression of thanks for the gift from the 
Philippians, which must nevertheless, according to ii. 25, have 
already taken place." In his letter to the Philippians (iii. 2) 
Polycarp indeed observes that Paul wrote ejrtoroXds to them; 
but, even if the plural could not be taken as equivalent to a 
single despatch, it would not necessarily support the partition 
theory of the canonical Philippians. Polycarp may have known 
of more than one Pauline note to Philippi, no longer extant, or 
he may be referring loosely to 2 Thessalonians, which was ad- 
dressed to a neighbouring Macedonian church. The exegetical 
arguments are, in short, the final court of appeal, and their verdict 
tells rather in favour of the epistle's integrity. The simplest 
account of iii. i is to suppose that Paul started afresh to complete 
or supplement what he had already written, possibly because 
some fresh tidings from Philippi had reached him in the interval. 
Psychologically the change from ii. 19 seq., with its note of fare- 
well, to the impassioned outburst of iii. 2 seq., is not incredible in 
an informal letter from a man like Paul. The hiatus is striking, 
but it cannot be held to necessitate an editorial dovetailing of 
two separate epistles. It is doubtful, therefore, if the ingenious 
attempts to analyse Philippians have proved much more con- 
vincing than the similar movement of literary criticism upon the 
first Philippic of Demosthenes, where research has swung back 
in the main to a conservative position (cf. A. Baron in Wiener 
Studien, 1884, 173-205). 

The first clear echoes of the epistle are heard in Polycarp, 
though it was probably known to Clement of Rome and Ignatius 
(cf. the evidence tabulated in The New Testament in the Apostolic 

6 To the details furnished in the present writer's Historical New 
Testament (2nd ed., 1901, pp. 634-635) may be added references to 
Volter's Paulus u. seine Briefe (1905), pp. 286-323, Belser's Einlei- 
tung in der N. T. (2nd ed., 1905), pp. 555 seq., and Schmiedel's 
paragraphs in Ency. Bib. (3147-3148). Pfleiderer (Primitive 
Christianity, i. 254 seq.) now hesitates on ii. 6 seq. alone like 
Bruckner and Schmiedel. The objections to Paul's authorship 
on the score of style and grammar are finally set aside by the 
philologist Nageli in Der Wortschatz des A pastels Paulus 1905), 
pp. 80-82. 



392 



PHILIPPICS PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



Fathers, 1905, pp. 53 seq., 71 seq., 94 seq., with R. J. Knowling's 
Testimony of St Paul to Christ, pp. in seq. and Gregory's Canon 
and Text of N. T., 1907, pp. 205-206). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The ablest among recent editions of the Greek 
text are those of R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commentar zum N. T., 2nd ed., 
1892), E. Haupt (in Meyer's Kommenlar, 1902) and H. A. A. Kennedy 
(Expositor's Creek Testament, 1903), to which may be added the 
older commentaries of C. J. Ellicott (sth ed., 1888), J. B. Lightfoot 
(6th ed., 1891) and A. Klopper (1893), which in some respects are 
not yet superseded. Other modern editions by M. R. Vincent 
(Internal. Crit. Commentary, 1897), H. C. G. Moule (Cambridge 
Greek Testament, 1897) and J. M. S. Baljon (1904) are worthy of 
notice, as well as the Roman Catholic commentaries by P. Beelen 
(Louvain, 1852) and A. Bisping (1866). The earlier work on the 
epistle is adequately summarized by B. Weiss in his Der Philipper- 
brief ausgelegt u. die Geschichte seiner Auslegung kritisch dargestellt 
(1859). There are brief popular commentaries in German by A. 
Neander (Eng. trans., 1851, Edinburgh), K. Braune (in Lange's Bibel- 
Werk, 2nd ed., 1875), Von Soden (1890), K. J. Miiller (1899) and 
W. Lueken (in Die Schriften des N. T., 1906); in English by C. J. 
Vaughan, M. F. Sadler (1889), J. Agar Beet, G. C. Martin (Century 
Bible) and Principal Drummond (Internal. Handbooks to TV. T., 
1899). In addition to the literature cited in the course of this 
article, consult the general studies by M. Hasselmann (Analyse 
pragmatique de I'epitre aux Phil., 1862); A. Sabatier (Encycl. des 
sciences relig. x. 569-573); J. Gibb (Hastings's Diet. Bible, iii. 
840-844); Sir W. M. Ramsay (Si Paul the Traveller, ch. x., xv. 
4) and R. R. Smith (The Epistle of St. Paul's First Trial, Cam- 
bridge, 1899); besides the older essays of Rettig (Quaestiones philip- 
pienses, Giessen, 1831) and C. Muller (Comment, de locis quibusdam 
epistolae ad Phil., 1844). The case against the Pauline authorship 
was stated most fully by F. C. Baur (Paulus, Eng. trans., ii. 45 seq. 
and in Theol. Jahrb., 1849, pp. 501 seq., 1852, pp. 133 seq.) ; E. Hinsch 
(Zeitschrift fur wiss. Theol., 1873, pp. 59 seq.); S. Hoekstra (Theol. 
Tijdschrift, 1875, pp. 416 seq.); J. P. Straatman (De Gemeente te 
Rome, 1878, pp. 201 seq.); C. Holsten (Jahrb. fur protest. Theologie, 
1875, pp. 425 seq. 1876, pp. 58 seq., 282 seq.); and Van Manen 
(Handeleiding voor de oudchrist. Letterkunde, 1900, pp. 49-51, 82-84; 
also in Ency. Bib., 3703-3713). The most thorough replies have been 
those of Lunemann (Pauli ad Philipp. epistola contra Baurium 
defensa, 1847) ; Ernesti (Studien und Kritiken, 1848, pp. 858-924, 
1851, pp. 591-632); B. Bruckner (Epistola ad Phil. Paulo auctori 
vindicate contra Baurium, 1848); A. Resch (De I'Authent. de I'epitre 
aux Ph., 1850); Grimm (Zeitschrift fur wiss. Theologie, 1873, pp. 33 
seq.); Hilgenfeld (ibid., 1884, pp. 498 seq.); C. Weizsacker (Apostolic 
Age, i. 218 seq., 279 seq., ii. 131) and Clemen (Paulus, i. 130-138). 
The religious ideas of the epistle are best stated in English by 
Principal Rainy (Philippians, Expositor's Bible) and H. C. G. Moule 
(Philippian Studies, 1897). Of the numberless monographs on 
ii. 6 seq., the most full is Tholuck's Dispulatio christologica de loco 
Pauli, Phil. ii. 6-9; and discussions of special excellence may be 
found in A. B. Bruce, The Humiliation of Christ (3rd ed., 1889, 
pp. 15 seq., 357 seq.); Weiffenbach's Zur Auslegung d. Stelle Phil, 
ii. 5-1 1 (Karlsruhe, 1884); and E. H. Gifford, The Incarnation 
(reprinted from the Expositor, 1896). (J. MT.) 

PHILIPPICS, in classical literature, a series of orations 
delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The 
name was applied to the speeches of Cicero against Mark 
Antony, and " Philippic " has passed into general use in the 
sense of an impassioned invective or declamation. 

PHILIPPICUS, East Roman emperor, 711-713, was the son of 
the patrician Nicephorus, and became distinguished as a soldier 
under Justinian II. His proper name, which indicates his 
Armenian origin, was Bardanes. Relying on the support of the 
Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on 
the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Justinian; these 
led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and 
subsequently to his banishment, by order of Justinian, to 
Cherson. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus, 
successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt, and on the assas- 
sination of Justinian he at once assumed the purple. Among his 
first acts were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch 
of Constantinople, in favour of John, a member of his own sect, 
and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which 
abolished the canons of the sixth general council. Meanwhile 
Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians, plundered up to the walls of 
Constantinople, and shortly afterwards the Saracens made similar 
inroads from the Asiatic side. The reign of Philippicus was 
brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of his 
generals, who caused him to be blinded. 

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 
London, 1896), v. 183-184. 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, or THE PHILIPPINES, an archipelago 
belonging to the United States of America, situated about 500 m. 
off the S.E. coast of Asia between 4 40' and 21 10' N. and 
between 116 40' and 126 34' E. It is bounded W. and N. by 
the China Sea, E. by the Pacific Ocean, and S. by the Celebes Sea 
and the coastal waters of Borneo. Of the large islands, Luzon 
(40,969 sq. m.) is the most northerly, and Mindanao (36,292 
sq. m.), the most southerly. Between Luzon and Mindanao are 
Samar (5031 sq. m.), Negros (4881 sq. m.), Panay (4611 sq. m.), 
Mindoro (3851 sq. m.), Leyte (2722 sq. m.), Cebu (1762 sq. m.), 
Bohol (1441 sq. m.) and Masbate (1236 sq. m.). Farther west 
and separated from the southern portion of this chain is the long 
narrow island of Palawan or Paragua (4027 sq. m.). The total 
land area of the Philippines is about 115,026 sq. m., and 92% of 
this is included in the eleven islands named above. There are 
twenty others, which have an area ranging from 106 sq. m. to 
682 sq. m., and the total number of islands enumerated within 
the archipelago is 3141; of these 2775 contain less than i sq. m. 
each. 

Physical Features. The islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and 
their surface is much broken by hills, isolated volcanoes and 
mountain ranges, trending north and south, north-west and south- 
east, or north-east and south-west. Extending for 350 m. along 
the east coast of central and northern Luzon is the Sierra Madre 
range, rising in occasional peaks to more than 4500 ft. and seldom 
less than 3500 ft. On the west coast are the Caraballos Occidentales 
north from the Gulf of Lingayen and the Zambalcs southward from 
that gulf to Manila Bay. The Caraballos Occidentales range is 
very complex; the central ridge is in some parts a rolling plateau, 
but it rises in Mt Data to 7364 ft., and numerous lofty spurs project 
from it. Much of the Zambales range has an average height of 
4000 ft. or more, and several peaks are more than 5000 ft. high. 
Between the Sierra Madre and Caraballos Occidentales is the valley 
of the Cagayan river, about 50 m. wide, and east of the Zambales 
range is a lowland basin, about 150 m. long and 50 m. wide, and 
not more than loo ft. above the sea except near its centre, where 
the extinct volcano of Arayat rises to 3564 ft. The greater part 
of southern Luzon is occupied by isolated volcanoes and irregular 
masses of hills and mountains. Mt Mayon (7916 ft.), near the 
south-eastern extremity, is an active volcano with an almost 
perfect cone. Of less prominence are Mt Banajao (7382 ft.), Mt 
Isarog (6634 ft.) and Mt Masaraga (5244 ft.). The island of Min- 
danao is traversed north to south by mountain ranges, which 
rise in their summits to heights exceeding 4000 ft. That along 
the east coast is longest and least broken, and between it and the 
next range inland is the level valley of the Agusan river, from 40 
to 50 m. wide. Farther west and south-west is the valley of the 
Rio Grande Mindanao, the largest river on the island, and between 
the lower course of this river and the south coast is a mountain 
range with a north-west and south-east trend. On the east border 
of the south portion of the basin of the Rio Grande Mindanao is 
Mt Apo (10,312 ft.), an extinct volcano and the highest elevation 
in the archipelago. 

Each of the larger islands between Luzon and Mindanao, except 
Samar and Bohol, is traversed longitudinally by a single mountain 
range with occasional spurs. In Leyte there are several isolated 
volcanic cones, two of which, in the north part, exceed 4000 ft. 
In Mindoro the range is broad, extending from coast to coast, 
and it culminates in Mt Halcon (about 8800 ft.). In Negros is 
Mt Canlaon (8192 ft.), a volcano, and several summits exceeding 
6000 ft. In Panay is Mt Madiaas (7264 ft.) and several other peaks 
exceeding 4000 ft.^ The highest peaks in Masbate are about 2500 ft. 
high, and in Cebu not much more than 2000 ft. In Samar there 
are irregular masses of hills. The southern portion of Bohol is 
very hilly, but the northern portion is more level. Palawan, 275 m. 
long and about 15 m. wide, is traversed throughout its length 
by a range of mountains with an average height of4OOO to 5000 ft. 
and a few summits about 6000 ft. high. Submarine mountain 
ranges connect not only the islands within the archipelago, but also 
the archipelago itself with Borneo and Celebes, so that only shallow 
channels connect the interior waters with the Pacific Ocean and the 
China Sea. The coast-line of the Philippines, more than 11,000 m. 
in length, is fringed with coral reefs and broken by numerous gulfs 
and bays. 

The Cagayan river, in north Luzon, is the largest in the archi- 
pelago. It is about 220 m. long and drains to the northward 
about 10,000 sq. m., or nearly one-fourth of the island. The Rio 
Grande de Mindanao (known in its upper course as the Rio Pulangua) 
drains to the south and west a larger area in central and southern 
Mindanao and is second in size. It and the Agusan, which drains 
to the northward the mountain valley in east Mindanao, are each 
over 200 m. in length. The principal rivers of the lowland basin 
of central Luzon are the Pampanga and the Agno. The Pampanga 
rises in the highlands on the north-east border, flows south by west, 
and discharges through several channels into Manila Bay. The 



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PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



393 



Agno rises in the mountains on the north border, flows south, 
south-west and north-west, and discharges through several channels 
into the Gulf of Lingayen. Each of these has a great number of 
small tributaries, and along the coast of this lowland basin are 
many small tide water streams. The Pasig is a short but commer- 
cially important stream connecting Laguna de Bay with Manila Bay. 
The Rio Bicol, which rises in Lake Bato and flows N.N.W. into San 
Miguel Bay, is the principal river of south Luzon. Samar, Panay, 
Negros, Leyte, Bohol and Cebu are drained by many streams, and a 
few of those in Samar, Panay and Negros are of considerable size. 

In the lowland basin of central Luzon, 6 m. inland from Manila 
Bay, is Laguna de Bay, the largest body of fresh water in the 
Philippines. It is 32 m. long from north-west to south-east 
and its coast-line, broken on the north by two hilly peninsulas, is 
108 m. long. Lake Taal, a few miles south-west of Laguna de Bay, 
occupies the crater of a great volcano. It is 175 m. long and 
12 m. wide. The country rises gently to it on all sides, and on an 
island near its centre is the active volcano of Taal, 1050 ft. high. 
In north Luzon is Lake Cagayan. In Mindanao there are lakes 
Lanao, Liguasan and Buluan in the west-central portion and 
lakes Mainit, Pinaya, Dagun, Sadocum and Linao in the valley 
of the Agusan. There are small lakes in some of the other islands. 

Geology. The Philippines appear to be the remnants of a some- 
what complex system of mountain arcs, which from their similarity 
of form and direction seem to be in some way connected with the 
mountain ranges of Annam. The oldest rocks exposed are gneiss, 
talc-schist and serpentine, with intrusive masses of gabbro and 
diabase. These are overlaid by a limestone, upon which rests con- 
formably a series of sandstones with coal seams. The age of these 
beds is unknown. In some of the islands nummulitic limestone 
(Eocene) occurs. Coral limestones, probably of Middle Tertiary 
age, are also found, sometimes 4000 ft. above the sea, and marine 
deposits of a very late geological period occur near the coast and in 
the low-lying depressions. Volcanic rocks of modern date cover 
extensive areas, especially in the southern part of Luzon and in 
Mindanao. In Luzon trachytic tuffs are sometimes interstratified 
with nummulitic limestone, thus showing that the eruptions had 
already begun in the Eocene period. 

Volcanoes and Earthquakes. There are twelve active volcanoes in 
the archipelago. They are Babuyan Claro, Camiguin de Babuyanes 
and Didicas in the Babuyanes Islands off the north coast of Luzon ; 
Cagua or Caua in north Luzon; Taal, Mayon and Bulusan in south 
Luzon; Canlaon and Magaso in Negros; Camiguin de Mindanao in 
the island of Camiguin, off the north coast of Mindanao; and Apo 
and Calayo in Mindanao. Only a few eruptions have been recorded 
of any of these, however, except Taal and Mayon, and there has 
been no great eruption of Taal since 1754. But there were 26 
eruptions of Mayon in the igth century, and those of 1814 and 
1897 were of great violence. That of 1897 began practically without 
warning on the 23rd of June, became alarming on the 24th and 
destructive on the 25th, and ceased on the 3Oth. Streams of lava 
completely destroyed several villages and injured others, as well as 
the town of San Fernando. The lava flow extended more than 
7 m. eastward, and a rain of ashes extended too m. to the east and 
75 m. to the west. There are eight other volcanoes, which although 
extinct or dormant have well-preserved cones. They are Arayat, 
Banajao, San Cristobal, Isarog and Malinao in south Luzon, and 
Macaturin and Matutum in Mindanao. 

Earthquakes are frequent and occasionally violent. In the 
seven years 1902-1908 the microseismograph at Manila recorded 
796 local earthquakes. In the 47 years ending March 1909 the 
various regions of the archipelago were visited by about 60 strong 
earthquakes; 1 6 of these, in ten different regions, occurred in the 
decade from 1890 to 1900. There were 8 in the year 1897 alone, and 
one of these ruined the town of Zamboanga in west Mindanao and 
caused considerable loss of life by falling buildings and immense 
sea waves. A new island appeared at this time off the coast of 
Borneo, near Labuan. The principal centres of disturbance are 
in the valley of the Agusan, m the region of Mayon volcano, in 
the region of Taal volcano, on Masbate Island, and along the north 
shore of Luzon. The islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros and Palawan 
are rarely shaken. 

Fauna. The Philippines, politically speaking, and the Philip- 
pines, zoologically speaking, are not identical areas; Balabac, 
Palawan and the Calamianes being characterized by the occurrence 
of numerous Bornean forms which are conspicuously absent from 
the remaining islands. Although the Philippines are commonly 
held to form an eastern extension of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, 
there is a large amount of specialization in the fauna of the islands 
eastward of the Palawan group. Mammals are scarce. No mar- 
supials occur. The edentates are represented by the pangolin 
(Manis sp.?) of the Palawan group. In the seas are found the 
dolphin, cachalot and dugong. Wild hogs of at least two species 
occur. The beautiful axis deer of Sulu has apparently been brought 
there by man. Red or brown deer occur in Basilan, Mindanao, 
Leyte, Samar and the Calamianes Islands. The number of species 
and their respective ranges have not been satisfactorily determined. 
In Masbate, Panay, Guimaras and Negros there is a dark-coloured 
species marked with buff spots. Deer are absent in Palawan, 
Tawi Tawi, Tablas, Romblon, Sibuyan and Siquijor. Humped 



cattle are raised on most of the islands. They are killed for their 
flesh, hides and horns, and little attention is paid to their milk- 
giving properties. The water-buffalo, or caraboa, occurs in a 
wild state in Luzon, Mindoro, the Calamianes group, Masbate, 
Negros and Mindanao, but the wild herds are believed to have 
originated from domesticated animals. The domesticated water- 
buffalo is sluggish in its movements, and will not work through 
the heat of the day; but it is a wonderful swimmer, and makes 
its way through the worst quagmire with ease. It is universally 
used as a draught animal and beast of burden. The most inter- 
esting of the ruminants is the timarau (Bubalus mindorensis, Heude), 
peculiar to Mindoro. Unlike the water-buffalo, it does not bathe 
in water or wallow in mud. It is extremely wild, feeding by night 
and sleeping by day in the densest jungle. It sometimes charges 
the hunter without provocation, and is very dangerous when 
wounded. It attacks and kills the much larger wild buffalo. All 
attempts to domesticate it have failed. A chevrotain is found 
in Balabac. The house rat, introduced by man, is a common 
nuisance, and mice occasionally seriously damage sugar-cane and 
rice. Squirrels are confined to the eastern chain of islands from 
Basilan to Samar and to the Palawan-Calamianes group. In the 
southern islands there is a tiny species, the size of a mouse. Very 
large flying-squirrels are found in Palawan and Mindanao. Squirrel- 
shrews occur in the Palawan-Calamianes group, and true shrews 
at various points in the archipelago. Among the Carnivores 
are the binturong and an otter, both found in the Palawan- 
Calamianes group; two civet cats, which range throughout the 
archipelago, and a wild cat of small size, which has been found 
in Palawan, Panay, Negros and Luzon. Bats are very numerous, 
and a number of the species are peculiar to the Philippines. 
Galeopithecus^ and Tarsius range from Basilan to Samar; the former 
occurs also in Bohol. In spite of all ^that has been said to the 
contrary, but one species of monkey {Macacus philippinensis, 
Geoff.) has been discovered in the Philippines. It occurs on every 
island of any importance. Its flesh is occasionally eaten by the 
natives. Albino specimens of this monkey are not uncommon, 
but the pure white monkeys, not albinos, said to inhabit Mindanao, 
are mythical. The large fruit bats (Pteropus) occur in immense 
colonies, and are sometimes eaten by the natives. 

Especial importance attaches to the unexpected discovery by 
Whitehead of a new and peculiar mammalian fauna, inhabiting 
a small plateau on the top of Mt Data, in north Luzon, at an altitude 
of more than 7000 ft. Specimens of 15 species were obtained, 
embracing 5 new genera (Calaemomys, Chrotomys, Rhynchomys, 
Batomys and Carpomys). Eight of the species were new and 
strikingly peculiar. Their zoological relationships are probably 
with Celebes and with Australia. Other discoveries include a few 
new squirrels and bats, and the occurrence of a lemur (Nycticebus 
lardigradus) in Tawi Tawi. 

The islands are as rich in birds as they are poor in mammals, the 
total number of species recorded up to 1906 being 693, of which 
about one-half are peculiar to the Philippines. A study of their 
geographical distribution has demonstrated that the islands may 
be divided into fairly well-marked groups, in each of which the 
birds show a degree of specialization closely correlated with 
diversity of environment and completeness and probable duration 
of separation from adjacent groups. Balabac, Palawan and the 
Calamianes show a very strong Bornean element. Mindoro stands 
by itself. Luzon and the small neighbouring islands have 51 peculiar 
forms. A close relationship exists between the birds of the entire 
eastern chain of islands. Numerous genera and some families 
which are absent from the central islands range from Luzon to 
Basilan. These genera usually have distinct representative species 
in Luzon, Samar and Leyte, Mindanao, and in some cases in Basilan 
also. The greatest differences occur between Luzon and Samar 
and Leyte. The latter islands have 22 peculiar species. 

Sulu and Tawi Tawi belong zoologically to the Philippines, but 
have 12 well-marked peculiar species, and many of the character- 
istic Mindanao-Basilan forms are lacking. Panay, Guimaras, 
Negros and Masbate constitute a sharply denned area, characterized 
not only by the occurrence of 30 peculiar species, but by the absence 
of important genera, and even whole families represented in the 
eastern islands. Most of the mammals characteristic of the latter 
region are lacking. It is a curious fact that Cebu stands quite 
by itself, although the deep channel separating it from Negros 
narrows at one point to about 4 m. Cebii , possesses 9 striking 
species of birds not known to exist elsewhere, and lacks many of 
the characteristic forms of the central and eastern islands. The 
zoological position of Bohol has not been satisfactorily determined, 
but all existing evidence indicates that it must be grouped with 
Samar and Leyte. 

Among the more interesting birds may be mentioned the " mound 
builder " (Megapodius cumingi, Dillwyn), which buries its large 
eggs in the soft sand along the sea beach, or under great mounds of 
earth and dead leaves, often at a depth of three or more feet below 
the surface. The young are forced to dig their way out and shift 
for themselves. The eggs are highly prized by the natives. The 
jungle fowl abounds. There are 35 species of pigeons and doves, 
many of them most beautifully coloured and all edible. Snipe, 
plover, turnstones and other shore birds are abundant during 



394 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



the cool season, and herons, bitterns and ducks at all times. The 
birds of prey, 45 species, of which 22 are peculiar to the group, 
vary in size from a tiny falcon not larger than a sparrow (Micro- 
hierax), to an immense monkey-catching eagle (Pithecophaga 
geferyi. Grant), which is strong enough to seize monkeys as they 
leap from tree to tree. There are 21 species of kingfishers, 15 
being peculiar. Of the 12 species of hornbills not one occurs 
outside of the Philippines. Frog-mouths, bee-birds, night-hawks 
and swifts are found in considerable variety. One of the last 
(Collocalia troglodytes, Gray) constructs the edible nests so highly 
prized by the Chinese. The best nests are obtained on the precipi- 
tous sides of the Penon de Coron, between Culion and Busuanga. 

There may also be mentioned 21 cuckoos, I cockatoo, 20 parrots 
and parakeets, 20 woodpeckers, barbets, broadbills, starlings, 
orioles, weaver-finches, larks, nuthatches, 28 beautifully coloured 
sun-birds, and 23 flower-peckers, titmice, shrikes, swallow-shrikes, 
tailor-birds, thrushes, fruit-thrushes, fairy blue-birds, fire-birds, 
42 fly-catchers, 4 swallows, and 5 species of most beautifully coloured 
ant-thrushes, as well as a large number of birds for which English 
names cannot be readily supplied. 

Reptiles and batrachians are abundant, but have been little 
studied. Pythons occur throughout the group, and sometimes 
attain enormous size. There are numerous venomous serpents, 
but the mortality from snake-bite is low. Geckoes may be seen 
on the walls and ceilings of any house. Flying lizards abound 
in the forests. Large iguanas are numerous. Their eggs are prized 
by the natives, and the flesh of one species, known as ibit or pelubid, 
is highly esteemed. Crocodiles are extremely numerous in many 
of the streams, and are occasionally found in the sea along the 
coasts. Specimens have been obtained measuring 18 ft. in length. 
Land turtles of small size are common. Very large sea turtles 
are often captured by the fishermen, and their flesh is highly appre- 
ciated as an article of food. A considerable business is done in 
tortoise-shell. Frogs occur in great variety. One small species 
appears in immense numbers with the oncoming of the rainy season, 
and at night the noise of its outcry almost deadens other sounds. 

Fishes, especially marine fishes, are numerous and varied. About 
500 species of food fishes have been found, and common among 
them are the bangos or milkfish, the banak or mullet, mackerel, 
herring, anchovies, groupers, snappers, pompano, tarpon and 
bonito. The " dalag, which is found in the paddy-fields during 
the wet season, is a favourite with the natives. 

The Philippines are famous for the variety, beauty and abun- 
dance of their land molluscs. Fresh-water and marine molluscs 
are also very numerous. While most of the species are of interest 
chiefly to the conchologist, there are a number of edible forms. 
The shells of Placuna placenta, L., split into thin flat plates and, 
cut into small squares, are almost universally used in place of 
window glass. The valves of the giant clam (Tridachna) some- 
times attain a length of 5 ft. and weigh hundreds ol pounds. Pearl- 
oysters are abundant in the southern waters of the archipelago. 
Pearl-fishing is an important industry in the Sulu Islands. The 
shells of the pearly nautilus are commonly used by the Visayans 
for drinking cups. From the great opercula of certain marine 
forms bracelets and other ornaments are carved, while the hard 
serrated edges of other species are sometimes employed in place 
of knives for harvesting rice. The land molluscs have been 
thoroughly classified, but much still remains to be done with the 
marine species. 

Arthropoda are very abundant and as yet little known. Shrimps, 
crabs and lobsters form an important source of food supply. Mos- 
quitoes are numerous in the wet lowlands. Bees are abundant, 
and wild honey and wax are gathered in considerable quantities. 
The number of species of ants is very large. Some of them infest 
dwelling-houses and swarm over the food. The termites, or so- 
called white ants," inflict great damage on wooden buildings. 
Plagues of locusts occasionally, during a drought, ruin growing 
crops; in damp wet weather these insects are destroyed by a fungus 
growth (Empusa gryllae) within their bodies. 

Land-leeches swarm in the damp lowland forests. The coral 
beds of Mindanao and the^Sulu Archipelago are of unsurpassed 
beauty, and Guimaras, Cebu and Siquijor are completely covered 
with a thick cap of coral limestone. 

Flora. The rich and varied flora of the Philippines is essentially 
Malayan, intermixed with Chinese and Australian elements, but 
with sufficient individuality to constitute a sub-region, there being 
at least 769 species peculiar to the archipelago. More than two- 
thirds of the land surface is covered with forests. In the lowlands 
and on the lower mountain slopes the forests are composed chiefly 
of broad-leaved trees, common among which are the bamboo, the 
coco and other palms, and the banyan tree; but on the higher 
mountain slopes pines are most abundant. About 750 species of 
wood are of commercial or local value, among them are woods 
well suited for structural purposes, inside finishing, cabinet work 
and carriage making. Plants valuable for their fibre number 
about 300, and among them is the abaca (Musa texilis), from the 
leaves of which Manila hemp is made. There are gutta-percha, 
india-rubber and other trees and plants yielding gums, the banana, 
mango, and many other trees and plants yielding fruits; and various 
trees and plants yielding nuts, spices, oils and medicines. 



Climate. A uniformly high temperature, excessive humidity, 
heavy rainfalls and violent tropical storms, known as typhoons or 
bagiiios, are characteristic of the Philippine climate. At Manila 
the mean annual temperature is about 80 F., the range of mean 
monthly temperature 6-48, from 77 in January to 83-48 in May; 
and the range of extremes (during the period from 1881 to 1902) 
39-96 from 60-08 in January 1881 to 100-04 in May 1889. In 
accordance with the monthly variations in temperature at Manila 
the year is divided into three seasons: temperate (November, 
December, January and February), hot (April, May and June) and 
intermediate (March, July, September and October). Throughout 
the archipelago the mean annual temperature varies much more 
with the altitude than with the latitude, but the range in mean 
monthly temperatures increases from 3-96 F. at Davao, Mindanao, 
in 7 l' N. to 12-6 at Santo Domingo, Batan Islands, in 20 28' 
N. The equability of the temperature also decreases appre- 
ciably from the sea-coast to the interior. The maximum 
daily range of temperature at Manila varies from 13-8 in June to 
17-7 in December. At Manila the monthly average of relative 
humidity ranges from 70-7 in April to 85-5 in September, and the 
annual average is 79-4. The mean annual rainfall in this city is 
about 76 in., and nearly three-fourths of it is from the middle of 
June to the middle of October, when the winds blow from the 
south-west. During the period from 1865 to 1902 the annual rain- 
fall varied from 35-6 in. in 1885 to 117-3 m - i n l86 7 when in the 
month of September alone there was a fall of 57-8 in. In July, 
August and September two-thirds of the days are rainy, but in 
February, March and April only one-tenth of them are rainy. On 
the Pacific coast of Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao the rainy 
season is from November to May, when the winds blow from the 
east or the north-east. In the year ending August 1903 the amounts 
of rainfall at 41 observation stations widely distributed throughout 
the archipelago varied from 16-2 in. at Zamboanga in west Mindanao 
to 152 in. at Masinloc, on the west coast of central Luzon. The 
Philippines are visited on the average by twenty or more typhoons 
annually. About one-fifth of them occur in September. During 
January, February, March and April they are rare; in May, June 
and July they become increasingly common, and in August there 
is a falling off in the number, which reaches its maximum in 
September, gradually decreasing in October, November and De- 
cember. In the famous typhoon of the 2oth of October 1882, the 
vortex of which passed over Manila, an immense amount of damage 
was done in the city. Two thousand persons lost their lives in 
Samar and Leyte during the great storm of 1897. The typhoon 
warnings sent out from the Manila observatory annually save 
heavy loss of life and property. 

Soil. The soil, usually of a reddish-brown colour, is for the most 
part disintegrated lava mixed with decayed vegetation; occasion- 
ally there is also a mixture of disintegrated coral limestone. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal industry. In 1903 
about 40 % of the working population were engaged in agricultural 
pursuits. The industry is, however, in a primitive condition. 
The native farmers are lazy and slow to appreciate the advantages 
of the methods recommended by the Americans. Only 9-5 % of 
all the land in the archipelago was included in " farms " in 1903, 
and less than one-half of the farm land was under cultivation. 
La Lagnna, Luzon, was the only province in which more than 
50 % of the land was included in " farms," and Cebii the only island 
in which more than 25 % of the land was included in farms; in the 
jarge island of Mindanao only 1-4 %, in Masbate only 1-6'%, and 
in Mindoro only 3-9 %. There were 815,453 " farms " or individual 
holdings, but more than one-fifth of these were small parcels or 
gardens containing less than an acre each ; about one-half contained 
less than 2j acres each, and the average size was 8-57 acres. More 
than four-fifths of them were worked by owners, and the remainder 
chiefly by share tenants. The principal crops are hemp (abaca), 
sugar, tobacco, coco-nuts and rice. Most of the hemp (538,200 
acres in 1902) is grown in south Luzon and in Samar and Leyte, 
but smaller crops are produced in Cebu, Mindoro, Marinduque, 
north Mindanao and south Negros; the crop became of commercial 
importance about 1855, and in 1907 the yield for export amounted 
to 112,895 tons. About two-thirds of the sugar is produced in 
Negros, but it is an important crop in the provinces of Pampanga 
and Tarlac, within the lowland basin of Luzon, also in the province 
of Batangas on the south coast of Luzon, in the south and east of 
Panay, and in Cebu. The production increased from about 6000 
tons in 1855 to 300,000 tons in 1893, and for many years prior to 
1887 it was a more important crop than hemp, but since the American 
occupation the crop has been smaller. The total acreage in 1902 
was 177,620 acres, and in 1007 the yield for export was 118,395 
tons. Approximately one-half of the tobacco, 77,632 acres yielding 
37,485 Ib in 1902, is grown in the valley of the Cagayan river, 
and most of the remainder, which is of inferior quality, in the 
neighbouring provinces of Union, Ilocos Norte and Abra, and in 
Panay, Cebu, Masbate and Negros. The natives chew betel nuts 
instead of tobacco, and to the production of these nuts they devote 
more than 60,000 acres. The rich soil of the lowlands of the pro- 
vince of Laguna is especially well adapted to the culture of the 
coco-nut palm, and since the American occupation considerable 
land in this province that had formerly been devoted to sugar 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



395 



has been planted with these trees. They thrive well also in most 
low districts along the coasts; in 1902 about 375,000 acres were 
devoted to the culture of them. 

Rice is the staple food of the natives. When the Philippines 
were discovered by the Spaniards it was the only cultivated crop 
of importance, and until the igth century it was the chief article 
of export, but as the culture of the more profitable crops of hemp, 
sugar and coco-nuts was extended it became an article of import. 
As late as 1902, however, about one-half of the land under cultiva- 
tion was sown to rice. It is grown most extensively in the lowlands 
of the south half of Luzon, in north Panay and in Negros, but the 
culture of either the lowland or the upland varieties for local con- 
sumption is very general. In some districts Indian corn is the 
staple food instead of rice, and the production of this cereal in small 
quantities for livestock is general. It is grown most extensively 
in the valley of the Cagayan river, in 1902 the total acreage in the 
archipelago was about 254,470. For several years prior to 1891, 
coffee, grown principally in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas 
and Lepanto-Bontoc, Luzon, was nearly as important a crop as 
tobacco, but between 1891 and 1898 most of the coffee plantations 
were destroyed by insects and disease. A small quantity of coffee 
is grown in the province of Benguet, Luzon, and is of superior 
quality. Cotton, the cultivation of which was discouraged by the 
Spanish government as a means of increasing the cultivation of 
tobacco, is a very small crop, except in the provinces of Ilocos 
Norte, and Ilocos Sur on the west coast of north Luzon; in 1902 
there were in these provinces about 5525 acres of cotton. Many 
tropical fruits grow wild but their quality is often inferior; those 
cultivated most extensively are mangoes and bananas. Grapes, 
blackberries, figs and strawberries have been introduced from the 
United States and are grown successfully in the province of Benguet. 
The natives care little for the garden vegetables common to Europe 
and America, but in the vicinity of Manila and other large centres 
of population the Chinese grow many of these for consumption by 
European and American inhabitants. 

With the exception of the water-buffalo, which is indispensable 
for agricultural purposes, the domestic animals are very inferior 
in quality and few in numbers. The horses, which are of Mexican, 
Spanish and Chinese origin, are small and poorly cared for; some 
American horses have been introduced for the purpose of improving 
the breed. The neat cattle, which are of Australian and Indian 
origin, are raised chiefly for beef, their hides and their horns; 
about nine-tenths of them were destroyed by the rinderpest and 
the war at the close of the igth century. Swine are numerous but 
they are of a kind known in the United States as " razorbacks." 
There are many goats but only a few sheep. In one district 
near Manila duck-raising is of considerable importance, but 
the principal branch of the poultry industry consists in the 
raising of game-cocks for cock-fighting, which is the national 
sport. 

Mineral Resources. Numerous mineral deposits have been 
discovered, but little has been determined with respect to their 
value. Sub-bituminous coal is widely distributed. That near the 
surface is generally poor in quality and the difficulties of deep mining 
may be great because of folds and faults in the rocks. There are, 
however, promising fields near Danao, in Cebii; on the island of 
Polillo, oft the east coast of Luzon; in the south part of Mindoro; 
on Batan Island, off the south-east coast of Luzon; on Dinagat 
Island, off the north coast of Mindanao; and in the north-east 
corner of Negros. Gold has been found in small quantities in nearly 
all the provinces. There is some rude gold mining by the natives. 
As the result of favourable indications extensive gold-mining 
operations have been instituted in the provinces of Benguet and 
Ambos Camarines in Luzon, and on the island of Masbate. Copper 
is scarcely less widely distributed than gold, but the production 
of it awaits smelters and better facilities for transportation. There 
are extensive deposits of iron ore (magnetite and hematite) in the 
province of Bulacan, Luzon. Iron ore has been found in other 
provinces of Luzon and in the islands of Cebu, Panay and Marin- 
duque. There are outcrops of lead in Marinduque and Cebii, and 
in Marinduque considerable silver is associated with the lead. 
Among other minerals are sulphur, lime, gypsum and phosphate. 

Manufactures. The manufacturing industry consists mainly in 
preparing agricultural products for market, and in the production 
by the natives of wearing apparel, furniture, household utensils, and 
other articles required to supply their primitive wants. The most 
important factories are those for the manufacture oT cigars and 
cigarettes, but most cigars and some of the cigarettes are made by 
hand. In the manufacture of sugar most of the mills in use extract 
only about three-fourths of the juice from the cane; in 1902 about 
73 % of it was manufactured by 528 mills operated by steam; 
I 7 % by 47 mills operated by hand or by a carabao; and 10 % by 
77 mills operated by water-power. In the principal rice-producing 
districts the rice is threshed and cleaned by machines, but in other 
districts more primitive methods are employed. Most of the cloth 
which the natives wear the women weave in their own homes. 
There are three principal varieties: sinamay, which is made from 
selected hemp fibres and is worn by both men and women ; jusi, 
which is made from a mixture of hemp and pineapple-plant fibres 
with or without the addition of some cotton and silk and is used 



for making women's dresses and men's shirts; pina, which is made 
from the fibres in the leaf of the pineapple-plant and is used for 
making women's garments, handkerchiefs and scarfs. Nipa, made 
from the fibre of the agave or maguey plant and worn by women, 
is less common. Hats are made of palm leaves, alaca leaves, banana 
leaves, split bamboo and various grasses. Mats, rugs and carpets 
are made principally of split bamboo ; chairs and beds of bahnag 
and other woods and of rattan. Alcohol is distilled from nipa, 
coco-nuts, buri (Corypha umbraculifera), cauong (Caryota onusta), 
pugahan (Caryota urens) and Indian corn. Other manufactures 
of the natives include vehicles of various kinds, harnesses, indigo, 
coco-nut oil, soap, salt and lime. 

Communications and Commerce. The first railway in the Philip- 

Eines was the line from Manila to Dagupan (120 m.) which was built 
y an English corporation under a guaranty of the Spanish govern- 
ment and was opened in 1892. There was no further construction 
for ten years. But in 1902 and 1903 the Philippine government, 
as established in 1902 by an act of the Congress of the United 
States, granted franchises for the extension of the Manila-Dagupan 
railway to Cabanatuan (55 m.) and to Antipolo (24 m.). The first 
of these branches was completed in 1905, the second in 1906. In 
February 1905 Congress authorized the Philippine government 
to aid and encourage the construction of railways by guaranteeing 
4 % interest on bonds; the duty on imported materials used in the 
construction of railways and the internal revenue on Philippine 
forest products used for that purpose have also been removed. 
With this assistance the Manila Railroad Company, organized 
under the laws of the state of New Jersey, agreed to construct 
about 600 m. of railway in Luzon; and the Philippine Railroad 
Company, organized under the laws of the state of Connecticut, 
agreed to construct about 300 m. in Panay, Cebu and Negros. 
In 1909 there were in operation more than 300 m. in Luzon, 60 m. 
in Cebu and 50 m. in Panay. At the beginning of the American 
occupation the roads were very bad and in many of the islands 
there were none; but in 1909 there were at least 400 m. of good 
roads. The Cagayan river, which is navigable for native boats 
1 60 m. from its mouth, and for rafts 40 m. farther up, is an important 
highway of commerce in north Luzon. Many miles of inland 
water communication with small boats or bamboo rafts are afforded 
by the Pampanga, Agno, Abra, Pasig and Bicol rivers in Luzon, and 
by the Agusan and Rio Grande de Mindanao in Mindanao. There 
are few harbours which admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of 
water, but many which admit smaller vessels, and at the close of 
1909 there were 151 steamboats and 424 sailboats engaged in the 
coasting trade. Manjla is the principal port of entry, and since 
the American occupation Manila harbour has been made accessible 
to vessels drawing 30 ft. of water. Cebu in Cebu and Iloilo in Panay 
are ports of entry second and third in rank, although small in com- 
parison with Manila; there are others of minor importance. 

The foreign commerce of the Philippines consists chiefly in 
the exportation of Manila hemp, dried coco-nut meat (copra), sugar 
and tobacco, both in the leaf and in cigars and cigarettes; and in 
the importation of cotton goods, rice, wheat-flour, fresh beef, 
boots and shoes, iron and steel, illuminating oil, liquors, paper and 
paper goods. The value of the exports increased from $19,751,068 
in the year ending the 3Oth of June 1900 to $32,816,567 in the year 
ending the 3Oth of June 1908, and the value of the imports increased 
during the same period from $20,601,436 to $30,918,357. A very 
large part of the trade is with the United States and Great Britain. 
The imports from Great Britain exceed those from the United States, 
but the exports to the United States are much greater than those 
to Great Britain, and the total trade with the United States is 
greater than that with any other country. In 1909 8-05 % of the 
imports were from the United States and 17-8 % of the exports 
were to the United States; in 1908 16-4 % of the imports were 
from the United States and 31-4 % of the exports were to the 
United States. In 1909 free trade was established between the United 
States and the Philippines in all goods which are the growth, product 
or manufacture of these countries, with the exception of rice, except 
that a limit to the free importation from the Philippines to the 
United States in any one year is fixed on cigars at 15,000,000; 
on wrapper tobacco and on filler tobacco, when mixed with more 
than 15 % of wrapper tobacco, at 300,000 ft; on filler tobacco at 
1,000,000 ft and on sugar at 300,000 gross tons. In the case of 
manufactures the law provides that only those articles which do 
not contain more than 20 % in value of foreign materials shall be 
admitted free. 

Population. The total population of the archipelago as 
enumerated in the census of 1903 was 7,635,426. Of this 
number 6,987,868 were classed as civilized and 647,740 as wild; 
7,579,288 or 99-2% were native-born and 56,138 were foreign- 
born; 7,539,632 were of the Malayan or brown race, 42,097 were 
of the yellow race, 24,016 were of the black race, 14,271 were of 
the white race, and 15,419 were of mixed races. Of the black 
race 23,511, or 97-8%, were Negritos, who are believed to be the 
aborigines of the Philippines. Nearly all of them live in a 
primitive state in the interior of Luzon, Panay, Mindanao and 



39 6 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



Negros. They are very short of stature, 4 ft. 10 in. being about 
the average height of a full-grown man, and the women are 
shorter. Their colour is black, their skull decidedly round, their 
hair thick and frizzly, their legs thin and almost without calves, 
and their toes so prehensile that they can use them nearly as well 
as their fingers. They tattoo themselves and wear very little 
clothing, usually only a geestring. They have no fixed abodes 
but roam about in groups of a few families. They are skilful 
with the bow and in throwing stones, and they can easily kindle 
a fire, even in the wet season, by rubbing together two pieces 
of dry bamboo. Their food consists principally of game, roots 
and wild fruits. The women, who do all the work, collect wax 
and honey, which are their principal staples in trade. Few 
Negritos live to be fifty years of age. The brown race, which 
came from the south in successive waves of immigration beginning 
in prehistoric times, is composed of twenty-three distinct tribes 
varying widely in culture, language and appearance; their 
languages however belong to one common stock and there is a 
general resemblance in physical features and in quality of mind. 
The great bulk of the population, approximately 90%, is included 
in seven Christian tribes as follows: Visayan, 3,219,030; Tagalog, 
1,460,695; Ilocano, 803,942; Bicol, 566,365; Pangasinan, 343,686; 
Pampangan, 280,984; and Cagayan, 159,648. The Visayans are 
the principal inhabitants of the islands in the central part of the 
archipelago (Panay, Cebu, Negros, Leyte, Bohol, Samar, Masbate 
and Paragua) and on the north and east coasts of Mindanao; 
they were perhaps the most civilized people in the archipelago 
when discovered by the Spaniards, by whom they were originally 
called Pintados because they were in the habit of painting their 
bodies; but since then their progress has been less rapid than 
that of the Tagalogs who constitute the bulk of the population 
of Manila and central Luzon and the majority of the population 
of Mindanao who are now the most cultured of the brown races 
in the Philippines. Most of the Ilocanos are in the western half of 
north Luzon; most of the Bicols in south Luzon; most of the 
Pangasinans in the province of Pangasinan, which borders on the 
Gulf of Lingayen; most of the Pampangans in the province of 
Pampanga, which borders the north shore of Manila Bay; and 
most of the Cagayans in the valley of the Cagayan river. More 
than three-fourths of the wild population is included in the More, 
Igorot and Negrito tribes. The Igorots (197,938 wild and 
13,582 civilized) are the chief representatives of the early Malay 
immigration to the archipelago. They are the principal inhabi- 
tants of the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet in north 
Luzon and are numerous in the mountain districts of neighbour- 
ing provinces. Among the wildest of them head-hunting is still 
a common practice; but the majority are industrious farmers 
laying out their fields on artificial terraces and constructing 
irrigation canals with remarkable skill. The Moros (275,224 
wild and 2323 civilized) were the last of the Malays to migrate 
to the islands; they came after their conversion to the Mahom- 
medan religion, and their migration continued until the Spanish 
conquest. More than one-half of them are in Mindanao and they 
are the principal inhabitants of the small islands of Jolo, Basilan, 
Siassi and Tawi Tawi south-west of Mindanao. Slavery is 
common among them. They are generally miserably poor, 
cruel and haughty. Nearly three-fourths of the foreign-born 
and 97-5% of the representatives of the yellow race come from 
China. The mixture of the races is principally that of the Chinese 
with the Malays or the Spaniards with the Malays. More than 
half the representatives of the white race (1903) were Americans. 
Most of the inhabitants live in groups of villages. In 1903 there 
were 13,400 villages and nearly three-fourths of them contained 
fewer than 600 inhabitants each. Laoag in north Luzon with a 
population of 19,699, Iloilo in Panay with a population of 19,054, 
Cebu with a population of 18,330, and Nueva Caceres in south 
Luzon (10,201), were the only towns with a population exceed- 
ing 10,000; and Manila (219,928) was the only city. After the 
1903 census many towns were enlarged by annexation of suburbs. 
Government, At the beginning of the American occupation, 
in August 1898, a purely military government was established; 
but in May 1899 the military authorities began the re-establish- 



ment of civil courts, and in July of the same year they began the 
organization of civil municipal governments. To continue the 
work of organizing and establishing civil government the president 
of the United States appointed in February 1900 a Philippine 
Commission of five members, with William H. Taft as chairman. 
On the ist of September 1900 this body assumed the legislative 
functions of the central government at Manila; on the 4th of 
July 1901 the executive authority was, by order of the president, 
transferred from the military governor to Judge Taft, whom he 
had appointed civil governor; on the 6th of September 1901 the 
Philippine Commission, by authority of the president, established 
the four executive departments, of interior, commerce and 
police, finance and justice, and public instruction; and on the 
29th of October 1901 the president appointed a .vice-governor. 
The Congress of the United States, in an act approved on the 
ist of July 1902, ratified and confirmed the government as 
thus established, but required that future appointments by the 
president of the governor, vice-governor, members of the com- 
mission and heads of the executive departments should be made 
with the consent of the Senate. The organic act contained a 
bill of rights, provided for the establishment of a popular 
assembly two years after the completion of a census of the 
Philippines, and more definitely provided for the organization 
of the judiciary. The first popular assembly, of 80 members, 
was opened at Manila on the i6th of October 1907, and since then 
the legislature has been composed of two branches, the Philippine 
Commission (five Americans and four, formerly three, Filipinos), 
and the Philippine Assembly. The members of the Assembly 
are elected by districts (the population of which is approximately 
equal) for a term of two years. A voter must be twenty-three 
years of age, must have been a resident of the municipality for six 
months, must not be a citizen or subject of any foreign country, 
and must possess at least one of the following qualifications: 
have been an office-holder under Spanish rule, own real estate 
worth 500 pesos, pay taxes amounting annually to 30 pesos, 
or be able to speak, read and write either Spanish or English. 
The legislature meets annually; a regular session is limited to 
90 days, and a special session to 30 days. 

Justice is administered principally by a supreme court, courts 
of first instance, and courts of justices of the peace. The supreme 
court consists of seven members, four Americans and three 
Filipinos; and the chief justice and associate justices of the 
supreme court are appointed by the president of the United States 
with the consent of the Senate. The judges of the courts of first 
instance are appointed by the governor with the consent of the 
Philippine Commission. A judgment of the supreme court of 
the Philippines which affects any statute, treaty, title, right or 
privilege of the United States may be reversed, modified or 
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States; an appeal 
to the Supreme Court of the United States may also be had 
in any cause in which the value in controversy exceeds $25,000. 

The most common form of provincial government is that by a 
governor, who is elected biennially by the municipal councillors 
in convention, and a secretary, a treasurer, a supervisor, and a 
fiscal or prosecuting attorney, who are appointed by the Philip- 
pine Commission. Each municipality is governed by a president, 
a vice-president, and a municipal council, all of whom are elected 
biennially by the qualified electors of the municipality. The 
Philippine " municipality " is an administrative area, often 
sparsely settled, is often called a town, and may be compared to 
a New England township; the municipalities are the units into 
which the provinces are divided. Each municipality is made up 
of barrios or small villages (about 13,400 in the entire archipelago) 
and of one, or more, more thickly peopled areas, each called a 
poblacion, and resembling the township " centre " of New 
England. 

Education. The establishment of an efficient system of elementary 
schools has been an important part of the work of the American 
administration. Under Spanish rule the Church established 
colleges and seminaries for training priests, but the Spanish system 
of secular schools for elementary instruction, established in 1863, 
accomplished little; the schools were taught by unqualified native 
teachers and the supervision of them was very lax. The American 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



397 



system, established by the Philippine Commission in 1901, provides 
a course of instruction (in the English language) for n years: 
4 primary, 3 intermediate and 4 secondary. In the intermediate 
and secondary departments there is a choice of six courses; general, 
teaching, farming, tool work, housekeeping and household arts and 
business. The administrative head of the system Is the director 
of education, who is appointed by the commission, and who arranges 
the course of study, approves the plans for school houses, determines 
in what towns secondary schools shall be established and in what 
towns American teachers shall teach, divides the archipelago into 
school divisions and appoints a division superintendent in each, 
and supervises the examination of teachers and the application 
of insular school funds. Associated with him is an advisory board 
also appointed by the commission. In each school division, of 
which there were 35 in 1908, the division superintendent appoints 
the native teachers, prepares for the municipal councils estimates 
of school expenses, and approves all expenditures from municipal 
school funds. In each municipality there is a school board con- 
sisting of the president of the municipality and from four to six 
other members as the division superintendent shall determine: 
one-half of them are elected by the municipal council and one-half 
are appointed by the division superintendent. In 1902 there were 
928 American teachers employed in the Philippine schools; the 
employment of American teachers is only a temporary policy, 
however, and by 1908 the number has been reduced to 795. In 
1910 there were more than 6000 Filipino teachers who were teaching 
English to more than 500,000 pupils. The total number of children 
of school age in the islands probably reaches 2,000,000. The 
insular government also makes annual appropriations for the 
maintenance of Filipino students at educational institutions in the 
United States; in 1908 the number so provided for was 130. Besides 
the elementary schools there are at Manila the Philippine Normal 
School, the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, the Philippine 
School of Commerce and the school for the instruction of the 
deaf and blind, and in 1908 the Philippine legislature passed an 
act for the establishment of a university of the Philippines. 

Finance. Revenue is derived largely from customs duties and 
internal revenue taxes. In 1909 the receipts were $22,739,000, 
the expenditure $23,337,000, and the total bonded indebtedness 
$16,000,000. (N. D. M.) 

History. The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan 
in March 1521. The first island on which he landed was Malhou , 
between Samar and Dinagat. Then sailing south he touched 
at Mindanao, from which he sailed north-west, past Bohol to 
Cebu. Here he found a good harbour in the bay on which the 
city of Cebu now stands. He made an alliance with the natives, 
who undertook to supply him with provisions. With his new 
allies he crossed to the little island of Mactan, where he was killed 
in a skirmish. A Portuguese by birth, he had been sailing in the 
employ of King Charles I. of Spain (the emperor Charles V.), 
with the object of proving that the Moluccas lay within that part 
of the world which Pope Alexander VI. and the treaty of Torde- 
sillas (June 7, 1494) had given to Spain and not to Portugal. 
Magellan named his discovery the Archipelago of San Lazarus. 
The Spaniards, however, called the group the Islas de Ponienle 
(Western Islands). The Portuguese called them the Islas de 
Oriente. The distinction was not accidental. To the Portuguese 
they constituted the eastern boundary of their world. From the 
Spanish point of view the islands were on the extreme western 
verge of the national domain. In 1529, by the treaty of Zara- 
gosa, Spain relinquished to Portugal all claims to the Moluccas and 
agreed that no Spaniard should trade or sail west of a meridian 
drawn 297 leagues east of the Moluccas. This was a plain 
renunciation of any rights over the Philippines, which lie several 
degrees west of the Moluccas. This fact, however, was ignored 
and in 1542 an attempt to conquer the Philippines was made by 
Ruy Lopez de Villabos (c. 1500-1544). Villabos chose to honour 
the heir-apparent of the Spanish throne by naming some of the 
islands which he discovered, west and north of Magellan's 
discovery, the Islas Filipinas. After the accession of Philip II. 
(iSSS- 1 598) a much more important expedition was fitted out on 
the Mexican coast, under the direction of the distinguished 
conquistador, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi (1524-1572). In the 
sailing directions, issued in 1561, for the use of this expedition 
the phrase " las Islas Filipinas " was used as applying to the 
entire archipelago. Starting on the 2nd of November 1564, 
from Navidad, with four ships built and equipped on the spot, 
Legaspi began an enterprise which entitles him to a place among 
the greatest of colonial pioneers. He was accompanied by five 
Augustinian friars and four hundred men. In 1565 he founded, 



on the island of Cebu, San Miguel, the first permanent Spanish 
settlement in the islands, destined to become the Villa de Santi- 
simo Nombre de Jesus, later the city of Cebu. In 1571 the city 
of Manila was founded and became the insular capital. Legaspi 's 
conquest of the islands was facilitated by the fact that there were 
no established native states, but rather a congeries of small 
clan-like groups, the headship of which was hereditary. Legaspi 
was reinforced from time to time by small contingents of troops 
and friars. Although he encountered enormous obstacles, 
including famine and mutiny, the hostility and treachery of the 
natives and of foreigners, and the neglect of the home govern- 
ment, he laid a sure foundation for permanent Spanish occupation. 
By a combination of tact, courage and resourcefulness he won the 
hearts of the natives, repelled the Portuguese and, notwithstand- 
ing the great distance from Spain, established the new colony 
on a practical basis. Before his death in 1572 he had explored 
and pacified a large part of the island territory, had established 
trade, and had arrested the progress of Mahommedanism. 

The conquest of the Philippines was essentially a missionary 
conquest. Inspired by apostolic zeal the friars braved the 
terrors of life in the remote villages, raised the natives The Friars 
from barbarianism and taught them the forms of and the 
Christianity. As a result of their labours the Chris- OHIclals - 
tian Filipinos stand unique as the only large mass of Asiatics 
converted to Christianity in modern times. The friars promoted 
the social and economic advancement of the islands, cultivated 
the native taste for music, introduced improvements in agricul- 
ture and imported Indian corn and cacao from America. Tobacco 
was introduced by the government. 

The colonial government was patterned on that of Spanish 
America. The powers of the governor-general were limited 
only by the audiencia or supreme court, of which he was presi- 
dent, and by the residencia or official investigation at the expira- 
tion of his term. The islands were subdivided into provinces 
under alcaldes maiores who exercised both executive and judicial 
functions. The favouritism and corruption that honeycombed 
the civil service of Spain frequently resulted in placing in respon- 
sible positions persons who were entirely unfit. Hairdressers 
were made into alcaldes, and sailors were transformed into 
gobernadors by the miraculous grace of royal decrees. The 
provinces were subdivided into pueblos, each under a native 
gobernadorcillo, elected annually. The permanent offices could 
be bought, sold and inherited. The mistake was made of paying 
very low salaries to the officials, who took this as a justification 
for illegal exactions. The difficulty of securing proper officials 
gradually resulted in the more important civil functions being 
handed over to the friars, who frequently exercised a benevolent 
despotism. In more than half of the twelve hundred villages 
there was no other Spaniard beside the priest. The Spanish 
language was practically unknown. It was far easier for the 
monks to learn the native dialects than to teach their parishioners 
Spanish. For two centuries and a half after the conquest there 
is little narrative history worth recording. There were border 
wars with rebellious savage tribes, attacks made by Chinese 
pirates seeking plunder or refuge, volcanic eruptions, earth- 
quakes, tornadoes and ,the periodical visits of marauders from 
the southern islands. 

In 1762, however, as an incident of the war between Spain and 
England, a British fleet of thirteen ships, under the command of 
Admiral Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) and Brigadier- British 
General William Draper (1721-1787), was sent to Occupation 
the Philippines. The available Spanish army con- ' Manila. 
sisted of about 600 men, while the attacking force numbered 
6830. After a bombardment, Manila fell and on the 5th of 
October the British entered the city. By the terms of the 
capitulation the whole of the archipelago was surrendered to 
the British and an indemnity of 4,000,000 pesos was to be paid. 
As there was no governor-general at the time, the British were 
obliged to treat with the acting-governor, the Archbishop Manuel 
Antonio Rojo; but his authority was set aside by a war-party who 
rallied around Simon Anda y Salazer, a member of the audiencia. 
Anda proclaimed himself governor-general and practically 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



succeeded in confining the British to Manila. At the close of 
the war the Philippines were returned to Spain. Manila was 
evacuated in March 1764. 

For the first quarter of a century after the Spanish conquest 
the islands were allowed free trade. Then came the familiar 
Economic restrictions, limiting commerce to a fixed amount 
Develop- annually, and effectively checking economic develop- 
la * at - ment. In 1591 direct trade between the Philippines 
and South America was prohibited. In 1593 trade between the 
Philippines and Mexico, the only route open between the colony 
and Spain, was limited to two ships annually, the ships not to 
exceed 300 tons burden. The result was that the command of 
the Acapulco galleon was rarely worth less than $50,000. The 
passenger fare from Manila to Acapulco, at the end of the i8th 
century, was $1000. This monopoly lasted until the Mexican 
War of Independence forced the Spanish government to regard 
the Philippines as being in the East instead of the West. Spain's 
colonial policy was not based on an exaltation of the commercial 
ideal. However much the administrators may have fallen short 
in actual practice, the Spanish ideal was to preserve and civilize 
the native races, rather than to establish lucrative trading posts 
where the natives might be easily exploited. la America the 
laws which provided elaborate safeguards for the protection of 
the Indians were, to a large degree, nullified by the lust for gold 
and silver and the consequent demand for labourers in the mines. 
In the Philippines the humane policy of the home government 
had no such powerful obstacles to contend with. Business was 
not developed. The natives were allowed to live the indolent life 
of the tropics. Compared with the results of English or Dutch 
colonization the conversion and civilization of the Filipinos is a 
most remarkable achievement. Notwithstanding the undeniable 
vices, follies and absurd illiberalities of the Spanish colonial 
regime, the Philippines were the only group in the East Indies 
that improved in civilization in the three centuries following 
their discovery. The chief defect in the Spanish Philippine 
policy was that while it made converts it did not make citizens. 
Self-reliance, free-thought and mental growth were not encour- 
aged. Progress in scientific knowledge was effectively blocked 
by the friars. Their presses confined their activities to the 
production of catechisms, martyrologies and handbooks in the 
native languages after the fashion of the presses of Mexico. Five 
hundred such works were printed and distributed in Manila 
alone before 1800. To reach the masses, unfamiliar with 
Spanish, manuals of devotion and outlines of Christian doctrine 
were translated into the various native languages. Of the Bible 
itself, no part was translated or published. A knowledge of 
reading and writing was generally diffused throughout the group. 
The era of discontent may be said to have begun in 1825 when 
the loss of her colonies on the mainland of America caused Spain 
a. f to take a more immediate interest in the Philippines, 
Discontent. ar >d increased emigration to the islands. Between 
1840 and 1872 thirty newspapers were founded. The 
introduction of secular books and papers, more or less surrepti- 
tiously, helped to spread the seeds of sedition. In 1852 the 
Spanish Filipino Bank was established. In 1856 foreign trade, 
hitherto confined to Manila, was permitted to enter the port of 
Iloilo, and foreign traders were allowed to open branch houses 
outside of the capital. The change in Spain's economic policy, 
including an attempt to exploit the coalfields and to encourage 
both agriculture and commerce, helped to awaken hitherto 
dormant elements. In 1601 the Jesuits had opened a college 
in Manila for the education of Spanish youth. In 1768 they 
had been expelled. In 1859 they were permitted to return 
on the understanding that they were to devote themselves to 
education. 

The Spanish Revolution of 1868 caused a further influx of 
Spaniards and also the introduction of the pernicious " spoils 
system." With every change of ministry in Madrid came a new 
lot of hungry politicians anxious to fill even the more humble 
colonial offices. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, followed 
by the establishment of direct steam communication between 
Spain and the Philippines, sounded the death knell of the peaceful 



missionary era and brought about the definite entry of the 
islands into the world of commerce and progress. 

The friars, by perpetuating medieval conditions in a country 
that was now being opened to contact with the civilized world, 
increased the feeling of discontent. The natural result was a 
violent conflict. The more advanced Filipinos desired the fulfil- 
ment of the decrees of the Council of Trent whereby the incum- 
bencies in Christianized towns and villages should be held by 
regular clergy and not by friars. Filipinos had for generations 
been ordained into priesthood although not received into 
monastic orders. This measure was really aimed at the political 
and economic supremacy of the Spanish-born friars, who had 
by this time acquired 400,000 acres of agricultural land, more 
than half of it in the vicinity of Manila. The agrarian question 
added to the growing discontent. All the revolutions began in 
the province of Cavite, where the friars owned 125,000 acres. 
In 1872 the secret agents of the friars induced the native garrison 
at Cavite to mutiny and thus give the friars an excuse to press for 
vigorous action. The mutiny was not successful, but Father 
Burgos, the leader of the reform party, was publicly garrotted 
with three other native priests; and the native clergy were 
declared to be incompetent to have the cure of souls. Several 
of the richest and best educated Filipinos were convicted of 
treason and banished. 

With the increased facilities for European travel Filipinos 
began to visit Europe and return with new and broader notions 
of life. The most distinguished of the travellers was pitai 
Jose Rizal (1861-1896). Born in Calainha, in the 
province of Luzon, of pure Tagalog parentage, he attended 
the newly reopened Jesuit university in Manila. He was then 
sent to Europe to complete his studies, first in Madrid, where he 
became a doctor of medicine, and later in Germany, where he 
received the degree of Ph.D. He came into touch with advanced 
methods of scientific research, acquired great ability as a writer, 
keen perception of truth and an unflinching realization of the 
defects of his own people, and the unpleasant but essential fact 
that to have better government they must first deserve it. His 
propaganda, aimed at the small body of Filipinos who had suffi- 
cient education to appreciate political satire, was very effective. 
His most famous novel, Noli me tangere, was published in 1886. 
In this he drew a masterly picture, not only of the life and 
immorality of the friars but also of the insolent Filipino chiefs 
or caciques, subservient to the powers above, tyrannical to those 
below, superstitious, unprogressive and grasping. Caciquism 
or " bossism," government by local aristocrats, was the prime 
feature of village life in the islands during the entire period 
of Spanish rule and existed long before their arrival. 

The campaign of Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez 
Jaena and Apolinario Mabini, the leaders in the "Young 
Filipino Party," was a protest against both the domination 
of the friars and economic and administrative f aeLI 
caciquism. To escape the vengeance of the friars, piiipiaa 
Rizal was obliged to flee to Europe. In 1892 he 
returned to the islands on the assurance of the governor, Eulogio 
Despujols y Dusay, that he might live there in peace. His 
enemies, however, succeeded in having him arrested on a charge 
of treason. Meanwhile he had organized a reform party under 
the title of Liga Filipino.. Its object had been to procure, by 
pacific means, several reforms in the government of the islands, 
the chief of which were the expulsion of the friars, and the witji- 
drawal of the governor-general's arbitrary power to deport 
Filipinos. The friars importuned Despujols for Rizal's life but 
he persistently refused their demand, and met the case half-way 
by banishing Rizal to Mindanao. Incensed by the failure of their 
plot, the friars obtained the recall of Despujols. 

The new governor, Ram6n Blanco, was like Despujols and 
many of his predecessors, humane at heart, but he could do little 
more than hold in check the tyrannical schemes of 
the clergy. The banishment of Rizal convinced the Ka 'i puaaa 
reform party that peaceful endeavour was futile. 
A secret organization, the Katipunan, was therefore started 
to secure reforms by force of arms. It was founded by Andres 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



399 



?896. 



Bonifacio, a schoolmaster of Cavite. In 1895-1896 the friars 
acting as spies for the government, obtained the banishment 
of many hundreds of natives. 

On the day after the Katipunan conspiracy had been brought 
prematurely to light by a traitor, three hundred prominent 
Filipinos were lodged in prison. This precipitated 
the rev l t - The insurrectos attacked the civil guard 
outside the city, but were unsuccessful. A week later 
some hundreds of insurgents attacked the powder magazine at 
San Juan del Monte, but were completely routed. Four of their 
chiefs were taken prisoners and executed in Manila. Ten days 
after the plot was discovered Manila and five other provinces 
were officially proclaimed in a state of siege. The insurrectos 
concentrated all their energies upon Cavite province. Several 
villages fell into their hands. The insurgent commander-in-chief 
was Emilio Aguinaldo. He was born in 1869 in Cavite, son of a 
native farmer of considerable ability, and of a half-caste mother 
whose father was a Chinaman. After attending the Tagalog 
school at Cavite he entered the Jesuit College in Manila but did 
not graduate. In 1893 he became municipal alcalde of Cavite, 
and later joined the Katipunan. 

The government was in a difficult position. General Blanco 
had extremely few European troops at his disposal, and it was 
doubtful how far native troops could be trusted. Reinforce- 
ments were on the way from Spain, but the demands of Cuba had 
already depleted the Peninsula of the best fighting material. 
Blanco, blamed for not acting at once, was recalled. In 
December 1896 General Camilo Garcia de Polavieja (b. 1838) 
arrived as his successor, with General Jose Lachambre (b. 1846) 
as chief of staff. Before Blanco left he had released Rizal and 
allowed him to go to Spain, but the friars caused his arrest and 
he was sent back to Manila, where he was executed by Polavieja's 
orders in December 1896. 

Lachambre took the field in Cavite with energy and succeeded 
in quelling the rebellion in that province. He was then despatched 
north. Numerous small battles were fought with Aguinaldo 
and the insurgents, who were repeatedly defeated only to re- 
appear in other places. Polavieja's demand for more troops 
having been refused, he resigned, and was succeeded in the spring 
of 1897 by General Fernando Prime de Rivera. Hostilities 
continued, but the wet season set in, making operations extremely 
difficult. Before Primo de Rivera could make much headway 
against the insurgents affairs in Cuba became so serious that the 
Spanish government cabled him that pacification was most 
urgently desired. As a result he suspended operations and signed 
the treaty of Biacabato (Dec. 12, 1897), by which Aguinaldo 
and thirty-five of his chief followers were allowed to retire to 
Hongkong with a cash indemnity of 400,000 pesos. The Madrid 
government refused to confirm the terms of peace, and the peace 
rejoicings in Manila were followed by the persecution of all 
those who were known to have sympathized with the movement. 

On the isth of February 1898 in Havana harbour, the U.S.S. 
" Maine " was blown up. On the isth of March Primo de 
Spanish- Rivera, learning that theAmerican Commodore George 
American Dewey was mobilizing his fleet in the harbour of 
War - Hongkong, called a council at which the Spanish 

Admiral Patricio Montojo (b. 1839) stated that, in the event of 
a conflict, his own fleet would be inevitably destroyed. Primo 
de Rivera was now recalled and General Basilio Augusti (b. 1840) 
took his place. With a new governor-general all plans had to be 
reconsidered. Before suitable defences could be made, word 
came from Hongkong that Dewey had started for Manila and 
Montojo hurriedly sailed from Subig Bay to Cavite, barely in 
time to anchor before Dewey arrived. Few among his crew 
understood handling a gun properly, and owing to the poor care 
which his vessels had received they were actually inferior to 
the individual vessels of the American squadron. Commodore 
Dewey arrived in the Bay of Manila on the ist of May, and totally 
destroyed or disabled the Spanish fleet. The surrender of the 
city was refused. The Americans occupied Cavite. The battle 
of Manila Bay and the defeat of the Spanish fleet destroyed the 
prestige of Spain throughout the islands. Insurrections began 



in nearly every province. Aguinaldo and his friends were 
allowed to come to Cavite in an American transport. With the 
approval of Commodore Dewey, who allowed arms to be supplied 
him, Aguinaldo successfully renewed his campaign against the 
Spaniards until practically all Luzon, except the city of Manila 
and suburbs, was in his control. Reinforcements arrived, and 
on the i3th of August Manila was taken by the Americans, under 
General Wesley Merritt (b. 1836). 

The refusal of General Merritt to permit Aguinaldo's troops 
to enter Manila created resentment on the part of the Filipinos. 
A so-called constitutional convention was held at Malolos, and 
a constitution was adopted. At the same time the Visayan 
Republic was organized, and it professed allegiance to Aguin- 
aldo's government. Neither Aguinaldo's government nor the 
Visayan government was able to maintain order, and the whole 
country was subject to the looting of robber bands. The treaty 
of peace between the United States and Spain, by which the 
Philippine Islands passed into the hands of the former, was 
signed in Paris on the loth of December 1898, but it was not 
confirmed by the Senate until the 6th of February 1899. During 
this period the Filipino army remained under arms. On the 4th 
of February hostilities broke out between the Americans and 
the Filipinos. The latter were defeated on the sth, at Paco, 
with heavy loss. The American troops, now under General 
E. S. Otis (b. 1838), following up the enemy, drove Revolt 
them out of Malolos and then withdrew to against the 
Manila to await reinforcements, which brought Americans. 
the total American force up to about 60,000 men. It is 
unnecessary to trace in detail the gradual conquest of the 
islands, or the hundreds of engagements, often small, between 
the rebels and the Americans. Owing to the nature of the 
country, and the hope of securing independence from a possible 
overthrow of the Republican party in the United States, the 
war was prolonged for two or three years. With the capture 
of Aguinaldo on the 23rd of March 1901, the resistance became 
little more than that of guerrillas. 

Civil government was introduced as fast as possible. During 
1899 the Schurman commission, headed by Dr Jacob G. 
Schurman of Cornell University, was sent by TheTaft 
President McKinley to report on the state of affairs. Commis- 
In February 1900 a second and more powerful Bl "' 
commission was appointed, consisting of Judge W. H. Taft, 
Professor D. C. Worcester (b. 1866), General L. E. Wright 
(b. 1846), Mr H. C. Ide (b. 1844), and Professor Bernard Moses 
(b. 1846). Under the presidency of Mr Taft it began to exercise 
a legislative jurisdiction in September 1900. Its first act was 
to appropriate $1,000,000 for the construction and improve- 
ment of roads. It next provided for the improvement of 
Manila harbour, which involved an expenditure of $3,000,000. 
The fifth act extended to the islands the benefits of a civil 
service based on merit. In 1901 a general school law was 
passed under which 1000 American school teachers were intro- 
duced. They were scattered among 500 towns, to teach 2500 
Filipino teachers English and modern methods of school 
teaching. Other legislation provided for the organization of 
a judiciary, a supreme court, the enactment of a code of civil 
procedure, the establishment of a bureau of forestry, a health 
department, and an agricultural bureau and a bureau of con- 
stabulary, made up of native soldiers officered by white men. 
Ladronism was very widely distributed under Spanish rule, 
and the old guardio, civil committed outrages almost equal 
to those of the brigands themselves. The new constabulary 
has been eminently successful in maintaining law and order. 
Great progress has been made in the scientific mapping of the 
islands. 

On the 4th of July 1901 the office of military governor was 
abolished, the military forces being largely recalled, and the 
part remaining being made henceforth subordinate civil 
to the civil authorities. Mr Taft became governor- Govern- 
general. A general amnesty was granted to all "< 
rebels and political prisoners who would take the oath of 
allegiance to the United States. On the ist of July 1902 President 



400 



PHILIPPOPOLIS PHILIPPSBURG 



Roosevelt signed an act establishing the civil governmen 
of the Philippines and providing for a new legislative body 
A census was authorized and was taken in 1903. The act o 
1902 also authorized the purchase of land belonging to the 
friars. Although among such an ignorant and diversified body 
as that of the Filipinos public opinion can hardly be saic 
to exist, there is no doubt that the hatred of the friars was 
practically universal. When the revolution came the members 
of the four orders had to flee for their lives, although the people 
who killed or imprisoned those they could catch were generally 
good Catholics. As the insular government could not safely 
allow the friars to return to their parishes the friars' lands 
were bought for $7,000,000. Mr Taft managed the delicate task 
of conducting negotiations with the Vatican without arousing 
the hostility of either Catholics or Protestants. On the ist oi 
February 1904 General L. E. Wright became governor. He 
was succeeded in 1905 by Mr H. C. Ide, who was succeeded 
by General James T. Smith in 1906. The elections for the 
first Philippine Assembly were held on the 3oth of July 1907, 
and 31 Nationalists, 16 Progressists, 33 Independents and others 
were elected. The total vote cast was about 100,000. In 
many districts the Nationalists' candidates promised that if 
they were returned immediate independence would follow. 
When the Assembly met it became apparent that the great 
majority were more anxious to act as a dignified branch of the 
legislature than to maintain consistency with their pre-election 
declarations. The legislature convened for its second session 
on the ist of February 1909. During this session 72 laws were 
passed, of which 23 had been introduced by the Commission 
and 49 by the Assembly. Among the acts was one providing 
for the continuance of Spanish as the official language of the 
courts until 1913; an act providing for bankruptcy; and an 
act fixing the age of majority at 21 years. 

Governor Smith left the islands in May 1909 and was suc- 
ceeded by W. Cameron Forbes. On the 6th of August 1909 
the Payne and Colton bills became law, greatly promoting trade 
between the Islands and the United States (see Communications 
and Commerce). On the 2nd of November 1909 delegates 
were elected for the second Philippine Assembly. (H. Bi.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. See, in general, A. P. C. Griffin, A List of Books 
on the Philippine Islands in the Library of Congress (Washington, 
1903), with references to periodicals; T. H. Pardo de Tavera, 
Biblioteca fUipina (ibid. 1903); W. E. Retana, Aparato biblio- 
grdfico de la historia general de Filipinas (3 vols., Madrid, 1906); 
idem. Archive de bibliofilo filipino (Madrid, 1895); J. A. Robertson, 
Bibliography of the Philippine Islands (Cleveland, Ohio, 1908). For 
statistics, general description' and material on administration, see 
Census of the Philippine Islands in 1903 (4 vols., Washington, 
I9 5); Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the 
Philippine Islands (Washington, 1902) ; Ethnological Survey Publi- 
cations of the Department of the Interior (Manila, 1904 sqq.); 
Reports of the Philippine Commission (Washington, 1901 sqq.)' 
Sir John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London, 
1859); D. C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and their People 
(New York, 1898) ; F. W. Atkinson, The Philippine Islands (Boston, 
1905); C. H. A. F. Lindsay, The Philippines under Spanish and 
American Rules (Philadelphia, 1906); A. H. S. Landor, The Gems 
of the East (New York, 1904) ; M. A. Hamm, Manila and the Philip- 
pines (London, 1898); J. A. LeRoy, Philippine Life in Town and 
Country (ibid. 1905); J. B. Devins, An Observer in the Philippines 
(Boston, 1905); R. R. Lala, Philippine Islands (New York, 1899); 
H. C. Potter, The East To-day and To-morrow (ibid 1902)- F 
Btumentritt, Die Philippinen (Hamburg, 1900); H. P. Willis' 
Our Philippine Problem, a Study of American Colonial Policy 
(New York, 1905); Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's 
Wife (ibid. 1908); W. B. Freer, The Philippine Experiences of an 
American Teacher (ibid. 1906); J. G. Schurman, Philippine Affairs 
(ibid 1902) ; W. H. Taft, Civil Government in the Philippines (ibid. 
1902) ; and Special Report to the President on the Philippines (Wash- 
'/$ tOI V 9 ? 8): and R " C ' McGregor, Manual of Philippine Birds 
(New York 1909). For the history of the islands, see E. H. Blair 
and J A Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1401-1808 ( Vols 
Cleveland, 1903-1909); J. Montero y Vida\, Historia general de Fili- 
ff T ( , 3 ,r 1S w- , M * drid ' I8 , 8 7T I8 95); Juan de la Concepcion 
-,SH 4 Tl 7 V" Historia. general de Phihpinas (14 vols., Manila, 
788-1792); Caspar de San Agustin (1650-1724), Conquistas de 
las islas Phihpinas (2 vols., Valladolid, 1890); Le Gentil 
Voyage dans les mers de I'Inde (Paris, 1781); F. Colin Labor 
evangelica mimstenos apostolicos de los obreros de la compania 
de Jesus, fundacwn, y progresses de su provincia en islas Filipinas 



(3 vols., Barcelona, 1900-1902); J. Martinez de Ziiniga, Historia de 
las islas Philipinas (Sampaloc, 1803; Eng. trans., London, 1814)- 
J. J. Delgado, Historia general sacro-profana, politico, y natural de!, 
islas del Poniente, llamadas Filipinas (Manila, 1892); E. G. Bourne, 
Discovery, Conquest and Early History of the Philippine Island's 
(Cleveland, 1907); F. Combes (1620-1665), Historia de Mindanao 
y Jolo (Madrid, 1897) ; J. M. Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan 6 el 
filibusterismo en Filipinas (Madrid, 1897); E. R. Delmas, La In- 
surrection de Filipinas en 1806 y 1807 (2 vols., Barcelona, 1899); 
F. D. Millet, The Expedition to the Philippines (London, 1899)' 
and J. Pellicena y Lopez, La Verdad sobre Filipinas (Manila, 1900).' 

PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe), the 
capital of Eastern Rumelia, and of the department of Philip- 
popolis, Bulgaria; situated in the midst of picturesque granite 
eminences on the right bank of the river Maritza, 96 m. E.S.E. 
of Sofia and 97 m. W.N.W. of Adrianople. Pop. (1906) 45,572, 
of whom a large majority are Bulgarians, and the remainder 
chiefly Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians or gipsies. Philip- 
popolis is on the main railway from Vienna to Constantinople, 
via Belgrade and Sofia. The Maritza is navigable up to this 
point, and^as the city has communication by rail both with the 
port of Dedeagatch on the Mediterranean and that of Burgas 
on the Black Sea, and is situated in a remarkably fertile country, 
it has become the chief commercial centre of southern Bulgaria, 
and is the seat of both Greek and Bulgarian archbishops. 
The residences of the richer Greeks and Bulgarians occupy the 
slopes of the largest eminence, the Jambaz-tepe, in the centre 
of the city; between it and the Nobtet-tepe, from the summit 
of which there is a magnificent view of the city, is the Armenian 
quarter; near the bridge over the Maritza is the poorer Turkish 
quarter; and south-west of the Jambaz-tepe there is a suburb 
of villas. On the Bunari-tepe a monument has been erected 
by the Russians in commemoration of the war of 1877, and near 
this is the new palace of the king of Bulgaria. The Sahub- 
tepe is crowned by a clock-tower. Not far from it are the 
beautiful Exhibition Park laid out in 1892 and the fine Journaia- 
Jami Mosque. Near the Maritza are the remains of the ancient 
konak (palace) of the Turkish pashas, the public park formed 
by the Russians in 1877, the gymnasium, and the new Greek 
cathedral. The city has a large commerce in rice, attar of roses, 
and cocoons; other exports being wheat, wine, tobacco, alcohol 
and hides. 

Eumolpia, a Thracian town, was captured by Philip of 
Macedon and made one of his frontier posts; hence its name 
of Philippopolis, or "Philip's City." Under the Romans 
Philoppopolis or Trimontium became the capital of Thracia; 
and, even after its capture by the Goths, when 100,000 persons 
are said to have been slain, it continued to be a flourishing 
city till it was again sacked by the Bulgarians in 1205. It 
passed under Turkish rule in 1363; in 1818 it was destroyed by 
an earthquake; and in 1846 it suffered from a severe con- 
flagration. During the war of 1877-78 the city was occupied 
by the Russians (see also BULGARIA: History). 

PHILIPPSBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of 
Baden, situated on a sluggish arm of the Rhine, 15 m. N. of 
Karlsruhe, on the railway Bruchsal-Germersheim. Pop. (1905) 
2625. It has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, and some 
.rade in cattle and hops. Philippsburg, formerly an important 
'ortress, originally belonged to the ecclesiastical principality 
of Spires, and was named Udenheim. In 1338 it was surrounded 
with walls by bishop Gerhard. A later bishop of Spires, 
Philipp Christoph von Sotern, made the place his residence early 
n the 1 7th century, strengthened the fortifications, and renamed 
t Philippsburg after himself. At the peace of Westphalia in 
1648 the French remained in possession of the town, but in 
1679 it was restored to Germany, and though again captured 
)y the French in 1688 it was once more restored in 1697. ID 
1734 the dilapidated fortress fell an easy prey to the French 
under Marshal Berwick, who, however, lost his life beneath 
ts walls. It was restored to Germany in 1735, and was again 
>esieged by the French in 1799. The town was assigned to 
iaden in 1803. 

See Nopp, Geschichte der Stadt Philippsburg (Philippsburg, 1881). 



PHILIPPUS, M. J. PHILISTINES 



401 



PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS, Roman emperor A.D. 244 
to 249, often called " Philip the Arab," was a native of Bostra 
in Arabia Trachonitis. Having entered the Roman army, he 
rose to be praetorian praefect in the Persian campaign of Gordian 
III., and, inspiring the soldiers to slay the young emperor, was 
raised by them to the purple (244). Of his reign little is known 
except that he celebrated the secular games with great pomp 
in 248, when Rome was supposed to have reached the thousandth 
year of her existence. A rebellion broke out among the legions 
of Moesia, and Decius, who was sent to quell it, was forced by 
the troops to put himself at their head and march upon Italy. 
Philip was defeated and slain in a battle near Verona. Accord- 
ing to Christian writers, he was a convert to Christianity. 

See Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 28; Eutropius, ix. 3; Zonaras, 
xii. 19. 

PHILIPS, AMBROSE (c. 1675-1749), English poet, was born 
in Shropshire of a Leicestershire family. He was educated at 
Shrewsbury school and St John's College, Cambridge, of which 
he became a fellow in 1699. He seems to have lived chiefly 
at Cambridge until he resigned his fellowship in 1708, and his 
pastorals probably belong to this period. He worked for Jacob 
Tonson the bookseller, and his Pastorals opened the 6th volume 
of Tonson's Miscellanies (1709), which also contained the 
pastorals of Pope. Philips was a stanch Whig, and a friend 
of Steele and Addison. In Nos. 22, 23, 30 and 32 (1713) of the 
Guardian he was injudiciously praised as the only worthy suc- 
cessor of Spenser. The writer of the papers, who is supposed to 
have been Thomas Tickell, pointedly ignored Pope's pastorals. 
In the Spectator Addison applauded him for his simplicity, and for 
having written English eclogues unencumbered by the machinery 
of classical mythology. Pope's jealousy was roused, and he 
sent an anonymous contribution to the Guardian (No. 40) in 
which he drew an ironical comparison between his own and 
Philip's pastorals, censuring himself and praising Philips's worst 
passages. Philips is said to have threatened to cane Pope with 
a rod he kept hung up at Button's coffee-house for the purpose. 
It was at Pope's request that Gay burlesqued Philips's pastorals 
in his Shepherd's Week, but the parody pleased by the very 
quality of simplicity which it was intended to ridicule. Samuel 
Johnson describes the relations between Pope and Philips as a 
" perpetual reciprocation of malevolence." Pope lost no 
opportunity of scoffing at Philips, who figured in the Bathos 
and the Dunciad, as Macer in the Characters; and in the " In- 
structions to a porter how to find Mr Curll's authors " he is a 
" Pindaric writer in red stockings." In 1718 he started a Whig 
paper, The Freethinker, in conjunction with Hugh Boulter, then 
vicar of St Olave's, Southwark. He had been made justice of 
the peace for Westminster, and in 1717 a commissioner for the 
lottery, and when Boulter was made archbishop of Armagh, 
Philips accompanied him as secretary. He sat in the Irish 
parliament for Co. Armagh, was secretary to the lord chan- 
cellor in 1726, and in 1733 became a judge of the prerogative 
court. His patron died in 1742, and six years later Philips 
returned to London, where he died on the i8th of June 1749. 

His contemporary reputation rested on his pastorals and 
epistles, particularly the description of winter addressed by him 
from Copenhagen (1709) to the earl of Dorset. In T. H. Ward's 
English Poets, however, he is represented by two of the simple 
and charming pieces addressed to the infant children of Lord 
Carteret and of Daniel Pulteney. These were scoffed at by 
Swift as " little flams on Miss Carteret," and earned for Philips 
from Henry Carey the nickname of " Namby-Pamby." 

Philips's works are an abridgment of Bishop Racket's Life of 
John Williams (1700); The Thousand and One Days; Persian Tales 

(1722), from the French of F. P6tis de la Croix; three 

plays: The Distrest Mother (1712), an adaptation of Racine's Andro- 
maque; The Briton (1722); Humfrey, duke of Gloucester (1723). 
Many of his poems, which included some translations from Sappho, 
Anacreon and Pindar, were published separately, and a collected 
edition appeared in 1748. 

PHILIPS, JOHN (1676-1708), English poet and man of letters, 
son of Dr Stephen Philips, archdeacon of Shropshire, was born 
at his father's vicarage at Bampton, Oxfordshire, on the 3oth of 
December 1676. He was educated at Winchester and Christ 



Church, Oxford. He was a careful reader of Virgil and of Milton. 
In 1701 his poem, The Splendid Shilling, was published without 
his consent, and a second unauthorized version in 1705 induced 
him to print a correct edition in that year. The Splendid Shilling, 
which Addison in The Taller called " the finest burlesque poem 
in the British language," recites in Miltonic blank verse the 
miseries consequent on the want of that piece of money. Its 
success introduced Philips to the notice of Robert Harley and 
Henry St John, who commissioned him to write a Tory counter- 
blast to Joseph Addison's Campaign. Philips was happier in 
burlesquing his favourite author than in genuine imitation of 
a heroic theme. His Marlborough is modelled on the warriors 
of Homer and Virgil; he rides precipitate over heaps of fallen 
horses, changing the fortune of the battle by his own right arm. 
Cyder (1708) is modelled on the Georgics of Virgil. Cerealia, 
an Imitation of Milton (1706), although printed without his 
name, may safely be ascribed to him. In all his poems except 
Blenheim he found an opportunity to insert a eulogy of tobacco. 
Philips died at Hereford on the i$th of February 1708/9. There 
is an inscription to his memory in Westminster Abbey. 

See The Whole Works of ... John Philips . . . To which is 
prefixed his life, by Mr [G.J Sewell (3rd ed., 1720); Johnson, Lives 
of the Poets ; and Biographia Britannica. 

PHILIPS, KATHARINE (1631-1664), English poet, daughter 
of John Fowler, a merchant of Bucklersbury, London, was born 
on the ist of January 1631. Her father was a Presbyterian, 
and Katharine is said to have read the Bible through before she 
was five years old. On arriving at years of discretion she broke 
with Presbyterian traditions in both religion and politics, 
became an ardent admirer of the king and his church policy, 
and in 1647 married James Philips, a Welsh royalist. Her 
home at the Priory, Cardigan, became the centre of a "society 
of friendship," the members of which were known to one another 
by fantastic names, Mrs Philips being " Orinda," her husband 
" Antenor," Sir Charles Cotterel " Poliarchus." The " match- 
less" Orinda, as her admirers called her, posed as the apostle 
of female friendship. That there was much solid worth under her 
affectations is proved by the respect and friendship she inspired. 
Jeremy Taylor in 1659 dedicated to her his " Discourse on the 
Nature, Offices and Measures of Friendship," and Cowley, Henry 
Vaughan the Silurist, the earl of Roscommon and the earl of 
Cork and Orrery all celebrated her talent. In 1662 she went 
to Dublin to pursue her husband's claim to certain Irish estates, 
and there she completed a translation of Corneille's Pompee, 
produced with great success in 1663 in the Smock Alley Theatre, 
and printed in the same year both in Dublin and London. She 
went to London in March 1664 with a nearly completed transla- 
tion of Corneille's Horace, but died of smallpox on the 22nd of 
June. The literary atmosphere of her circle is preserved in the 
excellent Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus, published by Bernard 
Lintot in 1705 and 1709. " Poliarchus " (Sir Charles Cotterel) 
was master of the ceremonies at the court of the Restoration, and 
afterwards translated the romances of La Calprenede. Mrs 
Philips had two children, one of whom, Katharine, became the 
wife of Lewis Wogan of Boulston, Pembrokeshire. According 
to Mr Gosse, this lady may have been " Joan Philips," the 
author of a volume of Female Poems . . . written by Ephelia, 
which are in the style of Orinda, and display genuine feeling 
with very little reserve. 

See E. W. Gosse, Seventeenth Century Studies (1883). Poems, 
By the Incomparable Mrs K. P. appeared surreptitiously in 1664 
and an authentic edition in 1667. Selected Poems, edited with an 
appreciation by Miss L. I. Guiney, appeared in 1904; but the best 
modern edition is in Saintsbury's Minor Poets of the Caroline Period 
(vol. i., 1905). 

PHILISTINES, 1 the general name for the people of Philistia 
(Ass. PalaUu, PiliStu; Eg. p-r-s-t), a district embracing the rich 
lowlands on the Mediterranean coast from the neighbourhood 

1 " Philistine," as a term of contempt, hostility or reproach, 
appears first in English, in a sense equivalent to " the enemy," 
as early as the beginning of the 1 7th century, and later as a slang 
term for a bailiff or a sheriff's officer, or merely for drunken or 
vicious people generally. In German universities the townsfolk 



402 



PHILISTINES 



of Jaffa (Joppa) to the Egyptian desert south of Gaza (on the 
subsequent extension of the name in its Greek form Palaestina, 
see PALESTINE). 

1. Egyptian Evidence. The name is derived from the Purasati, 
one of a great confederation from north Syria, Asia Minor and 
the Levant, which threatened Egypt in the XXth Dynasty. They 
are not among the hordes enumerated by Rameses II. or Mer- 
neptah, but in the eighth year of Rameses III. (c. 1200-1190) the 
Purasati hold a prominent place in a widespread movement 
on land and sea. The Syrian states were overwhelmed and the 
advance upon Egypt seemed irresistible. Rameses, however, 
collected a large fleet and an army of native troops and mer- 
cenaries and claimed decisive victories. The Egyptian monu- 
ments depict the flight of the enemy, the heavy ox-carts with 
their women and children, and the confusion of their ships. 
But the sequel of the events is not certain. Even if the increas- 
ing weakness of the Egyptian Empire did not invite a repetition 
of the incursion, it could have allowed the survivors to settle 
down, and about a century later one of the peoples formerly 
closely allied with the Purasati is found strongly entrenched 
at Dor, and together with the more northerly port of Byblos 
treats with scant respect the traditional suzerainty of Egypt. 1 
That some definite political changes ensued in this age have been 
inferred on other grounds, and the identification of the Purasati 
with the Philistines may permit the assumption that the latter 
succeeded in occupying the district with which they have always 
been associated. 

The Egyptian monuments represent the Purasati with a very 
distinctive feather head-dress resembling that of the Lycians 
and Mycenaeans. Their general physiognomy is hardly Cilician 
or Hittite, but European. Their arms comprise two short 
swords, a longer spear, a round shield, and they sometimes wear 
a coat of mail; a curious feature is their tactics of fighting in a 
circle of protecting shields. The chariots resemble the Hittite 
with two crossed receptacles for the weapons, but obviously 
these were not used by the Purasati alone. On archaeological 
grounds the Purasati have been connected with the people of 
Keftiu, i.e. Mycenaeans of Crete, although a wider application 
of this term is not to be excluded. 

See further, G. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 461 sqq. ; 
W. M. Miiller, Asien u. Ruropa, pp. 354 sqq. ; Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. 
Gesell. pp. 1-42 (1900), pp. 113 sqq. (1904); H. R. Hall, British 
School of Athens, viii. 157 sqq., x. 154 sqq.; Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. 
xxxi. (1909) passim; R. Weill, Rev. arcMol., i. 52 sqq. (1904); 
R. Dussaud, Rev. de Vhist. des relig., ii. 52 sqq. (1905). More re- 
cently, A. Wiedemann, Orient, lit. Zeit. (1910), cols. 49 sqq. dis- 
putes the identification of Keft with Crete. 

2. History. Biblical tradition, too, has recognized the 
Philistines as immigrants from Caphtor (Amos ix. 7). They 
appear in the pre-Mosaic age (Gen. xxi. 32, 34, xxvi.), at the 
Exodus of the Israelites (Ex. xiii. 17, xv. 14), and the invasion 
of Palestine. They are represented as a confederation of five 
cities (Ashdod, Ascalon [Ashkelon], Ekron, Gath and Gaza) 
which remained unconquered (Joshua xiii. 2 seq., Judges iii. 3; 
contrast Joshua xv. 45-47, xix. 43). The institution of the 
Hebrew monarchy (c. 1000 B.C.) follows upon periods of Philistine 
oppression (Judges iii. 31, x. 7, n, xiii. 1-5; see SAMSON; ELI; 
SAMUEL; SAUL; DAVID). The subjugation of them is ascribed 

were called by the students Philister; they were " outsiders," the 
enemy of the chosen people. It is supposed that this use arose 
in 1693 in Jena after a " town and gown " row in which a student 
had been killejl and a sermon preached on the text " the Philistines 
be upon you, Samson " (see Quarterly Review, April 1899, 438, note, 
quoted in the New English Dictionary). " Philistine " thus became 
the name of contempt applied by the cultured to those whom they 
considered beneath them in intellect and taste, and was first so 
used in English by Carlyle, and Matthew Arnold (Essays in Criticism, 
" Heinrich Heine," 1865) gave the word its vogue and its final 
connotation, as signifying " inaccessible to and impatient of 
ideas." [En.] 

1 So the Papyrus first published by W. Gol6nischeff (Rec. de 
travaux, xxi. 74 sqq.), on which see A. Erman, Zeit. f. aegypt. 
Sprache, pp. 1-14 (1900); W. M. Mtiller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. 
Gesell. pp. 14 sqq. (1900) ; J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Eg. pp. 513 sqq. ; 
Historical Records, iv. 274 sqq. ; H. W. Hogg, in the Theolog. Series I. 
of the publications of university of Manchester, p. 90 seq. 



to Samuel (i Sam. vii. 13), Saul (xiv. 47), and David (2 Sam. 
viii. i; for Solomon see i Kings x. 20); but they evidently 
recovered their independence, and we find that twice within a 
short time the northern Israelites laid siege to the border fortress 
of Gibbethon (i Kings xv. 27, xvi. 15). Although this place 
has not been identified, it is mentioned in a list of Danite cities 
with Aijalon, Ekron, Eltekeh and Timnah (Joshua xix. 44, xxi. 
23), names of importance for the history. Somewhat later the 
evidence becomes fuller, and much valuable light is thrown upon 
the part which the Philistine coast played in the political history 
of Palestine. Gaza, the most southerly and famous of the 
Philistine towns, was the terminus of the great caravan-route 
from Edom and south Arabia, with whose Bedouin it was 
generally on good terms. It was " the outpost of Africa, the 
door of Asia " (G. A. Smith), the stepping-off point for the 
invasion of Egypt, and the fortress which, next in importance 
to Lachish, barred the maritime road to Phoenicia and Syria. 2 
It is necessary to realize Gaza's position and its links with trading 
centres, since conditions in the comparatively small and half- 
desert land of Judah depended essentially upon its relations with 
the Edomites and Arabian tribes on the south-east and with 
the Philistines on the west. 3 Jehoshaphat's supremacy over 
Philistines and Arabians (2 Chron. xvii. n, partly implied in 
i Kings xxii. 47) is followed by the revolt of Libnah (near 
Lachish) and Edom against his son Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20, 22). 
The book of Chronicles mentions Philistines and Arabians, and 
knows of a previous warning by a prophet of Mareshah (east 
of Lachish; 2 Chron. xx. 37, xxi. 16). In like manner, the 
conquests of Uzziah over Edom and allied tribes (2 Kings xiv. 
22, see 2 Chron. xxvi. 7) and over Gath, Ashdod and Jabneh 
(ibid. v. 6) find their sequel in the alliance of Samaria and Damas- 
cus against Ahaz, when Edom recovered its independence (so read 
for " Syria " in 2 Kings xvi. 6), and the Philistines attacked 
Beth-shemesh, Aijalon, Timnath, &c. (2 Chron. xxviii. 17 seq.). 4 
These notices at least represent natural conditions, and the 
Assyrian inscriptions now are our authority. Tiglath-pileser 
IV. (734 B.C.) marched down and seized Gaza, removing its gods 
and goods. Its king Hanun had fled to Musri, but was pursued 
and captured; Ascalon, Judah and Edom appear in a list of 
tributaries. Muri was entrusted to the care of the Arabian 
Idibi'il (of the desert district), but continued to support anti- 
Assyrian leagues (see HOSHEA), and again in 720 (two years after 
the fall of Samaria) was in alliance with Gaza and north Palestine. 
Assyria under Sargon defeated the southern confederation at 
Rapihi (Raphia on the border of Egypt) and captured Hanun; 
the significance of the victory is evident from the submission 
of the queen of Aribi (Arabia), the Sabaean Itamara, and Musri. 
This Musri appears to have been a district outside the limits of 
Egypt proper, and although tribes of the Delta may well have 
been concerned, its relations to Philistia agree with the inde- 
pendent biblical account of the part played previously by Edom 
and Arabian tribes (see MIZRAIM). But the disturbances con- 
tinued, and although desert tribes were removed and settled in 
Samaria in 715, Mus.ri and Philistia were soon in arms again. 
Ashdod (see Isa. xx.) and Gath were taken and sacked, the 
people removed, and fresh colonies were introduced. Judah, 
Edom and Moab were also involved, but submitted (711 B.C.). 
Scarcely ten years passed and the whole of Palestine and Syria 
was again torn with intrigues. Sennacherib (Sargon's suc- 
cessor in 705) marched to the land of the " Hittites," traversed 

8 See G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, chs. ix. seq.; 
and M. A. Meyer, History of the City of Gaza (New York, 1907). 
For the traditions associating Gaza with Crete, see the latter, 
Index, s.v. Minos; the resemblance between the Minaeans of South 
Arabia and Cretan Minos has afforded grounds for all kinds of 
speculations, ancient (Pliny vi. 157) and modern. 

3 Between the central Judaean plateau and the latter lay the 
" lowlands " (Shgphelah), a district open equally to Judaeans and 
Philistines alike. 

* Cf. Gaza and Edom against Judah in Amos i. 6, and, for the 
part played by Damascus, the later vicissitudes under the Nabat- 
aeans (Josephus, Ant. xiii. 13. 3). It is difficult to date the alliance 
of Syria and Philistia against Israel in Isa. ix. 1 1 seq. (on the text, 
see the commentaries). 



PHILISTINES 



403 



the coast and, descending from Sidon, took Jaffa, Beth-dagon, 
Beneberak, Ekron and Timnah (all in the district ascribed to the 
southern Dan). At Eltekeh (also in Dan) the allies were defeated. 
Farther south came the turn of Ascalon, Lachish and Libnah; 
Judah under Hezeldah suffered severely, and its western cities 
were transferred to the faithful vassals of Ekron, Ashdod and 
Gaza. The immediate subsequent events are obscure (see 
further HEZEKIAH). In the 7th century Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod 
and Ekron were Assyrian vassals, together with Judah, Moab 
and Edom in all, twenty-two kings of the " Hittites " and 
the discovery of Assyrian contract-tablets at Gezer (c. 650) 
may indicate the presence of Assyrian garrisons. But as the 
Assyrian power declined Egyptian monarchs formed plans of 
aggrandizement. Herodotus mentions the Scythian invasion 
and sack of the temple of Aphrodite Urania (Astarte) at Ascalon, 
also the prolonged siege of Ashdod by Psammetichus, and the 
occupation of Kadytis (? Gaza) by Necho (i. 105, ii. 157 sqq., 
iii. 5). But the Babylonian Empire followed upon traditional 
lines and thrust back Egypt, and Nabonidus (553 B.C.) claims 
his vassals as far as Gaza. The Persians took over the realm 
of their predecessors, and Gaza grew in importance as a seat of 
international commerce. Nehemiah speaks not of Philistines, 
but of Ashdodites (iv. 7), speaking an " Ashdodite " dialect 
(xiii. 24) ; just as Strabo regards the Jews, the Idumaeans, the 
Gazans and the Ashdodites as four cognate peoples having the 
common characteristic of combining agriculture with commerce. 
In southern Philistia at least, Arabian immigration became 
more pronounced. In the time of Cambyses Arabs were settled 
at Jenysos south of Gaza (Herod, iii. 5), and when Alexander 
marched upon Egypt, Gaza with its army of Arabs and Persians 
offered a strenuous resistance. Recent discoveries near Tell 
Sandahannah (or Mareshah) have revealed the presence of 
North Arabian (Edomite) names about the 2nd century B.C. 1 
On the history of the district see further JEWS; MACCABEES; 
PALESTINE. 

3. Philistine Traditions. The interdependence of the south 
Palestinian peoples follows from geographical conditions which 
are unchangeable, and the fuller light thrown upon the last 
decades of the 8th century B.C. illuminates the more fragmentary 
evidence elsewhere. 2 Hence the two sieges of the Philistine 
Gibbethon by the Israelites (above) obviously have some signifi- 
cance for Judaean history, but the Judaean annals unfortunately 
afford no help (see ASA). Again, the Aramaean attack upon 
Israel by Hazael of Damascus leads to the capture of Gath 
(2 Kings xii. 17), and this, together with the statement that he 
took " the Philistine " from Jehoahaz of Israel (ibid. xiii. 22, 
Lucian's recension), bears upon Judah, but the statements are 
isolated. Somewhat later, the Assyrian king Adad-nirari IV. 
claimed tribute from Edom, Philistia and Beth-Omri (the 
Israelite kingdom) ; the curious omission of Judah has suggested 
that it was then included with the second or third of these (see 
JEWS, 12). The Philistines naturally had a prominent place 
in popular tradition, and the story of Isaac and the Philistine 
Abimelech (Gen. xxvi., cf. xxi. 32) is of great interest for its 
unbiased representation of intercourse, enmity, alliance and 
covenant. But it is important to notice that a parallel story 
(xx.) is without this distinctively Philistine background, and 
this variation is significant. One account of the Israelite 
invasion conceived a conquest of earlier giant inhabitants 
(Anaklm) who survived in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Joshua xi. 
21 seq., contrast xiii. 3), but were driven out from Hebron by 
Caleb (Joshua xv. 14, cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28). The Philistines 
themselves are called the remnant of the Anaklm (Jer. xlvii. 5, 
so the Septuagint), or as Caphtorlm replace the earlier Avvim 

1 Peters andThiersch, Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa 
(1905). 

2 Thus, the capture of Gezer by Egypt (i Kings ix. 16) was pre- 
sumably only part of some more extensive operations, but their 
relation to Shishak's great Palestine campaign is uncertain; see 
A. Alt, Israel u. Aegypten, pp. 19-38 (Leipzig, 1909). It would 
be unsafe to infer much from the Eg. reference to the " messenger 
(wpty, meaning ambiguous)" of Canaan and Philistia (Bull. Mus. 
Cairo, i. 98). 



(Deut. ii. 23, see Joshua xiii. 3). Samuel's great defeat of the 
Philistines leads to " peace between Israel and the Amorites " 
(i Sam. vii. 14); and the migration of the Danites is placed after 
Samson's conflicts with the Philistines (Judges xviii. seq.), or is 
due to the pressure of Amorites (i. 34). Even in David's fights 
with the Philistines in Judah, Jerusalem is Jebusite, neighbour- 
ing non-Israelite cities are Hivite or Amorite (Joshua ix. 7, 
2 Sam. xxi. 2), and his strange adversaries find a close parallel in 
the semi-mythical sons of Anak (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22). 
This fluctuation, due partly to the different circles in which the 
biblical narratives took shape, and partly to definite reshaping 
of the traditions of the past, seriously complicates all attempts 
to combine the early history of Israel with the external evi- 
dence. The history of the Philistine district goes back long 
before the time of the Purasati (c. 1200 B.C.), and if the 
references to Philistines in pre-Mosaic times are treated as 
anachronisms, those which can be applied to the I2th-nth 
century do not at once acquire an historical value. 3 The refer- 
ences of the time of the Exodus, the Invasion and the " Judges " 
whatever chronological scheme be adopted must be taken 
in connexion with a careful examination of all the evidence. 
It is inherently not improbable that a recollection has been 
preserved of Philistine oppressions in the nth century, but it 
is extremely difficult to sketch any adequate sequence of events, 
and among the conflicting traditions are situations equally 
applicable to later periods of hostility. Biblical history has 
presented its own views of the Israelite and Judaean monarchies; 
Israel has its enemies who come pouring forth from the south 
(i Sam. xiii. 17, 18), while the founder of the Judaean dynasty 
has intimate relations with a Philistine king Achish (or Abime- 
lech, Ps. xxxiv.), or, from another point of view, clears the 
district of a prehistoric race of giants. In the stories of Samson 
and Samuel, the Philistines are located in the maritime plain, 
whereas, in the oldest traceable account of Saul's rise (apparently 
shortly before 1000 B.C.) they hold Israel (i Sam. ix. 16, xiii. 3 seq., 
7, xiv. i, n, 21). But there is no historical continuity between 
the two situations, and the immediate prelude to the achieve- 
ments of Saul and Jonathan is lost. The biblical evidence does 
not favour any continued Philistine domination since the time 
of Rameses III., who indeed, later in his reign, made an expedi- 
tion, not against the Purasati, but into North Syria, and, as 
appears from the Papyrus Harris, restored Egyptian supremacy 
over Palestine and Syria. Upon the (incomplete) external 
evidence and upon a careful criticism of the biblical history of 
this period, and not upon any promiscuous combination of the 
two sources, must depend the value of the plausible though 
broad reconstructions which have been proposed. 4 

Considerable stress is often laid upon Goliath's armour of 
bronze and his iron weapon, but even David himself has helmet, 
sword and coat-of-mail at his disposal (i Sam. xvii.), and suits 
of armour had already been taken from Mesopotamia by Teth- 
mosis III. Chariots of iron are ascribed to the Canaanites (Joshua 
xvii. 16, 18, Judges i. 19, iv. 3); but if early references to iron 
are treated as unhistorical (Gen. iv. 22, Num. xxxi. 22,xxxv. 16, 
Deut. iv. 20, viii. 9, xix. 5, xxvii. 5, xxviii. 48, xxxiii. 25, Joshua 
vi. 19, 24) Goliath's iron spear-head must be judged together 
with the whole narrative in the light of a consistent historical 
criticism. 6 

3 The inhabitants of Ascalon besieged by Rameses II. are repre- 
sented as Hittites. For an attempt to treat the pre-Mosaic refer- 
ences as historical, see A. Noordtzij, De Filistijnen (Kampen, 1905). 

4 See on these, W. M. Mtiller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell. 
p. 39 seq.; G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib., art. " Philistines," col. 3720 
seq., and cf. H. W. Hogg, op. cit. p. 91. For the suggestion that 
the " Philistines " have in certain cases taken the place of another 
ethnic, see S. A. Cook, Crit. Notes on 0. T. History, pp. 43 seq., 
127 seq., 131 seq., 136 seq., 144; cf., from another point of view, 
T. K. Cheyne, Decline and Fall of Kingdom of Judah (1908), pp. xx. sqq. 

6 The introduction of iron has been ascribed to about looo B.C. 
(Macalister, Quart. Statem. p. 321 [1905], as against p. 122 [1904]; 
H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres V exploration recente, p. 235 seq.). It 
need hardly be said that the height and might of Goliath must be 
regarded in the same way as Num. xiii. 32; Deut. ii. n. The men 
of the heroic age are giants, as were the 'Ad and Thamud to the 
later Arabs. 



PHILISTUS 



4. Conclusions. The Philistines appear in the Old Testament 
as a Semitic or at least a thoroughly Semitized people. Their 
proper names show that before and even during the Persian 
age their languages differed only dialectically from Hebrew. 
Among the exceptions must be reckoned Achish (Sept. &KXOW), 
with which has been compared Ikausu, a king of Ekron (7th 
century) and the " Keftian" name Akashau of the XlXth 
Egyptian dynasty. Names in -ath (Goliath; Ahuzzath, Gen. 
xxvi.) are not restricted to Philistines, and Phicol (ibid.) is 
too obscure to serve as evidence. The religion is not novel. 
The male god Dagon has his partner Astarte (qq.v.), and 
Baal-zebub, a famous oracle of Ekron (2 Kings i.) finds 
a parallel in the local " baals " of Palestine. 1 Even when 
the region seems to be completely Hellenized after the 
Persian age, it is not so certain that Greek culture pervaded 
all classes (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 3726), although 
a certain amount of foreign influence probably made itself 
felt upon the coast-towns at all times. The use of the 
term dXX6<v\ot in Maccabaean and later writings (cf. the 
contemptuous hatred of Ben Sira, Ecclesiasticus 1. 26, and the 
author of Jubilees xxiv. 30 sqq.) correctly expresses the con- 
ditions of the Greek age and the Maccabaean wars, and naturally 
any allusion to the situations of many centuries previously is 
quite unnecessary. Similarly, the biblical evidence represents 
the traditions in the form which they had reached in the writer's 
time, the true date of which is often uncertain. Antagonism 
between Philistines and Israelites was not a persisting feature, 
and, although the former are styled " uncircumcised " (chiefly 
in the stories in the book of Samuel), the term gained new force 
when the expulsion of uncircumcised aliens from the sanctuary 
of Jerusalem was proclaimed in the writings ascribed to Ezekiel 
(ch.xliv.). 2 

In fact the question arises whether the history of the Philistines 
is not that of a territorial designation, rather than that of the 
lineal descendants of the Purasati, who, if one of the peoples 
who took part in the events of the XXth Dynasty, may well have 
bequeathed their name. The Mediterranean coast-land was 
always exposed to incursions of aliens, and when Carians appear 
as royal and temple guards at Jerusalem (2 Kings xi. 4), it is 
sufficient to recall old Greek traditions of a Carian sea-power 
and relations between Philistia and Greek lands. 3 Even the 
presence of Carians and lonians in the time of Psammetichus I. 
may be assumed, and when these are planted at Defneh it is 
noteworthy that this is also closely associated with a Jewish 
colony (viz. Tahpanhes, Jer. xliii. seq.). Although the Purasati 
appear after the I5th-i4th centuries, now illuminated by the 
Amarna tablets, their own history is perhaps earlier. 4 But there 
is no reason at present to believe that their entrance caused any 
break in the archaeological history. The apparently " Aegean " 
influence which enters into the general " Amarna " period seems 
to begin before the age of the Amarna tablets (at Lachish), and 
it passes gradually into later phases contemporary with the 
1 See further, F. Schwally, Zeit. Wissens. Theol. xxxiv. 103-108. 
A few Hebrew words have been regarded as Philistine loan-words, 
so notably pillegesh, "concubine (TraXXanri, iraXXoxts, Lat. pellex), 
and seren (r&pawos) the title applied to the five lords of the Philistine 
confederation; seren otherwise means "axle," and may have been 
applied metaphorically like the Arab, kotb (W. R. Smith). On the 
other hand, a common origin in Asia Minor is also possible for 
these words. 

* In the prophetical writings the Philistines are denounced 
(with Ammon, Moab and Edom) for their vengeance upon Judah 
(Ezek. xxv. 15-17). With Tyre and Sidon they are condemned for 
plundering Judah, and for kidnapping its children to sell to the 
Greeks (Joel iii. 4-8; cf. Amos i. 6-12; I Mace. iii. 41). They are 
threatened with a foe from the north (Jer. xxv. 20; Isa. xiv. 29-31 ; 
see ZEPHANIAH), as also is Phoenicia (Jer. xlvii. 2-7) upon whom 
they depend (cf. Zech. ix. 3-8). Judah is promised reprisals 
(Zeph. ii. 7 ; Obad. 19), and a remnant of the Philistines may become 
worshippers of Yahweh (Zech. ix. 7). The historical backgrounds of 
these passages are disputed. 

' See J. L. Myres, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvi. 84 sqq. 
(1906); especially pp. 108, 127 sqq. 

* This is suggested by the recent discovery at Phaestos in Crete 
of a disk with evidence for a native script; see A. T. Evans, Scripta 
Minoa (Oxford, 1909), pp. 22 sqq.; E. Meyer, Sizungsberichte of 
the Berlin Academy for the 2 1st of October 1909. 



Israelite monarchy. There is a fairly continuous intercourse 
with external culture (Cypriote, early and late Greek), and, if 
Gath be identified with Tel es-Safi, Bliss and Macalister, who 
excavated it, found no trace of any interruption in its history. 
Only at Gezer perhaps Philistine, 2 Sam. v. 25 has there 
been found evidence for a strange race with several distinctive 
features. Bricked vault tombs were discovered containing 
bodies outstretched (not contracted); the deposits were of an 
unusually fine character and comprised silve , alabaster and 
even iron. The culture appears to find Carian and Lydian 
parallels, and has been ascribed provisionally to the i3th-ioth 
centuries. So far, however, of the cities lying within or im- 
mediately exposed to Philistine influence, the discoveries at 
Gezer are unique. 6 

According to the biblical traditions the Philistines are the 
remnant of Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4, Amos ix. 7), and the Caphtorim 
drove out the aboriginal Awa from Gaza and district, as the 
Horites and Rephaim were displaced by Edom and Ammon 
(Deut. ii. 23). These Caphtorim, together with Ludim (Lydians) 
and other petty peoples, apparently of the Delta, are once 
reckoned to Egypt (Gen. x. I4). 6 By Caphtor the Septuagint 
has sometimes understood Cappadocia, which indeed may be 
valid for its age, but the name is to be identified with the 
Egyptian K(a)ptar, which in later Ptolemaic times seems to 
mean Phoenicia, although Kefliu had had another connotation. 
The Cherethites, associated with the Philistine district (i Sam. 
xxx. 14, 16, Ezek. xxv. 16, Zeph. ii. 5 seq.), are sometimes recog- 
nized by the Septuagint as Cretans, and, with the Pelethites 
(often taken to be a rhyming form of Philistines), they form 
part of the royal body-guard^of Judaeah kings (2 Sam. viii. 18, 
xv. 18. xx. 7, i Kings i. 38, 44; in 2 Sam. xx. 23 the Hebrew text 
has Carites). However adequate these identifications may 
seem, the persistence of an independent clan or tribe of Chere- 
thites-Cretans to the close of the 7th century would imply an 
unbroken chain of nearly six hundred years, unless, as is in- 
herently more probable, later immigrations had occurred within 
the interval. But upon the ethnological relations either of the 
south Palestinian coast or of the Delta it would be unsafe to 
dogmatize. So far as can be ascertained, then, the first mention 
of the Philistines belongs to an age of disturbance and change 
in connexion with movements in Asia Minor. Archaeological 
evidence for their influence has indeed been adduced, 7 but it is 
certain that some account must be taken also of the influence 
by land from North Syria and Asia Minor. The influences, 
whether from the Levant, or from the north, were not confined 
to the age of Rameses III. alone, and the biblical evidence, 
especially, while possibly preserving some recollection of the 
invasion of the Purasati, is in every case late and may be shaped 
by later historical vicissitudes. It is impossible that Palestine 
should have remained untouched by the external movements 
in connexion with the Delta, the Levant and Asia Minor, and 
it is possible that the course of internal history in the age immedi- 
ately before and after 1000 B.C. ran upon lines different from 
the detailed popular religious traditions which the biblical 
historians have employed. (See further PALESTINE: History.) 

For older studies, see F. Hitzig, Urgeschichte der Philister (1845), 
with the theory of the Pelasgic origin of the Philistines; K. Stark, 
Gaza u. d. philist. Ktiste (1852), and (with special reference to earlier 
theories) W. Robertson Smith's art. in Ency. Brit., 9th ed. 

(S. A. C.) 

PHILISTUS, Greek historian of Sicily, was born at Syracuse 
about the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (432 B.C.). He 
was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionysius, and commander 

6 See R. A. S. Macalister, Quarterly Stat. of the Palestine Explor. 
Fund, pp. 319 sqq. (1905), pp. 197 sqq. (1907), and J. L. Myres, 
ibid. pp. 240 sqq. (1907). On the other hand, H. Thiersch would 
connect the painted pottery of Tel es-afi, &c., with the Philistines 
(Jahrbuch d. Arch. Inst. col. 378 sqq., Berlin, 1908); cf. also H. R. 
Hall, Proc, Soc. Bibl. Arch. xxxi. 235. 

e f. 13 seq. may be a secondary addition " written from specially 
intimate acquaintance with the (later ?) Egyptian geography ' 
(J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 214). 

7 See D. G. Hogarth, Ionia and the East, pp. 28 seq. (Oxford, 
1909) ; Evans, Scripta Minoa, pp. 77 sqq. 



PHILLAUR PHILLIPS, A. 



of the citadel. In 386 he excited the jealousy of the tyrant 
by secretly marrying his niece, and was sent into banishment. 
He settled at Thurii, but afterwards removed to Adria, where 
he remained until the death of Dionysius (366). He was then 
recalled by the younger Dionysius, whom he persuaded to 
dismiss Plato and Dion. When Dion set sail from Zacynthus 
with the object of liberating Syracuse from the tyrannis, Philistus 
was entrusted with the command of the fleet, but he was defeated 
and put to death (356). During his stay at Adria, Philistus 
occupied himself with the composition of his SiKeXi/cd, a history 
of Sicily in eleven books. The first part (bks. i.-vii.) comprised 
the history of the island from the earliest times to the capture 
of Agrigentum by the Carthaginians (406); the second, the 
history of the elder and the younger Dionysius (down to 363). 
From this point the work was carried on by Philistus's fellow 
countryman Athanas. Cicero (ad. Q. Fr. ii. 13), who had a 
high opinion of his work, calls him the miniature Thucydides " 
(pusillus Thucydides). He was admitted by the Alexandrian 
critics into the canon of historiographers, and his work was 
highly valued by Alexander the Great. 

See Diod. Sic. xiii. 103, xiv. 8, xv. 7, xvi. n, 16; Plutarch, Dion, 
11-36; Cicero, Brutus, 17, De oratore, ii. 13; Quintilian, Instil. 
x. I, 74; fragments and life in C. W. Mtiller, Fragmenta historicorum 
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium 
der alien Geschichte (1895); E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (1891 
1894); A. Holm, Geschichte Sicitiens im Altert. (1870-1898). 

PHILLAUR, a town of British India, in Jullundur district, 
Punjab, on the north bank of the river Sutlej, 8 m. N. of 
Ludhiana. Pop. (1901), 6986. Founded by the Mogul emperor 
Shah Jahan, it was long of importance as commanding the 
crossing of the Sutlej. At the Mutiny in 1857 the fort contained 
the siege train, which was sent safely to Delhi; but the sepoy 
regiment in the cantonment shortly afterwards mutinied and 
escaped. The fort is now occupied by the police training school 
and the central bureau of the criminal identification department. 

PHILLIMORE, SIR ROBERT JOSEPH (1810-1885), English 
judge, third son of a well-known ecclesiastical lawyer, Dr Joseph 
Phillimore, was born at Whitehall on the 5th of November 1810. 
Educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford, where a life- 
long friendship with W. E. Gladstone began, his first appointment 
was to a clerkship in the board of control, where he remained 
from 1832 to 1835. Admitted as an advocate at Doctors' 
Commons in 1839, he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple 
in 1841, and rose very rapidly in his profession. He was engaged 
as counsel in almost every case of importance that came before 
the admiralty, probate or divorce courts, and became success- 
ively master of faculties, commissary of the deans and chapters 
of St Paul's and Westminster, official of the archdeaconries of 
Middlesex and London,and chancellor of the dioceses of Chichester 
and Salisbury. In 1853 he entered parliament as member for 
Tavistock. A moderate in politics, his energies were devoted 
to non-party measures, and in 1854 he introduced the bill for 
allowing viva voce evidence in the ecclesiastical courts. He sat 
for Tavistock until 1857, when he offered himself as a candidate 
for Coventry, but was defeated. He was appointed judge of 
the Cinque Ports in 1855, Queen's Counsel in 1858, and advocate- 
general in admiralty in 1862, and succeeded Dr Stephen Lushing- 
ton (1782-1873) as judge of thecourt of arches five years later. 
Here his care, patience and courtesy, combined with unusual 
lucidity of expression, wop general respect. In 1875, in accordance 
with the Public Worship Regulation Act, he resigned, and was 
succeeded by Lord Penzance. When the Judicature Act came 
into force the powers of the admiralty court were transferred 
to the High Court of Justice, and Sir Robert Phillimore was 
therefore the last judge of the historic court of the lord high 
admiral of England. He continued to sit as judge for the new 
admiralty, probate and divorce division until 1883, when he 
resigned. He wrote Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England, 
a book which still holds its ground, Commentaries on International 
Law, and a translation of Lessing's Laocoon. He married, in 
1844, Charlotte Anne, daughter of John Denison of Ossington 
Hall, Newark. He was knighted in 1862, and created a baronet 
in 1881. He died at Shiplake, near Henley-on-Thames, on 



405 

the 4th of February 1885. His eldest son, Sir Walter G. F. 
Phillimore (b. 1845), also distinguished as an authority on 
ecclesiastical and admiralty law, became in 1897 a judge of 
the high court. 

PHILLIP, JOHN (1817-1867), Scottish painter, was born at 
Aberdeen, Scotland, on the igth of April 1817. His father, an 
old soldier, was in humble circumstances, and the son became 
an errand-boy to a tinsmith, and was then apprenticed to a 
painter and glazier. Having received some technical instruction 
from a local artist named William Mercer, he began, at the age 
of about fifteen, to paint portraits. In 1834 he made a very 
brief visit to London. About this time he became assistant to 
James Forbes, an Aberdeen portrait-painter. He had already 
gained a valuable patron. Having been sent to repair a window 
in the house of Major P. L. Gordon, his interest in the works of 
art in the house attracted the attention of their owner. Gordon 
brought the young artist under the notice of Lord Panmure, 
who in 1836 sent him to London, promising to bear the cost of 
his art education. At first Phillip was placed under T. M. Joy, 
but he soon entered the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1839 
he figured for the first time in the royal academy exhibition with 
a portrait and a landscape, and in the following year he was 
represented by a more ambitious figure-picture of " Tasso in 
Disguise relating his Persecutions to his Sister." For the next 
ten years he supported himself mainly by portraiture and by 
painting subjects of national incident, such as " Presbyterian 
Catechizing," " Baptism in Scotland," and the " Spaewife." 
His productions at this period, as well as his earlier subject- 
pictures, are reminiscent of the practice and methods of Wilkie 
and the Scottish genre-painters of his time. In 1851 his health 
showed signs of delicacy, and he went to Spain in search of a 
warmer climate. He was brought face to face for the first time 
with the brilliant sunshine and the splendid colour of the south, 
and it was in coping with these that he first manifested his 
artistic individuality and finally displayed his full powers. In 
the " Letter-writer of Seville " (1854), commissioned by Queen 
Victoria at the suggestion of Sir Edwin Landseer, the artist is 
struggling with new difficulties in the portrayal of unwonted 
splendours of colour and light. In 1857 Phillip was elected an 
associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1859 a full member. In 
1855 and in 1860 further visits to Spain were made, and in each 
case the painter returned with fresh materials to be embodied 
with increasing power and subtlety in the long series of works 
which won for him the title of " Spanish Phillip." His highest 
point of execution is probably reached in " La Gloria " (1864) 
and a smaller single-figure painting of the same period entitled 
" El Cigarillo." These Spanish subjects were varied in 1860 
by a rendering of the marriage of the princess royal with the 
crown prince of Prussia, executed by command of the queen, 
and in 1863 by a picture of the House of Commons. During his 
last visit to Spain Phillip occupied himself in a careful study of 
the art of Velazquez, and the copies which he made fetched large 
prices after his death, examples having been secured by the royal 
and the royal Scottish academies. The year before his death he 
visited Italy and devoted attention to the works of Titian. The 
results of this study of the old masters are visible in such works 
as " La Loteria Nacional, " left uncompleted at his death. During 
this period he resided much in the Highlands, and seemed to be 
returning to his first love for Scottish subjects, painting several 
national scenes, and planning others that were never completed. 
He died in London on the 27th of February 1867. 

His works were collected in the International Exhibition of 
1873, and many of them are engraved by T. Oldham Barlow. In 
addition to the paintings already specified the following are among 
the more important: " Life among the Gipsies of Seville " (1853), 
" El Paseo " (1855), " Collection of the Offertory in a Scotch Kirk " 
('855), " A Gipsy Water-carrier in Seville " (1855), " The Prayer 
of Faith shall save the Sick " (1856), " The Dying Contrabandist " 
(1856), " The Prison Window " (1857), " A Huff " (1859), " Early 
Career of Murillo " (1865), " A Chat round the Brasero " (1866). 

PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882), American contralto 
singer, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, England, her family 
emigrating to America in 1840. Her mother taught dancing, 



406 



PHILLIPS, E. PHILLIPS, S. 



and Adelaide began a career on the Boston stage at ten years 
old. But in 1850 her talent for singing became evident, and 
through Jenny Lind and others she was sent to London and to 
Italy to study. In 1855 she returned to America an accom- 
plished vocalist; and for many years she was the leading 
American contralto, equally successful in oratorio and on the 
concert platform. She died at Carlsbad on the 3rd of October 
1882. 

PHILLIPS, EDWARD (1630-1696), English author, son of 
Edward Phillips of the crown office in chancery, and his wife 
Anne, only sister of John Milton, the poet, was born in August 
1630 in the Strand, London. His father died in 1631, and Anne 
Phillips eventually married her husband's successor in the crown 
office, Thomas Agar. Edward Phillips and his younger brother, 
John, were educated by Milton. Edward entered Magdalen 
Hall, Oxford, in November 1650, but left the university in 1651 
to be a bookseller's clerk in London. Although he entirely 
differed from Milton in his religious and political views, and 
seems, to judge from the free character of his Mysteries of Love 
and Eloquence (1658), to have undergone a certain revulsion 
from his Puritan upbringing, he remained on affectionate terms 
with his uncle to the end. He was tutor to the son of John 
Evelyn, the diarist, from 1663 to 1672 at Sayes Court, near 
Deptford, and in 1677-1679 in the family of Henry Bennet, 
earl of Arlington. The date of his death is unknown, but his 
last book is dated 1696. 

His most important work is Theatrum poetarum (1675), a list of 
the chief poets of all ages and countries, but principally of the English 
poets, with short critical notes and a prefatory Discourse of the 
Poets and Poetry, which has usually been traced to Milton's hand. 
He also wrote A New World in Words, or a General Dictionary 
(1658), which went through many editions; a new edition of Baker's 
Chronicle, of which the section on the period from 1650 to 1658 was 
written by himself from the royalist standpoint; a supplement 
(1676) to John Speed's Theatre of Great Britain; and in 1684 
Enchiridion linguae latinae, said to have been taken chiefly from 
notes prepared by Milton. Aubrey states that all Milton's papers 
came into Phillips's hands, and in 1694 he published a translation 
of his Letters of State with a valuable memoir. 

His brother, JOHN PHILLIPS (1631-1706), in 1652 published 
a Latin reply to the anonymous attack on Milton entitled Pro 
Rege et populo anglicano. He appears to have acted as un- 
official secretary to Milton, but, disappointed of regular political 
employment, and chafing against the discipline he was under, 
he published in 1655 a bitter attack on Puritanism entitled a 
Satyr against Hypocrites (1655). In 1656 he was summoned 
before the privy council for his share in a book of licentious 
poems, Sportive Wit, which was suppressed by the authorities 
but almost immediately replaced by a similar collection, Wit 
and Drollery. In Montelion (1660) he ridiculed the astrological 
almanacs of William Lilly. Two other skits of this name, in 
1661 and 1662, also full of course royalist wit, were probably by 
another hand. In 1678 he supported the agitation of Titus Dates, 
writing on his behalf, says Wood, " many lies and villanies." 
Dr Oates's Narrative of the Popish Plot indicated was the first 
of these tracts. He began a monthly historical review in 1688 
entitled Modern History or a Monthly Account of all considerable 
Occurrences, Civil, Ecclesiastical and Military, followed in 1690 by 
The Present State of Europe, or a Historical and Political Mercury, 
which was supplemented by a preliminary volume giving a 
history of events from 1688. He executed many translations 
from the French, and a version (1687) of Don Quixote, 

An extended, but by no means friendly, account of the brothers 
is given by Wood, Athen. oxon. (ed. Bliss, iv. 764 seq.), where a 
long list of their works is dealt with. This formed the basis of 
William Godwin's Lives of Edward and John Phillips (1815), with 
which is reprinted Edward Phillips's Life of John Milton. 

PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800-1874), English geologist, was born 
on the 25th of December 1800 at Marden in Wiltshire. His 
father belonged to an old Welsh family, but settled in England 
as an officer of excise and married the sister of William Smith, 
the " Father of English Geology." Both parents dying when 
he was a child, Phillips came under the charge of his uncle; and 
after being educated at various schools, he accompanied Smith on 
his wanderings in connexion with his geological maps. In the 



spring of 1824 Smith went to York to deliver a course of lectures 
on geology, and his nephew accompanied him. Phillips accepted 
engagements in the principal Yorkshire towns to arrange their 
museums and give courses of lectures on the collections contained 
therein. York became his residence, where he obtained, in 
1825, the situation of keeper of the Yorkshire museum and 
secretary of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. From that 
centre he extended his operations to towns beyond the county; 
and in 1831 he included University College, London, in the sphere 
of his activity. In that year the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science was founded at York, and Phillips was 
one of the active minds who organized its machinery. He 
became in 1832 the first assistant secretary, a post which he held 
until 1859. In 1^834 he accepted the professorship of geology 
at King's College, London, but retained his post at York. In 
1834 he was elected F.R.S.; in later years he received hon. 
degrees of LL.D. from Dublin and Cambridge, and D.C.L. from 
Oxford; while in 1845 he was awarded the Wollaston Medal by 
the Geological Society of London. In 1840 he resigned his charge 
of the York museum and was appointed on the staff of the 
geological survey of Great Britain under De la Beche. He spent 
some time in studying the Palaeozoic fossils of Devon, Cornwall 
and West Somerset, of which he published a descriptive memoir 
(1841); and he made a detailed survey of the region of the 
Malvern Hills, of which he prepared the elaborate account that 
appears in vol. ii. of the Memoirs of the Survey (1848). In 1844 he 
became professor of geology in the university of Dublin. Nine 
years later, on the death of H. E. Strickland, who had acted as 
substitute for Dean Buckland in the readership of geology in 
the university of Oxford, Phillips succeeded to the post of deputy, 
and at the dean's death in 1856 became himself reader, a post 
which he held to the time of his death. During his residence 
in Oxford he took a leading part in the foundation and arrange- 
ment of the new museum erected in 1859 (see his Notices of Rocks 
and Fossils in the University Museum, 1863; and The Oxford 
Museum, by H. W. Acland and J. Ruskin, 1859; reprinted with 
additions 1893). Phillips was also keeper of the Ashmolean 
museum from 1854-1870. In 1859-1860 he was president of 
the Geological Society of London, and in 1865 president of the 
British Association. He dined at All Souls College on the 23rd 
of April 1874, but on leaving he slipped and fell down a flight 
of stone stairs, and died on the following day. 

From the time he wrote his first paper " On the Direction of the 
Diluvial Currents in Yorkshire " (1827), down to the last days of 
his life, Phillips continued a constant contributor to the literature 
of science. The pages of the Philosophical Magazine, the Journal 
of the Geological Society, the Geological Magazine and other publica- 
tions contain valuable essays by him. He was also the author 
of numerous separate works, which were of great benefit in extend- 
ing a sound knowledge of geology. Among these may be specially 
mentioned : Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire (in two parts, 1829 
and 1836; 2nd ed. of pt. I in 1835, 3rd ed., edited by R. Etheridge, 
in 1875); A- Treatise on Geology (1837-1839); Memoirs of William 
Smith (1844); The Rivers, Mountains and Sea-Coast of Yorkshire 
('853) ; Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical (1855); Life 
on the Earth: its Origin and Succession (1860); Vesuvius (1869); 
Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames (1871). To these 
should be added his Monograph of British Belemnitidae (1865), 
for the Palaeontographical Society, and his geological map of the 
British Isles (1847). 

See Biographical Memoir, with portrait, in Geol. Mag. (July 1870). 

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814-1854), English journalist, the son 
of a Jewish tradesman in London, was born on the 28th of 
December 1814. He was educated at University College, 
London, and then at Gottingen. Having renounced the Jewish 
faith, he returned to England and entered Sidney Sussex College, 
Cambridge, with the design of taking orders. His father's death, 
however, prevented this, and in 1841 he took to literary work. 
He wrote a novel, Caleb Stukely (1862), and other tales, and 
about 1845 began a connexion with The Times as literary critic. 
In the following year he purchased the John Bull newspaper, 
and edited it for a year. Two volumes of his Essays from The 
Times appeared in 1852 and 1854. Phillips took an active part 
in the formation of the Crystal Palace Company, and wrote 
their descriptive guides. In 1852 the university of Gottingen 



PHILLIPS, S. PHILLIPS, WENDELL 



407 



conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. He died 
at Brighton on the i4th of October 1854. 

PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868- ), British poet and dramatist, 
was born on the 28th of July 1868 at Somertown near Oxford, 
the son of the Rev. Stephen Phillips, precentor of Peterborough, 
Cathedral. He was educated at Stratford and Peterborough 
Grammar Schools, and entered Queen's College, Cambridge; 
but during his first term at Cambridge, when F. R. Benson's 
dramatic company visited the town, he joined it, and for six 
years played various small parts. In 1890 a slender volume of 
verse was published at Oxford with the title Primavera, which 
contained contributions by him and by his cousin Laurence 
Binyon and others. In 1894 he published Eremus, a long poem 
of loose structure in blank verse of a philosophical complexion. 
In 1896 appeared Christ in Hades, forming with a few other 
short pieces one of the slim paper-covered volumes of Elkin 
Mathews's " Shilling Garland." This poem arrested the at- 
tention of watchful critics of poetry, and when it was followed 
by a collection of Poems in 1897 the writer's position as a new 
poet of exceptional gifts was generally recognized. This volume 
contained a new edition of " Christ in Hades," together with 
" Marpessa," " The Woman with the Dead Soul," " The Wife " 
and shorter pieces, including the fine lines " To Milton, Blind." 
The volume won the prize of 100 offered by the Academy news- 
paper for the best new book of its year, ran through half a dozen 
editions in two years, and established Mr Phillips's rank as poet, 
which was sustained by the publication in the Nineteenth Century 
in 1898 of his poem " Endymion." George Alexander, the 
actor-manager, moved perhaps by a certain clamour among the 
critics for a literary drama, then commissioned Mr Phillips to 
write him a play, the result being Paolo and Francesca (1900), 
a drama founded on Dante's famous episode. Encouraged by 
the great success of the drama in its literary form, Mr Alexander 
produced the piece at the St James's Theatre in the course of 
1901. In the meantime, Mr Phillips's next play, Herod: a 
Tragedy, had been produced by Beerbohm Tree on the 3151 of 
October 1900, and was published as a book in 1901 ; Ulysses, also 
produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published in 1902; The Sin of 
David, a drama on the story of David and Bathsheba, translated 
into the times and terms of Cromwellian England, was published 
in 1904; and Nero, produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published 
in 1906. In these plays the poet's avowed aim was, instead of 
attempting to revive the method of Shakespeare and the Eliza- 
bethans, to revitalize the method of Greek drama. Paolo and 
Francesca (which admitted certainly one scene on an Elizabethan 
model) was the most successful, the subject being best adapted 
to the lyrical cast of Mr Phillips's poetical temperament ; but all 
contained fine poetry, skilfully stage-managed by a writer who 
had practical experience of stage craft. 

See the section on Stephen Phillips in Poets of the Younger Genera- 
tion, by William Archer (1902); also the articles on " Tragedy and 
Mr Stephen Phillips," by William Watson, in the Fortnightly Review 
(March 1898); " The Poetry of Mr Stephen Phillips," in the Edin- 
burgh Review (January 1900) ; " Mr Stepuen Phillips," in the Century 
(January 1901), by Edmund Gosse; and " Mr Stephen Phillips," 
in the Quarterly Review (April 1902), by Arthur Symons. 

For bibliography up to July 1903, see English Illustrated Magazine 
new series, vol. xxix. p. 442. 

PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845), English portrait and 
subject painter, was born at Dudley in Warwickshire on the 
1 8th of October 1770. Having acquired the art of glass- 
painting at Birmingham he visited London in 1790 with an 
introduction to Benjamin West, who found him employment 
on the windows in St George's Chapel at Windsor. In 1792 
Phillips painted a view of Windsor Castle, and in the next two 
years he exhibited the " Death of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, 
at the Battle of Castillon," " Ruth and Naomi," " Elijah re- 
storing the Widow's Son," " Cupid disarmed by Euphrosyne," 
and other pictures. After 1796, however, he mainly con- 
fined himself to portrait-painting. It was not long before 
he became the chosen painter of men of genius and talent, 
notwithstanding the rivalry of Hoppner, Owen, Jackson and 
Lawrence; and he left behind portraits of nearly all the illus- 



trious characters of his day. In 1804 he was elected associate 
and in 1808 member of the Royal Academy. In 1824 Phillips 
succeeded Fuseli as professor of painting to the Royal Academy, 
an office which he held till 1832. During this period he de- 
livered ten Lectures on the History and Principles of Painting, 
which were published in 1833. He died on the zoth of April 
1845- 

PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884), American orator and 
reformer, was born in Boston on the 29th of November 1811. 
His father, John Phillips (1770-1823), a man of wealth 
and influence, graduated at Harvard College in 1788, and 
became successively " town advocate and public prosecutor," 
and in 1822 first mayor of Boston, then recently made into a city. 
Wendell Phillips himself attended the public Latin school, 
entered Harvard College before he was sixteen, and graduated 
in 1831 in the same class with the historian John Lothrop 
Motley. He graduated at the Harvard law school in 1834, 
and was admitted to the bar in Boston. He soon came under 
the influence of the anti-slavery movement, witnessing in 1835 
the mobbing, in Boston, of William Lloyd Garrison. On the 
8th of December 1837 a meeting was held at Faneuil Hall to 
express the sentiments of the people on the murder of Elijah P. 
Lovejoy, at Alton, Illinois, for defending his press from a pro- 
slavery mob. In the course of the meeting a speech was made 
in opposition to its general current by James T. Austin (1784- 
1870), attorney-general of the state, who said that Lovejoy 
had died " as the fool dieth," and compared his murderers to 
the men who threw the tea into Boston harbour just before the 
War of Independence. The speech seemed likely to divide the 
audience, when Wendell Phillips took the platform. " When 
I heard," he said, " the gentleman lay down principles which 
placed the murderers of Alton side by side with Otis and Han- 
cock, with Quincy and Adams, I thought these pictured lips 
(pointing to their portraits) would have broken into voice to 
rebuke the recreant American, the slanderer of the dead." This 
appeal not merely determined the sentiment of the meeting, 
it gave Wendell Phillips his first fame and determined his 
career. Although loving his profession, and this especially 
for the opening it gave in the direction of public life, he prac- 
tically stepped outside the sphere dearest to young Americans, 
and lived henceforth the life of an agitator, or, like his father, 
that of a " public prosecutor." Accepting unhesitatingly the 
leadership of Garrison, and becoming like him gradually a 
disunionist, he lived essentially a platform life, interested in a 
variety of subjects, but first and chiefly an abolitionist. In 
1865, however, after the Civil War, he broke with Garrison 
over the question of discontinuing the Anti-Slavery Society, 
and from that date until the society was disbanded in 1870 he, 
instead of Garrison, was its president. He was not, moreover, 
like his great leader, a non-resistant, nor was he, on the other 
hand, like John Brown, borne on by irresistible necessity to 
overt action. Nor did he find, like his fellow-worker, Theodore 
Parker, the leisure to keep up his scholarship and lead in part 
the life of a student. Early study and travel had indeed fur- 
nished him with abundant material for rhetorical illustration; 
and he was also a great reader of newspapers, but he used to 
say that he knew in his whole life but one thing thoroughly, 
namely, the history of the English Civil War, and there were 
few occasions when he could not draw from it the needful illus- 
tration. His style of eloquence was direct and brilliant, but 
eminently self-controlled. He often surprised his hearers by 
the quietness of his beginnings, and these were very often the 
speeches which turned out most brilliant and most irresistible 
ere the close. He may be said to have introduced the direct 
and colloquial manner upon the American public platform, as 
distinct from the highly elaborated and often ornate style 
which had been established by Edward Everett; nor has there 
ever been a reversion since his day to the more artificial 
method. He was capable at times, nevertheless, of highly 
sonorous periods with superb climaxes; yet his favourite 
style was the conversational. His logic, while never obtruded, 
was rarely at fault; but he loved the flash of the rapier, and 



408 



PHILLIPS, W. PHILLPOTTS 



was never happier than when he had to face down a mob and 
utterly foil it by sheer superiority in fencing. The two volumes 
of his speeches, as edited by James Redpath, were fortunately 
made from verbatim reports, and they wisely enclose in paren- 
theses those indications of favour or dissent from the audience 
which transformed so many of his speeches into exhibitions of 
gladiatorial skill. He was a tribune of the people, associated 
unflinchingly not merely with the unpopular but with the 
unpolished; always carrying about him not merely a certain 
Roman look, but a patrician air. After slavery had fallen 
Phillips associated himself freely with reformers occupied in 
other paths, herein separating himself from the other patrician 
of the movement, Edmund Quincy, who always frankly said 
that after slavery was abolished there was nothing else 
worth fighting for. Among other things, Phillips contended, 
during his later years, for prohibition, woman suffrage and 
various penal and administrative reforms. He was not always 
the best judge of character, and was sometimes allied in these 
movements with men who were little more than demagogues. 
But the proof he gave by his transfer of energies that the work 
of reform was never quite finished this was something of 
peculiar value, and worth the risk of some indiscretions. The 
life of a reformer did not in itself make him thoroughly 
happy; he chafed more and more under its fatigues, and he 
always felt that his natural place would have been among 
senators or ambassadors; but he belonged essentially to the 
heroic type, and it may well have been of him that Emerson 
was thinking when he wrote those fine words: " What forests 
of laurel we bring and the tears of mankind to him who stands 
firm against the opinion of his contemporaries." His domestic 
life was most happy, though his wife was a confirmed invalid, 
seldom quitting her room. She was a woman of heroic nature 
and very strong convictions. Her husband used to say that 
she first made him an abolitionist. They had no children, but 
adopted an orphaned daughter of Mrs Eliza Garnaut, a friend, 
and this young girl (afterwards the wife of George W. Smalley), 
brought much light and joy into the household. Their worldly 
circumstances were easy, though they were always ready to 
impoverish themselves for the sake of others. Wendell Phillips 
died in Boston on the 2nd of February 1884. 

See Lorenzo Sears, Wendell Phillips, Orator and Agitator (New 
York, 1909) '(T. W. H.) 

PHILLIPS, WILLIAM (1775-1828), British mineralogist and 
geologist, son of James Phillips, printer and bookseller in 
London, was born on the loth of May 1775- He early became 
interested in mineralogy and geology, and was one of the 
founders of the Geological Society of London (1807). His 
Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology (1815) and Elementary Intro- 
duction to the Knowledge of Mineralogy (1816) became standard 
textbooks. His digest of English geology, A selection of Facts from 
the Best Authorities, arranged so as to form an Outline of the Geo- 
logy of England and Wales (1818), formed the foundation of the 
larger work undertaken by Phillips in conjunction with W. D. 
Conybeare, of which only the first part was published, entitled 
Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (1822). This 
volume made an era in geology. As a model of careful original 
observation, of judicious compilation, of succinct description 
and of luminous arrangement it has been of the utmost service 
in the development of geology in Britain. In this work Phillips 
reprinted his admirable description of the chalk cliffs of Dover 
and other parts of East Kent, published in 1819 in Trans. Geol. 
Soc. vol. v. Phillips was a member of 'the Society of Friends. 
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827. He 
died on the 2nd of April 1828. 

His brother, RICHARD PHILLIPS (1778-1851), was distin- 
guished as a chemist, and became F.R.S. in 1822. He was 
appointed chemist and curator to the Museum of Economic 
(afterwards Practical) Geology, then situated in Craig's Court 
(1839). He was the author of papers published in the Annals 
of Philosophy and Philosophical Magazine. In 1796 the two 
brothers, together with William Allen and Luke Howard, took 
part in forming the Askesian Society. 



PHILL1PSBURG, a town of Warren county, New Jersey, 
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania, 
and about 51 m. N.N.W. of Trenton, NJ. Pop. (1900) 10,052, 
of whom 990 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 13,903. 
Served by the Central of New Jersey and other railways, the 
town is situated in the river bottom and on a bluff which 
commands beautiful views. The river is spanned here by 
several bridges. The town has railway shops and various manu- 
factures. In 1905 the value of the factory products was 
$6,684,173 (45-8% more than in 1900). Phillipsburg was settled 
about 1750. It was only a straggling village when the Morris 
Banking and Canal Company was chartered in 1824, but its 
growth was accelerated by the canal (no longer used), by the 
establishment in 1848 of an iron furnace, and by the completion 
of the Central Railroad of New Jersey to this point in 1852; 
the town was incorporated in 1861. 

PHILLIPSITE, a mineral of the zeolite group; a hydrated 
potassium, calcium and aluminium silicate, approximating 
to (K 2 , Ca) Al 2 (SiO3).r4H 2 O. It varies somewhat in composition, 
and a variety (" pseudophillipsite ") containing rather less 
silica has the formula (K 2 , Ca) 2 Al 4 Si 5 Oi 8 -9H 2 O. Crystals are 
monoclinic, but only complex cruciform twins are known, these 
being exactly like twins of harmotome (<?..). Crystals of 
phillipsite are, however, usually smaller and more transparent 
and glassy than those of harmotome. Spherical groups with 
a radially fibrous structure and bristled with crystals on the 
surface are not uncommon. The hardness is 4%, and the 
specific gravity 2-2. The species was established by A. Levy 
in 1825 and named after William Phillips. French authors 
use the name christianite (after Christian VIII. of Denmark) , 
given by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1847. 

Phillipsite is a mineral of secondary origin, and occurs with 
other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic volcanic 
rocks: e.g. in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in County 
Antrim, and near Melbourne in Victoria; and in lencitite near 
Rome. Small crystals of recent formation have been observed 
in the masonry of the hot baths at Plombieres and Bourbonne- 
les-Bains, in France. Minute spherical aggregates embedded 
in red clay were dredged by the " Challenger " from the bottom 
of the Central Pacific, where they had been formed by the 
decomposition of lava. (L. J.S.) 

PHILLPOTTS, HENRY (1778-1869), English bishop, was born 
at Bridgwater on the 6th of May 1778, and was educated at 
Gloucester College school and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. 
He became a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1795, took 
orders in 1802, and was select university preacher in 1804. 
In 1805 he received the living of Stainton-le-Street, Durham, and 
in addition was appointed to Bishop Middleham, Durham, in the 
succeeding year. For twenty years he was chaplain to Shute 
Barrington, bishop of Durham. He was appoined vicar of 
Gateshead in 1808, prebendary of Durham in 1809, and vicar 
of St Margaret, Durham, in 1810. After holding the rich living 
of Stanhope, Durham from 1820, and the deanery of Chester 
from 1828, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1831, 
holding with the see a residentiary canonry at Durham. His 
published works include numerous speeches and pamphlets, 
including those connected with his well-known Roman Catholic 
controversy with Charles Butler (1750-1832). He was an 
energetic supporter of the Tory party, even when it acted 
contrary to his views in passing the Roman Catholic Emancipa- 
tion Act of 1829. He died on the i8th of September 1869. 
" Henry of Exeter," as he was commonly called, was one of the 
most striking figures in the English Church of the i8th century. 
His intellect was strong rather than broad, his position being 
that of the traditional High Churchman, with little sympathy 
either with the Evangelicals or with the Tractarians. On the 
one hand the famous Gorham judgment was the outcome of his 
refusal to institute to the livinp of Brampford Speke a clergyman 
George Cornelius Gorham (1787-1857), who had openly dis- 
avowed his belief in baptismal regeneration; on the other he 
denounced the equally famous Tract XC. in his episcopal 
charge of 1843. As bishop he was a strict disciplinarian, and 



PHILO 



409 



did much to restore order in a diocese of which the clergy 
had become extraordinarily demoralized. Though accused of 
avarice 'and pluralism, Phillpotts was generous in his gifts to 
the church, founding the theological college at Exeter and 
spending large sums on the restoration of the cathedral. 

PHILO, Jewish Hellenist, and author of an epic poem in 
Greek hexameters on the history of Jerusalem. Alexander 
Polyhistor (c. 105-35 B -C-) quotes several passages of the poem, 
and is the source of the extracts in Eusebius (Praeparatio 
evangelica, ix. 20, 24, 37). This is probably the Philo who is 
mentioned by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, i. 21, 141) and 
by Josephus (Contra Apionem, i. 23), who calls him " the elder." 

See M. Philippson's work on the Jewish poets Ezechiel and Philo 
(Berlin, 1830). 

PHILO, often called PHILO JUDAEUS, Jewish philospher, 
appears to have spent his whole life at Alexandria, where he 
was probably born c. 20-10 B.C. His father Alexander was 
alabarch or arabarch (that is, probably, chief farmer of taxes 
on the Arabic side of the Nile), from which it may be concluded 
that the family was influential and wealthy (Jos. Ant. xviii. 
8, i). Jerome's statement (De vir. ill. n) that he was of 
priestly race is confirmed by no older authority. The only 
event of his life which can be actually dated belongs to A.D. 40, 
when Philo, then a man of advanced years, went from Alexandria 
to Rome, at the head of a Jewish embassy, to persuade the 
emperor Gaius to abstain from claiming divine honour of the 
Jews. Of this embassy Philo has left a full and vivid account 
(De legatione ad Gaium). Various fathers and theologians 
of the Church state that in the time of Claudius he met St Peter 
in Rome; 'but this legend has no historic value, and probably 
arose because the book De vita contemplaiiva, ascribed to Philo, 
in which Eusebius already recognized a glorification of 
Christian monasticism, seemed to indicate a disposition towards 
Christianity. 

Though we know so little of Philo's own life, his numerous 
extant writings give the fullest information as to his views of 
the universe and of life, and his religious and scientific aims, 
and so enable us adequately to estimate his position and impor- 
tance in the history of thought. He is quite the most important 
representative of Hellenistic Judaism, and his writings give 
us the clearest view of what this development of Judaism 
was and aimed at. . The development of Judaism in the 
diaspora (q.v .) differed in important points from that in Palestine, 
where, since the successful opposition of the Maccabee ageTx> 
the Hellenization which Antiochus Epiphanes had sought to 
carry through by force, the attitude of the nation to Greek 
culture had been essentially negative. In the diaspora, on 
the other hand, the Jews had been deeply influenced by the 
Greeks; they soon more or less forgot their Semitic mother- 
tongue, and with the language of Hellas they appropriated 
much of Hellenic culture. They were deeply impressed by that 
irresistible force which was blending all races and nations into 
one great cosmopolitan unity, and so the Jews too on their 
dispersion became in speech and nationality Greeks, or rather 
" Hellenists." Now the distinguishing character of Hellenism 
is not the absolute disappearance of the Oriental civilizations 
before that of Greece but the combination of the two with a 
preponderance of the Greek element. So it was with the Jews, 
but in their case the old religion had much more persistence 
than in other Hellenistic circles, though in other respects they 
too yielded to the superior force of Greek civilization. This we 
must hold to have been the case not only in Alexandria but 
throughout the diaspora from the commencement of the Hellen- 
istic period down to the later Roman Empire. It was only after 
ancient civilization gave way before the barbarian immigrations 
and the rising force of Christianity that rabbinism became 
supreme even among the Jews of the diaspora. This Hellenistico- 
Judaic phase of culture is sometimes called " Alexandrian," and 
the expression is justifiable if it only means that in Alexandria 
it attained its highest development and flourished most. For 

1 Euseb., H. E. ii. 17, i; Jer. ut supra; Phot. Bibl. Cod. 105; 

Sui'd., s.v. " 



here the Jews began to busy themselves with Greek literature 
even under their clement rulers, the first Ptolemies, and here 
the law and other Scriptures were first translated into Greek; 
here the process of fusion began earliest and proceeded with 
greatest rapidity; here, therefore, also the Jews first engaged 
in a scientific study of Greek philosophy and transplanted that 
philosophy to the soil of Judaism. We read of a Jewish philo- 
sopher Aristobulus in the time of Ptolemy VI. Philometor, in 
the middle of the 2nd century B.C., of whose philosophical 
commentary on the Pentateuch fragments have been preserved 
by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius. So far as we can 
judge from these, his aim was to put upon the sacred text a 
sense which should appeal even to Greek readers, and in par- 
ticular to get rid of all anthropomorphic utterances about 
God. Eusebius regards him as a Peripatetic. We may suppose 
that this philosophical line of thought had its representatives 
in Alexandria between the times of Aristobulus and Philo, but 
we are not acquainted with the names of any such. Philo 
certainly, to judge by his historical influence, was the greatest 
of all these Jewish philosophers, and in his case we can follow 
in detail the methods by which Greek culture was harmonized 
with Jewish faith. On one side he is quite a Greek, on the other 
quite a Jew. His language is formed on the best classical 
models, especially Plato. He knows and often cites the great 
Greek poets, particularly Homer and the tragedians, but his 
chief studies had been in Greek philosophy, and he speaks of 
Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoics and the Pythagoreans in terms of 
the highest veneration. He had appropriated their doctrines 
so completely that he must himself be reckoned among the 
Greek philosophers; his system was eclectic, but the borrowed 
elements are combined into a new unity with so much originality 
that at the same time he may fairly be regarded as representing 
a philosophy of his own, which has for its characteristic feature 
the constant prominence of a fundamental religious idea. 
Philo's closest affinities are with Plato, the later Pythagoreans 
and the Stoics. 2 Yet with all this Philo remained a Jew, and a 
great part of his writings is expressly directed to recommend 
Judaism to the respect and, if possible, the acceptance of the 
Greeks. He was not a stranger to the specifically Jewish 
culture that prevailed in Palestine; in Hebrew he was not pro- 
ficient, but the numerous etymologies he gives show that he 
had made some study of that language. 3 His method of exegesis 
is in point of form identical with that of the Palestinian scribes, 
and in point of matter coincidences are not absolutely rare. 4 
But above all his whole works prove on every page that he felt 
himself to be thoroughly a Jew, and desired to be nothing else. 
Jewish "philosophy" is to him the true and highest wisdom; 
the knowledge of God and of things divine and human which 
is contained in the Mosaic Scriptures is to him the deepest and 
the purest. 

If now we ask wherein Philo's Judaism consisted we must 
answer that it lies mainly in the formal claim that the Jewish 
people, in virtue of the divine revelation given to Moses, possesses 
the true knowledge in things religious. Thoroughly Jewish 
is his recognition that the Mosaic Scriptures of the Pentateuch 
are of absolute divine authority, and that everything they 
contain is valuable and significant because divinely revealed. 
The other Jewish Scriptures are also recognized as prophetic, 
i.e. as the writings of inspired men, but he does not place them 
on the same lines with the law, and he quotes them so seldom 
that we cannot determine the compass of his canon. The 

* The fathers of the Church have specially noticed his Platonism 
and Pythagoreanism ; an old proverb even says, with some 
exaggeration, % H\&.TWV <t>i>wi'lfti fl $l\wi> wXaTwuiftt (Jerome, Photius 
and Su'idas, ut supra). Clement of Alexandria directly calls him a 
Pythagorean. Eusebius (H. E. ii. 4, 3) observes both tendencies. 
Recent writers, especially Zeller, lay weight also on his Stoic affinities, 
and with justice, for the elements which he borrows from Stoicism 
are as numerous and important as those derived from the other 
two schools. 

* See the list of these in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome (iii. 731-734), 
and compare Siegfried, " Philonische Studien," in Merx's Archiv. ii. 
143-163 (1872). 

4 See Siegfried, Philo, pp. 142-159. 



410 



PHILO 



decisive and normative authority is to him the " holy laws " 
of Moses, and this not only in the sense that everything they 
contain is true but that all truth is contained in them. Every- 
thing that is right and good in the doctrines of the Greek 
philosophers had already been quite as well, or even better, 
taught by Moses. Thus, since Philo had been deeply influenced 
by the teachings of Greek philosophy he actually finds in the 
Pentateuch everything which he had learned from the Greeks. 
From these premises he assumes as requiring no proof that the 
Greek philosophers must in some way have drawn from Moses, 
a view indeed which is already expressed by Aristobulus. 
To carry out these presuppositions called for an exegetical 
method which seems very strange to us, that, namely, of the 
allegorical interpretation of Scripture. The allegorical method 
had been practised before Philo's date in the rabbinical schools 
of Palestine, and he himself expressly refers to its use by his 
predecessors, nor does he feel that any further justification 
is requisite. With its aid he discovers indications of the pro- 
foundest doctrines of philosophy in the simplest stories of the 
Pentateuch. 1 

This merely formal principle of the absolute authority of 
Moses is really the one point in which Philo still holds to 
genuinely Jewish conceptions. In the whole substance of his 
philosophy the Jewish point of view is more or less completely 
modified sometimes almost extinguished by what he has 
learned from the Greeks. Comparatively speaking, he is most 
truly a Jew in his conception of God. The doctrine of mono- 
theism, the stress laid on the absolute majesty and sovereignty 
of God above the world, the principle that He is to be worshipped 
without images, are all points in which Philo justly feels his 
superiority as a Jew over popular heathenism. But only over 
popular heathenism, for the Greek philosophers had long since 
arrived at least at a theoretical monotheism, and their influence 
on Philo is nowhere more strongly seen than in the detailed de- 
velopment of his doctrine of God. The specifically Jewish (i.e. 
particularistic) conception of the election of Israel, the obligation 
of the Mosaic law, the future glory of the chosen nation, have 
almost disappeared; he is really a cosmopolitan and praises the 
Mosaic law just because he deems it cosmopolitan. The true 
sage who follows the law of Moses is the citizen not of a particular 
state but of the world. A certain attachment which Philo still 
manifests to the particularistic conceptions of his race is meant 
only " in majorem Judaeorum gloriam." The Jewish people 
has received a certain preference from God, but only because 
it has the most virtuous ancestry and is itself distinguished for 
virtue. The Mosaic law is binding, but only because it is the 
most righteous, humane and rational of laws, and even its out- 
ward ceremonies always disclose rational ideas and aims. And 
lastly, outward prosperity is promised to the pious, even on 
earth, but the promise belongs to all who turn from idols to the 
true God. Thus, in the whole substance of his view of the 
universe, Philo occupies the standpoint of Greek philosophy 
rather than of national Judaism, and his philosophy of the world 
and of life can be completely set forth without any reference 
to conceptions specifically Jewish. 

His doctrine of God starts from the idea that God is a Being 
absolutely bare of quality. All quality in finite beings has 
limitation, and no limitation can be predicated of God, who is 
eternal, unchangeable, simple substance, free, self-sufficient, 
better than the good and the beautiful. To predicate any 
quality (7roi6njs) of God would be to reduce Him to the sphere 
of finite existence. Of Him we can say only that He is, not what 
He is, and such purely negative predications as to His being 
appear to Philo, as to the later Pythagoreans and the Neo- 
platonists, the only way of securing His absolute elevation 
above the world. At bottom, no doubt, the meaning of these 
negations is that God is the most perfect being; and so, 
conversely, we are told that God contains all perfection, that 
He fills and encompasses all things with His being. 

A consistent application of Philo's abstract conception of 

1 For details, see Gfrorer, Philo, i. 68 seq. ; Zeller, Phil, der Gr. 
(3rd ed., vol. Hi., pt. ii., pp. 346-352); Siegfried, Philo, pp. 160 seq. 



God would exclude the possibility of any active relation of God 
to the world, and therefore of religion, for a Being absolutely 
without quality and movement cannot be conceived as actively 
concerned with the multiplicity of individual things. And so in 
fact Philo does teach that the absolute perfection, purity and 
loftiness of God would be violated by direct contact with imper- 
fect, impure and finite things. But the possibility of a connexion 
between God and the world is reached through a distinction 
which forms the most important point in his theology and cos- 
mology; the proper Being of God is distinguished from the 
infinite multiplicity of divine Ideas or Forces: God himself is 
without quality, but He disposes of an infinite variety of divine 
Forces, through whose mediation an active relation of God to 
the world is brought about. In the details of his teaching as 
to these mediating entities Philo is guided partly by Plato and 
partly by the Stoics, but at the same time he makes use of the 
concrete religious conceptions of heathenism and Judaism. 
Following Plato, he first calls them Ideas or ideal patterns of 
all things; they are thoughts of God, yet possess a real existence, 
and were produced before the creation of the sensible world, 
of which they are the types. But, in distinction from Plato, 
Philo's ideas are at the same time efficient causes or Forces 
(dvvantis) , which bring unformed matter into order conformably 
to the patterns within themselves, and are in fact the media 
of all God's activity in the world. This modification of the 
Platonic Ideas is due to Stoic influence, which appears also 
when Philo gives to the Meat or Swd/ieis the name of Xo-yoi, i.e. 
operative ideas parts, as it were, of the operative Reason. 
For, when Philo calls his mediating entities Xixyoi, the sense 
designed is analogous to that of the Stoics when they call God 
the Logos, i.e. the Reason which operates in the world. But 
at the same time Philo maintains that the divine Forces are 
identical with the " daemons " of the Greeks, and the " angels " 
of the Jews, i.e. servants and messengers of God by means of 
which He communicates with the finite world. All this shows how 
uncertain was Philo's conception of the nature of these media- 
ting Forces. On the one hand they are nothing else than Ideas 
of individual things conceived in the mind of God, and as such 
ought to have no other reality than that of immanent existence 
in God, and so Philo says expressly that the totality of Ideas, 
the )c6<7/ios voijris, is simply the Reason of God as Creator (Otov 
Xo7os fiSrj KotrfioTToiovvTos) . Yet, on the other hand, they are 
represented as hypostases distinct from God, individual entities 
existing independently and apart from Him. This vacillation, 
however, as Zeller and other recent writers have justly remarked, 
is necessarily involved in Philo's premises, for, on the one hand, it 
is God who works in the world through His Ideas, and therefore 
they must be identical with God; but, on the other hand, God 
is not to come into direct contact with the world, and therefore 
the Forces through which He works must be distinct from Him. 
The same inevitable amphiboly dominates in what is taught as 
to the supreme Idea or Logos. Philo regards all individual 
Ideas as comprehended in one highest and most general Idea or 
Force the unity of the individual Ideas which he calls the 
Logos or Reason of God, and which is again regarded as operative 
Reason. The Logos, therefore, is the highest mediator between 
God and the world, the firstborn son of God, the archangel who 
is the vehicle of all revelation, and the high priest who stands 
before God on behalf of the world. Through him the world 
was created, and so he is identified with the creative Word of 
God in Genesis (the Greek \byos meaning both " reason " and 
" word "). Here again, we see, the philosopher is unable to 
escape from the difficulty that the Logos is at once the immanent 
Reason of God, and yet also an hypostasis standing between 
God and the world. The whole doctrine of this mediatorial 
hypostasis is a strange intertwining of very dissimilar threads; 
on one side the way was prepared for it by the older Jewish 
distinction between the Wisdom of God and God Himself, of 
which we find the beginnings even in the Old Testament (Job 
xxviii. 12 seq.; Prov. viii., ix.), and the fuller development in the 
books of Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom, the latter of which comes 
very near to Philo's ideas if we substitute for the term " wisdom " 



PHILO 



411 



that of (divine) " Reason." In Greek philosophy, again, Philo, 
.as we have seen, chiefly follows the Platonic doctrines of Ideas 
and the Soul of the World, and the Stoic doctrine of God as the 
\6yos or Reason operative in the world. In its Stoic form the 
latter doctrine was pantheistic, but Philo could adapt it to his 
purpose simply by drawing a sharper distinction between the 
Logos and the world. 

Like his doctrine of God, Philo's doctrine of the world and 
creation rests on the presupposition of an absolute metaphysical 
contrast between God and the world. The world can be ascribed 
to God only in so far as it is a cosmos or orderly world; its 
material substratum is not even indirectly referable to God. 
Matter (v\rj, or, as the Stoics said, ovala) is a second principle, 
but in itself an empty one, its essence being a mere negation of all 
true being. It is a lifeless, unmoved, shapeless mass, out of 
which God formed the actual world by means of the Logos and 
xlivine Forces. Strictly speaking, the world is only formed, not 
created, since matter did not originate with God. 

Philo's doctrine of man is also strictly dualistic, and is mainly 
derived from Plato. Man is a twofold being, with a higher and 
a lower origin. Of the pure souls which fill airy space, those 
nearest the earth are attracted by the sensible and descend into 
sensible bodies; these souls are the Godward side of man. But 
on his other side man is a creature of sense, and so has in him a 
fountain of sin and all evil. The body, therefore, is a prison, a 
coffin, or a grave for the soul which seeks to rise again to God. 
From this anthropology the principles of Philo's ethics are 
derived, its highest maxim necessarily being deliverance from 
the world of sense and the mortification of all the impulses of 
sense. In carrying out this thought, as in many other details 
of his ethical teaching, Philo closely follows the Stoics. But he 
is separated from Stoical ethics by his strong religious interests, 
which carry him to very different views of the means and aim 
of ethical development. The Stoics cast man upon his own 
resources; Philo points him to the assistance of God, without 
whom man, a captive to sense, could never raise himself to walk 
in the ways of true wisdom and virtue. And as moral effort 
can bear fruit only with God's help, so too God Himself is the 
goal of that effort. Even in this life the truly wise and virtuous 
is lifted above his sensible existence, and enjoys in ecstasy the 
vision of God, his own consciousness sinking and disappearing 
in the divine light. Beyond this ecstasy there lies but one 
further step, viz. entire liberation from the body of sense and 
the return of the soul to its original condition; it came from God 
and must rise to Him again. But natural death brings this 
consummation only to those who, while they lived on earth, 
kept themselves free from attachment to the things of sense; all 
others must at death pass into another body; transmigration of 
souls is in fact the necessary consequence of Philo's premises, 
though he seldom speaks of it expressly. 

Philo's literary labours have a twofold object, being directed either 
to expound the true sense of the Mosaic law, i.e. the philosophy 
which we have just described, to his Jewish brethren, or to convince 
heathen readers of the excellence, the supreme purity and truth, 
of the Jewish religion, whose holy records contain the deepest and 
most perfect philosophy, the best and most humane legislation. 
Thus as a literary figure Philo, in conformity with his education and 
views of life, stands between the Greeks and the Jews, seeking to 
gain the Jews for Hellenism and the Greeks for Judaism, yet always 
taking it for granted that his standpoint really is Jewish, and just 
on that account truly philosophical and cosmopolitan. 

The titles of the numerous extant writings of Philo present at 
first sight a most confusing multiplicity. More than three-fourths 
of them, however, are really mere sections of a small number of 
larger works. Three such great works on the Pentateuch can be 
distinguished. 

I. The smallest of these is the ZrrHifiaTa Kal Xrr (Quaestianes 
et solutiones), a short exposition of Genesis and Exodus, in the 
form of question and answer. The work is cited under this title 
by Eusebius (H. E. ii. 18, I, 5; Praep. Ev. vii. 13), and by later 
writers, but the Greek text is now almost wholly lost, and only 
about one-half preserved in an Armenian translation. Genesis 
seems to have occupied six books. 1 Eusebius tells us that Exodus 
filled five books. In the Armenian translation, first published by 
the learned Mechitarist, J. Bapt. Aucher, in 1826, are preserved four 

1 See, especially Mai, Scriptt. vett. nov. coll. vol. vii. pt. i. pp. 100, 
106, 108. 



books on Genesis and two on Exodus, but with lacunae. A Latin 
fragment, about half of the fourth books on Genesis (Phil. Jud. CII. 
quaestt. . . . super Gen.), was first printed at Paris in 1520. Of 
the Greek we have numerous but short fragments in various 
Florilegia. 2 The interpretations in this work are partly literal and 
partly allegorical. 

II. Philo's most important work 'is the Ni/iuv Upav dXXiryopiat 
(Euseb. H. E. ii. 18, i ; Phot. Bibl. Cod. 103), a vast and copious 
allegorical commentary on Genesis, dealing with chaps, ii.-iv., 
verse by verse, and with select passages in the later chapters. The 
readers in view are mainly Jews, for the form is modelled on the 
rabbinic Midrash. The main idea is that the characters which 
appear in Genesis are properly allegories of states of the soul (-rpb-xiu. 
Ttjs i/ojx>js). All persons and actions being interpreted in this 
sense, the work as a whole is a very extensive body of psychology 
and ethics. It begins with Gen. ii. i, for the De mundi opificio, 
which treats of the creation according to Gen. i., ii., does not belong 
to this series of allegorical commentaries, but deals with the 
actual history of creation, and that under a quite different literary 
form. With this exception, however, the N&nuv dXXiryop/oi includes 
all the treatises in the first volume of Mangey's edition, viz. 
NA/wuv Upwv dXXijyopiot irpwroi TUV fitrit rf/v t^ari^tpov (Legum alle- 
goriarum, lib. i., M. i. 43-65), on Gen. ii. 1-17. (2) N<5/i. Up. dXX. otvripai 
(Leg. all. lib. ii., M. i. 66-86), on Gen. ii. i8-iii. la. (3)N6jt. Up. dXX. 
Tpirai (Leg. all. lib. iii., M. i. 87-137), on Gen. iii. 80-19. The 
commentaries on Gen. iii. lb-8a, 20-23 are lost. (4) H c pl TWV x<povf)in 
Kal rijs <j>\oyLw}s poiufralas Kal TOV K.TiaQkvras Trpwrov il; avBpwirov KdiV 
(De cherubim et flammeo gladio, M. i. 138-162), on Gen. iii. 24 and 
iv. I. (5) Ilepi Siv Upovpyovaiv "A/3eX re Kal Kdi'j- (De sacrificiis Abelis 
et Caini, M. i. 163-190), on Gen. iv. 2-4. The commentaries on 
Gen. iv. 5~7 are lost. (6) Ilepi TOV rd -xtipov r!f Kptlrrovi <j>t\iiv 
iiriTiBeoBai (Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleal, M. i. 191225), on 
Gen. iv. 815. (7) Hpi T&V TOV 3oK7jcri<76<ov Kdi'v kyybvuv Kal us 
utTavaaTTt* ylvtTai (Deposteritate Caini, &c., M. i. 226-261), on Gen. iv. 
16-25; this book, which is wanting in editions prior to Mangey's, is 
incorrectly given by him, but much more correctly by Tischendorf, 
Philonea, pp. 84-143. None of the preceding is mentioned by its 
special title by Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, while he cites all that follow 
by their titles. The reason must be that all up to this point, and 
no further, are included by him in the N&vuav Upav dXXij-yopiai ; agree- 
ing with this we find that these, and these only, are cited under that 
general title in the Florilegia, especially the so-called Johannes 
Monachus ineditus (see Mangey's notes before each book). We may 
therefore conclude with confidence that Philo published the con- 
tinuous commentaries on Gen. ii.-iv. under the title Allegories of 
the Sacred Laws, and the following commentaries on select passages 
under special titles, though the identity of literary character entitles 
us to regard the latter as part of the same great literary plan 
with the former. (8) npi yiyavTwv (De gigantibus, M. i. 262-272), 
on Gen. vi. 1-4. (9) "O arptirTov TO 8dov (Quod Deus sit immutabilis, 
M. i. 272-299), on Gen. vi. 4-12. (10) Utpl yeapyias (De agricultura, 
M. i. 300-328), on Gen. ix. 2Oa. (ii) Ilepi jvrovpylas N* TO otvrtpov 
(De plantatione Noe, M. i. 329-356), on Gen. ix. 2ob. (12) Ilepi Wip 
(De ebrietate, M. i. 357-391), on Gen. ix. 21 ; the introduction shows 
that this book was preceded by another which put together the 
views of the philosophers about drunkenness. (13) Ilepi TOV if inrft Nw 
(De sobrietate, M. i. 392-403), on Gen. ix. 24. (14) Depi avyxvoaas 
6ia\iKTur (Dc confusione linguarum, M. i. 404-435), on Gen. xi. i-q. 
(15) Ilepi djroiiaaj (DemlgrationeAbrahami, M. i. 436-472), on Gen. xn. 
16. (16) Ilepi TOV Tit 6 T&V Btlav irpa.yiia.Tuv xX^po^/io; (Quis 
rerum divinarum haeres sit, M. i. 473-518), on Gen. xv. 1-18. 
(17) nepl rijs eis TO. irpoiraiSeuyuaTa avvooov (De congressu quaerendae 
eruditionis causa, M. i. 519-545), on Gen. xvi. 1-6. (18) Ilepi <t>vyaouv 
(De profugis, M. i.^ 546-577), on Gen. xvi. 6-14. (19) U<pl TUV 
IMTOvopafonevwn Kal Siv IvtKa luTOvo/tafoiTai (De mutatione nominum, 
M. i. 578-619), on Gen. xvii. 1-22 ; in this work Philo mentions that 
he had written two books, now wholly lost, IlepJ SiaBriKuv (M. i. 586). 

(20) Ilepi TOV OfcTrcfiirTovs tlvai TOL>S bvtlpovs (De sornniis, lib. i., M. i. 
620-658), on the two dreams of Jacob, Gen. xxviii. and xxxi. 

(21) Book ii. of the same (M. i. 659-699), on the dreams of Joseph, 
the chief butler, the chief baker, and Pharaoh, Gen. xxxvii. and 
xl., xli. Eusebius makes Philo the author of five books on dreams; 
three, therefore, are lost. 

III. A work of a very different kind is the group of writings 
which we may call " An Exposition of the Mosaic law for Gentiles," 
which, in spite of their very various contents, present on nearer 
examination indubitable marks of close connexion. In them Philo 
seeks to give an orderly view of the chief points of the Mosaic 
legislation in the Pentateuch, and to recommend it as valuable to 
Gentile readers. The method of exposition is somewhat more 
popular than in the allegorical commentaries, for, though that 
method of interpretation is not wholly excluded, the main object 
is to give such a view of the legislation as Philo accepted as his- 
torical. This work has three main divisions: (a) an Account of 
the creation (ma no-rait a) which Moses put first to show that his 



1 See Opp., ed. Mangey, ii. 648-680; Mai, op. cit., vol. vii. pt. i. 
96 seq.; Euseb. Praep. Ev. yii. 13. A fragment on the cherubim, 
Exod. xxv. 1 8, has been published by Mai, Class. Auctt. iv. 430 seq., 
by Grossmann (1856) and by Tischendorf (p. 144 seq.). 



412 



PHILO 



legislation was conformed to the will of nature, and that therefore 
those who followed it were true cosmopolitans; (b) the Biographies 
of the Virtuous being, so to speak, the living unwritten laws which, 
unlike written laws, present the general types of moral conduct; 
(c) Legislation Proper, in two subdivisions (a) the ten principal 
chapters of the law, (0) the special laws belonging to each of these 
ten. An appendix adds a view of such laws as do not fall under 
the rubrics of the decalogue, arranged under the headings of certain 
cardinal virtues. 

The treatises which belong to this work are the following: (i) Ilepi 
TTJS Moniaeus KOff/iOTroitos (De ntundi opificio, M. i. 142). This work 
does not fall within the number of the allegorical commentaries. 
On the other hand, the introduction to the treatise De Abrahamo 
makes clear its immediate connexion with the De mundi opificio. 
The position of the De mundi opificio at the head of the allegorical 
commentaries, which is at present usual in the editions, seems indeed 
to go back to a very early date, for even Eusebius cites a passage 
from it with the formula dir6 TOV irparov TWV eis TOV ci/zoc (Praep. Ev. 
viii. 12 fin., ed. Gaisford). The group of the Bloi oo$a> is headed 
by (2) Bios aotpov TOV Kara oioa0Ka\iav TeXeiw0*'ros fj irepi vb[u*iv aypcu^wp 
[a], o tari. jrepi 'Afipaan (De Abrahamo, M. ii. 1-40). Abraham 
is here set forth as the type of oiSoo-KoXixi) dper^, i.e. of virtue as a 
thing learned. This biography of Abraham was followed by that 
of Isaac as a type of 4>vauiii dper^, i.e. of innate or natural virtue, 
which in turn was succeeded by that of Jacob as representing aainrnxri 
dpeTi?, i.e. virtue acquired by practice; but both these are now lost. 
Hence in the editions the next treatise is (3) Bios iroXrrucos 6Vep Jerri 
irepl 'IwoTfa (De Jpsepho, M. ii. 41-79), where Joseph is taken as the 
pattern of the wise man in his civil relations. The Biographies of 
the Virtuous arej followed by (4) IIepi TUV okua \o-flaiv a Kc<t>a\ata 
voitav e'url (De decalogo, M. ii. 180-209) an d (5) Hepi rSsv dca^wpoyuecwc 
(V tloti vdfjLwv eis rd awriivovra K(/>dXaia TWV OfKa \6ywv (De 
specialists legibus ; the unabridged title is given by Eusebius, H.E. ii. 
18, 5). Here under the rubrics of the ten commandments a system- 
atic review of the special laws of the Mosaic economy is given ; for 
example, under the first and second commandments (divine worship) 
a survey is taken of the entire legislation relating to priesthood 
and sacrifice; under the fourth (i.e. the Sabbath law, according to 
Philo's reckoning) there is a survey of all the laws about feasts; 
under the sixth (adultery) an account of matrimonial law; and so 
on. According to Eusebius the work embraced four books, which 
seem to have reached us entire, but in the editions have been 
perversely broken up into a considerable number of separate 
tractates, (a) The first book (on the first and second command- 
ments) includes the following: De circumcisions (M. ii. 210-212); 
De monarchic, lib. i. (ii. 213-222) ; De monarchia, lib. ii. (ii. 222-232) ; 
De praemiis sacerdotum (ii. 232-237); De victimis (ii. 237-250); 
De sacrificantibus, or De victimas offerentibus (ii. 251264); De 
mercede merelricis nan accipienda in sacrarium (it. 264-269). 
(b) The second book (on the third, fourth and fifth commandments, 
i.e. on perjury, Sabbath observance, and filial piety) is incomplete 
in Mangey (ii. 270298), the section De septenario (on the Sabbath 
and feasts in general) being imperfect, and that De colendis parentibus 
being entirely wanting. Mai to a large extent made good the defect 
(De cophinifesto et de colendis parentibus, Milan, 1818), but Tischen- 
dorf was the first to edit the full text (Philonea, pp. 1-83). (c) The 
third book relates to the sixth and seventh commandments (adultery 
and murder; M. ii. 299-334). (d) To the fourth book (relating to 
the last three commandments) belongs all that is found in Mangey, 
ii. 335-374, that is to say, not merely the tractates Dejudice (ii. 344- 
348) and De concupiscentia (ii. 348-358), but also those De justitia 
(ii. 358-361) and De creatione principum (ii. 361-374). The last- 
named is, properly speaking, only a portion of the De justitia, 
which, however, certainly belongs to the fourth book, of which the 
superscription expressly bears that it treats also irepi di<caio<r&ci)s. 
With this tractate begins the appendix to the work De specialibus 
legibus, into which, under the rubric of certain cardinal virtues, 
such Mosaic laws are brought together as could not be dealt with 
under any of the decalogue rubrics. The continuation of this 
appendix forms a book by itself. (6) Ilepi rpiuv iptTusv JTOI ictpl 
dvSpeios Kai <iXai^pwirtas Kal /leravoias (De fortitudine, M. ii. 375- 
383; De caritate, ii. 383-405; De ppenitentia, ii. 405-407). Finally, 
in less intimate connexion with this entire work is another treatise 
still to be mentioned, (7) Ilepi o0Xi< Kal iir(.T\.uiuiv (De praemiis et 
poenis, M. ii. 408-428) and nepl apSiv (De execrationibus, M. ii. 
429-457), two parts which constitute a single whole and deal with 
the promises and threatenings of the law. 

IV. Besides the above-named three great works on the Penta- 
teuch, Philo was the author of a number of isolated writings, of 
which the following have reached us either in their entirety or in 
fragments, (i) nepi /3ou Muwews (Vita Mosis, lib. i.-iii., M. ii. 
80-179). It is usual to group this, as being biographical in its 
character, with the Btot tr<xt>&v, and thus to incorporate it imme- 
diately after the De Josepho with the large work on the Mosaic 
legislation. But, as has been seen, the Boi ao<t>S>v are intended to 
represent the general types of morality, while Moses is by no means 
so dealt with, but as a unique individual. AH that can be said is 
that the literary character of the Vita Mosis is the same as that of 
the larger work. As in the latter the Mosaic legislation, so in the 
former the activity of the legislator himself, is delineated for the 



benefit of Gentile readers. (2) Utplrou iravra. airov&aiov elcoi 
(Quod omnis probus liber, M. ii. 445-470). In the introduction 
to this treatise reference is made to an earlier book which had for 
its theme the converse proposition. The complete work was 
still extant in the time of Eusebius (H. E. ii. 1 8, 6) : Ilepi TOV ooZ\ov 
final irdvro 0aDXox, <J ?;$ karlv o jrepi TOV Trama airov&alov eXeitfepoc tlvai. 
The genuineness of the writing now possessed by us is not undis- 



puted: but see Lucius, Der Essenismus (1881), pp. 13-23. (3) 
Eis 3>\A.KKov (Adversus Flaccum, M. ii. 517-544) and (4) Ilepi dperow 
not irpea/3eios irpos Ta'iov (De legatione ad Gaium, M. ii. 545-600). 



These two works have a very intimate connexion. In the first 
Philo relates how the Roman governor Flaccus in Alexandria, 
towards the beginning of the reign of Caligula, allowed the Alex- 
andrian mob, without interference, to insult the Jews of that city 
in the grossest manner, and even to persecute them to the shedding 
of blood. In the second he tells how the Jews had been subjected 
to still greater sufferings through the command of Caligula that 
divine honours should be everywhere accorded to him, and how 
the Jews of Alexandria in vain sought relief by a mission to Rome 
which was headed by Philo. But both together were only parts of 
a larger work, in five books, of which the first two and the last 
have perished. For it is clear from the introduction to the Adversus 
Flaccum that it had been preceded by another book in which the 
Jewish persecutions by Sejanus, under the reign of Tiberius, were 
spoken of, and the Chronicon of Eusebius (ed. Schoene, ii. 
150, 151) informs us that these persecutions of Sejanus were 
related in the second book of the work now under discussion. But 
from the conclusion of the Legatio ad Gaium, which we still possess, 
we learn that it was also followed by another book which exhibited 
the TroXii'tfjSia, or change of Jewish fortunes for the better. Thus 
we make out five books in all the number actually given by 
Eusebius (H.E. ii. 5, i). (5) Ilepi irpovoias (De providentia). This 
work has reached us only in an Armenian translation, which has 
been edited, with a Latin translation, by Aucher (see below), 1822. 
It is mentioned by its Greek title in Eusebius (H.E. ii. 18, 6; Praep. 
Ev. vii. 20 fin., viii. 13 fin., ed. Gaisford). The Armenian text 
gives two books, but of these the first, if genuine at all, at any 
rate appears only in an abridged and somewhat revised state.' 
Eusebius (Praep. Ev. viii. 14) quotes from the second book to an 
extent that amounts to a series of excerpts from the whole. The 
short passage in Praep. Ev. vii. 21, is also taken from this book; 
and it appears that Eusebius knew nothing at all about the first. 
(6) 'AXeijai'opos irepi TOV X6yo>< <-x' / >"a 0X070 f&a(De Alexandra et quod 
propriam ralionem muta animalia habeant; so Jerome, De Vir. III. c. 
ii); the Greek title is given in Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, 6. This also now 
exists only in an Armenian translation, which has been edited by 
Aucher. Two small Greek fragments occur in the Florilegium 
of Leontius and Johannes (Mai, Scr. vet. nav. coll. vii. I, pp. 99, looa). 
(7) "tiro8(TiKa, a writing now known to us only through fragments 
preserved in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. 6, 7. The title, as Bernays 2 
has shown, means " Counsels," " Recommendations," the reference 
being to such laws of the Jews as can be recommended also to non- 
Jewish readers. (8) Ilepi 'lovoalum. a title met with in Euseb. H.E. ii. 
1 8, 6. The writing is no doubt the same as 'H uirep' lovSaiuv aTro^o-yla, 
from which a quotation is given in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. ii. To 
this place also, perhaps, belongs the De nobilitate (M. ii. 437-444), 
which treats of that true noblesse of wisdom in which the Jewish 
people also is not wanting. 3 

V. The doubtful treatises: (i) Ilepi ftlov OtapriTiKov fl IMTUV 
apeTuv (De vita contemplativa). This contains the sole original 
account of an ascetic community known as the Therapeutae (q.v.) 
having their home on the shores of Lake Mareotis. These were 
held by Eusebius and many other Christian writers to be the earliest 
Christian monks, which of course could not be the case if it was a 
genuine work of Philo. On this account, amongst others, it was 
held to be spurious by Graetz and P. E. Lucius; and this view 
gradually received the assent of most modern scholars. Latterly, 
however, L. Massebieau has shown with great thoroughness that 
in language and thought alike it is essentially Philonic, and the 
genuineness of the book has also been affirmed by P. Wendland, 
and especially by F. C. Ccnybeare. (2) Ilepi d<0ap(ras Kbapau 
(De incorruptibihtate mundi), declared unauthentic by Z. Frankel 
and J. Bernays, has been successfully defended by F. Cumont. 

(3) npi Koanov (De mundo). It is generally agreed that, in L. 
Cohn's words, this is " nothing but a compilation from various 
portions of the Trepi d#0ap<r(as Kbapov and other Philonic works." 

(4) Two discourses, De Sampsone and De lona, extant only in Armen- 
ian, and certain other writings of the same kind. These appear 
only to have been imputed to Philo by chance, and certainly cannot 
claim to be his work. (5) Ilepi TOV travTa airovoalov eixoi eXeWepov 
(Quod omnis probus liber sit) has been questioned by Z. _Frankel 
and R. Ansfeld; but their arguments would rather point to its being 
an early work of Philo, which P. Wendland believes to be the case. 
(6) Ilepi irpovolas (De providentia), which we possess as a whole 



'See Diels, Doxoeraphi Graeci, 1879, pp. 1-4; Zeller, Phil. d. Gr. 
iii. 2, p. 340 (3rd ed). 

2 Monatsb. d. Berl. Akad. (1876), pp. 580-609. 

* This conjecture is Dahne's, Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1833), pp. 990, 
1037- 



PHILO OF BYZANTIUM PHILODEMUS 



only in an Armenian version, consists of two books, the first of which 
appears to be in a Christian recension, but there is no reason for 
denying its Philonic origin. 

EDITIONS. Till recent days the best edition was that of Mangey 
(2 vols., London, 1742) ; the handiest the Holtze duodecimo (Leipzig, 
1851). Both are still very useful, but for scholars they will be super- 
seded by the enlarged and critical edition of Leopold Cohn and 
Paul Wendland (Berlin, 1896^1902). See also papers by Cohn in 
Hermes, xxxviii. (1903) and xliii. (1908). There is an English trans- 
lation of the old text by C. D. Yonge (4 vols., London, 1854). 

LITERATURE. The best special studies of Philo will be found in 
Siegtried, Philo von Alex. (Jena, 1875) ; Drummond, Philo-Judaeus 
(London, 1888). For his place in philosophy, see Zeller, Phil, der 
Griechen (1881). For his relation to Palestinian speculation, B. 
Ritter, Philo und die Halacha (Leipzig, 1879). An excellent general 
account will be found in Schiirer, The Jewish People in the time of 
Jesus Christ (Eng. trans., 1891), or in Dr Edersheim's article 
on Philo in the Dictionary of Christian Biography. For the question 
of the genuineness and historical value of the De vita contemplativa, 
see L. Massebieau, in Revue de I'histoire des religions, vol. xvi. (Paris, 
1887); F. C. Conybeare, Philo: About the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 
1895); G. Fayot, Etudes sur les therapeutes (Geneve, 1880); P. E. 
Lucius, Die Therapeuten (Strassburg, 1880); P. Wendland, Die 
Therapeuten (Leipzig, 1896). Also F. Cumont, Philo, de act. mundi 
(1891); J. Bernays in the Abhand. der k. Akad. der Wiss. (1876). 

(E. S.*; C. Bi.) 

PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, Greek writer on mechanics, 
flourished during the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (according 
to some, a century earlier). He was the author of a large work 
Mijx al/oo 7 owrais) , of which the fourth and (in epitome) 
fifth books are extant, treating of missiles, the construction of 
fortresses, provisioning, attack and defence (ed. R. Schone, 1893, 
with German translation in H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegs- 
schriftstellef, vol. i. 1853; E. A. Rochas d'Aiglun, Poliorcetique 
des Grecs, 1872). Another portion of the work, on pneumatic 
engines, has been preserved in the form of a Latin translation 
(De ingeniis spirilualibus) made from an Arabic version (ed. 
W. Schmidt, with German translation, in the works of Heron of 
Alexandria, vol. i., in " Teubner Series," 1899; with French 
translation by Rochas, La Science des philosophes . . . dans 
I'antiquilS, 1882). 

A little treatise On the Seven Wonders of the World, wrongly 
attributed to Philo, probably belongs to the 6th century A.D. It 
is printed in R. Hercher's Aelian (1858). 

PHILO OF LARISSA, Greek philosopher of the first half of 
the ist century B.C. During the Mithradath wars he left 
Athens and took up his residence in Rome. He was a pupil of 
Clitomachus, whom he succeeded as head of the Third or New 
Academy. According to Sextus Empiricus, he was the founder 
of the Fourth Academy, but other writers refuse to admit the 
separate existence of more than three academies (see ACADEMY, 
GREEK). In Rome he lectured on rhetoric and philosophy, and 
collected around him many eminent pupils, amongst whom 
Cicero was the most famous and the most enthusiastic. None 
of his works is extant; our knowledge of his views is derived 
from Numenius, Sextus Empiricus and Cicero. In general, his 
philosophy was a reaction against the sceptic or agnostic position 
of the Middle and New Academy in favour of the dogmatism of 
Plato. 

See Grysar, Die A kademiker Philo undAntiochus (1849) ; Hermann, 
De Philone Larissaeo (Gottingen, i8si'and 1855). 

PHILO, HERENNIUS, of Byblus, Greek grammarian, was 
born, according to Sui'das, in A.D. 42. He lived into the reign 
of Hadrian, of which he wrote a history, now lost. He was the 
author of various works: On the Acquisition and Choice of Books; 
On Cities and their Famous Men, epitomized by the grammarian 
Aelius Serenus, and one of the chief authorities used by 
Hesychius and Stephanus of Byzantium; On Synonyms, of which 
there is extant an epitome by Ammonius Grammaticus. But he 
is chiefly known for his translation of the Phoenician history of 
Sanchuniathon, who was said to have lived before the Trojan 
war. Of this work considerable fragments have been preserved, 
chiefly by Eusebius in the Praeparatio evangelica (i. 9, 10; iv. 16). 
They present a euhemeristic rechauffe of Phoenician theology 
and mythology, which is represented as translated from the 
original Phoenician. Sanchuniathon is probably an imaginary 
personage, whose name is formed from that of the Phoenician 
god Sanchon. 



Editions of the fragments by J. C. Orelli (1826) and C. Muller, 
Frag. hist, grace, vol. iii. In 1836 F. Wagenfeld brought out what 
claimed to be a complete translation by Philo (from a MS. discovered 
in a convent in Portugal, now considered spurious). There are 
English translations by I. P. Cory (1828) and Bishop R. Cumberland 
(1720). 

PHILOCHORUS, of Athens, Greek historian during the 3rd 
century B.C., was a member of a priestly family. He was a seer 
and interpreter of signs, and a man of considerable influence. 
He was strongly anti-Macedonian in politics, and a bitter oppo- 
nent of Demetrius Poliorcetes. When Antigonus Gonatas, the 
son of the latter, besieged and captured Athens (261), 
Philochorus was put to death for having supported Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who had encouraged the Athenians in their 
resistance to Macedonia. His investigations into the usages 
and customs of his native Attica were embodied in an Atthis, 
in seventeen books, a history of Athens from the earliest times 
to 262 B.C. Considerable fragments are preserved in the 
lexicographers, scholiasts, Athenaeus, and elsewhere. The work 
was epitomized by the author himself, and later by Asinius 
Pollio of Tralles (perhaps a freedman of the famous Gaius 
Asinius Pollio). Philochorus also wrote on oracles, divination 
and sacrifices; the mythology and religious observances of the 
tetrapolis of Attica; the myths of Sophocles; the lives of Euri- 
pides and Pythagoras; the foundation of Salamis. He compiled 
chronological lists of the archons and Olympiads, and made a 
collection of Attic inscriptions, the first of its kind in Greece. 

Fragments and life in C. W. Muller, Fragmenla historicorum 
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); A. Bockh, Gesammelte kleine Schriften, vol. 
v. (1871), on the plan of the work ; J. Strenge, Quaesliones philochoreae 
(Gottingen, 1868); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der 
alien Geschichte (1895). 

PHILOCTETES, in Greek legend, son of Poeas king of the 
Malians of Mt Oeta, one of the suitors of Helen and a celebrated 
hero of the Trojan War. Homer merely states that he was 
distinguished for his prowess with the bow; that he was bitten 
by a snake on the journey to Troy and left behind in the island 
of Lemnos; and that he subsequently returned home in safety. 
These brief allusions were elaborated by the " cyclic " poets, 
and the adventures of Philoctetes formed the subject of tragedies 
by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the later form of 
the story Philoctetes was the friend and armour-bearer of 
Heracles, who presented him with his bow and poisoned arrows 
as a reward for kindling the fire on Mt Oeta, on which the hero 
immolated himself. Philoctetes remained at Lemnos till the 
tenth year of the war. An oracle having declared that Troy 
could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles, Odysseus 
and Diomedes (or Neoptolemus) were sent to fetch Philoctetes. 
On his arrival before Troy he was healed of his wound by 
Machaon, and slew Paris; shortly afterwards the city was 
taken. On his return to his own country, finding that a revolt 
had broken out against him, he again took ship and sailed for 
Italy, where he founded Petilia and Cremissa. He fell fighting 
on the side of a band of Rhodian colonists against some later 
immigrants from Pallene in Achaea. His tomb and sanctuary 
were shown at Macalla, on the coast of Bruttium. 

Of the Aeschylean and Euripidean tragedies only a few fragments 
remain; of the two by Sophocles, one is extant, the other, dealing 
with the fortunes of Philoctetes before Troy, is lost. Some' light is 
thrown upon the lost plays by Dio Chrysostom, who in one of his 
discourses (52) describes his reading of the three tragedies, and in 
another (59) gives a prose version of the opening of the Philoctetes 
of Euripides. Philoctetes was also the subject of tragedies by 
Achaeus of Eretria, Euphorion of Chalcis and the Roman tragedian 
Accius. According to F. Marx (Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische 
Altertum, 1904, p. 673-685), Philoctetes did not appear in the original 
legend of Troy. He is a form of the Lemnian Hephaestus, who 
alighted on the island when flung put of Olympus by Zeus. Like 
him, he is lame and an outcast for nine years; like him, he is brought 
back in time of need. His connexion with the fall of Troy indicates 
that the fire-god himself set fire to the city; in like manner no other 
than the fire-god was thought worthy to kindle the pyre of Heracles. 

See Homer, Iliad, ii. 718, Odyssey, iii. 190, yiii. 219; Sophocles, 
Philoctetes, and J ebb's Introduction; Diod. Sic. iv. 38; Philostratus, 
Heroica, 6; Strabo vi. 254; Hyginus, Fab. 36, 102. 

PHILODEMUS, Epicurean philosopher and poet, was born 
at Gadara in Coele-Syria early in the ist century B.C., and 



PHILOLAUS PHILOLOGY 



settled in Rome in the time of Cicero. He was a friend of 
Calpurnius Piso, and was implicated in his profligacy by Cicero 
(in Pisonem, 29), who, however, praises him warmly for his 
philosophic views and for the elegans lascivia of his poems 
(cf. Horace, Satires, i. 2. 120). The Greek anthology contains 
thirty-four of his epigrams. From the excavations of the 
yilla at Herculaneum (q.v.) there have been recovered thirty- 
six treatises attributed to Philodemus, and it has been suggested 
that the villa was actually owned by him; but this is generally 
denied. These works deal with music, rhetoric, ethics, signs, 
virtues and vices, and defend the Epicurean standpoint against 
the Stoics and the Peripatetics. 

The Rhetoric has been edited by Sudhaus (1892-1895); the De 
Ira and the De Pietate by Gomperz (1864 to 1865); the De Musica 
by Kempke (1884) ; De Vitiis by Ussing (1868) ; De Morte by Mekler 
(1886). See Hercul. Volum. (Oxford, 1824 and 1861); Mayor on 
Cicero's De Natura deorum (1871). 

PHILOLAUS (b. c. 480), Greek philosopher of the Pytha- 
gorean school, was born at Tarentum or at Crotona 1 (so Diog. 
Laert. viii. 84). He was said to have been intimate with 
Democritus, and was probably one of his teachers. After the 
death of Pythagoras great dissensions prevailed in the cities of 
lower Italy. According to some accounts, Philolaus, obliged 
to flee, took refuge first in Lucania and then at Thebes, where 
he had as pupils Simmias and Cebes, who subsequently, being 
still young men (wavier/cot), were present at the death of Socrates. 
Before this Philolaus had returned to Italy, where he was the 
teacher of Archytas. He entered deeply into the distinctively 
Pythagorean number theory, particularly dwelling on the 
properties inherent in the decad the sum of the first four 
numbers, consequently the fourth triangular number, the tetraclys 
(see Vit. Pythag. ap. Phot. Bibl. p. 712) which he called great, 
all-powerful, and all-producing. The great Pythagorean oath 
was taken by the sacred tetractys. The discovery of the regular 
solids is attributed to Pythagoras by Eudemus, and Empedocles 
is stated to have been the first who maintained that there are 
four elements. Philolaus, connecting these ideas, held that the 
elementary nature of bodies depends on their form, and assigned 
the tetrahedron to fire, the octahedron to air, the icosahedron 
to water, and the cube to earth; the dodecahedron he assigned 
to a fifth element, aether, or, as some think, to the universe 
(see Plut. de PI. Ph. ii. 6, IK 5^ rov ScadtKaedpov TJJV TOV iravrds 
ff<t>aipav and Stob. Ed. Phys. i. 10, 6 ras <r<j>a.ipas 6X*6s). This 
theory, however superficial from the standpoint of observation, 
indicates considerable knowledge of geometry and gave a great 
impulse to the study of the science. Following Parmenides, 
Philolaus regarded the soul as a " mixture and harmony " of 
the bodily parts; he also assumed a substantial soul, whose 
existence in the body is an exile on account of sin. 

Philolaus was the first to propound the doctrine of the motion 
of the earth; some attribute this doctrine to Pythagoras, but 
there is no evidence in support of their view. Philolaus supposed 
that the sphere of the fixed stars, the five planets, the sun, moon 
and earth, all moved round the central fire, which he called the 
hearth of the universe, the house of Zeus, and the mother of 
the gods (see Stob. Ed. Phys. i. 488); but as these made up 
only nine revolving bodies he conceived, in accordance with his 
number theory, a tenth, which he called counter-earth, ia/TixBuiv. 
He supposed the sun to be a disk of glass which reflects the light 
of the universe. He made the lunar month consist of 295 days, 
the lunar year of 354, and the solar year of 365^ days. He was 
the first who published a book on the Pythagorean doctrines, 
a treatise of which Plato made use in the composition of his 
Timaeus. This work of the Pythagorean, to which the mystical 
name BdKxot is sometimes given, seems to have consisted 
of three books: (i) Ilepi Koafion, containing a general account 
of the origin and arrangement of the universe; (2) Ilepl 
an exposition of the nature of numbers; (3) Ilepi 
the nature of the soul. 

1 Boeckh places his life between the 7oth and 95th Olympiads 
(496-39.6 B.C.). He was a contemporary of Socrates and Democritus, 
but senior to them, and was probably somewhat junior to Empe- 
docles, so that his birth may be placed at about 480. 



n 



See Boeckh, Philolaus des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruch- 
stiicken seines Werkes (Berlin, 1819); Schaarschmidt, Die angebliche 
Schriftstetterei des Philolaus (1864); also Fabricius, Bibliotheca 
graeca; Zeller, History of Greek Philosophy; Chaignet, Pythagore 
el la philosophie pythagoncienne, contenant les fragments de Philolaus 
et dArchitas (1873); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans. 
(1901), i. 123 sqq., 543 sqq. and authorities there quoted; also art. 
PYTHAGORAS. For fragments see Ritter and Preller, Hist. Philosoph. 
ch. ii. 

PHILOLOGY, the generally accepted comprehensive name 
for the study of the word (Gr. Xcxyoj), or languages; it designates 
that branch of knowledge which deals with human speech, and 
with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of 
man. Philology has two principal divisions, corresponding 
to the two uses of " word " or " speech," as signifying either 
what is said or the language in which it is said, as either the 
thought expressed which, when recorded, takes the form of 
literature or the instrumentality of its expression: these 
divisions are the literary and the linguistic. Not all study of 
literature, indeed, is philological: as when, for example, the 
records of the ancient Chinese are ransacked for notices of 
astronomical or meteorological phenomena, or the principles of 
geometry are learned from the textbook of a Greek sage; while, 
on the other hand, to study Ptolemy and Euclid for the history 
of the sciences represented by them is philological more than 
scientific. Again, the study of language itself has its literary 
side: as when the vocabulary of a community (say of the ancient 
Indo-Europeans or Aryans) is taken as a document from which 
to infer the range and grade of knowledge of its speakers, their 
circumstances and their institutions. The two divisions thus 
do not admit of absolute distinction and separation, though 
for some time past tending toward greater independence. The 
literary is the older of the two; it even occupied until recently 
the whole field, since the scientific study of language itself has 
arisen only within the igth century. Till then, literary philology 
included linguistic, as a merely subordinate and auxiliary part, 
the knowledge of a language being the necessary key to a know- 
ledge of the literature written in that language. When, there- 
fore, instead of studying each language by itself for the sake 
of its own literature men began to compare one language with 
another, in order to bring to light their relationships, their 
structures, thei r histories, the name " comparative philology " 
naturally enough suggested itself and came into use for the new 
method; and this name, awkward and trivial though it may be, 
has become so firmly fixed in English usage that it can be only 
slowly, if at all, displaced. European usage (especially German) 
tends more strongly than English to restrict the name philology 
to its older office, and to employ for the recent branch of know- 
ledge a specific term, like those that have gained more or less 
currency with us also; as glottic, glossology, linguistics, linguistic 
science, science of language, and the like. It is not a question 
of absolute propriety or correctness, since the word philology 
is in its nature wide enough to imply all language-study of 
whatever kind; it is one, rather, of the convenient distinction 
of methods that have grown too independent and important 
to be any longer well included under a common name. 

I. The Science of Language in general. 
Philology, in all its departments, began and grew up as 
classical; the history of our civilization made the study of 
Greek and Latin long the exclusive, still longer the 
predominant and regulating, occupation of secular 
scholarship. The Hebrew and its literature were held 
apart, as something of a different order, as sacred. It was not 
imagined that any tongue to which culture and literature 
did not lend importance was worthy of serious attention from 
scholars. The first essays in comparison, likewise, were made 
upon the classical tongues, and were as erroneous in method 
and fertile in false conclusions as was to be expected, considering 
the narrowness of view and the controlling prejudices of those 
who made them ; and the admission of Hebrew to the comparison 
only added to the confusion. The change which the past 
century has seen has been a part of the general scientific move- 
ment of the age, which has brought about the establishment 



PHILOLOGY 



of so many new branches of knowledge, both historical and 
physical, by the abandonment of shackling prejudices, the 
freedom of inquiry, the recognition of the dignity of all know- 
ledge, the wide-reaching assemblage of facts and their objective 
comparison, and the resulting constant improvement of method. 
Literary philology has had its full share of advantage from this 
movement; but linguistic philology has been actually created 
by it out of the crude observations and wild deductions of 
earlier times, as truly as chemistry out of alchemy, or geology 
out of diluvianism. It is unnecessary here to follow out the 
details of the development; but we may well refer to the decisive 
influence of one discovery, the decisive action of one scholar. 
It was the discovery of the special relationship of the Aryan 
or Indo-European languages, depending in great measure upon 
the introduction of the Sanskrit as a term in their comparison, 
and demonstrated and worked out by the German scholar Bopp, 
that founded the science of linguistic philology. While there 
is abundant room for further improvement, it yet appears that 
the grand features of philologic study, in all its departments, 
are now so distinctly drawn that no revolution of its methods, 
but only their modification in minor respects, is henceforth 
probable. How and for what purposes to investigate the 
literature of any people (philology in the more proper sense), 
combining the knowledge thus obtained with that derived from 
other sources; how to study and set forth the material and 
structure and combinations of a language (grammar), or of a 
body of related languages (comparative grammar); how to 
co-ordinate and interpret the general phenomena of language, 
as variously illustrated in the infinitely varying facts of different 
tongues, so as to exhibit its nature as a factor in human history 
and its methods of life and growth (linguistic science) these 
are what philology teaches. 

The study of language is a division of the general science of 
anthropology (q.v.), and is akin to all the rest in respect to its 
Relation to objects and its methods. Man as we now see him 
Aothropo- is a twofold being: in part the child of nature, as 
logy- to his capacities and desires, his endowments of 

mind and body; in part the creature of education, by train- 
ing in the knowledge, the arts, the social conduct, of which 
his predecessors have gained possession. And the problem 
of anthropology is this: how natural man has become 
cultivated man; how a being thus endowed by nature should 
have begun and carried on the processes of acquisition which 
have brought him to his present state. The results of his 
predecessors' labours are not transmuted for his benefit into 
natural instincts, in language or in anything else. The child 
of the most civilized race, if isolated and left wholly to his own 
resources, aided by neither the example nor the instruction of 
his fellows, would no more speak the speech of his ancestors 
than he would build their houses, fashion their clothes, practise 
any of their arts, inherit their knowledge or wealth. In fact, 
he would possess no language, no arts, no wealth, but would 
have to go to work to acquire them, by the same processes 
which began to win them for the first human beings. One 
advantage he would doubtless enjoy: the descendant of a 
cultivated race has an enhanced aptitude for the reception of 
cultivation; he is more cultivable; and this is an element that 
has to be allowed for in comparing present conditions with past, 
as influencing the rate of progress, but nothing more. In all 
other respects it is man with the endowments which we now 
find him possessed of, but destitute of the gradually accumulated 
results of the exercise of his faculties, whose progress we have 
to explain. And it is, as a matter of necessity, by studying 
recent observable modes of acquisition, and transferring them, 
with due allowance for different circumstances, to the more 
primitive periods, that the question of first acquisition or origin 
is to be solved, for language as for tools, for arts, for family 
and social organization, and the rest. There is just as much 
and just as little reason for assuming miraculous interference 
and aid in one of these departments as in another. If men 
have been left to themselves to make and improve instruments, 
to form and perfect modes of social organization, by implanted 



powers directed by natural desires, and under the pressure of 
circumstances, then also to make and change the signs that 
constitute their speech. All expressions, as all instruments, are 
at present, and have been (through the known past, made and 
changed by the men who use them; the same will have been the 
case in the unknown or prehistoric past. And we command 
now enough of the history of language, with the processes of 
its life and growth, to determine with confidence its mode of 
origin within certain limits, as will appear below. 

It is beyond all question, in the first place, that the desire 
of communication was the only force directly impelling men 
to the production of language. Man's sociality, cause of 
his disposition to band together with his fellows, Language- 
for lower and for higher purposes, for mutual help maktn z- 
and for sympathy, is one of his most fundamental character- 
istics. To understand those about one and to be understood 
by them is now, and must have been from the very beginning, 
a prime necessity of human existence; we cannot conceive of 
man, even in his most undeveloped state, as without the recogni- 
tion of it. Communication is still the universally recognized 
office of speech, and to the immense majority of speakers the 
only one; the common man knows no other, and can only with 
difficulty and imperfectly be brought to see that there is any 
other; of the added distinctness and reach of mental action 
which the possession of such an instrumentality gives him he 
is wholly unconscious: and it is obvious that what the compara- 
tively cultivated being of to-day can hardly be made to realize 
can never have acted upon the first men as a motive to action. 
It may perhaps be made a question which of the two uses of 
speech, communication or the facilitation of thought is the 
higher; there can be no question, at any rate, that the former 
is the broader and the more fundamental. That the kind and 
degree of thinking which we do nowadays would be impossible 
without language-signs is true enough; but so also it would be 
impossible without written signs. That there was a time 
when men had to do what mental work they could without 
the help of writing, as an art not yet devised, we have no diffi- 
culty in realizing, because the art is of comparatively recent 
device, and there are still communities enough that are working 
without it; it is much harder to realize that there was a time 
when speaking also was an art not yet attained, and that men 
had to carry on their rude and rudimentary thinking without 
it. Writing too was devised for conscious purposes of com- 
munication only; its esoteric uses, like those of speech, were 
at first unsuspected, and incapable of acting as an inducement; 
they were not noticed until made experience of, and then only 
by those who look beneath the surface of things. There is no 
analogy closer and more instructive than this between speech 
and writing. But analogies are abundant elsewhere in the 
history of human development. Everywhere it is the lower 
and more obvious inducements that are first effective, and that 
lead gradually to the possession of what serves and stimulates 
higher wants. All the arts and industries have grown out of 
men's effort to get enough to eat and protection against cold and 
heat just as language, with all its uses, out of men's effort to 
communicate with their fellows. As a solitary man now would 
never form even the beginnings of speech, as one separated from 
society unlearns his speech by disuse and becomes virtually 
dumb, so early man, with all his powers, would never have 
acquired speech, save as to those powers was added sociality 
with the needs it brought. We might conceive of a solitary 
man as housing and dressing himself, devising rude tools, and 
thus lifting himself a step from wildness toward cultivation; 
but we cannot conceive of him as ever learning to talk. Recogni- 
tion of the impulse to communication as the efficient cause of 
language-making is an element of primary importance in the 
theory of the origin of language. No one who either leaves it 
out of account or denies it will, however ingenious and enter- 
taining his speculations, cast any real light on the earliest 
history of speech. To inquire under what peculiar circumstances, 
in connexion with what mode of individual or combined action, 
a first outburst of oral expression may have taken place, is, on 



416 



PHILOLOGY 



the other hand, quite futile. The needed circumstances were 
always present when human beings were in one another's society; 
there was an incessant drawing-on to attempts at mutual 
understanding which met with occasional, and then ever more 
frequent and complete success. There inheres in most reasoning 
upon this subject the rooted assumption, governing opinion even 
when not openly upheld or consciously made, that conceptions 
have real natural names, and that in a state of nature these will 
somehow break forth and reveal themselves under favouring 
circumstances. The falsity of such a view is shown by our 
whole further discussion. 

The character of the motive force to speech determined the 
character of the beginnings of speech. That was first signified 
Beginnings which was most capable of intelligible signification, 
of Speech not that which was first in order of importance, 
and Writing. as j u( jg ec j by anv standard which we can apply to it, 
or first in order of conceptional development. All attempts to 
determine the first spoken signs by asking what should have 
most impressed the mind of primitive man are and must be 
failures. It was the exigencies and possibilities of practical 
life, in conditions quite out of reach of our distinct concep- 
tion, that prescribed the earliest signs of communication. So, 
by a true and instructive analogy, the beginnings of writing 
are rude depictions of visible objects; it is now thoroughly 
recognized that no alphabet, of whatever present character, 
can have originated in any other way; everything else is gradu- 
ally arrived at from that as, indeed, in the ingeniously shaping 
hands of man, from any central body of signs, though but of 
small extent, all else is attainable by processes of analogy and 
adaptation and transfer. Now what is it that is directly 
signifiable in the world about us? Evidently the separate 
acts and qualities of sensible objects, and nothing else. In 
writing, or signification to the eye, the first element is the rude 
depiction of the outline of an object, or of that one of the sum 
of its characteristic qualities which the eye takes note of and the 
hand is capable of intelligibly reproducing; from that the mind 
understands the whole complex object itself, and then whatever 
further may in the circumstances of its use be suggested by it. 
So, for example, the picture of a tree signifies primarily a tree, 
then perhaps wood, something made of wood, and so on; that 
of a pair of outstretched wings signifies secondarily flight, then 
soaring, height, and whatever else these may lead to. No 
concrete thing is signifiable in its totality or otherwise than by 
a facile analysis of its constituent qualities and a selection of 
the one which is both sufficiently characteristic in itself and 
capable of being called up by a sign before the mind addressed. 

And what quality shall be selected depends in great measure 
upon the instrumentality used for its signification. Of such 
instrumen- instrumentalities men possess a considerable variety. 
taiutesof We must leave out of account that of depiction, as 
expression. j ust ; ns t a nced, because its employment belongs to 
a much more advanced state of cultivation, and leads the 
way to the invention not of speech but of the analogous and 
auxiliary art of writing. There remain gesture, or changes of 
position of the various parts of the body, especially of the 
most mobile parts, the arms and hands; grimace, or the changes 
of expression of the features of the countenance (in strictness, 
a variety of the preceding); and utterance, or the production 
of audible sound. It cannot be doubted that, in the first stages 
of communicative expression, all these three were used together, 
each for the particular purposes which it was best calculated 
to serve. The nearest approach to such action that is now 
possible is when two persons, wholly ignorant of one another's 
speech, meet and need to communicate an imperfect corre- 
spondence, because each is trained to habits of expression and 
works consciously, and with the advantage of long experience, 
towards making himself understood; yet it is good for its main 
purpose. What they do, to reach mutual comprehension, is 
like what the first speechless men, unconsciously and infinitely 
more slowly, learned to do: face, hands, body, voice, are all 
put to use. It is altogether probable that gesture at first 
performed the principal part, even to such extent that the 



earliest human language may be said to have been a language 
of gesture signs; indeed, there exist at the present day such 
gesture-languages as those in use between roving tribes of 
different speech that from time to time meet one another (the 
most noted example is that of the gesture-language, of a very 
considerable degree of development, of the prairie tribes of 
American Indians); or such signs as are the natural resort of 
those who by deafness are cut off from ordinary spoken inter- 
course with their fellows. Yet there never can have been a 
stage or period in which all the three instrumentalities were 
not put to use together. In fact, they are still all used together; 
that is even now an ineffective speaking to which grimace and 
gesture (" action," as Demosthenes called them) are not added 
as enforcers; and the lower the grade of development and culture 
of a language, the more important, even for intelligibility, is 
their addition. But voice has won to itself the The Volce 
chief and almost exclusive part in communication, 
insomuch that we call all communication " language " (i.e. 
" tonguiness ") just as a race of mutes might call it " handiness " 
and talk (by gesture) of a handiness of grimace. This is not 
in the least because of any closer connexion of the thinking 
apparatus with the muscles that act to produce audible sounds 
than with those that act to produce visible motions; not because 
there are natural uttered names for conceptions any more than 
natural gestured names. It is simply a case of " survival of 
the fittest," or analogous to the process by which iron has become 
the exclusive material of swords, and gold and silver of money: 
because, namely, experience has shown this to be the material 
best adapted to this special use. The advantages of voice are 
numerous and obvious. There is first its economy, as employing 
a mechanism that is available for little else, and leaving free 
for other purposes those indispensable instruments the hands. 
Then there is its superior perceptibleness: its nice differences 
impress themselves upon the sense at a distance at which visible 
motions become indistinct; they are not hidden by intervening 
objects; they allow the eyes of the listener as well as the hands 
of the speaker to be employed in other useful work; they are as 
plain in the dark as in the light ; and they are able to catch and 
command the attention of one who is not to be reached in any 
other way. We might add as the third advantage a superior 
capability of variation and combination on the part of spoken 
sounds; but this is not to be insisted on, inasmuch as we hardly 
know what a gesture-language might have become if men's 
ingenuity in expression had been expended through all time 
upon its elaboration; and the superiority, however real, can 
hardly have been obvious enough to serve as a motive: certainly, 
there are spoken languages now existing whose abundance of 
resources falls short of what is attainable by gesture. Oral 
utterance is the form which expression has inevitably taken, 
the sum of man's endowments being what it is; but it would be 
a mistake to suppose that a necessity of any other kind is 
involved in their relation. The fundamental conditions of 
speech are man's grade of intellectual power and his social 
instinct; these being given, his expression follows, availing 
itself of what means it finds best suited to its purpose; if voice 
had been wanting it would have taken the next best. So, in 
certain well-known cases, a marked artistic gift on the part of 
individuals deprived of the use of hands has found means of 
exercise in the feet instead. But men in general have hands, 
instruments of exquisite tact and power, to serve the needs of 
their intellect; and so voice also, to provide and use the tools 
of thought; there is no error in maintaining that the voice is 
given us for speech, if only we do not proceed to draw from such 
a dictum false conclusions as to the relation between thought 
and utterance. Man is created with bodily instruments suited 
to do the work prescribed by his mental capacities; therein 
lies the harmony of his endowment. 

It is through imitation that all signification becomes directly 
suggestive. The first written signs are (as already noticed) 
the depictions of visible objects, and could be ^i^tioa. 
nothing else; and, by the same necessity, the first 
uttered signs were the imitations of audible sounds. To reproduce 



PHILOLOGY 



any sound of which the originating cause or the circumstances 
of production are known, brings up of course before the con- 
ception that sound, along with the originator, or circumstances 
of origination, or whatever else may be naturally associated with 
it. There are two special directions in which this mode of sign- 
making is fruitful: imitation of the sounds of external nature 
(as the cries of animals and the noises of inanimate objects 
when in motion or acted on by other objects) and imitation of 
human sounds. The two are essentially one in principle, 
although by some held apart, or even opposed to each other, as 
respectively the imitative or onomatopoetic and the exclamatory 
or interjectional beginnings of speech; they differ only in their 
spheres of significance, the one being especially suggestive of 
external objects, the other of inward feelings. There are natural 
human tones, indicative of feeling, as there are natural gestures, 
poses, modes of facial expression, which either are immediately 
intelligible to us (as is the warning cry of the hen to the day- 
old chicken), or have their value taught us by our earliest 
experiences. If we hear a cry of joy or a shriek of pain, a laugh 
or a groan, we need no explanation in words to tell us what it 
signifies any more than when we see a sad face or a drooping 
attitude. So also the characteristic cry or act of anything 
outside ourselves, if even rudely imitated, is to us an effective 
reminder and awakener of conception. We have no reason 
to question that such were the suggestions of the beginnings 
of uttered expression. The same means have made their con- 
tributions to language even down to our own day; we call words 
so produced " onomatopoetic " (i.e. " name-making "), after 
the example of the Greeks, who could not conceive that actually 
new additions to language should be made in any other way. 
What and how wide the range of the imitative principle, and 
what amount of language-signs it was capable of yielding, is a 
subject for special investigation or rather, of speculation, since 
anything like exact knowledge in regard to it will never be 
attained; and the matter is one of altogether secondary con- 
sequence; it is sufficient for our purpose that enough could 
certainly be won in this way to serve as the effective germs of 
speech. 

All the natural means of expression are still at our command, 
and are put to more or less use by us, and their products are as 
Language, intelligible to us as they have been to any generation 
of our ancestors, back to the very first. They are 
analogous also to the means of communication of the lower 
animals; this, so far as we know, consists in observing and 
interpreting one another's movements and natural sounds 
(where there are such). But language is a step beyond this, 
and different from it. To make language, the intent to signify 
must be present. A cry wrung out by pain, or a laugh of 
amusement, though intelligible, is not language; either of them, 
if consciously reproduced in order to signify to another pain or 
pleasure, is language. So a cough within hearing of any one 
attracts his attention; but to cough, or to produce any other 
sound, articulate or inarticulate, for the purpose of attracting 
another's attention, is to commit an act of language-making, 
such as in human history preceded in abundance the establish- 
ment of definite traditional signs for conceptions. Here begins 
to appear the division between human language and all brute 
expression; since we do not know that any animal but man ever 
definitely took this step. It would be highly interesting to find 
out just how near any come to it; and to this point ought to be 
especially directed the attention of those who are investigating 
the communication of the lower animals in its relation to human 
communication. Among the animals of highest intelligence 
that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a 
certain amount of sign-making expressly for communication 
is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he 
knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of 
it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from 
a flock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the 
threat of danger, is as near an approach to it as is anywhere 
made. 

But the actual permanent beginnings of speech are only 

xxi. 14 



reached when the natural basis is still further abandoned, and 
signs begin to be used, not because their natural suggestive- 
ness is seen in them, but by imitation, from the Language 
example of others who have been observed to use Convea- 
the same sign for the same purpose. Then for the ttoaal - 
first time the means of communication becomes something 
to be handed down, rather than made anew by each indi- 
vidual; it takes on that traditional character which is the 
essential character of all human institutions, which appears not 
less in the forms of social organization, the details of religious 
ceremonial, the methods of art and the arts, than in language. 
That all existing speech, and all known recorded speech, is 
purely traditional, cannot at all be questioned. It is proved 
even by the single fact that for any given conception there are 
as many different spoken signs as there are languages say a 
thousand (this number is rather far within than beyond the 
truth), each of them intelligible to him who has learned to use 
it and to associate it with the conception to which it belongs, 
but unintelligible to the users of the nine hundred and ninety- 
nine other signs, as these are all unintelligible to him; unless, 
indeed, he learn a few of them also, even as at the beginning he 
learned the one that he calls his own. What single sign, and 
what set of signs any individual shall use, depends upon the 
community into the midst of which he is cast, by birth or other 
circumstances, during his first years. That it does not depend 
upon his race is demonstrated by facts the most numerous and 
various; the African whose purity of descent is attested by every 
feature is found all over the world speaking just that language, 
or jargon, into the midst of which the fates of present or former 
slavery have brought his parents; every civilized community 
contains elements of various lineage, combined into one by 
unity of speech; and instances are frequent enough where whole 
nations speak a tongue of which their ancestors knew nothing; 
for example, the Celtic Gauls and the Germanic Normans of 
France speak the dialect of a geographically insignificant district 
in central Italy, while we ourselves can hardly utter a sentence 
or write a line without bringing in more or less of that same 
dialect. There is not an item of any tongue of which we know 
anything that is " natural " expression, or to the possession of 
which its speaker is brought by birth instead of by education; 
there is even very little that is traceably founded on such 
natural expression; everywhere Okais or human attribution 
reigns supreme, and the original 0wis or natural significance 
has disappeared and is only to be found by theoretic induction 
(as we have found it above). It seems to some as if a name like 
cuckoo (one of the most striking available cases of onomatopoeia) 
were a " natural " one; but there is just as much 0ns in it as 
in any other name; it implies the observation of an aggregate of 
qualities in a certain bird, and the selection of one among them 
as the convenient basis of a mutual understanding when the bird 
is in question; every animal conspicuous to us must have its 
designation, won in one way or another; and in this case to 
imitate the characteristic cry is the most available way. If 
anything but convenience and availability were involved, all 
our names for animals would have to be and to remain imitations 
of the sounds they make. That the name of cuckoo is applied 
also to the female and young, and at other than the singing 
season, and then to related species which do not make the same 
sound all helps to show the essentially conventional character 
of even this name. An analogous process of elimination of 
original meaning, and reduction to the value of conventional 
designation merely, is to be seen in every part of language 
throughout its whole history. Since men ceased to derive their 
names from signs having a natural suggestiveness, and began 
to make them from other names already in use with an under- 
stood value, every new name has had its etymology and its 
historical occasion as, for example, the name quarantine from 
the two-score (quarantaine) of days of precautionary confine- 
ment, or volume from its being rolled up, or book from a beech- 
wood staff, or copper from Cyprus, or lunacy from a fancied 
influence of the moon, or priest from being an older (Trptafivrepos) 
person, or butterfly from the butter-yellow colour of a certain 



PHILOLOGY 



common species: every part of our language, as of every other, 
is full of such examples but, when once the name is applied, 
it belongs to that to which it is applied, and no longer to its 
relatives by etymology; its origin is neglected, and its form may 
be gradually changed beyond recognition, or its meaning so far 
altered that comparison with the original shall seem a joke or an 
absurdity. This is a regular and essential part of the process 
of name-making in all human speech, and from the very begin- 
ning of the history of speech: in fact (as pointed out above), the 
latter can only be said to have begun when this process was 
successfully initiated, when uttered signs began to be, what they 
have ever since continued to be, conventional, or dependent 
only on a mutual understanding. Thus alone did language gain 
the capacity of unlimited growth and development. The sphere 
and scope of natural expression are narrowly bounded ; but there 
is no end to the resources of conventional sign-making. 

It is well to point out here that this change of the basis of 
men's communication from natural suggestiveness to mutual 
Bnrfe understanding, and the consequent purely conven- 
Speech tional character of all human language, in its every 
and Human par L and particle, puts an absolute line of demarca- 
Spetxh. t j on between the latter and the means of communi- 
cation of all the lower animals. The two are not of the same 
kind, any more than human society in its variety of organi- 
zation is of the same kind with the instinctive herding of 
wild cattle or swarming of insects, any more than human 
architecture with the instinctive burrowing of the fox and nest- 
building of the bird, any more than human industry and accu- 
mulation of capital with the instinctive hoarding of bees and 
beavers. In all these cases alike the action of men is a result 
of the adaptation of means at hand to the satisfaction of felt 
needs, or of purposes dimly perceived at first, but growing 
clearer with gradually acquired experience. Man is the only 
being that has established institutions gradually accumulated 
and perfected results of the exercise of powers analogous in kind 
to, but greatly differing in degree from, those of the lower 
animals. The difference in degree of endowment does not 
constitute the difference in language, it only leads to it. There 
was a time when all existing human beings were as destitute of 
language as the dog; and that time would come again for any 
number of human beings who should be cut off (if that were 
practicable) from all instruction by their fellows: only they 
would at once proceed to recreate language, society and arts 
by the same steps by which their own remote ancestors created 
those which we now possess; while the dog would remain what 
he and his ancestors have always been, a creature of very 
superior intelligence, indeed, as compared with most, of 
infinite intelligence as compared with many, yet incapable of 
rising by the acquisition of culture through the formation and 
development of traditional institutions. There is just the same 
saltus existent in the difference between man's conventional 
speech and the natural communication of the lower races as in 
that between men's forms of society and the instinctive associa- 
tions of the lower races; but it is no greater and no other; it is 
neither more absolute and characteristic nor more difficult to 
explain. Hence those who put forward language as the distinc- 
tion between man and the lower animals, and those who look 
upon our language as the same in kind with the means of com- 
munication of the lower animals, only much more complete and 
perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language, 
and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No 
addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make 
anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step 
which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other 
hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those 
institutions the development of which has constituted human 
progress, while their possession constitutes human culture. 

With the question of the origin of man, whether or not 
developed out of lower animal forms, intermediate to the 
anthropoid apes, language has nothing to do, nor can its study 
ever be made to contribute anything to the solution of that 
question. If there once existed creatures above the apes and 



below man, who were extirpated by primitive man as his especial 
rivals in the struggle for existence, or became extinct in any 
other way, there is no difficulty in supposing them to have 
possessed forms of speech, more rudimentary and imperfect than 
ours. At any rate, all existing human speech is one in the 
essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or shall 
hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in its 
distinction from the lower animals; the differences are in non- 
essentials. All speech is one in the sense that every human 
being, of whatever race he may be, is capable of Language 
acquiring any existing tongue, and of using it for aad 
the same purposes for which its present possessors Culture - 
use it, with such power and effect as his individual capacity 
allows, and without any essential change in the mental operations 
carried on by means of speech even as he may acquire any 
other of the items of culture belonging to a race not his own. 
The difference between employing one language and another is 
like that between employing one instrument and another in 
mechanical arts; one instrument may be better than another, 
and may enable its user to turn out better work, but the human 
ingenuity behind both is the same, and works in the same way. 
Nor has the making of language anything whatever to do with 
making man what he is, as an animal species having a certain 
physical form and intellectual endowment. Being what he is 
by nature, man has by the development of language and other 
institutions become what he is by culture. His acquired culture 
is the necessary result of his native endowment, not the 
contrary. The acquisition of the first stumbling beginnings 
of a superior means of communication had no more influence to'' 
raise him from a simian to a human being than the present high 
culture and perfected speech of certain races has to lift them up 
to something more than human and specifically different from 
the races of inferior culture. It cannot be too absolutely laid 
down that differences of language, down to the possession of 
language at all, are differences only in respect to education and 
culture. 

How long man, after he came into such being as he now is, 
physically and intellectually, continued to communicate with 
imitative signs of direct significance, when the eve / _. 
production of traditional signs began, how rapidly mentor 
they were accumulated, and how long any traces of Laaguage- 
their imitative origin clave to them these and the a te ns - 
like questions it is at present idle to try to answer even conjee- 
turally: just as it is to seek to determine when the first instru- 
ments were used, how soon they were shaped instead of being 
left crude, at what epoch fire was reduced to service, and so on. 
The stages of development and their succession are clear enough ; 
to fix their chronology will doubtless never be found practicable. 
There is much reason for holding, as some do, that the very first 
items of culture were hardest to win and cost most time, the 
rate of accumulation (as in the case of capital) increasing with 
the amount accumulated. Beyond all reasonable question, 
however, there was a positively long period of purely imitative 
signs, and a longer one of mixed imitative and traditional ones, 
the latter gradually gaining upon the former, before the 
present condition of things was reached, when the production 
of new signs by imitation is only sporadic and of the utmost 
rarity, and all language-signs besides are traditional, their 
increase in any community being solely by variation and 
combination, and by borrowing from other communities. 

Of what nature, in various respects, this earliest language- 
material was is sufficiently clear. The signs, in the first place, 
were of the sort that we call " roots." By this is 
only meant that they were integral signs, significant 
in their entirety, not divisible into parts, of which 
one signified one thing and another another thing, or of which one 
gave the main significance, while another was an added sign of 
kind or relacion. In a language of developed structure like our 
own, we arrive at such " roots " mainly by an artificial stripping- 
off of the signs of relation which almost every word still has, or 
can be shown to have once had. In un-cost-li-ness, for example, 
cost is the centrally significant element; so far as English is. 



PHILOLOGY 



419 



concerned it is a root, about which cluster a whole body of forms 
and derivatives; if we could follow its history no farther it 
would be to us an ultimate root, as much so as bind or sing or 
mean. But we can follow it up, to the Latin compound con-sta, 
a root sta with a prefixed formative element con. Then sta, 
which in slightly varied forms we find in a whole body of related 
tongues called " Indo-European," having in them all the same 
significance " stand," is an Indo-European root, and to us an 
ultimate one, because we can follow its history no farther; but 
there always remains the possibility that it is as far from being 
actually original as is the English root cost: that is to say, it is 
not within our power ever to get back to the really primitive ele- 
ments of speech and to demonstrate their character by positive 
evidence. The reason for accepting a primitive root-stage of 
language is in great part theoretical: because nothing else is 
reconcilable with any acceptable view of the origin of language. 
The law of the simplicity of beginnings is an absolute one for 
everything of the nature of an institution, for every gradually 
developed product of the exercise of human faculties. That an 
original speech-sign should be of double character, one part of 
it meaning this and another part that, or one part radical and 
the other formative, is as inconceivable as that the first instru- 
ments should have had handles, or the first shelters a front room 
and a back one. But this theoretical reason finds all the 
historical support which it needs in the fact that, through all the 
observable periods of language-history we see formative elements 
coming from words originally independent, and not from any- 
thing else. Thus, in the example just taken, the -li- of costliness 
is a suffix of so recent growth that its whole history is distinctly 
traceable; it is simply our adjective like, worn down in both form 
and meaning to a subordinate value in combination with certain 
words to which it was appended, and then added freely as a 
suffix to any word from which it was desired to make a derivative 
adjective or, later but more often, a derivative adverb. The 
ness is much older (though only Germanic), and its history 
obscurer; it contains, in fact, two parts, neither of them of 
demonstrable origin; but there are equivalent later suffixes, as 
skip in hardship and dom in wisdom, whose derivation from 
independent words {shape, doom) is beyond question. The 
an- of uncostliness is still more ancient (being Indo-European), 
and its probably pronominal origin hardly available as an 
illustration; but the comparatively modern prefix be-, of become, 
belie, &c., comes from the independent preposition by, by the 
same process as -ly or -li- from like. And the con which has 
contributed its part to the making of the quasi-root cost is also 
in origin identical with the Latin preposition cum, " with." By 
all the known facts of later language-growth we are driven to 
the opinion that every formative element goes back to some 
previously existing independent word; and hence that in 
analysing our present words we are retracing the steps of an 
earlier synthesis, or following up the history of our formed words 
toward the unformed roots out of which they have grown. The 
doctrine of the historical growth of language-structure leads by 
a logical necessity to that of a root-stage in the history of all 
language; the only means of avoiding the latter is the assumption 
of a miraculous element in the former. 

Of what phonetic form were the earliest traditional speech- 
signs is, so far as essentials are concerned, to be inferred with 
Earliest reasonable certainty. They were doubtless articu- 
Phoncth late: that is to say, composed of alternating conso- 
Forms. nant anc j vowe i sounds, like our present speech; and 
they probably contained a part of the same sounds which we 
now use. All human language is of this character; there are no 
sounds in any tongue which are not learned and reproduced as 
easily by children of one race as of another; all dialects admit a 
like phonetic analysis, and are representable by alphabetic signs ; 
and the leading sounds, consonant and vowel, are even practi- 
cally the same in all; though every dialect has its own (for the 
most part, readily definable and imitable) niceties of their 
pronunciation, while certain sounds are rare, or even met with 
only in a single group of languages or in a single language. 
Articulate sounds are such as are capable of being combined 



with others into that succession of distinct yet connectable 
syllables which is the characteristic of human speech-utterance. 
The name " articulate " belongs to this utterance, as dis- 
tinguished from inarticulate human sounds and cries and from 
the sounds made by the lower animals. The word itself is 
Latin, by translation from the Greek, and, though very widely 
misunderstood, and even deliberately misapplied in some 
languages to designate all sound, of whatever kind, uttered by 
any living creature, is a most happily chosen and truly descrip- 
tive term. It signifies " jointed," or broken up into successive 
parts, like a limb or stem; the joints are the syllables; and the 
syllabic structure is mainly effected by the alternation of closer 
or consonant sounds with opener or vowel sounds. The simplest 
syllabic combination (as the facts of language show) is that 
of a single consonant with a following vowel; and there are 
languages even now existing which reject any other. Hence 
.there is much plausibility in the view that the first speech-signs 
will have had this phonetic form and been monosyllabic, or 
dissyllabic only by repetition (reduplication) of one syllable, 
such as the speech of very young children shows to have a 
peculiar ease and naturalness. The point, however, is one of 
only secondary importance, and may be left to the further 
progress of phonetic study to settle, if it can; the root-theory, 
at any rate, is not bound to any definite form or extent of root, 
but only denies that there can have been any grammatical 
structure in language except by development in connexion with 
experience in the use of language. What particular sounds, and 
how many, made up the first spoken alphabet is also a matter 
of conjecture merely; they are likely to have been the closest 
consonants and the openest vowels, medial utterances being of 
later development. 

As regards their significant value, the first language-signs 
must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are 
directly apprehensible by the senses; both because character 
these alone are directly signifiable, and because it ofEarly 
was only they that untrained human beings had Speech. 
the power to deal with or the occasion to use. Such signs 
would then be applied to more intellectual uses as fast as there 
was occasion for it. The whole history of language, down 
to our own day, is full of examples of the reduction of physical 
terms and phrases to the expression of non-physical conceptions 
and relations; we can hardly write a line without giving illustra- 
tions of this kind of linguistic growth. So pervading is it, that 
we never regard ourselves as having read the history -of any 
intellectual or moral term till we have traced it back to a physical 
origin. And we are still all the time drawing figurative compari- 
sons between material and moral things and processes, and 
calling the latter by the names of the former. There has never 
been any difficulty in providing for new knowledge and more 
refined thought by putting to new uses the earlier and grosser 
materials of speech. 

As a matter of course, whatever we now signify by our simple 
expressions for simple acts, wants, and the like, was intended to 
be signified through the first speech-signs by the users of them. 
But to us, with our elaborated apparatus of speech, the sentence, 
composed of subject and predicate, with a verb or special 
predicative word to signify the predication, is established as the 
norm of expression, and we regard everything else as an abbrevi- 
ated sentence, or as involving a virtual sentence. With a view 
to this we must have " parts of speech ": that is, words held 
apart in office from one another, each usable for such and such a 
purpose and no other, and answering a due variety of purposes, 
so that when they are combined they fit together, as parts 
composing a whole, and the desired meaning is made clear. 
Inflexions, too, lend their aid; or else auxiliary words of various 
kinds answering the same purpose namely, of determining the 
relations of the members of the sentence. But all our success 
in understanding the earliest stages of language depends upon 
our power to conceive a state of things where none of these 
distinctions were established, where one speech-sign was like 
another, calling up a conception in its indefinite entirety, and 
leaving the circumstances of the case to limit its application. 



420 



PHILOLOGY 



Such a language is far below ours in explicitness; but it would 
suffice for a great deal of successful communication; indeed (as 
will be shown farther on) there are many languages even now 
in existence which are little better off. So a look of approval 
or disgust, a gesture of beckoning or repulsion, a grunt of assent 
or inquiry, is as significant as a sentence, means a sentence, is 
translatable into a sentence, and hence may even in a certain 
way be called a sentence; and in the same way, but only so, the 
original roots of language may be said to have been sentences. 
In point of fact, between the holophrastic gesture or uttered sign 
and the sentence which we can now substitute for it for example 
between the sign of beckoning and the equivalent sentence, " I 
want you to come here " lies the whole history of development 
of inflective speech. 

What has been this history of development, how the first 
scanty and formless signs have been changed into the immense 
Develop- variety and fullness of existing speech, it is of course 
meat ot impossible to point out in detail, or by demonstration 
Language o { f ac t S; because nearly the whole process is hidden 
in the darkness of an impenetrable past. The only way to cast 
any light upon it is by careful induction from the change and 
growth which are seen to have been going on in the recent periods 
for which we have recorded evidence, or which are going on at 
the present time. Of some groups of related languages we 
can read the life for three or four thousand years back, and by 
comparison can infer it much farther; and the knowledge thus 
won is what we have to apply to the explanation of periods and 
languages otherwise unknown. Nothing has a right to be 
admitted as a factor in language-growth of which the action is 
not demonstrable in recorded language. Our own family of 
languages is the one of whose development most is known, by 
observation and well- warranted inference; and it may be well 
here to sketch the most important features of its history, by 
way of general illustration. 

Apparently the earliest class-distinction traceable in Indo- 
European speech is that of pronominal roots, or signs of position, 
la I ado- from the more general mass of roots. It is not a 
European formal distinction, marked by a structural difference, 
Speech. \>\it t so f ar as can fog seen; j s founded only on the 
assignment by usage of certain elements to certain offices. 
Formal distinction began with combination, the addition of one 
element to another, their fusion into a single word, and the 
reduction of the one part to a subordinate value, as sign of a 
certain'modification of meaning of the other. Thus, doubtless 
by endings of pronominal origin, were made the first verb- 
forms, or words used only when predication was intended (since 
that is all that makes a verb), conveying at first a distinction 
of persons only, then of persons and numbers, while the further 
distinctions of tense and mode were by degrees added. To the 
nouns, which became nouns by the setting up of the separate 
and special class of verbs, were added in like manner distinctions 
of case, of number, and of gender. With the separation of 
noun and verb, and the establishment of their respective in- 
flexion, the creative work of language-making is virtually done; 
the rest is a matter of differentiation of uses. For the noun 
(noun substantive) and the adjective (noun adjective) become 
two parts of speech only by a gradually deepened separation of 
use; there is no original or formal distinction between them; 
the pronouns as a rule merely add the noun-inflexion to a special 
set of stems; adverbs are a part of the same formation as noun- 
cases; prepositions are adverbs with a specialized construction, 
of secondary growth; conjunctions are the products of a like 
specialization; articles, where found at all, are merely weakened 
demonstratives and numerals. 

To the process of form-making, as exhibited in this history, 
belong two parts: the one external, consisting in the addition 
of one existing element of speech to another and their combina- 
tion into a single word; the other internal, consisting in the adap- 
tation of the compound to its special use and involving the 
subordination of one element to the other. Both parts appear 
also abundantly in other departments of language-change, and 
throughout the whole history of our languages; nothing has to be 



assumed for the earliest formations which is not plainly illustrated 
in the latest. For example, the last important addition to the 
formative apparatus of English is the common, adverb-making 
suffix -ly, coming, as already pointed out, from the independent 
adjective like. There was nothing at first to distinguish a 
compound like godly (godlike) from one like storm-tossed, save 
that the former was more adaptable than the other to wider 
uses; resemblance is an idea easily generalized into appurtenance 
and the like, and the conversion of godlike to godly is a simple 
result of the processes of phonetic change described farther 
on. The extension of the same element to combination with 
adjectives instead of nouns, and its conversion to adverb- 
making value, is a much more striking case of adaptation, and 
is nearly limited to English among the Germanic languages that 
have turned like into a suffix. A similar striking case of com- 
bination and adaptation is seen in the Romanic adverb-making 
suffix mente or ment, coming from the Latin ablative mente, 
" with mind." So, to make a Romanic future like donnerai, 
" I shall give," there was needed in the first place the pre- 
existing elements, donner, " to give," and ai, " I have," and their 
combination; but this is only a part; the other indispensable 
part is the gradual adaptation of a phrase meaning " I have 
[something before me] for giving " to the expression of simple 
futurity, donabo. So far as the adaptation is concerned the 
case is quite parallel to that of j'ai donne, " I have given," 
&c. (equivalent phrases or combinations are found in many 
languages), where the expression of possession of something that 
is acted on has been in like manner modified into the expression 
of past action. Parallel in both combination and adaptation 
is the past tense loved, according to a widely accepted theory, 
from love-did, while we have again the same adaptation without 
combination in the equivalent phrase did love. 

That these are examples of the process by which the whole 
inflective structure of Ind. -European language was built up admits 
of no reasonable question.' Our belief that'it is so rests upon the 
solid foundation that we can demonstrate no other process, and 
that this one is sufficient. It is true that we can prove such an 
origin for our formative elements in only a small minority of 
instances; but this is just what was to be expected, considering 
what, we know of the disguising processes of language-growth. 
No one would guess in the mere y of ably (for able-ly) the presence 
of the adjective like, any more than in the altered final of sent 
and the shortened vowel of led the effect of a did once added to 
send and lead. The true history of these forms can be shown, 
because there happen to be other facts left in existence to show it; 
where such facts are not within reach we are left to infer by 
analogy from the known to the unknown. The validity of our 
inference can only be shaken by showing that there are forms 
incapable of having been made in this way, or that there are and 
have been other ways of making forms. Of the former there is 
evidently but small chance; if a noun-form meaning, " with 
mind " can become the means of conversion of all the adjectives 
of a language into adverbs, and a verb meaning " have " (and, 
yet earlier, " seize ") of signifying both future and past time, 
there is obviously nothing that is impossible of attainment by 
such means. As regards the latter, no one appears to have 
even attempted to demonstrate the genesis of formative elements 
in any other way during the historical periods of language; it 
is simply assumed that the early methods of language-making 
will have been something different from and superior in spon- 
taneity and fruitfulness to the later ones; that certain forms, 
or forms at certain periods, were made out-and-out, as forms; 
that signs of formal distinction somehow exuded from roots 
and stems; that original words were many-membered, and that 
a formative value settled in some member of them and the like. 
Such doctrines are purely fanciful, and so opposed to the teach- 
ings both of observation and of sound theory that the epithet 
absurd is hardly too strong to apply to them. If the later races, of 
developed intelligence, and trained in the methods of a fuller 
expression, can only win a new form by a long and gradual pro- 
cess of combination and adaptation, why should the earlier and 
comparatively untrained generations have been able to do any 



PHILOLOGY 



421 



better? The advantage ought to be, if anywhere, on our side. 
The progress of language in every department, accompanying 
All formal an( ^ representing the advance of the race, on the 
Elements whole, in the art of speaking as in other arts, is from 
once the grosser to the more refined, from the physical 

Material. to the mora i an( j intellectual, from the material 
to the formal. The conversion of compounds into forms, by the 
reduction of one of their elements to formative value, is simply 
a part of the general process which also creates auxiliaries and 
form-words and connectives, all the vocabulary of mind, and all 
the figurative phraseology that gives life and vigour to our 
speech. If a copula, expressive of the grammatical relation of 
predication, could be won only by attenuation of the meaning 
of verbs signifying " grow," " breathe," " stand," and the like; 
if our auxiliaries of tense and mode all go traceably back to 
words of physical meaning (as have to " seize," may to "be great 
or strong," shall to " be under penalty," and so on); if of comes 
from the comparatively physical of, and for from " before, for- 
ward "; if relative pronouns are specialized demonstratives and 
interrogatives; if right means etymologically " straight," and 
wrong means " twisted "; if spirit is " blowing," and intellect a 
" picking out among," and understanding a " getting beneath," 
and development an " unfolding "; if an event takes place or 
comes to pass, and then drops out of mind and is forgotten (opposite 
of gotten) then it is of no avail to object to the grossness of 
any of the processes by which, in earlier language or in later, 
the expression of formal relations is won. The mental sense of 
the relation expressed is entirely superior to and independent 
of the means of its expression. He who, to express the plural of 
man, says what is equivalent to man-man or heap-man (devices 
which are met with in not a few languages) has just as good a 
sense of plurality as he who says men or homines; that sense is 
no more degraded in him by the coarseness of the phrase he uses 
to signify it than is our own sense of eventuality and of pastness 
by the undisguised coarseness of take place and have been. In 
short, it is to be laid down with the utmost distinctness and 
confidence, as a law of language-growth, that there is nothing 
formal anywhere in language which was not once material; 
that the formal is made out of the material, by processes which 
began in the earliest history of language and are still in action. 

We have dropped here the restriction to our own or Indo- 
European language with which we began, because it is evident 
Laws of ' t - nat what is true of this family of speech, one of the 
Change and most highly organized that exist, may also be true of 
Growth. ^jjg reg mus t be true of them, unless some valid 
evidence be found to the contrary. The unity of human nature 
makes human speech alike in the character of its beginnings and 
in the general features of its after-history. Everywhere among 
men a certain store of expression, body of traditional signs of 
thought, being given, as used by a certain community, it is 
capable of increase on certain accordant lines, and only on them. 
In some languages, and under peculiar circumstances, borrowing 
is a great means of increase; but it is the most external and least 
organically important of all. Out-and-out invention (which, so 
far as we can see, must be of the kind called by us onomato- 
poetic) is found to play only a very insignificant part in the 
historical periods of language clearly because there are other 
and easier modes of gaining new expression for what needs to be 
expressed. In the course of phonetic change a word sometimes 
varies into two (or more) forms, and makes so many words, which 
are differently turned to account. Everything beyond this 
must be the product of combination; there is no other way, so 
far as concerns the externals of speech. Then, partly as accom- 
panying and aiding this external growth, partly as separate from 
and supplementing it, there is in all language an internal growth, 
making no appearance in the audible part of speech, consisting 
in multiplication of meanings, their modification in the way of 
precision or comprehension or correctness, the restriction of 
words to certain uses, and so on. Along with these, too, a con- 
stant change of phonetic form constitutes an inseparable part 
of the life of language. Speech is no more stable with respect to 
the sounds of which it is composed than with respect to its 



grammatical forms, its vocabulary, or the body of conceptions 
signified by it. Even nearly related languages differ as much in 
their spoken alphabets and the combinations of sounds they 
admit, and in their uttered forms of words historically the same, 
as in any other part; and the same is true of local dialects and 
of class dialects within the same community. Phonetic change 
has nothing whatever to do with change of meaning; the two 
are the product of wholly independent tendencies. Sometimes, 
indeed, they chance to coincide, as in the distinction of minute 
" small," and minute " moment "; but it is only by chance, as 
the spoken accordance of second in its two meanings (" next " 
and " sixtieth of a minute ") shows; words that maintain their 
identity of value most obstinately, like the numerals, are liable 
to vary indefinitely in form (so four, fidvor, quatuor, riaaap-es, 
&c., from an original kwetwor-;five, quinque, irtvrf, coic, &c., from 
penkwe while, on the other hand, two and three show as striking 
an accordance of form as of meaning through all the same 
languages); what is far the most common is that the word 
becomes very unlike its former self in both respects, like priest 
from the Greek irpeaflvTfpos (presbyter), literally " older man." 
Human convenience is, to be sure, the governing motive in 
both changes; but it is convenience of two different kinds: the 
one mental, depending on the fact (pointed out above) that a 
name when once applied belongs to the thing to which it is 
applied, to the disregard of its etymological connexions, does not 
need to be changed when the thing changes, and is ready for 
new application to anything that can be brought into one class 
with the latter; and the other physical, depending on the organs 
of speech and their successive movements, by which the sounds 
that make up the word are produced. Phonetic convenience is 
economy of effort on the part of those organs; and to no other law 
than that of economy of utterance have any of the phenomena 
of phonetic change been found traceable (though it is also to be 
noted that some phenomena have not hitherto been successfully 
brought under it, and that the way of effecting this is still 
unclear). " Euphony," which used to be appealed to as explana- 
tion, is a false principle, except so far as the term may be made 
an idealized synonym of economy. The ear finds that agreeable 
which the organs of utterance find facile. Economy in utterance 
is no isolated tendency; it is the same that plays its part in all 
other kinds of human action, and in language appears equally 
in the abbreviation of the sentence by leaving out parts that can 
be spared without loss of intelligibility. It is an insidious 
tendency, always lying in wait, like gravitation, to pull down 
what is not sufficiently held up the holding-up force in lan- 
guage being the faithfulness of tradition, or accurate repro- 
duction by the learner and user of the signs which he has acquired. 
No generation of men has any intention to speak otherwise than 
as its predecessor has spoken, or any consciousness that it is 
doing so; and yet, from generation to generation, words are 
shortened, sounds are assimilated to one another, and one 
element passes out of use while a new one is introduced. Abbre- 
viation and assimilation are the most conspicuous depart- 
ments of phonetic change, and those in which the nature of the 
governing tendency is most plainly seen. Taken by itself, 
one sound is as easy as another to the person who has accustomed 
himself to it from childhood; and those which the young child 
most easily acquires are not those which in the history of speech 
are least liable to alteration; it is especially in the combinations 
and transitions of rapid speaking that the tongue, as it were, 
finds out for itself easier ways of performing its task, by dropping 
and slurring and adapting. To trace out the infinitely varied 
items of this change, to co-ordinate and compare them and 
discover their reasons, constitutes a special department of 
language-study, which is treated under the head of PHONETICS. 
It only needs to be pointed out here that phonetic change plays 
a necessary part in the structural development of language, 
by integrating compound words through fusion and loss of identity 
of their component parts, and, what is of yet more importance, 
by converting them into forms, through disguise of identity of 
one of the parts and its phonetic subordination to the other part. 
It is this that turns, for example, the compound god-like into 



422 



PHILOLOGY 



the derivative godly, the compound love-did into the verbal 
form loved. And yet one further result sometimes follows: an 
internal change is wrought by phonetic influence in the body of 
a word, which change then may in the further history of the 
word be left as the sole means of distinction between one form 
and another. It is thus that, in the most recent period, the 
distinction of led from lead and met from meet and so on has been 
made; the added auxiliary which originally made these preterites 
induced a shortening of the root-vowel, and this was left behind 
when the auxiliary disappeared by the usual process of abbrevia- 
tion. It is in the same way that the distinctions of men from 
man, of were from was, of set from sit, with all their analogues, 
were brought about: by a modification of vowel-sound (Ger. 
Umlaut) occasioned by the presence in the following syllable of an 
i- vowel, which in the older stages of the language is still to be seen 
there. And the distinctions of sing, sang, sung and song, of bind , 
bound, band and bond, are certainly of the same kind, though they 
go back so far in the history of our family of languages that their 
beginnings are not yet clearly demonstrable; they were in their 
origin phonetic accidents, inorganic, mere accompaniments 
and results of external combinations which bore the office of 
distinction of meaning and were sufficient to it ; in some of our 
languages they have been disregarded and effaced, in others they 
have risen to prominent importance. To regard these internal 
changes as primary and organic is parallel with assuming the 
primariness of the formative apparatus of language in general; 
like this, it ignores the positive evidence we have of the secondary 
production of such differences; they are, like everything else in 
linguistic structure, the outcome of combination and adaptation. 
Borrowing, or the taking-in of material out of another language, 
has been more than once referred to above as sometimes an 

important element in language-history, though less 
' deep-reaching and organic than the rest. There is 

nothing anomalous about borrowing; it is rather 
in essential accordance with the whole process of language- 
acquisition. All our names were adopted by us because they 
were already in use by others; and a community is in the same 
way capable of taking a new name from a community with which 
it comes in contact as an individual from individuals. Not that 
it seeks or admits in this way new names for old things; but it 
accepts new things along with the names that seem to belong to 
them. Hence any degree of intercourse between one community 
and another, leading to exchange of products or of knowledge, 
is sure to lead also to some borrowing of names; and there is 
hardly a language in the world, except of races occupying 
peculiarly isolated positions, that does not contain a certain 
amount of foreign material thus won, even as our English has 
elements in its vocabulary from half the other tongues in the 
world. The scale of borrowing is greatly increased when one 
people becomes the pupil of another in respect of its civilization: 
hence the abundant classical elements in all the European 
tongues, even the non-Romanic; hence the Arabic material in 
Persian and Turkish and Malay; hence the Chinese in Japanese 
and Corean; and, as a further result, even dead languages, like 
the Greek and Latin and the Sanskrit, become stores to be drawn 
upon in that learned and conscious quest of new expression 
which in the school-stage of culture supplements or even in a 
measure replaces the unconscious growth of natural speech. 
So, in mixture of communities, which is a highly-intensified 
form of contact and intercourse, there follows such mixture of 
speech as the conditions of the case determine; yet not a mixture 
on equal terms, through all the departments of vocabulary and 
grammar; the resulting speech (just as when two individuals learn 
to speak alike) is essentially that of the one constituent of the 
new community, with more or less material borrowed from that 
of the other. What is most easily taken in out of another 
language is the names of concrete things; every degree of removal 
from this involves additional difficulty names of abstract 
things, epithets, verbs, connectives, forms. Indeed, the borrow- 
ing of forms in the highest sense, or forms of inflexion, is well- 
nigh or quite impossible; no example of it has been demonstrated 
in any of the historical periods of language, though it is some- 



times adventurously assumed as a part of prehistoric growth. 
How nearly it may be approached is instanced by the presence 
in English of such learned plurals as phenomena and strata. This 
extreme resistance to mixture in the department of inflexion is 
the ground on which some deny the possibility of mixture in 
language, and hence the existence of such a thing as a mixed 
language. The difference is mainly a verbal one; but it would 
seem about as reasonable to deny that a region is inundated so 
long as the tops of its highest mountains are above water. 
According to the simple and natural meaning of the term, nearly 
all languages are mixed, in varying degree and within varying 
limits, which the circumstances of each case must explain. 

These are the leading processes of change seen at work in 
all present speech and in all known past speech, and hence to 
be regarded as having worked through the whole history of 
speech. By their operation every existing tongue has been 
developed out of its rudimentary radical condition to that 
in which we now see it. The variety of existing languages 
is well-nigh infinite, not only in their material but in their 
degree of development and the kind of resulting structure. 
Just as the earlier stages in the history of the use of tools are 
exemplified even at the present day by races which have never 
advanced beyond them, so is it in regard to language also 
and, of course, in the latter case as in the former, this state of 
things strengthens and establishes the theory of a gradual 
development. There is not an element of linguistic structure 
possessed by some languages which is not wanting in 
others; and there are even tongues which have no^,^^, 
formal structure, and which cannot be shown ever 
to have advanced out of the radical stage. The most noted 
example of such a rudimentary tongue is the Chinese, which 
in its present condition lacks all formal! distinction of the 
parts of speech, all inflexion, all derivation; each of its 
words (all of them monosyllables) is an integral sign, not 
divisible into parts of separate significance; and each in 
general is usable wherever the radical idea is wanted, with the 
value of one part of speech or another, as determined by the 
connexion in which it stands; a condition parallel with that 
in which Indo-European speech may be regarded as existing 
prior to the beginnings of its career of formal development 
briefly sketched above. And there are other tongues, related 
and unrelated to Chinese, of which the same description, or one 
nearly like it, might be given. To call such languages radical 
is by no means to maintain that they exhibit the primal roots 
of human speech, unchanged or only phonetically changed, or 
that they have known nothing of the combination of element 
with element. Of some of them the roots are in greater or 
less part dissyllabic; and we do not yet know that all dis- 
syllabism, and even that all complexity of syllable beyond a 
single consonant with following vowel, is not the result of 
combination or reduplication. But all combination is not 
form-making; it needs a whole class of combinations, with a 
recognized common element in them producing a recognized 
common modification of meaning, to make a form. The same 
elements which (in Latin, and even to some extent in English 
also) are of formal value in con-slant and pre-dict lack that 
character in cost and preach; the same like which makes 
adverbs in tru-ly and right-ly is present without any such value 
in such and which (from so-like and who-like); cost and preach, 
and such and which, are as purely radical in English as other 
words of which we do not happen to be able to demonstrate 
the composite character. And so a Chinese monosyllable 
or an Egyptian or Polynesian dissyllable is radical, unless there 
can be demonstrated in some part of it a formative value; and 
a language wholly composed of such words is a root-language. 
Recent investigation goes to show that Chinese had at some 
period of its history a formal development, since extinguished 
by the same processes of phonetic decay which in English have 
wiped out so many signs of a formal character and brought back 
so considerable a part of the vocabulary to monosyllabism. In 
languages thus constituted the only possible external alteration 
is that phonetic change to which all human speech, from the 



PHILOLOGY 



423 



very beginning of its traditional life, is liable; the only growth 
is internal, by that multiplication and adaptation and improve- 
ment of meanings which is equally an inseparable part of all 
language-history. This may include the reduction of certain 
elements to the value of auxiliaries, particles, form-words, such 
as play an important part in analytical tongues like English, and 
are perhaps also instanced in prehistoric Indo-European speech 
by the class of pronominal roots. Phrases take the place of 
compounds and of inflexions, and the same element may have 
an auxiliary value in certain connexions while retaining its full 
force in others, like, for instance, our own have. It is not easy 
to define the distinction between such phrase-collocations and 
the beginnings of agglutination; yet the distinction itself is 
in general clearly enough to be drawn (like that in French 
between donnerai and ai donne) when the whole habit of the 
language is well understood. 

Such languages, constituting the small minority of human 
tongues, are wont to be called " isolating," i.e. using each 
AggiaO- element by itself, in its integral form. All besides 
native Lao- are "agglutinative," or more or less compounded 
guages. j nto wor ds containing a formal part, an indicator 
of class-value. Here the differences, in kind and degree, 
are very great; the variety ranges from a scantiness hardly 
superior to Chinese isolation up to an intricacy compared 
with which Indo-European structure is hardly fuller than 
Chinese. Some brief characterization of the various families 
of language in this respect will be given farther on, in con- 
nexion with their classification. The attempt is also made to 
classify the great mass of agglutinating tongues under different 
heads: those are ranked as simply " agglutinative " in which 
there is a general conservation of the separate identity of root or 
stem on the one hand, and of formative element, suffix or prefix, 
on the other; while the name "inflective," used in a 
higher and pregnant sense, is given to those that admit 
a superior fusion and integration of the two parts, to the disguise 
and loss of separate identity, and, yet more, with the develop- 
ment of an internal change as auxiliary to or as substitute for 
the original agglutination. But there is no term in linguistic 
science so uncertain of meaning, so arbitrary of application, so 
dependent on the idiosyncrasy of its user, as the term " inflec- 
tive." Any language ought to have the right to be called in- 
flective that has inflexion: that is, that not merely distinguishes 
parts of speech and roots and stems formally from one another, 
but also conjugates its verbs and declines its nouns; and the 
name is sometimes so used. If, again, it be strictly limited to 
signify the possession of inner flexion of roots and stems (as if 
simply agglutinated forms could be called " exflective "), it 
marks only a difference of degree of agglutination, and should 
be carefully used as so doing. As describing the fundamental 
and predominant character of language-structure, it belongs 
to only one family of languages, the Semitic, where most of the 
work of grammatical distinction is done by internal changes of 
vowel, the origin of which thus far eludes all attempts at explana- 
tion. By perhaps the majority of students of language it is, as 
a generally descriptive title, restricted to that family and one 
other, the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic ; but such a classi- 
fication is not to be approved, for, in respect to this character- 
istic, Indo-European speech ranks not with Semitic but with 
the great body of agglutinative tongues. To few of these can 
the name be altogether denied, since there is hardly a body of 
related dialects in existence that does not exhibit some items 
of " inflective " structure; the Aryan is only the one among 
them that has most to show. Outside the Semitic, at any rate, 
one should not speak of inflective and non-inflective languages, 
but only of languages more inflective and less inflective. 

To account for the great and striking differences of structure 
among human languages is beyond 'the power of the linguistic 
student, and will doubtless always continue so. We 
structure. are not likely to be able even to demonstrate a corre- 
lation of capacities, saying that a race which has 
done this and that in other departments of human activity 
might have been expected to form such and such a language. 



Every tongue represents the general outcome of the capacity 
of a race as exerted in this particular direction, under the 
influence of historical circumstances which we can have no 
hope of tracing. There are striking apparent anomalies to 
be noted. The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown them- 
selves to be among the most gifted races the earth has 
known; but the Chinese tongue is of unsurpassed jejune- 
ness, and the Egyptian, in point of structure, little better, 
while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find 
tongues of every grade, up to a high one, or to the highest. 
This shows clearly enough that mental power is not measured 
by language-structure. But any other linguistic test would 
prove equally insufficient. On the whole, the value and rank 
of a language are determined by what its users have made it 
do. The reflex action of its speech on the mind and culture of 
a people is a theme of high interest, but of extreme difficulty, 
and apt to lead its investigators away into empty declamation; 
taking everything together, its amount, as is shown by the 
instances already referred to, is but small. The question is 
simply one of the facilitation of work by the use of one set of 
tools rather than another; and a poor tool in skilful hands can 
do vastly better work than the best tool in unskilful hands 
even as the ancient Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned 
out products which, both for colossal grandeur and for exquisite 
finish, are the despair of modern engineers and artists. In such 
a history of development as that of human speech a fortunate 
turn may lead to results of unforeseen value; the earlier steps 
determine the later in a degree quite beyond their own intrinsic 
importance. Everything in language depends upon habit and 
analogy; and the formation of habit is a slow process, while 
the habit once formed exercises a constraining as well as a 
guiding influence. Hence the persistency of language-struc- 
ture: when a certain sum and kind of expression is produced, 
and made to answer the purposes of expression, it remains 
the same by inertia; a shift of direction becomes of extreme 
difficulty. No other reason can at present be given why in 
historical time there has been no marked development out of 
one grade of structure into another; but the fact no more shakes 
the linguistic scholar's belief in the growth of structure than the 
absence of new animal species worked out under his eyes shakes 
the confidence of the believer in animal development. The 
modifying causes and their modes of action are clearly seen, 
and there is no limit to the results of their action except what is 
imposed by circumstances. 

It is in vain to attempt to use dates in language-history, 
to say when this or that step in development was taken, and how 
long a period it cost, especially now that the changed views 
as to the antiquity of man are making it probable that only 
a small part of the whole history is brought within the reach 
even of our deductions from the most ancient Unity of 
recorded dialects. At any rate, for aught that we Origin of 
know or have reason to believe, all existing dialects s P eech - 
are equally old; every one alike has the whole immeasurable 
past of language-life behind it, has reached its present 
condition by advance along its own line of growth and 
change from the first beginnings of human expression. Many 
of these separate lines we clearly see to converge and unite, 
as we follow them back into the past ; but whether 
they all ultimately converge to one point is a question quite 
beyond our power to answer. If in this immensity of time 
many languages have won so little, if everywhere language- 
growth has been so slow, then we can only differ as to whether 
it is reasonably certain, or probable, or only possible, that there 
should have been a considerable first period of human existence 
without traditional speech, and a yet more considerable one 
before the fixation of so much as should leave abiding traces in 
its descendants, and that meanwhile the race should have 
multiplied and scattered into independent communities. And 
the mere possibility is enough to exclude all dogmatic assertion 
of the unity of origin of human speech, even assuming unity of 
origin of the human race. For to prove that identity by the 
still existing facts of language is utterly out of the question; 



424 



PHILOLOGY 



the metamorphosing effect of constant change has been too 
great to allow it. In point of fact, taking languages as they 
now exist, only those have been shown related which possess 
a common structure, or have together grown out of the more 
primitive radical stage, since structure proves itself a more 
constant and reliable evidence than material. And this is 
likely ever to be the case; at any rate, to trace all the world's 
languages so far back toward their beginnings as to find in them 
evidences of identity is beyond the wildest hope. We must 
be content with demonstrating for those beginnings a unity of 
kind as alike a body of formless roots. But, on the other hand, 
since this unity is really demonstrated, since all structure is 
the result of growth, and no degree of difference of structure, 
any more than of difference of material, refuses explanation as 
the result of discordant growth from identical beginnings, it is 
equally inadmissible to claim that the diversities of language 
prove it to have had different beginnings. That is to say, the 
question of the unity of speech, and yet more that of the unity 
of the race, is beyond the reach of the student of language; 
the best view he can attain is the hypothetical one, that, if 
the race is one, the beginnings of speech were perhaps one 
but probably not, even then. This negative conclusion is 
so clearly established as to leave no excuse for the still oft- 
repeated attempts to press language into service on either side 
of the controversy respecting human unity of race. 

That all making and changing of language is by the act of 
its speakers is too obvious to call for discussion. No other 
Unconscious f rce capable of acting and of producing effects is 
Growth either demonstrable or conceivable as concerned 
through i n the work. The doctrine that language is an 
individuals. or g an ; snlj growing by its own inherent powers, 
exempt from the interference of those who use it, is simply 
an indefensible paradox. Every word that is uttered is so 
by an act of human will, at first in imitation of others, then 
more and more by a formed and controlling habit ; it is acces- 
sible to no change except by influences working in the speaker's 
rriind and leading him to make it otherwise. Not that he is 
aware of this, or directs his action knowingly to that end. The 
whole process is unconscious. If any implication of reflective 
or intended action can be shown to inhere in any doctrine of 
linguistic science, it vitiates that doctrine. The attitude of the 
ordinary speaker towards his language is that of unreasoning 
acceptance; it seems to him that his names for things are 
their real names, and all others unintelligent nicknames; he 
thinks himself to possess his speech by the same tenure as his 
sight or hearing; it is " natural " to him (or, if he reasons about 
it, he attributes it to a divine origin, as races beginning to 
philosophize are wont to ascribe their various social institutions 
to their gods); he knows nothing of its structure and relations; 
it never occurs to him to find fault with it, or to deem it insuffi- 
cient and add to or change it; he is wholly unaware that it 
does change. He simply satisfies his social needs of communi- 
cation by means of it; and if he has anything to express that 
is different from what has been expressed before, he takes the 
shortest way to a provision for the need; while any relaxation 
of the energy of utterance tends to a variation in the uttered 
combinations; and thus changes come by his act, though with- 
out his knowledge. His sole object is, on the basis of what 
language he has, to make known his thought in the most con- 
venient way to his fellow; everything else follows with and 
from that. Human nature and circumstances being what they 
are, what follows actually is, as already shown, incessant 
growth and change. For it we have not to seek special disturb- 
ing causes in the history of the speakers, although such may 
come in to heighten and quicken the change; we know that 
even in a small community, on a narrow islet, cut off from all 
intercourse with other communities, the speech would grow 
different as certainly, if not as rapidly, as anywhere in the 
world and only by the action of its speakers: not that the 
speakers of a language act in unison and simultaneously to 
produce a given change. This must begin in an individual, 
or more or less accordantly in a limited number of individuals, 



and spread from such example through the community. Initia- 
tion by one or a few, acceptance and adoption by the rest 
such is the necessary method of all linguistic change, and to be 
read as plainly in the facts of change now going on among our- 
selves as in those of former language. The doctrine of the 
inaccessibility of language to other action than that of its 
speakers does not imply a power in the individual speaker to 
create or alter anything in the common speech, any more than 
it implies his desire to do so. What he suggests by his example 
must be approved by the imitation of his fellows, in order to 
become language. The common speech is the common pro- 
perty, and no one person has any more power over it than 
another. If there are, for example, a thousand speakers of a 
certain dialect, each one wields in general a thousandth part of 
the force required to change it with just so much more as may 
belong to his excess of influence over his fellows, due to recog- 
nized superiority of any kind on his part. His action is limited 
only by their assent; but this is in effect a very narrow limita- 
tion, ensuring the adoption of nothing that is not in near accor- 
dance with the already existing; though it is also to be noted 
that he is as little apt to strike off into startling change as they 
to allow it; since the governing power of already formed habits 
of speech is as strong in him as in them. That change to which 
the existing habits naturally lead is easy to bring about; any 
other is practically impossible. It is this tendency on the 
part of the collective speakers of a language to approve or 
reject a proposed change according to its conformity with 
their already subsisting usages that we are accustomed to call 
by the fanciful name " the genius of a language." 

On the relation of the part played in language-change by 
the individual to that by the community, in combination with 
the inevitableness of change, rests the explanation of 
the dialectic variation of language. If language were f, . ^! c 
stable there would of course be no divarication; but 
since it is always varying, and by items of difference that proceed 
from individuals and become general by diffusion, there can be 
uniformity of change only so far as diffusion goes or as the 
influences of communication extend. Within the limits of a 
single community, small or large, whatever change arises spreads 
gradually to all, and so becomes part of the general speech; 
but let that community become divided into two (or more) 
parts, and then the changes arising in either part do not spread 
to the other, and there begins to appear a difference in linguistic 
usage between them. It is at first slight, even to insignificance; 
not greater than exists between the dialects of different localities 
or ranks or occupations in the same community, without detri- 
ment to the general unity of speech. This unity, namely, rests 
solely on mutual intelligibility, and is compatible with no 
small amount of individual and class difference, in vocabulary, 
in grammar and in pronunciation; indeed, in the strictest 
sense, each individual has a dialect of his own, different from 
that of every other, even as he has a handwriting, a countenance, 
a character of his own. And every item of change, as it takes 
place, must have its season of existence as a local or class or 
trade peculiarity, before it gains universal currency; some of 
them linger long in that condition, or never emerge from it. 
All these differences in the speech of different sub-communities 
within the same community are essentially dialectic; they differ 
not in kind, but only in degree, from those which separate the 
best-marked dialects; they are kept down by general communi- 
cation within the limit of general mutual intelligibility. Where 
that restraining influence ceases the limit is gradually but 
surely overpassed, and real dialects are the result. From 
what we know of the life of language we can say positively 
that continued uniformity of speech without continued com- 
munity is not practicable. If it were possible to divide arti- 
ficially, by an impassable chasm or wall, a people one for 
ages, and continuing to occupy the same seats, the language 
of the divided parts would at once begin to be dialectically 
different; and after sufficient time had elapsed each would have 
become unintelligible to the other. That is to say, whenever 
a community of uniform speech breaks up, its speech breaks 



PHILOLOGY 



425 



up also; nor do we know of any other cause of dialectic 
diversity. 

In applying this explanation of dialectic growth we have 
to allow for modifying circumstances of various nature, which 
alter not indeed the fact but the rate and kind of divarication. 
Some languages grow and change much more rapidly than 
others, with a corresponding effect upon divarication, since 
this is but a result of discordant growth. Usually, when there 
is division of a community, the parts get into different external 
circumstances, come in contact or mingle with different neigh- 
bouring communities, and the like; and this quickens and 
increases their divergence of speech. But the modifying factor 
of by far the highest importance here, as elsewhere in the history 
of language, is civilization. Civilization in its higher forms so 
multiplies the forces of communication as to render it possible 
that the widely-divided parts of one people, living in circum- 
stances and under institutions of very different character, 
should yet maintain a substantial oneness of speech; of this 
there is no more striking example than the two great divisions 
of the English-speaking people on opposite sides of the Atlantic. 
On the other hand, a savage people cannot spread even a little 
without dialectic disunity; there are abundant examples to be 
met with now of mutually unintelligible speech between the 
smallest subdivisions of a race of obviously kindred tongue 
as the different clusters of huts on the same coral islet. It is 
with linguistic unity precisely as it is with political unity, and 
for the same reasons. Before the attainment of civilization 
the human race, whether proceeding from one centre of dis- 
persion or from several, was spread over the earth in a state of 
utter disintegration; but every centre of civilization becomes 
also a centre of integration; its influences make for unity 
of speech as of all other social institutions. Since culture 
has become incontestably the dominant power in human 
history, the unifying forces in language have also been stronger 
than the diversifying; and with culture at its full height, and 
spread equally to every land and race, one universal language, 
like one universal community, is not an absurdity or theoretic 
impossibility, but only a Utopian or millennial dream. 

Dialectic variation is thus simply a consequence of the 
movements of 'population. As the original human race or 
races, so the divisions or communities of later formation, from 
point to point through the whole life of man on the earth, 
have spread and separated, but jostled and interfered, have 
conquered and exterminated or mingled and absorbed; and 
their speech has been affected accordingly. Hence something 
of these movements can be read in the present condition of 
languages, as in a faithful though obscure record more, doubt- 
less, than can be read in any other way, however little it may 
be when viewed absolutely. Dialectic resemblances point 
inevitably back to an earlier unity of speech, and hence of 
community; from what we know of the history. of speech, 
they are not to be accounted for in any other way. The longer 
the separation that has produced the diversity, the greater its 
degree. With every generation the amount of accordance 
decreases and that of discordance increases the common 
origin of the dialects is at first palpable, then evident on examina- 
tion, then to be made out by skilled research, then perhaps 
no longer demonstrable at all; for there is plainly no limit to 
the possible divergence. So long, now, as any 
evidence of original unity is discoverable we call 
the languages " related dialects," and combine them 
into a " family." The term " family " simply signifies a group 
of languages which the evidence thus far at command, as 
estimated by us, leads us to regard as descended by the ordinary 
processes of dialectic divarication from one original tongue. 
That it does not imply a denial of the possibility of wider 
relationship is obvious from what has been said above. That 
there is abundant room for error in the classification repre- 
sented by it is also clear, since we may take purely accidental 
resemblances, or the results of borrowing, for evidence of common 
descent, or may overlook or wrongly estimate real evidences, 
which more study and improved method will bring to light. 







Grouping into families is nothing more than the best classifi- 
cation attainable at a given stage in the progress of linguistic 
science; it is in no small part provisional only, and is always 
held liable to modification, even sweeping, by the results of 
further research. Of some families we can follow the history 
by external evidences a great way back into the past; their 
structure is so highly developed as to be traced with confidence 
everywhere; and their territory is well within our reach: such 
we regard with the highest degree of confidence, hardly allow- 
ing for more than the possibility that some other dialect, or 
group, or now-accepted family even, may sometime prove its 
right to be added on. But these are the rare exceptions; in 
the great majority of cases we have only the languages as they 
now exist, and in more or less scanty collections, of every degree 
of trustworthiness; and even their first grouping is tentative 
and incomplete, and involves an adjournment of deeper ques- 
tions to the day of more light. To complete and perfect 
the work of classification by relationship, or the establish- 
ment of families and their subdivisions, is the first object of 
the comparative study of languages. No other classification 
has a value in the least comparable with it; that by grade of 
structure is a mere recreation, leading to nothing; that by 
absolute worth is of no account whatever, at any rate in the 
present state of our knowledge. On genetic relationship, in 
the first place, is founded all investigation of the historical 
development of languages; since it is in the main the comparison 
of related dialects, even in the case of families having a long 
recorded history, and elsewhere only that, that gives us know- 
ledge of their earlier condition and enables us to trace the 
lines of change. In the second place, and yet more obviously, 
with this classification is connected all that language has 
to teach as to the affinities of human races; whatever aid 
linguistic science renders to ethnology rests upon the proved 
relationships of human tongues. 

That a classification of languages, to which we have now to 
proceed, is not equivalent to a classification of races, and why 
this is so, is evident enough from the principles 
which have been brought out by our whole discussion f p ' 
of languages, and which, in their bearing upon 
this particular point, may well be recapitulated here. No 
language is a race-characteristic, determined by the special 
endowments of a race; all languages are of the nature of in- 
stitutions, parallel products of powers common to all mankind 
the powers, namely, involved in the application of the -fittest 
available means to securing the common end of communica- 
tion. Hence they are indefinitely transferable, like other 
institutions like religions, arts, forms of social organization, 
and so on under the constraining force of circumstances. 
As an individual can learn any language, foreign as well as 
ancestral, if it be put in his way, so also a community, which 
in respect to such a matter is only an aggregate- of individuals. 
Accordingly, as individuals of very various race are often 
found in one community, speaking together one tongue, and 
utterly ignorant of any other, so there are found great com- 
munities of various descent, speaking the dialects of one common 
tongue, which at some period historical circumstances have 
imposed upon them. The conspicuous example, which comes 
into every one's mind when this subject is discussed, is that 
of the Romanic countries of southern Europe, all using dialects 
of a language which, 2500 years ago, was itself the insignificant 
dialect of a small district in central Italy; but this is only the 
most important and striking of a whole class of similar facts. 
Such are the results of the contact and mixture of races and 
languages. If language-history were limited to growth and 
divarication, and race-history to spread and dispersion, it would 
be a comparatively easy task to trace both backward toward 
their origin; as the 'case is, the confusion is inextricable and 
hopeless. Mixture of race and mixture of speech are coincident 
and connected processes; the latter never takes place without 
something of the former; but the one is not at all a measure 
of the other, because circumstances may give to the speech 
of the one element of population a greatly disproportionate 



426 



PHILOLOGY 



preponderance. Thus, there is left in French only an insig- 
nificant trace of the Celtic dialects of the predominant race- 
constituent of the French people; French is the speech of 
the Latin conquerors of Gaul, mixed perceptibly with that 
of its later Prankish conquerors; it was adopted in its integrity 
by the Norse conquerors of a part of the land, then brought 
into Britain by the same Norsemen in the course of their further 
conquests, this time only as an element of mixture, and thence 
carried with English speech to America, to be the language of 
a still further mixed community. Almost every possible phase 
of language-mixture is traceable in the history of the abundant 
words of Latin origin used by American negroes. What events 
of this character took place in prehistoric time we shall never 
be able to tell. If any one chooses to assert the possibility that 
even the completely isolated dialect of the little Basque commun- 
ity may have been derived by the Iberian race from an intrusive 
minority as small as that which made the Celts of Gaul speakers 
of Latin, we should have to admit it as a possibility yet 
without detriment to the value of the dialect as indicating the 
isolated race-position of its speakers. In strictness, language 
is never a proof of race, either in an individual or in a com- 
munity; it is only a probable indication of race, in the absence 
of more authoritative opposing indications; it is one evidence, 
to be combined with others, in the approach towards a solution 
of the confessedly insoluble problems of human history. But 
we must notice, as a most important circumstance, that its 
degree of probability is greatest where its aid is most needed, 
in prehistoric periods and among uncultivated races; since it 
is mainly civilization that gives to language a propagative force 
disproportionate to the number of its speakers. On the whole, 
the contributions of language to ethnology are practically far 
greater in amount and more distinct than those derived from 
any other source. 

The genetical classification of languages, then, is to be taken 
for just what it attempts to be, and no more: primarily as a 
classification of languages only; but secondarily 

. , . , . . i ] 

as cas ti n g light, in varying manner and degree, on 
movements of community, which in their turn 
depend more or less upon movements of races. It is what 
the fates of men have left to represent the tongues of men 
a record imperfect even to fragmentariness. Many a family 
once as important as some of those here set down has perhaps 
been wiped out of existence, or is left only in an inconspicuous 
fragment; one and another has perhaps been extended far 
beyond the limits of the race that shaped it which, we can 
never tell to our satisfaction. 

1. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic) Family. To this family 
belongs incontestably the first place, and for many reasons: 
the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects, who 
have now long been the leaders in the world's history; the 
abundance and variety and merit of its literatures, ancient and 
modern, which, especially the modern, are wholly unapproached 
by those of any other division of mankind; the period covered 
by its records; and, most of all, the great variety and richness 
of its development. These advantages make of it an illustra- 
tion of the history of human speech with which no other family 
can bear a moment's comparison as to value, however impor- 
tant various other families may be in their bearing on one and 
another point or department of history, and however necessary 
the combination of the testimony of all to a solution of the 
problems involved in speech. These advantages have made Indo- 
European language the training-ground of comparative philology, 
and its study will always remain the leading branch of that 
science. Many matters of importance in its history have been 
brought up and used as illustrations in the preceding discussion; 
but as its constitution and ascertained development call for 
a fuller and more systematic exposition than they have found 
here, a special section is devoted to the subject (see Part II. 
below; also INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE). 

2. Semitic Family. This family also is beyond all question 
the second in importance, on account of the part which its 
peoples (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Syrians, Arabs, 



tioa. 



Abyssinians, &c.) have played in history, and of the rank of 
its literatures. For a special treatment of it see SEMITIC 
LANGUAGES. Some of the peculiarities of the language have 
been alluded to above; in the monotony and rigidity of its 
triliteral roots, and in the extended use which it makes of 
internal vowel-change (" inflexion " in the special sense of 
that term) for the purposes of grammatical distinction, it is 
more peculiar and unlike all the other known families of lan- 
guage than these are unlike one another. There are, and per- 
haps will always be, those to whom the peculiarities just men- 
tioned will seem original; but if the views of language and its 
history taken above are in the main true, then that opinion 
is untenable; Semitic language must have grown into its present 
forms out of beginnings accordant in kind, if not identical 
in substance, with those of other families; and the only question 
remaining to be solved is, through what processes and under 
what governing tendencies Semitic speech should have arrived 
at its present state. And with this solution is most obviously 
and incontestably bound up that of the other interesting and 
much discussed question, whether the Semitic family can be 
shown to be related with other families, especially with the 
Indo-European. To some the possession in common of gram- 
matical gender, or of the classification of objects in general as 
masculine and feminine, is of itself enough to prove such rela- 
tionship; but, though the fact is a striking one, and of no 
small importance as an indication, this degree of value can by 
no means be attributed to it in the present state of our know- 
ledge any more than to any other single item of structure 
among the infinite variety of such, distributed among the 
multitude of human tongues. Many others compare the Semitic 
and Indo-European " roots " with one another, and believe 
themselves to find there numerous indications of identity of 
material and signification; but these also must pass for insuffi- 
cient, until it shall prove possible by their aid to work out an 
acceptable theory of how Semitic structure should have grown 
out of such radical elements as underlie Indo-European struc- 
ture, or out of the accordant initial products of a structural 
growth that afterwards diverged into two so discordant forms. 
To show that, both the material and the method have been 
hitherto wanting, and any confident decision is at least pre- 
mature; but present probabilities are strongly against the 
solubility of the question. While many general considerations 
favour the ultimate unity of these two great civilized and 
civilizing white races of neighbouring homes, and no discordance 
of speech (as was shown above) can ever be made to prove their 
diversity of origin, it seems in a high degree unlikely that the 
evidence of speech will ever be made to prove them one. 

3. Hamitic Family. The prominent importance of this 
family (see HAMITIC LANGUAGES) is due to a single one of its 
members, the Egyptian. It occupies the north-eastern corner of 
Africa, with the border-lands of that continent stretching west- 
ward along the whole shore of the Mediterranean, and south- 
ward to beyond the equator. It falls into three principal 
divisions: (i) the ancient Egyptian, with its descendant, the 
more modern Coptic (itself now for some centuries extinct; 
see EGYPT, COPTS); (2) the Libyan or Berber languages of 
northern Africa; (3) the Ethiopic languages of eastern Africa. 
Its situation thus plainly suggests the theory of its intrusion 
from Asia, across the isthmus of Suez, and its gradual spread 
from that point; and the theory is strongly favoured by the 
physical character of the Hamites, and the historical position, 
especially of the Egyptians, so strikingly different from that of 
the African races in general. Linguistic evidences of the 
relationship of Hamite with Semite have also been sought, 
and by many believed to be found; but the maintenance of 
the two families in their separateness is an indication that those 
evidences have not yet been accepted as satisfactory; and such 
is indeed the case. The Egyptian is a language of extreme 
simplicity of structure, almost of no structure at all. Its radical 
words are partly monosyllabic, partly of more than one syllable, 
but not in the latter case any more than in the former showing 
traceable signs of extension by formative processes from simpler 



PHILOLOGY 



427 



elements. It has no derivative apparatus by which noun-stems 
are made from roots; the root is the stem likewise; there is 
nothing that can be properly called either declension or con- 
jugation; and the same pronominal particles or suffixes have 
now a subjective value, indicating use as a verb, and now a 
possessive, indicating use as a noun. There is no method 
known to linguistic science by which the relationship of such a 
tongue as this with the highly and peculiarly inflective Semitic 
can be shown, short of a thorough working out of the history 
of development of each family taken by itself, and a retracing 
in some measure of the steps by which each should have arrived 
at its present position from a common starting-point; and this 
has by no means been done. In short, the problem of the 
relation of Semitic with Hamitic, not less than with Indo- 
European, depends upon that of Semitic growth, and the two 
must be solved together. There are striking correspondences 
between the pronouns of the two families, such as, if supported 
by evidences from other parts of their material, would be taken 
as signs of relationship; but, in the absence of such support, 
they are not to be relied upon, not till it can be shown to be 
possible that two languages could grow to be so different in 
all other respects as are Egyptian and Hebrew, and yet retain 
by inheritance corresponding pronouns. And the possession of 
grammatical gender by Indo-European, Semitic and Hamitic 
speech, and by them almost alone, among all human languages, 
though an extremely noteworthy fact, is (as was pointed out 
above) in the present condition of linguistic science quite too 
weak a basis for a belief in the original identity of the three 
families. 

Egyptian is limited to the delta and valley of the Nile, and is 
the only Hamitic language which has ancient records; of the 
others the existing forms alone are known. 

The Libyan or Berber division of the family occupies the 
inhabitable part of northern Africa, so far as it has not been 
displaced by intrusive tongues of other connexion in later 
times the Arabic, which since the Mahommedan conquest has 
been the cultivated tongue of the Mediterranean coast, while 
the earlier Vandal, Latin and Punic have disappeared, except 
in the traces they may have left in Berber dialectic speech. 
The principal dialects are the Kabyle, the Shilha and the 
Tuarek or Tamashek, corresponding nearly to the ancient 
Numidian, Mauretanian and Gaetulian respectively. 

The third or Ethiopic division includes as its chief members 
the Beja or Bisharin, the Saho, the Dankali, the Somali, and 
the more inland Galla; the first two lying along the Red Sea 
north of Semitic Abyssinia, the others south of it, to the equator. 
By some authorities (Lepsius, Bleek) there is added to the 
Hamitic family as a fourth division a group from extreme 
southern Africa, the Hottentot and Bushman languages. The 
ground of this classification is the possession by the Hottentot 
of the distinction of grammatical gender, and even its designa- 
tion by signs closely corresponding to those used in the Ethiopic 
division. Others deny the sufficiency of this evidence, and 
rank the Hottentot as a separate group of African dialects, 
adding to it provisionally the Bushman, until better knowledge 
of the latter shall show whether it is or is not a group by itself. 
If the Hottentot be Hamitic, we shall have to suppose it cut 
off at a very remote period from the rest of the family, and 
forced gradually southward, while all the time suffering mixture 
both of speech and of blood with the negro races, until the 
physical constitution of its speakers has become completely 
metamorphosed, and of its original speech no signs are left 
save those referred to above; and while such exceptional 
phonetic peculiarities have been worked out as the use of the 
clicks or clucking sounds: and this must be regarded as at 
least extremely difficult. 

4. Monosyllabic or South-eastern Asiatic Family. This body 
of languages may well enough be the next taken up; and here 
again (as was the case with the preceding family) on account 
of the prominent importance of one of its dialects and of the 
people speaking it the Chinese people and language. The 
territory of the family includes the whole south-eastern corner 



of Asia: China on the north-east, Farther India in the south, 
and the high plateau of Tibet, with the neighbouring Himalayan 
regions, to the westward. The ultimate unity of all these 
languages rests chiefly upon the evidence of their form, as being 
all alike essentially monosyllabic and isolating, or destitute 
of formal structure; the material correspondences among them, 
of accordant words, are not sufficient to prove them related. 
The Chinese itself can be followed up, in contemporary records, 
to a period probably not far from 2000 B.C., and the language, 
the people, and their institutions, are then already in the main 
what they have ever since continued to be (see CHINA); the 
other leading tongues come into view much later, as they receive 
culture and religion from China on the one hand (the Annamites), 
or from India on the other (the Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese); 
and the territory includes great numbers of wild tribes unknown 
until our own times, whose race-relations and language-relations 
are as yet very obscure. Current opinion tends to regard 
the Annamites, Peguans and Cambodians (the Mon-Khmer 
group) as forming a more nearly related group or division, and 
as having been the earlier population of Farther India, in part 
dispossessed and driven forward by the later intrusion from the 
north of Siamese and Burmese, of whom the former are more 
nearly related to the Chinese and the latter to the Tibetans. 
The Mon-Khmer group is itself more nearly related to the 
Kolarian and Malay-Polynesian. 

The character of the languages of this family, especially 
as instanced by its most important member, the Chinese, has 
been pretty fully set forth in the general discussions above. 
They are languages of roots: that is to say, there is not demon- 
strable in any of their words a formative part, limiting the word, 
along with others similarly characterized, to a certain office 
or set of offices in the formation of the sentence. That the 
words are ultimate roots, come down from the first period of 
language-making, we have no reason whatever to believe; 
and they may possibly have passed through processes of growth 
which equipped them with some scanty supply of forms; 
but no evidence to that effect has yet been produced. The 
indications relied on to show an earlier polysyllabism in the 
family (though already in Chinese reduced to monosyllabism 
before the earliest historical appearance of the language, some 
4000 years ago) are the comparatively recent loss of certain 
final mutes in Chinese words, and the presence on a consider- 
able scale in Tibetan spelling of added initial and final 
consonants, now silent in the literary dialect, but claimed to 
be still uttered in some parts of the country. If the theory 
connecting these phenomena be established, the Tibetan will 
approve itself to be by far the most primitive of the dialects 
of the family, furnishing the key to the history of the rest. 

For further details respecting the various tongues of the 
monosyllabic family, the articles on the different divisions of 
its territory (BURMA; CHINA; SIAM; TIBET, &c.) may be con- 
sulted. The languages all alike show an addition to the 
resources of distinction possessed by languages in general, in 
the use of tones: that is to say, words of which the alphabetic 
elements are the same differ in meaning according as they are 
uttered in a higher or a lower tone, with the rising or the falling 
inflexion, and so on. By this means, for example, the mono- 
syllabic elements of the literary Chinese, numbering but 500 
as we should write them, are raised to the number of about 
1 500 words. 

5. Ural-Altaic (Scythian, Turanian) Family. China and 
Tibet are bordered on the north and west by the eastern branches 
of another immense family, which stretches through central 
and northern Asia into Europe, overlapping the European 
border in Turkey, and reaching across it in Russia and Scan- 
dinavia to the very shore of the Atlantic. Usage has not so 
definitely determined as in the case of most other families by 
what name it shall be called; Turanian is perhaps the com- 
monest appellation, but also the most objectionable. Five 
principal branches are generally reckoned as composing the 
family. The two easternmost are the Tungusian, with the 
Manchu for its principal division, and the Mongol (see MONGOLS) 



428 



PHILOLOGY 



Of these two the language is exceedingly simple in structure, 
being raised but little above the formlessness of the Chinese. The 
Tungusian, however, some authorities would couple with Japanese 
as a separate branch. The three others are: the Turkish or 
Tatar, the dialects of which reach from the mouth of the Lena 
(Yakut) to Turkey in Europe; the Samoyed, from the Altai 
down to the arctic shore of Asia, and along this to the White 
Sea an unimportant congeries of barbarous tribes; and the 
Finno-Hungarian, including the tongues of the two cultivated 
peoples from which it takes its name, and also those of a great 
part of the population of northern and central Russia, to beyond 
the Ural Mountains, and finally the Lappish, of northern Scan- 
dinavia. The nearer relation of the Samoyed is with the 
Finno-Hungarian. The Turkish is a type of a well-developed 
language of purely agglutinative structure: that is, lacking 
that higher degree of integration which issues in internal change. 
Whether this degree is wholly wanting in Finnish and Hun- 
garian is made a question; at any rate, the languages named 
have no reason to envy the tongues technically called " inflec- 
tive." Of a value not inferior to that of inflective characteristics 
is one that belongs to all the Ural-Altaic tongues, in varying 
measure and form, and helps to bind them together into a single 
family the harmonic sequence of vowels, namely, as between 
root and endings, or a modification of the vowels of the endings 
to agree with that of the root or its final syllable. 

While the physical race-characteristics known as Mongolian 
are wanting in the speakers of the western dialects of this 
family, they are conspicuously present in the people of Japan 
and Korea; and hence the tendency of scholars to endeavour 
to connect the languages of the two latter countries, since they 
also are of agglutinative structure (see JAPAN and KOREA) with 
the family now under treatment, as also with one another. 

Other languages of north-eastern Asia, too little known to 
group, and too unimportant to treat as separate families, may 
be mentioned here by way of appendix to their neighbours of 
the most diversified and widespread Asiatic family. They are 
the Aino, of Yezo and the Kurile Islands with part of the neigh- 
bouring coast; the Kamchatkan; and the Yukagir and Tchukt- 
chi of the extreme north-east. These are sometimes combined 
with the Eskimo under the title of the Arctic or Hyperborean 
languages. 

The opinion has been held by many scholars that the agglu- 
tinative dialects Sumerain, Accadian, &c. of the presumed 
founders of Mesopotamian culture and teachers of the Assyrian 
Semites (see BABYLONIA) belonged to the Ural-Altaic family, 
and specifically to its Finno-Ugrian branch; but the data for this 
view are still very uncertain. The mere possession of an 
agglutinative structure cannot be taken as proving anything 
in the way of relationship. 

6. Dravidian or South Indian Family. This is an important 
body of nearly and clearly related tongues, spoken by about 
50,000,000 people, doubtless representing the main population 
of all India at the time when the intrusive Indo-European tribes 
broke in from the north-west, and still filling most of the southern 
peninsula, the Deccan, together with part of Ceylon. They are 
languages of a high grade of structure, and of great power and 
euphony; and the principal ones have enjoyed a long cultiva- 
tion, founded on that of the Sanskrit. As they obviously have no 
Indo-European affinities, the attempt has been made to connect 
them also with the Ural-Altaic or Turanian family, but altogether 
without success, although there is nothing in their style of 
structure that should make such connexion impossible. 

7. Malay- Polynesian Family. Not all the tribes that make 
up the non-Indo-European population of India speak Dravidian 
dialects. The Santals and certain other wild tribes appear to 
be of another lineage. These are now generally known as 
Kolarian, and are connected with the Malay-Polynesian family. 

The islands, greater and smaller, lying off the south-eastern 
coast of Asia and those scattered over the Pacific, all the way 
from Madagascar to Easter Island, are filled with their own 
peculiar families of languages, standing in a more or less distant 
relationship to the languages of the Mon-Khmer group, and the 



Kolarians on the mainland and the Nicobar islanders. The 
principal one among them is the great Malay-Polynesian family. 
It falls into two principal divisions, Malayan and Polynesian. 
The Malayan includes, besides the Malay proper (see MALAYS), 
which occupies the Malaccan peninsula (yet doubtless not as 
original home of the division, but by immigration from the 
islands), the languages also of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, &c., of 
the Philippine Islands, of part of Formosa, and of Madagascar, 
together with the coasts of Celebes and other islands occupied 
in the interior by Papuans. The Polynesian division includes 
most of the tongues of the remaining scattered groups of islands, 
and that of New Zealand. Probably to these are to be added, as a 
third division, the Melanesian dialects of the Melanesian Archi- 
pelago, of which both the physical and the linguistic peculiari- 
ties would in that case be ascribed to mixture with the black 
Papuan races. AU these languages are extremely simple in 
phonetic form, and of a low grade of structure, the Polynesian 
branch being in both respects the lowest, and some of the 
Malayan dialects having reached a development considerably 
more advanced. The radical elements are much oftener of 
two syllables than of one, and reduplication plays an important 
part in their extension and variation. Malay literature goes 
back as far as to the ijth century, and there are Javan records 
even from the early centuries of our era, the result of religion 
and culture introduced into that island from Brahmanic India. 
In recent years more active investigation has been carried 
on with a view to tracing out the special laws of historical 
development prevailing in the family. 

8. Other Oceanic Families. At least two other families, un- 
connected with the preceding and with one another, are found 
among the Pacific Islands, and only there. The continental 
island of Australia, with its dependency Tasmania (where, how- 
ever, the native tongue has now 'become extinct), has its own 
body of probably related dialects, as its own physical type. 
They have been but imperfectly investigated, their importance, 
except to the professed student of language, being nothing; but 
they are not destitute of a rude agglutinative structure of their 
own. Still less known are the Papuan or Negrito languages, 
belonging to the black race with frizzled hair inhabiting most 
of New Guinea, and found also in the interior of some of the other 
islands, having been driven from the coasts by superior intruders 
of the Malay race. 

9. Caucasian Languages. Of the existing languages of Asia 
there remain to be mentioned only those of the Caucasian moun- 
tains and highlands, between the Black and Caspian Seas, pressed 
upon the north by Slavonians and Turks, upon the south by 
Armenians and Kurds and Turks. Its situation makes of the 
Caucasus a natural eddy in all movements of emigration between 
Asia and Europe; and its linguistic condition is as if remnants 
of many families otherwise extinct had been stranded and pre- 
served there. The dialects north of the principal range Cir- 
cassian, Mitsjeghian, Lesghian, &c. have not been proved to be 
related either to one another or to those of the south. Among 
the latter, the Georgian is much the most widespread and impor- 
tant (see GEORGIA) and, alone among them all, possesses a 
literature. The Caucasian dialects present many exceptional 
and difficult features, and are in great part of so high a grade 
of structure as to have been allowed the epithet inflective by 
those who attach special importance to the distinction thus 
expressed. 

10. Remnants of Families in Europe. The Basque people 
of the western Pyrenees, at the angle of the Bay of Biscay, are 
shown by their speech to be an isolated remnant of some race 
which was doubtless once much more widely spread, but has 
now everywhere else lost its separate identity; as such it is of 
extreme interest to the ethnologist (see BASQUES'). The Basque 
language appears to be unrelated to any other on earth. It is of 
a very highly agglutinative structure, being equalled in intricacy 
of combination only by a part of the American dialects. Limited 
as it is in territory, it falls into a number of well-marked dialects, 
so that it also may not be refused the name of a " family." 

The only other case of the kind worth noting is that of the 



PHILOLOGY 



429 



Etruscan language of northern central Italy, which long ago 
became extinct, in consequence of the conquest and absorption 
of Etruria by Rome, but which still exists in numerous brief in- 
scriptions (see ETRURIA). Many attempts have been made to 
connect the language with other families, and it has even quite 
recently been pronounced Aryan or Indo-European, of the 
Italican branch, by scholars of high rank. But its supposed 
Indo-European relationship was at once shown to be erroneous 
when, in 1892, a small book which had been used to pack a 
mummy was discovered in the museum at Agram, and published. 
The probability of relationship with the ancient Lydian, as was 
the opinion held in ancient times, has been increased by recent 
research, and is likely soon to be verified or disproved by the 
discovery of Lydian records. 

In order to complete this review of the languages of the Old 
World it only remains to notice those of Africa which have not 
been already mentioned. They are grouped under two heads: the 
languages of the south and those of the centre of the continent. 

it. South African or Bantu Family. This is a very extensive 
and distinctly marked family (see BANTU LANGUAGES), occupy- 
ing (except the Hottentot and Bushman territory) the whole 
southern peninsula of the continent from some degrees north 
of the equator. It is held apart from all other known families 
of language by a single prominent characteristic the extent 
to which it makes use of prefixes instead of suffixes as the appar- 
atus of grammatical distinction; its inflexion, both declensional 
and conjugational, is by appended elements which precede the 
stem or root. The most conspicuous part of this is the variety 
of prefixes, different in singular and plural, by which the various 
classes or genders (not founded on sex; the ground of classifica- 
tion is generally obscure) of nouns are distinguished; these then 
reappear in the other members of the sentence, as adjectives 
and verbs and pronouns, which are determined by the noun, 
thus producing an alliterative concord that runs through the 
sentence. The pronominal determinants of the verb, both 
subject and object, also come before it; but the determinants 
of mode of action, as causative, &c., are mostly suffixed. The 
language in general is rich in the means of formal distinction. 
Those dialects which border on the Hottentots have, apparently 
by derivation from the latter, the clicks or clucking-sounds 
which form a conspicuous part of the Hottentot spoken alphabet. 

12. Central African Languages. The remaining languages of 
Africa form a broad band across the centre of the continent, 
between the Bantu on the south and the Hamitic on the east 
and north. The Bantu group, extending from north of the 
equator to the Cape of Good Hope, with a vast variety of dialects, 
is the most important of all African languages. To it belongs 
Swahili, the language of Zanzibar, only less valuable as a means 
of communication and trade than the Haussa of the Sudan, the 
most important of the dialects under the influence of the Hamitic 
languages. The African languages are by no means to be called 
a family, but rather a great mass of dialects, numbering by 
hundreds, of varying structure, as to the relations of which 
there is great discordance of opinion even among the most recent 
and competent authorities. It is no place here to enter into 
the vexed questions of African linguistics, or even to report the 
varying views upon the subject; that would require a space 
wholly disproportioned to the importance of African speech 
in the general sum of human language. There is no small 
variety of physical type as well as of speech in the central belt; 
and, partly upon the evidence of lighter tint and apparently 
higher endowment, certain races are set off and made a separate 
division of; such is the Nuba-Fulah division of F. Miiller, 
rejected by Lepsius. The latter regarded all the varieties of 
physical and linguistic character in the central belt as due to 
mixture between pure Africans of the south and Hamites of the 
north and east; but this is at present an hypothesis only, and 
a very improbable one, since it implies modes and results of mix- 
ture to which no analogies are quotable from languages whose 
history is known; nor does it appear at all probable that the 
collision of two races and types of speech should produce such 
an immense and diverse body of transitional types. It is far 



from impossible that the present prominence of the South 
African or Bantu family may be secondary, due to the great 
expansion under favouring circumstances of a race once having 
no more importance than belongs now to many of the Central 
African races, and speaking a tongue which differed from theirs 
only as theirs differed from one another. None of the Central 
African languages is a prefix-language in the same degree as the 
Bantu, and in many of them prefixes play no greater part than 
in the world's languages in general; others show special forms 
or traces of the prefix structure; and some have features of an 
extraordinary character, hardly to be paralleled elsewhere. 
One group in the east (Oigob, &c.) has a gender distinction, 
involving that of sex, but really founded on relative power 
and dignity: things disparaged, including women, are put in one 
class; things extolled, including men, are put in the other. 
This is perhaps the most significant hint anywhere to be found 
of how a gender-distinction like that in our own Indo-European 
languages, which we usually regard as being essentially a dis- 
tinction of sex, while in fact it only includes such, may have 
arisen. Common among the African languages, as among many 
other families, especially the American, is a generic distinction 
between animate beings and inanimate things. 

13. American Languages. With these the case is closely 
the same as with the Central African languages: there is an 
immense number of dialects, of greatly varied structure (see 
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN). Even among neighbouring 
families like the Algonquin, Iroquois and Dakota, whose agree- 
ment in style of structure (polysynthetic), taken in connexion 
with the accordant race-type of their speakers, forbids us to regard 
them as ultimately different, no material correspondence, agree- 
ment in words and meanings, is to be traced; and there are 
in America all the degrees of polysynthetism, down to the 
lowest, and even to its entire absence. Such being the case, 
it ought to be evident to every one accustomed to deal with this 
class of subjects that all attempts to connect American languages 
as a body with languages of the Old World are and must be 
fruitless. 

Literature. Many of the theoretic points discussed above 
are treated by the writer with more fulness in his Language and 
the Study of Language (1867) and Life and Growth of Language 
(1875). Other English works to consult are M. Muller's Lectures 
on the Science of Language; Farrar's Chapters on Language; 
Wedgwood's Origin of Language (all more or less anti- 
quated); Sayce's Principles of Philology and Introduction to 
the Science of Language, &c.; Sweet, The History of Language 
(1900). In German, see Paul's Principien der Sprachgeschichte 
(Halle, 1880); Delbruck's Einleitung in das Sprachstudium 
(Leipzig, 1880; 4th ed., 1909; 5th ed., 1910; there is also 
an English version); Brugmann and Delbruck's Grundriss 
der vergleichenden Grammalik der indogermanischen Sprachen 
(1886-1900; a second edition of the first volume was pub- 
lished in 1897, two parts of vol. ii., including the stem- 
formation and declension of the noun and pronoun appeared 
in 1906 and 1909) ; also the works of W. von Humboldt and of H. 
Steinthal, the most important of whose linguistic works, Charak- 
teristik der hauptsiichlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues (1861), 
was recast and brought up to date under the same title by F. 
Misteli (1893). See also handy summaries covering the same 
ground, but without bibliography, in F. N. Finck's Die Sprach- 
stamme des Erdkreises (1909) and Die Haupltypen des Sprach- 
baus (1910). Many of the languages of India and Farther 
India have been treated in the Linguistic Survey of India, 
edited by Dr G. E. Grierson (a government publication still 
in progress). A short popular account of the subject is given 
in Porzczinski's Einleitung in die Sprachwissenschaft (1910), 
a German translation of a Russian original. The Bantu 
languages have been treated by Black, Torrand, and most recently 
by Meinhof, whose Lauilehre der Bantu Sprachen (1910) is the 
most complete handling of the subject. As to the classifica- 
tion and relationships of languages, see Hovelacque's La Linguis- 
tique (Paris, 1876) and F. Muller's Grundriss der Sprachwissen- 
schaft (Vienna, 3 vols.; a fourth was left incomplete at the author's 



430 



PHILOLOGY 



Historical 
Sketch. 



death). Both works are already somewhat antiquated. As 
to the history of the study, see Lersch's Sprochphilosophie der 
Allen (1840); Steinthal's Geschichte der Sprochivissenschaft bet 
den Griechen und Romern (1863); Benfey's Geschichte der Sprach- 
vrissenschaft und Orientalischen Philologie in Deutschland (1869); 
Sandys's History of Classical Scholarship (3 vols., 1906-1908); 
Vilh. Thomsen's Sprogardenskatens Historien Kortpattitfranckling 
(1902). (W.D.W.) 

II. Comparative Philology of the Indo-European Languages. 
The study of Indo-European comparative philology has from 
its outset necessarily been in close connexion with the study of 
Sanskrit, a language unparalleled amongst its cognates in 
antiquity and distinctness of structuie, and consequently the 
natural basis of comparison in this field. It is therefore not 
to be wondered at that we find no clear views of the mutual 
relationship of the individual members ot the Indo-European 
family or their position with regard to other languages until 
Sanskrit began to attract the attention of European philologists, 
or that the introduction of Sanskrit as an object of study was 
closely followed by the discovery of the original community 
of a vast range of languages and dialects hitherto not brought 
into connexion at all, or only made the objects of baseless 
speculations. We meet with the first clear concep- 
tion of this idea of an Indo-European community 
of languages in the distinguished English scholar 
Sir William Jones, who, as early as 1786, expressed himself 
as follows: " The Sanskrit language, whatever may be its 
antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, 
more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than 
either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in 
the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could have 
been produced by accident; so strong that no philologer could 
examine all the three without believing them to have sprung 
from some common source which, perhaps, no longer exists. 
There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for suppos- 
ing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a 
different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit." l But 
neither Sir William Jones nor any of his older contemporaries 
who had arrived at similar conclusions ever raised this important 
discovery from a brilliant aperc.u into a valid scientific theory 
through a detailed and systematic comparison of the languages 
in question. To have achieved this is the undoubted merit of 
the German, Franz Bopp (q.v.), the founder of scientific philology 
of the Indo-European languages, and subsequently 
jarim"m. t nrou gh this example also the founder of comparative 
philology in general. Next to him Jacob Grimm (q.v.) 
must be mentioned here as the father of historical grammar. 
The first part of his famous Deutsche Grammatik appeared in 
1819, three years after Bopp had published his first epoch- 
making book, Ueber das Conjugations system der Sanskritsprache. 
Bopp's results were here at once utilized, yet Grimm's whole 
system was entirely independent of that of Bopp, and had no 
doubt been worked out before Grimm knew of his illustrious 
predecessor. In fact, their scientific aims and methods were 
totally different. Bopp's interest was not concentrated in 
comparison as such, but chiefly inclined towards the explanation 
of the origin of grammatical forms, and comparison to him was 
only a means of approaching that end. 

In this more or less speculative turn of his interest Bopp 
showed himself the true son of a philosophical period when 
general linguistics received its characteristic stamp from the 
labours and endeavours of men like the two Schlegels and Wilhelm 
von Humboldt. Jacob Grimm's aims were of a less lofty 
character than those of Bopp, whose work, to his own mind, 
was crowned by his theory of the origin of inflexion through 
agglutination. In confining his task to a more limited range 
than the vast field of Indo-European languages embraced in 

1 For this quotation and the following historical sketch in general 
see Th. Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 438 (Munich, 
1869), and especially B. Delbruck, Introduction to the Study of 
Language, p. I (Leipzig, 1882; a fifth German edition appeared in 
1909). 



Bopp's researches, and thus fixing his attention on a group of 
idioms exhibiting a striking regularity in their mutual relation- 
ship, both where they coincide and where they differ, he made it 
his foremost object to investigate and illustrate the continuous 
progress, subject to definite laws, by which these languages had 
been developed from their common source. He thus raised 
the hitherto neglected study of the development of sounds 
to an equal level with the study of grammatical forms, which 
had so far almost exclusively absorbed all the interest of linguistic 
research. Grimm's discovery of the so-called " Lautverschie- 
bung," or Law of the Permutation of Consonants in the Teutonic 
languages (which, however, had been partly found and pro- 
claimed before Grimm by the Danish scholar Rask), became 
especially important as a stimulus for further investigation in 
this line. Grimm's influence on comparative philology (which 
is secondary only to that of Bopp, although he was never a 
comparative philologist in the sense that Bopp was, and did not 
always derive the benefit from Bopp's works which they might 
have afforded him) is clearly traceable in the work of Bopp's 
successors, amongst whom Friedrich August Pott (1802-1887) 
is universally judged to hold the foremost rank. In his great 
work, Etymologische Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der indo- 
germanischen Sprachen, mil besonderem Bezug auf die Laulum- 
wandlung im Sanskrit, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Littauischen, 
und Gothischen (Lemgo, 1833-1836), we find Indo-European 
etymology for the first time based on a scientific investigation 
of general Indo-European phonology. Amongst Pott's contem- 
poraries Theodor Benfey deserves mention on account of his 
Griechisches Wurzellexicon (Berlin, 1839), a work g en f e 
equally remarkable for copiousness of contents 
and power of combination, yet showing no advance on Bopp's 
standpoint in its conception of phonetic changes. 

A third period in the history of Indo-European philology 
is marked by the name of August Schleicher, whose Com- 
pendiuim der vergleichenden Grammatik der indo- 
germanischen Sprachen first appeared in 1861. In 
the period subsequent to the appearance of Pott's Etymologische 
Forschungen, a number of distinguished scholars, too large to 
be recorded here individually, 2 had devoted their labours to 
the different branches of Indo-European philology, especially 
assisted and promoted in their work by the rapidly progressing 
Vedic (and Avestic) studies that had been inaugurated by Rosen, 
Roth, Benfey, Westergaard, Miiller, Kuhn, Aufrecht and others. 
Moreover, new foundations had been laid for the study of the 
Slavonic languages by Miklosich and Schleicher, of Lithuanian 
by Kurschat and Schleicher, of Celtic by Zeuss. Of the 
classical languages Greek had found a most distinguished 
representative in Curtius, while Corssen, Mommsen, Aufrecht, 
Kirchhoff, &c., had collected most valuable materials towards 

2 The extensive progress made in this period is best illustrated 
by the foundation of two periodicals especially devoted to Indo- 
European comparative philology, Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur verglei- 
chende Sprachforschung (now 27 vols., Berlin, from 1851), and 
Kuhn's BeitrUge zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung (8 vols., Berlin, 
from 1858). Benfey's school is more especially represented by the 
contributors to Benfey's Orient und Occident (3 vols., Gpttingen, 
from 1862), and subsequently through Bezzenberger's Beitrdge zur 
Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen (30 vols., Gottingen, from 
1877); this journal has now been amalgamated with Kuhn's Zeit- 
schrift. The views of the " New Grammarians " Leskien, Brug- 
mann, Osthoff and their schools are represented in Indogermanische 
Forschungen (27 vols., since 1890). The Gottingen school has a 
further representative jn Glotta, now (1910) in its third vojume. 
The history of the meaning of words has a special periodical for itself, 
Worter und Sachen, now in its second volume. Besides those 
mentioned there are many journals, publications of academies, &c., 
in Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, &c., which no serious student 
of comparative philology can ignore. France possesses two periodi- 
cals of the same kind, the Revue de Linguistique (Paris, from 1868) 
and the Memoires de, la Societe de Linguistique de Paris (also from 
1868), while England is represented by the Proceedings and Trans- 
actions of the Philological Societies of London and Cambridge, the 
Classical Review (23 vols., since 1887), and the Classical Quarterly 
(4 vols., since 1907), and America by the Transactions of the American 
Philological Association (from 1868), the American Journal of 
Philology (30 vols., from 1880), Classical Philology (5 vols., from 
1906),' and other more specialist organs. 



PHILOLOGY 



43 



the elucidation of Latin and the cognate Italic idioms. In 
his Compendium Schleicher undertook and solved the difficult 
task of sifting down the countless details amassed since the 
days of Bopp and Grimm, and thus making the individual 
languages stand out clearly on their common background, 
while Bopp's attention had been especially occupied with what 
was common to all Indo-European tongues. There are two 
prominent features which characterize this part of Schleicher's 
work his assumption and partial reconstruction of a pre- 
historic parent speech, from which the separate Indo-European 
languages were supposed to have sprung, and the estab- 
lishment of a long series of phonetic laws, regulating the 
changes by which that development of the individual idioms 
had taken place. On Schleicher's views of and contributions 
towards general comparative philology (which he erroneously 
proposed to consider as a branch of natural science) we need 
not enter here. (See Evolution and the Science of Language in 
Darwin and Modern Science, 1909, pp. 526 sqq.) 

For some time after Schleicher's premature death (in 1868) 
Indo-European philology continued in paths indicated by him 
and Curtius, with the exception, perhaps, of the school founded 
by Benfey, who had always stood on independent ground. 
The difference between the two schools, however, was less 
strikingly marked in their writings, because it chiefly concerns 
general views of language and the Indo-European languages in 
particular, although the characteristic task of the period alluded 
to was that of working out the more minute details of com- 
parison; but behind all this the general interest still clung to 
Bopp's old glottogonic problems. In 1876, however, a new 
New Lin- movement, inspired in the first instance by the 
guistic works of W. D. Whitney, began, and a younger 
School. school of linguists has sprung up who are united 
in their opposition to many theories of the older generation, 
yet often differ materially both with regard to method and 
the solution of individual problems. In its present state this 
younger school (often branded with the name of Neo-Gram- 
marians, " Junggrammatiker," by its opponents real and 
imaginary) is marked by certain distinct tendencies. In the 
first place, they are inclined more or less, and the older members 
of the school perhaps more than the younger, to abandon 
glottogonic problems as insoluble, if not for ever, yet for the 
present and with the scanty means that Indo-European philo- 
logy alone can furnish for this purpose. In this they are in 
opposition to the whole of the older school. In the second place, 
they object to the use of all misleading metaphorical com- 
parisons of processes in the history of language with processes 
of organic development comparisons used at all times, but 
especially cherished by Schleicher. In the third place and 
this has been of the greatest practical importance they hold 
that our general views of language and our methods of com- 
parison should be formed after a careful study of the living 
languages, because these alone are fully controllable in every 
minute detail, and can therefore alone give us a clear insight 
into the working of the different motive forces which shape 
and modify language, and that the history of earlier periods 
of language, consequently, can only be duly illustrated by trac- 
ing out the share which each of these forces has had in every 
individual case of change. Of these forces two are found to 
be especially prominent phonetic variation and formation by- 
analogy. They generally work in turns and often in opposi- 
tion to one another, the former frequently tending to differentia- 
tion of earlier unities, the latter to abolition of earlier differences, 
especially to restoration of conformity disturbed by phonetic 
change. There are, however, other important differences in 
the action of the two forces. Phonetic change 
affects exclusively the pronunciation of a language 
by substituting one sound or sound-group for 
From this simple fact it is self-evident that 
phonetic changes as such admit of no exceptions. Pro- 
nunciation that is, the use of certain sounds in certain 
combinations is perfectly unconscious in natural unstudied 
speech, and every speaker or generation of speakers has 



Phonetic 
Change. 

another. 



only one way of utterance for individual sounds or their 
combinations. If, therefore, a given sound was once changed 
into another under given circumstances, the new sound must 
necessarily and unconsciously replace its predecessor in every 
word that falls under the same rules, because the older sound 
ceases to be practised and therefore disappears from the language. 
Thus, for instance, the sound of the short so-called Italian a 
in English has become exchanged for the peculiarly English 
sound in man, hat, &c., which is so exclusively used and practised 
now by English speakers that they feel great difficulty in pro- 
nouncing the Italian sound, which at an earlier period was 
almost as frequent in English as in any other language that has 
preserved the Italian sound up to the present day. Again, 
the sound of the so-called long English a in make, paper, &c., 
although once a monophthong, is now pronounced as a diph- 
thong, combining the sounds of the English short e and *, and 
no trace of the old monophthong is left, except where it was 
followed by r, as in hare, mare (also air, their, where, &c.), where 
the a has a broader sound somewhat approaching that of the 
short a in hat. This last instance may at the same time serve 
to illustrate the restrictions made above as to sounds changing 
their pronunciation in certain groups or combinations, or under 
given circumstances only. We may learn from it that phonetic 
change need not always affect the same original sound in the 
same way in all its combinations, but that neighbouring sounds 
often influence the special direction in which the sound is 
modified. The different sounds of the English a in make and 
hare are both equivalents of the same Old English sound a 
( = the Italian short a) in macian, hara. The latter sound has 
been split in two, but this process again has taken place with 
perfect regularity, the one sound appearing before r, the other 
before all other consonants. It is easy to see that the common 
practice of comprising the history of the Old English a in the 
one rule that it was changed into the sound of the it in make 
except when followed by an r can only be defended on the 
practical ground that this rule is convenient to remember, 
because the words exhibiting the former change are more 
numerous than the instances of the latter; apart from this there 
is nothing to justify the assumption that one of these changes 
is the rule and the other the exception. The fact is, that we 
have two independent cases of change, which ought to be stated 
in two distinct and independent rules according to the different 
positions in which the original a stood before the splitting 
began. It is also easy to observe that the variety of modify- 
ing influences may be much more manifold than in the present 
instance of make and hare, and that the number of special 
phonetic rules in such cases must be increased in proportion 
to the progress made in the investigation of the said modifying 
powers. 

In truth, however, the study of phonetic laws falls into several 
different stages, and the meaning attached to the phrase phonetic 
law has varied at each of these stages. Moreover, the sweeping 
nature of the original generalizations has become so hedged in 
and contracted by limitations that a recent writer has been 
compelled once more to formulate the question whether phonetic 
laws actually exist. It must be admitted in the first place that 
the word law has been ill chosen for use in this connexion. In 
phonetic laws there is no element which can be identified as 
coming under the definition of a law as propounded by a jurist 
like John Austin. There is no authority which enunciates the 
law, there is no penalty for the breach of it. But the philologists 
who first used the term were not thinking of law in its strict 
signification, but of its use in such metaphorical expressions as 
scientific laws, for, as already mentioned, Schleicher and his 
followers in the middle of the igth century had taken a keen 
interest in the development of the natural sciences, and had to 
some extent assimilated their terminology to that employed in 
those sciences. It was, however, soon recognized that the laws 
of language and those of natural science were not really alike or 
akin. A scientific " law " is only a brief method of expressing 
the fact that universal experience shows that certain causes 
universally produce certain effects. In chemistry two atoms of 



432 



PHILOLOGY 



hydrogen and one of oxygen will make water, and they will make 
nothing else at any time or at any place the world over. Phonetic 
laws, however, do not hold true universally. They are often 
curiously limited in the area to which they apply. In ancient 
Greek, for example, the sound -s- between two vowels, which 
had been handed down from the original language whence Greek 
and the sister languages are derived, regularly disappears; in 
Latin, on the other hand, it changes into -r-; thus an original 
genitive of a neuter substantive we find represented in Greek by 
yiv(-os, a form which comparison with other languages shows 
to be traceable to an earlier *genes-os, preceding the separation 
of the languages, while the same original stem with a different 
vowel in the ending appears in Latin as gener-is. Similarly an 
early *euso appears in Greek as euo>, in Latin as uro. This 
disappearance of original intervocalic s pervades all Greek 
dialects the apparent exceptions come under the heading of 
analogical change; with a very few exceptions similarly explic- 
able Latin intervocalic s has become r. But Latin was originally 
limited to a very small part even of Italy, and the next neigh- 
bours of the Latins on the east and south the Sabines, Cam- 
panians and Samnites retained this intervocalic s without 
changing it into r. On the other hand, the neighbours to the 
north-east the Umbrians in and beyond the Apennines 
shared in this rhotacism. Yet the Celts, who bordered on the 
Umbrians along the Po, and who spoke a language in many 
respects very closely akin to the dialects of Italy, in this regard 
agree rather with Greek than the Italic languages. In Latin, 
again, the period of action of the law which changed intervocalic 
s into r did not in all probability exceed the century from 450 B.C. 
to 350 B.C. So unlike, indeed, are phonetic laws to the laws of 
natural science in universality that an opponent of the dogma 
which declares that phonetic laws have no exceptions has 
compared them with the laws of fashion. The comparison is 
not so outrageous as it may seem at first sight. For in language 
there are two kinds of sound change, that which is unconscious, 
universal at a given time and within a given area, and, on the 
other hand, that which belongs only to a particular class or 
clique, deviates consciously from the pronunciation of the 
majority, is therefore not universal, and exercises no permanent 
influence on the language. The second kind of sound change 
corresponds exactly to the laws of fashion; it is in fact one of 
them. Such sound changes are the pronunciation of the English 
ending -ing as -in', which was fashionable in the middle of the 
iQth century. This had, though probably without the know- 
ledge of those who used it, an historical justification in the earlier 
forms from which most of the English words now ending in 
-ing are descended, and which survive in numerous local dialects. 
A similar conventional mispronunciation was the lisp affected 
by some would-be artistic persons at a somewhat later period. 
Belonging to an entirely different social stratum, and now 
equally obsolete, was the London pronunciation of the first half 
of the i gth century typified in Tony and Sam Weller's treatment 
of v and w in the Pickwick Papers. This, however, made a much 
nearer approach to being a genuine dialect peculiarity. It 
undoubtedly pervaded the pronunciation of the lower classes 
in London at one time; had it survived it might conceivably 
have spread over a wider and wider area until it embraced the 
whole population of England. A later change, that of the 
diphthong ai into ei (so that day, daily are pronounced dy, dyly), 
has spread from Essex and the East End of London over a large 
part of London and of the adjacent counties, and is still widening 
its range both geographically and socially. The history of these 
sound changes has not yet been investigated in detail with the 
thoroughness which it deserves. 

There is, then, a part of sound change which is a matter of 
fashion and which is conscious. This sound change appears 
frequently in the pronunciation of individuals who have migrated 
from one part of a country to another. In many parts of 
Scotland, for example, the prepositions with and of appear in 
dialect only in the forms wV and o', which were originally the 
unaccented forms. In the conscious attempts to pronounce 
them as they appear in literary English, the educated Scotsman, 



if he remains in his native place, as a rule pronounces them as 
with (with the final sound unvoiced as it appears in the Scottish 
legal preposition ov.twith) and as off, the final sound here also 
being unvoiced. If he migrates to England or to Australia he 
will probably in course of time adopt the pronunciation with a 
voiced final sound. In the course of years habit will become 
second nature, and in this respect the speaker's pronunciation 
will become identical with that of his neighbours. It is clear, 
however, that changes of this nature cannot take place on a large 
scale. If a large number of persons migrate in a body and 
continue to live in close intercourse with one another and but 
little in contact with the outside world, changes such as take 
place in the pronunciation of the individual emigrant do not 
occur. There can be no imitation of alien sounds, for there are 
none; no greater effort to be intelligible is required, for the audi- 
ence has not changed. Hence it has been often remarked that 
a population which history shows to have remained undisturbed 
for very long periods in the same geographical situation manifests 
but little change in its language. Thus in Arabia and Lithuania 
the population has remained practically unmixed in the same 
habitat for thousands of years, with the result that the languages 
spoken there remain at the present day the most archaic members 
of the linguistic families to which they respectively belong. 

From what has been said it will be obvious that a phonetic 
law is only an observed uniformity in the treatment of a sound 
or a combination of sounds within a linguistic area at a given 
time. In the definition the term linguistic area is a very variable 
quantity. Thus it is a phonetic law that a sound of the original 
Indo-European language, the precise pronunciation of which 
cannot be determined, but which was at any rate a palatal sound 
(k), appears in the Indo-European group (Sanskrit, Zend, Old 
Persian, with their descendants), in Armenian, in Balto-Slavonic 
and Albanian, in the form of a sibilant, while in Greek, the 
Italic dialects, Germanic and Celtic, it appears as a A-sound (see 
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). Here the linguistic area is 
extremely wide, and it is clear that the difference between the 
two groups of languages must be dated back to a very early 
period. Again, it is a phonetic law of Greek that the original 
combination st- at the beginning of words is retained in Greek. 
How then are we to explain the existence side by side of artyos 
and rfcyoj ? The former apparently complies with the law, the 
latter does not. The former has by its side the verb arfyu, 
while riyos is supported only by the rare reyri. Yet the forms 
of the verb and substantive found in the Germanic languages 
leave no doubt that the forms without i- represent an extremely 
old form, for the English thatch could not have changed its 
original t- into th- if it had been preceded by s-, the law being as 
strict for English as for Greek that initial st- remains unchanged. 
On the other hand, a phonetic law may be limited to a very small 
area. Thus in the dialect of Eretria, and nowhere else within 
the area of the Ionic dialect of ancient Greek, do we find the 
change of the sound which appears elsewhere in Greek as -a- 
between vowels into -p-: a'mipiv for ffirqviv (ace. sing.), 
wapa^aivwptv for TFaft&abnmf (3rd pi. subjunctive). Why 
this change should take place here and nowhere else we do 
not know, although it may be conjectured that the cause was a 
mixture with immigrants speaking a different dialect, a mixture 
which ancient tradition supported. Undoubtedly such mixtures 
are the chief conditions of phonetic change, the effect of which is 
universal. The manner in which the change takes place is that 
the basis of articulation, the method in which the sound is 
produced, becomes changed. Thus along the " Highland line " 
in Scotland, where the English and Gaelic-speaking populations 
had their linguistic frontier for centuries, the wh- of English, the 
Anglo-Saxon hw-, becomes universally /-, who, ? becoming fa 't 
white, file, &c.,/ being the sound which it was most easy to substi- 
tute for the difficult hw-. The history of Spanish in the different 
communities of South America excellently illustrates this point. 
After the discovery of America there was a large influx of 
Spaniards into Chile, who ultimately, and chiefly by intermar- 
riage, incorporated amongst them a considerable element from 
amongst the native Araucanian Indians. The result has been 



PHILOLOGY 



433 



that the language of Chile is Spanish, pronounced not with the 
genuine sounds of Spanish, but with the sounds of the Araucanian 
language substituted for them. Elsewhere in Spanish America 
the language of the conquerors remained comparatively pure, 
because the Spaniards were much fewer in number, and had 
therefore to maintain themselves as a caste apart. For the same 
reason Latin has split up into the numerous branches which we 
know as the Romance languages. The particular line of 
development which, e.g. French followed as compared with 
Spanish or with the language of the Rhaetian Alps was condi- 
tioned by the nature of the sounds in the language which pre- 
ceded it in the same area, and which was spoken by the ancient 
Gauls who adopted Latin. The difficulty found in all of these 
cases is precisely of the same kind as that which an adult at the 
present day speaking one language finds in attempting to learn 
the pronunciation of another language. On the one hand, it 
is only with the greatest difficulty that muscles for many years 
accustomed to perform one set of movements can be forced into 
performing another set which are very similar but yet not 
identical; on the other hand, to an untrained ear the difference 
between the two sounds may remain unappreciated. The result 
is that the new language is pronounced with the sounds of the 
speaker's original language. If the new language is adopted by 
a whole people to whom it was originally foreign, the children 
naturally learn it from their parents with the sounds of the old 
language which has now become obsolete. Thus the basis of 
articulation is changed, and if, as was the case with Latin, this 
process be frequently repeated among peoples speaking languages 
with articulation widely differing one from another, it is clear 
that a series of different dialects of the adopted language has 
been created. This kind of change is immediate and universal 
throughout the whole area where linguistic change has taken 
place. 

Analogical change, on the other hand, does not affect the 
pronunciation of a language as a whole in the way that phonetic 
change does, but is confined to the formation, inflexion, syntax 
and meaning of single words or groups of words, and therefore is 
very apt to bear an entirely arbitrary and irregular character. 
A few instances will be sufficient to illustrate this and also to 
show how the apparently irregular phenomena of analogy may 
be classified, (a) In Old English a certain number of substantives 
formed their plurals by mutation of the root vowels, as jot, jet, 
or hoc, bee. In Modern English this system of inflexion has been 
preserved in some cases, as in foot, feel, and altered in others, as 
book, books. Now, while foot, feet and book are the regular 
modern phonetic equivalents of the old fot, jet, hoc, the plural 
books can in no way be phonetically traced back to the old bee, 
the phonetical equivalent of which in Modern English would be 
*beech. The only possible explanation of a form like books is 
that the older bee was at some date given up and replaced by an 
entirely new formation, shaped after the analogy of the numerous 
words with a plural in -s without modification of the root-vowel. 
Such changes, which are very numerous, exemplify the first kind 
of analogy, which is generally termed formal analogy. Other 
examples are the almost entire disappearance from the language 
of the forms in er and en, which were earlier used as plurals in 
English. That they were originally stem and not case suffixes 
does not affect the point. In Middle English, as in Modern 
English, oxen was spelt as a plural; oxen survives, but eyen, except 
in such dialect forms as the Scotch e'en, has been replaced by the 
form in -s: eyes. Similarly in Middle English the suffix -er 
existed in many words which had been originally of the neuter 
gender. Thus the plural of child was childer, of calf was calver, 
traces of which, besides the survival in dialect of childer and of 
calver (become by the i6th century in northern Scotch car 
pronounced as cahr which is still in common use), are to be 
found in the place, and hence personal, names Childer-ley and 
Calver-ley. The old plural of brother was brether, where the 
suffix, however, contained an original -r, not -s changed into -r, 
as did childer and calver. In Old English, alongside the form for 
child making a plural childer, there had been a masculine form 
making its plural in -s. It would not have been surprising there- 



fore if in Modern English the plural of child had been childs. But 
in spite of the common tendency to make the plural of all noun- 
stems in -s, child has gone in the opposite direction and has not 
only maintained its -r, but has added to it the -en of stems like 
oxen and eyen. In Wiclif we find a similar plural to calf, calveren, 
but here calves has long replaced in the literary language both 
the earlier forms. 

(6) Let us now take another instance from the English verb. 
In Old English the different persons of the preterite indicative 
in the so-called strong (irregular) verbs were generally distin- 
guished by different root-vowels; ridan, " to ride," and bindan, 
" to bind," for instance, form their preterities thus; ic rod, 8 
ride, he rdd, we, ge, hie ridon, and ic band, 5u bunde, he band, we, 
ge, hie bundon. In modern English this difference in the root- 
vowels has been abandoned, and rode, bound now stand for all 
persons, rode being the modern phonetic equivalent of the ist 
and 3rd sing, rod, while bound represents the u- form of bindan. 
When one form or set of forms ousts other varying forms from 
the same paradigm, the change is described variously as 
material or logical analogy. Inasmuch as a similar process of 
levelling to that seen in rode has been carried through in all 
preterites of Modern English, regularity prevails even here, though 
a few traces of the old conflict are still visible in such poetic 
forms as sung for the preterite side by side with sang. But 
when we look to its results in the individual verbs we soon find 
that the choice amongst the different forms which might have 
served as starting-points has been entirely arbitrary. It is 
indeed impossible to say why the old singular form should have 
been chosen as a model in one case, as in rode, and the old plural 
form in another, as in bound. From these and numerous similar 
instances we must draw the conclusion that it is beyond our 
power to ascertain whence analogical changes start, and to 
what extent they may be carried through when once begun. 
All we can do is to classify carefully the single cases that come 
under our observation, and in this way to investigate where 
such changes are especially apt to take place and what is their 
general direction. As to the latter points, it has been observed 
before that levelling of existing differences is one of the chief 
features in analogical change (as in the case of rode and bound). 
As to the former, it must be borne in mind that, before any ana- 
logical change can take place, some mental connexion must exist 
between the words or forms serving as models and those which 
are remodelled after the types suggested to the minds of the 
speakers through the former. Of such natural mental combina- 
tions two classes deserve special notice: the mutual relationship 
in which the different, say inflexional, forms of the same word 
stand to each other, and the more abstract analogies between 
the inflexional system of word-groups bearing a similar character, 
as, for instance, the different declensions of nouns and pronouns, 
or the different conjugations of verbs. The instance of rode, 
bound may serve to illustrate the former category, that of books 
the latter. In the first case a levelling has taken place between 
the different forms of the root-vowels once exhibited in the 
different preterite forms of ridan or bindan, which clearly 
constitute a natural group or mental unity in consequence of 
their meaning. The form of rode as a plural has simply been 
taken from the old singular rod, the long a of which has become 
in Modern English 5, that of bound as a singular from the old 
plural bundon, the u- sound of which has in Modern English come 
to be pronounced as a diphthong. In the case of book, books for 
boc, bee, this explanation would fall short. Although we might 
say that the vowel of the singular here was carried into the plural, 
yet this would not explain the plural -s. So it becomes evident 
that the old declension of boc, bee was remodelled after the 
declension of words like arm, arms, which had always formed 
their plurals in -s. The changes indicated may generally be 
shown by a proportion, the new analogical formation being the 
unknown quantity to be ascertained. Thus in the case cited 
above, arm: arms = book: x; and clearly the form to be 
ascertained is books. Isolated words or forms which are no 
part of natural groups or systems, inflexional, formative or syn- 
tactical must be regarded as commonly safe from alterations 



434 



PHILOLOGY 



through analogy, and are therefore of especial value with regard 
to establishing rules of purely phonetic development. 

(c) In syntactical analogy the mental .connexion between the 
two series of constructions between which the change takes 
place is generally still more conspicuous. The connexion may 
be one of similar or of contrasted meaning. In Latin, adjectives 
of fullness, like other adjectives, no doubt originally were followed 
by the genitive case; participles, on the other hand, were followed 
by the instrumental ablative. Thus Plautus in the Aulularia 
813 and elsewhere could say aulam auri plenam, " a pot full of 
gold," or 802 aulam onustam auro, " a pot laden with gold." 
From these the transition was easy to the construction aulam 
onustam auri, as if in English one should say (as was possible 
in Earlier English), " a pot laden of gold." In English, con- 
trasted words often tend to assimilate their syntactical construc- 
tions. Thus, the adjectives like and similar are followed by 
the preposition to (though in Modern English like need have no 
preposition) , and upon the analogy of such words, different and 
averse, with which correct speakers and writers couple from, are 
by no means rarely followed by to. Nor is it uncommon to 
hear or to see differ with instead of differ from, upon the analogy 
of agree with. Curiously enough, Latin, from which differ is 
descended, is found to follow the same analogy even in good 
writers. Thus Cicero (Academica Pr. ii. 143 ) combines dissidere 
with cum, as later does Seneca (Epistulae, 1 8. i) . 

(d) In the development of analogy in meaning, similarity of 
sound is often the effective cause. Thus impertinent is properly 
irrelevant, not to the point, and is still so used in legal language; 
its more common signification of " saucy " arises from its 
accidental resemblance in sound to pert, a word which curiously 
enough has reversed its meaning, being now used in the sense 
of mal-apert, while the Old French apert, aspert (a confusion of 
Lat. apertus, " open," with expertus, " skilled "), meant both 
" open " and " skilful." Thus from very early times the verbs 
fly and flee have been confused, though they are of entirely 
different origins. When Middle English began to lose its verb 
endings in -en, it was very easy for the verb leren, " teach," and 
lernen, " learn," to be confused. Hence frequently in Eliza- 
bethan English learn stands side by side with teache in the same 
signification. Cf. Tottell's Miscellany, p. 129 (Arber) : 

" I would not have it thought hereby 

The dolphin swimme I meane to teache: 
Nor yet to learn the Fawcon flie : 
I rowe not so farre past my reache." 

It is true that the distinction between phonetic and analogical 
change has always been acknowledged in comparative philology. 
At the same time it cannot be denied that analogical changes 
were for a long time treated with a certain disdain and contempt, 
as deviations from the only course of development then allowed 
to be truly " organic " and natural, namely, that of gradual 
phonetic change (hence the epithet " false " so constantly 
attached to analogy in former times). Amongst those who have 
recently contributed most towards a more correct evaluation of 
analogy as a motive power in language, Professor Whitney must 
be mentioned in the first place. In Germany Professor Scherer 
(Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, 1868) was the first to 
apply analogy as a principle of explanation on a larger scale, 
but in a wilful and unsystematic way. Hence he failed to 
produce an immediate and lasting impression, and the merit of 
having introduced into the practice of modern comparative 
philology a strictly systematic consideration of both phonetic 
and analogic changes as co-ordinate factors in the develop- 
ment of language rests with Professor Leskien of Leipzig, and 

a number of younger scholars who had more or less 
School. experienced his personal influence. Amongst these 

Brugmann, Osthoff and Paul rank foremost as the 
most vigorous and successful defenders of the new method, the 
correctness of which has since been practically acknowledged by 
most of the leading philologists of all shades of opinion. 

While the syntax of individual languages was one of the first 
features which attracted the grammarians' attention, at any 
rate in so far as particular authors differed from a given 



standard, it is only in very recent times that syntax has 
received methodical treatment from the comparative point of 
view. It may indeed be said that almost the 



whole fabric of the comparative syntax of the 
Indo-European languages as it exists to-day has 
been reared by one man Professor Berthold Delbriick of Jena. 
In a series of brilliant studies beginning with a pamphlet on the 
Locative, Ablative, and Instrumental, published in 1867, and 
continued in his Syntactical Researches (Syntaklische Forsch- 
ungen) in five volumes, comprising a treatment of the 
conjunctive and optative moods in Sanskrit and Greek (1871), 
the theory of the Sanskrit tenses (1877), the order of words in 
early Sanskrit prose (Catapatha Brahmana; 1878), the founda- 
tions of Greek syntax (1879), and the syntax of the oldest San- 
skrit (Altindische Syntax), dealing exclusively with the literature 
of the Vedas and Brahmanas (1888), Professor Delbriick laid 
the foundations for his treatment of comparative syntax in 
three volumes (1893, 1897, 1900), which has formed the 
completion of Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden 
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. The only work 
by another hand (on a large department of the subject) 
which deserves to be mentioned by the side of Delbruck's 
studies is the small treatise by Hiibschmann on the theory 
of the cases {Zur Casuslehre, 1875). For the comparative 
neglect of this field of investigation there are several reasons. 
The earlier philologists had so much to do in determining the 
languages which should be included within the Indo-European 
group, and in organizing the field of research as a whole, that 
it is not to be wondered at if they were unable to devote much 
attention to syntax. In the 'seventies, when attention began to 
be more directed towards comparative syntax, the remarkable 
discoveries made by Verner with regard to accentuation, and 
by Brugmann, Collitz and others with regard to the phonology 
of the Indo-European languages, again distracted attention 
from the subject. Moreover, the research in itself is infinitely 
more difficult than that into sounds and forms; for the latter 
may be carried on by the help of grammars and dictionaries 
with a comparatively small knowledge of the literature of any 
individual language, while on the other hand the study of syntax 
is impossible without a thorough and intimate knowledge of 
the literature and modes of expression in each separate language. 
It is not, therefore, matter for wonder that Delbruck has confined 
himself in the investigation of syntax to a part only of the lan- 
guages whose sounds and forms are discussed by Brugmann 
in the earlier volumes of the Grundriss, To. cover the whole 
ground is beyond the powers of a single man, and there is a 
great lack of preliminary studies on the syntax of many of the 
languages. 

One of the most difficult problems connected with syntax, 
but primarily, as it appears, a question of morphology, is the 
origin of grammatical gender. It cannot be said to be an advan- 
tage to the languages which possess it, while languages which, 
like English, have dropped it except for an occasional metaphor, 
suffer no loss. Nor is the problem confined to the history of 
gender in the substantive. Even more perplexing is the intro- 
duction of gender into the adjective. The pronouns of the first 
and second persons, which are certainly very old, show no trace 
of gender; the pronouns of the third person, which are more of 
the nature of deictic adjectives, generally possess it. To the 
question how grammatical gender arose in the substantive, the 
answer was till comparatively recently supposed to be that 
primitive man was given greatly to personification, endowing 
inanimate things with life and attributing to them influences 
benign or the reverse upon his own existence. The answer 
is not quite sufficient, for though this tendency to personification, 
which philologists have perhaps unduly decried or altogether 
denied, might account for life being attributed to inanimate 
objects, it hardly explains why some should be treated as mascu- 
line and others as feminine. Nor is it true, as has also been 
suggested, that in the case of the lower animals the generic name 
for the larger and stronger animals is masculine and that for the 
smaller or weaker feminine. In both Greek and Latin the wolf 



PHILOLOGY 



435 



is masculine and the fox feminine, but the lamb or the chicken 
which the fox robs from the fold or the henroost is rarely feminine, 
generally masculine. Nor does this explanation account for 
the mouse in those languages being of the masculine gender, 
while the ferret or cat which caught them is feminine (70X17, 
feles). An explanation which completes the theory of personifi- 
cation, if it does not altogether drive it from the field, has been 
put forward by Brugmann. 1 In its briefest form this explana- 
tion is that gender was attached to certain suffixes because they 
chanced to occur frequently in words which markedly implied 
sex. In the Indo-European languages the commonest suffix 
indicating feminine gender is a. According to this theory it 
had originally nothing to do with gender, but as some early words 
for woman or wife ended with this sound it came to be identified 
with feminine gender. Similarly the ending os in o-stems 
occurred often in names connected with males and so became 
identified with the masculine gender. But many stems indicate 
either gender indifferently, and even the very old sex words 
father and mother have the same ending. But when masculine 
and feminine endings have been attached to certain suffixes in 
this way, how comes it that in one series of stems the neuter should 
be marked not by an absence of all suffix but by a separate 
suffix in -m ? These are the o-stems, other forms of which have 
been markedly identified with the masculine gender. As this 
characteristic, like the others mentioned, goes back apparently 
to a time before the separation of the Indo-European languages, 
explanation can hardly pass beyond speculation. It is, however, 
to be noted that the neuter form of the nominative is phonetic- 
ally identical with the accusative form of the masculine, and 
it has been ingeniously argued 2 that such forms were used 
originally in the accusative, such neuters not forming the subject 
to a verb. To the same writer the most plausible explanation 
of the presence of gender in the adjective is due, viz. that gender 
began with the deictic pronoun *so " that man," *sa " that 
woman," and that hence it passed to the adjective with which 
the pronoun was so frequently accompanied. If this explanation 
be right, analogy has brought into the Indo-European languages 
the useless multiplication of gender marks in such sentences as 
the Latin hae pulcrae feminae caesae sunt, where the feminine 
gender is indicated no less than four times without any obvious 
gain over the English These fair women were slain, where 
grammatical gender is no longer obviously indicated at all. 

Closely related to this question is that of the history of the 
neuter plural, which was first fully worked out by Professor 
Johannes Schmidt of Berlin. 3 The curious construction, most 
common in ancient Greek, whereby a neuter plural is combined 
with a singular verb, is now demonstrated to be an archaic 
survival from the time when the neuter plural was a collective 
singular. Thus a word like the Latin iugum was a single yoke, 
the plural iuga, however, which was earlier iuga, was a collection 
of yokes, with the same final a as is found generally in feminine 
substantives. The declension ought therefore to have been 
originally: nominative iuga, genitive iugds, &c., like mensa, &c., 
of the first declension. But as iuguum was used in the neuter 
singular for both nominative and accusative, iuga when it was 
felt as the corresponding plural was used for the accusative as 
well as the nominative, while the other cases of the plural were 
taken over from the masculine o-stems, with which the singular 
neuter in -o-m was so closely connected. That collective words 
should be used for the plural is not surprising; the English 
youth, first an abstract, next a collective, and finally an 
individual, is a case in point. 

For the early history of the syntax of the verb Greek and 
Sanskrit are important above all other languages, because in 
them the original forms and the original usages are better pre- 
served than they are elsewhere. And it is in the verb that the 
great difficulties of comparative syntax present themselves. The 
noun system is so well preserved in several languages that, when 

1 Techmer's Internationale Zeitschrift fur Sprachwissenschaft, iv. 
100. 

2 B. I. Wheeler, Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. 528 sqq. 
* Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra (1889). 



the number of the original cases had once been determined, the 
sifting of the pro-ethnic usages attaching to each case was 
tolerably easy, for besides Sanskrit and (to a less extent) Latin, 
Lithuanian and Slavonic have kept the pro-ethnic case system 
almost complete. The ideas also which had to be expressed 
by the cases were on the whole of a very concrete character, so 
that here the problem was much simplified. On the other hand, 
the ideas expressed by the forms of the verb are of a much more 
subtle nature, while the verb system in all languages except 
Greek and Sanskrit has broken down earlier and more completely 
than the noun. It is clear that the verb of the original Indo- 
European language possessed two voices, and forms correspond- 
ing to what we call the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative 
moods, and to the Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, and Perfect 
tenses. The imperative mood seems primitively to have been 
confined to the second person singular, just as the vocative, 
which, like the imperative is a stern form without suffix, was 
confined to the singular. The infinitive, as is well known, is 
in all languages of this system not originally a verbal but a 
substantival form. The pluperfect, where it has developed, 
seems to be a mixed form arising from the application of aorist 
endings to a perfect stem. Thus far the history of the verb 
system is tolerably clear. But when we attempt to define the 
original meaning of the moods and of the tenses we pass into a 
region where, in spite of assiduous investigation in many quarters 
during recent years, the scanty amount of light thrown on the 
problem has only served to make the darkness visible. As 
regards the tenses, at least, it has been shown that without doubt 
there is no difference in formation between present, future and 
aorist stems, while the earliest meaning cf the perfect was that 
of a special kind of present expressing either repeated or intensive 
action or a state. It has also been proved that the original 
meaning of the aorist is not past in time, and that in fact the 
only element whereby these languages could express remoteness 
in time was the augment. The augment seems to have been 
originally a pronominal deictic particle. Thus, as there was no 
original pluperfect, as neither perfect nor aorist originally 
referred to past time, and as the future, except in Lithuanian 
(with slight traces in Slavonic) and the Indo-Iranian group, 
cannot be clearly distinguished from the aorist, the system as 
a method of expressing time absolutely breaks down. The 
tenses in fact did not originally express the times when the action 
took place, but the type of action which took place. Thus the 
present system in the main expressed continued or durative 
action, the aorist only the fact that the action had taken place. 
The action indicated by the aorist might have been of consider- 
able duration, or it might have been begun and ended in a moment ; 
its characteristics in this respect are not in any way indicated 
by the aorist form, which intimates only that the action is 
viewed as a completed whole and not as a continuous process. 
The present system, however, is built up in a great variety of 
ways (thirty-two according to Brugmann's enumeration). It 
is a priori unlikely that such a multiplicity of formations had 
not originally some reason for its existence, and Delbriick thinks 
that he has discovered a difference in syntactical value between 
various forms. The reduplicated present forms of the type seen 
in Sanskrit jigati, Greek SiSuiu, &c., he regards as expressing 
originally an action which consisted of repeated acts of the 
same nature (iterative), though this iterative meaning frequently 
passed into an intensive meaning. Presents of the type seen 
in Sanskrit tr' syati, " is thirsty," and Greek xalpdi, " am glad " 
(for *xapju), where the j (y) of the suffix has modified the first 
syllable and disappeared, he regards as cursive i.e. they express 
continuous action without reference to its beginning or end. 
Verbs which have regard to the beginning or end of the action 
he calls terminative, and finds them represented (a) in verbs 
with -n- suffixes, Sanskrit rnoti, &pw<Tt, " sets in motion," 
a-fwiu, " break to pieces "; (o) in verbs with the suffix -sko-, 
Sanskrit gdchati, " goes " (to a definite destination), Greek 
/SdcTKco, &c. The roots he classifies as momentary (punktuell) 
or non-momentary, according as they do or do not express an 
action which is begun and ended at once. 



PHILOLOGY 



This method of classification was no doubt suggested in the 
first instance by the characteristics of the Slavonic verb system. 
In this system a clear distinction is drawn in nearly all verbs 
between those which express a process (durative verbs) and those 
which express a completed action (perfective verbs). When 
perfective and durative verbs are formed from the same root, the 
perfective are distinguished from the durative forms (a) by having 
a preposition prefixed, or (6) by having a different stem forma- 
tion. Thus in the Old Bulgarian (Old Ecclesiastical Slavonic) to 
strike (hit) and to strike dead are expressed by the same verb, but 
in the latter meaning a preposition is found which does not appear 
in the former, bill (infinitive), "to strike"; u-biti, "to strike 
dead." To strike is durative; to strike dead is perfective. As an 
example of difference of stem formation expressing this difference 
of meaning, we may quote sisti, "to sit down" (perfective), 
sedlei, " to sit " (durative). Verbs with a suffix in -n- have 
often a perfective meaning: cf. the Sanskrit and Greek verbs 
quoted above. The perfective verbs correspond in meaning 
to the Greek aorist, and are to be carefully distinguished from 
perfect forms. The same distinction of meaning is often achieved 
in other languages also by means of prepositions, e.g. in Latin 
(Seneca, Epp. xciii. 10), Quid autem ad rent pertinet, quamdiu 
vites, quod evitare non possis? " What does it matter how long 
you go on avoiding [durative] what you cannot escape [perfec- 
tive]." From this example, however, it is clear that, though 
the means employed to make the distinction are different, there 
is no difference in meaning between such perfective verbs and 
those classified by Delbriick as terminative. Here, as in many 
other parts of this study, the ideas are new, and grammatical 
terminology has not yet sufficiently crystallized, and still leaves 
something to be desired both in clearness and in precision. 

As regards the moods, the difficulty has been to find any 
criterion whereby the functions of one mood should be differen- 
tiated from those of the others. It has long been recognized 
that the difference between indicative and subjunctive is one 
of meaning and not one of formation; that, e.g., in Sanskrit 
bharali (3rd sing. pres. indie.), " bears," is morphologically 
identical with hanati, " may slay " (3rd sing. pres. subj.), and 
that the latter is described as a subjunctive only because of 
the meaning, and because there exists a dissyllabic form, hanti, 
which makes the indicative " slays." Similarly in Greek it is 
impossible to distinguish morphologically between iraiiau, " I 
shall check" (fut. indie.) and Trawra, " let me check" (ist aor. 
subj.). Moreover, in the earliest forms of the languages which 
preserve the moods best (Greek and Sanskrit), the connexion 
syntactically between the indicative and the subjunctive forms 
is closest. Not only does the future express futurity, but also 
the determination of the subject to carry out the action expressed, 
which, in Delbruck's discussion of the moods, is precisely the 
point chosen as characteristic of the subjunctive. On the other 
hand, the present optative differs from the present (and future) 
indicative and present subjunctive in having a special mood 
suffix, and in having secondary while they have primary personal 
endings. Nevertheless its meaning overlaps that of the other 
forms, and some excellent authorities, like Professor W. W. 
Goodwin, see in future indicative, subjunctive and optative 
only different degrees of remoteness in the future, the remoteness 
being least in the future and greatest in the optative. Delbriick, 
however, abides, with slight modifications, by the distinction 
which he propounded in 1871 that the subjunctive expresses 
Will and the optative Wish. Here again the problem has not 
been solved, and it is doubtful how far any definite solution is 
likely to be arrived at, since there are so many gaps in our know- 
ledge of mood forms. These gaps, owing to the break-up of the 
system at so early a period, it is hardly probable we shall ever 
be able to fill. It is possible, however, to do a great deal more 
than has yet been done even in the most familiar languages. 
In Latin, for instance, even now, the facts for the uses of the 
moods within the two centuries of the classical period are very 
imperfectly known, and it is no exaggeration to say that more 
has been done in the last hundred years for Sanskrit than has been 
done in two thousand years of continuous study for Latin or Greek. 



A still later addition to the domain of Philology the study 
of meaning presents fewer difficulties, but until recent years 
has been equally neglected. The study is so recent that the 
literature of the subject is still extremely small. The only 
attempts to deal with it on a large scale are M. Breal's Essai de 
Semantique (1897), now translated into English under the title 
of Semantics (1900), with a valuable introduction and appendix 
by Dr Postgate, and M. de la Grasserie's Essai d'une Semantique 
integrate (1908), a work which deserves mention for its attempt 
to make a thorough classification and a corresponding termino- 
logy for semantic phenomena, but the value of which is much 
diminished by hasty compilation and imperfect knowledge of 
many of the languages quoted. From the practical point of view 
many of the phenomena have been classified in works on rhetoric 
under the headings of Metaphor, Synecdoche and Metonymy. 
The psychological principle behind this superficial classification 
is that of association of ideas. Here, as elsewhere, changes proceed 
not by accident, but according to definite principles. Here, 
as elsewhere in language, in history, and the other moral sciences, 
the particular principle in operation can be ascertained only 
by beginning with the result and working back to the cause. 
In the development of meaning much more than in phonetics is 
this necessarily the case. In phonetics all speakers of the same 
dialect start with approximately the same sound. But the same 
combination of sounds which we call a word does not recall the 
same idea to all persons who use that word. The idea that the 
phrase railway station calls up in the mind of a Londoner is very 
different from that which occurs to the mind of a child acquainted 
only with a wayside station serving the wants of a country 
village of a few hundred inhabitants. The word herring suggests 
one idea or train of ideas to the fisherman who catches the fish, 
another to the merchant who purchases it from the fisherman, 
a third to the domestic who cooks it, and so on. To members 
of the same family the same word may often have widely different 
associations, and, if so, the metaphors for which the word will 
be employed will differ in each case. 

For the history of meaning it is necessary to have regard to 
all the forms of association of ideas which psychology recognizes. 
These are contiguity in place or in time, resemblance and contrast. 
Contrast, however, as J. S. Mill and Bain have shown, is not a 
simple form of association, but is evolved partly from contiguity, 
partly from resemblance. An artificial hollow generally implies 
also an artificial height made of the materials excavated from 
the hollow. Hence in most languages some words occur with 
the two contrasted meanings. Thus in English we find dyke 
in use both for a ditch and for a mound fronted by a ditch, the 
word ditch being, in fact, but a dialectal form of dyke. In 
Scotland, on the other hand, where earthen mounds and stone 
walls form more frequent boundaries between fields than in 
England, the word dyke is now practically limited to elevated 
boundaries, while ditch is limited to excavated boundaries. 
Thus the proverb, " February fill dyke," which in England 
implies that the February rains will fill the ditches, is often under- 
stood in Scotland to mean that in February the snow will be 
level with the tops of the stone or turf walls. Similarly in 
Latin Tacitus can say fossas prortiere, which can only apply to 
levelling raised mounds; while in Greek Xenophon also talks 
of the ditch (trench) thrown up (retypes dca/3/3Xr;/uei'?j) . It 
is only natural, therefore, that other words with several mean- 
ings should be used similarly: moat, originally a mound of earth 
or peat, has come to mean a big ditch; while, conversely, soldiers 
in trenches are not so much in ditches, as the word ought to 
signify, as behind breastworks. Sometimes, when two actions 
opposed to one another are contiguous, a word seems to change 
to the exact opposite of its original meaning. Thus the English 
verb wean, which meant originally to accustom (to cooked food), 
has been transferred to the necessary preliminary, to dis- 
accustom to the breast. 

Resemblances may be (i.) genuine, and (a) of external appear- 
ance, or (6) of other characteristics; or (ii.) fanciful or analogical. 
From resemblance in the external appearance of the object, the 
word gem, which in Latin (gemma) usually means a bud, has 



PHILOLOGY 



437 



come to mean first a pearl and then by extension of the meaning 
any precious stone. From the concentric coats which appear 
in both, the Latin word for a pearl (unio, ace. unionem) appears 
in English as onien. Examples where the characteristics are 
not of external appearance are such as the German kaiser and 
the Russian tsar, which are descended from Julius Caesar, while 
the Lithuanian word for king karalius is Carolus, i.e."Charle- 
magne. So in modern Persian, Xusrev, " Lord," comes from 
the Zend proper name Husravah (Chosroes). As already pointed 
out, the resemblances which have established a connexion 
between pert and impertinent (properly irrelevant) are in sound 
only. The same is true of the supposed relation of the verb 
cut to cutlass, culler and cutlet. While train oil really means 
oil in drops like tears (cf. German Thrdne), most people connect 
it with railway trains. The resemblance in some cases is merely 
in function. Thus, though the fir and the oak have no resem- 
blance one to the other, the word fir is now generally identified 
with the Latin quercus in etymology (cf. four and qualtuor), 
in the same way as the Latin fagus, " beech," is with the Greek 
<t>riyos, " oak," the users of the word having, in the course of their 
migrations, passed from a land with oaks to a land with firs in 
the one case, and from a land of beeches to a land of oaks in the 
other. Resemblance as the basis of metaphor has a very widely 
extended influence on language. 

The most numerous and most varied forms of change in mean- 
ing depend, however, upon the law of contiguity. Perhaps the 
commonest of all forms of contiguity is that where the word 
indicating some accompanying feature or condition replaces 
the word for the object referred to. In the countries that border 
the Mediterranean the heat of midday is accompanied and 
intensified by the dying away of the wind, a characteristic 
remarked upon by Aeschylus (Agam. 565): " What time upon 
his noonday couch, windless and waveless sank the sea to rest." 
From the Greek word KOM^O., " burning heat," arises through 
Late Latin the English calm, where the absence of wind is the 
only idea present, that of heat having altogether disappeared. 
Again, in bugle, which is abbreviated for buglehorn, the word 
which survives properly means wild ox, and the originally more 
important element is lost. In a combination like silver bugle the 
word has gone a stage further; the original meaning of horn 
has also disappeared. There is no longer any thought of an 
animal's horn; the only idea that survives is that of a musical 
instrument. From the cope or cloak (capella) of St Martin, 
which was preserved as a sacred relic by the Prankish kings, comes 
the word chapel. The word was first transferred from the 
cloak to the holy place wherein it was kept, and thence to 
similar shrines, and ultimately to any place, not being a church, 
where prayers were said. A jig was originally not the dance, 
but the fiddle which supplied the music for the dance. The 
names of liquors are often replaced by some accompaniment 
as of the place, port, sherry, champagne, or by a qualifying adjec- 
tive as in brandy, properly " burnt," from the Dutch brande- 
wijn; or, again, only the less important element of the word is 
retained as in whisky, literally " water," for the older usque- 
baugh, a corruption of Gaelic words meaning the " water of life " 
(aqua vitae). Replacement of substantives by their accompany- 
ing adjectives is common in most languages. One of the most 
commcn methods of coining a name for a new article is to give 
it the name of the place or people whence it comes. Thus we 
have arras, lawn (from Laon), cravat (Croat), coach from Kocs 
in Hungary, bilboes (both fetters and swords) from the iron 
mines of Bilboa in Spain. Equally common are the names of 
inventors pinchbeck, tontine, silhouette, guillotine, derrick. 
In the word cash, which comes indirectly from Latin capsa, " a 
box," the thing contained has taken its name from the container. 
Similarly mortar, " cement," derives its name from the mortar 
in which it was mixed, while in box the material (boxwood, Lat. 
buxus, Greek, xi>os) has usurped the place of the article made. 
In leper the disease (Lat. lepra, the rough disease, from Greek, 
XcTrpa vocros) has been made into the name of the sufferer, who 
was earlier called a leprous man. As a consequence, a new 
substantive leprosy has to be taken from the adjective to 



ndicate the disease. The various changes in meaning, which are 
classed together as synecdoche, have their origin in contiguity. 
Thus we have the species for the genus; the butcher, who pro- 
perly kills goats only (Old French hoc), has ousted the flesher. 
But we have also the genus for the species; corn, as a rule, 
means in England wheat; in Scotland oats; in America, maize. 
The individual becomes collective as in corps, navy, body (of 
men); the collective becomes individual when Latin racemus, 
" bunch of grapes," passes into English " raisin." Here would 
come the so-called meliorative and pejorative developments in 
word-meaning, whereby, e.g. steward, " the sty-ward," becomes 
the title of a great officer of the realm and the name of a line of 
kings; or, on the other side, sou (Latin solidus) passes from the 
name of a gold coin to that of one of proverbially insignificant 
value. Here, too, would come many euphemistic uses which are, 
for the most part, applications of more general terms to avoid the 
mention of some specific act or object which is unpleasant, as 
death, murder, bankruptcy, debt, &c., while metaphorical terms 
for the same things come under resemblance. These examples 
do not exhaust the forms of contiguity which appear in language, 
but they are enough to show how far-reaching the effect of this 
type of association of ideas is upon language, and how extensive 
the field is which still calls for investigation before the study of 
meaning attains the same development as the investigation of 
the other branches of the history of language. 

AUTHORITIES (since 1885). For methods of Linguistic Study: 
Paul, Principien der Sprachgeschichte (3rd ed., 1898); Von der 
Gabelentz, Die Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., 1901) ; Strong, Logeman 
& Wheeler, The History of Language ( 1 89 1 ) , an adaptation of the ideas 
of Paul's Principien, with many excellent examples; van Ginneken, 
Principes de Linguistique psychologique (1907). For the Con- 
troversy regarding Phonetic Laws: Curtius, Zur Kritik der neuesten 
Sprachforschung; Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwissen- 
schaft; Schuchardt, Uber die Lautgesetze: gegen die Junggrammatiker 
(all in 1885) ; Tarbell, " Phonetic Law," in Transactions of American 
Philological Association for 1886, pp. I sqq.; Wechssler, " Giebt es 
Lautgesetze?" (1900), Sondcrabzug aus Forschungen zur romanis- 
rhen Philologie: Fcstgahe fur Hermann Suchier; Wundt, Die 
Volkerpsychoiogie (1900), vol. i. ; Oertel, Lectures on the Study of 
Language (1901), lecture iv. For Analogy: Wheeler, "Analogy 
and the Scope of its Application in Language " (1887), Cornell 
University Studies in Classical Philology. For the Classification of 
Languages: Misteli, Characteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des 
Sprachbaues (1893). For the Phonology, Morphology and Syntax 
of the Indo-European Languages: Brugmann and Delbriick, 
Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen 
Sprachen (18861900) ; a new edition of the Phonology by Brugmann 
in 1897, of the stem-formations and inflexion of Nouns, Adjectives, 
Pronouns and Numerals in two parts (1906, 1909); the first edition 
of the Phonology and Morphology, translated into English in four 
volumes by Wright, Conway and Rouse. For Discussion of Con- 
tested Points: Bechtel, Die Hauptprobleme der indo-germanischen 
Lautlehre (1892). For Syntax: Delbriick, in the works mentioned, 
in the text. For Semantics: besides Breal and Postgate, see Wundt, 
Die Volkerpsychoiogie, vol. i. pt. 2, and articles by John Grote in 
the Journal of Philology, vols. iv. and v. A bibliography of the 
works which have appeared since 1890 will be found in the Anzeiger 
fiir indogermanische Sprac.h- und Altertumskunde: Keiblatt zu den indo- 
germanischen.Forschungen redigiert, by W. Streitberg. (P. Gl. ; E. Si.) 

SUMMARY or PHILOLOGICAL ARTICLES 

In addition to the genetic classification of languages given 
above (on pp. 426-429), some further guidance as to the actual 
headings under which the philological section is arranged may 
be of service to the student. 

The pivot of the whcle section is the article ALPHABET, 
which traces the history of language and writing to the earliest 
stages, embodying the results of archaeological studies in all 
countries, together with the general conclusions based thereon. 
In this article (with further details under CRETE) will be found 
an account of the controversy regarding the Cretan discoveries 
of Dr A. J. Evans. Supplementary to this comparative survey 
are the articles PALAEOGRAPHY, INSCRIPTIONS, WRITING and 
PHONETICS. The first two deal with ancient documents of all 
kinds: PALAEOGRAPHY with those specimens of ancient writing, 
literary, economic or legal, which were committed to codices, 
tablets or rolls by the use of the stilus, the reed or the pen; 
INSCRIPTIONS with documents engraved on stone or metaL 



PHILOLOGY 



WRITING deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint, 
with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible form, 
e.g. with " knot-signs," " message-sticks," picture-writing and the 
like. PHONETICS covers the whole subject of speech sounds and 
pronunciation, the organs of speech and national sound systems. 

Supplementary, from another point of view, to the article 
ALPHABET is a complete series of articles on the letters of the 
English alphabet. In these articles the history of the individual 
letters is traced from the Phoenician through Aramaic, Greek 
and Roman to modern times. All these articles may be read 
in connexion with a comparative table in the article ALPHABET 
(ad fin.), which shows in parallel columns the earliest equivalents 
of the modern English letters, i.e. Brahmi, Kharosthi, oldest 
.iEthiopic, Sabasan, Nashki, Tema/Sindjirli, the Moabitc stone, 
Phoenician, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Another 
important comparative table of written signs is contained in the 
article SLAVS, showing the various Cyrillic, Glagolitic and Latin 
letters used by the Slav peoples. 

Passing from articles dealing with the method and general 
subject-matter of philology, the student will find articles 
on the great families of languages, each with its subordinate 
articles on special languages and dialects. 

i. Indo-European Languages. Of articles on language-families, 
the most important is that under the heading INDO-EUROPEAN 
LANGUAGES. This great division, which is dealt with from the 
comparative standpoint in the second part of the article 
PHILOLOGY, is under its own heading treated in detail. The 
article begins with a sub-classification into two main groups 
the so-called (A) centum and (B) satem groups each of which is 
further divided into four sections. In accordance with this 
classification there are separate articles on the individual ancient 
and modern languages and dialects. 

A. (i) GREEK LANGUAGE (supplemented by sections under 
HOMER, DORIANS, &c.); (2) LATIN LANGUAGE (with OSCA 
LINGUA, IGUVIUM, &c., and articles on the Italic tribes and 
places, e.g. VENETI, CAERE); (3) Celtic, s.v. CELT (with subsidiary 
articles) ; and (4) Teutonic, s.v. TEUTONIC LANGUAGES, SCANDI- 
NAVIAN LANGUAGES, and the like. 

The modern descendants of these languages are all further 
treated separately. Thus following LATIN LANGUAGE is the 
article ROMANCE LANGUAGES, which traces the development of 
the Latin tongue during its gradual differentiation into Italian, 
French, Spanish, Rumanian, &c.; while a more detailed account 
of these will be found under ITALIAN LANGUAGE; FRENCH 
LANGUAGE; SPAIN: Language; RUMANIA: Language. There 
is also a special article PROVENCAL LANGUAGE, dealing with the 
Romanic speech of southern France. The Teutonic languages 
are similarly dealt with in detail under ENGLISH LANGUAGE (in- 
cluding Anglo-Saxon); DUTCH LANGUAGE; GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE itself includes Icelandic, Norwegian, 
Swedish, Danish. 

B. In the satem group of the Indo-European family the four 
divisions are as follows: 

(1) Indo-Iranian or Aryan. This division may be sub- 
divided into (a) Indo-Iranian, treated mainly in the article 
PERSIA: Language and Literature (including Zend, Old, Middle 
and New Persian, and the modern dialects), and (b) Indian. 
The Indian languages are discussed primarily under INDO- 
ARYAN LANGUAGES, which describes the relations of Pisaca, 
Sanskrit, Prakrit, and gives a paradigm of the various languages 
of the three great divisions of India. This central article refers 
to the separate articles PISACA, SANSKRIT and PRAKRIT, which 
in turn are supplemented by a number of articles on particular 
languages. Of these reference may be made to BENGALI; 

BlHARI; GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI; HlNDOSTANI; KASH- 
MIRI; MARATHI; PALI. The gipsy languages, which may 
probably be assigned to the Indo-Iranian division, are described 
under GIPSIES. 

(2) The account of Armenian will be found under ARMENIAN 
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

(3) The Balto-Slavonic Languages. Of these the three 
comprised in the Baltic group, viz. Lithuanian, Lettic and Old 



Prussian, are described under the heading LITHUANIANS AND- 
LETTS. For the Slavonic group, the chief article is SLAVS: 
Language, which deals with the elements common to all the 
Slavonic tongues, with their early history and differentiation. 
It contains a comparative table of alphabets. It is supple- 
mented by an article OLD SLAVONIC, and by further information 
under the headings RUSSIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA, POLAND, 
BOHEMIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA, SLOVAKS, SLOVENES, SORBS, 
KASHUBES, POLABS. 

(4) The Albanian dialects are treated under ALBANIA. 

2. Semitic Languages. At the heading of this section stands 
the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES, supplemented by HEBREW 
LANGUAGE, ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, and linguistic sections under 
PHOENICIA, ETHIOPIA, and the like. 

3. Hamitic Languages. The central article in this family 
is HAMITIC LANGUAGES, which is supplemented, so far as the 
Cushitic or Ethiopian group is concerned, by further information 
in the articles EGYPT; ETHIOPIA; ABYSSINIA; SOMALILAND; and, 
so far as the Libyan group is concerned, by the articles BERBERS 
and KABYLES. 

4. The chief feature of the Monosyllabic family is the section 
Language under CHINA, supplemented again by similar sections 
in articles on other countries of south-eastern Asia, and by the 
article TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES. There is also a language 
section under Japan which discusses the affinities between 
Chinese, Korean and Japanese. 

5. The Ural-Altaic family is described in outline in the 
article URAL-ALTAIC, which gives the general relationships of 
Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu, and of minor sub- 
divisions such as Syryenian, Mordvinian and Votyak. Turkish 
is discussed in the article TURKS: Language, which deals with 
Osmanli proper and the Tatar-Turkish languages generally. The 
article FINNO-UGRIAN is a comparative survey dealing with the 
language of the Finns, Lapps, Samoyedes, &c. ; while Magyar is 
treated separately in HUNGARY : Language. Under MONGOLS there 
is a special section Language, discussing the three groups of East 
Mongol, West Mongol (including Kalmuck) and Burial. 

6. The principal languages of southern India, e.g. Tamil, 
Malayalam, Kanarese, Telugu, &c., are dealt with generally 
under the heading DRAVIDIAN; while there is a separate article 
TAMILS, containing a section on their language; and brief notes 
under the headings BRAHUI, TELUGU, MALAYALAM, &c. 

7 and 8. The scattered languages of the Malay-Polynesian 
family and other Oceanic peoples are treated principally in the 
article MALAYS, which further information is given under the 
headings POLYNESIA; SAMOA; JAVA; NEGRITOS, BATTAS, &c. 

9. The Caucasian family is described chiefly in the article 
GEORGIA: Ethnology. Further information will be found in 
CAUCASIA: Ethnology. 

10. Of the remaining European languages only two need 
special mention: Basque, which is treated in a special section 
under the heading BASQUES; and the lost Etruscan, which is 
treated under ETRURIA and LATIN LANGUAGE. 

11. The principal languages of southern and central Africa 
are treated fully under BANTU LANGUAGES. There is a brief 
account of the Bushman language under BUSHMEN, and of the 
Hottentot languages under HOTTENTOTS. 

12. Intermediate African Languages. Among the numerous 
languages spoken by the people of the great central belt of the 
African continent, the most important is the Hausa, described 
under that heading. 

13. America. The whole question of the languages of the 
North American Indians is dealt with in the article INDIANS, 
NORTH AMERICAN, which contains an elaborate linguistic 
paradigm. 

Bibliographical information will be found in practically all the 
above headings. In addition to the most modern authorities there- 
quoted, there will be found in the article DICTIONARY a very full 
list of older lexicographical works. 

_ The above summary does not purport to present dogmatically a 
rigid philological classification. It disregards many problems, and 
is intended solely to enable the student readily to find the material 
of which he may be in search. 



PHILOMEL PHILOPONUS 



439 



PHILOMEL (Fr. Philomele; Ger. Philomele or Stahlgeige), 
a musical instrument similar to the violin, but having four steel, 
wire strings. The philomel has a body with incurvations similar 
to those of the guitar; therefore, without corner blocks, the out- 
line of the upper lobe forms a wavy shoulder reminiscent of 
the viols but more ornate and fanciful. The peg-box sometimes 
terminates in a fancy head instead of a scroll. The philomel, 
never used in the orchestra, is the instrument of the dilettanti, 
frequently played in Germany with the bowed zither. The 
accordance of the philomel is the same as for the violin; the 
timbre is shrill and crystal-like. There is also an alto philomel 
corresponding to the viola. The bowed melodion is similar 
to the philomel, and has four steel strings of the same accordance 
as the violin, but arranged in inverse order; instead of being 
held like the violin and philomel, under the chin, it is placed 
on the knees of the performer, so that a hook under the finger- 
board rests against the table. (K. S.) 

PHILON, Athenian architect of the 4th century B.C., is known 
as the planner of two important works the portico of the great 
Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of 
the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A. 
Gardner (Ancient Athens, p. 557) observes that it " is perhaps 
known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of 
antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was 
so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central 
hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy. 
(See ATHENS.) 

PHILOPATRIS, the title of a dialogue formerly attributed 
to Lucian, but now generally admitted to be spurious. Its date 
and purport have long formed the subject of discussion. The 
scene is laid at Constantinople. A certain Triephon, who has 
been converted to Christianity by a bald, long-nosed Galilaean, 
who was carried up through the air into the third heaven (an 
evident allusion to St Paul), meets a friend, Critias, who is in a 
state of great excitement. Triephon inquires the reason, and 
the invocation of Zeus by Critias leads to a discussion on pagan- 
ism and Christianity, in which all the gods proposed by Critias 
are rejected by Triephon, who finally suggests that Critias should 
swear by the Trinity. (The sub-title, T) SiSacricojuei'os, refers to 
this " instruction " of Critias in matters relating to Christianity.) 
Critias goes on to relate how he had been introduced to a gather- 
ing of pessimists, who predicted all kinds of disturbances in 
the empire and defeat at the hands of its enemies. In the mean- 
time a third person appears on the scene, with the news that 
the imperial armies have obtained a glorious victory. The 
hope is expressed that Babel (Bagdad, the chief city of the caliphs) 
may soon be destroyed, Egypt subdued (that is, reconquered 
from the Arabs), and the attacks of the Scythians (Russians 
or Bulgarians) repulsed. The whole concludes with thanks 
to the unknown god of Athens that they have been permitted 
to be the subjects of such an emperor and the inhabitants of 
such an empire. The Philopalris was for a long time regarded 
as an attack upon Christianity, and assigned to the time of 
Julian the Apostate (emperor 361-363). Chronological indica- 
tions (e.g. the allusion to a massacre of women in Crete) led 
Niebuhr to ascribe it to the reign of Nicephorus Phocas (963- 
969), and this view is now generally supported. There being 
at that time no pagans in Constantinople, the " pessimists " 
referred to must be Christians either monks, especially the 
intimate friends of the patriarch of Constantinople, who, ag- 
grieved at the measures taken by Phocas in regard to the 
property of the Church, were ready to welcome the defeat of 
the imperial arms and the ruin of the empire; or harmless vision- 
aries, who claimed to predict the future by fasting, prayer and 
vigil. In any case, the author, whether he was a sophist com- 
missioned by Phocas to attack the monks, or some professor 
who hoped to profit by singing the imperial praises, represents 
the views of the " patriotic " (as the title shows) as opposed to 
the " unpatriotic " party. According to another view, which 
assigns the dialogue to the time of Heraclius (610-641), the 
author was a Christian fanatic, whose object was to make known 
the existence of a conventicle of belated pagans, the enemies 



alike of the Christian faith and the empire; it is doubtful, 
however, whether such a pagan community, sufficiently numer- 
ous to be of importance, actually existed at that date. The 
object of the first and longer portion of the dialogue was to 
combat the humanism of the period, which threatened a revival 
of polytheism as a rival of Christianity. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editions by J. M. Gesner (1715) and C. B. Hase 
in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. byz. (1828), vol. xi. ; also included 
in Jacobitz's edition of Lucian (1839). See R. Crampe, Philo- 
patris. Ein heidnisches Konventikel des siebenten Jahrhunderls zu 
Constantinopel (1894); R. Garnett, " Alms for Oblivion " in Cornhill 
Magazine (May, 1901); C. Stach, De Philopatride (Cracow, 1894), 
who shows its late origin by linguistic tests; S. Reinach in Revue 
archeologique (1902), vol. i. ; B. G. Niebuhr, " Ueber das Alter des 
Dialogs Philopatris " in his Kleine historische Schriften (1843), vol. ii. 
and, for further authorities, article by Von Dobschiitz in Herzog- 
Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie (1904). 

PHILOPOEMEN (253-184 B.C.), Greek general, was born at 
Megalopolis, and educated by the academic philosophers 
Ecdemus and Demophanes or Megalophanes, who had dis- 
tinguished themselves as champions of freedom. Avoiding 
the fashionable and luxurious gymnasia, he devoted himself 
to military studies, hunting and border forays. In 233-2 
Philopoemen skilfully evacuated Megalopolis before the attack 
of Cleomenes III., and distinguished himself at Sellasia (222). 
The next eleven years he spent as a condottiere in Crete. 
Elected commander of the League's cavalry on his return, he 
reorganized that force and defeated the Aetolians on the Elean 
frontier (210). Appointed to the chief command two years 
later, he introduced heavy armour and close formation for the 
infantry, and with a well-trained army beat Machanidas of 
Sparta, near Mantinea. The new " liberator " was now so 
famous that Philip V. of Macedon attempted to poison him. 
In 202-1 Philopoemen drove Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, from 
Messene and routed him off Tegea. After another long sojourn 
in Crete he again received the command against Nabis. Though 
unsuccessful at sea, he almost annihilated Nabis's land force 
near Gythium, but was prevented by the Roman Flamininus 
from taking Sparta. In 190 Philopoemen protected Sparta, 
which meanwhile had joined the League and thereupon seceded, 
but punished a renewed defection so cruelly as to draw the 
censure of Rome upon his country. At Messene he likewise 
checked a revolt (189), but when that city again rebelled, in 184, 
he was captured in a skirmish and promptly executed. His 
body was recovered by the Achaeans and buried with great 
solemnity. 

Philopoemen's great merit lies in his having restored to his 
compatriots that military efficiency without which the Achaean 
League for all its skilful diplomacy could never stand. Towards 
Rome he advocated a courteous but independent attitude. In 
politics he was a democrat, and introduced reforms of a popular 
character (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). 

Polybius' Histories (x.-xxiii.) are our chief authority. These and 
a special treatise on Philopoemen (now lost) were used by Plutarch 
(Philopoemen), Pausanias (viii. 49-51), Livy (xxxi.-xxxviii.), and 
indirectly by Justin (xxx. xxxiv.). 

PHILOPONUS, JOANNES (JOHN THE GRAMMARIAN), Greek 
philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the later part of the $th and 
the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The surname Cram- 
maticus he assumed in virtue of his lectures on language and 
literature; that of Philoponus owing to the large number of 
treatises he composed. He was a pupil of Ammonius Hermiae, 
and is supposed to have written the life of Aristotle sometimes 
attributed to his master. To Philoponus are attributed a large 
number of works on theology and philosophy. It is said that, 
though he was a pupil of Ammonius, he was at first a Christian, 
and he has been credited with the authorship of a commentary 
on the Mosaic Cosmogony in eight books, dedicated to Sergius, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and edited by Balthasar Corderius 
in 1630. Other authorities maintain that this, as well as the 
Disputatio de paschale, was the work of another author, John 
the Tritheist. It was perhaps this Philoponus who tried to save 
the Alexandrian library from the caliph Omar after Amu's 
victory in 639. 



440 



PHILOSOPHY 



The more certain writings of Philoponus consist of commentaries 
on Aristotle. These include works on the Physica, the Prior and the 
Posterior Analytics, the Meteorologica, the De anima, the De genera- 
tione animalium, the De generatione et interitu and the Metaphysica. 
These have been frequently edited and are interesting in connexion 
with the adoption of Anstotelianism by the Christian Church. 
They seem to have embodied the lectures of Ammonius with addi- 
tions by Philoponus, and are remarkable rather for elaborate care 
than for originality and insight. He wrote also an attack on Proclus 
(De aeternitate mundi). Two treatises on mathematics are ascribed 
to him: A Commentary on the Mathematics of Nicomachus, edited 
by Hoche (1864 and 1867), and a Treatise on the Use of the Astrolabe, 
published by Hase. The latter is the most ancient work on this 
instrument, and its authenticity is rendered almost certain by its 
reference to Ammonius as the master of the author. 

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. <t\os, fond of, and oo&a, wisdom), a 
general term whose meaning and scope have varied very con- 
siderably according to the usage of different authors and different 
ages. It can best be explained by a survey of the steps by 
which philosophy differentiated itself, in the history of Greek 
thought, from the idea of knowledge and culture in general. 
These steps may be traced in the gradual specification of the 
term. The tradition which assigns the first employment of 
the Greek word 4>i\<x70<f>ia to Pythagoras has hardly any claim to 
be regarded as authentic; and the somewhat self-conscious 
modesty to which Diogenes Laertius attributes the choice of 
the designation is, in all probability, a piece of etymology 
crystallized into narrative. It is true that, as a matter of fact, 
the earliest uses of the word (the verb <t>i\oo-o<t>(iv occurs in 
Herodotus and Thucydides) imply the idea of the pursuit of 
knowledge; but the distinction between the ero<6s, or wise man, 
and the <tX6cro$os, or lover of wisdom, appears first in the 
Platonic writings, and lends itself naturally to the so-called 
Socratic irony. The same thought is to be found in Xenophon, 
and is doubtless to be attributed to the historical Socrates. 
But the word soon lost this special implication. What is of 
real interest to us is to trace the progress from the idea of the 
philosopher as occupied with any and every department of 
knowledge to that which assigns him a special kind of knowledge 
as his province. 

A specific sense of the word first meets us in Plato, who defines 
the philosopher as one who apprehends the essence or reality of 
things in opposition to the man who dwells in appearances and 
the shows of sense. The philosophers, he says, " are those who 
are able to grasp the eternal and immutable"; they are "those 
who set their affections on that which in each case really exists " 
(Rep. 480). In Plato, however, this distinction is applied 
chiefly in an ethical and religious direction; and, while it defines 
philosophy, so far correctly, as the endeavour to express what 
things are in their ultimate constitution, it is not yet accompanied 
by a sufficient differentiation of the subsidiary inquiries by 
which this ultimate question may be approached. Logic, ethics 
and physics, psychology, theory of knowledge and metaphysics 
are all fused together by Plato in a semi-religious synthesis. It 
is not till we come to Aristotle the encyclopaedist of the ancient 
world that we find a demarcation of the different philosophic 
disciplines corresponding, in the main, to that still current. 
The earliest philosophers, or " physiologers," had occupied 
themselves chiefly with what we may call cosmology; the one 
question which covers everything for them is that of the under- 
lying substance of the world around them, and they essay to 
answer this question, so to speak, by simple inspection. In 
Socrates and Plato, on the other hand, the start is made from a 
consideration of man's moral and intellectual activity; but 
knowledge and action are confused with one another, as in the 
Socratic doctrine that virtue is knowledge. To this correspond 
the Platonic confusion of logic and ethics and the attempt to 
substitute a theory of concepts for a metaphysic of reality. 
Aristotle's methodic intellect led him to separate the different 
aspects of reality here confounded. He became the founder 
of logic, psychology, ethics and aesthetics as separate sciences; 
while he prefixed to all such (comparatively) special inquiries 
the investigation of the ultimate nature of existence as such, or 
of those first principles which are common to, and presupposed 
in, every narrower field of knowledge. For this investigation 



Aristotle's most usual name is " first philosophy " or, as a modern 
might say, " first principles "; but there has since been appro- 
priated to it, apparently by accident, the title " metaphysics." 
" Philosophy," as a term of general application, was not, indeed 
restricted by Aristotle or his successors to the disciplines just 
enumerated. Aristotle himself includes under the title, besides 
mathematics, all his physical inquiries. It was only in the 
Alexandrian period, as Zeller points out, that the special sciences 
attained to independent cultivation. Nevertheless, as the mass 
of knowledge accumulated, it naturally came about that the 
name " philosophy " ceased to be applied to inquiries concerned 
with the particulars as such. The details of physics, for example, 
were abandoned to the scientific specialist, and philosophy 
restricted itself in this department to the question of the relation 
of the physical universe to the ultimate ground or author of 
things. This inquiry which was long called " rational cosmo- 
logy," may be said to form part of the general subject of meta- 
physics, or at all events a pendant to it. By the gradual sifting 
out of the special sciences philosophy thus came to embrace 
primarily the inquiries grouped as " metaphysics " or " first 
philosophy." These would embrace, according to the Wolffian 
scheme long current in philosophical textbooks, ontology proper, 
or the science of being as such, with its three-branch sciences of 
(rational) psychology, cosmology and (rational or natural) 
theology, dealing with the three chief forms of being the soul, 
the world and God. Subsidiary to metaphysics, as the central 
inquiry, stand the sciences of logic and ethics, to which may be 
added aesthetics, constituting three normative sciences 
sciences, that is, which do not, primarily, describe facts, but 
rather prescribe ends or set forth ideals. It is evident, however, 
that if logic deals with conceptions which may be considered 
constitutive of knowledge as such, and if ethics deals with the 
harmonious realization of human life, which is the highest 
known form of existence, both sciences must have a great deal 
of weight in the settling of the general question of metaphysics. 

In sum, then, we may say that " philosophy " has come to be 
understood at least in modern times as a general term covering 
the various disciplines just enumerated. It has frequently 
tended, however, and still tends, to be used as specially con- 
vertible with the narrower term " metaphysics." This is not 
unnatural, seeing that it is only so far as they bear on the one 
central question of the nature of existence that philosophy 
spreads its mantle over psychology, logic or ethics. The 
particular organic conditions of perception and the associative 
laws to which the mind, as a part of nature, is subjected, are 
facts in themselves indifferent to the philosopher; and therefore 
the development of psychology into an independent science, 
which took place during the latter half of the igth century and 
may now be said to be complete, represents an entirely natural 
evolution. Similarly, logic, so far as it is an art of thought or a 
doctrine of fallacies, and ethics, so far as it is occupied with a 
natural history of impulses and moral sentiments, do neither of 
them belong, except by courtesy, to the philosophic province. 
But, although this is so, it is perhaps hardly desirable to deprive 
ourselves of the use of two terms instead of one. It will not be 
easy to infuse into so abstract and bloodless a term as " meta- 
physics " the fuller life (and especially the inclusion of ethical 
considerations) suggested by the more concrete term "philosophy." 

We shall first of all, then, attempt to differentiate philosophy 
from the special sciences, and afterwards proceed to take up one 
by one what have been called the philosophical sciences, with the 
view of showing how far the usual subject-matter of each is 
really philosophical in its bearing, and how far it belongs rather 
to the domain of " science " strictly so called. The order in 
which, for clearness of exposition, it will be most convenient to 
consider these disciplines will be psychology, epistemology or 
theory of knowledge, and metaphysics, then logic, aesthetics and 
ethics. Finally, the connexion of the last-mentioned with 
politics (or, to speak more modernly, with jurisprudence and 
sociology), with the philosophy of history and the philosophy of 
religion, will call for a few words on the relation of these sciences 
to general philosophy. 



PHILOSOPHY 



44 1 



Philosophy and Natural Science. In distinguishing philosophy 
from the sciences, it may not be amiss at the outset to guard 
against the possible misunderstanding that philosophy is con- 
cerned with a subject-matter different from, and in some obscure 
way transcending, the subject-matter of the sciences. Now 
that psychology, or the observational and experimental study 
of mind, may be said to have been definitively included among 
the positive sciences, there is not even the apparent ground 
which once existed for such an idea. Philosophy, even under 
its most discredited name of metaphysics, has no other subject- 
matter than the nature of the real world, as that world lies 
around us in everyday life, and lies open to observers on every 
side. But if this is so, it may be asked what function can remain 
for philosophy when every pcrtion of the field is already lotted 
out and enclosed by specialists? Philosophy claims to be the 
science of the whole; but, if we get the knowledge of the parts 
from the different sciences, what is there left for philosophy to 
tell us ? To this it is sufficient to answer generally that the 
synthesis of the parts is something more than that detailed 
knowledge of the parts in separation which is gained by the man 
of science. It is with the ultimate synthesis that philosophy 
concerns itself; it has to show that the subject-matter which we 
are all dealing with in detail really is a whole, consisting of 
articulated members. Evidently, therefore, the relation existing 
between philosophy and the sciences will be, to some extent, 
one of reciprocal influence. The sciences may be said to furnish 
philosophy with its matter, but philosophical criticism reacts 
upon the matter thus furnished, and transforms it. Such trans- 
formation is inevitable, for the parts only exist and can only be 
fully, i.e. truly, known in their relation to the whole. A pure 
specialist, if such a being were possible, would be merely an 
instrument whose results had to be co-ordinated and used by 
others. Now, though a pure specialist may be an abstraction 
of the mind, the tendency of specialists in any department 
naturally is to lose sight of the whole in attention to the particular 
categories or modes of nature's working which happen to be 
exemplified, and fruitfully applied, in their own sphere of investi- 
gation ; and in proportion as this is the case it becomes necessary 
for their theories to be co-ordinated with the results of other 
inquirers, and set, as it were, in the light of the whole. This task 
of co-ordination, in the broadest sense, is undertaken by philo- 
sophy; for the philosopher is essentially what Plato, in a happy 
moment, styled him, OWOTTTIKOS, the man who takes a "synoptic" 
or comprehensive view of the universe as a whole. The aim of 
philosophy (whether fully attainable or not) is to exhibit the 
universe as a rational system in the harmony of all its parts; 
and accordingly the philosopher refuses to consider the parts 
out of their relation to the whole whose parts they are. Philo- 
sophy corrects in this way the abstractions which are inevitably 
made by the scientific specialist, and may claim, therefore, to be 
the only " concrete " science, that is to say, the only science 
which takes account of all the elements in the problem, and the 
only science whose results can claim to be true in more than a 
provisional sense. 

For it is evident from what has been said that the way in 
which we commonly speak of " facts " is calculated to convey 
a false impression. The world is not a collection of individual 
facts existing side by side and capable of being known separately. 
A fact is nothing except in its relations to other facts; and as 
these relations are multiplied in the progress of knowledge the 
nature of the so-called fact is indefinitely modified. Moreover, 
every statement of fact involves certain general notions and 
theories, so that the " facts " of the separate sciences cannot be 
stated except in terms of the conceptions or hypotheses which 
are assumed by the particular science. Thus mathematics 
assumes space as an existent infinite, without investigating in 
what sense the existence or the infinity of this Unding, as Kant 
called it, can be asserted. In the same way, physics may be 
said to assume the notion of material atoms and forces. These 
and similar assumptions are ultimate presuppositions or working 
hypotheses for the sciences themselves. But it is the office of 
philosophy, as a theory of knowledge, to submit such conceptions 



to a critical analysis, with a view to discover how far they can 
be thought out, or how far, when this is done, they refute them- 
selves, and call for a different form of statement, if they are to be 
taken as a statement of the ultimate nature of the real. 1 The 
first statement may frequently turn out to have been merely 
provisionally or relatively true; it is then superseded by, or 
rather inevitably merges itself in, a less abstract account. In 
this the same " facts " appear differently, because no longer 
separated from other aspects that belong to the full reality of 
the known world. There is no such thing, we have said, as an 
individual fact; and the nature of any fact is not fully known 
unless we know it in all its relations to the system of the universe, 
or, in Spinoza's phrase, sub specie aelernilalis. In strictness, 
there is but one res completa or concrete fact, and it is the business 
of philosophy, as science of the whole, to expound the chief 
relations that constitute its complex nature. 

The last abstraction which it becomes the duty of philosophy 
to remove is the abstraction from the knowing subject which is 
made by all the sciences, including, as we shall see, the science 
of psychology. The sciences, one and all, deal with a world of 
objects, but the ultimate fact as we know it is the existence of 
an object for a subject. Subject-object, knowledge, or, more 
widely, self-consciousness with its implicates this unity in 
duality is the ultimate aspect which reality presents. It has 
generally been considered, therefore, as constituting in a special 
sense the problem of philosophy. Philosophy may be said to be 
the explication of what is involved in this relation, or, in Kantian 
phraseology, a theory of its possibility. Any would-be theory 
of the universe which makes its central fact impossible stands 
self-condemned. On the other hand, a sufficient analysis here 
may be expected to yield us a statement of the reality of things 
in its last terms, and thus to shed a light backwards upon the true 
nature of our subordinate conceptions. 

Psychology, Epistemology and Metaphysics. This leads to the 
consideration of the main divisions of philosophy PSYCHOLOGY 
(q.v.), epistemology (theory of knowledge, Erkenntnisstheorie) , 
and metaphysics (ontology; see METAPHYSIC). A special relation 
has always existed between psychology and systematic philo- 
sophy, but the closeness of the connexion has been characteristic 
of modern and more particularly of English thought. The 
connexion is not difficult to explain, seeing that in psychology, 
or the science of mind, we study the fact of intelligence (and 
moral action), and have, so far, in our hands the fact to which 
all other facts are relative. From this point of view we may 
even see a truth in Jacobi's dictum as quoted by Sir W. Hamilton : 
" Nature conceals God; man reveals God." Nature by itself, 
that is to say, is insufficient. The ultimate explanation of things 
cannot be given by any theory which excludes from its survey 
the intelligence in which nature, as it were, gathers herself up. 
But knowledge, or the mind as knowing, willing, &c., may be 
looked at in two different ways. It may be regarded simply as a 
fact; in which case the evolutions of mind may be traced and 
reduced to laws in the same way as the phenomena treated by 
the other sciences. This study gives us the science of empirical 
psychology, or, as it is now termed, psychology sans phrase. In 
order to give an adequate account of its subject-matter, psych- 
ology may require higher or more complex categories than are 
employed in the other sciences, just as biology, for example, 
cannot work with mechanical categories alone, but introduces 
the conception of development or growth. But the affinities of 
such a study are manifestly with the sciences as such rather than 
with philosophy; and the definitive establishment of psychology 
as an independent science has already been alluded to. Since 
it has been taken up by specialists, psychology is being estab- 
lished on a broader basis of induction, and with the advantage, 
in some departments, of the employment of experimental 
methods of measurement. But it is not of mind in this aspect 

1 The revisional office which philosophy here assumes constitutes 
her the critic of the sciences. It is in this connexion that the mean- 
ing of the definition of philosophy as " the science of principles " 
can best be seen. This is perhaps the most usual definition, and, 
though vague, 6"ne of the least misleading. 



442 



PHILOSOPHY 



that such assertions can be made as those quoted above. Mind, 
as studied by the psychologist mind as a mere fact or pheno- 
menon grounds no inference to anything beyond itself. The 
distinction between mind viewed as a succession of " states of 
consciousness " and the further aspect of mind which philosophy 
considers was very clearly put by Croom Robertson, who also 
made a happy suggestion of two terms to designate the double 

point of view: 

" We may view knowledge as mere subjective function, but it 
has its full meaning only >as it is taken to represent what we may 
call objective fact, or is such as is named (in different circumstances) 
real, valid, true. As mere subjective function, which it is to the 
psychologist, it is best spoken of by an unambiguous name, and for 
this there seems none better than Intellection. We may then say 
that psychology is occupied with the natural function of Intellection, 
seeking to discover its laws and distinguishing its various modes 
(perception, representative imagination, conception, &c.) according 
to the various circumstances in which the laws are found at work. 
Philosophy, on the other hand, is theory of Knowledge (as that which 
is known)." " Psychology and Philosophy," Mind (1883), pp. 15, 1 6. 

The confusion of these two points of view has led, and still 
leads, to serious philosophical misconception. It is hardly an 
exaggeration to say that, in the English school since Hume, 
psychology superseded properly philosophical inquiry. And we 
find even a thinker with a wider horizon like Sir W. Hamilton 
encouraging the confusion by speaking of " psychology or meta- 
physics," ' while his lectures on metaphysics are mainly taken 
up with what belongs in the strictest sense to psychology proper, 
with an occasional excursus (as in the theory of perception) into 
epistemology. The distinction between psychology and theory 
of knowledge was first clearly made by Kant, who repeatedly 
insisted that the Critique of Pure Reason was not to be taken as a 
psychological inquiry. He defined his problem as the quid juris 
or the question of the validity of knowledge, not its quid facti or 
the laws of the empirical genesis and evolution of intellection (to 
use Croom Robertson's phraseology). Since Kant philosophy 
has chiefly taken the form of theory of knowledge or of a criticism 
of experience. Not, indeed, a preliminary criticism of our 
faculties or conceptions such as Kant himself proposed to 
institute, in order to determine the limits of their application; 
such a criticism ab extra of the nature of our experience is essenti- 
ally a thing impossible. The only criticism which can be applied 
in such a case is the immanent criticism which the conceptions 
or categories exercise upon one another. The organized criticism 
of these conceptions is really nothing more than the full expli- 
cation of what they mean and of what experience in its full 
nature or notion is. This constitutes the theory of knowledge 
in the only tenable sense of the term, and it lays down, in Kantian 
language, the conditions of the possibility of experience. These 
conditions are the conditions of knowledge as such, or, as it may 
be put, of objective consciousness of a self-consciousness of 
a world of objects and through them conscious of itself. The 
inquiry is, therefore, logical or transcendental in its nature, and 
does not entangle us in any decision as to the conditions of the 
genesis of such consciousness in the individual. When we inquire 
into subjective conditions we are thinking of facts causing other 
facts. But the logical or transcendental conditions are not 
causes or even factors of knowledge; they are the statement of 
its idea. Hence the dispute between evolutionist and transcen- 
dentalist rests, in general, on an ignoratio elenchi; for the history 
of the genesis of an idea (the historical or genetic method) does 
not contain an answer to though it may throw light on the 
philosophical question of its truth or validity. Speaking of this 
transcendental consciousness, Kant goes so far as to say that it is 
not of the slightest consequence " whether the idea of it be clear 
or obscure (in empirical consciousness), no, not even whether 
it really exists or not. But the possibility of the logical form of 
all knowledge rests on its relation to this apperception as a faculty 
or potentiality " (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, iii. 578 note). Or, if 

1 It is true that he afterwards modifies this misleading identifica- 
tion by introducing the distinction between empirical psychology 
or the phenomenology of mind and inferential psychology or on- 
tology, i.e. metaphysics proper. But he continues to use the terms 
" philosophy," metaphysics," and " mental science " as synony- 
mous. 



we return to the distinction between epistemology and psychol- 
ogy, by way of illustrating the nature of the former, we may 
take the following summing up by Professor James Ward in a 
valuable article on " Psychological Principles " in Mind (April 
883, pp. 166, 167): " Comparing psychology and epistemology, 
then, we may say that the former is essentially genetic in its 
method, and might, if we had the power to revise our existing 
terminology, be called biology; the latter, on the other hand, is 
essentially devoid of everything historical, and treats, sub specie 
aeternitatis, as Spinoza might have said, of human knowledge, 
conceived as the possession of mind in general." 

Kant's problem is not, in its wording, very different from that 
which Locke set before him when he resolved to " inquire into 
the original, certainty and extent of human knowledge together 
with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent." 
Locke's Essay is undoubtedly, in its intention, a contribution 
to the theory of knowledge. But, because time had not yet 
made the matter clear, Locke suffered himself to digress in his 
second book into the psychological question of the origin of our 
ideas; and his theory of knowledge is ruined by the failure to 
distinguish between the epistemological sense of " idea " as 
significant content and the psychological sense in which it if 
applied to a fact or process in the individual mind. The same 
confusion runs through Berkeley's arguments and vitiates his 
conclusions as well as those of Hume. But appearing with these 
thinkers as the problem of perception, epistemology widens its 
scope and becomes, in Kant's hands, the question of the possi- 
bility of experience in general. With Hegel it passes into a 
completely articulated " logic," which apparently claims to be 
at the same time a metaphysic, or an ultimate expression of the 
nature of the real. 

This introduces us to the second part of the question we are 
seeking to determine, namely the relation of epistemology to 
metaphysics. It is evident that philosophy as theory of know- 
ledge must have for its complement philosophy as metaphysics 
(ontology) or theory of being. The question of the truth of our 
knowledge, and the question of the ultimate nature of what we 
know, are in reality two sides of the same inquiry; and therefore 
our epistemological results have to be ontologically expressed. 
But it is not every thinker that can see his way with Hegel to 
assert in set terms the identity of thought and being. Hence 
the theory of knowledge becomes with some a theory of human 
ignorance. This is the case with Herbert Spencer's doctrine 
of the Unknowable, which he advances as the result of epistemo- 
logical considerations in the philosophical prolegomena to his 
system. Very similar positions were maintained by Kant and 
Comte; and, under the name of " agnosticism " (q.v.), the theory 
has popularized itself in the outer courts of philosophy, and on 
the shifting borderland of philosophy and literature. The truth 
is that the habit of thinking exclusively from the standpoint 
of the theory of knowledge tends to beget an undue subjectivity 
of temper. And the fact that it has become usual for men to 
think from this standpoint is very plainly seen in the almost 
universal description of philosophy as an analysis of " experi- 
ence," instead of its more old-fashioned designation as an inquiry 
into " the nature of things." As it is matter of universal agree- 
ment that the problem of being must be attacked indirectly 
through the problem of knowledge, this substitution may be 
regarded as an advance, more especially as it implies that the 
fact of experience, or of self-conscious existence, is the chief fact 
to be dealt with. But if so, then self-consciousness must be 
treated as itself real, and as organically related to the rest of 
existence. If self-consciousness be treated in this objective 
fashion, then we pass naturally from epistemology to metaphysics 
or ontology. (For, although the term " ontology " has been as 
good as disused, it still remains true that the aim of philosophy 
must be to furnish us with an ontology or a coherent and adequate 
theory of the nature of reality.) But if, on the other hand, 
knowledge and reality be ab inilio opposed to one another if 
consciousness be set on one side as over against reality, and merely 
holding up a mirror to it then it follows with equal naturalness 
that the truly real must be something which lurks unrevealed 



PHILOSOPHY 



443 



behind the subject's representation of it. Hence come the differ- 
ent varieties of a so-called phenomenalism. The upholders of 
such a theory would, in general, deride the term '' metaphysics " 
or " ontology "; but it is evident, none the less, that their position 
itself implies a certain theory of the universe and of our own 
place in it, and the establishment of this theory constitutes their 
metaphysics. 

Without prejudice, then, to the claim of epistemology to 
constitute the central philosophic discipline, we may simply 
note its liability to be pressed too far. The exclusive pre- 
occupation of men's minds with the question of knowledge 
during the neo-Kantian revival in the 'seventies of the last 
century drew from Lotze the caustic criticism that " the continual 
sharpening of the knife becomes tiresome, if, after all, we have 
nothing to cut with it." Stillingfleet's complaint against Locke 
was that he was " one of the gentlemen of this new way of 
reasoning that have almost discarded substance out of the reason- 
able part of the world." The same may be said with greater 
truth of the devotees of the theory of knowledge; they seem to 
have no need of so old-fashioned a commodity as reality. Yet, 
after all, Fichte's dictum holds good that knowledge as know- 
ledge i.e. so long as it is looked at as knowledge is, ipso facto, 
not reality. The result of the foregoing, however, is to show that, 
as soon as epistemology draws its conclusion, it becomes meta- 
physics; the theory of knowledge passes into a theory of being. 
The ontological conclusion, moreover, is not to be regarded as 
something added by an external process; it is an immediate 
implication. The metaphysic is the epistemology from another 
point of view regarded as completing itself, and explaining 
in the course of its exposition that relative or practical separation 
of the individual knower from the knowable world, which it is a 
sheer assumption to take as absolute. This, not the so-called 
assumption of the implicit unity of being and thought, is the 
really unwarrantable postulate; for it is an assumption which 
we are obliged to retract bit by bit, while the other offers the 
whole doctrine of knowledge as its voucher. 

Logic, Aesthetics and Ethics. If the theory of knowledge 
thus passes insensibly into metaphysics it becomes somewhat 
difficult to assign a distinct sphere to logic (q.v.). Ueberweg's 
definition of it as " the science of the regulative laws of thought " 
(or " the normative science of thought ") comes near enough 
to the traditional sense to enable us to compare profitably the 
usual subject-matter of the science with the definition and end of 
philosophy. The introduction of the term " regulative " or 
" normative " is intended to differentiate the science from 
psychology as the science of mental processes or events. In this 
reference logic does not tell us how our intellections connect 
themselves as mental phenomena, but how we ought to connect 
our thoughts if they are to realize truth (either as consistency 
with what we thought before or as agreement with observed 
facts). Logic, therefore, agrees with epistemology (and differs 
from psychology) in treating thought not as mental fact but as 
knowledge, as idea, as having meaning in relation to an objective 
world. To this extent it must inevitably form a part of the theory 
of knowledge. But, if we desire to keep by older landmarks and 
maintain a distinction between the two disciplines, a ground for 
doing so may be found in the fact that all the main definitions 
of logic point to the investigation of the laws of thought in a 
subjective reference with a view, that is, by an analysis of the 
operation, to ensure its more correct performance. According 
to the old phrase, logic is the art of correct thinking. Moreover 
we commonly find the logician assuming that the process of 
thought has advanced a certain length before his examination 
of it begins; he takes his material full-formed from perception, 
without, as a rule, inquiring into the nature of the conceptions 
which are involved in our perceptive experience. Occupying 
a position, therefore, within the wider sphere of the general 
theory of knowledge, ordinary logic consists in an analysis of the 
nature of general statement, and of the conditions under which 
we pass validly from one general statement to another. But 
the logic of the schools is eked out by contributions from a variety 
of sources (e.g. from grammar on one side and from psychology 



on another), and cannot claim the unity of an independent 
science. 

Aesthetics (q.v.) may be treated as a department of psychology 
or physiology, and in England this is the mode of treatment that 
has been most general. To what peculiar excitation of our 
bodily or mental organism, it is asked, are the emotions due 
which make us declare an object beautiful or sublime? And, 
the question being put in this form, the attempt has been made 
in some cases to explain away any peculiarity in the emotions 
by analysing them into simpler elements, such as primitive 
organic pleasures and prolonged associations of usefulness or 
fitness. But, just as psychology in general cannot do duty for a 
theory of knowledge, so it holds true of this particular application 
of psychology that a mere reference of these emotions to the 
mechanism and interactive play of our faculties cannot be re- 
garded as an account of the nature of the beautiful. Perhaps by 
talking of " emotions " we tend to give an unduly subjective 
colour to the investigation; it would be better to speak of the 
perception of the beautiful. Pleasure in itself is unqualified, 
and affords no differentia. In the case of a beautiful object the 
resultant pleasure borrows its specific quality from the presence 
of determinations essentially objective in their nature, though 
not reducible to the categories of science. Unless, indeed, we 
conceive our faculties to be constructed on some arbitrary plan 
which puts them out of relation to the facts with which they have 
to deal, we have a prima facie right to treat beauty as an objective 
determination of things. The question of aesthetics would then 
be formulated What is it in things that makes them beautiful, 
and what is the relation of this aspect of the universe to its 
ultimate nature, as that is expounded in metaphysics? The 
answer constitutes the substance of aesthetics, considered as a 
branch of philosophy. But it is not given simply in abstract 
terms: the philosophical treatment of aesthetics includes also 
an exposition of the concrete phases of art, as these have appeared 
in the history of the world, relating themselves to different phases 
of human culture. 

Of ethics (q.v.) it may also be said that many of the topics 
commonly embraced under that title are not strictly philosophical 
in their nature. They are subjects for a scientific psychology 
employing the historical method with the conceptions of heredity 
and development, and calling to its aid, as such a psychology 
will do, the investigations of all the sociological sciences. To 
such a psychology must be relegated all questions as to the 
origin and development of moral ideas. Similarly, the question 
debated at such length by English moralists as to the nature of 
the moral faculty (moral sense, conscience, &c.) and the contro- 
versy concerning the freedom of the will belong entirely to 
psychology. If we exclude such questions in the interest of 
systematic correctness, and seek to determine for ethics a definite 
subject-matter, the science may be said to fall into two depart- 
ments. The first of these deals with the notion of duty, and 
endeavours to define the good or the ultimate end of action ; the 
second lays out the scheme of concrete duties which are deducible 
from, or which, at least, are covered by, this abstractly stated 
principle. The second of these departments is really the proper 
subject-matter of ethics considered as a separate science; but it 
is often conspicuous by its absence from ethical treatises. How- 
ever moralists may differ on first principles, there seems to be 
remarkably little practical divergence when they come to lay 
down the particular laws of morality. It may be added that, 
where a systematic account of duties is actually given, the 
connexion of the particular duties with the universal formula 
is in general more formal than real. It is only under the head of 
casuistry (q.v.) that ethics has been much cultivated as a separate 
science. The first department of ethics, on the other hand, is 
the branch of the subject in virtue of which ethics forms part of 
philosophy. As described above, it ought rather to be called, in 
Kant's phrase, the metaphysic of ethics. A theory of obligation 
is ultimately found to be inseparable from a metaphysic of 
personality. The connexion of ethics with metaphysics will be 
patent as a matter of fact, if it be remembered how Plato's 
philosophy is summed up in the idea of the good, and how 



444 



PHILOSOPHY 



Aristotle also employs the essentially ethical notion of end as the 
ultimate category by which the universe may be explained or 
reduced to unity. But the necessity of the connexion is also 
apparent, unless we are to suppose that, as regards the course of 
universal nature, man is altogether an imperium in imperio, or 
rather (to adopt the forcible phrase of Marcus Aurelius) an 
abscess or excrescence on the nature of things. If, on the 
contrary, we must hold that man is essentially related to what 
the same writer calls " a common nature," then it is a legitimate 
corollary that in man as intelligence we ought to find the key of 
the whole fabric. At all events, this method of approach must 
be truer than any which, by restricting itself to the external 
aspect of phenomena as presented in space, leaves no scope for 
inwardness and life and all that, in Lotze's language, gives 
" value " to the world. The argument ex analogia hominis 
has often been carried too far; but if a " chief end of man " be 
discoverable avOpuirivov ayaBov, as Aristotle wisely insisted that 
the ethical end must be determined then it may be assumed 
that this end cannot be irrelevant to that ultimate " meaning " 
of the universe which, according to Lotze, is the quest of philo- 
sophy. If " the idea of humanity," as Kant called it, has ethical 
perfection at its core, then a universe which is really an organic 
whole must be ultimately representable as a moral order or a 
spiritual kingdom such as Leibnitz named, in words borrowed 
from St Augustine, a city of God. 

Philosophy of the State (Political Philosophy), Philosophy of 
History, Philosophy of Religion. In Plato and Aristotle ethics 
and politics are indissolubly connected. In other words, seeing 
that the highest human good is realizable only in a community, 
the theory of the state as the organ of morality, and itself in its 
structure and institutions the expression of ethical ideas or 
qualities, becomes an integral part of philosophy. The difficulty 
already hinted at, which individualistic systems of ethics experi- 
ence in connecting particular duties with the abstract principle 
of duty is a proof of the failure of their method. For the content 
of morality we are necessarily referred, in great part, to the 
experience crystallized in laws and institutions and to the un- 
written law of custom, honour and good breeding, which has 
become organic in the society of which we are members. Plato's 
Republic and Hegel's Philosophic des Rechts are the most typical 
examples of a fully developed philosophy of the state, but in the 
earlier modern period the prolonged discussion of natural rights 
and the social contract must be regarded as a contribution to 
such a theory. Moreover, if philosophy is to complete its 
constructive work, it must bring the course of human history 
within its survey, and exhibit the sequence of events as an evolu- 
tion in which the purposive action of reason is traceable. This 
is the task of the philosophy of history, a peculiarly modern 
study, due to the growth of a humanistic and historical point 
of view. Lessing's conception of history as an " education of 
the human race " is a typical example of this interpretation of 
the facts, and was indeed the precursor which stimulated many 
more elaborate German theories. The philosophy of history 
differs, it will be observed, from the purely scientific or descriptive 
studies covered by the general title of sociology. Sociology 
conceives itself as a natural science elucidating a factual sequence. 
The philosophy of history is essentially Ideological; that is to 
say, it seeks to interpret the process as the realization of an 
immanent end. It may be said, therefore, to involve a complete 
metaphysical theory. Social institutions and customs and the 
different forms of state-organization are judged according to the 
degree in which they promote the realization of the human 
ideal. History is thus represented by Hegel, for example, as the 
realization of the idea of freedom, or rather as the reconciliation 
of individual freedom and the play of cultured interests with 
the stable objectivity of law and an abiding consciousness 
of the greater whole in which we move. So far as the course 
of universal history can be truly represented as an approxi- 
mation to this reconciliation by a widening and deepening 
of both the elements, we may claim to possess a philosophy of 
history. But although the possibility of such a philosophy 
seems implied in the postulated nationality of the universe, 



many would hold that it remains as yet an unachieved- 
ideal. 

There only remains to be briefly noticed the relation of philo- 
sophy to theology and the nature of what is called Philosophy 
of Religion. By theology is commonly understood the syste- 
matic presentation of the teaching of some positive or historical 
religion as to the existence and attributes of a Supreme Being, 
including his relation to the world and especially to man. But 
these topics have also been treated by philosophers and religious 
thinkers, without dependence on any historical data or special 
divine revelation, under the title of Natural Theology. Natural 
Theology is specially associated with the Stoic theories of provi- 
dence in ancient times and with elaborations of the argument 
from design in the i8th century. But there is no warrant for 
restricting the term to any special mode of approaching the 
problems indicated; and as these form the central subject of 
metaphysical inquiry, no valid distinction can be drawn between 
natural theology and general metaphysics. The philosophy of 
religion, on the other hand, investigates the nature of the 
religious consciousness and the value of its pronouncements on 
human life and man's relation to the ground of things. Unity, 
reconciliation, peace, joy, " the victory that overcometh the 
world " such, in slightly varying phrases, is the content of 
religious faith. Does this consciousness represent an authentic 
insight into ultimate fact, or is it a pitiful illusion of the nerves, 
born of man's hopes and fears and of his fundamental ignorance? 
The philosophy of religion assumes the first alternative. The 
function of philosophy in general is the reflective analysis of 
experience, and the religious experience of mankind is prima facie 
entitled to the same consideration as any other form of conscious 
activity. The certainties of religious faith are matter of feeling 
or immediate assurance, and are expressed in the pictorial 
language of imagination. It becomes the function of philosophy, 
dealing with these utterances, to relate them to the results of 
other spheres of experience, and to determine their real meaning 
in the more exact terms of thought. The philosophy of religion 
also traces in the different historical forms of religious belief and 
practice the gradual evolution of what it takes to be the truth of 
the matter. Such an account may be distinguished from what 
is usually called the science of religion by the teleological or 
metaphysical presuppositions it involves. The science of religion 
gives a purely historical and comparative account of the various 
manifestations of the religious instinct without pronouncing on 
their relative truth or value and without, therefore, professing 
to apply the idea of evolution in the philosophical sense. That 
idea is fundamental in the philosophy of religion, which therefore 
can be written only from the standpoint of a constructive meta- 
physical theory. 

It is, indeed, only from the standpoint of such a theory that 
the definitions and divisions of the different philosophical 
disciplines adopted in this article can be said to hold good. But 
those who, like the positivists, agnostics and sceptics, deny the 
possibility of metaphysics as a theory of the ultimate nature of 
things, are still obliged to retain philosophy as a theory of 
knowledge, in order to justify the asserted limitation or impo- 
tence of human reason. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY The best general histories of philosophy are by 
T. E. Erdmann, Friedrich Ueberweg and W. Windelband, Windel- 
band's being probably the freshest in its treatment and point of 
view. Ed. Zeller's History of Creek Philosophy still holds the field 
as the best continuous exposition of the subject, but more recent 
work in the early period is represented by H. Diels and J. Burnet, 
while Zeller's view of Plato may be said to have been superseded by 
the later researches of Lewis Campbell, H. Jackson and others. 
T. Gomperz's Greek Thinkers is an able, if somewhat diffuse, survey 
of the philosophical development in connexion with the general 
movement of Greek life and culture. It does not go beyond Plato. 
B. Haureau, A. Stpckl and Karl Werner give the fullest and most 
trustworthy histories of the medieval period, but the subject is 
very carefully treated by Erdmann and Ueberweg, and a useful 
compendium, written from a Roman Catholic standpoint, is De 
Wulf's History of Medieval Philosophy (1900; Eng. trans., 1907). 
For modern times, in addition to the general histories already named, 
the works of Kuno Fischer, R. Falckenberg and H. Hoffding, and 
R. Adamson's Lectures on the Development of Modern Philosophy, 



PHILOSTRATUS PHILOXENUS 



445 



may be specially mentioned. Writers on the history of philosophy 
generally prefix to their work a discussion of the scope of philosophy, 
its divisions and its relations to other departments of knowledge, 
and the account given by Windelband and Ueberweg will be found 
specially good. The Introductions to Philosophy published by F. 
Paulsen, O. Kttlpe, W. Wundt and G. T. Ladd, deal largely with 
this subject, which is also treated by Henry Sidgwick in his Philo- 
sophy, tts Scope and Relations (1902), by Ernest Naville, La Definition 
de la philosophie (1894) and by Wundt in the introduction to his 
System der Philosophic (1889). A useful work of general reference 
is J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (3 vols., 
1902-1905). (A. . p _p ) 

PHILOSTRATUS, the name of several, three (or four), Greek 
sophists of the Roman imperial period (i) Philostratus " the 
Athenian" (c. 170-245), (2) his nephew (?) Philostratus "of 
Lemnos " (bom c. 190); (3) a grandson (?) of (2). Of these the 
most famous is Philostratus " the Athenian," author of the Life 
of Apollonius Tyana, which he dedicated to Julia Domna, wife of 
Alexander Severus and mother of Caracalla (see APOLLONIUS 
OF TYANA) . He wrote also Btot ZofrvTuv (Lives of the Sophists) , 
Gymnasticus and Epistolae (mainly of an erotic character). Very 
little is known of his career. Even his name is doubtful. The 
Lives of the Sophists gives the praenomen Flavius, which, however, 
is found elsewhere only in Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius 
call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him 
as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos, 
studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where 
he would naturally be called atheniensis) as a member of the 
learned circle with which Julia Domna surrounded herself. He 
was born probably in 172, and is said by Suidas to have been 
living in the reign of Philip (244-249). The fact that the author 
of Apollonius is also the author of the Lives of the Sophists is 
confirmed by internal evidence. The latter is dedicated to a 
consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians 
who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the 
first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second 
with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus. 

The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather pictur- 
esque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind 
full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method, 
preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid 
achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says, 
investigates truth ; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted. 
The Gymnasticus contains interesting matter concerning the Olympic 
games and athletic contests generally. The Letters breathe the spirit 
of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33 
are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, " Drink 
to me only with thine eyes." The 'Hpwi6j, formerly attributed to 
Philostratus the Athenian, is probably the work of Philostratus the 
Lemnian. It is a popular disquisition on the heroes of the Trojan 
War in the form of a conversation between a Thracian vine-dresser 
on the shore of the Hellespont and a Phoenician merchant who 
derives his knowledge from the hero Protesilaus, Palamedes is 
exalted at the expense of Odysseus, and Homer's unfairness to him 
is attacked. It has been suggested that Philostratus is here de- 
scribing a series of heroic paintings in the palace of Julia Domna. 
His other work is the EiKiws (Imagines), ostensibly a description 
of 64 pictures in a Neapolitan gallery. Goethe, Welcker, Brunn, 
E. Bertrand and Helbig, among others, have held that the descrip- 
tions are of actually existing works of art, while Heyne and Frieder- 
ichs deny this. In any case they are interesting as showing the way 
in which ancient artists treated mythological and other subjects, 
and are written with artistic knowledge and in attractive language. 
This work is imitated by the third Philostratus (or by some later 
sophist) of whose descriptions of pictures 17 remain. 

There is great difficulty, due to a confused statement of Suidas, 
in disentangling the works and even the personalities of these 
Philostrati. Reference is there made to Philostratus as the son of 
Verus, a rhetorician in Nero's time, who wrote tragedies, comedies 
and treatises. Suidas thus appears to give to Philostratus the 
Athenian a life of 200 years! We must be content to assume two 
Lemnian Philostrati, both sophists, living in Rome. See further a full 
discussion by K.Miinscher, in Philologus (1907), suppl. x., pp. 469-557. 

Of works bearing the name Philostratus there is a collected edition 
by C. F. Kayser (Zurich, 1844; Leipzig, 1870-1871), and another by 
Westermann (Paris, 1849), with Latin translation; these supersede 
those by F. Morel (Paris, 1608) and Olearius (Leipzig, 1709). There 
are separate editions of the Eikones by Schenkl and Reisch (Leipzig, 
1902); of the Gymnaslicus by Mynas (1858), who discovered the 
MS., Daremberg (Paris, 1858), Volckmar (Aurich, 1862), and 
especially Julius Juthner (1909), with introd., comments and Ger. 

1 As Lemnos was an Athenian island, any Lemnian could be 
called an Athenian. 



trans.; of 73 epistles by Boissonade (Paris, 1842). The Life of 
Apollonius was first published by Aldus (1502); a French translation 
by Blaise de Vigenere appeared in 1596; an English translation of 
the first two books was published in London (1680) by Charles 
Blount, with some notes by Lord Herbert of Cherbury (prohibited 
in England in 1693, it was reprinted on the Continent) ; a full transla- 
tion appeared in 1903. Critical works on the Eikones are numerous: 
K. Fnederichs, Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); Goethe, " Philo- 
strats Gemalde " in Complete Works (ed. Stuttgart, 1879);. Brunn, 
Die Philostratischen Bilder (1860); A. Bougot, Une Galerie antique 
(1881); E. Bertrand, Un Critique d'art dans I'antiquite: Philostrate 
el son ecole (1882); Bergk, " Die Philostrate " in Fiinf A bhandlungen 
zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Astronomic (1883); 
Schmid, Atticismus iv. 7, on the attribution of the works. 

PHILOXENUS, of Cythera (435-380 B.C.), Greek dithyrambic 
poet. On the conquest of the island by the Athenians he was 
taken as a prisoner of war to Athens, where he came into the 
possession of the dithyrambic poet Melanippides, who educated 
him and set him free. Philoxenus afterwards resided in Sicily, 
at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, whose bad verses 
he declined to praise, and was in consequence sent to work in the 
quarries. After leaving Sicily he travelled in Greece, Italy and 
Asia, reciting his poems, and died at Ephesus. According to 
Suidas, Philoxenus composed twenty-four dithyrambs and a 
lyric poem on the genealogy of the Aeacidae. In his hands the 
dithyramb seems to have been a sort of comic opera, and the 
music, composed by himself, of a debased character. His 
masterpiece was the Cyclops, a pastoral burlesque on the love 
of the Cyclops for the fair Galatea, written to avenge himself 
upon Dionysius, who was wholly or partially blind of one eye. 
It was parodied by Aristophanes in the Plutus (290). Another 
work of Philoxenus (sometimes attributed to Philoxenus of 
Leucas, a notorious parasite and glutton) is the Aeiirvov (Dinner), 
of which considerable fragments have been preserved by 
Athenaeus. This is an elaborate bill of fare in verse, probably 
intended as a satire on the luxury of the Sicilian court. The 
great popularity of Philoxenus is attested by a complimentary 
resolution passed by the Athenian senate in 393. The comic 
poet Antiphanes spoke of him as a god among men; Alexander 
the Great had his poems sent to him in Asia; the Alexandrian 
grammarians received him into the canon; and down to the time 
of Polybius his works were regularly learned and annually acted 
by the Arcadian youth. 

Fragments, with life, by G. Bippart (1843); T. Bergk, Poetae 

lyrici graeci. 

PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksenaya), of Mabbog, one of the 
best of Syriac prose writers, and a vehement champion of Mono- 
physite doctrine in the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th 
centuries. He was born, probably in the third quarter of the 
5th century, at Tahal, a village in the district of Beth Garmai 
east of the Tigris. He was thus by birth a subject of Persia, but 
all his active life of which we have any record was passed in the 
territory of the Greek Empire. The statements that he had been 
a slave and was never baptized appear to be malicious inventions 
of his theological opponents. He was educated at Edessa, 
perhaps in the famous " school of the Persians," which was after- 
wards (in 489) expelled from Edessa 2 on account of its connexion 
with the Nestorian heresy. The years which followed the Council 
of Chalcedon (451) were a stormy period in the Syrian Church. 
Philoxenus soon attracted notice by his strenuous advocacy of 
Monophysite doctrine, and on the expulsion of Calandio (the 
orthodox patriarch of Antioch) in 485 was ordained bishop of 
Mabbog 3 by his Monophysite successor Peter the Fuller (Bar- 
hebraeus, Chron. eccl. i. 183). It was probably during the earlier 
years of his episcopate that Philoxenus composed his thirteen 
homilies on the Christian life. Later he devoted himself to the 
revision of the Syriac version of the Bible, and with the help of 
his chorepiscopus Polycarp produced in 508 the so-called Philo- 
xenian version, which was in some sense the received Bible of the 
Monophysites during the 6th century. Meantime he continued 
his ecclesiastical activity, working as a bitter opponent of 

2 According to Barhebraeus (Chron. eccl. ii. 55) through the efforts 
of Philoxenus himself. 

3 Hierapolis of the Greeks, Manbij of the Arabs, a few miles west 
of the F.uphrates about latitude 365. 



446 



PHILTRE PHLEBITIS 



Flavian II., who had accepted the decrees of the Council of 
Chalcedon and was patriarch of Antioch from 498 to 512. The 
Monophysites had the sympathy of the emperor Anastasius, 
and were finally successful in ousting Flavian in 51 2 and replacing 
him by their partisan Severus. Of Philoxenus's part in the 
struggle we possess not too trustworthy accounts by hostile 
writers, such as Theophanes and Theodorus Lector. We know 
that in 498 he was staying at Edessa 1 ; in or about 507, according 
to Theophanes, he was summoned by the emperor to Constanti- 
nople; and he finally presided at a synod at Sidon which was the 
means of procuring the replacement of Flavian by Severus. But 
the triumph was short-lived. Justin I., who succeeded Anasta- 
sius in 518, was less favourable to the party of Severus and 
Philoxenus, and in 519 they were both sentenced to banishment. 
Philoxenus was sent to Philippopolis in Thrace, and afterwards to 
Gangra in Paphlagonia, where he met his death by foul play in 523. 
Apart from his redoubtable powers as a controversialist, Phil- 
oxenus deserves commemoration as a scholar, an elegant writer, 
and an exponent of practical Christianity. Of the chief monument 
of his scholarship-^-the Philoxenian version of the Bible only the 
Gospels and certain portions of Isaiah are known to survive (see 
Wright, Syr. Lit. 14). It was an attempt to provide a more accurate 
rendering of the Greek Bible than had hitherto existed in Syriac, 
and obtained recognition among the Monophysites until superseded 
by the still more literal renderings of the Old Testament by Paul of 
Telia and of the New Testament by Thomas of Harkel (both in 
616-617), of which the latter at least was based on the work of 
Philoxenus. There are also extant portions of commentaries on the 
Gospels from his pen. Of the excellence of his style and of his 
practical religious zeal we are able to judge from the thirteen homilies 
on the Christian life and character which have been edited and 
translated by Budge (London, 1894). In these he holds aloof for 
the most part from theological controversy, and treats in an admir- 
able tone and spirit the themes of faith, simplicity, the fear of God, 
poverty, greed, abstinence and unchastity. His affinity with his 
earlier countryman Aphraates is manifest both in his choice of 
subjects and his manner of treatment. As his quotations from 
Scripture appear to be made from the Peshi^ta, he probably wrote 
the homilies before he embarked upon the Philoxenian version. 2 
Philoxenus wrote 'also many controversial'works and some liturgical 
pieces. Many of his letters survive, and at least two have been 
edited.' Several of his writings were translated into Arabic and 
Ethiopic. (N. M.) 

PHILTRE (Lat. philtrum, from Gr. <t>i\rpov, ^tXetv, to love), 
a drug or other medicinal drink supposed to have the magical 
property of exciting love. 

PHINEUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, the blind king of 
Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace. He was skilled in the art 
of navigation, and Apollo had bestowed upon him the gift of 
prophecy. His blindness was a punishment from the gods for 
his having revealed the counsels of Zeus to mortals, or for his 
treatment of his sons by his first wife Cleopatra. His second 
wife having accused her stepsons of dishonourable proposals, 
Phineus put out their eyes, or exposed them to the wild beasts, 
or buried them in the ground up to their waists and ordered 
them to be scourged. Zeus offered him the choice of death or 
blindness. Phineus chose the latter, whereupon Helios (the 
sun-god), offended at the slight thus put upon him, sent the 
Harpies to torment him. In another story, the Argonauts 
(amongst whom were Calais and Zetes, the brothers of Cleo- 
patra), on their arrival in Thrace found the sons of Phineus 
half-buried in the earth and demanded their liberation. Phineus 
refused, and a fight took place in which he was slain by Heracles, 
who freed Cleopatra (who had been thrown into prison) 
and her sons, and reinstated them as rulers of the kingdom. 
Tragedies on the subject of Phineus were written by Aeschylus 
and Sophocles. These would directly appeal to an Athenian 
audience, Phineus's first wife having been the daughter of 
Orithyia (daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens), who had 
been carried off by Boreas to his home in Thrace. The punish- 
ment of Phineus would naturally be regarded as a just retribu- 

1 Chronicle of Joshua Stylites, ch. 30. 

2 On these and other points see Budge's introduction to his second 
volume, which contains also a list of the other works of Philoxenus 
and a number of illustrative extracts. 

3 One by Martin (in Grammatica chrestomathia et glossarium 
linguae syriacae) and one by Guidi (La Lettera di Filosseno ai 
monad di Tell 'Adda). 



tion for the insult put upon a princess of the royal house of 
Athens. 

Apollodorus i. 9, 21, iii. 15, 3; Sophocles, Antigone, 966, with 
Jebb s notes; Dipd. Sic. iv. 43, 44; Servius on Aeneid iii. 209; 
Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius ii. 178. 

PHIPS (or PHIPPS), SIR WILLIAM (1651-1695), colonial 
governor of Massachusetts, was born on the 2nd of February 
1651, at Woolwich, Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec 
river. He was a shepherd until he was eighteen, and then a 
ship carpenter's apprentice for four years; worked at his trade 
in Boston for a year, at this time learning to read and write; 
and with his wife's property established a ship-yard on the 
Sheepscot river in Maine, but soon abandoned it because of 
Indian disorders. In 1684-1686, with a commission from the 
British Crown, he searched vainly for a wrecked Spanish 
treasure ship of which he had heard while on a voyage to the 
Bahamas; he found this vessel in 1687, and from it recovered 
300,000. Of this amount much went to the duke of Albe- 
marle, who had fitted out the second expedition. Phips re- 
ceived 16,000 as his share, was knighted by James II., and was 
appointed sheriff of New England under Sir Edmund Andros. 
Poorly educated and ignorant of law, Phips could accomplish 
little, and returned to England. In 1689 he returned to Massa- 
chusetts, found a revolutionary government in control, and at 
once entered into the life of the colony. He joined the North 
Church (Cotton Mather's) at Boston, and was soon appointed by 
the General Court commander of an expedition against the 
French in Canada, which sailed in April 1690 and easily captured 
Port Royal. A much larger expedition led by Phips in July 
against Quebec and Montreal ended disastrously. Phips 
generously bought at their par value, in order to give them 
credit in the colony, many of the colony's bills issued to pay 
for the expedition. In the winter of 1690 he returned to Eng- 
land, vainly sought aid for another expedition against Canada, 
and urged, with Increase Mather, the colonial agent, a restora- 
tion of the colony's charter, annulled during the reign of 
Charles II. The Crown, at the suggestion of Mather, appointed 
him the first royal governor under the new charter. On reaching 
Boston in May 1692, Phips found the colony in a very dis- 
ordered condition, and though honest, persevering and indis- 
posed to exalt his prerogative at the expense of the people, he 
was unfitted for the difficult position. He appointed a special 
commission to try the witchcraft cases, but did nothing to 
stop the witchcraft mania, and suspended the sittings of the 
court only after great atrocities had been committed. In 
defending the frontier he displayed great energy, but his 
policy of building forts was expensive and therefore unpopular. 
Having the manners of a 17th-century sea captain, he became 
involved in many quarrels, and engaged in a bitter controversy 
with Governor Benjamin Fletcher of New York. Numerous 
complaints to the home government resulted in his being 
summoned to England to answer charges. While in London 
awaiting trial, he died on the i8th of February 1695. 

See Cotton Mather's Lift of His Excellency Sir William Phips 
(London, 1697; republished in his Magnalia in 1702); Francis 
Bowen's " Life of Sir William Phips," in Jared Sparks's American 
Biography, 1st series, vol. vii. (New York, 1856); William Goold's 
" Sir William Phips," in Collections of the Maine Historical Society, 
series I, vol. ix. (Portland, 1887); Ernest Myrand's Sir William 
Phippsdevant Quebec (Quebec, 1893); Thomas Hutchinson's History 
of Massachusetts (2 vols., Boston; 3rd ed., 1795); and J. G. Palfrey's 
History of New England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890). 



PHLEBITIS (from Gr. <Xe^, a vein), inflammation of a vein. 
When a vein is inflamed the blood in it is apt to form a clot, 
or thrombus, which, if loosened and displaced from its original 
position, may be carried as an embolus towards the heart and 
there be arrested; or it may pass through the cavities of the 
heart into the lungs, there to lodge and to give rise to alarming 
symptoms. If the thrombus is formed in the inflamed vein 
of a pile it may pass as an embolus (see HAEMORRHOIDS) into 
the liver. If an embolus is carried through the left side of the 
heart it may enter the large vessels at the root of the neck and 
reach the brain, giving rise to serious cerebral disturbance or 



PHLEGON PHOCAEA 



447 



to a fatal paralysis. The thrombus may be formed in gout 
and rheumatism, or in consequence of stagnation of the blood- 
current due to slowing of the circulation in various wasting 
diseases. When a thrombus forms, absolute rest in the re- 
cumbent posture is to be strictly enjoined; the great danger 
is the displacement of the clot. An inflamed and clotted vein, 
if near the surface, causes an elongated, dusky elevation beneath 
the skin, where the vein may be felt as a hard cord, the size, 
perhaps, of a cedar pencil, or a pen-holder. Its course is marked 
by great tenderness, and the tissue which was drained by the 
branches of that vein are livid from congestion, and perhaps 
boggy and pitting with oedema. If, as often happens, the 
inflamed vein is one of those running conspicuously upwards 
from the foot a saphenous vein (ercu^s, distinct) the patient 
should be placed in bed with the limb secured on a splint in 
order to protect it from any rough movement. Should the clot 
become detached, it might give rise to sudden and alarming 
faintness possibly even to a fatal syncope. Thus, there is 
always grave risk with an inflamed and clotted vein, and modern 
surgery shows that the safest course is, when practicable, to 
place a ligature on the vein upon the heart-side of the clotted 
piece and to remove the latter by dissection. When, as some- 
times happens, the clot is invaded by septic organisms it is 
particularly liable to become disintegrated, and if parts of it 
are carried to various regions of the body they may there give 
rise to the formation of secondary abscesses. In the ordinary 
treatment of phlebitis, in addition to the insistence on perfect 
rest and quiet, fomentations may be applied locally, the limb 
being kept raised. Massage must not be employed so long as 
there is any risk of a clot being detached. (E. O.*) 

PHLEGON, of Tralles in Asia Minor, Greek writer and freed- 
man of the emperor Hadrian, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. 
His chief work was the Olympiads, an historical compendium 
in sixteen books, from the ist down to the 229th Olympiad 
(776 B.C. to A.D. 137), of which several chapters are preserved 
in Photius and Syncellus. Two small works by him are extant: 
On Marvels, containing some ridiculous stories about ghosts, 
prophecies and monstrous births, but instructive as regards 
ancient superstitions; On Long-lived Persons, a list of Italians 
who had passed the age of 100, taken from the Roman censuses. 
Other works ascribed to Phlegon by Suidas are a description of 
Sicily, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a 
topography of Rome. 

Fragments in C. Muller, Frag. hist, grace, iii. ; of "the Marvels and 
Long-lived in O. Keller, Rerum naturalium scriptores, i. (1877) ; 
see also H. Diets, " Phlegons Androgynenorakel ' in Sibyllinische 
Blatter (1890). 

PHLOGOPITE, a mineral belonging to the group of 
micas (?..). It is a magnesium mica, differing from biotite 
in containing only a little iron; the chemical formula is 
[H,K,(MgF)] 3 Mg3Al(Si04) 3 . It crystallizes in the monoclinic sys- 
tem, but the crystals are roughly developed. There is a perfect 
cleavage parallel to the basal plane; the cleavage flakes are not 
quite so elastic as those of muscovite. Sometimes it is quite 
colourless and transparent, but usually of a characteristic yellow- 
ish-brown colour, and often with a silvery lustre on the cleavage 
surfaces, hence the trade name " silver amber mica " for some 
varieties. The name phlogopite is from Gr. 4>\ayuTros (fiery- 
looking) , the mineral being sometimes brownish-red and coppery 
in appearance. The hardness is 2^-3, and the specific gravity 
2-78-2-85. The optic axial plane is parallel to the plane of 
symmetry and the axial angle o-io. Phlogopite occurs 
chiefly as scales and plates embedded in crystalline limestones 
of the Archean formation. The mica mined in Canada and 
Ceylon is mainly phlogopite, and is largely used as an insulator 
for electrical purposes. In Canada it occurs with apatite in 
pyroxene rocks which are intrusive in Laurentian gneisses and 
crystalline limestones, the principal mining district being in 
Ottawa county in Quebec and near Burgess in Lanark county, 
Ontario. In Ceylon, the mineral forms irregular veins, 
rarely exceeding one or two feet in width, traversing granu- 
lite, especially near the contact of this rock with crystalline 
limestone. (L. J. S.) 



PHLOX (Nat. Ord. Polemoniaceae) , a genus of about 30 
species, mostly perennial hardy plants of great beauty, natives 
of North America (one occurs in Siberia), with entire, usually 
opposite, leaves and showy flowers generally in termina clusters. 
Each flower has a tubular calyx with five lobes, and a salver 
shaped corolla with a long slender tube and a flat limb. The 
five stamens are given off from the tube of the corolla at different 
heights and do not protrude beyond it. The ovary is three- 
celled with one to two ovules in each cell; it ripens into a three- 
valved capsule. Many of the species and varieties are tall 
herbs yielding a wealth of bloom throughout the summer and 
early autumn. These require a deep, rich, and rather heavy 
loam, and a cool, moist position to flourish. 

The dwarf perennial species and varieties, the " moss pinks " 
of gardens, are charming plants for the rockery and as edging 
to beds and borders. They are trailing and tufted in habit, 
the branches rooting at the nodes. They succeed in poorer 
soil, and drier situations than the tall kinds. Seed is seldom 
produced. Propagation is effected by cuttings in July and 
early August, placed in a cold frame, and by division of the 
plants, which should be lifted carefully, and cut into rooted 
portions as required. The tufted kinds decay in patches in 
winter if the situation is moist and the weather mild and wet. 

Phlox Drummondii and its numerous varieties are half-hardy 
annuals in Britain. It is a small-growing hairy plant, flowering 
profusely during the summer months. For early flowering 
it should be sown in heat in March and April and transferred 
out of doors in June. It succeeds if sown out of doors in April, 
but the flowering season is later and shorter. 

The tall-growing border phloxes are divided into early and 
late flowering kinds respectively, the former derived mainly 
from P. glaberrima and P. sujfruticosa, and the latter from 
P. maculata and P. paniculata. The salver-shaped flowers 
with cylindrical tubes range from pure white to almost bright 
scarlet in colour, passing through shades of pink, purple, magenta 
lilac, mauve and salmon. New varieties are obtained by the 
selection of seedlings. Owing to the frequent introduction 
of new kinds, the reader is referred to the current lists published 
by growers and nurserymen. The " moss pinks," P. subuloja 
and its varieties, are all worthy of a place in the alpine garden. 

The varieties are relatively few. The following list includes 
nearly all the best kinds: 

P. subulata, pink with dark centre; Aldbproughensis, ros&; annulate, 
bluish white, ringed with purple; atrolilacina, deep lilac; atropurpurea 
purple-rose and crimson; Brightness, bright rose with scarlet eye; 
compacta, clear rose; Fairy, lilac; G. F. Wilson, mauve; grandiflora, 
pink, crimson blotch; Little Dot, white, blue centre; Nelsoni, pure 
white; Vivid, rose, carmine centre; all these are about 4 in. nigh. 
P. divaricata, lavender, height I ft. ; P. ovata, rose, I ft. ; P. reptans, 
rose, 6 in.; and P. amoena, rose, 9 in., are also charming alpines. 

P. Drummondii varieties come true from seed, but are usually 
sown in mixture. 

PHOCAEA (mod. Fukia or Fokha) an ancient city on the 
western coast of Asia Minor, famous as the mother city of 
Marseilles. It was the most northern of the Ionian cities, and 
was situated on the coast of the peninsula which separates the 
gulf of Cyme, occupied by Aeolian settlers, from the Hermaean 
Gulf, on which stood Smyrna and Clazomenae. 1 Its position 
between two good harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter (Livy 
xxxvii. 31), led the inhabitants to devote themselves to 
maritime pursuits. According to Herodotus the Phocaeans 
were the first of all the Greeks to undertake distant voyages, 
and made known the coasts of the Adriatic, Tyrrhenia and Spain. 
Arganthonius, king of Tartessus in Spain, invited them to 
emigrate in a body to his dominions, and, on their declining, 
presented them with a large sum of money. This they employed 
in constructing a strong wall around their city, a defence which 
stood them in good stead when Ionia was attacked by Cyrus 
in 546. Eventually they determined to seek a new home in 
the west, where they already had flourishing colonies, e.g. 

1 It was said to have been founded by a band of emigrants from 
Phocis, under the guidance of two Athenian leaders, named Philo- 
genes and Damon, but it joined the Ionian confederacy by accepting 
the government of Athenian rulers of the house of Codrus. 



PHOCAS PHOCIS 



Alalia in Corsica and Massilia (mod. Marseilles). A large part 
of the emigrants proceeded only as far as Chios, returned to 
Phocaea, and submitted to the Persian yoke. 

Phocaea continued to exist under the Persian government, 
but greatly reduced in population and commerce. Though it 
joined in the Ionian revolt against Persia in 500 it was able to 
send only three ships to the combined fleet which fought at 
Lade. But a Phocaean took the supreme command. It never 
again played a prominent part in Ionian history, and is rarely 
mentioned. In the time of Timur Fujah was a fortress of 
Sarukhan, but had been previously in Genoese hands. The 
ruins still visible on the site bear the name of Palaea Fokia, but 
they are of little interest. The modern town in the immediate 
neighbourhood, still known as Fokia, was founded by the Genoese 
in 1421 on account of the rich alum mines in the neighbourhood. 
It has a fair natural harbour, which is the nearest outlet of the 
rich district of Menemen. About 1880, while the Gediz Chai 
was throwing its silt unchecked into the Gulf of Smyrna and 
gradually filling the navigable channel, there was talk of reviving 
Fokia as a new port for Smyrna, and connecting it with the 
Cassaba railway. But, in deference to Smyrniote protests, a new 
estuary was cut for the Gediz. Fokia has acquired local impor- 
tance however as a port of call for coasting steamers, and it is 
used to some degree as a summer residence by Smyrniotes. 

(D. G. H.) 

PHOCAS, East Roman emperor (602-610), was a Cappadocian 
of humble origin. He was still but a centurion when chosen by 
the army of the Danube to lead it against Constantinople. A 
revolt within the city soon afterwards resulted in the abdication 
of the reigning emperor Maurice, and in the elevation of Phocas 
to the throne, which seems to have been accomplished by one 
of the circus factions against the wish of the troops. Phocas 
proved entirely incapable of governing the empire. He con- 
sented to pay an increased tribute to the Avars and allowed the 
Persians, who had declared war in 604 under Chosroes II., to 
overrun the Asiatic provinces and to penetrate to the Bosporus. 
When the African governor Heraclius declared against him, 
Phocas was deserted by the starving populace of Constantinople, 
' and deposed with scarcely a struggle (610). He died in the 
same year on the scaffold. 

SeeJ. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), ii. 197-206. 

PHOCION, Athenian statesman and general, was born about 
402 B.C., 1 the son of a small manufacturer. He became a pupil 
of Plato and in later life was a close friend of Xenocrates. This 
academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier 
rather than as a philosopher that he first came into notice. 
Under Chabrias he distinguished himself in the great sea-fight 
of Naxos (376), and in the subsequent campaigns loyally 
supported his chief. He won the confidence of the allies by 
his justice and integrity. In 35 1-349 2 he entered the Persian 
service and helped to subdue a rebellion in Cyprus. Hence- 
forward he always held a prominent position in Athens, and 
although he never canvassed he was elected general forty-five 
times in all. In politics he is known chiefly as the consistent 
opponent of the anti-Macedonian firebrands, headed by Demos- 
thenes, Lycurgus and Hypereides, whose fervent eloquence he 
endeavoured to damp by recounting the plain facts of Athens's 
military and financial weakness and her need of peace, even 
when the arms of Athens seemed to prosper most. But although 
he won the respect of his audience, his advice was frequently 
discarded. Yet his influence was felt at the trial of Aeschines 
in 343, whom he helped to defend, and after the disaster of 
Chaeroneia (338), when he secured very lenient terms from 
Philip. He also rendered good service in the field: in 348 he 
saved the force operating against the philo-Macedonian tyrants 
in Euboea by the brilliant victory of Tamynae. Under the 
Macedonian predominance his reputation steadily increased. 

1 Diodorus' statement that Phocion was 75 at his death (i.e. that 
he became general at 30 and was elected 45 years in succession) 
would give 394-393 as t ' le ^ ate o ^ birth; but he must have been 
quite 25 as second-in-command at Naxos (376). 

* The chronology is uncertain; the dates given for this period are 
Beloch's (Griechische Geschichte, ii.). 



Though by no means inclined to truckle to the Macedonians, 
as is shown by his protection of the refugee Harpalus and his 
spirited campaign in defence of Attica in 322, he won the confi- 
dence of the conquerors, and in the restricted democracy which 
Antipater enforced he became the virtual ruler of Athens. Old 
age, however, was telling on him; when Polyperchon by his 
proclamation of " freedom " raised a new crisis in 318, Phocion's 
dilatoriness was interpreted as active treason on Cassander's 
behalf, and the people, incited by the restored democrats, 
deposed him from office. Phocion fled to Polyperchon, but 
was sent back by the latter to be tried at Athens. The assembly, 
containing numerous slaves and all the city mob, shouted 
Phocion down and condemned him to death unheard. Not 
long after, the Athenians decreed a public burial and a statue 
in his honour. 

Phocion's character and policy were throughout inspired 1 by 
his philosophic training, which best explains his remarkable 
purity of character and his prudent councils. To the same 
influence we may ascribe his reserve and his reluctance to 
co-operate heartily either with the people or with the Macedonian 
conquerors who put their trust in him: a greater spirit of energy 
and enterprise might have made him the saviour of his country. 
Phocion remained famous in antiquity for the pithy sayings 
with which he used to parry the eloquence of his opponents. 
Demosthenes called him " the chopper of my periods." 

Plutarch (Life of Phocion) draws much good information from 
Philochorus and Duris (who reproduces Hieronymus of Cardia); 
his numerous anecdotes are repeated in other works of his and in 
Aelian (For. hist.). Diodorus (xvi.-xviii.) is likewise based on 
Duris. See Holm. Gk. Hist. vol. iii. (Eng. trans., London, 1896). 

(M. O. B. C.) 

PHOCIS, an ancient district of central Greece (now a depart- 
ment, pop. 62,246), about 625 sq. m. in area, bounded on the 
W. by Ozolian Locris and Doris, on the N. by Opuntian Locris, 
on the E. by Boeotia, and on the S. by the Corinthian Gulf. 
The massive ridge of Parnassus (8068 ft.), which traverses the 
heart of the country, divides it into two distinct portions. 
Between this central barrier and the northern frontier range of 
Cnemis (3000 ft.) is the narrow but fertile valley of the Cephissus, 
along which most of the Phocian townships were scattered. 
Under the southern slope of Parnassus were situated the two 
small plains of Crisa and Anticyra, separated by Mt Cirphis, 
an offshoot from the main range. Being neither rich in material 
resources nor well placed for commercial enterprise, Phocis was 
mainly pastoral. No large cities grew up within its territory, 
and its chief places were mainly of strategic importance. 

The early history of Phocis remains quite obscure. From 
the scanty notices of Greek legend it may be gathered that an 
influx of tribes from the north contributed largely to its popula- 
tion, which was reckoned as Aeolic. It is probable that the 
country was originally of greater extent, for there was a tradition 
that the Phocians once owned a strip of land round Daphnus 
on the sea opposite Euboea, and carried their frontier to Ther- 
mopylae; in addition, in early days they controlled the great 
sanctuary of Delphi. The restriction of their territory was due 
to the hostility of their neighbours of Boeotia and Thessaly, 
the latter of whom in the 6th century even carried their raids 
into the Cephissus valley. Moreover the Dorian population 
of Delphi constantly strove to establish its independence and 
about 590 B.C. induced a coalition of Greek states to proclaim a 
" Sacred War " and free the oracle from Phocian supervision. 
Thus their influence at Delphi was restricted to the possession 
of two votes in the Amphictyonic Council. 

During the Persian invasion of 480 the Phocians at first 
joined in the national defence, but by their irresolute conduct 
at Thermopylae lost that position for the Greeks; in the. cam- 
paign of Plataea they were enrolled on the Persian side. In 
457 an attempt to extend their influence to the head waters of 
the Cephissus in the territory of Doris brought a Spartan army 
into Phocis in defence of the " metropolis of the Dorians." A 
similar enterprise against Delphi in 448 was again frustrated 
by Sparta, but not long afterwards the Phocians recaptured 
the sanctuary with the help of the Athenians, with whom they 



PHOCYLIDES PHOENICIA 



449 



had entered into alliance in 454. The subsequent decline of 
Athenian land-power had the effect of weakening this new 
connexion; at the time of the Peloponnesian War Phocis was 
nominally an ally and dependent of Sparta, and had lost control 
of Delphi. 

In the 4th century Phocis was constantly endangered by 
its Boeotian neighbours. After helping the Spartans to invade 
Boeotia during the Corinthian War (395-94), the Phocians 
were placed on the defensive. They received assistance from 
Sparta in 380, but were afterwards compelled to submit to the 
growing power of Thebes. The Phocian levy took part in 
Epaminondas' inroads into Peloponnesus, except in the final 
campaign of Mantinea (370-62), from which their contingent 
was withheld. In return for this negligence the Thebans 
fastened a religious quarrel upon their neighbours, and secured 
a penal decree against them from the Amphictyonic synod 
(356). The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus 
and Onomarchus, replied by seizing Delphi and using its riches 
to hire a mercenary army. With the help of these troops the 
Phocian League at first carried the war into Boeotia and Thessaly , 
and though driven out of the latter country by Philip of Macedon, 
maintained itself for ten years, until the exhaustion of the 
temple treasures and the treachery of its leaders placed it at 
Philip's mercy. The conditions which he imposed the obliga- 
tion to restore the temple funds, and the dispersion of the 
population into open villages were soon disregarded. In 
339 the Phocians began to rebuild their cities; in the following 
year they fought against Philip at Chaeronea. Again in 323 
they took part in the Lamian War against Antipater, and in 
279 helped to defend Thermopylae against the Gauls. 

Henceforth little more is heard of Phocis. During the 3rd 
century it passed into the power of Macedonia and of the Aetolian 
League, to which in 196 it was definitely annexed. Under the 
dominion of the Roman republic its national league was dissolved, 
but was revived by Augustus, who also restored to Phocis the 
votes in the Delphic Amphictyony which it had lost in 346 and 
enrolled it in the new Achaean synod. The Phocian League 
is last heard of under Trajan. 

See Strabo, pp. 401, 418, 424-425; Pausanias x. 1-4; E. Freeman, 
History of Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), pp; 113114; G. 
Kazarow, Defoederis Phocensium institutis (Leipzig, 1899) ; B. Head, 
Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 287-288. 

(M. O. B. C.) 

PHOCYLIDES, Greek gnomic poet of Miletus, contemporary 
of Theognis, was born about 560 B.C. A few fragments of his 
" maxims " have been preserved (chiefly in the Florilegium of 
Stobaeus), in which he expresses his contempt for the pomps 
and vanities of rank and wealth, and sets forth in simple language 
his ideas of honour, justice and wisdom. A complete didactic 
poem (230 hexameters) called HoLrjua vovderiKov or yv>(iai, 
bearing the name of Phocylides, is now considered to be the 
work of an Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin who lived 
between 170 B.C. and A.D. 50. The Jewish element is shown in 
verbal agreement with passages of the Old Testament (especially 
the book of Sirach) ; the Christian by the doctrine of the immor- 
tality of the soul and the resurrection of the body. Some 
Jewish authorities, however, maintain that there are in reality 
no traces of Christan doctrine to be found in the poem, and 
that the author was a Jew. The poem was first printed at 
Venice in 1495, and was a favourite school textbook during 
the Reformation period. 

See fragments and the spurious poem in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici 
graeci, ii. (4th ed., 1882); J. Bernays tfber das Phokylideische 
Gedicht (1858); Phocylides, Poem of Admonition, with introduction 
and commentaries by J. B. Fenling, and translation by H. D. Good- 
win (Andover, Mass., 1879); F.'Susemihl, Geschichle der griechischen 
Litterateur in der Alexandrinerzeit, (1892), ii. 642; S. Krauss (s.v. 
" Pseudo-Phocylides ") in The Jewish Encyclopedia and E. Schurer, 
Hist, of the Jewish People, div. ii., vol. iii., 313-316 (Eng. trans., 
1886), where full bibliographies are given. There is an English verse 
translation by W. Hewett (Watford, 1840), The Perceptive Poem of 
Phocylides. 

PHOEBE, in astronomy, the ninth satellite of Saturn in 
order of discovery, or the tenth and outermost now known in 
xxi. 15 



the order of distance. It was discovered by W. H. Pickering 
in 1899 by photographs of the stars surrounding Saturn. It is 
remarkable in that its motion around the planet is retrograde. 
(See SATURN.) 

PHOEBUS (Gr. for " bright," " pure,"), a common epithet 
of Apollo (<?.!>.). Artemis in like manner is called Phoebe, and 
in the Latin poets and their modern followers Phoebus and 
Phoebe are' often used simply for the sun and moon respectively. 

PHOENICIA, in ancient geography, the name given to that 
part of the seaboard of Syria which extends from the Eleutherus 
(Nahr el-Keblr) in the north to Mt Carmel in the south, a 
distance of rather more than two degrees of latitude. These 
limits, however, were exceeded at various times; thus, north 
of the Eleutherus lay Aradus and Marathus, and south of 
Carmel the border sometimes included Dor and even Joppa. 
Formed partly by alluvium carried down by perennial streams 
from the mountains of Lebanon and Galilee, and fringed by 
great sand-dunes which the sea throws up, Phoenicia is covered 
with a rich and fertile soil. It is only at the mouth of the 
Eleutherus and at Acre ('Akka) that the strip of coast-land widens 
out into plains of any size; there is a certain amount of open 
country behind Beirut; but for the most part the mountains, 
pierced by deep river-valleys, approach to within a few miles 
of the coast, or even right down to the sea, as at Ras en-Nakura 
(Scala Tyriorum, Jos. Bell. jud. ii. 10, 2) and Ras el-Abiad 
(Pliny's Promunturium Album), where a passage had to be cut 
in the rock for the caravan road which from time immemorial 
traversed this narrow belt of lowland. From the flanks of 
Lebanon, especially from the heights which lie to the north of 
the Qasimlyeh or ICasimiya (Litany) River, the traveller looks 
down upon some of the finest landscape in the world; in general 
features the scenery is not unlike that of the Italian Riviera, 
but surpasses it in grandeur and a peculiar depth of colouring. 

With regard to natural products the country has few worth 
mentioning; minerals are found in the Lebanon, but not in any 
quantity; traces of amber-digging have been discovered on the 
coast; and the purple shell (murex trunculus and brandaris) 
is still plentiful. The harbours which played so important a 
part in antiquity are nearly all silted up, and, with the exception 
of Beirut, afford no safe anchorage for the large vessels of 
modern times. A few bays, facing towards the north, break 
the coast-line, and small rocky islands are dotted here and there 
just off the shore. Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, though now 
connected with the mainland, were built originally upon islands; 
the Phoenicians preferred such sites, because they were con- 
venient for shipping and easily defended against attack. 

The chief towns of ancient Phoenicia, as we know of them from 
the Amarna tablets (l5th century B.C.) and from Egyptian, Assyrian 
and the Old Testament documents, were the following: Acco (now 
Acre or 'Akka, Judg. i. 31), Achzib (now ez-ZIb, ibid.), Ahlab (in 
Assyrian Mahalhba, ibid.) three towns on_the coast _south of Tyre, 
Kanah (Josh. xix. 28), Tyre (Phoen. Sor, now Sur), Zarephath 
or Sarepta (l Kings xvii. 9 now Sarafand), Sidon (now Saida), 
Berytus (Biruta in Egyptian, Biruna in the Amarna tablets, now 
Beirut), Byblus (in Phoen. and Hebr. Gebal, now Jebeil), Arka, 80 m. 
north of Sidon (Gen. x. 17, now *Arka), Sin (Assyr. Siannu, ibid.) 
Simyra (Gen. x. 18, now Sumra), Marathus (now Amrit) not impor- 
tant till the Macedonian period, Arvad or Aradus (in Phoen. 
Arwad, now Ruad, Gen. x. 18; Ezek. xxvii. 8, n), the most 
northerly of the great Phoeniciari towns, and always famous as a 
maritime state. 

Race and Language. The Phoenicians were an early offshoot 
from the Semitic stock, and belonged to the Canaanite branch 
of it. Curiously enough in Gen. x. Sidon, the " first-born " 
of Canaan, is classed among the descendants of Ham; but the 
table of nations in Gen. x. is not arranged upon strict ethno- 
graphic principles; perhaps religious antagonism induced the 
Hebrews to assign to the Canaanites an ancestry different from 
their own; at any rate the close connexion which existed from 
an early date between the Phoenicians and the Egyptians may 
have suggested the idea that both peoples belonged to the same 
race. The Phoenicians themselves retained some memory of 
having migrated from older seats on an eastern sea; Herodotus 
(i. i; vii. 89) calls it the "red sea," meaning probably the 

5 



450 



PHOENICIA 



Persian Gulf; the tradition, therefore, seems to show that the 
Phoenicians believed that their ancestors came originally from 
Babylonia. By settling along the Syrian coast they developed 
a strangely un-Semitic love for the sea, and advanced on different 
lines from the other Canaanites who occupied the interior. 
They called themselves Canaanites and their land Canaan; 
such is their name in the Amarna tablets, Kinahhi and Kinahni; 
and with this agrees the statement assigned to Hecataeus 
(Fr. hist. gr. i. 17) that Phoenicia was formerly called Xva, 
a name which Philo of Byblus adopts into his mythology by 
making " Chha who was afterwards called Phoinix " the eponym 
of the Phoenicians (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569). In the reign of 
Antiochus IV. and his successors the coins of Laodicea of Libanus 
bear the legend "Of Laodicea which is in Canaan"; 1 the Old 
Testament also sometimes denotes Phoenicia and Phoenicians 
by "Canaan" and "Canaanites" (Isa. xxiii. n; Obad. 20; 
Zeph. i. u), though the latter names generally have a more ex- 
tended sense. But " Sidonians " is the usual designation both in 
the Old Testament and in the Assyrian monuments (Sidunnu) ; 
and even at the time of Tyre's greatest ascendancy we read of 
Sidonians and not Tyrians in the Old Testament and in Homer; 
thus Ethbaal king of Tyre (Jos. Ant. viii. 13, 2) is called king 
of the Sidonians in i Kings xvi. 31. In the Homeric poems we 
meet with woftoi, 2iSovii] (Od. iv. 618; TV. vi. 290; Od. xiii. 
285; //. vi. 291) and <otwces, $011*1/07 (Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288 
seq., &c.), and both terms together (Od. iv. 83 seq., II. xxiii. 
743 seq.) 2 And the Phoenicians themselves used Sidonians 
as a general name; thus in the oldest Phoenician inscription 
known (CIS. i. s = NSI., No. n), Hiram II. king of Tyre in 
the 8th century is styled " king of the Sidonians." But among 
the Greeks " Phoenicians " was the name most in use, ^OIWMS 
(plur. of $oivi) for the people and "fotfiw; for the land (cf. 
PHOENIX). The former was probably the older word, and may 
be traced to <(>ou>k=" blood-red "; the Canaanite sailors were 
spoken of as the " red men " on account of their sunburnt skin; 
then the land from which they came was called after them; 
and then probably the original connexion between $oivi!; and 
<tx>ivos was forgotten, and new forms and meanings were 
invented. Thus <t>divi came to mean a " date-palm "; but 
the date-palm is not in the least characteristic of Phoenicia, 
and can hardly grow there; <t>olvL% in this sense has no connexion 
with the original meaning of Phoenician. A derivation has been 
sought elsewhere, and the Egyptian Fenh proposed as the 
origin of the name; but the word Fenh was apparently used of 
Asiatic barbarians in general, without any special reference to the 
Phoenicians (W. M. Miiller, Asien u. Europa, p. 208 seq.). The 
Lat. Poenus is of course merely an adaptation of the Greek form. 3 
Language. Inscriptions, coins, topographical names preserved 
by Greek and Latin writers, names of persons and the Punic passages 
in the Poenulus of Plautus, all show conclusively that the Phoenician 
language belonged to the North-Semitic group, and to that sub- 
division of it which is called the Canaanite and includes Hebrew and 
the dialect of Moab. A comparison between Phoenician and Hebrew 
reveals close resemblances both in grammatical forms and in vocabu- 
lary ; in some respects older features have been preserved in Phoeni- 
cian, others are later, others again are peculiar to the dialect ; many 
words poetic or rare or late in Hebrew are common in Phoenician. 
Hence we may conclude that the two languages developed indepen- 
dently from a common ancestor, which can be no other than the 
ancient Canaanite, of which a few words have survived in the 
Canaanite glosses to the Amarna tablets (written in Babylonian). 4 
But in forming an estimate of the Phoenician language it must be 
remembered that pur material is scanty and limited in range; the 
Phoenicians were in no sense a literary people; moreover, with one 
exception (CIS. i. 5), almost all the inscriptions are subsequent 

1 Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (elsewhere abbreviated 
NSI.), No. 149 B. 8. 

2 In this passage "Phoenicians" is a general name for carriers 
of commerce, not the inhabitants of a particular country. Similarly 
" Sidonian " in //. vi. 209, is taken to mean Semites in general. 
Elsewhere " Phoenicians " are merchants, kidnappers, &c., Sidon- 
ians " are artists; to indicate nationality both names seem to be 
used indifferently, e.g. Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288, xv. 414. 

1 See especially Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phonizier, 13 sqq., and 
Winckler, Keilinschr. u. d. A. T., 3rd ed., 127. 

4 A vocabulary is given in KAT.\ 652 seq.; see further Bohl, 
Du Sprache d. Amarnabriefe (1909). 



to the 6th century B.C.; the majority belong to the 4th century 
and later, by which time the language must have undergone a 
certain amount of decay. 6 Indirectly, however, the Phoenicians 
rendered one great service to literature; they took a large 
share in the development and diffusion of the alphabet which 
forms the foundation of Greek (Herod, v. 58) and of all European 
writing. The Phoenician letters in their earlier types are practically 
identical with those used by the Hebrews (e.g. the Siloam inscr. 
NSI. No. 2), the Moabites (e.g. the Mesha stone, ibid. No. i), and the 
Aramaeans of north Syria (e.g. the Zenjirli inscrr. ibid. Nos. 61-63). 
They passed through various modifications in the course of time; 
after leaving the mother country the script acquires a more cursive, 
flowing style on the stones from Cyprus and Attica; the tendency 
becomes more strongly marked at the Punic stage; until in the 
neo-Punic, from the destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.) to the 1st 
century A.D. ; both the writing and the language reached their most 
degenerate form. As a rustic dialect the language lasted on in 
North Africa till the 5th century A.D. In his sermons St Augustine 
frequently quotes Punic words. 

History. The Phoenicians, in imitation of the Egyptians, 
claimed that their oldest cities had been founded by the gods 
themselves, and that their race could boast an 
antiquity of 30,000 years (Africanus in Syncellus, 
p. 31). Herodotus quotes (ii. 44) a more moderate 
tradition which placed the foundation of Tyre 2300 years before 
his time, i.e., c. 2756 B.C. According to Justin (xviii. 3) the 
Phoenicians, who had long been settled on the coast and occupied 
Sidon, founded Tyre in the year before the fall of Troy; possibly 
the date 1198 B.C., given byMenanderof Ephesus (in Jos. Ant. 
viii. 3, i and c. Ap. i. 18) as that from which the era of Tyre 
begins, may refer to the epoch which Justin mentions. Little 
certainty, however, can be allowed to these traditional chrono- 
logies. It is probable that in remote ages Babylonia exercised 
a considerable influence upon Syria and its coast towns; but 
Mr L.W.King has shown that the tradition, which was supposed 
to connect Sargon I. (c. 3800 B.C.) with the western land and 
sea, has been misunderstood; it was the sea in the east, i.e. the 
Persian Gulf, which Sargon crossed (Chronicles concerning 
Early Bab. Kings, vol. i. ch. 2, 1907). 

The extension of the Egyptian empire in the direction of 
Asia began about 1600 B.C. under Ahmosi (Aahmes, Amasis) I., 
the founder of the XVIIIth Dynasty, who carried E (laa 
his arms into Syria, and conquered at least Palestine Rule 
and Phoenicia, the latter being the country called c. 1600- 
Jpa-hi on the Egyptian monuments (Miiller, As. u. 110 BmC ' 
Eur. p. 181). Whether the campaign of Thothmes (Tethmosis) 
I. to the Euphrates produced any lasting results is doubtful; 
it was Thothmes III. (1503-1449) who repeated and consolidated 
the earlier conquest, and established Egyptian suzerainty 
over all the petty states of Syria and Phoenicia (see EGYPT: 
History, I.). For the geography and civilization of Canaan about 
1400 B.C. we have valuable evidence in the Egyptian papyrus 
Anastasi I., which mentions Kepuna (Gubna, Gebal-Byblus) 
the holy city, and continues: " Come then to Berytus, to Sidon, 
to Sarepta. Where is the ford of Nat- 'ana (? Nahr el-^asimlyeh, 
or a town)? Where is 'Eutu (? Usu, Palaetyrus) ? Another 
city on the sea is called a haven, D'ar (Tyre) is its name, water 
is carried to it in boats; it is richer in fish than in sands." 6 But 
the fullest information about the state of Phoenicia in the isth 
and i4th centuries B.C. comes from the Amarna tablets, among 
which are many letters from the subject princes and the 
Egyptian governors of Phoenicia to the Pharaoh. 7 It was a time 
of much political disturbance. The Hittites (q.v.) were invading 
Syria; nomads from the desert supported the invasion; and 
many of the local chiefs were ready to seize the opportunity 
to throw off the yoke of Egypt. The towns of Phoenicia were 

1 For the Phoen. inscrr. see Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum, 
pt. i., brought up to date provisionally by Repertoire d'epigr. 
sem. A selection is published by Lidzbarski, Handbuch d. nordsem. 
Epigraphik (1898); Cooke, Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions 
(I9 O 3). with translations and notes; Landau, Beitrdge z. Alter tumsk. 
d. Orients (1899-1906); Lidzbarski, Altsem. Texte (1907), pt. i. 

'See W. M. Muller, loc. cit. pp. 57, 172 sqq., 184 sqq.; Jeremias, 
Das A. T. im Lichte d. alt. Orients, p. 302 seq.; Records of the Past, 
ii. 109 seq. 

7 Winckler, Tell-el-Am. Letters Nos. 37 sqq.; Petrie, Syria and 
Egypt in the Tell el Am. Letters. 



PHOENICIA 



45* 



divided; Aradus, Simyra, Sidon supported the rebellion; Rib- 
habad, the vassal of Byblus, and Abi-melech, king of Tyre, held 
out for Egypt; but while all the towns made professions of 
fidelity, they were scheming for their own interests, and in the 
end Egypt lost them all except Byblus. The tablets which 
reveal this state of affairs are written in the language and script 
of Babylonia, and thus show indirectly the extent to which 
Babylonian culture had penetrated Palestine and Phoenicia; 
at the same time they illustrate the closeness of the relations 
between the Canaanite towns and the dominant power of 
Egypt. After the reign of Amenophis IV. (1376-1366) that 
power collapsed altogether; but his successors attempted to 
recover it, and Ramses (Rameses) II. reconquered Phoenicia 
as far as Beirut, and carved three tablets on the rock beside the 
Nahr el-Kelb to commemorate his victories; under the XlXth 
and XXth Dynasties this seems to have remained the northern 
limit of the Egyptian Empire. But in the reign of Ramses III. 
(c. 1200) great changes began to occur owing to the invasion 
of Syria by peoples from Asia Minor and Europe, which ended 
in the establishment of the Philistines on the coast near Ashkelon. 
The successors of Ramses III. lost their hold over Canaan; the 
XXIst Dynasty no longer intervened in the affairs of Syria; 
but Sheshonk (Shishak), the founder of the XXIInd Dynasty, 
about 928 B.C. endeavoured to assert the ancient supremacy of 
Egypt (cf. i Kings xiv. 25 sqq.), but his successes were not 
lasting, and, as we learn from the Old Testament, the power of 
Egypt became henceforward practically ineffective. Not until 
608 did a Pharaoh (Necho) lead an Egyptian army so far north, 
and he was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar. During the period 
which elapsed before the rise of the Assyrian power in Syria 
the Phoenicians were left to themselves. This was the period 
of their development, and Tyre became the leading city of 
Phoenicia. 

Between the withdrawal of the Egyptian rule in Syria and 
the western advance of Assyria there comes an interval during 
ladepea- which the city-states of Phoenicia owned no suzerain. 
deuce o/ The history of this period is mainly a history of 
Phoenicia. Tyre, which not only rose to a sort of hegemony 
among the Phoenician states, but founded colonies beyond 
the seas (below). From 970 to 772 B.C. the bare outline of 
events is supplied by extracts from two Hellenistic historians, 
Menander of Ephesus and Dius (largely dependent upon Menan- 
der), which have been preserved by Josephus, Ant. viii. 5, 3 
and c. Ap. i. 17, 18. From the data given in these passages 
we learn that Hiram I., son of Abi-baal, reigned in Tyre from 
970 to 936 B.C. He enlarged the island-town to the east, restored 
and enriched the temples, built new ones to Heracles (i.e. 
Melkarth or Melqarth) and Astarte, founded the feast of the 
awakening of Heracles in the month Peritius, and reduced the 
inhabitants of Utica to their allegiance. The Tyrian annals, 
moreover, alluded to the connexion between Hiram and Solomon. 
Before this time, indeed, the Phoenicians had no doubt lived 
on friendly terms with the Israelites 1 (cf. Judges v. 17; Gen. xlix. 
13); but the two nations seem to have drawn closer in the time 
of Solomon. 2 Sam. v. n, which brings David and Hiram 
together, probably antedates what happened in the following 
reign. For Solomon's palace and temple Hiram contributed 
cedar and fir trees as well as workmen, receiving in exchange 
large annual payments of oil and wine, supplies which Phoenicia 
must have drawn regularly from Israelite districts (i Kings v. 9, 
ii ; cf. Ezek. xxvii. 17; Ezr. iii. 7; Acts xii. 20; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10, 
6) ; finally, in return for the gold which he furnished for the temple, 
Hiram received the grant of a territory in Galilee (Cabul, i Kings 
ix. io-i4). 2 This alliance between the two monarchs led to a 

1 In Judges x. 12 (cf. v. 6, iii. 3) the Sidonians are mentioned 
among the oppressors of Israel ; but there is no record of any invasion 
of Israel by the Phoenicians, and the statement is due to the post- 
exilic editor who introduced generalizations of ancient history into 
the book of Judges. 

2 Jos. Ant. viii. 3, I, dates the building of Solomon's temple in 
the i Ith year of Hiram, and 420 years after the foundation of Tyre. 
This gives a Tyrian era which began in 1198-1197 B.C., i.e. at the 
time when the Philistines settled on the coast of Canaan, an event 



joint expedition from Eziongeber on the Gulf of Akaba (strictly 
Aqaba) to Ophir (? on the east coast of Arabia, see OPHIR) for 
purposes of trade. The list of Hiram's successors given by 
Josephus indicates frequent changes of dynasty until the time 
of Ithobal I. priest of Astarte, whose reign (887-855) marks a 
return to more settled rule. In contrast to Hiram I., king of 
Tyre, Ithobal or Ethbaal is styled in i Kings xvi. 31 " king of 
the Sidonians," i.e. of the Phoenicians, showing that in the 
interval the kings of Tyre had extended their rule over the other 
Phoenician cities. Under Ethbaal further expansion is recorded; 
Botrys north of Byblus and Aoza in North Africa are said to have 
been founded by him; the more famous Carthage owed its origin 
to the civil discords which followed the death of Metten I. (820), 
his next successor but one. According to tradition, Metten's 
son Pygmalion (820-773) s ^ ew the husband of his sister Elissa 
or Dido; whereupon she fled and founded Carthage (q.v.) in Libya 
(813; Justin xviii. 4-6). At this point Josephus's extracts 
from Menander come to an end. 

From the time of Ethbaal onwards the independence of 
Phoenicia was threatened by the advance of Assyria. So far 
back as noo B.C. Tiglath-pileser I. had invaded North Assyrian 
Phoenicia, and in order to secure a harbour on the Kuie, 876- 
coast he occupied Arvad (Aradus); but no permanent 6 SB.C. 
occupation followed. In the gth century, however, the system- 
atic conquest of the west began. In 876 B.C. Assur-nazir-pal III. 
" washed his weapons in the great sea," and exacted tribute 
from the kings of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus and other cities, including 
Arvad (Keilinschr. Bibliothek, i. 109). The inscriptions of 
his son Shalmaneser II. mention the taking of tribute from the 
Tyrians and Sidonians in 846 and again in 849; the Byblians 
are included at the latter date, and among the kings defeated 
at Karkar in 854 or 853 was Metten-baal, king of the Arvadites 
(ibid. pp. 141, 143, 173). Thus Shalmaneser completed the 
conquests of his predecessor on the Phoenician coast, and 
established a supremacy which lasted for over a hundred years 
and was acknowledged by occasional payments of tribute. 
In 741 Tiglath-pileser III. mentions on his tribute-lists " Hirurn 
of Tyre "; and here for the first time a piece of native evidence 
becomes available. The earliest Phoenician inscription at 
present known (CIS. i. $ = NSI. No. n) is engraved upon 
the fragments of a bronze bowl dedicated by a certain governor 
of Qarth-hadasht (or Karti-Hadasti, " New City," i.e. Citium), 
" servant of Hiram king of the Sidonians to Baal of Lebanon." 
It is to be noted that this Hiram II. was not only king 
of Tyre, as the Assyrian inscription calls him, but of 
Sidon too; and further, that by this time Tyre had established 
a colony in Cyprus (q.v.). In Tiglath-pileser's Philistine 
campaign of 734 Byblus and Aradus paid tribute, and an 
Assyrian chief officer (the Rab-shakeh) was sent to Tyre 
and extorted from the king, now Metten or Mattun, the 
large sum of 150 talents of gold (KB. ii. 23). For 
the period which follows a certain amount of information is 
furnished by Menander (in Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2). Elulaeus IX., in 
Assyrian Lull, who ruled under the name of Pylas, was king of 
Tyre, Sidon, and other cities at this time (c. 725-690), and at 
the beginning of his reign suffered from an invasion by Shal- 
maneser IV. or Salampsas (Jos.) ; this was probably the expedi- 
tion against Hoshea of Samaria in 725; " the king of Assyria . . . 
overran all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with them all 
and returned back." In the reign of Sargon Phoenicia itself 
seems to have been left alone; but the inhabitants of Citium 
revolted, showing that the authority of Tyre in Cyprus had 
grown weak; and Sargon received the submission of seven 
Cyprian princes, and set up in Larnaca (probably in 709) the 
triumphal stele now in the Berlin Museum (Schrader, Cuneif. 
Inscr. and 0. T., 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 87). But Elulaeus, according 
to Menander, suppressed the revolt of Citium, and early in the 
reign of Sennacherib joined the league of Philistia and Judah, 

which had considerable effect upon the' cities of Phoenicia (above, 
Justin xviii. 3). In the Tyrian annals (Jos. c. Ap. i. 18) the reference 
was probably to the felling of timber in Lebanon for Hiram's temples; 
Josephus then misinterpreted this by I Kings v. 6. 



452 



PHOENICIA 



in alliance with Egypt and Ethiopia, which aimed at throwing 
off the oppressive tyranny of Assyria; as usual, however, the 
city-states of Phoenicia could not combine even against a 
common foe, and several broke away from Tyre, so Menander 
tells us, and sided with Assyria. In the great campaign of 701 
Sennacherib came down upon the revolting provinces; he forced 
Lull, king of Sidon, to fly [for refuge to Cyprus, took his chief 
cities, and set up Tuba'lu (Ethbaal) as king, imposing a yearly 
tribute (KB. ii. 91). The blockade of Tyre by sea, signifi- 
cantly passed over in Sennacherib's inscription, is described by 
Menander. The island-city proved to be impregnable, but it 
was the only possession left of what had been the extensive 
kingdom of Elulaeus. Sennacherib, however, so far accomplished 
his object as to break up the combination of Tyre and Sidon, 
which had grown into a powerful state. 1 At Sidon the successor 
of Ethbaal was Abd-milkath; in alliance with a Cilician chief he 
rebelled against Esarhaddon about the year 678, with disastrous 
consequences. Sidon was annihilated; Abd-milkath fell into 
the hands of Esarhaddon, who founded a new Sidon on the 
mainland, peopled it with foreigners, and called it after his own 
name. The old name, however, survived in popular usage; 
but the character of the city was changed, and till the time of 
Cyrus the kingdom of Sidon ceased to exist (KB. ii. 125 seq., 
145; KAT. 3 88). Tyre also came in for its share of hardship. 
Elulaeus was followed by Baal, who in 672 consented to join 
Tirhaka, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, in a rebellion against 
Assyria. Esarhaddon, on his way to Egypt for the second time, 
determined to deal out punishment; he blockaded Tyre, and 
raised earthworks on the shore and cut off the water-supply; 
but he did not capture the city itself. His monument found at 
Zenjirli represents the great king holding Baal of Tyre and 
Tirhaka of Egypt by cords fastened in their lips; 2 there is no 
evidence, however, that he actually took either of them prisoner. 
Early in the reign of Assur-bani-pal Tyre was besieged again 
(668), but Assur-bani-pal succeeded no better than his prede- 
cessors. Nevertheless Baal submitted in the end, along with the 
princes of Gebal and Arvad, Manasseh of Judah, and the other 
Canaanite chiefs; in the island of Cyprus the Assyrians carried 
all before them (KB. ii. 149 seq., 169, 173). On his return 
from the Arabian campaign Assur-bani-pal severely punished 
the rebellious inhabitants of Ushu (Palaetyrus) and Akko, and 
transported the survivors to Assyria (ibid. 229). In Phoenicia, 
as elsewhere, Assyrian rule created nothing and left nothing 
behind it but a record of barbarous conquest and extortion. 
An interesting sidelight is thrown upon this period by the list 
of the Thalassocracies in the Chronicon of Eusebius (p. 226, ed. 
Schoene), which places the 45 years of the sea-power of Phoenicia 
at a date which, with much probability, may be conjectured 
to lie between 709, when Cyprus submitted to Sargon, and 664, 
when Egypt threw off the rule of Assyria. If this dating is 
correct, and the Phoenician sea-power was at its height during 
these years, we can understand why Tyre gave so much trouble 
to the Assyrian kings. 3 

In the last crisis of the dying power of Assyria the Egyptians 
for a short time laid hands on Phoenicia; but after their defeat 
TJie Neo- a *- ^ e battle of Carchemish (605), the Chaldaeans 
Babylonian became the masters of western Asia. Jeremiah's 
Period, 60S- allusion (xxv. 22) in 604 to the approaching downfall 
B ' c ' of the kings of Tyre and Sidon and the coast-land 
beyond the sea, i.e. the Phoenician settlements on the Mediter- 
ranean, seems to imply that the Phoenician states recovered 
some measure of independence; if they did it cannot have 
lasted long. In 588 Apries (Pharaoh Hophra) made an attempt 

1 The above interpretation of Menander and the Assyrian evidence 
is based upon Ed. Meyer, Ency. Bib. col. 3755. For a different 
explanation see Landau, Beitr. z. Altertumsk. d. Or. vol. i., followed by 
Winckler, Altor. Forsch. ii. 65 sqq.; these scholars take Menander to 
refer to the later war of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal against 
Baal of Tyre. 

2 See the facsimile in Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli (Berlin, 1893), 
and p. 17 for the above interpretation of it. 

1 John L. Myres, Journ. Hell. Studies (1906), xxvi. 84 seq., criticiz- 
ing Winckler, Der Alte Orient (1905), vol. vii. pt. 2. 



to displace the Chaldaean supremacy; he defeated Tyre and 
Sidon, and terrorized the other cities into submission (Herod, 
ii. 161; Diod. Sic. i. 68). Some of the Phoenician chiefs, among 
them Ithobal II., the new king of Tyre, while forced to yield to 
a change of masters, were bold enough to declare their hostility 
to the Babylonians. This state of affairs did not escape the 
vigilance of Nebuchadrezzar. After the fall of Jerusalem he 
marched upon Phoenicia; Apries withdrew his army, and the 
siege of Tyre began. For thirteen years the great merchant 
city held out (585-573; Jos. c. Ap. i. 21; cf. Ezek. xxvi. i seq.). 
Ezekiel says that Nebuchadrezzar and his host had no reward 
for their heavy service against Tyre, and the presumption is 
that the city capitulated on favourable terms; for Ithobal's 
reign ends with the close of the siege, and the royal family is 
subsequently found in Babylon. The king appointed by 
Nebuchadrezzar was Baal II. (574-564), after whose death a 
republic was formed under a single suffete or " judge " (shdjet). 
Josephus (loc. cit.)is again our authority for the changes of govern- 
ment which followed until the monarchy was revived. At 
length under Hiram III. Phoenicia passed from the Chaldaeans 
to the Persians (538), and at the same time Amasis (Ahmosi) II. 
of Egypt occupied Cyprus (Herod, ii. 182). There seems to 
have been no struggle; the great siege and the subsequent 
civil disorders had exhausted Tyre, and Sidon took its place 
as the leading state. About this time, too, Carthage made an 
effort for independence under Hanno the Great (538-521), the 
real founder of its fortunes; the old dependence upon Tyre was 
changed for a mere relation of piety observed by the annual 
sending of delegates (O&apoi) to the festival of Melkarth (Arrian 
ii. 24; Polyb. xxxi. 20, 12). The disasters and humiliations 
which befell Tyre during this and the foregoing period might 
suggest that its prosperity had been seriously damaged. But 
Tyre always counted for more in commerce than in politics; 
and in the year 586, just before the great siege, Ezekiel draws 
a vivid picture (ch. xxvii.) of the extent and splendour of its 
commercial relations. Even when cut off from its possessions 
on the mainland the city itself was not captured; its seafaring 
trade went on; and though by degrees the colonies were lost, 
yet the ties of race and sentiment remained strong enough to- 
bind the Phoenicians of the mother-country to their kindred 
beyond the seas. 

Constitution. At this point it is convenient to mention what 
little is known about the constitution of the Phoenician states. 
All Canaanite analogy speaks for kingship as the oldest form of Phoe- 
nician government. In the native inscriptions the chief of the city 
in Phoenicia itself and in Cyprus is always called king. The royal 
houses claimed divine descent, 4 and the king could not be chosen 
outside their members. His power, however, was limited by the 
wealthy merchant families, who possessed great influence in public 
affairs; thus it was possible for war or peace to be decided at Tyre 
in the king's absence, or at Sidon against his will (Arrian ii. 15 and 
16; Curtius iv. I, 15). The priest of Melkarth at Tyre was the second 
man in the kingdom. Associated with the prince was a council 
of elders; such was the case at Gebal (Byblus) from the earliest times 
to the latest (Ezek. xxvii. 9) ; at Sidon this council consisted of 100 
members (Diod. xvi. 45), perhaps also at Tyre. 6 Inscriptions of the 
3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. mention a Rab (chief) in Sidon, Cyprus 
and Gaulus (Gozo) ; what his position was it is difficult to say ; in 
the colonies he may have been a district governor. During Nebu- 
chadrezzar's time, as we have seen, a republic took the place of the 
monarchy at Tyre, and the government was administered by a 
succession of suffetes (judges); they held office for short terms, and 
in one instance two ruled together for six years. Much later, in the 
3rd century B.C., an inscription from Tyre mentions a suffete (NSI. 
No. 8) without adding more to our knowledge. Carthage, of course, 
was governed by two suffetes, and these'officers are frequently named 
in connexion with the Carthaginian colonies (NSI. p. 115 seq.); 
but we must be careful not to draw the inference that Phoenicia 
itself had any such magistrates. Under the Persians a federal bond 
was formed comprising Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, whose duty it 
was to contribute 300 triremes to the Persian fleet (Herod, vii. 89), 



4 So the Babylonians, Canaanites (e.g. in the case of the Nephilim, 
Gen. vi. 2), Arabs, Greeks, traced the descent of heroic families to 
the gods. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, p. 206; S. I. Curtis's 
Primitive Sent. Rel. To-day (London, 1902), p. 112 seq. 

6 An inscr. from Tyre may be read, " 'Abd ba'al chief of the 
Hundred," NSI. p. 129; Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil d'arch. or. 
ii. 294 seq. 



PHOENICIA 



453 



the lesser towns being under, the command of the great cities. Aradus 
presided over three subordinate townships (Arrian ii. 13) ; Berytus, 
which had no king of its own, probably formed with Byblus a 
single kingdom; while Tripolis consisted of a federation of three 
cities separated by a stadium from each other, and provided a meet- 
ing-place for the federal council, which was chiefly occupied in dealings 
with the Persian government (Diod. xvi. 41). But federation on a 
larger scale was never possible in Phoenicia, for the reason that no 
sense of political unity existed to bind the different states together. 
Commercial interests dominated everything else, and while these 
stimulated a municipal life not without vigour, civil discipline and 
loyalty were but feebly felt. On occasion the towns could defend 
their independence with strenuous courage; the higher qualities 
which make for a progressive national life the Phoenicians did not 
possess. 

Phoenicia now became part of the fifth satrapy of the Persian 
Empire, and entered upon a spell of comparative peace and 
The Persian growing prosperity. Favoured for the sake of 
Period, 538- their fleet, and having common interests against 
333 B. C. Greece, 1 the Phoenicians were among the most 
loyal subjects of the empire. At this period Sidon occu- 
pied the position of leading state; in the fleet her king 
ranked next to Xerxes and before the king of Tyre (Herod, 
viii. 67); her situation afforded advantages for expansion 
which Tyre on its small and densely populated island could not 
rival. The city was distinguished by its cosmopolitan character; 
the satrap resided there when he came to Phoenicia, and the 
Persian monarch had his paradise outside the walls. In the 
first half of the 4th century Straton I. (in Phoen. 'Abd-'ashtart 
or Bod-'ashtart) was king, c. 374-362. He cultivated friendly 
relations with Athens, indicated in a decree of proxenia (Michel, 
Rec. d'inscr. gr. No. 93 = CIG. No. 87); his court was famed 
for its luxury; and the extent to which phil-Hellenic tendencies 
prevailed at this time in Sidon is shown by the royal sarcophagi, 
noble specimens of Greek art, which have been excavated in the 
necropolis of the city. It was in the reign of Straton that Tyre 
fell into the hands of Evagoras, king of Salamis, who had already 
supplanted Phoenician with Greek civilization in Cyprus (Isocr. 
Evag. 62, Paneg. 161; Diod. xv. 2). Straton made friends with 
Nicocles, son of Evagoras, and with him came to an untimely 
end through their implication in the great revolt of the satraps, 
362 B.C. (see the story of Straton's death in Jerome, adv. Jovin. 
\. 45). A new revolt of Sidon against the Persians took place 
under King Tennes owing to the insults offered to the Sidonians 
at the federal diet in Tripolis. With the aid of Nectanebus 
of Egypt, who had grievances of his own to avenge, the Sidonians 
carried the rest of Phoenicia with them and drove the satraps 
of Syria and Cilicia out of the country. Tennes, however, 
betrayed his people and opened the city to Artaxerxes III.; 
the inhabitants to the number of 40,000 are said to have set 
fire to their houses and perished; Tennes himself was executed 
after he had served the ends of the great king (346 B.C.; Diod. 
xvi. 41-45). The last king of Sidon was Straton II. ('Abd- 
'ashtart, 346-332) before the Persian Empire came to an end. 2 
Towards the close of the 5th century the Phoenician coins begin 
to supplement our historical sources (see NUMISMATICS). From the 
time of Darius the Persian monarchs issued a gold coinage, and 
reserved to themselves the right of doing so; but they allowed their 
satraps and vassal states to coin silver and copper money at 
discretion. Hence Aradus, Byblus, Sidon and Tyre issued a coinage 
of their own, of which many specimens exist: the coins are stamped 
as a rule with emblem or name of the city, sometimes with the 
name of the ruler. 3 Thus from the coins of Byblus we learn the 
names of four kings, 'El-pa'al, "Az-ba'al (between 360 and 340 B.C.), 
Adar-melek, 'Ain-el ; from the coins of the other cities it is difficult 

1 The naval expeditions against Greece in 480-449 and Sparta 
in 396-387 were mainly fitted out by Phoenicia. See PERSIA: 
Ancient History, for the whole of this section. 

2 Justin xviii. 3 tells a story about Tyre during this period: 
the city, after being worn out though not defeated in long wars 
with the Persians, was so enfeebled that it was seized by the slaves, 
who rose and massacred their masters; one Straton alone escaped 
and was afterwards made king. The reference to the Persians is 
obviously incorrect; the story, if it can be taken seriously at all, 
must refer to one of the sieges by the Assyrians or Chaldaeans, and, 
as Meyer suggests (Ency. Bib. col. 3760), may be derived from the 
story of Abdajonymus of Sidon mentioned below. 

3 See especially E. Babelon, Les Perses Achemtnides, and cf. 
NSI. No. 149. 



to obtain much information. . The native inscriptions, however, 
now become available, though most of them belong to the period 
which follows, and only a few have been discovered in Phoenicia 
itself. One of the earliest of these is the inscription of Byblus 
(CIS. i. l = NSI. No. 3), dating from the Persian period; it 
records a dedication made by Yebaw-milk, king of Gebal, and 
mentions the name of the king's grandfather, Uri-milk, but the 
exact dates of their reign are not given. 

When Alexander the Great entered Phoenicia after the battle 
of Issus (333 B.C.), the kings were absent with the Persian fleet 
in the Aegean; but the cities of Aradus, Byblus and fhe 
Sidon welcomed him readily, the last-named showing Macedonian 
special zeal against Persia. The Tynans also offered Period, 
submission, but refused to allow the conqueror 333m69 B - c - 
to enter the city and sacrifice to the Tyrian Heracles. Alexander 
was determined to make an example of the first who should 
offer opposition, and at once began the siege. It lasted seven 
months. With enormous toil the king drove out a mole from 
the mainland to the island and thus brought up his engines; 
ships from the other Phoenician towns and from Cyprus lent 
him their aid, and the town at length was forced in July 332; 
8000 Tyrians were slain, 30,000 sold as slaves, and only a few 
notables, the king Azemilkos, and the festal envoys from Carthage 
who had taken refuge in the sanctuary of Melkarth, were spared 
(Diod. xvii. 40-46). It is not unlikely that Zech. ix. 2-4 refers 
to this famous siege. For the time Tyre lost its political 
existence, while the foundation of Alexandria presently changed 
the lines of trade, and dealt a blow even more fatal to the 
Phoenician cities. 

During the wars of Alexander's successors Phoenicia changed 
hands several times between the Egyptian and the Syrian 
kings. Thus in 312 Tyre was captured from Antigonus by 
Ptolemy I., the ally of Seleucus; in 287 it passed into the domin- 
ion of Seleucus; in 275 again it was captured by Ptolemy II. 
Philadelphus, and began to recover itself as an autonomous 
municipality. From the year 275 " the people of Tyre " 
reckoned their era (CIS. i. 7 = NSI. No. 9, cf. 10). The 
Tyrian coins of the period, stamped with native, Greek and 
Egyptian symbols, illustrate the traditional relations of the 
city and the range of her ambitions. A special interest attaches 
to these silver tetradrachms and didrachms (staters and half- 
staters), because they were used by the Jews for the payment 
of the temple tax as " shekels of the sanctuary " (NSI. pp. 
3Si, 44)- 

Among the Phoenician states we know most about Sidon 
during this period. The kingship was continued for a long 
time. The story goes that Alexander raised to the throne a 
member of the royal family, Abdalonymus, who was living in 
obscure poverty and working as a gardener (Justin xi. 10; Curt, 
iv. i; Diod. xvii. 47 wrongly connecting the story with Tyre). 
In 312 Ptolemy, then master of Phoenicia, appointed his 
general Philocles king of the Sidonians, and a decree in honour 
of this king has been found at Athens (Michel, No. 387, cf. 1261) ; 
but he cannot have reigned long. For at the end of the 4th 
and the beginning of the 3rd century we have evidence of a 
native dynasty in the important inscriptions of Tabnith, Esh- 
mun-'azar and Bod-'ashtart, and in the series of inscriptions 
(repeating the same text) discovered at Bostan esh-Shekh near 
Sidon (NSI. Nos. 4, 5, 6 and App. i.). 4 The last-named texts 
imply that the first king of this dynasty was Eshmun-'azar; 
his son Tabnith succeeded him; then came Eshmun-'azar II., 
who died young, then Bod-'ashtart, both of them grandsons 
of Eshmun-'azar I. With Bod-'ashtart, so far as we know, 
the dynasty came to an end, say about 250 B.C.; and it is not 
unlikely that the Sidonians reckoned an era of independence 
from this event (NSI. p. 95 .). 

Of the other Phoenician cities something is known of the history 
of Aradus. Its era began in 259 B.C., when it probably became a 
republic or free city. While the rest of Phoenicia passed under the 



4 The date of this dynasty has been much disputed ; but the 
reference to " the lord of kings " in the great inscr. of Eshmun- 
'azar (line 18) points to the Ptolemaic period, for the Persian monarch 
is always styled " king of kings." The interpretation of many 
details of the inscr. from Bostan esh-Shekh is still uncertain. 



454 



PHOENICIA 



rule of Ptolemy II. and his successors between 281 and 197, Aradus 
remained in the kingdom of the Seleucids, who greatly favoured the 
city and increased its privileges (Strabo xvi. 2, 14; Polyb. v. 68). 
But its subject-towns availed themselves of the political changes of 
the period to throw off their allegiance; Marathus from 278 begins 
to issue a coinage bearing the heads of the Ptolemies, and later on 
Karne asserted its independence in the same way; but in the end the 
Aradians recovered their supremacy. Diodorus records a barbarous 
attempt made by the Aradians, about 148 B.C. to destroy Marathus, 
which was frustrated by the pity and courage of an Aradian fisher- 
man (xxxiii. 5). At last in the time of Tigranes, the Armenian 
holder of the kingdom of the Seleucids, or soon afterwards, the 
coins of Marathus cease; the city was levelled to the ground, and its 
land, with that of Simyra, was parcelled out among the Aradians 
(Strabo xvi. 2, 12). Akko issued coins of its own down to 267 B.C., 
if the reckoning was from the Seleucid era (312 B.C.); in 267 it was 
converted into a Greek city by Ptolemy, and called Ptolemais 
(Polyb. iv. 37; Strabo xvi. 2, 25; cf. Acts xxi. 7). Laodicea of 
Libanus was founded by Seleucus Nicator on the plain south-east 
of Hemesa (Horns) in the region of the upper Orontes, and became 
an important city; its coins of the 2nd century B.C. bear the interest- 
ing legend in Phoenician, " Of Laodicea which is in Canaan " (NSI. 
p. 349 seq.). Another Laodicea " by the sea " (ad mare}, also of 
Seleucid foundation, is probably to be identified with the ruined 
site called Umm el-'Awamid, near the coast between Tyre and Akko; 
several Phoenician inscriptions have been found there (e.g. CIS., 
i. 7 = NSI. No. 9; Clermont Ganneau, Recueil, t. v.). 

After the death of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes in 164 B.C., 
revolts and adventurers made their appearance in many parts 
of Syria, heralding the collapse of the kingdom of the Seleucids. 
Berytus was destroyed by the usurper Trypho in 140 B.C. Tyre 
in 120 and Sidon in in received complete independence, and 
inaugurated new eras from these dates. Byblus and Tripolis 
fell into the hands of " tyrants " (Strabo xvi. 2, 18; Jos. Ant. 
xiv. 3, 2), and Arab robbers plundered their territories from 
strongholds in the Lebanon. From 83-69 B.C. the entire kingdom 
was held by the Armenian Tigranes. 

At last in 64 B.C. Pompey arrived upon the scene and established 
order out of chaos. Phoenicia was incorporated into the Roman 
province of Syria; Aradus, Sidon, Tyre and Tripolis 
were confirmed in their rights of self-government 
and in the possession of their territories. In 14 B.C. 
Augustus rebuilt Berytus as a Roman colony and stationed two 
legions there; later on Ptolemais, Tyre and Sidon received 
colonial status. Under the beneficent government of Rome the 
chief towns prospered and extended their trade; but the whole 
character of the country underwent a change. During the 
Macedonian period Greek influences had been steadily gaining 
ground in Phoenicia; relations with the Greek world grew closer; 
the native language fell into disuse, and from the beginning of 
the Roman occupation Greek appears regularly in inscriptions 
and on coins, though on the latter Phoenician legends do not 
entirely vanish till the 2nd century A.D.; while the extent to 
which Hellenic ideas penetrated the native traditions and 
mythologies is seen in the writings of Philo of Byblus. For the 
purposes of everyday life, however, the people spoke not Greek, 
but Aramaic. As elsewhere, the Roman rule tended to obliterate 
characteristic features of national life, and under it the native 
language and institutions of Phoenicia became extinct. 

Navigation, Trade, Colonies. The Phoenicians were essentially 
a seafaring nation. Fearless and patient navigators, they 
ventured into regions where no one else dared to go, and, always 
with an eye to their monopoly, they carefully guarded the secrets 
of their trade routes and discoveries, and their knowledge of 
winds and currents. At the beginning of the 7th century B.C. a 
Phoenician fleet is said to have circumnavigated Africa (Herod, 
iv. 42). To the great powers Phoenician ships and sailors were 
indispensable; Sennacherib, Psammetichus and Necho, Xerxes, 
Alexander, all in turn employed them for their transports and 
sea-fights. Even when Athens had developed a rival navy 
Greek observers noted with admiration the discipline kept on 
board the Phoenician ships and the skill with which they were 
handled (Xen. Oec. viii.); all the Phoenician vessels from the 
round merchant-boat (7aOXos after which the island of Gaulus, 
now Gozo, near Malta was called) to the great Tarshish-ships, 
the " East-Indiamen " of the ancient world, excelled those of 
the Greeks in speed and equipment. As E. Meyer points out, 



the war between the Greeks and the Persians was mainly a 
contest between the sea-powers of Greece and Phoenicia. At 
what period did Phoenicia first rise to be a power in the Mediter- 
ranean? We are gradually approaching a solution of this 
obscure problem. Recent discoveries in Crete (q.v.) have brought 
to light the existence of a Cretan or " Minoan " sea-power of 
remote antiquity, and it is clear that a great deal of what used 
to be described as Phoenician must receive quite a different 
designation. The Minoan sea-power was at last broken up by 
invaders from the north, and a Carian rule became dominant 
in the Aegean (Herod, i. 171; Thucyd. i. 4, 8). It was a time 
of disorder and conflict due to the immigration of new races 
into the ancient seats of civilization, and it synchronized with 
the weakening of the power of Egypt in the countries which 
bordered on the eastern Mediterranean. This was in the i2th 
century B.C. The Tyrian trader saw that his opportunity was 
come, and the Aegean lay open to his merchant vessels. Where 
much is still obscure, all that seems certain is that the antiquity 
of Phoenicia as a sea and trading power has been greatly 
exaggerated both in ancient and in modern times; the Minoan 
power of Cnossus preceded it by many centuries; the influence 
of Phoenicia in the Aegean cannot be carried back much earlier 
than the I2th century B.C., and, comparatively speaking, it was 
" foreign, late, sporadic." 1 

A vivid description of the Phoenicians' trade at the time of 
Tyre's prosperity is given by Ezekiel (xxvii. 12-25), an d it shows 
how extensive were their commercial relations not only by sea, 
but by land as well. It was they who distributed to the rest 
of the world the wares of Egypt and Babylonia (Herod, i. i). 
From the lands of the Euphrates and Tigris regular trade-routes 
led to the Mediterranean with trading-stations on the way, 
several of which are mentioned by Ezekiel (xxvii. 23). In Egypt 
the Phoenician merchants soon gained a foothold; they alone 
were able to maintain a profitable trade in the anarchic times 
of the XXIInd and XXIIIrd Dynasties (825-650 B.C.), when all 
other foreign merchants were frightened away. Though there 
were never any regular colonies of Phoenicians in Egypt, the 
Tyrians had a quarter of their own in Memphis (Herod, ii. 112). 
The Arabian caravan-trade in perfume, spices and incense passed 
through Phoenician hands on its way to Greece and the West 
(Herod, iii. 107); these articles of commerce were mainly pro- 
duced not in Arabia, but in East Africa and India, and the trade 
had its centre in the wealthy state of Sheba in Yemen. Between 
Israel and Phoenicia the relations naturally were close; the 
former provided certain necessaries of life, and received in 
exchange articles of luxury and splendour (Ezek xxvii. i6-i8). 2 
Israelite housewives sold their homespun to Phoenician pedlars 
(Prov. xxxi. 24 R.V.M.); in Jerusalem Phoenician merchants 
and money-lenders had their quarter (Zeph. i. n), and after 
the Return we hear of Tyrians selling fish and all manner of ware 
in the city (Neh. xiii. 16), and introducing other less desirable 
imports, such as foreign cults (Isa. Ixv. n). The Phoenician 
words which made their way into Greek at an early period indi- 
cate the kind of goods in which the Phoenicians traded with the 
West, or made familiar through their commerce; the following 
are some of them xP va *> X tT & v > PU&&OS, odovrj, nvppa, cd/3Xa, 
icinrpos, <t>vKos, nva, TraXXaxis, /JcuruXoj. Another valuable 
article of commerce which the Phoenicians brought into the 
market was amber. They can hardly have fetched it themselves 
from the Baltic or the North Sea; it came to them by two well- 
marked routes, one from the Baltic to the Adriatic, the other 
up the Rhine and down the Rhone. A deposit of amber has 
also been found in the Lebanon, and perhaps the Phoenicians 
worked this and concealed its origin. 

1 Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (1907), 140 sqq. It may be noted 
that the traditional or conjectural dates based upon the list of the 
Thalassocracies preserved by Eusebius carry us back to the I2th 
century B.C. See Professor John L. Myres's essay referred to above, 

iii- (4)- 

* See Eupolemus (140-100 B.C.) quoted by Alexander Polyhistor, 
who, in a supposed letter from Solomon to the king of Tyre, 
mentions the food-supplies required by the Tyrians and promised 
from Palestine (Fr. Hist. Gr. iii. 226). 



PHOENICIA 



455 



The Phoenician colonies were all supposed to have been founded 
from Tyre: with regard to the colonies in Cyprus and north 
Africa this was undoubtedly true. Cyprus possessed resources 
of timber and copper which could not fail to tempt the keen-eyed 
traders across the water, who made Citium (from Kittim, the 
name of the original non-Semitic inhabitants) their chief settle- 
ment, and thence established themselves in Idalium, Tamassus, 
Lapethus, Larnaka, Qarth-hadasht (Karti-hadasti) and other 
towns. In the inscriptions of the 4th to 3rd centuries, the 
Phoenician potentates in the island call themselves " kings of 
Kition and Idalion " (NSI. pp. 55-89). But the Phoenician 
rule was not so ancient as used to be supposed. At an early 
period Greeks from the south coast of Asia Minor had settled 
in Cyprus before the Phoenicians founded any colonies there; 
and it is noticeable that in the Assyrian tribute-lists of the latter 
half of the 7th century (KB. ii. pp. 149, 241) not one of the ten 
Cyprian kings mentioned appears to be Phoenician by name. 
Menander states (Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2) that the kings of Tyre 
ruled over Cyprus at the close of the 8th century; but a clear 
proof that the Phoenician rule was neither ancient nor uninter- 
rupted is given by the fact that the Cyprian Greeks took the 
trouble to invent a Greek cuneiform character (Cypriote) modelled 
on the Assyrian. 

Homer represents the Phoenicians as present in Greek waters 
for purposes of traffic, but not as settlers (II. xxiii. 744). They 
occupied trading-stations on some of the Aegean islands and 
on the Isthmus of Corinth. One of their objects was the collec- 
tion of murex, of which an enormous supply was needed for the 
dyeing industry; specially famous was the purple of the Laconian 
waters, the isles of Elishah of Ezek. xxvii. 7. But a great deal 
of what was formerly assigned to Phoenician influence in the 
Aegean at an early period pottery, ornaments and local myths 
must be accounted for by the vigorous civilization of ancient 
Crete. In the Greek world the Phoenicians made themselves 
heartily detested; their characteristic passion for gain (ri> 
<f>i\oxphna.Tov, Plato, Rep. iv. 435 E.) was not likely to in- 
gratiate them with those who were compelled to make use of 
their services while they suffered from their greed. 

Farther west in the Mediterranean Phoenician settlements 
were planted first in Sicily, on the south coast, at Heraclea or 
Ras Melqarth; the islands between Sicily and Africa, Melita 
(Malta) on account of its valuable harbour, Gaulus and Cossura 
were also occupied (Diod. v. 12) ; and a beginning was made with 
the colonization of Sardinia and Corsica; but farther west still, 
and on the Atlantic coasts to the right and left of the straits, 
more permanent colonies were established. It was the trade 
with Tarshish, i.e. the region of Tartessus in south-west Spain, 
which contributed most to the Phoenicians' wealth; for in this 
region they owned not only profitable fisheries, but rich mines 
of silver and other metals. The profits of the trade were 
enormous; it was said that even the anchors of ships returning 
from Spain were made of silver (Diod. v. 35). From Gadeira 
(Punic Coder, Lat. Cades, now Cadiz), the town which they built 
on an island near the mouth of the Guadalquiver, the Sidonian 
ships ventured farther on the ocean and drew tin from the mines 
of north-west Spain or from the richer deposits in the Cassiterides, 
i.e. the Tin Islands. These were discovered to be, not a part of 
Britain as was imagined at first, but a separate group by them- 
selves, now known as the Scillies; hence it is improbable that 
the Phoenicians ever worked the tin-mines in Cornwall. 

The rich trade with Spain led to the colonization of the West. 
Strabo dates the settlements beyond the Pillars of Hercules soon 
after the Trojan War (i. 3, 2), in the period of Tyre's first expan- 
sion. Lixus in Mauretania, Gades and Utica, are said to have been 
founded, one after the other, as far back as the I2th century B.C. 
Most of the African colonies were no doubt younger; we have 
traditional dates for Aoza (887-855) and Carthage (813). A 
large part of North-west Africa was colonized from Phoenicia; 
owing to these first settlers, and after them to the Carthaginians, 
the Phoenician language became the prevailing one, just as 
Latin and Arabic did in later times, and the country assumed 
quite a Phoenician character. 



In the days of Tyre's greatness her power rested directly on the 
colonies, which, unlike those of Greece, remained subject to the 
mother-city, and paid tithes of their revenues to its chief god, 
Melqarth, and sent envoys annually to his feast. Then at the 
beginning of the 8th century B.C. the colonial power of Tyre began 
to decline; on the mainland and in Cyprus the Assyrians gained 
the upper hand; in the Greek islands the Phoenicians had already 
been displaced to a great extent by the advancing tide of Dorian 
colonization. But as Tyre decayed in power the colonies turned 
more and more to Carthage as their natural parent and protector. 
For effective control over a colonial empire Carthage had the 
advantage of situation over far-away Tyre; the traditional 
bonds grew lax and the ancient dues ceased to be paid, though 
as late as the middle of the 6th century Carthage rendered tithes 
to the Tyrian Melqarth. And the mother-country cherished 
its claims long after they had lost reality; in the 2nd century 
B.C., for example, Sidon stamped her coins with the legend, 
" Mother of Kambe (i.e. Carthage), Hippo, Kition, Tyre " 
(NSI. p. 352). 

Manufactures, Inventions, Art. From an early date the towns 
of the Phoenician coast were occupied, not only with distributing 
the merchandise of other countries but with working at industries 
of their own; especially purple-dyeing and textile fabrics (II. vi. 
280 sqq.), metal work in silver, gold and electrum (//. xxiii. 741 sqq.; 
Od. iv. 615 sqq., xv. 458 sqq.), and glass-work, which had its seat at 
Sidon. The iron and copper mines of Cyprus (not Sidon, as Homer 
implies, Od. xv. 424) furnished the ore which was manufactured into 
articles of commerce. 1 Egyptian monuments frequently mention the 
vessels of gold and silver, iron and copper, made by the Dahi, i.e. 
the Phoenicians (W. M. M tiller, As. u. Ear. 306) ; and in Cyprus and 
at Nimrud bronze and silver paterae have been found, engraved 
with Egyptian designs, the work of Phoenician artists (see table- 
cases C and D in the Nimrud gallery of the Brit. Mus.). The inven- 
tion of these various arts and industries was popularly ascribed to 
the Phoenicians, no doubt merely because Phoenician traders 
brought the products into the market. But dyeing and embroidery 
probably came from Babylon in the first instance; glass- making 
seems to have been borrowed from Egypt ; the invention of arithmetic 
and of weights and measures must be laid to the credit of the Baby- 
lonians. The ancients believed that the Phoenicians invented the 
use of the alphabet (e.g. Pliny, N.H. v. 13, cf. yii. 57; Lucan, 
Bell. Civ. iii. 220 sen.) ; but it is unlikely that any genuine tradition on 
the subject existed, and though the Phoenician theory has found 
favour in modern times it is open to much question. The Phoeni- 
cians cannot be said to have invented any of the arts or industries, 
as the ancient world imagined; but what they did was something 
hardly less meritorious: they developed them with singular skill, 
and disseminated the knowledge and use of them. 

The art of Phoenicia is characterized generally by its dependence 
upon the art of the neighbouring races. It struck out no original 
line of its own, and borrowed freely from foreign, especially Egyptian, 
models. Remains of sculpture, engraved bronzes and gems, show 
clearly the source to which the Phoenician artists went for inspira- 
tion; for example, the uraeus-frieze and the winged disk, the ankh 
or symbol of life, are Egyptian designs frequently imitated. It was 
in the times of the Persian monarchy that Phoenician art reached 
its highest development, and to this period belong the oldest sculp- 
tures and coins that have come down to us. A characteristic 
specimen of the former is the stele of Yehaw-milk, king of Gebal 
(CIS. i. i), in which the king is represented in Persian dress, and 
the goddess to whom he is offering a bowl looks exactly like an 
Egyptian Isis-Hathor; the inscription mentions the various objects 
of bronze and gold, engraved work and temple furniture, which the 
king dedicated. The whole artistic movement in Phoenicia may be 
divided into two great periods: in the first, from the earliest times 
to the 4th century B.C-, Egyptian influence and then Babylonian 
or Asiatic influence is predominant, but the national element is 
strongly marked ; while in the second, Greek influence has obtained 
the mastery, and the native element, though making itself felt, 
is much less obtrusive. Throughout these periods works of art, 
such as statues of the gods and sarcophagi, were imported direct 
at first from Egypt and afterwards mainly from Rhodes. The 
oldest example of native sarcophagi are copied from Egyptian 
mummy-cases, painted with colours and ornamented with carvings 
in low relief; towards and during the Greek period the contours of 
the body begin to be marked more clearly on the cover. The finest 
sarcophagi that have been found in the necropolis of Sidon (now in 
the Imperial Museum, Constantinople) are not Phoenician at all, 
but exquisite specimens of Greek art. The Phoenicians spent much 
care on their burial-places, which have furnished the most important 



1 Traces of ancient mining for iron have been found in the 
Lebanon; cf. LXX. i Kings ii. 46c (ed. Swete), which has been taken 
to refer to this quarrying in search of iron; Jer. xv. 12. See 
Benzinger on I Kings ix. 19. 



456 



PHOENICIA 



monuments left to us. The tombs are subterranean chambers 
of varied and often irregular form, sometimes arranged in two storeys, 
sometimes in several rows one behind the other. While in early 
times a mere perpendicular shaft led to these excavations, at a 
later date stairs were constructed down to the chambers. The dead 
were buried either in the floor (often in a sarcophagus), or, according 
to later custom, in niches. The mouths of the tombs were walled 
up and covered with slabs, and occasionally cippi (Phoen. ma^eboth) 
were set up to mark the spot. The great sepulchral monuments, 
popularly called maghazil, i.e. " spindles," above the tombs near 
Amrit, have peculiarities of their own; some of them are adorned 
with lions at the base and with roofs of pyramidal shape. Besides 
busts and figurines, which belong as a rule to the Greek period, 
the smaller objects usually found are earthen pitchers and lamps, 
glass-wares, tesserae and gems. Of buildings which can be called 
architectural few specimens now exist on Phoenician soil, for the 
reason that for ages the inhabitants have used the ruins as con- 
venient quarries. Not a vestige remains of the great sanctuary 
of Melqarth at Tyre ; a few traces of the temple of Adonis near Byblus 
were discovered by Renan, and a peculiar mausoleum, Burj al- 
Bezzaq, is still to be seen near Amrit; recent excavations at Bostan 
esh-Shekh near Sidon have unearthed parts of the enclosure or 
foundations of the temple of Eshmun (NSI. p. 401); the conduits 
of Ras el-'Ain, south of Tyre, are considered to be of ancient date. 
With regard to the plan and design of a Phoenician temple, it is 
probable that they were in many respects similar to those of the 
temple at Jerusalem, and the probability is confirmed by the re- 
mains of a sanctuary near Amrit, in which there is a cella standing 
in the midst of a large court hewn out of the rock, together with 
other buildings in an Egyptian style. The two pillars before the 
porch of Solomon's temple (i Kings vii. 21) remind us of the two 
pillars which Herodotus saw in the temple of Melqarth at Tyre 
(Herod, ii. 44), and of those which stood before the temples of 
Paphos and Hierapolis (see W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent. p. 468 seq.). 

Religion. Like the Canaanites of whom they formed a branch, 
the Phoenicians connected their religion with the great powers and 
processes of nature. 1 The gods whom they worshipped 
PA Id belonged essentially to the earth; the fertile field, trees 
and mountains, headlands and rivers and springs, were 
believed to be inhabited by different divinities, who were 
therefore primarily local, many in number, with no one in 
particular supreme over the rest. It seems, however, that as time 
went on some of them acquired a more extended character; thus 
Ba'al and Astarte assumed celestial attributes in addition to 
their earthly ones, and the Tyrian Melqarth combined a celestial 
with a marine aspect. 2 The gods in general were called 'elonim, 
'elim; Plautus uses alonium valonuth for "gods and goddesses" 
(Poen. v. i, i). These plurals go back to the singular form 'El, 
the common Semitic name for God ; but neither the singular nor the 
plural is at all common in the inscriptions (NSI. pp. 24, 41, 5'); 
El by itself has been found only once; 3 the fern. 'Elath is also rare 
(ibid. pp. 135, 158). The god or goddess was generally called the 
Ba'al or Ba'alath of such and such a place, a title which was used not 
only by the Canaanites, but by the Aramaeans (Be'el) and Babylo- 
nians (Bel) as well. There was no one particular god called Baal ; 
the word is not a proper name but an appellative, a description of 
the deity as owner or mistress; and the same is the case with Milk 
or Melek, 'Adon, 'Amma, which mean king, lord, matter. The 
god himself was unnamed or had no name. Occasionally we know 
what the name was; the Baal of Tyre was Melqarth (Melkarth), 
which again means merely " king of the city "; similarly among the 
Aramaeans the Ba'al of Harran was the moon-god Sin. As each 
city or district had its own Ba'al, the author of its fertility, the 
" husband " (a common meaning of ba'al) of the land which he ferti- 
lized, so there were many Ba'als, and the Old Testament writers 
could allude to the Ba'alim of the neighbouring Canaanites. Some- 
times the god received a distinguishing attribute which indicates 
an association not with any particular place, but with some special 
characteristic; the most common forms are Ba'al-hamman, the chief 
deity of Punic north Africa, perhaps " the glowing Ba'al," the god 
of fertilizing warmth, and Ba'al-shamem, " Ba'al of the heavens." * 
The latter deity was widely venerated throughout the North- 
Semitic world; his name, which does not appear in the Phoenician 
inscriptions before the 3rd century B.C., implies perhaps a more 
universal conception of deity than existed in the earlier days. 6 

| Cf. Hannibal's oath to Philip of Macedon ; beside the named 
deities he invokes the gods of " sun and moon and earth, of rivers 
and meadows and waters " (Polyb. vii. 9). 

2 This is well brought out by G. F. Hill, Church Quarterly Rev. 
(April 1908), pp. 118-141, who specially emphasizes the evidence of 
the Phoenician coins. 

'"To the lord 'El, which Ba'al-shillem . . . vowed," &c. ; 
Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil, v. 376. 

1 Probably " the detested thing that causes horror " (aav ppe>) 
of Dan. xii. n, xi. 31, &c., is an intentional disfigurement of OOP 7jn, 

'The name has been found on an important Aramaic inscr. 
from North Syria, dating c. 800 B.C., in which Zakir, king of 
Hamath and La'ash frequently speaks of his god Be'el-shamin 
(Pognon, Inscr. sent, de la Syrie, 1908). 



The worship of the female along with the male principle was a 
strongly marked feature of Phoenician religion. To judge from the 
earliest evidence on the subject, the Ba'alath of Gebal or Byblus, 
referred to again and again in the Amarna letters (Bilit Sa Gubla, 
Nos. 55-110), must have been the most popular of the Phoenician 
deities, as her sanctuary was the oldest and most renowned. The 
mistress of Gebal was no doubt 'Ashtart (Astarte in Greek, 'Ashtoreth 
in the Old Testament, pronounced with the vowels of bosheth, 
" shame "), a name which is obviously connected with the Babylon- 
ian Ishtar, and, as used in Phoenician, is practically the equivalent 
of " goddess." She represented the principle of fertility and genera- 
tion ; references to her cult at Gebal, Sidon, Ashkelon, in Cyprus 
at Kition and Paphos, in Sicily at Eryx, in Gaulus, at Carthage, 
are frequent in the inscriptions and elsewhere. The common 
epithetsK6irpis and Ku0epeia(of Kuthera in Cyprus) ,Cypria and Paphia, 
show that she was identified with Aphrodite and Venus. Though 
not primarily a moon-goddess, she sometimes appears in this 
character (Lucian, Dea syr. 4; Herodian v. 6, 10), and Herodotus 
describes her temple at Ashkelon as that of the heavenly Aphrodite 
(i. 105). We find her associated with Ba'al and called " the name of 
Ba'al," i.e. his manifestation, though this rendering is disputed, 
and some scholars prefer " 'Ashtart of the heaven of Ba'al " (NSI. 
p. 37). Another goddess, specially honoured at Carthage, is Tanith 
(pronunciation uncertain); nothing is known of her characteristics; 
she is regularly connected with Ba'al on the Carthaginian votive 
tablets, and called " the face of Ba'al," i.e. his representative or 
revelation, though again some question this rendering as too meta- 
physical, and take " face of Ba'al " to be the name of a place, like 
Peni'el (" face of 'El "). Two or three other deities may be men- 
tioned here : Eshmun, the god of vital force and healing, worshipped 
at Sidon especially, but also at Carthage and in the colonies, identi- 
fied by the Greeks with Asclepius; Melqarth, the patron deity of 
Tyre, identified with Heracles; Reshef or Reshuf, the " flame or 
" lightning " god, especially popular in Cyprus and derived originally 
from Syria, whom the Greeks called Apollo. A tendency to form a 
distinct deity by combining the attributes of two produced such 
curious fusions as Milk-'ashtart, Milk-ba'al, Milk- osir, Eshmun- 
melqarth, Melqarth-resef, &c. As in the case of art and industries, 
so in religion the Phoenicians readily assimilated foreign ideas. The 
influence of Egypt was specially strong (NSI. pp. 62, 69, 148, 154); 
thus the Astarte represented on the stele of Yebaw-milk, mentioned 
above, has all the appearance of Isis, who, according to the legend 
preserved by Plutarch (de Is. et Os. 15), journeyed to Byblus, where 
she was called Astarte. The Phoenician settlers at the Peiraeus 
worshipped the Assyrian Nergal, and their proper names are com- 
pounded with the names of Babylonian and Arabian deities (NSI. 
p. 101). Closer intimacy with the Greek world naturally brought 
about modifications in the character of the native gods, which 
became apparent when Ba'al of Sidon or Ba'al-shamem was identified 
with Zeus, Tanith with Demeter or Artemis, 'Anath with Athena, 
&c. ; the notion of a supreme Ba'al, which finds expression in the 
Greek /3ij\os and /JaaXris or ^Xflijs (the goddess of Byblus), was no 
doubt encouraged by foreign influences. On the other hand, the 
Phoenicians produced a considerable effect upon Greek and Roman 
religion, especially from the religious centres in Cyprus and Sicily. 
A great number of divinities are known only as elements in proper 
names, e.g. Sakun-yathon (Sanchuniathon), 'Abd-sasom, ^ed-yathon, 
and fresh ones are continually being discovered. It was the custom 
among the Phoenicians, as among other Semitic nations, to use the 
names of the gods in forming proper names and thus to express devo- 
tion or invoke favour; thus Hanni-ba'al, 'Abd-melqarth, Hanni- 
'ashtart, Eshmun- "azar. The proper names further illustrate the 
way in which the relation of man to God was regarded ; the common- 
est forms are servant ('abd, e.g. 'Abd-'ashtart), member or limb bod, 
e.g. Bod-melqarth), client or guest (ger, e.g. Ger-eshmun); the 
religious idea of the guest of a deity had its origin in the social custom 
of extending hospitality to a stranger and in the old Semitic right 
of sanctuary. The interpretation of such names as 'Abi-ba'al 
(father of Ba'al), Himilkath (brother of Milkath), Hiram (brother 
of the exalted one) is not altogether certain, and can hardly be 
discussed here. 8 

Probably like other Canaanites the Phoenicians offered worship 
" on every high hill and under every green tree " ; but to judge from 
the allusions to sanctuaries in the inscriptions and else- 
where, the Ba'al or 'Ashtart of a place was usually 
worshipped at a temple, which consisted of a court or 
enclosure and a roofed shrine with a portico or pillared 
hall at the entrance. In the court sometimes stood a conical stone, 
probably the symbol of Astarte, as on the Roman coins of Byblus 
(illustrated in Rawlinson, Phoenicia, 146, Perrot et Chipiez, Hist, 
de Vart, iii. 60; see also Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus, pi. Ivi., the 
temenos at Idalion). Stone or bronze images of the gods were set 
up in the sanctuaries (NSI. Nos. 13 seq., 23-27, 30, &c.) ; and besides 
these the baetylia (meteoric stones) which were regarded as symbols 
of the gods. Pillars, again, had a prominent place in the court or be- 
fore the shrine (najoft, ibid. pp. 102 seq.) ; but it is not known whether 
the sacred pole ('asherah), an invariable feature of a Canaanite sanc- 
tuary, was usual in a Phoenician temple (ibid. pp. 50 seq.). The 

8 See Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 44 seq. 



PHOENIX 



457 



inscriptions mention altars of stone and bronze, and from the sacrificial 
tariffs which have survived we learn that the chief types of sacrifice 
among the Phoenicians were analogous to those which we find in 
the Old Testament (ibid. p. 117). The ghastly practice of sacrificing 
human victims was resorted to in times of great distress (e.g. at 
Carthage, Diod. xx. 14), or to avert national disaster (Porphyry, 
de Abstin, ii. 56) ; Philo gives the legend that Cronus or El sacrificed 
his only son when his country was threatened with war (Fr. hist, 
gr. iii. 570); it was regarded as a patriotic act when Hamilcar 
threw himself upon the pyre after the disastrous battle of Himera 
(Herod, vii. 167). The god who demanded these victims, and 
especially the burning of children, seems to have been Milk, the 
Molech or Moloch of the Old Testament. In this connexion may be 
mentioned the custom of burning the chief god of the city in effigy, 
or in the person of a human representative, at Tyre and in the Tyrian 
colonies, such as Carthage and Gades ; the custom lasted down to a 
late time (see Frazer, loc. cit. ch. v.). Another horrible sacrifice was 
regularly demanded by Phoenician religion: women sacrificed their 
virginity at the shrines of Astarte in the belief that they thus pro- 
pitiated the goddess and won her favour (Frazer, ibid. ch. iii.) ; licen- 
tious rites were the natural accompaniment of the worship of the 
reproductive powers of nature. These temple prostitutes are called 
qedeshim qedeshoth, i.e. sacred men, women, in the Old Testament 
(Deut. xxiii. 18; I Kings xiv. 24, &c.). Other persons attached to a 
temple were priests, augurs, sacrificers, barbers, officials in charge 
of the curtains, masons, &c. (NSI. No. 20); we hear also of 
religious gilds and corporations, perhaps administrative councils, 
associated with the sanctuaries (ibid. pp. 94, 121, 130, 144 seq.). 
No doubt the Phoenicians had their legends and myths to account 
for the origin of man and the universe ; to some extent these would 
have resembled the ideas embodied in the book of 
Genesis. Two cosmogonies have come down to us 



is Ideas } vn ' cn ' though they diner in details, are fundamentally 
in agreement. The one, of Sidonian origin, is pre- 
served by Damascius (de prim, principiis, 125) and received at 
his hands a Neoplatonic interpretation; this cosmogony was 
probably the writing which Strabo ascribes to a Sidonian philosopher, 
Mochus, who lived before the Trojan times (xvi. 2, 24). The other 
and more elaborate work was composed by Philo of Byblus (temp. 
Hadrian) ; he professed that he had used as his authority the writings 
of Sanchuniathon (q.v.), an ancient Phoenician sage, who again 
derived his information from the mysterious inscribed stones 
(ciyUjuouws = D':D.I, i.e. images or pillars of Ba'al-hamman) in 
the Phoenician temples. Philo's cosmogony has been preserved, 
at least in fragments, by Eusebius in Proep. evang. vol. i. (Fr. hist. 
gr. iii. 563 sqq.). It cannot, however, betaken seriously asan account 
of genuine Phoenician beliefs. For Sanchuniathon is a mere literary 
fiction ; and Philo's treatment is vitiated by an obvious attempt to 
explain the whole system of religion on the principles of Euhemerus, 
an agnostic who taught the traditional mythology as primitive 
history, and turned all the gods and goddesses into men and women ; 
and further by a patriotic desire to prove that Phoenicia could outdo 
Greece in the venerable character of its traditions, that in fact Greek 
mythology was simply a feeble and distorted version of the Phoeni- 
cian. 1 At the same time Philo did not invent all the nonsense which 
he has handed down; he drew upon various sources, Greek and 
Egyptian, some of them ultimately of Babylonian origin, and in- 
cidentally he mentions matters of interest which, when tested by 
other evidence, are fairly well supported. He shows at any rate 
that some sort of a theology existed in his day ; particularly interest- 
ing is his description of the symbolic figure of Cronus with eyes before 
and behind and six wings open and folded (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569), a 
figure which is represented on the coins of Gebal-Byblus (2nd cen- 
tury B.C.) as the mythical founder of the city. It is evident that 
the gods were regarded as being intimately concerned with the 
lives and fortunes of their worshippers. The vast number of small 
votive tablets found at Carthage prove this : they were all inscribed 
by grateful devotees " to the lady Tanith, Face of Ba'al, and the 
lord Ba'al-hamman, because he heard their voice." The care which 
the Phoenicians bestowed upon the burial of the dead has been 
alluded to above; pillars (mas.s.eboth) were set up to commemorate 
the dead among the living (e.g. NSI. Nos. 18, 19, 21, 32); if there 
were no children to fulfil the pious duty, a monument would be set 
up by a man during his lifetime (ibid. No. 16; cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). 
Any violation of the tomb was regarded with the greatest horror 
(ibid. Nos. 4, 5). The grave was called a resting-place (ibid. Nos. 4, 
5, 1 6, 21 ), and the departed lay at rest in the underworld with the 
Refaim, the weak ones (the same word and idea in the Old Testa- 
ment, Isa. xiv. 9, xxvi. 14, 19; Job xxvi. 5; Ps. Ixxxviii. II, &c.). 
The curious notion prevailed, as it did also among the Greeks and 
Romans, that it was possible to communicate with the gods of the 
underworld by dropping into a grave a small roll of lead (lobelia 
devotionis, NSI. No. 50), inscribed with the message, generally a 
curse, which it was desired to convey to them. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal works bearing on the subject 
have been mentioned in the text and notes of this article. The 

1 An excellent and critical account of Philo's work is given by 
Lagrange, Etudes sur les rel. sem (2nd ed., 1905), ch. xi. 



following may be added: Movers, Die Phonizier (1842-1856), to be 
used with caution; Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1864); Schroder, 
Die phonizische Sprache (1869); Stade in Morgenlandische Forsch- 
ungen (1875); W. Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religions- 
geschichte (1876, 1878) ; Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religions- 
geschichte (1888) ; Levy, Siegel und Gemmen (1869) ; I. L. Myres and 
Richter, Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum (1899) ; G. F. Hill, Catalogue 
of the Greek Coins of Cyprus (1904); V. Berard, Les Pheniciens et 
I Odyssee (1902-1903); Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epi- 
graphik (1902-1906); H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen 
(1893-1906); Freiherr von Landau, " Die Bedeutung der Phonizier 
im Volkerleben " in Ex oriente lux (Leipzig, 1905), vol. i. ; Bruston, 
Etudes Ph6n. (1903) ; the articles by Thatcher in Hastings's Diet. Bible 
(1900) and by E. Meyer in the Ency. Bib. (1902). The articles by A. 
von Gutschmid and Albrecht Socin in the Ency. Brit, (gth ed.) have 
been to some extent incorporated in the present article. (G. A. C.*) 

PHOENIX (Gr. <oiw), a fabulous sacred bird of the Egyptian^. 
The Greek word is also used for a date-palm, a musical in- 
strument like a guitar, and the colour purple-red or crimson. 
According to the story told to Herodotus (ii. 73), the bird 
came from Arabia every 500 years, bearing his father embalmed 
in a ball of myrrh, and buried him in the temple of the sun. 
Herodotus, who had never seen the phoenix himself, did not 
believe this story, but he tells us that the pictures of it represented 
a bird with golden and red plumage, closely resembling an eagle 
in size and shape. According to Pliny (Nat. hist. x. 2), there 
is only one phoenix at a time, and he, at the close of his long life, 
builds himself a nest with twigs of cassia and frankincense, on 
which he dies; from his corpse is generated a worm which grows 
into the young phoenix. Tacitus (Ann. vi. 28) says that the 
young bird lays his father on the altar in the city of the sun, or 
burns him there; but the most familiar form of the legend is that 
in the Physiologus (q.v.), where the phoenix is described as an 
Indian bird which subsists on air for 500 years, after which, 
lading his wings with spices, he flies to Heliopolis, enters the 
temple there, and is burned to ashes on the altar. Next day 
the young phoenix is already feathered; on the third day his 
pinions are full grown, he salutes the priest and flies away. The 
period at which the phoenix reappears is very variously stated, 
some authors giving as much as 1461 or even 7006 years, but 
500 years is the period usually named; and Tacitus tells us that 
the bird was said to have appeared first under Sesostris (Senwosri) , 
then under Amasis (Ahmosi) II., under Ptolemy III., and once 
again in A.D. 34, after an interval so short that the genuineness 
of the last phoenix was suspected. The phoenix that was shown 
at Rome in the year of the secular games (A.D. 47) was universally 
admitted to be an imposture. 2 

The form and variations of these stories characterize them as 
popular tales rather than official theology; but they evidently 
must have had points of attachment in the mystic religion of 
Egypt, and indeed both Horapollon and Tacitus speak of the 
phoenix as a symbol of the sun. Now we know from the Book of 
the Dead, and other Egyptian texts, that a stork, heron or egret 

called the benu |^ was one of the sacred symbols of the worship 

of Heliopolis, and A. Wiedemann (" Die Phonix-Sage im alten 
Aegypten " in Zeitschrift fiir agyptische Sprache, xvi. 89) has 
made it tolerably clear that the benu was a symbol of the rising 
sun, whence it is represented as " self -generating " and called 
" the soul of Ra (the sun)," " the heart of the renewed Sun." 
All the mystic symbolism of the morning sun, especially in 
connexion with the doctrine of the future life, could thus be 
transferred to the benu, and the language of the hymns in which 
the Egyptians praised the luminary of dawn as he drew near 
1 Some other ancient accounts may be here referred to. That 
ascribed to Hecataeus is, in the judgment of C. G. Gobet (Mnemosyne, 
1883), stolen from Herodotus by a late forger. The poem of the 
Jew Ezechiel quoted by Eusebius (Praep. ev. ix. 29, 30) appears 
to refer to the phoenix. Here the sweet song is first mentioned 
a song which, according to the poem on the phoenix ascribed to 
Lactantius, accompanies the rising sun. The bird is often spoken 
of in Latin poetry, and is the subject of an idyll by Claudian. See 
also Solinus, Collectanea, ch. xxxiii. n, with Salmasius's Exercila- 
tiones; Tertullian, De resur. carnis, c. 13; Clemens Rom. Epp. ad 
Corinthios, i. 25 and the (? Clementine) Apostolical Constitutions, 
v. 7 



458 



PHOENIX PHONETICS 



from Arabia, delighting the gods with his fragrance and rising 
from the sinking flames of the morning glow, was enough 
to suggest most of the traits materialized in the classical pictures 
of the phoenix. That the benu is the prototype of the phoenix 
is further confirmed by the fact that the former word in Egyptian 
means also " palm-tree," just as the latter does in Greek. The 
very various periods named make it probable that the periodical 
return of the phoenix belongs only to vulgar legend, materia- 
lizing what the priests knew to be symbolic. Of the birds of the 
heron family the gorgeous colours and plumed head spoken of 
by Pliny and others would be least inappropriate to the purple 
heron (Ardea purpttrea), with which, or with the allied Ardea 
cinerea, it has been identified by Lepsius and Peters (Altesle 
Texte des Todtenbuchs, 1867, p. 51). But the golden and purple 
hues described by Herodotus may be the colours of sunrise rather 
than the actual hues of the purple heron. How Herodotus 
came to think that the bird was like an eagle is quite unexplained ; 
perhaps this is merely a slip of memory. 

Many commentators still understand the word ^ n . chol, in Job 
xxix. 18 (A.V. " sand ") of the phoenix. This interpretation is 
perhaps as old as the (original) Septuagint, and is current with the 
later Jews. Among the Arabs the story of the phoenix was confused 
with that of the salamander; and the samand or samandal (Damiri, 
ii. 36 seq.) is represented sometimes as a quadruped, sometimes as 
a bird. It was firmly believed in, for the incombustible cloths 
woven of flexible asbestos were popularly thought to be made of its 
hair or plumage, and were themselves called by the same name 
(cf. Yaqut i. 529, and Dozy, $..). The 'anka (Pers. simurgh), a 
stupendous bird like the roc (rulch) of Marco Polo and the Arabian 
Nights, also borrows some features of the phoenix. According to 
Kazwini (i. 420) it lives 1700 years, and when a young bird is hatched 
the parent of opposite sex burns itself alive. In the book of Kalila 
and Dimna the simur or 'anka is the king of birds, the Indian garuda, 
on whom Vishnu rides. 

PHOENIX, the capital of Arizona, U.S.A., and the county- 
seat of Maricopa county, situated on the Salt river, hi the 
south central part of the state. Pop. (1890), 3152; (1900), 
5544 (935 being foreign-born and 148 negroes); (1910) 11,134. 
It is served by the Arizona Eastern and the Santa Fe, 
Prescott & Phoenix railways, the former connecting at Mari- 
copa (35 m. distant) with the Southern Pacific and the latter 
connecting at Ash Fork, near Prescott (194 m. distant), with 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. The city is a popular winter 
and health resort, with a fine dry climate. The city is the see of 
a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. About 3 m. north of the city 
is the Phoenix (non-reservation) boarding-school for Indians, 
supported by the United States government, with an average 
attendance of about 700 pupils. The city lies in a great plain, 
in the centre of a region of pastures, gardens and orchards, the 
largest and most beautiful farming district of Arizona, irrigated 
with water stored by the great Roosevelt dam (about 70 m. 
north-east of Phoenix). Local interests are almost entirely in 
agriculture, stock-raising and fruit-growing. In the surrounding 
region are several large ostrich farms and a small exhibition 
ranch. Phoenix was settled in 1870, became the county-seat 
on the organization of Maricopa county in 1871, was incorporated 
in 1 88 1, and became the capital of Arizona in 1889. 

PHOENIX ISLANDS, a group of eight small islands in the 
Pacific Ocean, about 3 S., and 172 W., belonging to Great 
Britain. They have a land area about 16 sq. m. and a popula- 
tion of 60. Their names are Phoenix, Gardner (Kemin), Hull, 
Sydney, Birnie, Enderbury, Canton (Mary) and McKean. To 
the north-west of the group (between the equator and i N.) 
lie two more islets Baker and Rowland. The islands were 
annexed by Great Britain in 1880-1892. 

PHOENIX VILLE, a borough of Chester county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river at the mouth of French Creek, 
about 28 m. north-west of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890), 8514; 
(1900), 9196, of whom 2221 were foreign-born and 278 were 
negroes; (1910 census), 10,743. It is served by the Pennsylvania 
(Schuylkill division) and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, 
and by electric railway to Spring City (pop. in 1910, 2880), 
5 m. north-west of Phoenixville on the Schuylkill. Phoenixville 
is chiefly a manufacturing borough. Its blast-furnaces and iron 
mills were long among the largest in the country, and the manu- 



facture of steel is still the borough's predominant industry. 
Phoenixville was settled in 1732, and was incorporated in 1849. 

PHONETICS (Gr. (jxavrj, voice), the science of speech-sounds 
and the art of pronunciation. In its widest sense it is 
the " science of voice," dealing not only with articulate, but also 
with the inarticulate sounds of animals as well as men. The 
originally synonymous term, " phonology," is now restricted 
to the history and theory of sound-changes. The most obvious 
of the practical applications of phonetics is to the acquisition 
of a correct pronunciation of foreign languages. But its applica- 
tions to the study of the native language are not less important: 
it" is only by the help of phonetics that it is possible to deal 
effectively with vulgarisms and provincialisms of pronunciation 
and secure uniformity of speech; and it is only on a phonetic 
basis that the deaf and dumb can be taught articulate speech. 
From a more theoretical point of view phonetics is, in the first 
place, the science of linguistic observation. Without phonetic 
training the dialectologist, and the missionary who is confronted 
with a hitherto unwritten language, can neither observe fully 
nor record accurately the phenomena with which they have to 
deal. These investigations have greatly widened the scope of 
the science of language. The modern philologist no longer 
despises colloquial and illiterate forms of speech. On the 
contrary, he considers that in them the life and growth of 
language is seen more clearly than in dead literary languages, 
on whose study the science of comparative philology was at first 
exclusively built up. It was not till philologists began to ask 
what were the real facts underlying the comparisons of the written 
words in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and the other Indo-European 
languages, embodied in such generalizations as Grimm's Law, 
that " letter-science " developed into " sound-science " (phono- 
logy). The rise and decay of inflexions, and the development 
of grammatical forms generally, are, from the formal point of 
view, mainly phonetic problems; and phonetics enters more or 
less into every department of historical and comparative 
grammar. 

Methods of Study and Investigation. Phonetics is the science 
of speech-sounds. But sounds may be considered from two 
opposite points of view the organic and the acoustic. From the 
organic point of view a sound is the result of certain actions and 
positions of the organs of speech, as when we define / as a lip- 
teeth (dento-labial) consonant. This is the point of view of the 
speaker of a language. To the hearer, on the other hand, / is 
not a lip-teeth, but a hiss consonant similar to that denoted 
by th. This is the acoustic point of view. Theoretically, the 
organic study of phonetics is a branch of anatomy and physiology: 
that part of these sciences which deals with the organs of speech 
(see MOUTH) and then- functions (see VOICE); while, from the 
opposite point of view, the study of phonetics is based on that 
branch of physical science known as acoustics (see SOUND), 
together with the anatomy and physiology of the organs of 
Hearing (q.v.). 

Unfortunately, this basis is still imperfect. The principles of 
acoustics are well established, and we know much about the 
anatomy of the ear. But how the ear transmits to the brain 
the impression of sound is still a mystery. Again, although the 
mechanism of the vowel is clear enough, there is still no generally 
received acoustic theory of its formation. In fact, from the 
physical science point of view there is as yet no science of 
phonetics. 

The real function of phonetics is philological and literary. The 
only sound basis of a theoretical knowledge of phonetics is the 
practical mastery of a limited number of sounds that is to say, 
of the sounds which are already familiar to the learner in his 
own language. It is evident that the more familiar a sound is, 
the easier it is to gain insight into its mechanism and to recognize 
it when heard. It is indispensable to cultivate both the organic 
and the acoustic sense. These processes we are continually 
carrying out in ordinary conversation. All, therefore, that we 
have to do in dealing with native sounds is to develop this 
unconscious organic and acoustic sense into a conscious and 
analytic one. The first step is to learn to isolate each sound: to 



PHONETICS 



459 



pronounce it, as far as possible, apart from its context; and to 
preserve it unchanged through every variation of length and 
force, and in every combination of sounds. The next step is to 
analyse its formation. Let the student, for instance, compare 
the two consonants in such a word as five by isolating and 
lengthening them till he can both hear and feel the voice-vibra- 
tion in the second one. In the same way let him learn to feel the 
changes in the position of the tongue and lips in passing from 
one vowel to another. When the native sounds have been 
thoroughly studied in this way, the learner will proceed to foreign 
sounds, deducing each new sound from those which are already 
familiar to him. 

The natural method of learning sounds is mainly a subjective 
one. We listen patiently till our ears are steeped, as it were, in 
the sound; and then, after repeated trials, we hit on the exact 
position of the organs of speech by which we can reproduce the sound 
to the speaker's satisfaction. But the natural method admits 
also of objective control and criticism of the movements of the lips 
and jaws by direct observation. The movements and positions of 
the tongue and soft palate, and other modifications of the mouth 
and throat passages are also more or less accessible to observation 
in the case of self-observation with the help of a small mirror held 
in the hand. If the mirror is small enough to go into the mouth, 
and is fixed obliquely to a handle, so that it can be held against 
the back of the mouth at such an angle as to reflect a ray of light 
down the throat, we have the laryngoscope. Laryngoscopy has 
confirmed earlier results, and has also added to our knowledge 
of the throat sounds. But, on the other hand, it has been a fruitful 
source of error. There has been great discrepancy between the 
results obtained by different observers; and many results which 
were at first received with implicit confidence for their supposed 
rigorously scientific and objective character have been found to 
be worthless. It seemed at first as if Rontgen's discovery of the 
so-called X-rays would meet the want of a means of direct observa- 
tion of the positions of the tongue, not lengthways, but from the 
side, as also of the interior of the throat. But although the cheeks 
are to a certain extent transparent to these rays, the shadow of the 
tongue projected on the screen is too indistinct to be of any use. 

But there are other methods besides those of direct observation 
by which the positions of the tongue may be objectively determined 
and measured with more or less accuracy. The interior of the 
mouth may be explored by the fingers. If the little finger is held 
against the gums during the articulation of the vowels in it, ate, at, 
the difference in the height of the tongue will at once become 
apparent: in the formation of the first vowel the tongue is pressed 
strongly against the artificial palate, while in that of the second 
it only just touches it, and in that of the third it does not touch 
at all. 

Several forms of apparatus have been devised for a more accurate 
determination of the positions of the tongue and the other movable 
organs of speech. The best results hitherto as regards the vowel- 
positions have been obtained by Grandgent, who uses disks of card- 
board of various sizes fixed to silver wires. A full description of 
this and other methods will be found in Scripture's Elements of 
Experimental Phonetics. 

There are other methods whose results are obtained only 
indirectly. The simplest of these are the palalographic, by which" 
are obtained " palatograms " recording the contact of the tongue 
with the palate. The apparatus most generally used consists of a 
thin, shell-like artificial palate, which is covered with chalk and 
placed in the mouth; when the sound is made, the articulation 
of the tongue is inferred from the contact-marks on the plate. 
This method is evidently limited in its application. It, too, has 
the drawback of not being applicable to the sounds formed in the 
back of the mouth. The outlines of palatograms are much vaguer 
than they appear in the published drawings of them; and it is a 
question whether the thickness even of the thinnest plate does not 
modify the record. 

The methods hitherto considered are all comparatively simple. 
They require no special knowledge or training, and are accessible 
to all. But there are more elaborate methods with which the 
name " experimental phonetics " is more specially connected 
involving special training in practical and theoretical physics and 
mathematics, and requiring the help of often complicated and costly, 
and not easily accessible, apparatus. The investigation of the 
speech curves of phonograph and gramophone records is a typical 
example. Good examples of these methods are afforded by E. A. 
Meyer's investigations of vowel-quantity in English (Englische 
Lautdauer, Uppsala, 1903). Their characteristic feature is their 
delicacy, and the minuteness of their distinctions, which often go 
beyond the range of the human ear. Although their results are 
often of value, they must always be received with caution: the 
sources of error are so numerous 

The claims of instrumental phonetics have been so prominently 
brought forward of late years that they can no longer be ignored, even 
by the most conservative of the older generation of phoneticians. 



But it is possible to go too far the other way. Some of the 
younger generation seem to think that the instrumental methods 
have superseded the natural ones in the same way as the Arabic 
superseded the Roman numerals. This assumption has had disas- 
trous results. It cannot be too often repeated that instrumental 
phonetics is, strictly speaking, not phonetics at all. It is only a 
help: it only supplies materials which are useless till they have been 
tested and accepted from the linguistic phonetician's point of view. 
The final arbiter in all phonetic questions is the trained ear of a 
practical phonetician: differences which cannot be perceived must 
or at least may be ignored; what contradicts the trained ear 
cannot be accepted. 

Sound-Notation; Spelling Reform. Next to the analysis of 
the sounds themselves, the most important problem of phonetics 
is their representation by means of written and printed symbols. 
The traditional or " nomic " orthographies of most languages 
are only imperfectly phonetic. And, unfortunately, of the 
languages in most general use, two are exceptionally unphonetic 
in their orthographies, French showing the greatest divergence 
between sound and symbol, while English shows the maximum 
of irregularity and arbitrariness. The German orthography is 
comparatively phonetic: it has hardly any silent letters, and it 
generally has one symbol for each sound, each symbol having 
only one value, the exceptions falling under a few simple rules, 
which are easily remembered. There are other languages which 
have still more phonetic orthographies, such as Spanish, Welsh 
and Finnish. But even the best of them are not perfect: even 
when they are not actually misleading, they are always inade- 
quate. On the other hand, no system of writing is wholly 
unphonetic. Even in French and English there are many words 
whose spelling not even the most radical reformer would think 
of altering. In fact, all writing which has once emerged from 
the hieroglyphic stage is at first purely phonetic, as far as its 
defective, means will allow. The divergence between sound and 
symbol which makes spelling unphonetic is the result of the 
retention of phonetic spellings after they have become un- 
phonetic through changes in the pronunciation of the words 
themselves. Thus, such English spelling as knight and wright 
were still phonetic in the time of Chaucer; for at that time the 
initial consonants of these words were still pronounced, and the 
gh still had the sound of ch in German ich. So also see and sea 
are written differently, not by way of arbitrary distinction, but 
because they were pronounced differently till within the last 
few centuries as they still are in Irish-English. 

Where there is no traditional orthography, as when Old 
English (Anglo-Saxon) was first written down in Latin letters, 
spelling was necessarily phonetic; but where there is a large 
literature and a class of professional scribes, the influence of 
the traditional orthography becomes stronger, till at last the 
invention of printing and the diffusion of one standard dialect 
over a large area occupied originally by a variety of other dialects 
make changes of spelling as inconvenient as they were once easy 
and natural. The ideal orthography for printers is one which 
is absolutely uniform over the whole territory of the language, 
and absolutely unchangeable. In such orthographies as those 
of the present English and French there is no longer any living 
correspondence between sound and symbol: they are, in in- 
tention at least, wholly unphonetic; they are preserved by 
graphic, not by oral, tradition. 

But unphoneticness has its practical limits. A purely un- 
phonetic degradation of an originally phonetic system of writing 
one in which there is absolutely no correspondence between 
sounds and letters could not be mastered even by the most 
retentive memory: it would be even more difficult than the 
Chinese writing. Hence a phonetic reaction is inevitable. In 
the middle ages the spelling was periodically readjusted in 
accordance with the changes of pronunciation as far, of course, 
as the imperfections of the existing orthography would allow. 
This adjustment went on even after the introduction of printing. 
In fact, it is only within the last hundred years or so that the 
orthographies of English and French have become fixed. 

One result of this fixity is that any attempt to continue the 
process of adjustment assumes a revolutionary character. 
When, in 1849, the pioneers of the modern spelling-reform 



460 



PHONETICS 



movement A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman brought out theFonelic 
Nuz, few of those who joined in the chorus of ridicule excited by 
the new alphabet stopped to consider that this uncouthness was 
purely the result of habit, and that the Authorized Version of 
the Bible in the spelling of its first edition would seem to us not 
less strange and uncouth than in the new-fangled phonotypy 
of Messrs Ellis and Pitman. Nor did they stop to consider that 
phonetics and phonetic spelling, so far from being innovations, 
are as old as civilization itself. The Alexandrian grammarians 
were not only phoneticians they were spelling-reformers; they 
invented the Greek accents for the purpose of making the pro- 
nunciation of Greek easier to foreigners. The Romans, too, were 
phoneticians: they learnt Greek by phonetic methods, and paid 
great attention to niceties of pronunciation. The Sanskrit 
grammarians were still better phoneticians. 

As a matter of fact, English spelling was still phonetic as late 
as the time of Shakespeare in intention, at least. But although 
people still tried to write as they spoke, the inherited imperfec- 
tions of their orthography made it more and more difficult for 
them to do so. Hence already in the i6th century a number of 
spelling-reformers made their appearance, including classical 
scholars such as Sir John Cheke, and A. Gill, who was head-master 
of St Paul's School in London. Gill has left us extracts from 
Spenser's Faerie Queene in phonetic spelling; but, strange to 
say, nothing of Shakespeare's, although he and Shakespeare 
were exact contemporaries. But Gill's and the other alphabets 
proposed were too intricate and cumbrous for popular use. 

Nevertheless, some important phonetic reforms were success- 
fully carried through, such as getting rid of most of the super- 
fluous final e's, utilizing the originally superfluous distinctions 
in form between i and j, u and v, by using i, u only as vowels, 
;', v only as consonants, instead of at random a reform which 
seems to have begun in Italy. Another important reform was 
the introduction of ea and oa, as in sea and boat, which had 
hitherto been written with ee and oo, being thus confused with 
see and boot. 

All these were as much phonetic reforms as it would be to 
utilize long s and tailed 2 ( $ , 5 ) to denote the final consonants in 
fish and rouge respectively; a reform first suggested by A. J. 
Ellis, who was himself the first to call attention to the works 
of these early phoneticians and to utilize them in the investiga- 
tions enshrined in his great work on Early English Pronunciation. 

With all its defects, the present English spelling is still mainly 
phonetic; we can still approximately guess the pronunciation 
of the vast majority of words from their spelling. So when we 
say that English spelling is unphonetic we merely mean that 
it is a bad phonetic spelling; and all that spelling-reformers aim 
at is to make this bad into a good phonetic spelling, that is, an 
efficient and easy one. But the difficulties are great; and the 
more we know of phonetics, and the more we experiment with 
different systems of spelling, the more formidable do they appear. 
One of the difficulties, however, that is commonly supposed to 
stand in the way of spelling-reform is quite imaginary: namely, 
that it would destroy the historical and etymological value of 
the present system. Thus E. A. Freeman used to protest 
against it as " a reckless wiping out of the whole history of the 
language." Such critics fail to see that historical spelling, if 
carried out consistently, would destroy the materials on which 
alone history can be based; that these materials are nothing else 
but a series of phonetic spellings of different periods of the 
language, and that if a consistent historical and etymological 
spelling could have been kept up from the beginning, there would 
have been no Grimm's Law, no etymology; in short, no com- 
parative or historical philology possible. 

The advantages of beginning a foreign language in a phonetic 
notation are many and obvious. In the first place, the learner 
who has once mastered the notation and learnt to pronounce the 
sounds the letters stand for, is able to read off at once any text 
that is presented to him without doubt or hesitation, and without 
having to burden his memory with rules of pronunciation and 
spelling. Another advantage of phonetic spelling is that when 
the learner sees the words written in a representation of their 



actual spoken form he is able to recognize them at once when 
he hears them. And if the learner begins with the phonetic 
notation, and uses it exclusively till he has thoroughly mastered 
the spoken language, he will then be able to learn the ordinary 
spelling without fear of confusion, and quicker than he would 
otherwise have done. 

Spelling-reform may be carried out with various degrees of 
thoroughness. After the failure of many schemes of radical 
reform, an attempt was made to begin with those numerous 
spellings which are both unphonetic and unhistorical, or are 
against the analogy of other traditional spellings. Accordingly, 
in 1 88 1 the Philological Society of London " aproovd (sic) of 
certain partial corections (sic) of English spellings," which were 
also approved of by the American Spelling-reform Association; 
and a list of them" was issued jointly by the two bodies, and 
recommended lor general adoption. A similar movement 
has been started in France. But the general feeling appears to 
be that it is better to keep the ordinary spelling unchanged, and 
wait till it is possible to supersede it by one on a more or less 
independent basis. 

If the existing Roman alphabet is made the basis of the new 
phonetic notation of any one language, the most obvious course 
is to select one of the various traditional representations of each 
sound, and use that one symbol exclusively, omitting, of course, 
at the same time all silent letters. A. J. Ellis's English Classic is 
an example of such a phonetic spelling on a national basis. The 
following is a specimen: 

Ingglish Glosik iz veri eezi too reed. Widh proper training a 
cheild foar yeerz oald kan bee redili taut too reed Glosik bucks. 

But a system which, like this, writes short and long vowels 
with totally different symbols (i, ee) is only half phonetic: it is 
phonetic on an unphonetic basis. 

A fully phonetic system, in which, for instance, long vowels 
and diphthongs are expressed by consistent modifications or 
combinations of the symbols of the short vowels, and in which 
simple sounds are, as far as is reasonable and convenient, ex- 
pressed by single letters instead of digraphs such as sh, must 
necessarily discard any national basis. w ,The best basis on the 
whole is obtained by giving the letters their original common 
European sounds, i.e. by returning to the Late Latin pronuncia- 
tion, with such modifications and additions as may be advisable. 
As regards the vowels at least, this Latin basis is very well 
preserved in German and Italian. In French, on the other hand, 
the Latin tradition was greatly corrupted already in the earliest 
period through the rapid changes which the language underwent. 
Thus when the Latin u in luna assumed the sound it now has 
in French lune, the symbol u was still kept; and when the sound 
afterwards developed again out of the diphthong ou, this digraph 
was used to denote the sound. So when the French system of 
spelling came into use in England after the Norman Conquest 
these unphonetic symbols were introduced into English spelling, 
so that such a word as Old English and Early Middle English 
hits, " house," was written hous in the Late Middle English of 
Chaucer, although the sound was still that of Scotch hoos, ou (ow) 
being also used to denote a true diphthong (ou) in such words as 
knou, know, from Old English end/wan. 

By returning, then, to the original values of the letters we 
get the " Romic " or international (Continental) basis as opposed 
to the Glossic or national basis. Thus the passage quoted above 
appears as follows in Sweet's " Broad Romic " notation: 

i g'i/ glosik iz veri iizi tu riid. wiS prope treinirj 9 t/aild fba jiaz 
ould kan bii redili tot to riid glosik buks. 

Another important general distinction is that between " broad " 
and " narrow " systems of notation. A broad notation is one 
which makes only the practically necessary distinctions in each 
language, and makes them in the simplest manner possible, 
omitting all that is superfluous. From a practical point of view 
the necessary distinctions are those on which differences of 
meaning depend. A distinction of sound which is significant 
in one language may be unsignificant in another. Thus the 
distinction between close ( and open e, I is significant in French, 
as in picker, picker; so if in French phonetic writing the former 



PHONETICS 



461 



is denoted by (e), it is necessary to find a new symbol (e) for the 
open sound. But in languages such as English and German, 
where the short e is always open, there is no practical objection 
to using the unmodified (e) to denote the open sound, even if we 
regard (e) as the proper symbol of the close sound. And in 
those languages in which the short e is always open and the long 
e always close it is enough to mark the distinction of quantity, 
and leave the distinction of quality to be inferred from it (e, ee). 
In such a case as this it is, of course, possible to apply the prin- 
ciple of ignoring superfluous distinctions in the opposite way: by 
writing the long and short vowels in such a language (e, e), 
leaving the quantity to be inferred from the quality. But the 
former method is the more convenient, as it does not require 
any new letter. The " broad " principle is especially convenient 
in writing diphthongs. Thus in English Broad Romic we write 
the diphthongs in high and how with the same vowel as ask (hai, 
hau, aask), although all these (a)'s represent different sounds in 
ordinary southern English pronunciation. But the pronuncia- 
tion of these diphthongs varies so much in different parts of the 
English-speaking territory, and the distinctions are so minute 
that it would be inconvenient to express them in writing; and 
as these distinctions are non-significant, it would be useless to 
do so. (ai) and (au) are symbols, not of special diphthongs, but 
of two classes of diphthongs: they can stand for any diphthongs 
which begin with a vowel resembling the Italian a, and end with 
approximations to i and u respectively. Theoretically it would 
be just as correct in English and German to write these diphthongs 
(ae, ao). But these notations are misleading, because they 
suggest simple sounds. 

In comparing the sounds of a variety of languages, or of dialects 
of a language, and still more in dealing with sounds in general, 
we require a " narrow," that is a minutely accurate, notation 
covering the whole field of possible sounds. It is evident from 
what has been said above that such a universal scientific alphabet 
is not suited for practical work in any one language. But the 
symbols of such a notation as Sweet's " Narrow Romic " are of 
the greatest use as keys to the exact pronunciation of the vaguer 
symbols of the Broad Romic notations of each language. 

To prevent confusion between these two systems of notations 
Broad Romic symbols are enclosed in ( ), Narrow Romic in [ ], 
which at the same time serve to distinguish between phonetic 
and nomic spellings. This in English i (i) = [i] means that 
the English vowel in finny is the " wide " sound, not the 
" narrow " one in French fini, although in the Broad Romic 
notations of both languages (fini) is written for finny and fini 
alike. 

Narrow Romic was originally based on A. J. Ellis's " Palaeo- 
type," in which, as the name implies, no new letters are employed. 
The symbols of Palaeotype are made up, as far as possible, of 
the letters generally accessible in printing-offices, the ordinary 
Roman lower-case letters being supplemented by italics 
and small capitals (i, i, i) and turned letters (a,o), many 
digraphs (th, sh) being also used. This notation was a reaction 
from Ellis's earlier phonotopy, in which a large number of new 
letters were used. Some of these, however, such as /=(sh), 
5 = (zh), were afterwards adopted into Broad and Narrow 
Romic. In his Palaeotype Ellis also discarded diacritical 
letters, which, as he rightly says, are from a typographical 
point of view equivalent to new letters. In Narrow Romic a 
certain number of diacritical letters are used, such as (fi, a), 
most of which are already accessible. Palaeotype is a Roman- 
value notation, the main difference as regards the values of the 
symbols between it and the later systems [being that it is more 
complex and arbitrary. Ellis afterwards had the unhappy idea 
of constructing a " Universal Glossic " on an English-values 
basis, which is even more cumbrous and difficult to remember 
than Palaeotype. 

Sweet's Romic systems were made the basis of the " Inter- 
national " alphabet used in Le Maltre Phonetique, which is the 
organ of the International phonetic Association, directed by 
P. Passy. Although this system is at the present time more 
widely known and used than any other, and although it is 



constructed on the international Romic principle, it is not really 
an international system. It is rather an attempt to make a 
special adaptation of the Romic basis to the needs of the French 
language into a general notation for all languages. But the 
phonetic structure of French is so abnormal, so different from 
that of other languages, that the attempt to force a Broad 
Romic French notation on such a language as English is even 
more hopeless than it would be to reverse the process. Although 
well suited for French, this alphabet must from a wider point of 
view be regarded as a failure: it is too minute and rigid for 
practical, and yet not precise enough for scientific purposes. 
In short, although it has done excellent service, and has helped 
to clear the way for a notation which shall command general 
acceptance, it cannot be regarded as a final solution of the 
problem. 

Of the numerous other notations now in use, some still adhere 
to the diacritic principle of Lepsius's Standard Alphabet (1855), 
intended for missionary use, but found quite unfit for that 
purpose because of the enormous number of new types required. 
Most of them prefer to use new letters formed by more or less 
consistent modifications of the existing italic letters. A. J. 
Lundell's Swedish dialect alphabet and O. Jespersen's Danish 
dialect alphabet are good specimens of this tendency. In the 
latter Roman letters are used for special distinctions, just as 
italic letters are used in the Romic systems. 

But in spite of all diversity, there is much agreement. As 
regards the vowels, the following approximate values are now 
pretty generally accepted: 



a as in father. 



ai 
au 



e 
ei 

t 

3 



time. 

house. 

man. 

et6 (Fr.). 

veil. 

there. 

further. 



i as in it. 

o 

CB 

o 

oi 

ou 

u 

y 



n as tn sing. 

fish. 

thin. 
w we. 

x loch. 

3 rouge. 



beau (Fr.). 

FaT - 

oil. 

soul. 

full. 

une (Fr.). 

Vowel-length is in some systems denoted by doubling (aa), 

in others by special marks (a: &c.), the diacritic in a being used 

only in the nomic orthographies of dead and oriental languages. 

The only consonant-symbols that require special notice are 

the following: 

c as in tyuk (Hung.). 

5 ,, ich (German). 

8 then. 

j you. 

} nagy (Hung.). 

n ogni (Ital.). 

All the systems of phonetic notation hitherto considered 
are based on the Roman alphabet. But although the Roman 
alphabet has many advantages from a practical point of view, 
it is evidently impossible to build up a consistent and systematic 
notation on such an inadequate foundation of arbitrary signs. 
What is wanted, for scientific purposes especially, is a notation 
independent of the Roman alphabet, built up systematically 
an alphabet in which there is a definite relation between sound 
and symbol. 

This relation may be regarded either from the organic or the 
acoustic point of view. The tendency of the earlier attempts at 
an a priori universal alphabet was to symbolize the consonants 
organically, the vowels acoustically, as in E. Briicke's Phonetische 
Transscription (1863). It is now generally acknowledged that 
the vowels as well as the consonants must be represented on a 
strictly organic basis. This was first done in A. M. Bell's 
Visible Speech (1867), which appeared again (1882) in a shorter 
form and with some modifications under the title of Sounds and 
their Relations. Bell's pupil, H. Sweet, gave a detailed criticism 
of Visible Speech in a paper on Sound-notation (Trans, of Philo- 
logical Society, 1880-1881), in which he described a revised form 
of it called the Organic Alphabet, which he afterwards employed 
in his Primer of Phonetics and other works. Sweet's Narrow 
Romic notation already mentioned is practically a transcription 
of the Organic Alphabet into Roman letters. 

Such notations are alphabetic: they go on the general principle 
of providing separate symbols for each simple sound. But as 



462 



PHONETICS 



the number of possible shades of sounds is almost infinite, even 
the most minutely accurate of them can do so only within certain 
limits. The Organic Alphabet especially makes a large use of 
" modifiers " characters which are added to the other symbols 
to indicate nasal, palatal, &c., modifications of the sounds repre- 
sented by the latter, these modifiers being generally represented 
by italic letters in the Narrow Romic transcription; thus (!) = 
nazalized (1). 

In the Roman alphabet such symbols as /, v are arbitrary, 
showing no connection in form either with one another or 
with the organic actions by which they are formed; but in the 
Organic symbol of v, for instance, we can see the graphic repre- 
sentation of its components " lips, teeth, voice-murmur." By 
omitting superfluous marks and utilizing various typographical 
devices the notation is so simplified that the symbols, in spite of 
their minute accuracy, are often simpler than in the correspond- 
ing Roman notation. The simplicity of the system is shown 
by the fact that it requires only about no types, as compared 
with the 280 of Lepsius's very imperfect Standard Alphabet. 

All the systems hitherto considered are also alphabetic in a 
wider sense: they are intended for continuous writing, the more 
cumbrous " narrow " notations being, however, generally 
employed only in writing single words or short groups. An 
" analphabetic " basis was first definitely advocated by Jespersen, 
who represents each sound by a group of symbols resembling 
a chemical formula, each symbol representing not a sound, but 
an element of a sound: the part of the palate, tongue, &c., 
where the sound is formed, the degree of separation (openness) 
of the organs of speech, and so on. The two great advantages 
of such a system are that it allows perfect freedom in selecting 
and combining the elements and that it can be built up on the 
foundation of a small number of generally accessible signs. 

As regards Jespersen's scheme, it is to be regretted that he 
has not worked it out in a more practical manner: that in his 
choice of the thirty odd symbols that he requires he should have 
gone out of his way to mix up Greek with Roman letters, together 
with other characters which would be avoided by any one con- 
structing even a scientific alphabetic notation. And his use 
of these symbols is open to much criticism. In fact, it cannot 
be said that the analphabetic principle has yet had a fair trial. 

The Organs of Speech. Most speech-sounds are formed with 
air expelled from the lungs (voice-bellows) , which passes through 
the two contractible bronchi or bronchial tubes into the also 
contractible wind-pipe or trachea, on the top of which is fixed 
the larynx (voice-box). Across the interior of the larynx are 
stretched two elastic ledges or cushions called " the vocal 
chords." They are inserted in front of the larynx at one end, 
and at the other they are fixed to two movable cartilaginous 
bodies " the aretynoids," so that the passage between them 
the glottis -can be narrowed or closed at pleasure. The glottis 
is, as we see, twofold, consisting of the chord glottis and the 
cartilage glottis. The two can be narrowed or closed independ- 
ently. The chords can also be tightened or relaxed, lengthened 
and shortened in various degrees. 

When the whole glottis is wide open, no sound is produced 
by the outgoing breath except that caused by the friction 
of the air. Sounds in whose formation the glottis is in this 
passive state are called " breath " sounds. Thus (f) is the 
breath consonant corresponding to the " voice " or " voiced " 
consonant (v). In the production of voice, the chords are 
brought close enough together to be set in vibration by the air 
passing between them. In the " thick " register of the voice 
(chest voice) the chords vibrate in their whole length, in the 
" thin " register or falsetto only in part of their length. If the 
glottis is narrowed without vibration, "whisper" is the result. 
In the " weak whisper " there is narrowing the whole glottis; 
in the " strong whisper," which is the ordinary form, the chord 
glottis is entirely closed, so that the breath passes only through 
the cartilage glottis. In what is popularly called " whisper "- 
that is, speaking without voice the breath sounds remain 
unchanged, while voiced sounds substitute whisper (in the 
phonetic sense) for voice. Thus in whispering such a word as feel 



the (f) remains unchanged, while the following vowel and con- 
sonant are formed with the glottis only half closed. Whispered 
sounds both vowels and consonants occur in ordinary loud 
speech in many languages. Thus the final consonants in such 
English words as leaves, oblige are whispered, except when 
followed without a pause by a voiced sound, as in obliging, 
where the (3) is fully voiced. 

Above the glottis still within the larynx comes the " upper " 
or " false " glottis, by which the passage can be narrowed. On 
the top of the larynx is fixed a leaf-like body, the " epiglottis," 
which in swallowing, and sometimes in speech, is pressed down 
over the opening of the larynx. The contractible cavity between 
the larynx and the mouth is called the " pharynx." The roof 
of the mouth consists of two parts, the " soft " and the " hard 
palate." The lower pendulous extremity of the soft palate, 
the " uvula," in its passive state leaves the passage into the 
nose open. In the formation of non-nasal sounds, such as (b), 
the uvula is pressed up so as to close the passage from the 
pharynx into the nose. If (b) is formed with the passage open, 
it becomes the corresponding nasal consonant (m). The other 
extremity of the (hard) palate is bounded by the teeth, behind 
which are the gums, extending from the teeth-rim to the arch-rim 
the projection of the teeth-roots or alveolars. 

There is great diversity among phoneticians as regards the 
mapping out the divisions of the palate and tongue, and 
their names. Foreign phoneticians generally adopt very minute 
distinctions, to which they give Latin names. Bell in his 
Visible Speech makes a few broad fundamental divisions. 
In the arrangement adopted here (mainly based on his) sounds 
formed on the soft palate are called " back," and are subdivided 
into " inner " = nearer the throat, and " outer " = nearer the 
teeth, further subdivisions being made by the terms " innermost," 
" outermost," the position exactly half way between these two 
last being defined as " intermediate back." Sounds formed 
on the hard palate or teeth may be included under the common 
term " forward," more accurately distinguished as " teeth " 
(dental), " gum," " front " (palatal, afterwards called " top " 
by Bell), which last is really equivalent to " mid-palatal," 
including the whole of the hard palate behind the gums. All 
of these divisions are further subdivided into " inner," &c., 
as with the back positions. 

Of the tongue we distinguish the " back " (root), " front " 
or middle, " point " (tip), and " blade," which includes the 
point and the surface of the tongue immediately behind it. The 
tongue can also articulate against the lips, which, again, can 
articulate against the teeth. The lip passage can be closed, 
or narrowed in various degrees. Sounds modified by lip-narrow- 
ing are called " lip-modified " (labialized) or " round " (rounded), 
the last being specially used in speaking of vowels. 

Speech-sounds. The most general test of a simple as opposed 
to a compound sound (sound-group) is that it can be lengthened 
without change. As regards place of articulation, no sound 
is really simple: every sound is the result of the shape of the 
whole configurative passage from the lungs to the lips; and the 
ultimate sound-elements, such as voice, are never heard isolated. 
The most indistinct voice-murmur is as much the result of the 
shape of the superglottal passages as the clearest and most 
distinct of the other vowels; and its organic formation is as 
definite as theirs is, the only difference being that while in what 
we regard as unmodified voice all the organs except the vocal 
chords are in their passive, neutral positions, the other vowels 
are formed by actively modifying the shape of the super-glottal 
passages by raising the tongue towards the palate, narrowing 
the lips, &c. 

The most important elements of speech-sounds are those which 
are dependent on the shape of the glottis and of the mouth 
passage respectively. It is on the relation between these two 
factors that one of the oldest distinctions between sounds 
is based: that of vowel and consonant. In vowels the element 
of voice is the predominant one: a vowel is voice modified by 
the different shapes of the superglottal passages. In consonants, 
on the other hand, the state of the glottis is only secondary. 



PHONETICS 



463 



Consonants are generally the result of audible friction, as in (f), 
or of complete stoppage, as in (p). If the glottis is at the same 
time left open, as in (f, p), the consonant is " breath " or 
" voiceless " if it is narrowed enough to make the chords vibrate, 
as in (v, b), the consonant is " voice " or " voiced "; intermediate 
positions producing the corresponding " whispered " consonants. 
Vowels are characterized negatively by the absence of audible 
friction or stoppage: if an (i) is formed with the tongue so close 
to the palate as to cause buzzing, it becomes a variety of the 
front consonant (j). There is, of course, no difficulty in forming 
a vowel with the glottis in the position for breath and whisper. 
Thus breath (i) may often be heard in French in such words as 
ainsi at the end of a sentence, the result being practically a 
weak form of the front-breath consonant (c). The division 
between vowel and consonant is not an absolutely definite one. 
As we see, the closer a vowel is that is, the narrower its con- 
figurative passage is the more like it is to a consonant, and the 
more natural it is to devocalize it. Some voice consonants, 
on the other hand, have so little buzz that acoustically they 
constitute a class between consonants and vowels a class of 
" vowel-like " or " liquid " consonants, such as n, m, 1). 

The changes in sounds which result from active narrowing of 
the passages admit of an important distinction as " sound- 
modifying " and " sound-colouring," although the distinction 
is not always definite. Nasality and rounding are examples 
of sound-modifying processes. Thus we hear a certain resem- 
blance between (b) and (m), (i) and (y), but we regard all these 
four as distinct and practically independent sounds. Con- 
traction of the pharynx, on the other hand, as also of the false 
glottis and windpipe, have only a sound-colouring effect: if a 
vowel is formed with such contractions its quality (timbre) 
is altered, but it still remains the same vowel. It follows from 
the definition of speech-sounds that they admit of a twofold 
classification: (i) organic and (2) acoustic. As already remarked, 
the older phoneticians used to classify the consonants organi- 
cally, the vowels mainly from the acoustic point of view. The 
first to give an adequate organic classification of the vowels was 
the author of Visible Speech. Bell gave at the same time an 
independent acoustic classification of the consonants as well as 
the vowels. His acoustic classification consists simply in arrang- 
ing the sounds in the order of their " pitches " (tone-heights). 
The pitches of the breath consonants are absolutely fixed in each 
individual pronunciation, while those of spoken vowels can be 
varied indefinitely within the compass of each voice by tightening 
the vocal chords in various ways and shortening their vibrating 
portions: the tighter and shorter the vibrating body, the quicker 
its vibrations, and the higher the tone. But when a vowel 
is whispered or breathed nothing is heard but the resonance 
of the configurative passages, especially in the mouth, and the 
pitches of these resonant cavities are as fixed as those of the 
breath consonants; in other words, a whispered (or breathed) 
vowel cannot be sung. Although the absolute pitches of voiceless 
sounds may vary from individual to individual the relations 
of the pitches are constant: thus in all pronunciations (c) and 
whispered (i) are the highest, breath (w) in what and whispered 
(u) nearly the lowest in pitch among consonants and vowels 
respectively. 

If phonetics were an ideally perfect science there would be 
no occasion to discuss whether the acoustic or the organic study 
of the vowels and the other speech-sounds is the more important: 
a full description of each sound would necessarily imply (i) an 
exact determination of its organic formation, (2) an acoustic 
analysis of the sound itself, both from the objective physical 
point of view and from the subjective one of the impression 
received by the ear, and (3) an explanation of how (2) is the 
necessary result of (i). Even this last question has already 
been solved to some extent. In fact, the connection between 
the organic formation and the acoustic effect is often self-evident. 
It is eviaent, for instance, that (i) and (c) owe their clear sound 
and high pitch to their being formed by short, narrow passages 
in the front of the mouth, while (u) owes its low pitch to being 
formed in exactly the opposite way, the sound being farther 



muffled and the pitch consequently still more lowered by the 
rounding. 

One reason why it is impossible to classify the vowels exclu- 
sively on acoustic principles is that two vowels formed in quite 
different ways may have the same pitch. Thus the " high- 
front-round" (y) and the "high-mixed" (i) have the same 
pitch, the tongue-retraction of the mixed position of the 
latter having the same effect as the rounding of the former. 
It is evident, therefore, that the fundamental classification of 
the vowels must, like that of the consonants, be purely organic. 
And although for practical purposes it is often convenient to 
classify sounds partly from the acoustic point of view, a full 
scientific treatment must keep the two points of view strictly 
apart, and make a special chapter of the relations between them. 

Vowels. The most obvious distinction between vowels is that 
which depends on the share of the lips in their articulation. In 
such non-round vowels as (i) and (a) the lips are passive, or even 
separated and spread out at their corners, by which the vowels 
assume a clearer resonance. If, on the other hand, the lips are 
actively approximated, they become the round vowels (y) and 
" open " (o) respectively. 

Vowels are formed with different degrees of rounding. As a 
general rule, the narrowness of the lip-passage corresponds to the 
narrowness of the mouth-passage. Thus, in passing from the 
vowel of too to those of no and saw the back of the tongue is pro- 
gressively lowered, and the rounding is diminished in the same 
proportion. 

But there is also abnormal rounding. Thus, if we pronounce 

(0) with the lips in the position they have in forming (u), the 
resulting " over-rounded " vowel sounds half-way between (o) and 
(u) ; the second element of the diphthong (ou) in go is formed in this 
way. Conversely, the (u) in put is " under-rounded " in the North 
of England: the tongue position is kept, but the lips are only 
brought together a little at the corners, as in (a). 

The mouth positions of the vowels are the result of two factors: 

(1) the height of _ the tongue its nearness to the palate and 

(2) the degree of its retraction. Bell distinguishes three degrees 
of height: in his system (u) is " high," the (o) of boy is " mid," 
and the (?) of saw is " low." He also has three degrees of retrac- 
tion : in " back " vowels, such as (u), the root of the tongue is drawn 
to the back of the mouth, and the whole tongue slopes down from 
back to front. In " front " vowels, such as (i), the front of the 
tongue is raised towards the hard palate, so that the tongue slopes 
down from front to back. 

Most of these slope-positions yield vowels of a distinct and clear 
resonance. There is also a class of " flat " vowels, such as (a), 
in which the tongue is in a more or less neutral position. If the 
tongue is raised from the low-flat position of (as) in bird to the 
high position, we get the (5) of North Welsh dyn " man," which, as 
already observed, is acoustically similar to (y). 

The flat vowels were called mixed " by Bell, in accordance with 
his view that they are the result of combining back and front articu- 
lation. And although this view is now generally abandoned, the 
term " mixed " is still retained by the English school of phoneticians. 

In this way Bell mapped out the whole mouth by the following 
cardinal points: 

high-mixed 
mid-mixed 
low-mixed 



high-back 
mid-back 
low-back 



high-front 
mid-front 
low-front 



In this arrangement " high-back," &c., are fixed points like those of 
latitude and longitude. Thus normal " high " means that the tongue 
is raised as close to the palate as is possible without causing con- 
sonantal friction, and " back " implies retraction of the same kind. 
Intermediate positions are defined as " raised," " lowered," " inner," 
" outer." 

The most original and at the same time the most disputed part 
of Bell's vowel-scheme is his distinction of " primary " and " wide." 
All vowels fall under one of these categories. Thus, the primary 
French (i) and the corresponding English wide (i) are both high- 
front-vowels, and yet they are distinct in sound : the English vowel 
is a semitone lower in pitch. Bell explained the greater openness 
of the wide vowels as the result of greater expansion of the 
pharynx ; and he considered the other class to be most ^nearly 
allied to the consonants whence their name " primary " the 
voice-passages in the formation of primary vowels being expanded 
only so far as to remove all fricative quality. But alterations 
in the shape of the pharynx have only a sound-colouring, not a 
sound-modifying, effect; and Sweet snowed that the distinction 
depends on the shape of the tongue, and accordingly substituted 
" narrow " for Bell's " primary." He also showed that the distinc- 
tion applies to consonants as well as vowels: thus the narrow 
French (w) in oui is a consonantization of the narrow French (u) 
in sou, while the English (w) preserves the wide quality of the (u) 
in put. 

In forming narrow sounds there is a feeling of tension in that 



PHONETICS 



part of the tongue where the sound is formed, the tongue being 
clenched or bunched up lengthwise, so as to be more convex than 
in its relaxed or " wide " condition. 

The distinction between narrow and wide can often be ignored 
in practical phonetic writing, for it generally depends on quantity; 
length and narrowness, shortness and wideness going together. 
When the distinction is marked, wide vowels may be expressed by 
italics, as in German (biina, bn). 

Bell's category of " mixed-round " vowels had from the beginning 
been a source of difficulty to students of Visible Speech. But it 
was not till 1901 that Sweet showed that they are only mixed as 
regards position: they are really the corresponding back-round 
vowels moved forward into the middle of the mouth while pre- 
serving the slope of back vowels, instead of having the tongue 
flat as in the (unround) mixed vowels. They are "out-back" 
vowels: there is an exaggeration of the outer back position of such 
a back-round vowel as the English (u) compared with the full back 
() in German muttre. 

In the same way by moving the tongue backwards while forming 
a front vowel another series of " in-front " vowels is obtained. 

The " in-mixed " vowels are obtained by shifting the neutral 
mixed positions into the full back position, keeping the tongue 
flat, so that these vowels might also be called " back-flat." 

The out-back, in-front and in-mixed vowels are included under 
the common designation of " shifted," as opposed to " normal " 
vowels. 

There is a large number of other vowel-schemes, of which a survey 
will be found in W. Victor's Elemente der Phonetik. Many of the 
older ones are in the form of triangles, with the three chief vowels 
a, i, u at the three corners, the other vowels being inserted between 
these extremes according to their acoustic relations. Since the 
appearance of Visible Speech many attempts have been made to 
fit his new vowels into these older schemes. 

Of all the vowel-schemes the one now most generally known is 
perhaps that of the International Phonetic Association already 
mentioned. In this scheme the distinction of narrow and wide, 
though admitted and occasionally marked, is not an integral part 
of the system, the vowels being classified first as " velar ' (back) 
and " palatal " (front), and then according to openness as "close," 
" half-close," " medium," " half-open " and " open." 

Consonants. These are the result of audible friction or stoppage, 
which may be accompanied either with breath, voice or whisper. 

Consonants admit of a two-fold diyision (i) by form, and (2) by 
place. Thus (p, b) are by place lip-consonants, while by form 
they are stopped consonants or " stops." 

If the mouth-stoppage is kept, and the nose-passage is opened, 
the stop becomes the corresponding "nasal"; thus (b) with the 
soft palate lowered becomes the nasal (m). 

In " open " consonants the sound is formed by simply narrowing 
the passage, as in the back-open-breath (x) in Scotch and German 
loch. In some open consonants, such as the lip-teeth (f), there is 
slight contact of the organs, but without impeding the flow of 
breath. 

In " divided " consonants there is central stoppage with open- 
ings at the sides, as in the familiar point-divided (1). These con- 
sonants are sometimes " unilateral " with the opening on the side 
only the character of the sound not being sensibly modified 
thereby. 

When open and divided consonants are formed with the nose- 
passage open they are said to be " nazalized." Thus (m) with 
incomplete lip-closure becomes the nasalized lip-open-voice con- 
sonant. 

" Trills " (or rolled) consonants are a special variety of un-stopped 
consonants resulting from the vibration of flexible parts against 
one another, as when the lips are trilled, or against some firm 
surface, as when the point of the tongue trills against the gums 
in the Scotch (r), or the uvula against the back of the tongue, as in 
the Northumbrian burred (r), and the French and German (r), 
where especially in German the trill is often reduced to a mini- 
mum or suppressed altogether. 

As regards the place of consonants, there is, as already remarked, 
great diversity among phoneticians, both in mapping out the palate 
and tongue and in the names given to these divisions. The classi- 
fication and nomenclature given here is, in the main, that of Bell. 

By place, then, we distinguish seven main classes of consonants: 
back, front, point, blade, fan, lip, and lip-teeth. 

" Back " (guttural) consonants are formed between the root of 
the tongue and the soft palate. In most languages the positions 
of these consonants vary according to those of the accompanying 
vowels: thus the back-stop and back-nasal in king are more forward 
than in conquer. 

" Front ' (palatal) consonants are formed between the middle 
of the tongue and the hard palate, the point of the tongue lying 
passively behind the lower teeth. It is easy to make the front- 
open-voice (j) in you into the corresponding stop (j) by narrowing 
the passage till there is complete closure, as in Hungarian nagy 
(noj) " world." In the same way the open breath (c) in German 
ich may be made into the stop (c) = Hungarian ty. (j) nasalized 
becomes (n) Italian gn, Spanish n, French en in vigne. The front- 
divided-voice consonant is the Italian gl and Spanish U. These are 



all simple sounds, distinct from the (Ij), (nj) in French and English 
million and English onion. 

" Point " consonants when formed against the teeth are called 
" point-teeth " (dental). English (p) in thin is the point-teeth- 
open-breath consonant, (S) in then the corresponding voice con- 
sonant. If (8) is modified by turning the tip of the tongue back 
into the inner position about on the arch-rim it becomes the 
untrilled (r) in English rearing, in which position the tongue is 
easily trilled, the trilling becoming more and more difficult 
the more the tongue is approximated to the point-teeth position. 
In French and many other languages all the point consonants 
(t, d, n, 1), &c., are formed on the teeth, except (r), which is always 
more retracted than the other point consonants. If the tip of 
the tongue is turned so far back as to articulate with its lower edge 
against the arch of the palate that is, farther back than for the 
" inner " position it is said to be " inverted." Inverted (r) is 
frequent in the dialects of the south-west of England. The 
opposite of inversion is " protrusion," in which the tip of the tongue 
articulates against the upper lip. 

" Blade " consonants are formed by the blade or flattened tip 
of the tongue against the gums, as in English (s, z), or against the 
teeth, as in the corresponding French sounds. If these consonants 
are modified by turning the tongue a little back, so as to bring the 
point more into play, they become the " blade-point " consonants 
(/, 3)> as in fish, measure. (/) is acoustically a dull (s). In some 
languages, such as German, sounds similar to (/) and (z) are formed 
partly by rounding, which lowers the pitch of the hiss in the same 
way as retraction does, so that the tongue-articulation is only 
imperfectly carried out. When the rounding is very marked 
there is only a slight raising of the front of the tongue, as in some 
Swedish dialects; and if the tongue-articulation is progressively 
shifted back, and the rounding diminished in the same proportion, 
(/) can at last develop into the pure back-open consonant (x), as 
in the present pronunciation of Spanish x and j. 

The English point consonants (t, d, n, 1) are formed on the gums 
just behind the teeth, the point of the tongue being flattened, so 
that they are almost blade consonants. 

" Fan " (spread) consonants the " emphatic " consonants of 
Arabic are modifications of point and blade consonants, in which 
the sides of the tongue are spread out, so that the hiss of such a 
consonant as (s) is formed partly between the sides of the tongue 
and the back teeth, which gives a peculiar deep, dull quality to 
these sounds. 

" Lip " consonants, such as (p, m), and " lip-teeth " consonants, 
such as (f, v), offer no difficulty. The simple lip-open-breath 
consonant does not occur in English; it is the sound produced in 
blowing out a candle. The corresponding voice sound is frequent 
in German especially in Middle Germany in such words as 
quelle. 

If the lip-open consonants are modified by raising the back of the 
tongue, they become the " lip-back " consonants (wh, w) in English 
what, we, which may also be regarded as consonantized (u). In 
them the lip articulation predominates. In the "back-lip" 
consonants, as in German auch, the reverse is the case. 

This last is one of a large number of " lip-modified " consonants, 
of which the already-mentioned German sen is a further example. 

In a similar way consonants may be " front-modified." (i) is 
peculiarly susceptible to such modifications. In French and other 
languages it is formed with the tongue more convex than in English, 
and consequently with a tendency to front-modification. Front- 
modified (s) and point (r) may be heard in Russian in such words 
as gust " goose," tsarl " emperor," where the final vowels are silent. 

Some consonants are formed below the mouth. 

When the glottis is sharply opened or closed on a passage of breath 
or voice an effect is produced similar to that of a stop in the mouth, 
such as (k). This " glottal stop " is the sound produced in hic- 
cuping; and is an independent sound in some languages, such as 
Arabic, where it is called " hamza." In German all words beginning 
with a stressed (accented) vowel have a more or less distinct glottal 
stop before the vowel. 

Of the passages below the glottis, the bronchial* and the wind- 
pipe are both susceptible of contraction. 

Spasmodic contraction of the bronchial passages is the main 
factor in producing what is known as " the asthmatic wheeze." 
If this contraction is regulated and made voluntary it results in 
the deep hiss of the Arabic ha. If this sound is voiced, it causes 
a peculiar intermittent vibration of voice, which is habitual with 
some speakers, especially in Germany. If this effect is softened by 
slightly expanding the bronchial passages, an (r)-like sound is 
produced, which is that of the Arabic 'ain. 

Contraction of the windpipe produces a sound similar to the 
Arabic #a, but weaker, which when followed by a vowel has the 
effect of a strong aspirate. When voiced it becomes a mere colourer 
of the accompanying voice-murmur, or vowel, to which it imparts 
a deep timbre. 

Non-expiratory Sounds. All the sounds hitherto described 
imply out-breathing or expiration. Many of them can also be 
formed with in-breathing or inspiration. In English it is a not 
uncommon trick of speech to pronounce no in this manner, to express 
emphatic denial. 



PHONETICS 



465 



Some consonants are formed without either in- or out-breathing, 
but solely with the air in the throat or mouth. In forming " suction- 
stops " or " clicks " the tongue or lips are put in the position for a 
stop, and the air is sucked out from between the organs in contact, 
so that when the stop is loosened, a smacking sound is produced 
by the air rushing in to fill the vacu-m. Thus the point-click 
is the interjection of impatience commonly written tutl In many 
savage languages clicks are a part of ordinary speech. 

Synthesis. Besides analysing each sound separately, phonetics 
has to deal with the phenomena which accompany synthesis 
or the combination of sounds. Although a sentence may consist 
of a single word, and that word of a single vowel, sounds mostly 
occur only in combination with one another. The ordinary 
division into sentences and words is logical, not phonetic: we 
cannot mark off sentences and cut them up into words until 
we know what they mean and are able to analyse them gram- 
matically. But the logical division into sentences corresponds 
to some extent with the phonetic division into " breath-groups," 
marked off by our inability to utter more than a certain number 
of syllables in succession without pausing to take breath. With- 
in each of these breath-groups there is no necessary pause 
between the words, except when we pause for emphasis. The 
only necessary phonetic divisions within the breath-group 
are those into syllables, sounds and intervening " glides." But 
before considering these last it will be necessary to say something 
about the general factors of synthesis: quantity, stress and 
intonation. 

As regards quantity, it is enough for ordinary purposes to dis- 
tinguish three degrees: long, half-long or medium and short. In 
English what are called long vowels keep their full length when 
stressed and before final voice consonants, as in see, broad; and 
become half-long before voiceless consonants, as in cease, brought. 
In most other languages full length is preserved alike before all 
classes of consonants. The Romance languages have short final 
stressed vowels, as in French si. Unstressed vowels tend to become 
short in most languages. The distinctions of quantity apply to 
consonants as well as vowels. Thus English tends to lengthen final 
consonants after short stressed vowels, as in man compared with 
German mann, where the final consonant is quite short. Consonants, 
like vowels, tend to become short when unstressed. But in some 
languages, such as Finnish and Hungarian, stress has no effect on 
quantity, so that in these languages long vowels and double con- 
sonants occur as frequently in unstressed as in stressed syllables. 
Even in English we often lengthen final unstressed vowejs in 
exclamations, as in what a pityl Some languages, such as the 
Romance languages and Russian, tend to level the distinctions of 
vowel-quantity : most of their vowels are half-long. 

Stress is, organically, the result of the force with which the 
breath is expelled from the lungs; while acoustically it produces the 
effect of loudness, which is dependent on the size of the sound- 
vibrations: the bigger the waves, the louder the sound, and the 
greater the stress, of which we may distinguish infinite degrees. 
If we distinguish only three, they are called weak, medium and 
strong. The use of stress in different languages shows the same 
variety as quantity. Some languages, such as French, make com- 
paratively little use of its distinctions, uttering all the syllables 
of words and sentences with a more or less even degree of force. 
English, on the other hand, makes great use of minute distinctions 
of stress both to distinguish the meanings of words and to mark 
their relations in sentences. 

With stress is closely connected the question of syllable-division. 
A syllable is a group of sounds containing a " syllabic " or syllable- 
former, which is, of course, able to constitute a syllable by itself. 
The distinction between syllables and non-syllabics depends on 
sonority, the more sonorous sounds being the voiced ones, while 
of these again, the most open are the most sonorous, the most 
sonorous of all being the vowels, among which, again, the openest 
are the most sonorous. But these differences are only relative. 
When a vowel and a consonant come together the sonorousness 
of the vowel always overpowers that of the consonant, so that the 
two together only constitute one syllable. But in such a word as 
little the second (1) is so much more sonorous than the accompany- 
ing voiceless stop that it assumes syllabic function, and the whole 
group becomes dissyllabic to the ear. The beginning of a syllable 
corresponds with the beginning of the stress-impulse with which it 
is uttered. Thus in atone the strong stress and the second syllable 
begin on the (t), and in bookcase on the second (k), the first (k) 
belonging to the first syllable, so that the (kk) is here double, not 
merely long, as in book (bukk) by itself. 

Intonation or variation of tone (pitch) depends on the rapidity 
of the sound-vibrations: the more rapid the vibrations, the higher 
the pitch. Intonation is heard only in voiced sounds, as being the 
only ones capable of variations of pitch. 

In singing the voice generally dwells on each note without change 
of pitch, and then leaps up or down to the next note as quickly 



as possible, so that the intervening " glide " is not noticed except 
in what is called portamento. In speaking, on the other hand, 
the voice hardly ever dwells on any one note, but is constantly glid- 
ing upwards or downwards, so that an absolutely level tone hardly 
ever occurs in speech. But in the rising and falling inflections of 
speech we can distinguish between " voice-glides (portamentos 
or slurs) and " voice-leaps," although the distinction is not so definite 
as in singing. 

Of the three primary forms of intonation the level tone ( ) can be 
approximately heard in well as an expression of musing although it 
really ends with a slight rise ; the rising (') in the question well ? ; 
the falling (') in the answer yes. There are besides compound tones 
formed by uniting the two last in one syllable. The compound 
rising tone (v) may be heard in lake care! the compound falling 
tone () in the sarcastic oh! All these tones may be varied according 
to the intervals through which they pass. The greater the interval, 
the more emphatic the tone. Thus a high rise, which begins high, 
and consequently can only rise a little higher, expresses simple 
question, while the same word, if uttered with a low rise extending 
over an interval of between a fifth and an octave ^or even more 
expresses various degrees of surprise or indignation, as in the 
emphatic whatl compared with the simply interrogative what? 

In English and most European languages, intonation serves to 
modify the general meaning and character of sentences. This is 
sentence-intonation. But some languages, such as Swedish and 
Norwegian, and Chinese, have word-intonation, by which words 
which would otherwise be identical in sound are distinguished. 
The distinction between Gr. oikoi and otkoi was no doubt one of 
intonation. 

Glides. Such a word as cat consists not only of the vowel 
and the two consonants of which it is made up, but also of 
" glides " or transitions between these sounds. The glide from 
the initial consonant to the vowel consists of all the intermediate 
positions through which the tongue passes on its way from the 
(k)-position to the (ae)-position. The number of these 
positions is infinite, but they are all implied by the mere juxta- 
position of the symbols, for it is assumed that in all transi- 
tions from one position to another the shortest way is taken. 
Although the direction of a glide is dependent on the positions 
of the two fixed points between which it lies, its character may 
be varied both by the shape of the configurative passages 
especially the glottis and by stress and quantity. 

In the word given above the " off-glides " from the consonants 
are both breath-glides, the glottis being kept open during the 
transition from the voiceless consonant to the following vowel, 
or, as in the case of the final consonant, to silence. The " on- 
glide " from the vowel to the (t) is, on the other hand, a voice- 
glide, the closure of the glottis being maintained till the stop 
is made. 

In French and most of the languages of the south of Europe 
voiceless consonants are followed by voice-glides. Thus in 
French qui there is no escape of breath after the (k), as there 
is in English Key. Other languages again have breath on-glides 
before voiceless stops. 

If an independent strong stress is put on the breath-glide of 
English key, it is heard almost as a full independent consonant, 
and becomes an " aspirate." Aspirated steps may be heard 
in the Irish-English pronunciation of such words as tell, and also 
in Danish, and in Sanskrit as pronounced in India. If the 
voice-glide after a voice stop is emphasized in a similar way the 
" sonant aspirates " of Sanskrit and its modern descendants 
are produced, as in Sanskrit dhanu. 

Glides are especially important from an acoustic point of view. 
Acoustically speaking, indeed, voiceless stops are pure glide- 
sounds, the stop itself being inaudible. In voice-stops, on the 
other hand, the stop itself can be made audible as well as the 
intervening glides. In English these latter are fully voiced 
when they come between voice sounds, as in ago; but when 
preceded by voiceless sounds or by a pause, as in go! they are 
formed with imperfect vocality, full voice being heard only 
just before the stop is loosened. So also initial English (z) as 
in zeal is formed with imperfect vocality under the same 
conditions, so that it sounds like (sz). In French and other 
languages which have voice-glides after voiceless consonants 
initial (g, z) &c. are fully voiced. 

Consonant-glides may be further modified in various ways. 
In the formation of " implosive " stops, such as occur in Saxon 
German, Armenian and other languages, voiceless stops followed 



4.66 



PHONETICS 



by voice-glides are modified by simultaneous closure of the 
glottis, the larynx being raised by means of its muscles, so that 
it acts like a plug, compressing the air be'tween the closed glottis 
and the mouth-stop, so that when the latter is released a 
peculiar choky effect is given to the off-glide. 

Rounded glides may be heard in Russian in such words as 
komnata, where the rounding of the (o) is anticipated in the 
preceding consonant, being heard, of course, only in the off- 
glide of the consonant. The acoustic effect is between that of 
(kwo) and ordinary (ko). 

Glideless consonant-combinations remain to be considered. 
The general articulative principle of taking the shortest way 
between sounds in juxtaposition necessarily results in certain 
transitions being effected without any glide at all. This is 
regularly the case when the consonants have the same place, 
and differ only in form, as in (nd, dlt), where the point of the 
tongue remains unmoved through the whole sound-group. 
In such combinations as (mf) the very slight glide is often got rid 
of entirely by assimilating the place of the first consonant to 
that of the second, so that the (m) becomes a lip teeth consonant, 
as in English nymph. 

Even when consonants are formed in different parts of the 
mouth it is often possible to join them without any glide. In 
English such combinations as (kt, pt) are glideless, the point 
of the tongue being brought into position before the preceding 
stop is loosened. In French and most other languages such 
consonants are separated by a breath-glide. 

Combinations of stops and vowel-like consonants (tr, gl, kw) 
are glideless in English and most other languages. In English 
the breath-glide after a voiceless stop unvoices the beginning 
of the following vowel-like consonant; thus try is almost (trh- 
rai). 

Vowel-elides. Vowels are begun and ended in various ways. 
In the gradual beginning," which is the usual pne in English 
and French, the glottis is gradually narrowed while breath is being 
emitted. In the ' clear " beginning the breath is kept back till the 
glottis is closed for voice, which begins without any " breathiness." 
German favours the clear beginning, generally exaggerating it into a 
glottal stop. 

In the gradual as well as the clear beginning the stress begins 
on the vowel. If in the former it is thrown back on the breath- 
glide, the latter is felt as an independent element and becomes 
the " aspirate " or (h), which in English and most other languages 
is a glide not only in the throat but in the mouth as well, the tongue 
and lips gradually moving up into the position for the following 
vowel while the glottis is being closed. 

There is also a " strong ' aspirate, which occurs in Finnish 
and other languages, in the formation of which the full vowel position 
is assumed from the beginning of the aspiration, which is therefore 
a voiceless vowel. 

In most languages, when an aspirate comes between voiced sounds 
it is formed with imperfect vocality, the contrast of which with the 
full vocality of the other sounds is enough to produce the effect 
of breath. Thus in English behold the voice runs on without 
any actual break, the glottal closure being simply relaxed, not 
fully opened for breath, as in the emphatic aha I In some languages, 
such as Bohemian, this " voice-aspirate " is used everywhere, 
initially as well as medially. 

Vowels are finished analogously, either by a gradual opening of 
the glottis, or by a cessation of aspiration while the glottis is still 
closed for voice. If stress is put on the gradual ending it becomes 
a distinct aspirate, as in the Sanskrit " visarga " in such a word as 
manah. 

Organic Basis. Every language has certain general tendencies 
which control the formation of its sounds, constituting its 
" organic basis " or basis of articulation. The tendency of 
the present English is to flatten and lower the tongue and draw 
it back from the teeth, while the lips are kept as much as possible 
in a neutral position. The flattening of the tongue makes our 
vowels wide and favours the development of mixed vowels, 
and gives the dull quality which is especially noticeable in our 
(1); and its retraction is unfavourable to the development of 
teeth sounds; while the neutrality of the lips eliminates front- 
round vowels. In such a language as French everything is 
reversed. The tongue is arched, and raised, and advanced, and 
the lips articulate with energy. Hence French sounds tend 
to narrowness, dentality and distinct rounding. 

National Sound-systems. Each language uses only a part of 



the general phonetic material. Each one has only a limited 
number of sounds; and each one makes only a limited use of 
the synthetic distinctions of quantity, stress and intonation. As 
we have seen, many of these differences between individual 
languages are the result of, or may be referred to, differences 
in their organic basis. 

Just as cognate languages differ from each other in phonetic 
structure, so also dialects of the same languages differ from each 
other more or less. Thus the sound-system of Lowland Scotch 
which is, historically, a dialect of Northern English differs 
considerably from that of standard English. Standard English 
itself was originally that mixture of the Midland and the Southern 
dialect which was spoken in London in the middle ages, just as 
standard French is, historically, the dialect of that district 
of which Paris is the centre. Standard English, like standard 
French, is now more a class-dialect than a local dialect: it is 
the language of the educated all over Great Britain. But it 
is not yet perfectly uniform. It is still liable to be influenced 
by the local dialects in grammar and vocabulary, and still more 
in pronunciation. 

Again, English, like all other living languages, changes from 
generation to generation. Pronunciations which are vulgar 
in one century may become fashionable in the next. Sounds 
which are distinct in one generation may be confounded in 
another, and new distinctions may be made, new sounds may 
arise. A spoken language is, therefore, necessarily a vague 
and floating entity, and English is no exception to the rule. 
The very fixity of its written form gives all the freer play to 
the influences which cause change. 

A standard spoken language is, strictly speaking, an abstrac- 
tion. No two speakers of standard English pronounce exactly 
alike. And yet they all have something in common in every 
sound they utter. There are some divergencies, some peculiari- 
ties of pronunciation, which pass unnoticed, while others, less 
considerable perhaps in themselves, are at once felt as 
archaisms, vulgarisms or provincialisms, as the case may be, 
by the majority of educated speakers. 

Sounds of English. The following is a convenient classification 
of the vowels of standard English : 



a a 
aa 93 

ai, au 



i e 
ii ei 



ae 
uu 



u 

ou, 
oi 



13 9 U3 

Here the vowels are in four rows: (i) normally short, or, more 
correctly, monophthongic, (2) long, or half-diphthongic, (3) full 
diphthongs, (4) murmur-diphthongs. 

Those under (i) are often lengthened in monosyllables such as 
ten, good, but they always remain absolutely monophthongic. The 
only one in the next row that is always strictly monophthongic is 
(33) : all the others, as we shall see, tend to become more or less 
diphthongic, especially in the south of England, being often exagger- 
ated into full diphthongs of the (ai) and (au)-type in vulgar speech. 

(a), as in come up, is the short vowel corresponding to the (aa) 
in calm, (aa) is the mid-back-wide vowel, and (a) differs from it 
only in being narrow. Acoustically, (a) is a muffled or obscure (aa) : 
and the same effect may be produced by advancing the tongue 
from the mid-back to the corresponding out-back position, pre- 
serving the wide articulation: this pronunciation of u is common 
in the south of England. Historically, these sounds are the result 
of unrounding and older (u). 

(3), as in sofa, is a mixed vowel, tending to wideness and mid 
position, which occurs only unstressed, (33) in turn, earth, is low- 
mixed-narrow. It is the result of absorption of an older (r), 
weakened into (s). 

(ae), as in man, is low-front-wide, from older mid-back-wide. 

(i) in it is high-front-wide. The long (ii) in eat is narrow in the 
north of England, while in the south it is wide (i) followed by (j). 

(e) in men is generally mid-front-wide, (ei) in mane is the same 
vowel either narrow or wide, raised in its latter half towards (i). 

(u) in good is high-back-wide-round. Narrow (uu) in too becomes 
(MW) in southern English. 

(o) in not is low-back-wide-round. In (ou), as in no, the mid- 
back-round vowel, either narrow or wide, is over-rounded in its 
latter half, (o), as in all, is low-back-narrow-round. 

The full diphthongs (ai, au,oi),as in eye, now, oil, all end in lowered 
high vowels. Their first elements are only roughly indicated by 
the transcription, and vary in the mouths of different speakers. 
That of (ai) is generally the out-mid-back-wide, that of (au) the 
broader low-mixed-wide, that of (oi) the mid-back-wide-round. 

The murmur-diphthongs (13) as in here, (es) as in air, (us) as in 



PHONOGRAPH 



467 



poor, all tend to broaden their first elements. That of (ea) is the 
low-front-narrow vowel. The other two begin with lowered forms 
of the wide (i) and () respectively. In (ua) the lowering is often 
carried so far as to make poor almost, or completely, into pore (poa). 
The following arrangement of the English consonants will show 
their organic relations to one another : 

j r;f>, S s, z; J, 3 wh,w;f, v 

k, g t, d p, b 

t) n m 

The " aspirate " (h) may be regarded either as a throat-consonant 
or as a breath-glide. 

Characteristic features of the English consonant-system are the 
large number of hisses and buzzes, the sharp distinction of breath 
and voice, and, negatively, the absence of the open-back consonants, 
and of the voiceless forms of the vowel-like consonants (1, r) and the 
nasals, most of which still existed in Old English. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important general works are: H. 
Sweet, A Primer of Phonetics (yd ed., Oxford, 1906); E. Sievers, 
Grundziige der Lautphysiologie (sth ed., Leipzig, 1901); W. Vietor, 
Elemente der Phonetik des Deutschen, Englischen und Franzosischen 
(5th ed., Leipzig, 1904) ; O. Jesperson, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (Leipzig, 
1904); M. Trautmann, Die Sprachlaute (Leipzig, 1884-1886); 
Le Mattre Phon&tique, organe de I' association phonetique international 
(apply to Dr P. Passy, Bourg-la-Reine, France). For the laws of 
sound-change, see the above-mentioned work of Sievers; H. Sweet, 
A History of English Sounds (Oxford, 1888); P. Passy, Les Change- 
ments phonetiques (Paris, 1890). For phonetics in language-teaching 
see H. Sweet, The Practical Study of Languages (London, 1899); 
O. Jesperson, How to Learn a Foreign Language (London, 1904). For 
phonetic shorthand, H. Sweet, A Manual of Current Shorthand 
(Oxford, 1892). For the application of phonetics and phonetic 
notation to the practical study of special languages, H. Sweet, A 
Primer of Spoken English (2nd ed., Oxford, 1895); F. Beyer and 
P. Passy, Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Franzosisch (2nd ed., 
Cothen, 1905) ; W. Vietor, Deutsches Lesebuch in Lautschrift (Leipzig, 
1899). (H. Sw.) 

PHONOGRAPH (Gr. favri, sound, ypafaw, to write), an 
instrument for imprinting the vibrations of sound on a moving 
surface of tinfoil or wax in such a form that the original sounds 
can be faithfully reproduced by suitable mechanism. Many 
attempts had been made by earlier experimenters to obtain 
tracings of the vibrations of bodies emitting sound, such as 
tuning-forks, membranes, and glass or metallic disks. In 1807 
Thomas Young (Lectures, i. 191) described a method of recording 
the vibrations of a tuning-fork on the surface of a drum; his 
method was fully carried out by Wilhelm Wertheim in 1842 
(Recherches sur I' elasticity, i"- mem.). Recording the vibrations 
of a membrane was first accomplished by Leon Scott in 1857 by 
the invention of the " phonautograph," which may be regarded 
as the precursor of the phonograph (Comples rendus, 53, p. 108). 
This instrument consisted of a thin membrane to which a delicate 
lever was attached. The membrane was stretched over the 
narrow end of an irregularly-shaped funnel or drum, while the 
end of the lever or marker was brought against the surface of 
a cylinder covered with paper on which soot had been deposited 
from a flame of turpentine or camphor. The cylinder was 
fixed on a fine screw moving horizontally when the cylinder 
was rotated. The marker thus described a spiral line on the 
blackened surface. When sounds were transmitted to the 
membrane and the cylinder was rotated the oscillations of the 
marker were recorded. Thus tracings of vibrations were 
obtained. This instrument was much improved by Karl 
Rudolph Konig, of Paris, who also made with it many valuable 
observations. (See Nature, Dec. 26, 1901, p. 184). The 
mechanism of the recording lever or marker was improved by 
William Henry Barlow, in 1874, in an instrument called by him 
the " logograph " (Trans. Roy. Soc., 1874). The next step 
was Konig's invention of manometric flames by which the 
oscillations of a thin membrane under sound-pressures acted 
on a small reservoir of gas connected with a flame, and the 
oscillations were viewed in a rotating rectangular mirror, accord- 
ing to a method devised by Charles Wheatstone. Thus flame- 
pictures of the vibrations of sound were obtained (Pogg. Ann., 
1864, cxxii. 242, 660; see also Quelques experiences d'acou- 
stique, Paris, 1882). Clarence Blake in 1876 employed the drum- 
head of the human ear as a logograph, and thus obtained tracings 
similar to those made by artificial membranes and disks (Archil!. 



fur Ophthalmol., 1876, v. i.). In the same year Sigmund 
Theodor Stein photographed the vibrations of tuning-forks, 
violin strings, &c. (Pogg. Ann., 1876, p. 142). Thus from 
Thomas Young downwards successful efforts had been made 
to record graphically on moving surfaces the vibrations of sounds, 
but the sounds so recorded could not be reproduced. This 
was accomplished by T. A. Edison in 1876, the first patent 
being dated January 1877. 

In the first phonograph a spiral groove was cut on a brass drum 
fixed on a horizontal screw, so that when the drum was rotated 
it moved from right to left, as in the phonautograph. The recorder 
consisted of a membrane of parchment or gold-beater's skin 
stretched over the end of a short brass cylinder about 2 in. 
in diameter. In the centre of the membrane there was a stout steel 
needle having a chisel-shaped edge, and a stiff bit of steel spring 
was soldered to the needle near its point, while the other end of 
the spring was clamped to the edge of the brass cylinder over which 
the membrane was stretched. The recorder was then so placed 
beside the large cylinder that the sharp edge of the needle ran in 
the middle of the spiral groove when the cylinder was rotated. 
The cylinder was covered with a sheet of soft tinfoil. During rotation 
of the cylinder, and while the membrane was not vibrating, the 
sharp edge of the marker indented the tinfoil into the spiral groove ; 
and when the membrane was caused to vibrate by sounds being 
thrown into the short cylinder by a funnel-shaped opening, the 
variations of pressure corresponding to each vibration caused the 
marker to make indentations on the tinfoil in the bottom of the 
groove. These indentations corresponded to the sound-waves. 
To reproduce the sounds the recorder was drawn away from the 
cylinder, and the cylinder was rotated backwards until the recorder 
was brought to the point at which it started. The cylinder was 
then rotated forwards so that the point of the recorder ran over 
the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the groove. These 
elevations and depressions, corresponding to the variations of 
pressure of each sound-wave, acted backwards on the membrane 
through the medium of the marker. The membrane was thus 
caused to move in the same way as it did when it was made to 
vibrate by the sound-waves falling upon it, and consequently move- 
ments of the same general character but of smaller amplitude 
were produced, and these reproduced sound-waves. Consequently 
the sound first given to the phonograph was reproduced with con- 
siderable accuracy. In 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and I. A. Ewing 
amplified the tracings made on this instrument by the sounds 01 
vowels, and submitted the curves so obtained to harmonic analysis. 
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxviii. 745). The marks on the tinfoil were 
also examined by P. F. F. Griitzner, Mayer, Graham Bell, A. M. 
Preece, and Lahr (see The Telephone, the Microphone, and the 
Phonograph, by count du Moncel, London, 1884; also The Speaking 
Telephone and Talking Phonograph, by G. B. Prescott, New York, 
1878). 

The tinfoil phonograph, however, was an imperfect instrument, 
both as regards the medium on which the imprints were taken 
(tinfoil) and the general mechanism of the instrument. Many 
improvements were attempted. From 1877 to 1888 Edison 
was engaged in working out the details of the wax-cylinder 
phonograph. In 1885 A. G. Bell and S. Tainter patented the 
" graphophone," and in 1887, Emile Berliner, a German domiciled 
in America, patented the " gramophone," wherein the cylinder 
was coated with lampblack, and the friction between it and 
the stylus was made uniform for all vibrations. Incidentally 
it may be mentioned that Charles Cross deposited in 1877 a 
sealed packet with the Academic des Sciences, Paris, containing 
a suggestion for reproducing sound from a Scott phonautograph 
record. The improvements made by Edison consisted chiefly 
(i) in substituting for tinfoil cylinders or disks made of a waxy 
substance on which permanent records are taken; (2) in substi- 
tuting a thin glass plate for the parchment membrane; (3) in 
improving the mechanical action of the marker; and (4) in 
driving the drum carrying the wax cylinder at a uniform and 
rapid speed by an electric motor placed below the instrument. 

In the first place, permanent records can be taken on the wax, 
which is composed of stearin and paraffin. This material is brittle, 
but it readily takes the imprints made by the marker, which is 
now a tiny bit of sapphire. The marker, when used for recording, 
is shod with a chisel-shaped edge of sapphire; but the sapphire is 
rounded when the marker is used for reproducing the sound. The 
marker also, instead of being a stiff needle coming from the centre 
of the membrane or glass plate, is now a lever, weighted so as to 
keep it in contact with the surface of the wax. A single vibration 
of a pure tone consists of an increase of pressure followed by a 
diminution of pressure. When the disk of glass is submitted to 
an increase of pressure the action of the lever is such that, while 



4 68 



PHONOGRAPH 



the wax cylinder is rotating, the point of the marker is angled 
downwards, and this cuts deeply into the wax; and when there is 
diminution of pressure the point is angled upwards, so as to act less 
deeply. In reproducing the sound, the blunt end of the marker 
runs over all the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the 
groove cut on the wax cylinder. There is thus increased pressure 
transmitted upwards to the glass disk when the point runs over an 
elevation, and less pressure when the point runs over a depression 
on the wax cylinder. The glass disk is thus, as it were, pulled 
inwards and thrust outwards with each vibration, but these pulls 




FIG. la. Exterior of Edison Phonograph. 

and thrusts follow each other so rapidly that the ear takes no 
cognizance of the difference of phase of the vibrations of the glass 
plate in imprinting and in reproducing. The variations of pressure 
are communicated to the glass plate, and 
these, by the medium of the air, are trans- 
mitted to the drum-head of the ear, and the 
sound is reproduced with remarkable fidelity. 
It is necessary for accurate reproduction 
that the point of the marker be in the 
centre of the groove. In the older phono- 
graphs this required accurate adjustment 
by a fine screw, but in newer forms a 
certain amount of lateral oscillation is 
allowed to the marker, by which it slips 
automatically into the groove. Two other 
improvements have been effected in the 
construction of the instrument. A powerful 
triple-spring motor has been substituted for 
the electric motor, and the circumference 
of the wax cylinder has been increased 
from 6| in. to 15 in., whilst the disk is 12 in. 
in diameter. The cylinders make about two 
revolutions per second, so that with the 
smaller cylinder the point of the marker 
runs over nearly 14 in. in one second, while 
with the larger it runs over about 30 in. The 
marks corresponding to the individual 
vibrations of tones of high pitch are there- 
fore less likely to be crowded together 
with the larger cylinder, and these higher 
tones in particular are more accurately 
reproduced. In a form of instrument 
called the 2oo-thread machine motion of 
the drum bearing the cylinder was taken 
off a screw the thread of which was 50 to 
the inch, and by a system of gearing the 
grooves on the cylinder were 200 to the 
inch, or yj^ of an inch apart. It was somewhat difficult to keep 
the marker in the grooves when they were so close together; and 
the movement is now taken directly off a screw the thread of which is 
loo to the inch, so that the grooves on the cylinder are T J T of an 



inch apart. Thus with the large cylinder a spiral groove of over 
300 yds. may be described by the recorder, and with a speed of 
about two revolutions per second this distance is covered by the 
marker in about six minutes. By diminishing the speed of revolu- 
tion, which can be easily done, the time may be considerably 
lengthened. 

In the plate machine the disk is fixed to a table which is rotated 
at a fixed speed of about 76 revolutions a minute. The speed of the 
lateral movement of the table is also unifcrm, and by a regular 
progression brings the wax blank under the sound-box to the 
sapphire cutting point, which detaches a fine unbroken thread of 
wax as it cuts into the surface of the blank to a depth of 3^-104- 
thousandths of an inch, beginning at about half an inch from the 
circumference and continuing the spiral groove to within a couple 
of inches of the centre, according to the length of the music to be 
recorded. The essential difference between the disk and cylinder 
machine is that in the former the waves are recorded by horizontal 
motion over the disk, while in the latter the waves are recorded 
as indentations. 

The following is the modus operandi of making a record. The 
person making the record sings or plays in front of a horn or funnel 
used for the purpose of focusing the sound-waves upon the 
diaphragm. The artist and the funnel are on one side of a screen 
and the recording apparatus in charge of an operator on the other. 
The arrangement of the various instruments in the recording 
room at proper relative distances from the horn is of the utmost 
importance in order to preserve the balance of tone. At about 
4 ft. from the horn are grouped the violins and the wood wind (flutes, 
oboes and clarinets) ; behind the brass wind (horns, trumpets, 
trombones and tubers), and right at the back the violoncellos and 
double basses and the kettle-drums and other instruments of 
percussion which may be required. On the other side of the screen 
is the sound-box and the recording cylinder or disk. 

Cylinder records are duplicated by taking a plaster cast, electro- 
plating, and then using it as a matrix. The disk record admits 
of similar treatment. After dusting with graphite it is electro- 
plated to about '9 mm. thick. This forms the permanent or master 
record, from which the working negatives are made by taking wax 
impresses of it and obtaining copper electros in turn from them. 
The matrix is then nickel-plated and polished and is ready for use 
in pressing out the commercial records by means of an hydraulic 
press, the material used being a tough and elastic substance contain- 
ing shellac and other compounds such as wood charcoal, barium 
sulphate, earthy colouring matters and cotton flock. 

There is still a defect to be overcome in the gramophone, and 
that is the hissing of the needle produced by friction both during 
recording and intensified in reproduction. In one device for 
remedying this the stylus acts like a stylographic pen, depositing 
on a polished surface a fine stream of some liquid which solidifies 
and hardens very rapidly, forming a sinuous ridge instead of a 
groove in a wax blank. A negative is taken of the record and the 
matrix is made from it in the usual way. 




FIG. ib. Mechanism of Edison Phonograph. 



The auxeto-gramophone or auxetophone, patented by Short in 
1898 and improved by the Hon. C. A. Parsons, is similar in scope 
to the gramophone but attains its results in a different manner. 
In the Parsons-Short sound-box there is no diaphragm, but a 



PHONOGRAPH 



469 



column of compressed air is controlled by a delicately adjusted 
grid-valve consisting of a metal comb rigidly connected to the 
stylus bar, so that as the needle moves the metal comb moves 
with it, following the lines of vibration fixed on the record and 
opening or closing the slots in the valve seat. The column of 
compressed air to which the valve gives access thus receives series 
of minute pulsations identical with those which originally produced 
the sounds recorded. In connexion with the sound-box is the 
apparatus for supplying compressed air, consisting of a sixth-horse 
power electric motor driving the compressor, an oil filter, a reservoir 
and a dust collector to keep the air absolutely free from foreign 
substances likely to interfere with the action of the valve. 

The practical possibilities of the gramophone are being 
realized in many countries. Matrices of the records of well- 
known artists have been deposited at the British Museum 
and at the Grand Opera in Paris. Austria established a public 
phonogram record office in 1903, in which are collected folk- 
songs and records of all kinds for enriching the department 
of ethnography. The same idea is being carried out in Germany 

A O 




FIG. 2. 

by private societies and by royal museums. In Hungary records 
of the various dialects have been secured. The possibilities of 
the gramophone as a teacher are far-reaching, not only in the 
domain of music but in learning languages, &c. 

To understand how the phonograph records and reproduces 
musical tones, it is necessary to remember (i) that pitch or 
frequency depends on the number of vibrations executed by the 
vibrating body in a given period of time, or on the duration 
of each vibration; (2) that intensity or loudness depends on the 
amplitude of the movement of the vibrating body; and (3) that 
quality, timbre or clang, first, depends on the form of the individual 
vibrations, or rather on the power the ear possesses of appreci- 
ating a simple pendular vibration producing a pure tone, or of 
decomposing more or less completely a compound vibration into 
the simple pendular vibrations of which it is composed. If 
we apply this to the record of the phonograph, we find that, 
given a constant and sufficiently rapid velocity of the record, 
a note or tone of a certain pitch will be heard when the marker 
runs over a number of elevations and depressions corresponding 
to the frequency of that note. Thus if the note was produced 
by 200 vibrations per second, and suppose that it lasted in 
the music for -fa of a second, 20 marks, each made in -^r of a 
second, would be imprinted on the wax. Consequently, in 
reproduction, the marker would run over the 20 marks in i^of 
a second, and a tone of that frequency would be reproduced. 



The loudness would correspond to the depth of each individual 
mark on the cylinder or the width on the disk. The greater 
the depth of a series of successive marks produced by a loud 
tone, the greater, in reproduction, would be the amplitude of 
the excursions of the glass disk and the louder would be the tone 
reproduced. Lastly, the form of the marks corresponding to 
individual vibrations would determine the quality of the tone 
or note reproduced, by which we can distinguish the tone of 
one instrument from another, or the sensation produced by a 
tone of pure and simple quality, like that from a well-bowed 
tuning-fork or an open organ pipe, and that given by a trumpet 
or an orchestra, in which the sounds of many instruments are 
blended together. When the phonograph records the sound 
of an orchestra it does not record the tones of each instrument, 
but it imprints the form of impression corresponding to the very 
complex sound-wave formed by all the instruments combined. 
This particular form, infinitely varied, will reproduce backwards, 
as has been explained, 



9 10 11 12 
152,7 VM 16WM 2012 M ?%6W 



by acting on the glass 
plate, the particular 
form of sound-wave 
corresponding to the 
sound of the orchestra. 
Numerous instruments 
blend their tones to 
make one wave-form, 
and when one instru- 
ment predominates, or 
if a human voice is 
singing to the accom- 
paniment of the orches- 
tra, another form of 
sound-wave, or rather a 
complex series of sound 
waves, is imprinted. 
When reproduced, the 
wave-forms again exist 
in the air as very com- 
plex variations of pres- 
sure; these act on the 
drum-head of the human 
ear, there is transmission 
to the brain, and there 
an analysis of the com- 
plex sensation takes 
place, and we distin- 
guish the trombone from 
the oboe, or the human 
voice from the violin 
obbligato. 

Many efforts have been 
made to obtain graphic 
tracings of wave-forms 
imprinted on the wax 
phonograph records. Thus 
J. G. M'Kendrick took 
(l) celloidin casts of the 
surface, and (2) micro- 
photographs of a small portion of the cylinder (Journ. of Anat. 
and Phys., July 1895). He also devised a phonograph recorder by 
which the curves were much amplified (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 
vol. xxxviii. ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1896-1897, Opening Address; 
Sound and Speech Waves as revealed by the Phonograph, London, 
1897; and Schafer's Physiol., vol. ii., " Vocal Sounds," p. 1229). As 
already mentioned, so long ago as 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing 
had examined the marks on the tinfoil phonograph. Professor 
Ludimar Hermann, of Konigsberg, took up the subject about 1890, 
using the wax-cylinder phonograph. He obtained photographs of 
the curves on the wax cylinder, a beam of light reflected from a 
small mirror attached to the vibrating disk of the phonograph being 
allowed to fall on a sensitive plate while the phonograph was slowly 
travelling. (For references to Hermann's important papers, see 
Schafer's Physiology, ii. 1222.) Boeke, of Alkmaar, has devised an 
ingenious and accurate method of obtaining curves from the wax 
cylinder. He measured by means of a microscope the transverse 
diameter of the impressions on the surface of the cylinder, on 
different (generally equidistant) parts of the period, and he infers 




FIG. 3. 



470 



PHONOGRAPH 



from these measurements the depth of the impressions on the same 
spot, or, in other words, he derives from these measurements the 
curve of the vibrations of the tone which produced the impression 




c 21 
132 VD. 



e 22 
165 VD. 



ff 
198 W. 



c 1 24 
264 VD. 



FIG. 4. 

(Archiv.f. d. ges. Physiol. Bonn, Bd. I, S. 297; also Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Edin., 1898). 

From a communication to the Dutch Otorhinolaryngological 
Society Dr Boeke has permitted the author to select the accom- 
panying illustrations, which will give the reader a fair conception 
of the nature of the marks on the wax cylinder produced by various 
tones. Fig. 2 shows portions of the curves obtained by Hermann, 
and enlarged by Boeke one and a half times. The numbers I to 4 
refer to periods of the vowel A (as in " hard "), sung by Hermann 
on the notes c e g c'. Numbers 5 to 8 show the curves of the vowel 
(as in " go ") sung to the same notes. The number of vibrations 
is also noted. Boeke measured the marks for the same vowels by 
his method, from the same cylinder, and constructing the curves, 
found the relative lengths to be the same. In fig. 3 we see the 
indentations produced by the same vowels, sung by Hermann on 
the notes c e g c', on the same phonograph cylinder, but delineated 
ethod. The curves are also shown in linear 



by Boeke after his met 

fashion beside each group of indentations. 



From these measure- 



ments the curves were calculated and reproduced, as in fig. 4. 
Thus the curves of the same vowel sounds on the same cylinder 
are shown by two methods, that of Hermann and that of Boeke. 




FIG. 5. 

In fig. 5 we see the indentations on the vowel a, sung by Dr Boeke, 
aged 55, on the notes c d e f g a b c', and near the frequencies of 
128, 144, 160, 170-6, 192, 213-3, 2 4 and 2 5 6 - The numbers 33 to 
40 show the marks produced by the same vowel, sung by his son, 
aged 13. It will be seen that the boy sang the notes exactly an 
octave higher. Fig. 6 shows the marks produced by some musical 




FIG. 6. 



sounds. Each shows on the right-hand side the curve deduced 
from the marks, and under it a graphical representation of the results 
of its harmonic analysis after the theorem of Fourier, in which the 
ordinates represent the amplitude of the subsequent harmonic 
constituents. No. 41 is the period of the sound of a pitch-pipe 
giving a' (425 double vibrations per second), No. 42 the period of 
a Dutch pitch-pipe, also sounding a' (424-64 double vibrations 
per second). No. 43 is a record of the period of a sound produced 
by blowing between two strips of indiarubber to imitate the vocal 
cords, with a frequency of 453 double vibrations per second. No. 
44 is that of a telephone pipe used by Hermann (503 double vibra- 
tions per second). Nos. 45 and 46 show the marks of a cornet 
sounding the notes a of 400 double vibrations per second, and 
e of 300 double vibrations per second. In fig. 7 are shown a number 
of vowel curves for the vowels q, OE, A, E and I. Each curve has 
on the right-hand side a graphical representation of its harmonic 
analysis. The curves are in five vertical columns, having on the 




PHONOLITE PHORMIUM 



left-hand side of each drawings, by Boeke's method, of two periods 
of the marks of the vowel. The marks are shown for the Dutch, 
German, English and French languages. The sounds of the vowels 
are o, like o in " go "; oe, like oo in " too "; u, like the German u 
in " Fuhrer " ; a, like o in " hard " ; e, like a in " take " ; ij, not in 
English words, but somewhat like e in "bell "; and , like ee in 
" beer." The first section contains only Dutch vowel sounds, 
either sung or spoken by Boeke or members of his family. The 
second section contains curves from the voice of Professor Hermann, 
the third from the voice of the author from a cylinder sent by him 
to Dr Boeke, and the fourth from the voice of Mons. H. Marichelle, 
professeur de 1'Institut des Sourds-Muets, also forwarded by him 
to Dr Boeke. Thus curves and marks of the same vowel are shown 
from the voices of men of four nationalities. 

On the construction of the gramophone, see L. N. Reddie, Journ. 
Soc. Arts (1908). 

PHONOLITE (Gr. ifavv, sound, and Xt0os, stone), in petrology, 
a group of volcanic lavas containing much nepheline and sanidine 
felspar. The term " clinkstone " was formerly given by geolo- 
gists to many fine grained compact lavas, which split into thin 
tough plates, and gave out a ringing sound when struck with the 
hammer. Some of these clinkstones were phonolites in the 
modern sense, but as the name clinkstone was used for a large 
variety of rocks, many of which have no close affinities with one 
another, it has been discarded and " phonolite " is substituted for 
it. The group includes rocks which are rich in alkalis with 
only a moderate percentage of silica; hence they contain no free 
quartz but much alkali felspar (sanidine and anorthoclase) and 
nepheline. Large plates of sanidine are often visible in the 
rocks; the nepheline is usually not obvious to the unaided eye. 
Most phonolites show fluxion structure, both in the orientation 
of their phenocrysts and in the smaller crystals which make up 
the ground-mass; and this determines to a large extent the platy 
jointing. Although vitreous and pumiceous forms are known 
they are rare, and in the great majority of cases these rocks are 
finely crystalline with a dull or shimmering lustre in the ground- 
mass. Marked characteristics are the readiness with which they 
decompose, and the frequency of veins and cavities occupied by 
natrolite, analcite, scolecite and other zeolites. Small black 
grains of augite or hornblende and sometimes blue specks of 
hatiyne may be seen in the rocks when they are fresh. 

The dominant minerals are sanidine, nepheline, pyroxene, 
amphibole, various felspathoids and iron oxides. The sanidine 
is usually in two generations, the first consisting of large crystals 
of flattened and tabular shape, while the second generation is 
represented by small rectangular prisms arranged in parallel 
streams in the ground-mass; these felspars are nearly always 
simply twinned on the Carlsbad plan. They contain often as 
much soda as potash. The nepheline takes the form of hexagonal 
prisms with flat ends, and may be completely replaced by fibrous 
zeolites, so that it can only be recognized by the outlines of its 
pseudomorphs. In some phonolites it is exceedingly abundant 



magnetite and zircon occur in the phonolites, and sphene is often 
rather common. Another mineral which is more frequent in 
phonolites than in many other rocks is brown melanite garnet. 

The majority of the rocks of this group are of Tertiary or 
Recent age, but in Scotland Carboniferous phonolites occur 
in several localities, e.g. Traprain in Haddingtonshire, also 
in the Eildon Hills and in Renfrewshire. In Brazil phonolites 
belonging to the same epoch are also known. There are several 
districts in Europe where Tertiary or Recent phonolites occur 
in considerable numbers, as in Auvergne (Mont Dore), the Eifel, 
and Bohemia. The Wolf Rock which lies off the south coast of 
Cornwall, and is the site of a well-known lighthouse, is the only 
mass of phonolite in England; it is supposed to be the remains 
of a Tertiary lava or intrusion. The Canary Islands, Cape 
Verde Islands, Sardinia, Aden, British East Africa and New 
Zealand contain many types of phonolites; they are known also 
in New South Wales, while in the United States phonolites 
occur in Colorado (at Cripple Creek) and in the Black Hills of 
South Dakota. 

Leucite occurs in place of nepheline in a small group of phono- 
lites (the leucite-phonolites), known principally from Rocca 
Monfina and other places near Naples. Blue hauyne is rather 
a conspicuous mineral in some of these rocks, and they also 
contain a good deal of sphene. When sanidine, nepheline and 
leucite all occur together in a volcanic rock it is classed among 
the leucitophyres (see PETROLOGY, Plate III. fig. 2). 

The chemical analyses of phonolites given below show that these 
rocks are very rich in alkalis and alumina with only a moderate 
amount of silica, while lime, magnesia and iron oxides are present 
only in small quantity. They have a close resemblance in these 
respects to the nepheline-syenites of which they provide the effusive 
types. (J. S. F.) 

PHORCYS (PHORCUS, PHORCYN), in Greek mythology, son of 
Pontus (Sea) and Gaea (Earth) , father of the Graeae, the Gorgons, 
Scylla, and Ladon (the dragon that guarded the golden apples 
of the Hesperides). In Homer (Odyssey, xiii. 96) he is an aged 
sea-deity, after whom a harbour in Ithaca was named. Accord- 
ing to Varro (quoted by Servius in Aeneid, v. 824) Phorcys was 
a king of Corsica and Sardinia, who, having been defeated by 
King Atlas in a naval engagement in the course of which he was 
drowned, was subsequently worshipped as a marine divinity. 

PHORMIUM, or NEW ZEALAND FLAX (also called " New 
Zealand hemp "), a fibre obtained from the leaves of Phormium 
tenax (nat. ord. Liliaceae) , a native of New Zealand, the Chatham 
Islands and Norfolk Island. This useful plant is one of the 
many which were discovered by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr 
Solander who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage 
of discovery. The seeds brought home by Banks in 1771 did 
not succeed, but the plant was introduced by him to the Royal 
Gardens at Kew in 1789, and was thence liberally distributed 





SiO 2 


A1 2 8 


Fe 2 3 


FeO 


MgO 


CaO 


Na 2 O 


K 2 O 


H 2 O 


I. Phonolite, Wolf Rock, Cornwall . . . 
II. Phonolite, Teplitzer Schlossberg, Bohemia 
III. Leucite-phonolite, Rocca Monfina, Italy . 


56-46 
58-16 
58-48 


22-29 
21-57 
19-56 


2-70 
2-77 


0-97 
4-99 


tr 
1-26 

o-53 


1-47 

2-OI 
2-60 


11-13 

5-97 
3-H 


2-81 

6-57 
10-47 


2-05 
2-03 
0-24 



in the ground-mass, and these rocks form transitions to the 
nephelinites (nephelinitoid phonolites) (see PETROLOGY, Plate III. 
fig. i); in others it is scarce and the rocks resemble trachytes 
containing a little nepheline (trachytoid phonolites). The 
felspathoid minerals, sodalite, hauyne and nosean, which 
crystallize in isometric dodecahedra, are very frequent compo- 
nents of the phonolites; their crystals are often corroded or partly 
dissolved and their outlines may then be very irregular. Small 
rounded enclosures of glass are often numerous in them. The 
pyroxenes may be pale green diopside, dark green aegirine-augite, 
or blackish green aegirine (soda iron pyroxene), and in many 
cases are complex, the outer portions being aegirine while the 
centre is diopside. Fine needles of aegirine are often found in 
the ground-mass. The commonest hornblende is dark brown 
barkevicite. Biotite and olivine are not really frequent in 
these rocks, and usually have been affected by resorption. 
The ordinary accessory minerals of igneous rocks, apatite, 



in Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It grows luxuri- 
antly in the south of Ireland, where it was introduced in 1798, 
and also flourishes on the west coast of Scotland, and is generally 
cultivated as an ornamental garden plant in Europe. It has 
been introduced for economic purposes into the Azores and 
California. The name Phormium is from Gr. <op/i6s, a basket, 
in allusion to one of the uses made of its leaves by the New 
Zealanders. 

In its native country the plant is generally found near the 
coast. It has a fleshy rootstock, creeping beneath the surface 
of the soil and sending up luxuriant tufts of narrow, sword- 
shaped leaves, from 4 to 8 ft. long and from 2 to 4 in. in 
diameter. The leaves are vertical, and arranged in two rows as 
in the garden flag; they are very thick, stiff and leathery, dark 
green above, paler below, with the margin and nerve reddish- 
orange. From the centre of the tuft ultimately arises a tall 
flower-bearing stem, 5 to 15 ft. high, bearing on its numerous 



472 



PHORONIDEA 



branches a very large number of lurid red or yellow, somewhat 
tubular flowers, recalling those of an aloe, and from i to 2 in. 
long. After flowering the plant dies down, but increases by 
new lateral growths from the rootstock. The plant will grow 
in almost any soil, but best on light rich soil, by the side of 
rivers and brooks, where sheltered from the wind. 

Phormium has been treated as a cultivated plant in New 
Zealand, though only to a limited extent; for the supplies of the 
raw material dependence has been principally placed on the abund- 
ance of the wild stocks and on sets planted as hedges and boundaries 
by the Maoris. Among these people the fibre has always been an 
article of considerable importance, yielding cloaks, mats, cordage, 
fishing-lines, &c., its valuable properties having attracted the atten- 
tion of traders even before colonists settled in the islands. The 
leaves, for fibre-yielding purposes, come to maturity in about 
six months, and the habit of the Maoris is to cut them down twice 
a year, rejecting the outer and leaving the central immature leaves. 
Phormium is prepared with great care by native methods, only the 
mature fibres from the under-side of the leaves being taken. These 
are collected in water, scraped over the edge of a shell to free them 
from adhering cellular tissue and epidermis, and more than once 
washed in a running stream, followed by renewed scraping till the 
desired purity of fibre is attained. This native process is exceed- 
ingly wasteful, not more than one-fourth of the leaf-fibre being there- 
by utilized. But up till 1860 it was only native-prepared phormium 
that was known in the market, and it was on the material so care- 
fully, but wastefully, selected that the reputation of the fibre was 
built up. The troubles with the Maoris at that period led the 
colonists to engage in the industry, and the sudden demand for 
all available fibres caused soon afterwards by the Civil War in 
America greatly stimulated their endeavours. Machinery was 
invented for disintegrating the leaves and freeing the fibre, and at 
the same time experiments were made with the view of obtaining 
it by water-retting, and by means of alkaline solutions and other 
chemical agencies. But the fibre produced by these rapid and 
economical means was very inferior in quality to the product of 
Maori handiwork, mainly because weak and undeveloped strands 
are, by machine preparation, unavoidably intermixed with the per- 
fect fibres, which alone the Maoris select, and so the uniform quality 
and strength of the material are destroyed. The New Zealand 
government in 1893 offered a premium of 1750 for a machine 
which would treat the fibre satisfactorily, and a further 250 for 
a process of treating the tow ; and with a view to creating further 
interest in the matter a member of a commission of inquiry visited 
England during 1897. The premium was again issued in 1899. 
In 1903 it was stated that a German chemist had discovered a 
method of working and spinning the New Zealand fibre. An idea 
of the extent of the growth of the fibre may be gathered from the 
fact that the exports for 1905 amounted to 28,877 bales at a value 
of nearly 700,000. 

Phormium is a cream-coloured fibre with a fine silky gloss, 
capable of being spun and woven into many of the heavier textures 
for which flax is used, either alone or in combination with flax. 
It is, however, principally a cordage fibre, and in tensile strength 
it is second only to manila hemp; but it does not bear well the 
alternations of wet and dry to which ship-ropes are subject. The 
fibre has come into use as a suitable material for binder-twine as 
used in self-binding reaping machines. 

PHORONIDEA, a zoological order, containing a single genus 
Phoronis, which is known to be of practically world-wide dis- 
tribution, while there are many records of its larva, Actinolrocha, 
from localities where the adult has not been found. Phoronis is 
often gregarious, the tubes which it secretes being sometimes 
intertwined in an inextricable mass. These associations of 
individuals can hardly be the result of the metamorphosis of 
a corresponding number of larvae, but are probably due to a 
spontaneous fragmentation of the adult animals, each such 
fragment developing into a complete Phoronis (De Selys-Long- 
champs). The animal is from a quarter of an inch to six inches 
(P. australis) in length. The free end of the long vermiform 
body ends in a horseshoe-shaped " lophophore," or tentacle- 
bearing region (fig. i, a), which strikingly resembles that of the 
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa"(see POLYZOA). 

In some species (figs. 2, 3) the two ends of the lophophore are 
rolled into spirals. An oral view of this region (fig. 2) shows: 
the mouth (in), continuous on either side with the groove between 
the two series of tentacles; the anus (a), in the middle line, at no 
great distance from the mouth; a transversely elongated epistome 
u i * )etween tne mouth and the anus; and, in the concavity of 
the lophophore, the apertures of the nephridia (n.o.) which, accord- 
ing to De Selys-Longchamps, open into the two large sensory or 
glandular " lophophoral organs the orifices of which are seen at 
gl. The mouth leads into the oesophagus, which extends straight 
down the body nearly to the aboral end or " ampulla," where it 



dilates into a stomach, from which the ascending limb of the 
U-shaped alimentary canal passes directly to the anus. The 
coelomic body-cavity is divided by a transverse septum (fig. 3, s) 
which lies near_the bases of the tentacles. The praeseptal or lopho- 
phoral coelom is continued into each of the tentacles and into the 




(After Altaian.) 

FIG. I. The Tentacular End of Phoronis, with most of the tentacles 
removed. 



o, The horseshoe-shaped lopho- 
phore. 

b, Mouth. 

c, Optical section of the epistome 

(seen immediately below the 
end of the reference-line). 

d, Oesophagus. 

e, Intestine. 

epistome. The postseptal coelom is partially divided by a ventral 
mesentery which is attached along the entire length of the convex 
side of the loop of the alimentary canal (o, a") and by two lateral 
mesenteries (o') which further connect the oesophagus with the 



/, Efferent vessel. 

g, One of the two efferent lopho- 
phoral vessels, uniting to 
form /. 

h, Dorsal or afferent vessel. 

i, Body- wall. 

k, Fused bases of the tentacles. 




(After Iknham.) 

FIG. 2. Dorsal View of Phoronis australis, showing the spirally 
coiled ends of the lophophore. 



a, 
D, 

'I: 

*.*., 



m, Position of the mouth. 
n.o., Nephridial surface. 
n.o., Nephridial opening. 

Bases of outer tentacles. 

Anterior surface. 



Anus. 

Posterior surface. 

Epistome. 

Lophophoral organ. o.t., 

Bases of inner tentacles. V. 

body-wall. Each nephridium is provided with either one or two 
funnels which open into the postseptal division of the coelom (ne.f). 
The nervous system lies in the epidermis, externally to the basement- 
membrane. A general nerve-plexus probably exists over con- 
siderable parts of the skin, and there are special nervous concen- 
trations in the region of the epistome and along a double crescent 
(N) which follows the parietal attachment of the coelomic septum. 
The part which lies at the base of the epistome is morphologically 
dorsal in position. It is said by Schultz (i i) to develop, in specimens 
which are regenerating the lophophoral end, from an invagination 
of the ectoderm ; and in this condition is compared by him with 



PHORONIDEA 



473 



the hollow central nervous system of some Enteropneusta and of 
Vertebrates. This comparison is not admitted by De Selys- 
Longchamps. The vascular system contains numerous red blood- 
corpuscles. _ The principal blood-channels are two longitudinal 
vessels which run down the entire length of the body, and are 
known as the " afferent " vessel (of) and the " efferent " vessel 
(ef) respectively, from their relation to the tentacles. According 
to researches in 1907 by De Selys-Longchamps, the blood is driven 
by the afferent vessel (of) to a crescentic lophophoral vessel (d.v.) 
which supplies the tentacles. Each of these contains a single blindly 




(From Fowler, after Benham.) 
FIG. 3. Diagram of oral end of Phoronis australis, 

seen from the left side. 

Oesophageal (ventral) mesen- N, Post-oral nerve-tract 

base of lophophore. 



at 



tery 

Right lateral mesentery. 

Intestinal mesentery. 

Afferent vessel. 

Anus. 

Posterior surface. 
d.v., Afferent lophophoral vessel. 
ef, Efferent vessel. 
e, Epistome. 

Lophophoral organ. 

Bases of inner tentacles. 

Mouth. 



an, 
D, 



gl, 
it, 
m, 



ne.d., Duct of nephridium. 
ne.f., Larger nephridial funnel. 
ne.o., External opening of ne- 
phridium. 
as, Oesophagus. 
ot., Bases of outer tentacles. 
R, Intestine. 
r.v., Right efferent lophophoral 

_ vessel, 
s, 
V, 



Coelomic septum. 

Anterior side. 

ending vessel which bifurcates at its base (see fig. 3). One of these 
branches communicates with the afferent lophophoral vessel, 
while the other one opens into the crescentic efferent lophophoral 
vessel (r.v.). From this the blood passes into two lateral vessels 
which pierce the coelomic septum (s.), the right vessel proceeding 
on the anterior side of the oesophagus, as shown in fig. 3, to effect 
a union with the left one, and thus to constitute the main efferent 
vessel, which gives off numerous caecal branches as it passes down 
the body. Hence the blood returns once more to the afferent 
vessel through a splanchnic sinus which surrounds the stomach. 
The circulation is maintained by the rhythmical contraction of 
the afferent vessel and by less regular contractions of some of the 
other vessels. The reproductive organs lie on the left side, near 
the aboral end, both ovary and testis being present in the same 
individual in some of the species. They are said to be developed 
from the coelomic epithelium which covers the efferent vessel or 
its caeca. The reproductive cells pass to the exterior by means 
of the nephridia. Reproduction by budding does not occur, 
although spontaneous fragmentation of the body, follov/ed by 
complete regeneration of each of the pieces, is known to take place. 
Regeneration of the tentacular end of the animal is of frequent 
occurrence. 

Development and Affinities. The eggs of Phoronis are small and 
usually undergo their early development attached to the tentacles 
of the adult. The attachment is probably effected (Masterman) 
by the secretion of the lophophoral organs (fig. 2, gl.). After the 
formation of an invaginate gastrula the larval form is rapidly 
acquired. On quitting the shelter of the parent tentacles the embryo 
becomes a pelagic larva, known as Actinotrocha (fig. 4) characterized 
by the possession of a line of tentacles running obliquely round the 
body. Locomotion is effected principally by means of a posterior 
ring of cilia surrounding the anus. The mouth (o) is in front of 
the tentacles, on the ventral side, and is overhung by a mobile 
praeoral hood, in which is the principal part of the nervous system. 



An oblique septum which follows the bases of the tentacles and 
corresponds with that of the adult animal divides the body-cavity 
into two portions. The postseptal division is a coelomic space, 
partially subdivided by a ventral mesentery. The praeseptal 
cavity is a vascular space, since it is in free communication with 
the dorsal vessel of the larva, and it persists in part as the two 
lophophoral vascular crescents of the adult. It contains two tufts 
of peculiar excretory cells, described by Goodrich (5) as " soleno- 
cytes," which surround the blind ends of a pair of nephridia. 
These pass backwards through the septum and open to the exterior 
ventrally. After the Actinotrocha has led a pelagic life for some 
time it develops a large ventral invagination of its body-wall 
(fig. 4, 2, iv.). At the metamorphosis, this sac is everted and the 
alimentary canal is drawn into it in the form of a loop (fig. 4, 3, 4). 
Most of the praetentacular region and the larval tentacles separate 
off, being then taken into the alimentary canal, where they are 
digested. The relations of the surfaces after the metamorphosis 
are clearly very different from those which obtained in the larva. 
The dorsal surface of the adult is the one between the mouth and the 
anus, while the median ventral line is the one which corresponds 
with the convexity of the alimentary canal. This view of the sur- 
faces is, however, disputed by De Selys-Longchamps, who regards 
the aboral extremity of the adult as the posterior end. 

The development of Phoronis was supposed by Caldwell (2) to 
furnish the explanation of the relations of the surfaces in Brachio- 
poda, Polyzoa and perhaps the Sipunculoid Gephyrea, in which 
the ontogenetic evidence is less clear. _CaldweH's views were 
accepted by Lankester (8) in the o,th edition of this work, the 
Phylum Podaxonia being there instituted to include the groups 
just mentioned, together with the Pterobranchia. The peduncle 
of the Brachiopoda was supposed to correspond with the everted 
ventral sac of Actinotrocha, but the question is complicated by the 
want of any complete investigation of the development of the 
Brachiopoda, and by the absence of the anus in the majority of 
the genera. There is, however, a considerable amount of re- 
semblance between the lophophore of Phoronis australis, with its 
spirally twisted ends, and that of a typical Brachiopod ; nor do the 
structural details of the adult Brachiopods forbid the view that 
they may be related to Phoronis. The comparative study of the 
development does not support the hypothesis that the Polyzoa 
(q.v. ) are comparable with Phoronis. In Pedicellina, the only 
Polyzoon in which the alimentary canal of the larva is known to 
become that of the first adult individual, the line between the 
mouth and anus is ventral in the larva ; and since there is no reversal 
of the curvature of the digestive loop during the metamorphosis 
it must be regarded as ventral in the adult. There are, indeed 
remarkable similarities between the external characters of the 
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa and the Phoronidea, and notably be- 
tween their lophophores. The supposed occurrence of a pair of 
nephridia in certain Phylactolaemata, in a position corresponding 
with that of the nephridia of Phoronis, must also be mentioned, 



(3) 




B 



FIG. 4. Diagrams illustrating the Metamorphosis of Actinotrocha. 

AB, Anteroposterior axis. 3, Commencement of the meta- 

DV, Dorsoventral axis. morphosis. 

I, 2, Actinotrocha. 4, Later stage in the metamor- 

phosis: a, anus; iv, ventral 
invagination; o, mouth. 

although it has been maintained that the " nephridia " of Phylac- 
tolaemata are merely ciliated portions of the body-cavity and not 
indeed nephridia at all. But a serious objection to the comparison 
is that the development of Phylactolaemata can be explained by 
supposing it to be a modification of what occurs in other Polyzoa, 
while it appears to have no relation whatever to that of Phoronis. 
Most observers consider that Actinotrocha is a highly modified 
Trochosphere, and this would give it some claim to be regarded 
as distantly related to the Entoproct Polyzoa and to other groups 
which have a Trochosphere larva. 



474 



PHORORHACOS PHOSPHATES 



Phoronis has long been regarded as a possible ally of Khabdopleura 
(see PTEROBRANCHIA); and Masterman (10) has attempted to 
demonstrate the existence in Actinolrocha of most of the structures 
which occur in the Pterobranchia. According to his view the 
praeoral hood of Actinotrocha (cf. fig. 4) corresponds with the 

proboscis" of Pterobranchia; the succeeding region, as far as 
the bases of the tentacles, with the collar; and the post-tentacular 
region with the metasome. Masterman's more detailed comparisons 
have for the most part been rejected by other morphologists. One 
of the most formidable difficulties in the way of the attempt to 
reduce Actinotrocha to the Pterobranchiate type of structure is the 
condition of the coelom in the former. There is indeed a perfectly 
definite transverse septum which divides the body-cavity in the 
region of the tentacle-bases. Even if it be admitted that the post- 
septal space may be the metasomatic cavity, the praeseptal space 
can hardly be regarded as coelomic in nature, since it is in continuity 
with the vascular system; while Masterman's conclusion that the 
cavity of the praeoral hood (the supposed proboscis-cavity) is 
separated from that of the supposed collar has received no con- 
firmation. In spite of these difficulties it must be conceded that 
the dorsal flexure of the alimentary canal of the Pterobranchia 
is very Phoronis-\iVx. It has, moreover, been shown (see especially 
Goodrich, 5) that shortly before its metamorphosis, Actinotrocha 
develops a coelomic space which lies immediately in front of the 
oblique septum, and gives rise later to the cavity of the _lophophore 
and tentacles. Regarding this as a collar-cavity, it becomes 
possible to agree with Masterman that the region shown in fig. 4, I. 
between the tentacles and the praeoral hood, is really a collar 
the coelom of which develops relatively late. It will be noticed 
that the lophophore of Phoronis is, on this assumption, a derivative 
of the collar just as it is in the Pterobranchia. The epistome of 
the adult Phoronis cannot well be the proboscis since its cavity is 
continuous with the lophophoral coelom, and because the praeoral 
hood of Actinotrocha is entirely lost at the metamorphosis. It is 
possible that this consideration will account for the want of an 
anterior body-cavity in Phoronis. Since the proboscis is a purely 
larval organ in this genus, it may be supposed that the coelomic 
space which properly belongs to it fails to develop, but that the 
praeoral hood itself is none the less the morphological representative 
of the proboscis. In spite of the criticisms which have been made 
on the conclusion that Phoronis is allied to the Pterobranchia, it 
is thus possible that the view is a sound one, and that the Phoronidea 
should take their place, with the Enteropneusta and the Ptero- 
branchia, as an order of the Hemichordata. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Benham, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xxx. 125 
(1890); (2) Caldwell, Proc. Roy. Soc. xxxiv. 371 (1883); (3) Cori, 
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. li. 480 (1891); (4) Fowler, art. " Hemichorda," 
Ency. Brit. xxix. 249 (1902); (5) Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. 
xlvii. 103 (1904); (6) Harmer, Siboga Rep. xxvi. 114, bis (Ptero- 
branchia), (1905); (7) Ikeda, /. Coll. Sci. Japan, xiii. 507 (1901); 

(8) Lankester, art. " Polyzoa," Ency. Brit. xix. 430, 433 (1885); 

(9) De Selys-Longchamps, Arch. Biol. xviii. 495 (1902); Wiss. 
Meeresunt. (N. F.) vi. Abt. Helgoland (1903), Heft i. ; Mem. classe 
sci. acad. belgique, vol. i. (1904); Fauna u. Flora G. v. Neapel, 
30 Monogr. (1907); (10) Masterman, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xl. 
281 (1898); xliii. 375 (1900); (n) Schultz, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 
Ixxy. 391, 473 (1903); (12) Shearer, Mitth. zoo/. Slat. Neapel, 
xvii. 487 (1906); (13) Shipley, Cambr. Nat. Hist. ii. 450 (1896). 

(S. F. H.) 

PHORORHACOS, the best-known genus of the extinct 
Patagonian Stereornithes (see BIRD: Fossil). Among the bones 
found in the strata of the Santa Cruz formation (now considered 
as mainly of mid-Miocene date) was the piece of a mandible 
which F. Ameghino described in 1887 as that of an edentate 
mammal, under the name of Phorysrhacos longissimus (Bolet. 
Mus. de la Plata,i. 24). In 1891 (Rev. Argent. Hist. Nat. i. 225) 




(From life-size model in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.) 

Skull of Phororhacos, longissimus. 

he amended the name and recognized the bone as that of 
a bird, Phororhacos, which with Bronlornis and others con- 
stituted the family Phororhacidae. About six species of the 
type genus are now known, the most complete being Ph. inflatus, 
with skull, mandible, pelvis, limbs and some of the vertebrae. 



These birds were at first considered as either belonging to the 
Ratitae, or at least related to them, until C. W. Andrews, after 
much of the interesting material had been acquired by the British 
Museum, showed the gruiform affinities of Phororhacos (Ibis, 
1896, pp. 1-12), a conclusion which he was able to further cor- 
roborate after the clearing of the adherent stony matrix from the 
skulls (Tr. Z. S. 1901, xv. pp. 55-86, pis. 14-17). The skull 
of Ph. longissimus is about 2 ft. long and 10 in. high; that 
of Ph. inflatus is 13 in. long, and this creature is supposed 
to have stood only 3 ft. high at the middle of the back. The 
under jaw is slightly curved upwards and it contains a large 
foramen as for instance in Psophia and in Mycteria. The 
strongly hooked upper beak is very high, and very much com- 
pressed laterally. The palate is imperfectly desmognathous, 
as in Dicholophus, with an inconspicuous vomer. The quadrate 
has a double knob for its articulation with the skull, and basip- 
terygoid processes are absent. What little is known of the 
shoulder-girdle (breastbone still unknown) points to a flightless 
bird, and so do the short wing bones, although these are stout. 
The pelvis has an ischiadic foramen. The hind limbs are dis- 
tinctly slender, the tibia of Ph. inflatus being between 15 and 
1 6 in. in length. 

For further detail see F. Ameghino, " Sur les oiseaux fossiles de 
la Patagonie," Bolet. inst. geogr. argentine, xv., chs. II and 12 
(1895); F. P. Moreno and A. Mercerat, Catdlogo de los pdjaros 
f osiles de la Repiiblica Argentina, An. Mus. La Plata (1891; with 
21 plates). (H. F. G.) 

PHOSGENITE, a rare mineral consisting of lead chlorocar- 
bonate, (PbCl) 2 C03. The tetragonal (holosymmetric) crystals 
are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooth, 
bright faces: they are usually colourless and transparent, and 
have a brilliant adamantine lustre. Sometimes the crystals 
have a curious helical twist about the tetrad or principal axis. 
The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. The mineral is 
rather sectile, and consequently was early known as " corneous 
lead " (Ger. Hornblei). The fanciful name phosgenite was 
given by A. Breithaupt in 1820, from phosgene, the old name 
of carbon oxychloride, because the mineral contains the elements 
carbon, oxygen and chlorine. At Cromford, near Matlock, it 
was long ago found in an old lead mine, being associated with 
anglesite and matlockite (Pb 2 OCl 2 ) in cavities in decomposed 
galena : hence its common name cronfortite. Fine crystals are also 
found in galena at Monteponi near Iglesias in Sardinia, but the 
largest are those recently found near Dundas in Tasmania. 
Crystals of phosgenite, and also of the corresponding bromine 
compound [PbBr] 2 CO3, have been prepared artificially. 

(L. J. S.) 

PHOSPHATES, in chemistry, the name 'given to salts of 
phosphoric acid. As stated under PHOSPHORUS, phosphoric 
oxide, PaOs, combines with water in three proportions to form 
H 2 O-P 2 O S or HPO 3 , metaphosphoric acid; 2H 2 O-P 2 O 6 or t^PjO?, 
pyrophosphoric acid; and sH^O-PjOB or H 3 PO.i, orthophosphoric 
or ordinary phosphoric acid. These acids each give origin to 
several series of salts, those of ordinary phosphoric acid being 
the most important, and, in addition, are widely distributed 
in the mineral kingdom (see below under Mineral Phosphates'). 

Orthophosphoric acid, HsPOi, a tribasic acid, is obtained 
by boiling a solution of the pentoxide in water; by oxidizing 
red phosphorus with nitric acid, or yellow phosphorus under 
the surface of water by bromine or iodine; and also by decompos- 
ing a mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. It usually forms 
a thin syrup which on concentration in a vacuum over sulphuric 
acid deposits hard, transparent, rhombic prisms which melt at 
41-7. On long heating the syrup is partially converted into pyro- 
phosphoric and metaphosphoric acids, but on adding water and 
boiling the ortho-acid is re-formed. It gives origin to three 
classes of salts: M'H 2 PO 4 or M"H 4 P 2 O 8 ; M' 2 HPO 4 or M"HPO 4| 
M' 3 P0 4 , M" 3 P 2 8 or M'"PO 4 , wherein M',M",M'" denote a mono-, 
di-, and tri-valent metal. The first set may be called monometallic, 
the second dimetallic, and the third trimetallic salts. Per-acid 
salts of the alkalis, e.g. (K,Na,NH4)H 6 (PO4)2, are also known; 
these may be regarded as composed of a monometallic phosphate 



PHOSPHATES 



475 



with phosphoric acid, thus M'H 2 P0 4 H 3 PO 4 . The three principal 
groups differ remarkably in their behaviour towards indicators. 
The monometallic salts are strongly acid, the dimetallic are 
neutral or faintly alkaline, whilst the soluble trimetallic salts 
are strongly alkaline. The monometallic salts of the alkalis 
and alkaline earths may be obtained in crystal form, but those 
of the heavy metals are only stable when in solution. The 
soluble trimetallic salts are decomposed by carbonic acid into 
a dimetallic salt and an acid carbonate. All soluble orthophos- 
phates give with silver nitrate a characteristic yellow precipitate 
of silver phosphate, Ag 3 PO 4 , soluble in ammonia and in nitric 
acid. Since the reaction with the acid salts is attended by 
liberation of nitric acid: NaH 2 PO 4 -f 3AgNO 3 = Ag 3 PO 4 -|-NaNO 3 
+ 2HNO 3 , Na 2 HPO 4 +3AgNO 3 = Ag 3 PO 4 -r-2NaN0 3 +HNO 3 , it 
is necessary to neutralize the nitric acid if the complete pre- 
cipitation of the phosphoric acid be desired. The three series 
also differ when heated: the trimetallic salts, containing fixed 
bases are unaltered, whilst the mono- and dimetallic salts yield 
meta- and pyrophosphates respectively. If the heating be with 
charcoal, the trimetallic salts of the alkalis and alkaline earths 
are unaltered, whilst the mono- and di-salts give free phosphorus 
and a trimetallic salt. Other precipitants of phosphoric acid 
or its salts in solution are: ammonium molybdate in nitric 
acid, which gives on heating a canary-yellow precipitate of 
ammonium phosphomolybdate, i2[MoO 3 ] (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 , insoluble 
in acids but readily soluble in ammonia; magnesium chloride, 
ammonium chloride and ammonia, which give on standing in 
a warm place a white crystalline precipitate of magnesium 
ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH 4 )PO 4 -6H 2 O, which is soluble in 
acids but highly insoluble in ammonia solutions, and on heating 
to redness gives magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg 2 P 2 O 7 ; uranic 
nitrate and ferric chloride, which give a yellowish-white pre- 
cipitate, soluble in hydrochloric acid and ammonia, but insoluble 
in acetic acid; mercurous nitrate which gives a white precipitate, 
soluble in nitric acid, and bismuth nitrate which gives a white 
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid. 

Pyrophosphoric acid, H 4 P 2 O 7 , is a tetrabasic acid which may be 
regarded as derived by eliminating a molecule of water between 
two molecules of ordinary phosphoric acid ; its constitution may 
therefore be written (HO) 2 OP-O-EO(OH) 2 . It may be obtained 
as a glassy mass, indistinguishable from metaphosphoric acid, 
by heating phosphoric acid to 215. When boiled with water 
it forms the ortho-acid, and when heated to redness the meta- 
acid. After neutralization, it gives a white precipitate with 
silver nitrate. Being a tetrabasic acid it can form four classes 
of salts; for example, the four solium salts Na 4 P 2 C>7, Na 3 HP 2 O 7 , 
Na 2 H 2 P 2 O 7 , NaH 3 P 2 7 are known. The most important is 
the normal salt, Na 4 P 2 O 7 , which is readily obtained by heating 
disodium orthophosphate, Na 2 HPO 4 . It forms monoclinic 
prisms (with ioH 2 0) which are permanent in air. All soluble 
pyrophosphates when boiled with water for a long time are 
converted into orthophosphates. 

Metaphosphoric acid, HP0 3 , is a monobasic acid which may be 
regarded as derived from orthophosphoric acid by the abstraction 
of one molecule of water, thus H 3 PO 4 H 2 O = HPO 3 ; its constitu- 
tion is therefore (HO)PO2. The acid is formed by dissolving 
phosphorus pentoxide in cold water, or by strongly heating 
orthophosphoric acid. It forms a colourless vitreous mass, 
hence its name " glacial phosphoric acid." It is readily soluble 
in water, the solution being gradually transformed into the ortho- 
acid, a reaction which proceeds much more rapidly on boiling. 
Although the acid is monobasic, salts of polymeric forms exist of 
the types (MPO 3 ) n , where n may be i, 2, 3, 4, 6. They may be ob- 
tained by heating a monometallic orthophosphate of a fixed base, 
or a dimetallic orthophosphate of one fixed and one volatile base, 
e.g. microcosmic salt: MH 2 PO 4 = MPO 3 +H 2 O, (NH 4 ) NaHPO 4 = 
NaP0 3 +NH 3 +H 2 O; they may also be obtained by acting 
with phosphorus pentoxide on trimetallic orthophosphates: 
Na 3 PO 4 +P 2 O 5 = 3NaPO 3 . The salts are usually non-crystalline 
and fusible. On boiling their solutions they yield orthophos- 
phates, whilst those of the heavy metals on boiling with water 
give a trimetallic orthophosphate and orthophosphoric acid: 



3AgPO 3 +3H 2 O = Ag 3 PO 4 +2H 3 PO 4 . On heating with an oxide 
or carbonate they yield a trimetallic orthophosphate, carbon 
dioxide being evolved in the latter case. Metaphosphoric acid 
can be distinguished from the other two acids by its power 
of coagulating albumen, and by not being precipitated by mag- 
nesium and ammonium chlorides in the presence of ammonia. 

(C. E.*) 

Mineral Phosphates. Those varieties of native calcium 
phosphate which are not distinctly crystallized, like apatite (q.v.), 
but occur in fibrous, compact or earthy masses, often nodular, 
and more or less impure, are included under the general term 
phosphorite. The name seems to have been given originally 
to the Spanish phosphorite, probably because it phosphoresced 
when heated. This mineral, known as Estremadura phosphate, 
occurs at Logrossan and Caceres, where it forms an important 
deposit in clay-slate. It may contain from 55 to 62 % of calcium 
phosphate, with about 7% of magnesium phosphate. A some- 
what similar mineral, forming a fibrous incrustation, with a 
mammillary surface, and containing about 9% of calcium carbo- 
nate, is known as staffelite, a name given by A. Stein in 1866 
from the locality Staffel, in the valley of the Lower Lahn, 
where (as also in the valley of its tributary the Dill) large deposits 
of phosphorite occur. Dahllite is a Norwegian phosphorite, 
containing calcium carbonate, named in 1888 by W. C. Brogger 
and H. Backstrom after the Norwegian geologists T. and J. 
Dahll. Osteolite is a white earthy phosphorite occurring in the 
clefts of basaltic rocks, named in 1851 by J. C. Bromeis from 
the Greek boriov, bone. 

Phosphorite, when occurring in large deposits, is a mineral of 
much economic value for conversion into the superphosphate 
largely used as a fertilizing agent. Many of the impure sub- 
stances thus utilized are not strictly phosphorite, but pass 
under such names as " rock-phosphate," or, when nodular, as 
" coprolite " (q.v.), even if not of true coprolitic origin. The 
ultimate source of these mineral phosphates may be referred 
in most cases to the apatite widely distributed in crystalline 
rocks. Being soluble in water containing carbonic acid or 
organic acids it may be readily removed in solution, and may 
thus furnish plants and animals with the phosphates required 
in their structures. On the decay of these structures the phos- 
phates are returned to the inorganic world, thus completing 
the cycle. 

There are three sources of phosphates which are of importance 
geologically. They occur (a) in crystalline igneous and meta- 
morphic rocks as an original constituent, (6) in veins associated 
with igneous rocks, and (c) in sedimentary rocks either as organic 
fragments or in secondary concretionary forms. 

The first mode of occurrence is of little significance practically, 
for the crystalline rocks generally contain too little phosphate to 
be valuable, though occasionally an igneous rock may contain 
enough apatite to form an inferior fertilizing agent, e.g. the trachyte 
of Cabo de Gata in south-east Spain, which contains 12-15% ol 
phosphoric acid. In many deposits of iron ores found in connexion 
with igneous or metamorphic rocks small quantities of phosphate 
occur. The Swedish, Norwegian, Ontario and Michigan mines 
yield ores of this kind ; and though none of them can be profitably 
worked as a source of phosphate, yet on reducing the ore it may 
be retained in the slags, and thus rendered available for agriculture. 

Another group of phosphatic deposits connected with igneous 
rocks comprises the apatite veins of south Norway, Ottawa and 
other districts in Canada. These are of pneumatolytic origin 
(see PNEUMATOLYSIS), and have been formed by the action of vapours 
emanating from cooling bodies of basic eruptive rock. Veins of 
this type occur at Oedegarden in Norway and Dundret in Lapland. 
From 1500 to 3500 tons of apatite are obtained yearly in Norway 
from these veins. In Ontario apatite has been worked for a long 
time in deposits of similar nature. The total output of Canada 
in 1907 was only 680 tons. 

The phosphatic rocks which occur among the sedimentary strata 
are the principal sources of phosphates for commerce and agri- 
culture. They are found in formations of all ages from the Cambrian 
to those which are accumulating at the present day. Of the latter 
the best known is guano (see MANURES and MANURING). 

Where guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents 
are removed and the insoluble matters left behind. The soluble 
phosphates washed out of the guano may become fixed by entering 
into combination with the elements of the rock beneath. Many 
of the oceanic islets are composed of coral limestone, which in this 



476 



PHOSPHORESCENCE 



way becomes phosphatized ; others are igneous, consisting of 
trachyte or basalt, and these rocks are also phosphatized on their 
surfaces but are not so valuable, inasmuch as the presence of iron 
or alumina in any quantity renders them unsuited for the prepara- 
tion of artificial manures. 

The leached guanos and phosphatized rocks, which are grouped 
with them for commercial purposes, have been obtained in great 
quantities in many islands of the Pacific Ocean (such as Baker, 
Howland, Jarvis and McKean Islands) between long. 150 to 180 
W. and lat. 10 N. to 10 S. In the West Indies from Vene- 
zuela to the Bahamas and in the Caribbean Sea many islands 
yield supplies of leached guanos; the following are important in 
this respect : Sombrero, Navassa, Aves, Aruba, Curacoa. Christmas 
Island has been a great source of phosphates of this type; also 
Jaluit Island in the Maldive Archipelago, Banaba or Ocean Island, 
and Nauru or Pleasant Island. On Christmas Island the phosphate 
has been quarried to depths of loo ft. To these leached guanos 
and phosphatized limestones the name sombrerite has been given. 
It has been estimated that 500,000 tons of phosphate were obtained 
in Aruba, 1,000,000 tons from Curasoa since the deposits were 
discovered in 1870, and Christmas Island in 1907 yielded 290,000 
tons. 

In the older formations the phosphates tend to become more 
and more mineralized by chemical processes. In whatever 
form they were originally deposited they often suffer complete 
or partial solution and are redeposited as concretionary lumps 
and nodules, often called coprolites. The " Challenger " and 
other oceanographic expeditions have shown that on the bottom 
of the deep sea concretions of phosphate are now gathering 
around the dead bodies of fishes lying in the oozes; consequently 
the formation of the concretions may have been carried on 
simultaneously with the deposition of the strata in which they 
occur. 

Important deposits of mineral phosphates are now worked 
on a large scale in the United States, the annual yield far sur- 
passing that of any other part of the world. The most active 
operations are carried on in Florida, where the phosphate was 
first worked in 1887 in the form of pebbles in the gravels of 
Peace river. Then followed the discovery of " hard rock- 
phosphate," a massive mineral, often having cavities lined 
with nearly pure phosphorite. Other kinds not distinctly hard 
and consisting of less rich phosphatic limestone, are known as 
" soft phosphate ": those found as smooth pebbles of variable 
colour are called " land pebble-phosphate," whilst the pebbles 
of the river-beds and old river- valleys, usually of dark colour, 
are distinguished as " river pebble-phosphate." The land 
pebble is worked in central South Florida; the hard rock chiefly 
between Albion and Bay City. In South Carolina, where 
there are important deposits of phosphate, formerly more 
productive than at present, the " land rock " is worked near 
Charleston, and the " river rock " in the Coosaw river and other 
streams near Beaufort. The phosphate beds contain Eocene 
fossils derived from the underlying strata and many fragments 
of Pleistocene vertebrata such as mastodon, elephant, stag, 
horse, pig, &c. The phosphate occurs as lumps varying greatly 
in size, scattered through a sand or clay; they often contain 
phosphatized Eocene fossils (Mollusca, &c.). Sometimes the 
phosphate is found at the surface, but generally it is covered by 
alluvial sands and clays. Phosphate mining began in South 
Carolina in 1868, and for twenty years that state was the prin- 
cipal producer. Then the Florida deposits began to be worked. 
In 1892 the phosphates of Tennessee, derived from Ordovician 
limestones, came into the market. From North Carolina, 
Alabama and Pennsylvania, also, phosphates have been obtained 
but only in comparatively small quantities. In 1900 mining for 
phosphates was commenced in Arkansas. In 1908 Florida 
produced 1,673,651 tons of phosphate valued at n million 
dollars. All the other states together produce less phosphate 
than Florida, and among them Tennessee takes the first place 
with an output of 403,180 tons. 

Algeria contains important deposits of phosphorite, especially 
near Tebessa and at Tocqueville in the province of Constantine. 
Near Jebel Kouif, on the frontier between Algeria and Tunis, 
there are phosphate workings, as also in Tunis, at Gafsa. The 
deposits belong to the Lower Eocene, where it rests unconform- 
ably upon the Cretaceous. The joint production of Tunis and 



Algeria in 1907 was not less than a million tons. Phosphates 
occur also in Egypt, in the desert east of Keneh and in the 
Dakla oasis in the Libyan desert. 

France is rich in mineral phosphates, the chief deposits being 
the departments of the Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Aisne, Oise in 
and Meuse, in the north-east, and another group in the depart- 
ments of Lot, Tarn-et- Garonne and Aveyron, in the south-west: 
phosphates occur also in the Pyrenees. The deposits near 
Caylus and in Quercy occupy fissures and pockets in Jurassic 
limestone, and have yielded a remarkable assemblage of the 
relics of Tertiary mammals and other fossils. Phosphates 
occur in Belgium, especially near Mons, and these, like those 
of north-east France, are principally in the Upper Chalk. Two 
varieties of phosphate rock are recognized in these districts, 
viz. the phosphatic chalk and the phosphate sand, the latter 
resulting from the decomposition of the former. Large and 
valuable deposits of the sand have been obtained in sinks and 
depressions on the surface of the chalk. The production is 
on the whole diminishing in Belgium (180,000 tons in 1907), 
but in France it is still large (375,000 tons in 1907). 

In the Lahn district of Nassau (Germany) there are phosphate 
beds in Devonian rocks. The deposits were rich but irregular 
and local, and were much worked from 1866 to 1884, but are no 
longer of economic importance. In northern Estremadura in 
Spain and Alemtezo in Portugal there are vein deposits of 
phosphate of lime. As much as 200,000 tons of phosphate have 
been raised in these provinces, but in 1906 the total production 
of Spain was only 1300 tons. Large deposits of phosphate 
occur in Russia, and those in the neighbourhood of Kertch have 
attracted some attention; it is said that the Cretaceous rocks 
between the rivers Dniester and Volga contain very large 
supplies of phosphate, though probably of low grade. 

Phosphatic nodules and concretions, with phosphatized fossils 
and their casts, occur at various geological horizons in Great Britain. 
Bands of black nodules, highly phosphatic, are found at the top of 
the Bala limestone in North Wales; beds of concretions occur in 
the Jurassic series; and important deposits are known in the 
Cretaceous strata, especially in the Lower Greensand and at the 
base of the Gault. The Lower Greensand phosphates have been 
worked, under the name of " coprolites," at Potton in Bedfordshire 
and at Upware and Wicken in Cambridgeshire. The Cambridge 
Greensand, rich in phosphatic nodules, occurs at the base of the 
Chalk Marl. The chalk occasionally becomes phosphatized, as at 
Taplow (Bucks) and Lewes (Sussex). At the base of the Red Crag 
in East Anglia, and occasionally at the base of the other Pliocene 
Crags, there is a " nodule bed, ' consisting of phosphatic nodules, 
with rolled teeth and bones, which were formerly worked as " copro- 
lites " for the preparation of artificial manure. Professor R. J. 
Strutt has found that phosphatized nodules and bones are rich in 
radioactive constituents, and has brought this into relation with 
their geological age. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For American phosphates see The Phosphates 
of America, by Francis Wyatt (stn ed., New York and London, 
1894); the Annual Reports on Mineral Resources of the U.S. (U.S. 
Geol. Survey), including some valuable reports by C. W. Hayes, 
also those in Rothwell's Mineral Industry; " Nature and Origin of 
Deposits of Phosphate of Lime," by R. A. F. Penrose, Jun., Bull. U.S. 
Geol. Survey, No. 46 (1888); Florida, South Carolina and Canadian 
Phosphates, by C. C. Hoyer Miller (London, 1892) ; and The Non- 
metallic Minerals, by G. P. Merrill (1904). Many of the above 
include descriptions of mineral phosphates in other parts of the 
world. For a general discussion of the origin of the phosphates, 



see " The Natural History of Phosphate Deposits," by J. J. H. Teall, 
Proc. Geol. Assoc. xvi. 369 (1900). Consult also Etude complete 
sur les phosphates, by A. Deckers (Liege, 1894). 



(J. S. F.;F. W. R.*) 
PHOSPHORESCENCE, a name given to a variety of physical 
phenomena due to different causes, but all consisting in the 
emission of a pale, more or less ill-defined light, not obviously 
due to combustion. The word was first used by physicists to 
describe the property possessed by many substances of them- 
selves becoming luminous after exposure to light. This property 
has been noticed from early times. Pliny speaks of various 
gems which shine with a light of their own, and Albertus Magnus 
knew that the diamond becomes phosphorescent when moder- 
ately heated. But the first discovery of this property which 
apparently attracted scientific attention seems to have been 
that of the Bologna stone (barium sulphide) , which was discovered 



PHOSPHORESCENCE 



by Vincenzo Cascariolo, a cobbler of Bologna, in about 1602. 
This was followed by the discovery of a number of other sub- 
stances which become luminous either after exposure to light 
or on heating, or by attrition, and to which the general name of 
" phosphori " (from <tws and <t>6pos, bringing light) was given. 
Among these may be mentioned Homberg's phosphorus (calcium 
chloride), John Canton's phosphorus (calcium sulphide) and 
Balduin's phosphorus (calcium nitrate). Of late years it has 
been found convenient to limit the strict meaning of the word 
" phosphorescence " to the case of bodies which, after exposure 
to light, become self-luminous (even if only for a fraction of a 
second). The general term "luminescence" has been proposed 
by E. Wiedemann to include all cases in which bodies give off 
light not due to ignition. This general term embraces several 
subdivisions. Thus, fluorescence (q.v.) and phosphorescence 
are included under the same heading, " photoluminescence," 
being distinguished from each other only by the fact that 
fluorescent bodies emit their characteristic light only while 
under the influence of the exciting illumination, while phos- 
phorescent bodies are luminous for an appreciable time after 
the exciting light is cut off. 

Phosphorescence, in its restricted meaning as above explained, 
is most strikingly exhibited by the artificial sulphides of calcium,' 
strontium and barium. If any of these substances is exposed for 
some time to daylight, or, better, to direct sunlight, or to the light 
of the electric arc, it will shine for hours in the dark with a soft 
coloured light. The colour depends not only on the nature of the 
substance, but also on its physical condition, and on its temperature 
during insolation, that is, exposure to the sun's rays. Thus the 
phosphorescent light emitted by calcium sulphide may be orange- 
yellow, yellow, green or violet, according to the method of pre- 
paration and the materials used. Balmain's luminous paint, a 
preparation of calcium sulphide, shines with a white light. The 
colour also depends on the temperature during exposure to light. 
Thus A. E. Becquerel found that the light given by a specimen of 
strontium sulphide changed from violet to blue, green, yellow and 
orange, as the temperature during the corresponding previous 
insolation was 20, ^o, 70, 100 or 200 C. The duration of 
phosphorescence varies greatly with different substances. It may 
last for days or for only a fraction of a second. 

As in the case of fluorescent bodies, the light produced by phos- 
phorescent substances consists commonly of rays less refrangible 
than those of the exciting light. Thus the ultra-violet portion of 
the spectrum is usually the most efficient in exciting rays belonging 
to the visible part of the spectrum. V. Klatt and Ph. Lenard 
(Wied. Ann., 1889, xxxviii. 90), have shown that the phosphorescence 
of calcium sulphide and other phosphori depends on the presence 
of minute quantities of other substances, such as copper, bismuth 
and manganese. The maximum intensity of phosphorescent light 
is obtained when a certain definite proportion of the impurity is 
present, and the intensity is diminished if this proportion is increased. 
It appears likely that when a phosphorescent body is exposed to 
light, the energy of the light is stored up in some kind of strain 
energy, and that the phosphorescent light is given out during a more 
or less slow recovery from this state of strain. Klatt and Lenard 
have shown that the sulphides of the alkaline earths lose the property 
of phosphorescing when subjected to heavy pressure. Many 
fluorescent solutions become briefly phosphorescent when rendered 
solid by gelatin. 

When the duration of phosphorescence is brief, some mechanical 
device becomes necessary to detect it. The earliest and best- 
known instrument for this purpose is Becq.uerel's phosphoroscope. 
It consists essentially of a shallow drum, in whose ends two eccentric 
holes, exactly opposite one another, are cut. Inside it are fixed 
two equal metal disks, attached perpendicularly to an axis, and 
divided into the same number of sectors, the alternate sectors of 
each being cut out. One of these disks is close to one end of the 
drum, the other to the opposite end, and the sectors are so arranged 
that, when the disks are made to rotate, the hole in one end is open 
while that in the other is closed, and vice versa. If the eye be 
placed near one hole, and a ray of sunlight be admitted by the other, 
it is obvious that while the sun shines on an object inside the drum 
the aperture next the eye is closed, and vice versa. If the disks be 
made to revolve with great velocity by means of a train of toothed 
wheels the object will be presented to the eye almost instantly 
after it has been exposed to sunlight, and these presentations succeed 
one another so rapidly as to produce a sense of continuous vision. 
By means of this apparatus we can test with considerable accuracy 
the duration of the phenomenon after the light has been cut off. 
For this purpose we require to know merely the number of sectors 
in the disks and the rate at which they are turned. 

Thermoluminescence. Some bodies which do not emit light at 
ordinary temperatures in a dark room begin to do so if they are 
heated to a temperature below a visible red heat. In the case of 



477 



chlorophane, a variety of fluor-spar, the heat of the hand is sufficient. 
Many yellow diamonds exhibit this form of luminescence. It 
has been shown, however, that a previous exposure to light is always 
necessary. Sir James Dewar found that if ammonium platino- 
cyanide, Balmain's paint and some other substances are cooled to 
the temperature of liquid air and exposed to light, they do not 
phosphoresce, but as soon as they are allowed to warm up to the 
ordinary temperature they emit a brilliant light. On the other 
hand, some bodies, such as gelatin, celluloid, paraffin and ivory, 
are phosphorescent at very low temperatures, but lose the property 
at ordinary temperatures. 

Triboluminescence (from rplffuv, to rub) is luminescence excited 
by friction, percussion, cleavage or such mechanical means. Calcium 
chloride, prepared at a red heat, exhibits this property. If sugar 
is broken in the dark, or two crystals of quartz rubbed together, 
or a piece of mica cleft, a flash of light is seen, but this is probably 
of electrical origin. Closely allied to this form of luminescence is 
crystalloluminescence, a phosphorescent light seen when some 
substances crystallize from solution or after fusion. This property 
is exhibited by arsenious acid when crystallizing from solution in 
hydrochloric acid. 

Chemttuminescence is the name given to those cases in which 
chemical action produces light without any great rise of temperature. 
Phosphorus exposed to moist air in a dark room shines with a soft 
light due to slow oxidation. Decaying wood and other vegetable 
substances often exhibit the same property. 

Electroluminescence is luminescence due to electrical causes. 
Many gases are phosphorescent for a short time after an electric 
discharge has been passed through them, and some solid sub- 
stances, especially diamonds and rubies, are strongly phosphorescent 
when exposed to kathode rays in a vacuum tube. 

See generally, Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, Bd. vi. (1906) ; 
E. Becquerel, La Lumiere (1867). (J. R. C.) 

Phosphorescence in Zoology. 

The emission of light by living substance is a widespread 
occurrence, and is part of the general metabolism by which the 
potential energy introduced as food is transformed into kinetic 
energy and appears in the form of movement, heat, electricity 
and light. In many cases it is probably an accidental by- 
product, and like the heat radiated by living tissues, is not 
necessarily of use to the organism. But in other cases the 
capacity to produce light is awakened on stimulation, as when 
the wind ripples the surface of the sea, or when the water is 
disturbed by the blade of an oar. It has been suggested that 
the response to the stimulus may be protective, and that enemies 
are frightened by the flash of light. In luminous insects and 
deep-sea fish the power of emitting light appears to have a 
special significance, and very elaborate mechanisms have been 
developed. The pale glow of phosphorescence has a certain 
resemblance to the light emitted by phosphorus, and it was an 
early suggestion that the phenomenon in living organisms was 
due to that substance. Phosphorus, however, and its luminous 
compounds are deadly poisons to all living tissues, and never 
occur in them in the course of natural metabolism, and the 
phosphorescence of life cannot therefore be assigned to the oxi- 
dation of phosphorus. On the other hand, it is certainly the 
result of a process of oxidation, as the emission of light continues 
only in the presence of oxygen. J. H. Fabre showed in 1855 
that the luminous fungus, Agaricus, discharges more carbonic 
acid when it is emitting light, and Max Schultze in 1865 showed 
that in insects the luminous cells are closely associated with the 
tracheae, and that during phosphorescence they withdraw 
oxygen from them. In 1880 B. Radziszewski showed that 
many fats, ethereal oils and alcohols emit light when slowly 
combined with oxygen in alkaline fluids at appropriate tempera- 
tures. Probably the phosphorescence of organisms is due to a 
similar process acting on the many fats, oils and similar sub- 
stances found in living cells. The colour varies much in different 
organisms; green has been observed in the glow-sworm, fire-flies, 
brittle-stars, centipedes and annelids; blue in the Italian fire-fly 
(Luciola ilalica); blue and light green are the predominant 
colours in the phosphorescence of marine organisms, but red 
and lilac have also been observed. The Lantern-Fly (Fulgora 
pyrorhynchus) is said to have a purple light, and E. H. Giglioli 
has recorded that an individual Appendicularia appeared first 
red, and then blue, and then green. P. Panceri, chiefly in the 
case of Salps, and S. P. Langley and F. W. Very in the case of 
Pyrophoms, have investigated the light spectroscopically, and 



PHOSPHORITE PHOSPHORUS 



.found that it consisted of a continuous band without separate 
bright lines. The solar spectrum extends farther both towards 
the violet and the red ends, but is less intense in the green when 
equal luminosities are compared. 

Many of the bacteria of putrefaction are phosphorescent, and the 
light emitted by dead fish or molluscs or flesh is probably due in 
every case to the presence of these. Under the miscroscope, the 
individual bacteria appear as shining points of light. The phosphor- 
escence of decaying wood is due to the presence of the mycelium of 
Agaricus melleus, and various other species of Agaricus have been 
found to be luminous. The great displays of phosphorescence in 
sea-water are usually due to the presence of very large numbers 
of small luminous organisms, either protozoa or protophyta. Of 
these Noctiluca miliaris and species of Peridinium and Pyrocystis 
are the most frequent, the two former near land and the latter in 
mid-ocean. 

In higher animals the phosphorescence tends to be limited to 
special parts of the body which may form elaborate and highly 
specialized luminous organs. Many coelenterates show the begin- 
ning of such localization ; in medusae the whole surface may be lumin- 
ous, but the light is brighter along the radial canals, in the ovaries, 
or in the marginal sense-organs. In Pennatulids each polyp has 
eight luminous bands on the outer surface of the digestive cavity. 
Some Chaetopods (Chaetopterus and Tomopteris) have luminous 
organs at the bases of the lateral processes of the body. Pyrosoma, 
a colonial pelagic ascidian, is responsible for some of the most strik- 
ing displays of phosphorescence in tropical seas; it has two small 
patches of cells at the base of each inhalent tube which on stimula- 
tion discharge light, and the luminosity has been observed to spread 
through the colony from the point of irritation. 

Amongst the Crustacea, many pelagic Copepods are phosphor- 
escent. W. Giesbrecht has shown that the light is produced by a 
fluid secreted by certain dermal glands. A similar fluid in other 
Copepods hardens to form a protective case, and it may be that the 
display of light is in such cases an accidental by-product. Glands 
in the labrum of the Ostracod Pyrocypris and on the maxillae of 
the Mysid Gnathophausia similarly produce a luminous secretion. 
In the Euphausiacea, on the other hand, phosphorescence is pro- 
duced by elaborate luminous organs which are situated on the 
thoracic appendages and the abdomen, and which were at first 
believed to be ocular organs. The deep-sea Decapod Crustaceans 
belonging to many families are luminous. A. Alcock observed 
that in some of the deep-sea prawns a luminous secretion was dis- 
charged at the bases of the antennae, but in most cases the luminous 
organs are numerous eye-like structures on the limbs and body. 

The rock-boring mollusc, Pholas, which Pliny knew to be phos- 
phorescent, has luminous organs along the anterior border of the 
mantle, two small triangular patches at the entrance of the anterior 
siphon, and two long parallel cords within the siphon. The cells 
of these organs have peculiar, granulated contents. W. E. Hoyle, 
in his presidential address to the Zoological Section of the British 
Association in 1907, brought together observations on the occur- 
rence of luminous organs in no less than thirty-three species of 
Cephalopods. In Heteroteuthis, Sepiola and Rossia the light is 
produced by the secretion of a glandular organ on the ventral 
side of the body behind the funnel. The secretion glows through 
the transparent wall with a greenish colour, but, at least in the case 
of Heteroteuthis, continues to glow after being ejected into the water. 
In most cases the luminous organs are nonglandular and may be 
simple, or possess not only a generator but a reflector, lens and 
diaphragm. The different organs shine with different coloured 
lights, and as the Cephalopods are for the most part inhabitants 
of the depths of the sea, it has been suggested that they serve as 
recognition marks. 

Some centipedes (e.g. Geophilus electricus and G. phosphoreus) 
are luminous, and, if allowed to crawl over the hand, are stated to 
leave a luminous trail. Amongst insects, elaborate luminous 
organs are developed in several cases. The abdomen of a Ceylonese 
May-fly (Teleganodes) is luminous. The so-called New Zealand 
" glow-worm " is the larva of the fly Boletophila luminosa, and some 
gnats have been observed to be luminous, although the suggestion 
is that in their case disease is present and the light emanates from 
phosphorescent bacteria. An ant (Orya) and a poduran (Anuro- 
phorus) are occasionally luminous. The so-called lantern flies are 
Homoptera allied to the Cicadas, and the supposed luminous organ 
is a huge projection of the front of the head, regarding the luminosity 
of which there is some doubt. The glow-worms and true fire-flies 
are beetles. Eggs, larvae and adults are in some cases luminous. 
The organs consist of a pale transparent superficial layer which 
gives the light, and a deeper layer which may act as a reflector. 
They are in close connexion with the tracheae and the light is pro- 
duced by the oxidation of a substance formed under the influence 
of the nervous system, and probably some kind of organic fat. 
In the females the phosphorescence is probably a sexual lure; in 
the males its function is unknown. 

Phosphorescent organs known as photophores are characteristic 
structures in many of the deep-sea Teleostome fishes, and have 
been developed in widely different families (Stomiatidae, Scopelidae, 



Halosauridae and Anomalopidae), whilst numerous simple luminous 
organs have been detected in many species of Selachii. The number, 
distribution and complexity of the organs vary much in different 
fish. They are most frequent on the sides and ventral surface of 
the anterior part of the body and the head, and may extend to the 
tail. The simpler forms are generally arranged in rows, sometimes 
metamerically distributed; the more complex organs are larger 
and less numerous. In Opostomias micrionus there is a large 
organ on a median barbel hanging down from the chin, others 
below the eyes, and one on the elongated first ray of the pectoral 
fin. In Sternoptyx diaphana there is one on the lower jaw, and in 
many species one or two below the eyes. The luminous organs 
appear to be specialized skin glands which secrete a fluid that 
becomes luminous on slow oxidation. The essential part of the 
organ remains a collection of gland cells, but in the more complex 
types there are blood vessels and nerves, a protecting membrane, 
an iris-like diaphragm, a reflector and lens. As the distribution 
and probably the colour of the light varies with the species, these 
organs may serve as recognition marks. They may also attract 
prey, and from their association with the eyes in such a position 
as to send light downwards and forwards it is probable that in 
the higher types they are used by the fish actually as lanterns in the 
dark abysses of the sea. (P. C. M.) 

PHOSPHORITE, in mineralogy, the name given to impure 
massive apatite (q.v.; see also PHOSPHATES). 

PHOSPHORUS (Gr. <j>&, light, <#*peic, to bear), the name 
originally given to any substance which possessed the property 
of phosphorescence (q.v.), i.e. the power of shining in the dark, 
but now generally restricted to a non-metallic element, which 
was first known as Phosphorus mirabilis or igneus. This element 
is very widely distributed in nature in combination, but is never 
found free. In the mineral kingdom it is exceptionally abun- 
dant, forming large deposits of phosphates (q.v.). It is also 
necessary to animal and vegetable life (see MANURE). It occurs 
in the urine, blood, tissues, and bones of animals, calcium 
phosphate forming about 58% of bones, which owe their rigidity 
to its presence. 

The element appears to have been first obtained in 1669 by 
Brand of Hamburg; Krafft bought his secret and in 1677 
exhibited specimens in England, where it created an immense 
sensation. Its preparation was assiduously sought for, and 
Kunckel in 1678 and Boyle in 1680 succeeded in obtaining it 
by the same process as was discovered by Brand, i.e. by evapora- 
ting urine to dryness and distilling the residue with sand. This 
method was generally adopted until 1775, when Scheele prepared 
it from bones, which had been shown by Gahn in 1769 to contain 
calcium phosphate. Scheele treated bone ash with nitric acid, 
precipitated the calcium as sulphate, filtered, evaporated and 
distilled the residue with charcoal. Nicolas and Pelletier 
improved the process by decomposing the bone-ash directly 
with sulphuric acid; whilst Fourcroy and Vauquelin introduced 
further economies. In modern practice degreased bones (see 
GELATIN), or bone-ash which has lost its virtue as a filtering 
medium, &c., or a mineral phosphate is treated with sufficient 
sulphuric acid to precipitate all the calcium, the calcium sulphate 
filtered off, and the filtrate concentrated, mixed with charcoal, 
coke or sawdust and dried in a muffle furnace. The product is 
then distilled from Stourbridge clay retorts, arranged in a galley 
furnace, previously heated to a red heat. The temperature 
is now raised to a white heat, and the product led by malleable 
iron pipes into condensing troughs containing water, when it 
condenses. The chemical reactions are as follows: the treatment 
of the calcium phosphate with the acid gives phosphoric acid, 
H 3 PC>4, which at a red heat loses water to give metaphosphoric 
acid, HPOs; this at a white heat reacts with carbon to give 
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and phosphorus, thus: 2HP0 3 + 
6C = H 2 +6CO+P 2 . 

Electrothermal processes are also employed. Calcium phos- 
phate, mixed with sand and carbon, is fed into an electric 
furnace, provided with a closely fitting cover with an outlet 
leading to a condenser. At the temperature of the furnace the 
silica (sand) attacks the calcium phosphate, forming silicate, 
and setting free phosphorus pentoxide, which is attacked by 
the carbon, forming phosphorus and carbon monoxide. As 
phosphorus boils at 290 C. (554 F.), it is produced in the form 
of vapour, which, mingled with carbon monoxide, passes to the 



PHOSPHORUS 



479 



condenser, where it is condensed. It is then cast under water. 
The calcium silicate remains in the furnace in the form of a 
liquid slag, which may be run off, so that the action is practically 
continuous. Kaolin may with advantage be used in addition 
to or in part substitution for sand, because the double silicate 
thus formed is more fusible than the single silicate of lime. 
The alternating current is generally used, the action not being 
electrolytic. One of the special advantages of the electrical 
over the older process is that the distilling vessels have a longer 
life, owing to the fact that they are not externally heated, and so 
subjected to a relatively high temperature when in contact with 
the corrosive slag formed in the process. The Readman-Parker 
process (see Jour, Soc. Ghent. Ind., 1891, x. 445) appears to 
be very generally adopted. Readman, experimenting with a 
Cowles furnace in Staffordshire in 1888, patented his process, 
and in the same year Parker and Robinson, working indepen- 
dently, patented a similar one. The two inventors then co- 
operated, an experimental plant was run successfully, and the 
patents were taken over by the leading manufacturers. With 
the object of obtaining a valuable by-product in place of the 
slag produced in this furnace, several patentees (e.g. Hilbert 
and Frank, Billaudot, Bradley and Jacobs, and others) have 
sought to combine the manufacture of calcium carbide and 
phosphorus by using only calcium phosphate and carbon, 
effecting direct reduction by carbon at a high temperature. 

The crude phosphorus is purified by melting under water and 
then filtering through animal black and afterwards through 
chamois leather., or by treating it, when molten, with chromic 
acid or a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid; 
this causes the impurities to rise to the surface as a scum which 
can be skimmed off. It is usually sent on the market in the 
form of sticks, which were at one time prepared by sucking 
the molten material up glass tubes; but the dangers to the 
workmen and other disadvantages of this method have led to its 
replacement by a continuous process, in which the phosphorus 
leaves the melting-pot for a pipe surrounded by water, in which 
it solidifies and can be removed as a continuous rod. 

Properties. When perfectly pure phosphorus is a white, trans- 
parent, waxy solid, but as usually prepared it is yellowish owing 
to the presence of the allotropic " red phosphorus," J. Boeseken 
(Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, ii. 343, 760) prepares perfectly 
pure phosphorus by heating the crude product with chromic 
acid solution, washing and drying in a vacuum, first at 40, 
then at 80. It remains colourless in vacuum tubes in the dark, 
but on exposure it rapidly turns yellow. At 25 to 30 C. it is 
soft and flexible, but it hardens when strongly cooled, and can 
then only be cut with difficulty. The fracture is distinctly crys- 
talline; large crystals, either regular dodecahedra or octahedra, 
may be obtained by crystallization from carbon bisulphide, 
sulphur chloride, &c., or by sublimation. It is a non-con- 
ductor of electricity. Its density at o is 1-836; this regularly 
diminishes up to the melting-point, 44-3, when a sudden drop 
occurs. Molten phosphorus is a viscid, oily, highly refractive 
liquid, which may be supercooled to 32 before solidification. It 
boils at 290, forming a colourless vapour which just about the 
boiling-point corresponds in density to tetratomic molecules, 
P 4 ; at 1500 to 1700, however, Biltz and Meyer detected 
dissociation into P 2 molecules. Beckmann obtained P< mole- 
cules from the boiling-point of carbon bisulphide solutions, and 
Hertz arrived at the same conclusion from the lowering of the 
freezing-point in benzene solution; E. Paterno and Nasini, 
however, detected dissociation. Phosphorus is nearly insoluble 
in water, but dissolves in carbon bisulphide, sulphur chloride, 
benzene and oil of turpentine. 

The element is highly inflammable, taking fire in air at 34 
and burning with a bright white flame and forming dense white 
clouds of the pentoxide; in perfectly dry air or oxygen, however, 
it may be distilled unchanged, H. B. Baker showing that a trace 
of water vapour was necessary for combination to occur. When 
exposed to the air a stick of phosphorus undergoes slow combus- 
tion, which is revealed by a greenish-white phosphorescence 
when the stick is viewed in the dark. This phenomenon was 



minutely studied by Boyle, who found that solutions in some 
essential oils (oil of cloves) showed the same character, whilst 
in others (oils of mace and aniseed) there was no phosphorescence. 
He also noticed a strong garlic-like odour, which we now 
know to be due to ozone. Frederick Slare noticed that the 
luminosity increased when the air was rarefied, an observation 
confirmed by Hawksbee and Homberg, and which was possibly 
the basis of Berzelius's theory that the luminosity depended on 
the volatility of the element and not on the presence of oxygen. 
Lampadius, however, showed that there was no phosphorescence 
in a Torricellian vacuum; and other experimenters proved that 
oxygen was essential to the process. It depends on the partial 
pressure of the oxygen and also on temperature. In compressed 
air at ordinary temperature there is no glowing, but it may be 
brought about by heating. Again, in oxygen under ordinary 
conditions there is no phosphorescence, but if the gas be heated 
to 25 glowing occurs, as is also the case if the pressure be 
diminished or the gas diluted. It is also remarkable that many 
gases and vapours, e.g. Cl, Br, I,NH 3 , N 2 O, NO 2 , H 2 S, SO 2 , CS 2 , 
CH 4 , C 2 H4, inhibit the phosphorescence. 

The theory of this action is not settled. It is certain that 
the formation of hydrogen peroxide and ozone accompany the 
glowing, and in 1848 Schonbein tried to demonstrate that it 
depended on the ozone. E. Jungfleisch (Comptes rendus, 1905, 
140, p. 444) suggested that it is due to the combustion of an 
oxide more volatile than phosphorus, a view which appears to 
be supported by the observations of Scharff (Zeit. physik. Chem., 
1908, 62, p. 178) and of L. and E. Bloch (Comptes rendus, 1908, 
147, p. 842). 

The element combines directly with the halogens, sulphur 
and selenium, and most of the metals burn in its vapour forming 
phosphides. When finely divided it decomposes water giving 
hydrogen phosphide; it also reduces sulphurous and sulphuric 
acids, and when boiled with water gives phosphine and hypo- 
phosphorous acid; when slowly oxidized under water it yields 
hypophosphoric acid. 

Allotropic Phosphorus. Several allotropic forms of phos- 
phorus have been described, and in recent years much work 
has been done towards settling their identities. When the 
ordinary form immersed in water is exposed to light, it gradually 
loses its transparency and becomes coated with a thin film. 
This substance was regarded as an allotrope, but since it is not 
produced in non-aerated water it is probably an oxide. More 
important is the so-called " red phosphorus," which is produced 
by heating yellow phosphorus to about 230 for 24 hours in an 
inert atmosphere, or in closed vessels to 300, when the change 
is effected in a few minutes. E. Kopp in 1844 and B. C. Brodie 
in 1853 showed that a trace of iodine also expedited the change. 
The same form is also produced by submitting ordinary phos- 
phorus to the silent electric discharge, to sunlight or the ultra- 
violet light. Since this form does not inflame until heated to 
above 350, it is manufactured in large quantities for consump- 
tion in the match industry. The process consists in heating yellow 
phosphorus in iron pots provided with air-tight lids, which, 
however, bear a long pipe open to the air. A small quantity of 
the phosphorus combines with the oxygen in the vessel, and 
after this the operation is practically conducted in an atmosphere 
of nitrogen with the additional safety from any risk of explosion. 
The product is ground under water, and any unchanged yellow 
form is eliminated by boiling with caustic soda, the product 
being then washed and dried and finally packed in tin boxes. 
The red variety is remarkably different from the yellow. It is 
a dark red microcrystalline powder, insoluble in carbon bisul- 
phide, oil of turpentine, &c., and having a density of 2-2. It is 
stable to air and light, and does not combine with oxygen until 
heated to above 350 in air or 260 in oxygen, forming the 
pentoxide. It is also non-poisonous. When heated in a vacuum 
to 530 it sublimes, and on condensation forms microscopic 
needles. 

Hittorf's phosphorus is another crystalline allotrope formed 
by heating phosphorus with lead in a sealed tube to redness, 
and removing the lead by boiling the product with nitric and 



4 8o 



PHOSPHORUS 



hydrochloric acid. It is also obtained by heating red phosphorus 
under pressure to 580. It forms a lustrous, nearly black 
crystalline mass, composed of minute rhombohedra. G. E. 
Linck and P. Moller (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 1404) have affirmed that 
the product of the first process always contains lead. E. Cohen 
and J. Olie, Jun. (Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909, ii. 998) 
regard red phosphorus as a solid solution of the white in 
Hittorf's, but this is contradicted by A. Stock (Ber., 1909, 42, 
p. 4510), who points out that ordinary red phosphorus melts 
at 6os-6io, whilst Hittorf's melts at 620; moreover, the 
latter is less reactive than the former at high temperatures. 

Another form was obtained by R. Schenck (Zeit. Elektrochem, 
1905, ii. 117) as a scarlet amorphous powder by deposition of 
solutions of phosphorus in the tri-iodide, tribromide or sulphide 
(P 4 S 3 ). It phosphoresces in ozone, but not in air, and is non- 
poisonous; from its solution in alcoholic potash acids precipitate 
the hydride Pi 2 H 6 ,and when heated it is transformed into the 
red modification. It has been used in combination with 
potassium chlorate as a composition for matches to strike on 
any surface. Finally a black phosphorus was described by 
Thenard as formed by rapidly-cooling melted phosphorus. 

PhospUne (phosphoretted hydrogen), PH 3 , a gas formed in the 
putrefaction of organic matter containing phosphorus, was obtained 
by Gengembre (Crell's Ann., 1789, i- 45O) by the action of potash 
upon phosphorus, the gas so prepared being spontaneously inflam- 
mable. Some time later Davy, by heating phosphorous acid, obtained 
a phosphoretted hydrogen which was not spontaneously inflammable. 
These gases were considered to be distinct until Le Verner (Ann. 
Mm, phys., 1835 [2], 60, p. 174) showed that the inflammability of 
Gengembre's phosphine was due to small quantities of liquid 
phosphoretted hydrogen, P 2 H 4 . Phosphine may be prepared by the 
decomposition of calcium phosphide with water (P 2 H 4 being formed 
simultaneously) ; by the decomposition of phosphorous and hypo- 
phosphorous acids when strongly heated; and by the action of solu- 
tions of the caustic alkalis on phosphorus: P 4 +3NaOH+3H 2 O- 
PH s +3NaH 2 PO 2 ; hydrogen and P 2 H 4 are produced at the same 
time, and the gas may be freed from the latter substance by passing 
into a hydrochloric acid solution of cuprous chloride, and heating 
the solution, when pure phosphine is liberated (Riban, Comptes 
rendus, 58, p. 581). The pure gas may also be obtained by heating 
phosphonium iodide with caustic potash (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 
1871, 4, p. 200); by the decomposition of crystalline calcium phos- 
phide or of aluminium phosphide with water (H. Moissan, Bull, 
soc. Mm., 1899 (3), 21, p. 926; Matignon. Comptes rendus, 1900, 130, 

S. 1391); and by the reduction of phosphorous acid with nascent 
ydrogen. 

It is a colourless, extremely poisonous gas, possessing a character- 
istic offensive smell, resembling that of rotting fish. It becomes 
liquid at-goC., and solid at -133 C. (K. Olszewski, Monats., 1866, 
7, P- 37l)- It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily soluble 
in solutions of copper sulphate, hypochlorous acid, and acid 
solutions of cuprous chloride. It burns with a brightly luminous 
flame, and is spontaneously inflammable at about 100 C. When 
mixed with oxygen it combines explosively if the mixture 
be under diminished pressure, and is violently decomposed by 
the halogens. It is also decomposed when heated with sulphur 
or with most metals, in the latter case with the liberation of hydrogen 
and formation of phosphide of the metal. It combines with the 
halide derivatives of boron and silicon to form, e.g. PH 3 -2BF 3 , 
2PHj-SiCl 4 (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1890, no, 80, pp. 240, 516; 
1891, 113, p. 78), with the halogen acids to form phosphonium salts, 
PH 4 X (X = Cl,Br,I), and with sodammonium and potassammonium 
to form PH 2 Na, PH 2 K (Joannis, Comptes rendus, 1894, 119, p. 557). 
It oxidizes slowly in air, and is a reducing agent. It decomposes 
when heated, hydrogen and red phosphorus being formed. 

Liquid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P 2 H 4 , first obtained by P. Thdnard 
{Comptes rendus, 1844, 18, p. 652) by decomposing calcium phos- 
phide with warm water, the products of reaction being then passed 
through a U tube surrounded by a freezing mixture (see also L. 
Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1174). It is a colourless liquid 
which boils at 57-58 C. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in 
alcohol and ether. It is very unstable, being readily decomposed 
by heat or light. By passing the products of the decomposition of 
calcium phosphide with water over granular calcium chloride, the 
P 2 H 4 gives a new hydride, Pi 2 H 8 and phosphine, the former being 
an odourless, canary-yellow, amorphous powder. When heated 
in a vacuum it evolves phosphine, and leaves an orange-red residue 
of a second new hydride, PH 2 (A. Stock, W. Bottcher, and W. 
Lenger, Ber., 1909, 42, pp. 2839, 2847, 2853). 

Solid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P 4 H 2 , first obtained by Le Vemer 
(loc. cit.), is formed by the action of phosphorus trichloride on gaseous 
phosphine (Besson, Comptes rendus, in, p. 972); by the action of 
water on phosphorus di-iodide and by the decomposition of calcium 
phosphide with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is a yellow 



solid, which is insoluble in water. It burns when heated to about 
200 C. Oxidizing agents decompose it with great violence. When 
warmed with alcoholic potash it yields gaseous phosphine, hydrogen 
and a hypophosphite. It reduces silver salts. 

Phosphonium Salts. The chloride, PH 4 C1, was obtained as a crys- 
talline solid by Ogier (Comptes rendus, 1879, 89, p. 705) by com- 
bining phosphine and hydrochloric acid gas under a pressure of 
from 14-20 atmospheres; it can also be obtained at -30 to -35 C. 
under ordinary atmospheric pressure. It crystallizes in large trans- 
parent cubes, but rapidly dissociates into its constituents on exposure. 
The bromide, PH 4 Br, was first obtained by H. Rose (Pogg. Ann., 
1832, 24, p. 151) from phosphine and hydrobromic acid; it also 
results when phosphorus is heated with hydrobromic acid to 100- 
120 C. in sealed tubes (Damoiseau, Bull. soc. Mm., 1881, 35, p. 49). 
It crystallizes in colourless cubes, is deliquescent, and often inflames 
spontaneously on exposure to air. It is readily decomposed by water 
and also by carbonyl chloride (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1896, 122, 
p. 140): 6PH 4 Br + 5COC1 2 = loHCl + SCO + 6HBr + 2PH, + 
P 4 H 2 . The iodide, PHJ, first prepared by J. Gay-Lussac (Ann. 
chim. phys., 1814, 91, p. 14), is usually obtained by the action of 
water on a mixture of phosphorus and iodine (A. W. Hofmann, 
Ber., 1873, 6, p. 286). It is also prepared by the action of iodine 
on gaseous phosphine, or by heating amorphous phosphorus with 
concentrated hydriodic acid solution to 160 C. It crystallizes in 
large cubes and sublimes readily. It is a strong reducing agent. 
Water and the caustic alkalis readily decompose it with liberation 
of phosphine and the formation of iodides or hydriodic acid. It is 
also decomposed by carbonyl chloride (Besson, loc. cit.). 



i6HCl+8CO+P 2 I 4 +2P. 

Just as the amines are derived from ammonia, so from phosphine 
are derived the primary, secondary and tertiary organic phosphines 
by the exchange of hydrogen for alkyl groups, and corresponding 
to the phosphonium salts there exists a series of organic phospho- 
nium bases. The primary and secondary phosphines are produced 
when the alkyl iodides are heated with phosphonium iodide and 
zinc oxide to 150 C. (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1871, 4, pp. 430, 
605), thus: 2RI+2PHJ + ZnO = 2R-PH 2 -HI +ZnI 2 + H 2 O, 
2RI + PHJ + ZnO = Rj-PH-HI + ZnI 2 + H 2 O. The reaction 
mixture on treatment with water yields the primary phosphine, 
the secondary phosphine" being then liberated from its hydnodide 
by caustic soda. The tertiary phosphines, discovered by L. The'nard 
(Comptes rendus, 1845, 21, p. 144; 1847, 25, p. 892), are formed 
(together with the quaternary phosphonium salts) by heating alkyl 
iodides with phosphonium iodide to 150-180 C.: PHJ+3CH 3 I = 
P(CH,) 3 HI + 3H1 ; P(CH 8 ) 8 HI + CH 3 I = P(CH 3 ) 4 I + HI (see also 
Fireman, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1088). They are also formed by the 
interaction of phosphorus trichloride and zinc alkyls (Cahours and 
Hofmann, Ann., 1857, 104, p. i): 2PCU+3 Zn (C 2 H 6 ) 2 =3ZnCl 2 -r- 
2P(C 2 H 6 ) 3 . 

The primary and secondary phosphines are colourless compounds, 
and with the exception of methyl phosphine are liquid at ordinary 
temperature. They possess an unpleasant odour, fume on exposure 
to air, show a neutral reaction, but combine with acids to form salts. 
They oxidize very rapidly on exposure, in many cases being spon- 
taneously inflammable. On oxidation with nitric acid the primary 
compounds give monoalkyl phosphinic acids, R-PO(OH) 2 , the 
secondary yielding dialkyl phosphinic acids, R 2 PO(OH). The 
primary phosphines are very weak bases, their salts with acids 
being readily decomposed by water. The tertiary phosphines are 
characterized by their readiness to pass into derivatives containing 
pentavalent phosphorus, and consequently they form addition 
compounds with sulphur, carbon bisulphide, chlorine, bromine, 
the halogen acids and the alkyl halides with great readiness. On 
oxidation they yield phosphine oxides, R 3 P-O. The quaternary 
phosphonium salts resemble the corresponding nitrogen compounds. 
They are stable towards aqueous alkalis, but on digestion with 
moist silver oxide yield the phosphonium hydroxides, which are 
stronger bases than the caustic alkalis. They differ from the organic 
ammonium hydroxides in their behaviour when heated, yielding 
phosphine oxides and paraffin hydrocarbons: R 4 P-OH = R 3 PO+RH. 
The boiling-points of some members of the series are shown in the 
table : 





Primary. 


Secondary. 


Tertiary. 


Methyl 
Ethyl . . . 
Isopropyl . 
Isobutyl . 
Isoamyl 


14 C. 
+ 25 C. 
41 C. 
62 C. 
107 C. 


25 C. 

Us c! 

210-215 C. 


40-42 C. 
128 C. 

215 C. 

300 C.(?) 



The alkyl phosphinic acids are colourless crystalline compounds 
which are easily soluble in water and alcohol. They yield two 
series of salts, viz. RHM-PO 3 and RM 2 PO 3 (M=metal). The 
dialkyl phosphinic acids are also colourless compounds, the majority 
of which are insoluble in water. They yield only one series of salts. 

Oxides. Phosphorus forms three well-defined oxides, P 4 Oe, P 2 O 4 
and P 2 O S ; two others, P 4 O and P 2 O, have been described. 

Phosphorus suboxide, P 4 O, is said to be formed, mixed with the 



PHOSPHORUS 



481 



other oxides, when the element is burnt in a limited supply of air 
or in pure oxygen under reduced pressure (E. Jungfleisch, Abs. 
Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, ii. 761), and also when a solution of phos- 
phorus in the trichloride or tribromide is exposed to light. It is a 
yellow or red powder which becomes dark red on heating ; it is stable 
in air, and can be heated to 300 without decomposition. Its ex- 
istence, however, has been denied by A. Stock (Abs. Jour. Chem. 
Soc., 1910, ii. 121). The oxide P 2 O was obtained by Besson (Comptes 
rendus, 1897, 124, p. 763; 1901, pp. 132, 1556) by heating a mixture 
of phosphonium bromide and phosphorus oxychloride in sealed 
tubes to 50. 

Phosphorus oxide, PtOe, discovered by Sage in 1777, is a product 
of the limited combustion of phosphorus in air. It may be con- 
veniently prepared by passing a rapid current of air over burning 
phosphorus contained in a combustion tube, and condensing the 
product in a metal condenser, from which it may be removed by 
heating the condenser to 50 6o p (Thorpe and Tutton, Jour. 
Chem. Soc., 1890, pp. 545, 632; 1891, p. 1019). Jungfleisch has 
obtained it by carrying out the combustion with oxygen under 
reduced pressure, or diluted with an inert gas. It forms crystals, 
apparently monoclinic, which melt at 22-5 to a clear, colourless, 
mobile liquid of boiling-point 1 73- 1 . Its specific gravity is 2-135 at 21. 
Vapour density and cryoscopic determinations point to the double 
formula, P<O 6 . It is comparatively stable up to 200, but when heated 
in a sealed tube to 440 it gives phosphorus and the tetroxide P^Oi. 
It is unaffected by light when pure, but if phosphorus be present, 
even in minute quantity, it turns yeilow and ultimately dark red. 
It oxidizes on exposure to air to the pentoxide, and with a brilliant 
inflammation when thrown into oxygen at 5O -6o. It slowly 
reacts with cold water to form phosphorous acid ; but with hot water 
it is energetically decomposed, giving much red phosphorus or the 
suboxide being formed with an explosive evolution of spontaneously 
inflammable phosphoretted hydrogen ; phosphoric acid is also formed;. 
With dilute alkalis phosphites are slowly formed, but with concen- 
trated solutions the decomposition follows the same course as with 
hot water. With chlorine it gives phosphoryl and " metaphos- 
phoryl " chlorides, the action being accompanied with a greenish 
flame; bromine gives phosphorus pentabromide' and pentoxide 
which interact to give phosphoryl and " metaphosphoryl " bromides; 
iodine gives phosphorus di-iodide, P2l4, and pentoxide, P 2 O S ; whilst 
hydrochloric acid gives phosphorus trichloride and phosphorous 
acid, which interact to form free phosphorus, phosphoric acid and 
hydrochloric acid. It combines violently with sulphur at 160 to 
form phosphorus sulphoxide, P4O 6 S4, which forms highly lustrous 
tetragonal plates (after sublimation), melting at 102 and boiling 
at 295; it is decomposed by water into sulphuretted hydrogen and 
metaphosphoric acid, the latter changing on standing into ortho- 
phosphoric acid. Sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize 
phosphorus oxide, giving the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide, whilst 
sulphur chloride, S2C1 2 , gives phosphoryl and thiophosphoryl 
chlorides, free sulphur and sulphur dioxide. Ammonia also reacts 
immediately, giving phosphorus diamide, P(OH)(NH 2 )2, and the 
corresponding ammonium salt. Phosphorous oxide is very poisonous, 
and is responsible for the caries set up in the jaws of those employed 
in the phosphorus industries (see below). It is probable, however, 
that pure phosphorous oxide vapour is odourless, and the odour of 
phosphorus as ordinarily perceived is that of a mixture of the oxide 
with ozone. 

Phosphorus tetroxide, PjO<, was obtained by Thorpe and Tutton 
by heating the product of the limited combustion of phosphorus 
in vacua as a sublimate of transparent, highly lustrous, orthorhombic 
crystals. They are highly deliquescent, and form with water a mix- 
ture of phosphorous and phosphoric acids: P2O4+3H2O = H 3 PO 3 4- 
H 3 PO 4 . The vapour density at about 1400 is 230, i.e. slightly less 
than that required by P 8 Oi (West, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1902, p. 923). 

Phosphoric oxide, or phosphorus pentoxide, P4Oio, formed when 
phosphorus is burned in an excess of air or oxygen, or from dry 
phosphorus and oxygen at atmospheric pressure (Jungfleisch, loc. 
cit.), was examined by Boyle and named " flowers of phosphorus " 
by Marggraf in 1740. It is a soft, flocculent powder, which on 
sublimation forms transparent, monoclinic crystals. It is extremely 
deliquescent, hissing when thrown into water, with which it combines 
to form phosphoric acid. It is reduced when heated with carbon 
to phosphorus, carbon monoxide being formed simultaneously. 
Its vapour density at 1400 points to the double formula (West, 
Jour. Chem. Soc., 1896, p. 154). 

Oxyacids. Phosphorus forms several oxyacids: hypophosphorous 
acid, HPO2, and hypophosphoric acid, I^PjOs or ftPOs, of which 
the anhydrides are unknown ; phosphorous acid, HjPOs, derived from 
P4O 6 ; monoperphosphoric acid, H 3 PO 6 ; perphosphoric acid, H4P 2 Os; 
and meta-, pyro-, and ortho-phosphoric acids, derived from P4Oio, for 
which see PHOSPHATES. 

Hypophosphorous acid, HP(OH) 2 , discovered by Dulong in 1816, 
and obtained crystalline by Thomson in 1874 (Ber., 7, p. 994), is 
prepared in the form of its barium salt by warming phosphorus 
with baryta water, removing the excess of baryta by carbon dioxide, 
and crystallizing the filtrate. The acid may be prepared by evaporat- 
ing in a vacuum the solution obtained by decomposing the barium 
salt with the equivalent amount of sulphuric acid. The acid forms a 
white crystalline mass, melting at 17-4 and having a strong acid 

xxi. 16 



reaction. Exposure to air gives phosphorous and phosphoric 
acids, and on heating it gives phosphine and phosphoric acid. A 
characteristic reaction is the formation of a red precipitate of 
cuprous hydride, Cu 2 Hj, when heated with copper sulphate solution 
to 6p. It is a monobasic acid forming salts which are permanent 
in air, but which are gradually oxidized in aqueous solution. On 
heating they yield phosphine and leave a residue of pyrophosphate, 
or a mixture of meta- and pyrophosphates, with a little phosphorus. 
They react as reducing agents. On boiling with caustic potash 
they evolve hydrogen, yielding a phosphate. 

Phosphorous acid, P(OH) 3 , discovered by Davy in 1812, may be 
obtained by dissolving its anhydride, P 4 O6, in cold water; by 
immersing sticks of phosphorus in a solution of copper sulphate 
contained in a well-closed flask, filtering from the copper sulphide 
and precipitating the sulphuric acid simultaneously formed by 
baryta water, and concentrating the solution in vacua; or by 
passing chlorine into melted phosphorus covered with water, the 
first formed phosphorus trichloride being decomposed by the water 
into phosphorous and hydrochloric acids. It may also be prepared 
by leading a current of dry air into phosphorus trichloride at 60 
and passing the vapours into water at o, the crystals thus formed 
being drained, washed with ice-cold water and dried in a vacuum. 
The crystals melt at 70. The acid is very deliquescent, and oxidizes 
on exposure to air to phosphoric acid. It decomposes on heating 
into phosphine and phosphoric acid. It is an energetic reducing 
agent; for example, when boiled with copper sulphate metallic 
copper is precipitated and hydrogen evolved. Although nominally 
tribasic the commonest metallic salts are dibasic. Organic ethers, 
however, are known in which one, two and three of the hydrogen 
atoms are substituted (Michaelis and Becker, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1003). 
The metallic phosphites are stable both dry and in solution; when 
strongly heated they evolve hydrogen and yield a pyrophosphate, 
or, especially with the heavy metals, they give hydrogen and a 
mixture of phosphide and pyrophosphate. 

Hypophosphoric acid, H 4 P2O 6 or H 2 PO3, discovered by Salzer in 
1877 among the oxidation products of phosphorus by moist air, 
may be prepared by oxidizing phosphorus in an aqueous solution 
of copper nitrate, or by oxidizing sticks of phosphorus under water, 
neutralizing with sodium carbonate, forming the lead salt and decom- 
posing this with sulphuretted hydrogen (J. Cavalier and E. Cornee, 
Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1910, ii. 31). The aqueous solution may 
be boiled without decomposition, but on concentration it yields 
phosphorous and phosphoric acids. Deliquescent, rectangular 
tablets of H4P 2 O<;2H 2 O separate out on concentrating a solution 
in a vacuum, which on drying further give the acid, which melts 
at 55, and decomposes suddenly when heated to 70 into phosphor- 
ous and metaphosphoric acids with a certain amount of hydrogen 
phosphide. The solution is stable to oxidizing agents such as 
dilute hydrogen peroxide and chlorine, but is oxidized by potassium 
permanganate to phosphoric acid; it does not reduce salts of the 
heavy metals. With silver nitrate it gives a white precipitate, 
Ag 4 P 2 O6. The sodium salt, Na4P 2 O 8 -ioH 2 O, forms monoclinic prisms 
and in solution is strongly alkaline; the acid salt, Na 3 HP2O 6 -9H 2 O, 
forms monoclinic tablets. The formula of the acid is not quite 
definite. Cryoscopic measurements on the sodium salt points 
to the double formula, but the organic esters appear to be derived 
from H 2 PO 3 (see A. Rosenheim and M. Pritze, Ber., 1908, 41, 2708; 
E. Cornee, Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1910, ii. 121). 

Monoperphosphoric and perphosphoric acids, HjPOs and H4POg, 
were obtained by J. Schmidlin and P. Massini (Ber., 1910, 43, 1162). 
The first is formed when 30% hydrogen peroxide reacts with phos- 
phorus pentoxide or meta- or pyrophosphoric acids at low tempera- 
tures and the mixture diluted with ice-cold water. The solution 
is strongly oxidizing, even converting manganous salts to perman- 
ganates in the cold, a property not possessed by monopersulphuric 
acid. Perphosphoric acid is formed when pyrophosphoric acid is 
treated with a large excess of hydrogen peroxide. 

Halogen Compounds. Phosphorus trifluoride, PF 3 , discovered by 
Davy, may be obtained mixed with the pentafluoride; by direct 
combination of its elements; from the tribromide and arsenic trifluor- 
ide (Maclvor) ; from the tribromide and zinc fluoride, and from dried 
copper phosphide and lead fluoride (H. Moissan). It is a colourless, 
non-fuming gas, which gives a colourless, mobile liquid at -10 
and 20 atmospheres; the liquid boils at -95 and solidifies at -160 
(Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 789). It does not burn in air, 
but explodes, under the action of a flame or the electric spark, 
when mixed with half its volume of oxygen, giving the oxyfluoride, 
POF 3 . It is slowly decomposed by water giving hydrofluoric and 
phosphorous acids, or, in addition, fluorphosphorous_acid, HPF 4 . 
It has no action on glass in the cold, but when heated it gives phos- 
phorus and silicon tetrafluoride. Phosphorus pentafluoride, PF, 
discovered by Thorpe (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1877, 25, p. 122), may be 
obtained by burning the trifluoride in fluorine, from the penta- 
chloride and arsenic trifluoride and from the trifluoride and bromine, 
the first formed fluorobromide, PF 3 Br 2 , decomposing into the penta- 
bromide and pentafluoride: 5PF 3 Br2 = 3PFj-|-2PBr 6 . It is a 
colourless gas 4! times heavier than air, and liquefies at 15 under 
40 atmospheres, solidifying when the pressure is diminished. It is 
incombustible and extinguishes flame. It fumes in moist air and 
is quickly decomposed by water giving hydrofluoric and phosphoric 



PHOSPHORUS 



acids. It does not dissociate on heating as do the pentachloride 
and pentabromide, thus indicating the existence of pentavalent 
phosphorus in a gaseous compound; dissociation, however, into 
the trifluoride and free fluorine may be brought about by induction 
sparks of 150 to 200 mm. in length. It combines directly with 
ammonia in the proportion zPF^sNHj, and with nitrogen peroxide 
at -10 in the proportion PF 6 :NO 2 . Phosphorus trifluorodichloride, 
PFC1 2 , prepared from chlorine and the trifluoride, is a pungent- 
smelling gas, which at 250 gives the pentachloride and fluoride. 
The trifluorodibromide (see above) is an amber-coloured mobile liquid. 
Phosphoryl trifluoride, POF>, may be obtained by exploding 2 volumes 
of phosphorus trifluoride with I volume of oxygen (Moissan, 1886); 
by heating 2 parts of finely-divided cryolite and 3 parts of phosphorus 
pentoxide (Thorpe and Hambly, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, p. 759); 
or from phosphoryl chloride and zinc fluoride at 40 to 50. It is a 
colourless fuming gas, which liquefies under ordinary pressure at 
-50, and under a pressure of 15 atmospheres at 16; it may be 
solidified to a snow-like mass. Water gives hydrofluoric and phos- 
phoric acids. The corresponding sulphur compound, thiophosphoryl 
fluoride, PSF, obtained by heating lead fluoride and phosphorus 
pentasulphide to 200, is a colourless gas, which may be condensed 
to a clear transparent liquid. It spontaneously inflames in air or 
oxygen ; and when the gas is issuing from a jet into air the flame is 
greyish green, with a faintly luminous and yellow tip; the flame 
is probably one of the coldest known. The combustion probably 
follows the equation PSFs+O 2 = PF 3 +SO 2 , the trifluoride at 
a higher temperature decomposing according to the equations: 
ioPF,+5O 2 = 6PF 6 +2P 2 O s , 2PF,+O 2 = 2POF 3 , the complete re- 
action tending to the equation: ioPSF3+i5O 2 = 6PF 6 -f2P 2 Os+ 
loSO 2 . The gas dissolves in water on shaking; PSF3+4H 2 O = 
H 2 S-r-H 3 PO4+3HF, but is more readily taken up by alkaline 
solutions with the formation of fluoride and thiophosphate: PSF 3 + 
6NaOH = Na 3 PSO3+3NaF. Heated in a glass tube it gives silicon 
fluoride, phosphorus and sulphur, PSF 3 = PF 3 +S; 4PF 3 +3SiO 2 = 
3SiF4+P4-|-3O 2 . Electric sparks give at first free sulphur and the 
trifluoride, the latter at a higher temperature splitting into the 
pentafluoride and phosphorus. With dry ammonia it gives am- 
monium fluoride and a compound P(NH 2 ) 2 SF. 

Phosphorus trichloride or phosphorous chloride, PClj, discovered by 
Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1808, is obtained by passing a slow 
current of chlorine over heated red phosphorus or through a solution 
of ordinary phosphorus in carbon disulphide (purifying in the latter 
case by fractional distillation). It is a colourless, mobile liquid of 
specific gravity 1-6128 at o and boiling-point 76. With chlorine 
it gives the pentachloride, PCU, and with oxygen when heated phos- 
phoryl chloride, POClj. Water gives hydrochloric and phosphorous 
acids, with separation of red phosphorus if the water be hot. When 
led with hydrogen into liquid ammonia it gives NH:PNH 2 , which 
on elevation of temperature gives P 2 (NH) 3 (Joannis, Comptes rendus, 
1904, 139, p. 364). By submitting a mixture of phosphorous chloride 
and hydrogen to an electric discharge A. Besson and A. Fournier 
(Comptes rendus, 1901, 150, p. 102) obtained phosphorus dichloride, 
P 2 CU, as a colourless, oily, strongly fuming liquid, freezing at 
-28 and boiling at 180 with decomposition. With water it gave 
phosphorous acid and a yellow indefinite solid. It decomposes 
slowly at ordinary temperatures. Phosphorus pentachloride, PC1, 
discovered by Davy in 1810 and analysed by Dulong in 1816, is 
formed from chlorine and the trichloride. It is a straw-coloured 
solid, which by fusion under pressure gives prismatic crystals. It 
sublimes when heated, but under pressure it melts at 148, giving 
a normal vapour density, but on further heating it dissociates into 
the trichloride and chlorine; this dissociation may be retarded by 
vapourizing in an atmosphere of chlorine. It fumes strongly in 
moist air, giving hydrochloric acid and phosphoryl chloride, POCls ; 
with water it gives phosphoric and hydrochloric acids. 

Phosphoryl trichloride or phosphorus oxychloride, POClj, correspond- 
ing to phosphoric acid, (HO);PO, discovered in 1847 by Wurtz, 
may be produced by the action of many substances containing 
hydroxy groups on the pentachloride; from the trichloride and 
potassium chlorate; by leaving phosphorus pentoxide in contact 
with hydrochloric acid: 2P 2 O 6 -f3HCl = POCl,+3HPO3; or by 
heating the pentachloride and pentoxide under pressure: 3PCU + 
P 2 O6 = 5POC1 3 . It is a colourless liquid, boiling at 107-2, and 
when solidified it melts at 0-8. Water gives hydrochloric and 
phosphoric acids; dilute alcohol gives monoethyl phosphoric acid, 
C 2 Hj-H 2 PO4, whilst absolute alcohol gives triethyl phosphate, 
(CjH 5 ) s PO 4 . Pyrophosphoryl chloride, P 2 O 3 Cl4, corresponding to 
pyrophosphoric acid, was obtained by Geuther and Michaelis 
(Ber., 1871, 4, p. 766) in the oxidation of phosphorus trichloride with 
nitrogen peroxide at low temperature; it is a colourless fuming 
liquid which boils at about 212 with some decomposition. With 
water it gives phosphoric and hydrochloric acids. Thiophosphoryl 
chloride, PSC1 3 , may be obtained by the direct combination of sulphur 
with the trichloride ; from sulphuretted hydrogen and the penta- 
chloride; from antimony trisulphide and the pentachloride; by heat- 
ing the pentasulphide with the pentachloride ; and by dissolving phos- 
phorus in sulphur chloride and distilling the solution: 2P+3 2 C1 2 = 
4S+2PSC1|. It is a colourless mobile liquid, boiling at 125-1 
and having a pungent, slightly aromatic odour. It is slowly decom- 
posed by water giving phosphoric and hydrochloric acids, with 



sulphuretted hydrogen ; alkalis form a thiophosphate, e.g. PS(OK)j, 
and a chloride. 

Phosphorus tribromide, PBr 3 , prepared by mixing solutions of its 
elements in carbon disulphide and distilling, is a transparent, mobile 
liquid, boiling at 173 and resembling the trichloride chemically. 
The pentabromide, PBr 6 , which results from phosphorus and an 
excess of bromine, is a yellow solid, and closely resembles the penta- 
chloride. The bromochloride, PCl 3 Br 2 , is an orange-coloured solid 
formed from bromine and the trichloride, into which components 
it decomposes at 35. Phosphoryl tribromide, POBr 3 , is a solid, 
melting at 45 and boiling at 195. Thiophosphoryl bromide, PSBr, 
obtained after the manner of the corresponding chloride, forms 
yellow octahedra which melt at 38, and have a penetrating, aro- 
matic odour. With water it gives sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
hydrobromic, phosphorous and phosphoric acids, the sulphur and 
phosphorous acid being produced by the interaction of the previously 
formed sulphuretted hydrogen and phosphoric acid. Pyrophosphoryl 
thiobromide, (PBr 2 S):S, and metaphosphoryl thiobromide, PSaBr, are 
also known. 

Phosphorus forms three iodides. The subiodide, PI, was ob- 
tained by R. Bculough (Comptes rendus, 1905, 141, p. 256), who acted 
with dry iodine on phosphorus dissolved in carbon disulphide; 
with alkalis it gives P4(OH). The di-iodide and tri-iodide are formed 
similarly ; the first is deposited as orange-coloured prisms which melt 
at IIO to a red liquid (see Doughty, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905, 
27, p. 1444), whilst the second forms dark-red hexagonal plates 
which melt at 55. 

Sulphides and Thio-acids. Phosphorus and sulphur combine 
energetically with considerable rise of temperature to form sulphides. 
The researches of A. Stock (Ber., 1908, 41, pp. 558, 657; 1909, 42, p. 
2062; 1910, 43, pp. 150, 414) show that three exist, P 4 S 3 , 487, P 2 S 4 . 
The first is prepared by heating red phosphorus with finely powdered 
sulphur in a tube sealed at one end and filled with carbon dioxide. 
The product is extracted with carbon disulphide and the residue 
distilled in carbon dioxide. It forms light yellow crystals from 
benzene, which melt at I725*and boil at 407 -4o8 with slight decom- 
position. Alkalis give hydrogen and phosphine. The second, 
^487, is obtained by heating a mixture of red phosphorus and sulphur 
in the proportions given by P4S?+5% P 4 Sj, and crystallizing from 
carbon disulphide in which P4S 3 is readily soluble. It forms small, 
slightly yellow prisms, which melt at 310 and boil at 523. The 
third, or pentasulphide, P 2 Ss, was obtained as a substance resembling 
flowers of sulphur by A. Stock and K. Thiel (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 2719; 
1910, 43, p. 1223), who heated sulphur with phosphorus in carbon 
disulphide solution with a trace of iodine to 120-130. It exists 
in two forms, one having the formula P^Sio, and the other a lower 
molecular weight. With liquid ammonia it gives P 2 Ss-7NH 3 , which 
is a mixture of ammonium iminotrithiophosphate, P(SNH4)>:NH, 
and ammonium nitrilodithiophosphate, P(SNH4) 2 -N. Water con- 
verts the former into ammonium thiophosphate, PO(SNH4)j.H 2 O, 
whilst the latter heated to 300 in a vacuum gives thiophosphoric 
nitrile, NiP:S (Stock, ibid., 1906, 39, p. 1967). 

Thiophosphates result on dissolving the pentasulphide in alkalis. 
Sodium monothiophosphate, NaaPSO-i2H 2 O, is obtained by adding 
one PjS s to six NaOH, adding alcohol, dissolving the precipitate in 
water and heating to 90. On cooling the salt separates as white 
six-sided tablets. Sodium dithiophosphate, Na 3 PS 2 O 2 -llH 2 O, is 
obtained by heating the above solution only to 50 "-55, cooling and 
adding alcohol, which precipitates the dithio salt. On heating it 
gives the monothio salt. Sodium trithipphosphate appears to be 
formed when the pentasulphide acts with sodium hydrosulphide 
at 20. All thiophosphates are decomposed by acids giving sulphur- 
etted hydrogen and sometimes free sulphur. They also act in many 
cases as reducing agents. 

Nitrogen Compounds. Phosphorus pentachloride combines directly 
with ammonia, and the compound when heated to redness loses 
ammonium chloride and hydrochloric acid and gives phospham, 
PN 2 H4, a substance first described by Davy in 1811. It is a white, 
infusible, very stable solid, which decomposes water on heating, 
giving ammonia and metaphosphoric acid, whilst alkalis give 
an analogous reaction. With methyl and ethyl alcohols it forms 
secondary amines (Vidal, Comptes rendus, 1891, 112, p. 950; 1892, 115, 
p. 123). The diamide, PN 2 H 4 , was obtained by Hugot (ibid., 1905, 
141, p. 1235) by acting with ammonia gas on phosphorus tribromide 
or tri-iodide at 70; it is very unstable, and decomposes at 25. 
Phosphorus combines with nitrogen and chlorine to form several 
polymeric substances of the general formula (PNC1 2 ) x, where x may 
be 1,3, 4, , 6, 7, or ii ; they may be obtained by heating the penta- 
chloride with ammonium chloride in a sealed tube and separating 
the mixture by fractional distillation (H. N. Stokes, Amer. Chem. Jour., 
1898, 20, p. 740; also see Besson and Rosset, Comptes rendus, 1906, 37, 
p. 143). The commonest form is P 3 N 3 C1, a crystalline solid, insoluble 
in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Several phosphoamides 
have been described. The diamide, PO (NH 2 )(NH), results when the 
pentachloride is saturated with ammonia gas and the first formed 
chlorophosphamide, PC1 3 (NH 2 ) 2 , is decomposed by water. The 
triamide, PO(NH 2 ) 3 , results from ammonia and phosphorus oxy- 
chloride. Both these compounds on heating give phosphomonamide, 
PON, of which a polymer (PON) 2 had been described by Oddo 
(Gazz. chim. Ital., 1899, 29 (ii.), p. 330). Stokes (Amer. Chem. Jour., 



PHOTIUS 



483 



1893, 15, p. 198; 1894, 16, pp. 123, 154) has described PO(OH) 2 NH 
and PO(OH)(NH 2 ) 2 , whilst the compound PO(OH)NH was obtained 
by Schiff (Ann., 1857, 103, p. 168) by acting with ammonia on the 
pentpxide. [Numerous other nitrogen compounds have been 
obtained. 

The atomic weight of phosphorus was determined by Berzelius, 
P61ouze, Jacquelin, Dumas, Schrotter, Brodie and van der Plaats. 
More recent are the investigations of G. Ter Gazarian (Compt. rend., 

1909, 148, p. 1^97) on hydrogen phosphide, which gave the value 
30-906, and of G. P. Baxter and G. Jones (Journ. Amer. Chem Soc., 

1910, 32, p. 298) on silver phosphate, which gave the value 31-04. 
Therapeutics. The phosphorus used in the British pharma- 
copoeia is obtained from calcium phosphate, and is a waxlike 
non-metallic substance soluble in oils and luminous in the dark. 
There are various medicinal preparations. In young animals 
phosphorus has a remarkable influence on the growth of bone, 
causing a proliferation of the jelly-like masses and finally a 
deposit in them of true bony material. Owing to this influence 
it has been used in rickets and osteomalacia. Its most effective 
use, however, is as a nerve tonic in paralysis agitans, locomotor 
ataxia, impotence and nervous exhaustion. In some skin 
diseases such as psoriasis, chronic eczema and acne indurata, 
phosphorus is very useful, and cases of diabetes mellitus and 
lymphadenoma have improved under some of its compounds. 
The hypophosphites have been recommended in pulmonary 
affections, being said to act as free phosphorus without being 
irritant, and the glycero-phosphates are certainly useful to 
stimulate metabolism. Dilute phosphoric acid is used as a 
gastric stimulant. It does not resemble phosphorus in its 
physiological action and cannot be used to replace it. 

Toxicology. Poisonous amounts of phosphorus are frequently 
taken or administered, criminally or accidentally, it being easily 
accessible to the public in the form of matches or of vermin 
pastes. They may have been swallowed several hours before 
symptoms of acute poisoning show themselves, with nausea 
and vomiting, and a burning in the oesophagus, stomach and 
abdomen. The important thing is to prevent the absorption 
of the poison, so emetics and purgatives should be given at once. 
Sulphate of copper, in doses of 3 to 5 gr., freely diluted and 
repeated every few minutes forms the harmless, black phosphide 
of copper, which is rapidly eliminated by the kidneys. The 
stomach may be washed out with warm water and then with a 
2 % solution of permanganate of potash, an enema of the same 
solution being given. The old French oil of turpentine is the 
best antidote to use in phosphorus poisoning, delaying the toxic 
effects; but ordinary oils are not only useless but harmful. 
When some time has elapsed before treatment and the phos- 
phorus has become absorbed, the organic degenerative changes 
cannot be easily controlled. For the chronic form of industrial 
poisoning in the manufacture of lucifer matches a form of 
necrosis, known in England as " phossy jaw " and in France as 
" mal chimique," a localized inflammatory infection of the 
periosteum, ending with the death and exfoliation of part of 
the bone see MATCH. 

PHOTIUS (c. 820-891), patriarch of Constantinople (838-867 
and 878-886). From his early years he displayed an extra- 
ordinary talent and appetite for knowledge, and as soon as he had 
completed his own education he began to teach with distinguished 
success grammar, rhetoric, divinity and philosophy. The way 
to public life was probably opened for him by the marriage of 
his brother Sergius to the princess Irene, sister of Theodora, who, 
upon the death of her husband Theophilus in 842, had assumed 
the regency of the empire. Photius became captain of the guard 
and subsequently first imperial secretary. The dissensions 
between the patriarch Ignatius and Bardas, the uncle of the 
youthful Emperor Michael III., brought promotion to Photius. 
Ignatius was arrested and imprisoned (Nov. 858), and upon 
refusing to resign his office was illegally deposed, while Photius, 
although a layman, received all the necessary sacerdotal orders 
within six days, and was installed as patriarch in his place. 
Ignatius, continuing to refuse the abdication which could alone 
have given Photius's elevation a semblance of legality, was 
treated with extreme severity. His cause was subsequently 
espoused by Pope Nicholas in a manner highly offensive to the 



independent feeling of the Eastern Church. Photius felt himself 
the champion of Eastern Christianity against Latin pretensions; 
and when in 863 Nicholas finally anathematized and deposed 
him, he replied by a counter-excommunication. Meanwhile, the 
situation was suddenly changed by the murder of Photius's 
patron, Bardas, by order of the emperor Michael, who was 
himself assassinated by his colleague Basil in the following year 
(.867). The fall of Photius immediately ensued; he was removed 
from his office and banished about the end of September 867, 
a few days after the accession of Basil, and Ignatius was 
reinstated on the 2$rd of November. About 876 Photius was 
suddenly recalled to Constantinople and entrusted with the 
education of Basil's children. On the death of Ignatius, 
probably in October 878, Photius, after a decent show of reluc- 
tance, again filled the patriarchal throne. He then proceeded 
to obtain the formal recognition of the Christian world. In 
November 879 a synod was convened at Constantinople. The 
legates of Pope John VIII. attended, prepared to acknowledge 
Photius as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which John 
was much censured by Latin opinion. He stood firm, however, 
on the other two points which had long been contested between 
the Eastern and Western Churches, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
over Bulgaria and the introduction of the " filioque " clause 
into the creed. He disowned his legates, who had shown a 
tendency to yield, again excommunicated Photius, and thus 
aroused the open hostility which has never been appeased to 
this day. Strong in the support of the council, Photius simply 
ignored him. At the height of glory and success he was suddenly 
precipitated from his dignity by another palace revolution. 
After the death of Basil (886), his son and successor Leo, who 
had formerly been devoted to Photius, but in recent years 
displayed great hatred towards him, deprived him of his office 
and banished him to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia. From j 
this time Photius disappears from history. No letters of this 
period of his life are extant, which leads to the inference that his 
imprisonment was severe. The precise date of his death is 
not known, but it is said to have occurred on the 6th of February 
891. 

For long after Photius's death his memory was held in no special 
honour by his countrymen. But when, in the crusading age, the 
Greek Church and state were alike in danger from Latin encroach- 
ments, Photius became a national hero, and is at present regarded 
as little short of a saint. To this character he has not the least 
pretension. Few men, it is probable, have been more atrociously 
calumniated; but, when every specific statement to his prejudice 
has been rejected, he still appears on a general review of his actions 
worldly, crafty and unscrupulous. Yet lie shows to no little advan- 
tage as an ecclesiastical statesman. His firmness was heroic, his 
sagacity profound and far-seeing; he supported good and evil 
fortune with equal dignity; and his fall was on both occasions due 
to revolutions beyond his control. In erudition, literary power, 
and force and versatility of intellect he far surpassed every contem- 
porary. 

The most important of the works of Photius is his renowned 
Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon (ed. I. Bekker, 1824-1825), a collection 
of extracts from and abridgments of 280 volumes of classical authors 
(usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great 
extent lost. The work is specially rich in extracts from historical 
writers. To Photius we are indebted for almost all we possess of 
Ctesias, Memnon, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the 
lost writings of Arrian. Theology and ecclesiastical history are also 
very fully represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost 
entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal 
with those authors with whom every well-educated man would 
naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distin- 
guished by keen and independent judgment, and the excerpts, 
vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notices 
are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus. The 
Lexicon (fik^tuv Xwaywyt), published later than the Bibliotheca, was 
probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended 
as a book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and 
sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date. 
The only MS. of the Lexicon is the Codex Galeanus, formerly in the 
possession of Thomas Gale (g..), and now in the library of Trinity 
College, Cambridge (ed. S. A. Naber, 1864, with introduction on the 
authorities, critical commentary, and valuable indexes). His most 
important theological work is the Amphilochia, a collection of some 
300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed 
to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus (ed. Sophocles Oeconomus, 
Athens, 1858). Other similar works are his treatise in four books 



4 8 4 



PHOTOCHEMISTRY 



against the Manichaeans and Paulicians, and his controversy with 
the Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit. His Epistles, 
political and private, addressed to high church and state dignitaries, 
are valuable for the light they throw upon the character and ver- 
satility of the writer (ed. J. Valettas, London, 1864). A large 
number of ,his speeches and homilies have been edited by S. 
Aristarches (1900). The only complete edition is Bishop Malou s 
in Migne's Patrologia graeca, ci.-cv. R. Reifzenstein (Der Anfang 
des Lexikons des Photius, 1907) has published a hitherto unedited 
MS. containing numerous fragments from various verse and prose 
authors. 

After the allusions in his own writings the chief contemporary 
authority for the life of Photius is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the 
Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatius. The standard 
modern work is that of Cardinal Hergenrother, Photius, Patriarch 
von Constantinopel (1867-1869). As a dignitary of the Roman 
Catholic Church, Cardinal Hergenrother is inevitably biased against 
Photius as an ecclesiastic, but his natural candour and sympathy 
with intellectual eminence have made him just to the man. 

See also article by F. Kattenbusch in Herzog-Hauck s Real- 
encyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie (1904), containing full 
bibliographical details; J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, x. 670- 
776, xi. 1-37 ; C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 
PP- 73-79. 5i5-5 2 4 (2nd ed., 1897) ; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical 
Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906). 

PHOTOCHEMISTRY (Gr. <tfx, light, and "chemistry"), in 
the widest sense, the branch of chemical science which deals 
with the optical properties of substances and their relations to 
chemical constitution and reactions; in the narrower sense it is 
concerned with the action of light on chemical change. The 
first definition includes such subjects as refractive and dispersive 
power, colour, fluorescence, phosphorescence, optical isomerism, 
spectroscopy, &c. subjects which are treated under other 
headings; here we only discuss the subject matter of the narrower 
definition. 

Probably the earliest photochemical investigations were 
associated with the darkening of certain silver salts under the 
action of light, processes which were subsequently utilized in 
photography (q.v.). At the same time, however, it had been 
observed that other chemical changes were regulated by the 
access of light; and the first complete study of such a problem 
was made by J. W. Draper in 1843, who investigated the combi- 
nation of hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrochloric acid, a 
reaction which had been previously studied by Gay-Lussac and 
Thenard. Draper concluded that the first action of sunlight 
consisted in producing an allotrope of chlorine, which sub- 
sequently combined with the hydrogen. This was denied by 
Bunsen and Roscoe in 1857; and in 1887 Pringsheim suggested 
that the reaction proceeded in two stages: H 2 O+ C1 2 = CljO-f- H 2 , 
2H 2 -1-C1 2 O = H 2 O-|-2HC1. This view demands the presence of 
water vapour (H. B. Baker showed that the perfectly dry gases 
would not combine), and also explains the period which elapses 
before the reaction commenced (the " photochemical induction " 
of Bunsen and Roscoe) as taken up by the formation of the 
chlorine monoxide necessary to the second part of the reaction. 
The decomposition of hydriodic acid into hydrogen and iodine 
was studied by Lemoine in 1877, who found that 80% decom- 
posed after a month's exposure; he also observed that the reac- 
tion proceeded quicker in blue vessels than in red. A broader 
investigation was published by P. L. Chastaing in 1878, who 
found that the red rays generally oxidized inorganic compounds, 
whilst the violet reduces them, and that with organic compounds 
the action was entirely oxidizing. These and other reactions 
suggested the making of actinometers, or instruments for 
measuring the actinic effect of light waves. The most important 
employ silver salts; Eder developed a form based on the 
reaction between mercuric chloride and ammonium oxalate: 
2HgCl 2 + (NH4) 2 C 2 O 4 = zHgCl + 2 NH 4 C1 + 2CO 2 , the extent 
of the decomposition being determined by the amounts of 
mercurous chloride or carbon dioxide liberated. 

The article PHOTOGRAPHY (q.v.) deals with early investigations 
on the chemical action of light, and we may proceed here to 
modern work on organic compounds. That sunlight accelerates 
the action of the halogens, chlorine and bromine, on such com- 
pounds, is well known. John Davy obtained phosgene, COC1 2 , 
by the direct combination of chlorine and carbon monoxide in 
sunlight (see Weigert, Ann. d. Phys., 1907 (iv.), 24, p. 55); 



chlorine combines with half its volume of methane explosively 
in sunlight, whilst in diffused light it substitutes; with toluene 
it gives benzyl chloride, CeHsCHjCl, in sunlight, and chlortoluene, 

HXCH^Cl, in the dark; with benzene it gives an addition 
product, CeHeCle, in sunlight, and substitutes in the dark. 
Bromine deports itself similarly, substituting and forming 
addition products with unsaturated compounds more readily 
in sunlight. Sometimes isomerization may occur; for instance, 
Wislicenus found that angelic acid gave dibromangelic acid in 
the dark, and dibromtiglic acid in sunlight. Many substances 
decompose when exposed to sunlight; for example, alkyl iodides 
darken, owing to the liberation of iodine; aliphatic acids (especi- 
ally dibasic) in the presence of uranic oxide lose carbon dioxide; 
polyhydric alcohols give products identical with those produced 
by fermentation; whilst aliphatic ke tones give a hydrocarbon 
and an acid. 

Among aromatic compounds, benzaldehyde gives a trimeric 
and tetrameric benzaldehyde, benzoic acid and hydrobenzoin 
(G. L. Ciamician and P. Silber, Atti. R. Accad. Lincei, 1909); 
in alcoholic solution it gives hydrobenzoin; whilst with nitro- 
benzene it is oxidized to benzoic acid, the nitrobenzene suffering 
reduction to nitrosobenzene and phenyl-j3-hydroxylamine; the 
latter isomerizes to ortho- and para-aminophenol, which, in 
turn, combine with the previously formed benzoic acid. Simi- 
larly acetophenone and benzophenone in alcoholic solution give 
dimethylhydrobenzoin and benzopinacone. With nitro com- 
pounds Sach and Hilbert concluded that those containing a 
CH- side group in the ortho position to the -NO 2 group were 
decomposed by light. For example, ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde in 
alcoholic solution gives nitrosobenzoic ester and 22'azoxybenzoic 
acid, with the intermediate formation of nitrobenzaldehyde- 
diethylacetal, NO 2 -C 6 H 4 -CH(OC 2 H 6 ) 2 (E. Bamberger and F. 
Elgar, Ann. 1910, 371, p. 319). Bamberger also investigated 
nitrosobenzene, obtaining azoxybenzene as chief product, 
together with various azo compounds, nitrobenzene, aniline, 
hydroquinone and a resin. 

For the photochemistry of diazo derivatives see Ruff and Stein, 
Ber., 1901, 34, p. 1668, and of the terpenes see G. L. Ciamician and 
P. Silber, Ber., 1907 and 1908. 

Light is also powerful in producing isomerization and poly- 
merization. Isomerization chiefly appears in the formation 
of stable stereo-isomers from the labile forms, and more rarely 
in inducing real isomerization or phototropy (Marckwald, 1899). 
As examples we may notice the observation of Chattaway (Journ. 
Chem. Soc. 1906, 89, p. 462) that many phenylhydrazones 
(yellow) change into azo compounds (red), of M. Padoa and F. 
Graziani (Atti. R. Accad. Lincei, 1909) on the /3-naphthylhydra- 
zones (the a-compounds are not phototropic), and of A. Senier 
and F. G. Shepheard (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95, p. 1943) on 
the arylidene- and naphthylidene-amines, which change from 
yellow to orange on exposure to sunlight. Light need not act 
in the same direction as heat (changes due to heat may be 
termed thermotropic). For example, heat changes the a form of 
benzyl-/3-aminocrotonic ester into the /3 form, whereas light 
reverses this; similarly heat and light have reverse actions with 
<w-diphenyl ethylene,CH 2 :C(C 6 H 6 ) 2 (R. Stoermer, Ber., 1909, 42, 
p. 4865) ; the change, however, is in the same direction with 
Senier and Shepheard's compounds. With regard to polymeri- 
zation we may notice the production of benzene derivatives 
from acetylene and its homologues, and of tetramethylenes 
from the defines. 

Theory of Photochemical Action. Although much work has 
been done in the qualitative and quantitative study of photo- 
chemical reactions relatively little attention has been given to 
the theoretical explanation of these phenomena. That the 
solution was to be found in an analogy to electrolysis was 
suggested by Grotthuss in 1818, who laid down: (i) only those 
rays which are absorbed can produce chemical change, (2) the 
action of the light is analogous to that of a voltaic cell; and he 
regarded light as made up of positive and negative electricity. 
The first principle received early acceptance; but the develop- 
ment of the second is due to W. D. Bancroft who, in a series of 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



485 



papers in the Journal of Physical Chemistry for 1908 and 1909, 
has applied it generally to the reactions under consideration. 
Any electrolytic action demands a certain minimum electro- 
motive force; this, however, can be diminished by suitable 
depolarizers, which generally act by combining with a product 
of the decomposition. Similarly, in some photochemical 
reactions the low electromotive force of the light is sufficient to 
induce decomposition, but in other cases a depolarizer must be 
present. For example, ferric chloride in aqueous solution is 
unchanged by light, but in alcoholic solution reduction to ferrous 
chloride occurs, the liberated chlorine combining with the 
alcohol. In the same way Bancroft showed that the solvent 
media employed in photographic plates act as depolarizers. 
The same theory explains the action of sensitizers, which may 
act optically or chemically. In the first case they are substances 
having selective absorption, and hence alter the sensitivity of 
the system to certain rays. In the second case there are no 
strong absorption bands, and the substances act by combining 
with the decomposition products. Bancroft applied his theory 
to the explanation of photochemical oxidation, and also to the 
chlorination and bromination of hydrocarbons. In the latter 
case it is supposed that the halogen produces ions; if the positive 
ions are in excess side chains are substituted, if the negative the 
nucleus. 

Standard treatises are: J. M. Eder, Handbuch der Photographic, 
vol. i. pt. 2 (1906) ; H. W. Vpgel, Photochemie (1906). An account of 
the action of fight on organic compounds is given in A. W. Stewart, 
Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry (1908). 

PHOTOGRAPHY (Gr. #os, light, and ypa<jxiv, to write), 
the science and art of producing pictures by the action of light 
on chemically prepared (sensitized) plates or films. 

History. 

It would be somewhat difficult to fix a date when what we now 
know as " photographic action " was first recorded. No doubt 
the tanning of the skin by the sun's rays was what was first 
noticed, and this is as truly the effect of solar radiation as is 
the darkening of the sensitive paper which is now in use in 
photographic printing operations. We may take it that K. W. 
Scheele was the first to investigate the darkening action of 
sunlight on silver chloride. He found that when silver chloride 
was exposed to the action of light beneath water there was 
dissolved in the fluid a substance which, on the addition of 
lunar caustic (silver nitrate), caused the precipitation of new 
silver chloride, and that on applying a solution of ammonia to 
the blackened chloride an insoluble residue of metallic silver was 
left behind. He also noticed that of the rays of the spectrum 
the violet most readily blackened the silver chloride. In Scheele, 
then, we have the first who applied combined chemical and 
spectrum analysis to the science of photography. In 1782 
J. Senebier repeated Scheele's experiments, and found that in 
fifteen seconds the violet rays blackened silver chloride as much 
as the red rays did in twenty minutes. 1 In 1798 Count Rumford 
contributed a paper to the Philosophical Transactions entitled 
" An inquiry concerning the chemical properties that have 
been attributed to light," in which he tried to demonstrate that 
all effects produced on metallic solution could be brought about 
by a temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water. 
Robert Harrup in 1802, however, conclusively showed in 
Nicholson's Journal that, at all events, salts of mercury were 
reduced by visible radiation and not by change of temperature. 

In 1801 we come to the next decided step in the study of 
photographic action, when Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776-1810) 
proved the existence of rays lying beyond the violet, and found 
that they had the power of blackening silver chloride. Such a 
discovery naturally gave a direction to the investigations of 
others, and Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-1831) (between 
i8o2andi8o8) and, in 1812, Jacques Etienne Berard (1780-1869) 
turned their attention to this particular subject, eliciting valuable 
information. We need only mention two or three other cases 

1 It may here be remarked that had he used a pure spectrum he 
would have found that the red rays did not blacken the material 
in the slightest degree. 



where the influence of light was noticed at the beginning of the 
igth century. William Hyde Wollaston observed the conversion 
of yellow gum guaiacum into a green tint by the violet rays, and 
the restoration of the colour by the red rays both of which are 
the effect of absorption of light, the original yellow colour of 
the gum absorbing the violet rays, whilst the green colour to 
which it is changed absorbs the red rays. Sir Humphry Davy 
found that puce-coloured lead oxide, when damp, became red 
in the red rays, whilst it blackened in the violet rays, and that 
the green mercury oxide became red in the red rays again 
an example of the necessity of absorption to effect a molecular 
or chemical change in a substance. U. R. T. Le Bouvier 
Desmorties in 1801 observed the change effected in Prussian 
blue, and Carl Wilhelm Bockman noted the action of the two 
ends of the spectrum on phosphorus, a research which John 
William Draper extended farther in America at a later date. 

To England belongs the honour of first producing a photo- 
graph by utilizing Scheele's observations on silver chloride. 
In June 1802 Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) published in the 
Journal of the Royal Institution the paper " An account of a 
method of copying paintings upon glass and of making profiles 
by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver, with observations 
by H. Davy." He remarks that white paper or white leather 
moistened with a solution of silver nitrate undergoes no change 
when kept in a dark place, but on being exposed to the daylight 
it speedily changes colour, and, after passing through various 
shades of grey and brown, becomes at length nearly black. The 
alteration of colour takes place more speedily in proportion as 
the light is more intense. 

" In the direct beam of the sun two or three minutes are sufficient 
to produce the full effect, in the shade several hours are required, 
and light transmitted through different-coloured glasses acts upon 
it with different degrees of intensity. Thus it is found that red 
rays, or the common sunbeams passed through red glass, have very 
little action upon it ; yellow and green are more efficacious, but blue 
and violet light produce the most decided and powerful effects." 

Wedgwood goes on to describe the method of using this 
prepared paper by throwing shadows on it, and inferentially 
by what we now call " contact printing." He states that he has 
been unable to fix his prints, no washing being sufficient to 
eliminate the traces of the silver salt which occupied the unex- 
posed or shaded portions. Davy in a note states that he has 
found that, though the images formed by an ordinary camera 
obscura were too faint to print out in the solar microscope, the 
images of small objects could easily be copied on such paper. 

" In comparing the effects produced by light upon muriate of 
silver (silver chloride) with those upon the nitrate it seemed evident 
that the muriate was the more susceptible, and both were more 
readily acted upon when moist than when dry a fact long ago known. 
Even in the twilight the colour of the moist muriate of silver, spread 
upon paper, slowly changed from white to faint violet ; though under 
similar circumstances no intermediate alteration was produced 
upon the nitrate. . . . Nothing but a method of preventing the 
unshaded parts of the delineations from being coloured by exposure 
to the day is wanting to render this process as useful as it is elegant." 

In this method of preparing the paper lies the germ of the 
silver-printing processes of modern times, and it was only by the 
spread of chemical knowledge that the hiatus which was to render 
the " process as useful as it is elegant " was filled up when 
sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite of soda), discovered by 
Francois Chaussier in 1799, or three years before Wedgwood 
published his paper, was used for making the print permanent. 
Here we must call attention to an important observation by 
Seebeck of Jena in 1810. In the Farbenlehre of Goethe he says: 

" When a spectrum produced by a properly constructed prism is 
thrown upon moist chloride of silver paper, if the printing be con- 
tinued for from fifteen to twenty minutes, whilst a constant position 
for the spectrum is maintained by any means, I observe the following. 
In the violet the chloride is a reddish brown (sometimes more violet, 
sometimes more blue), and this coloration extends well beyond the 
limit of the violet; in the blue the chloride takes a clear blue tint, 
which fades away, becoming lighter in the green. In the yellow 
I usually found the chloride unaltered ; sometimes, however, it had a 
light yellow tint ; in the red and beyond the red it took a rose or lilac 
tint. This image of the spectrum shows beyond the red .and the 
violet a region more or less light and uncoloured. This is how the 
decomposition of the silver chloride is seen in this region. Beyond 



4 86 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



the brown band, . . . which was produced in the violet, the silver 
chloride was coloured a grey-violet for a distance of several inches. 
In proportion as the distance from the violet increased, the tint 
became lighter. Beyond the red, on the contrary, the chloride 
took a feeble red tint for a considerable distance. When moist 
chloride of silver, having received the action of light for a time, 
is exposed to the spectrum, the blue and violet behave as above. 
In the yellow and red regions, on the other hand, it is found 
that the silver chloride becomes paler; . . . the parts acted upon 
by the red rays and by those beyond take a light coloration." 

This has been brought forward by J. M. Eder as being the first 
record we have of photographic action lending itself to production 
of natural colours. This observation of Seebeck was allowed to 
lie fallow for many years, until it was again taken up and 
published as a novelty. 

The first to found a process of photography which gave 
pictures that were subsequently unaffected by light was Nice- 
phore de Niepce. His process, which he called provisionally 
" heliographie, dessins, et gravures," consists in coating the 
surface of a metallic plate with a solution of asphaltum in oil 
of lavender and exposing it to a camera image. He recommends 
that the asphaltum be powdered and the oil of lavender dropped 
upon it in a wine-glass, and that it be then gently heated. A 
polished plate is covered with this varnish, and, when dried, is 
ready for employment in the camera. After requisite exposure, 
which is very long indeed, a very faint image, requiring develop- 
ment, is seen. Development is effected by diluting oil of 
lavender with ten parts by volume of white petroleum. After 
this mixture has been allowed to stand two or three days it 
becomes clear and is ready to be used. The plate is placed in a 
dish and covered with the solvent. By degrees the parts 
unaffected by light dissolve away, and the picture, formed of 
modified asphaltum, is developed. The plate is then lifted from 
the dish, allowed to drain, and finally freed from the remaining 
solvents by washing in water. Subsequently, instead of using 
oil of lavender as the asphaltum solvent, Niepce employed an 
animal oil, which gave a deeper colour and more tenacity to the 
surface-film. 

Later, Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1789-1851) and Niepce 
used as a solvent the brittle residue obtained from evaporating 
the oil of lavender dissolved in ether or alcohol a transparent 
solution of a lemon-yellow colour being formed. This solution 
was used for covering glass or silver plates, which, when dried, 
could be used in the camera. The time of exposure varied 
somewhat in length. Daguerre remarked that " the time 
required to procure a photographic copy of a landscape is from 
seven to eight hours, but single monuments, when strongly 
lighted by the sun, or which are themselves very bright, can be 
taken in about three hours." Perhaps there is no sentence that 
illustrates more forcibly the advance made in photography from 
the days when this process was described. The ratio of three 
hours to T^rytb. of a second is a fair estimate of the progress made 
since Niepce. The development was conducted by means of 
petroleum-vapour, which dissolved the parts not acted upon by 
light. As a rule silver plates seem to have been used, and 
occasionally glass; but it does not appear whether the latter 
material was chosen because an image would be projected 
through it or whether simply for the sake of effect. Viewed in 
the light of present knowledge, a more perfectly developable 
image in half-tone would be obtained by exposing the film 
through the back of the glass. The action of light on most 
organic matter is apparently one of oxidation. In the case of 
asphaltum or bitumen of Judaea the oxidation causes a hardening 
of the material and an insolubility in the usual solvents. Hence 
that surface of the film is generally hardened first which first 
feels the influence of light. Where half-tones exist, as in a 
landscape picture, the film remote from the surface first receiving 
the image is not acted upon at all, and remains soluble in the 
solvent. It is thus readily seen that, in the case of half-tone 
pictures, or even in copying engravings, if the action were not 
continued sufficiently long when the surface of the film farthest 
from the glass was first acted upon, the layer next the glass would 
in some places remain soluble, and on development would be 
dissolved away, carrying the top layer of hardened resinous 



matter with it, and thus give rise to imperfect pictures. In 
carbon-printing development from the back of the exposed film 
is absolutely essential, since it depends on the same principles 
as does heliography, and in this the same mode of procedure is 
advisable. 

It would appear that Niepce began his researches as early as 
1814, but it was not till 1827 that he had any success worth recount- 
ing. At that date he communicated a paper to Dr Bauer of Kew, 
the secretary of the Royal Society of London, with a view to its 
presentation to that society. Its publication, however, was pre- 
vented because the process, of which examples were shown, was a 
secret one. In an authentic MS. copy of Niepce's " M6moire," 
dated "Kew, le 8 Decembre 1827," he says that "in his framed 
drawings made on tin the tone is too feeble, but that by the use of 
chemical agents the tone may be darkened." This shows that 
Niepce was familiar with the idea of using some darkening medium 
even with his photographs taken on tin plates. 

Daguerreotype. We have noticed in the joint process of 
Daguerre and Niepce that polished silver plates were used, and 
we know from the latter that amongst the chemical agents tried 
iodine suggested itself. Iodine vapour or solution applied to a 
silvered plate would cause the formation of silver iodide on those 
parts not acted upon by light. The removal of the resinous 
picture would leave an image formed of metallic silver, whilst 
the black parts of the original would be represented by the darker 
silver iodide. This was probably the origin of the daguerreotype 
process. Such observers as Niepce and Daguerre, who had 
formed a partnership for prosecuting their researches, would 
not have thus formed silver iodide without noticing that it 
changed in colour when exposed to the light. What parts 
respectively Daguerre and Niepce played in the development 
of the daguerreotype will probably never be known with 
absolute accuracy, but in a letter from Dr Bauer to Dr J. J. 
Bennett, F.R.S., dated the 7th of May 1839, the former says: 

" I received a very interesting letter from Mons. Isidore Niepce, 
dated I2th March [about a month after the publication of the 
daguerreotype process], and that letter fully confirms what I sus- 
pected of Daguerre's manoeuvres with poor Nic6phore, but Mr 
Isidore observes that for the present that letter might be considered 
confidential." 

Dr Bauer evidently knew more of " poor Nicephore's " work 
than most people, and at that early period he clearly thought 
that an injustice had been done to Niepce at the hands of 
Daguerre. It should be remarked that Nicephore de Niepce 
died in 1833, and a new agreement was entered into between 
his son Isidore de Niepce and Daguerre to continue the prosecu- 
tion of their researches. It appears further that Niepce com- 
municated his process to Daguerre on the 5th of December 1829. 
At his death some letters from Daguerre and others were left 
by him in which iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., are 
mentioned as having been used on the metal plates, and their 
sensitiveness to light, when thus treated, commented upon. 
We are thus led to believe that a great part of the success in 
producing the daguerreotype is due to the elder Niepce; and 
indeed it must have been thought so at the time, since, on the 
publication of the process, life-pensions of 6000 francs and 4000 
francs were given to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce respectively. 
In point of chronology the publication of the discovery of the 
daguerreotype process was made subsequently to the Talbot- 
type process. It will, however, be convenient to continue the 
history of the daguerreotype, premising that it was published on 
the 6th of February 1839, whilst Talbot's process was given to 
the world on the 25th of January of the same year. 

Daguerreotype pictures were originally taken on silver-plated 
copper, and even now the silvered surface thus prepared serves 
better than electro-deposited silver of any thickness. An outline 
of the operations is as follows. A brightly-polished silver plate is 
cleaned by finely-powdered pumice and olive oil, and then by 
dilute nitric acid, and a soft buff is employed to give it a brilliant 
polish, the slightest trace of foreign matter or stain being fatal to 
the production of a perfect picture. The plate, thus prepared, is 
ready for the iodizing operation. Small fragments of iodine are 
scattered over a saucer, covered with gauze. Over this the plate 
is placed, face downwards, resting on supports, and the vapour 
from the iodine is allowed to form upon it a surface of silver iodide. 
It is essential to note the colour of the surface-formed iodide at its 
several stages, the varying colours being due to interference colours 



HISTORY] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



487 



caused by the different thicknesses of the minutely thin film of 
iodide. The stage of maximum sensitiveness is obtained when 
it is of a golden orange colour. In this state the plate is withdrawn 
and removed to the dark slide of the camera, ready for exposure. 
A plan frequently adopted to give an even film of iodide was to 
saturate a card with iodine and hold the plate a short distance above 
the card. Long exposures were required, varying in Paris from three 
to thirty minutes. The length of the exposure was evidently a 
matter of judgment, more particularly as over-exposure introduced 
an evil which was called ' splarization," but which was in reality 
due to the oxidation of the iodide by prolonged exposure to light. 

As a matter of history it may be remarked that the development 
of the image by mercury vapour is said to be due to a chance dis- 
covery of Daguerre. It appears that for some time previous to the 
publication of the daguerreotype method he had been experimenting 
with iodized silver plates, producing images by what would now be 
called the "printing out ' process. This operation involved so 
long an exposure that he sought some means of reducing it by the 
application of different reagents. Haying on one occasion exposed 
such a plate to a camera-image, he accidentally placed it in the dark 
in a cupboard containing various chemicals, and found after the 
lapse of a night that he had a perfect image developed. By the 
process of exhaustion he arrived at the fact that it was the mercury 
vapour, which even at ordinary temperatures volatilizes, that had 
caused this intensification of the almost invisible camera-image. 
It was this discovery that enabled the exposures to be very consider- 
ably shortened from those which it was found necessary to give in 
mere camera-printing. 

The development of the image was effected by placing the exposed 
plate over a slightly heated (about 75 C.) cup of mercury. The 
vapour of mercury condensed on those places where the light had 
acted in an almost exact ratio to the intensity of its action. This 
produced a picture in an amalgam, the vapour of which attached 
itself to the altered silver iodide. Proof that such was the case 
was subsequently afforded by the fact that the mercurial image 
could be removed by heat. The developing box was so constructed 
that it was possible to examine the picture through a yellow glass 
window whilst the image was being brought out. The next opera- 
tion was to fix the picture by dipping it in a solution of hyposulphite 
of soda. The image produced by this method is so delicate that it 
will not bear the slightest handling, and has to be protected from 
accidental touching. 

The first great improvement in the daguerreotype process 
was the resensitizing of the iodized film by bromine vapour. 
John Frederick Goddard published his account of the use of 
bromine in conjunction with iodine in 1840, and A. F. J. Claudet 
(1797-1867) employed a combination of iodine and chlorine 
vapour in 1841. In 1844 Daguerre published his improved 
method of preparing the plates, which is in reality based on the 
use of bromine with iodine. That this addition points to 
additional sensitiveness will be readily understood when we 
remark that so-called instantaneous pictures of yachts in full 
sail, and of large size, have been taken on plates so prepared a 
feat which is utterly impossible with the original process as 
described by Daguerre. The next improvement in the process 
was toning or gilding the image by a solution of gold, a practice 
introduced by H. L. Fizeau. Gold chloride is mixed with 
hyposulphite of soda, and the levelled plate, bearing a sufficient 
quantity of the fluid, is warmed by a spirit-lamp until the re- 
quired vigour is given to the image, as a consequence of which it 
is better seen in most lights. Nearly all the daguerreotypes 
extant have been treated in this manner, and no doubt their 
permanence is in a great measure due to this operation. Images 
of this class can be copied by taking electrotypes from them, 
as shown by Sir W. R. Grove and others. These reproductions 
are admirable in every way, and furnish a proof that the 
daguerrean image is a relief. 

Fox-Talbot Process. In January 1839 Fox Talbot described 
the first of his processes, photogenic drawing, in a paper to the 
Royal Society. He states that he began experimenting in 1834, 
and that in the solar microscope he obtained an outline of the 
object to be depicted in full sunshine in half a second. He 
published in the Philosophical Magazine full details of his 
method, which consisted essentially in soaking paper in common 
salt, brushing one side only of it with about a 1 2 % solution of 
silver nitrate in water, and drying at the fire. Fox Talbot 
stated that by repeating the alternate washes of the silver and 
salt always ending, however, with the former greater sensi- 
tiveness was attained. This is the same in every respect as the 
method practised by Wedgwood in 1802; but, when we come 



to the next process, which he called " calotype " or " beautiful 
picture," we have a distinct advance. This process Talbot 
protected by a patent in 1841. 

It may be briefly described as the application of silver iodide to a 
paper support. Carefully selected paper was brushed over with a 
solution of silver nitrate (100 grains to the ounce of distilled water), 
and dried by the fire. It was then dipped into a solution of potas- 
sium iodide (500 grains being dissolved in a pint of water), where it 
was allowed to stay two or three minutes until silver iodide was 
formed. In this state the iodide is scarcely sensitive to light, but 
is sensitized by brushing " gallo-nitrate of silver " over the surface 
to which the silver nitrate had been first applied. This " gallo- 
nitrate " is merely a mixture, consisting of 100 grains of silver nitrate 
dissolved in 2 oz. of water, to which is added one-sixth of its volume 
of acetic acid, and immediately before applying to the paper an equal 
bulk of a saturated solution of gallic acid in water. The prepared 
surface is then ready for exposure in the camera, and, after a short 
insolation, develops itself in the dark, or the development may be 
hastened by a fresh application of the " gallo-nitrate of silver." The 
picture is then fixed by washing it in clean water and drying slightly 
in blotting paper, after which it is treated with a solution of potas- 
sium bromide, and again washed and dried. Here there is no mention 
made of hyposulphite of soda as a fixing agent, that having been 
first used by Sir J. Herschel in February 1840. 

In a strictly historical notice it ought to be mentioned that 
development by means of gallic acid and silver nitrate was first 
known to Rev. J. B. Reade. When impressing images in the solar 
microscope he employed gallic acid and silver in order to render 
more sensitive the silver chloride paper that he was using, and he 
accidentally found that the image could be developed without the 
aid of light. The priority of the discovery was claimed by Fox 
Talbot; and his claim was sustained after a lawsuit, apparently on 
the ground that Reade's method had never been legally published. 
Talbot afterwards made many slight improvements in the process. 
In one of his patents he recognizes the value of the proper fixing of 
his photogenic drawings by hyposulphite of soda, and also the 
production of positive prints from the calotype negatives. We 
pass over his application of albumen to porcelain and its subsequent 
treatment with iodine vapour, as also his application of albumen 
in which silver iodide was held in suspension to a glass plate, since 
in this he was preceded by Niepce de St Victor in 1848. 

Albumen Process on Glass. It was a decided advance when 
Niepce de St Victor, a nephew of Nic6phore de Niepce, employed 
a glass plate and coated it with iodized albumen. The originator 
of this method did not meet with much success. In the hands 
of Blanquart fivrard it became more practicable; but it was 
carried out in its greatest perfection by G. Le Gray. 

The outline of the operations is as follows: The whites of five 
fresh eggs are mixed with about one hundred grains of potassium 
iodide, about twenty grains of potassium bromide and ten grains 
of common salt. The mixture is beaten up into a froth and allowed 
to settle for twenty-four hours, when the clear liquid is decanted off. 
A circular pool of albumen is poured on a glass plate, and a straight 
ruler (its ends being wrapped with waxed paper to prevent its edge 
from touching the plate anywhere except at the margins) is drawn 
over the plate, sweeping off the excess of albumen, and so leaving 
an even film. The plate is first allowed to dry spontaneously, a 
final heating being given to it in an oven or before the fire. The heat 
hardens the albumen, and it becomes insoluble and ready for the 
silver nitrate bath. One of the difficulties is to prevent crystalliza- 
tion of the salts held in solution, and this can only be effected by 
keeping them in defect rather than in excess. The plate is sensitized 
for five minutes in a bath of silver nitrate, acidified with acetic acid, 
and exposed whilst still wet, or it may be slightly washed and again 
dried and exposed whilst in its desiccated state. The image is 
developed by gallic acid in the usual way. 

After the application of albumen many modifications were 
introduced in the shape of starch, serum of milk, gelatin, all of 
which were intended to hold iodide in situ on the plate; and the 
development in every case seems to have been by gallic acid. 
At one time the waxed-paper process subsequently introduced 
by Le Gray was a great favourite. Paper that had been made 
translucent by white wax was immersed in a solution of potas- 
sium iodide until impregnated with it, after which it was sensi- 
tized in the usual way, development being by gallic acid. In 
images obtained by this process the high lights are represented 
by metallic silver, whilst the shadows are translucent. Such a 
print is called a " negative." When silver chloride paper is 
darkened by the passage of light through a negative, we get the 
highest lights represented by white paper and the shadows by 
darkened chloride. A print of this kind is called a " positive." 

Collodion Process. A great impetus was given to photography 



4 88 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



in 1850, on the introduction of collodion (?..), a very convenient 
vehicle on account of the facility with which the plates are 
prepared, and also because it is a substance as a rule totally 
unaffected by silver nitrate, which is not the case with other 
organic substances. Thus albumen forms a definite silver 
compound, as do gelatin, starch and gum. The employment of 
collodion was first suggested by Le Gray, but it remained for 
Frederick Scott Archer of London, closely followed by P. W. Fry, 
to make a really practical use of the discovery. When collodion is 
poured on a glass plate it leaves on drying a hard transparent 
film which under the microscope is slightly reticulated. Before 
drying, the film is gelatinous and perfectly adapted for holding 
in situ salts soluble in ether and alcohol. Where such saltj 
are present they crystallize out when the film is dried, hence 
such a film is only suitable where the plates are ready to be 
immersed in the silver bath. As a rule, about five grains of the 
soluble gun-cotton are dissolved in an ounce of a mixture of 
equal parts of ether and alcohol, both of which must be of low 
specific gravity, -725 and -805 respectively. If the alcohol or 
ether be much diluted with water the gun-cotton (pyroxylin) 
precipitates, but, even if less diluted, it forms a film which is 
" crapey " and uneven. Such was the material which Le Gray 
proposed and which Archer brought into practical use. The 
opaque silver plate with its one impression was abandoned; and 
the paper support of Talbot, with its inequalities of grain and 
thickness, followed suit, though not immediately. When once 
a negative had been obtained with collodion on a glass plate 
the image showing high lights by almost complete opacity and 
the shadows by transparency (as was the case, too, in the calotype 
process) any number of impressions could be obtained by means 
of the silver-printing process introduced by Fox Talbot, and they 
were found to possess a delicacy and refinement of detail that 
certainly eclipsed the finest print obtained from a calotype 
negative. To any one who had practised the somewhat tedious 
calotype process, or the waxed-paper process of Le Gray with 
its still longer preparation and development, the advent of the 
collodion method must have been extremely welcome, since it 
effected a saving in time, money and uncertainty. The rapidity 
of photographic action was much increased, and the production 
of a different character of pictures thus became possible. 

We give an outline of the procedure. A glass plate is carefully 
cleaned by a detergent such as a cream of tripoli powder and spirits 
of wine (to which a little ammonia is often added), then wiped with a 
soft rag, and finally polished with a silk handkerchief or chamois 
leather. A collodion containing soluble iodides and bromides is made 
to flow over the plate, all excess being drained off when it is covered. 
A good standard formula for the collodion is 55 grains of pyroxylin, 
5 oz. of alcohol, 5 oz. of ether; and in this liquid are dissolved 2J 
grains of ammonium iodide, 2 grains of cadmium iodide and 2 grains 
of cadmium bromide. When the collodion is set the plate is 
immersed in a bath of silver nitrate a vertical form being that 
mostly used in England, whilst a horizontal dish is used on the con- 
tinent of Europe a good formula for which is 350 grains of silver 
nitrate with 10 oz. of water. The plate is steadily lowered into this 
solution, and moved in it until all the repellent action between the 
aqueous solution of the silver and the solvents of the collodion is 
removed, when it is allowed to rest for a couple of minutes, after 
which period it is taken out and placed in the dark slide ready for 
exposure in the camera. After undergoing proper exposure the plate 
is withdrawn, and in a room lighted with yellow light the developing 
solution is applied, which originally was a solution of pyrogallic 
acid in water restrained in its action by the addition of acetic acid. 
One of the old formulae employed by P. H. Delamotte was 9 grains 
of pyrogallic acid, 2 drachms of glacial acetic acid and 3 oz. of 
water. The image gradually appears after the application of this 
solution, building itself up from the silver nitrate clinging to the film, 
which is reduced to the metallic state by degrees. Should the 
density be insufficient a few drops of silver nitrate are added to the 
pryogallic acid solution and the developing action continued. 

In 1844 Robert Hunt introduced another reducing agent, which 
is still the favourite, viz. ferrous sulphate. By its use the time of 
necessary exposure of the plate is reduced and the image develops 
with great rapidity. A sample of this developing solution is 20 
grains of ferrous sulphate, 20 minims of acetic acid, with I oz. of 
water. This often leaves the image thinner than is requisite for 
the formation of a good print, and it is intensified with pyrogallic 
acid and silver. Other intensifiers are used to increase the deposit 
on a plate by means of mercury or uranium, followed by other 
solutions to still further darken the double salts formed on the film. 



Such intensifying agents have to be applied to the image after the 
plate is fixed, which is done by a concentrated solution of hypo- 
sulphite of soda or by potassium cyanide, the latter salt having been 
first introduced by Martin and Marc Antoine Augustin Gaudin in 
1853 (La Lumikre, April 23, 1853). Twenty-five grains of potassium 
cyanide to one ounce of water is the strength of the solution usually 
employed. The reaction of both these fixing agents is to form with 
the sensitive salts of silver double hyposulphites or cyanides, which 
are soluble in water and salt. The utility of bromides in the collodion 
process seems to have been recognized in its earliest days, Scott 
Archer (1852) and R. J. Bingham (1850) both mentioning it. We 
notice this, since as late as 1866 a patent-right in its use was sought 
to be enforced in America, the patent being taken out by James 
Cutting in July 1854. 

Positive Pictures by the Collodion Process. In the infancy 
of the collodion process it was shown by Home that a negative 
image could be made to assume the appearance of a positive 
by whitening the metallic silver deposit. This he effected by 
using with the pyrogallic acid developer a small quantity of 
nitric acid. A better result was obtained by P. W. Fry with 
ferrous sulphate and ferrous nitrate, whilst Hugh Diamond gave 
effect to the matter in a practical way. F. Scott Archer used 
mercuric chloride to whiten the image. To Robert Hunt, 
however, must be rewarded the credit of noticing the action of 
this salt on the image (Phil. Trans., 1843). The whitened picture 
may be made to stand out against black velvet, or black varnish 
may be poured over the film to give the necessary black back- 
ground, or, more recently, the positive pictures may be produced 
on japanned iron plates (ferrotype plates) or on japanned leather. 
This process is still occasionally practised by itinerant photo- 
graphers. 

Moist Collodion Process. It is seen that for the successful 
working of the collodion process it was necessary that the plate 
should be exposed very shortly after its preparation; this was 
a drawback, inasmuch as it necessitated taking a heavy equip- 
ment into the field. In 1856, Sir William Crookes and J. Spiller 
published in the Philosophical Magazine a process whereby they 
were enabled to keep a film moist (so as to prevent crystallization 
of the silver nitrate) several days, enabling plates to be prepared 
at home, exposed in the field, and then developed in the dark 
room. The plate was prepared in the usual way and a solution 
of zinc nitrate and silver nitrate in water was made to flow over 
it. The hygroscopic nature of the zinc salt kept sufficient 
moisture on the plate to attain the desired end. Various 
modifications in procedure have been made. 

Dry Plates. It would appear that the first experiments with 
collodion dry plates were due to Marc Antoine Augustin Gaudin. 
In La Lumiere of the 22nd of April and the 27th of May 1854 
he describes his researches on the question; whilst in England 
G. R. Muirhead, on the 4th of August 1854, stated that 
light acts almost as energetically on a dry surface as on a 
wet after all the silver has been washed away from the 'former 
previous to desiccation. J. M. Taupenot, however, seems to 
have been the first to use a dry-plate process that was really 
workable. His original plan was to coat a plate with collodion, 
sensitize it in the ordinary manner, wash it, cause a solution of 
albumen to flow over the surface, dry it, dip it in a bath of silver 
nitrate acidified with acetic acid, and wash and dry it again. 
The plate was then in a condition to be exposed, and was to be 
developed with pyrogallic acid and silver. In this method we 
have a double manipulation, which is long in execution, though 
perfectly effective. 

A great advance was made in all dry-plate processes by the 
introduction of what is known as the " alkaline developer," 
which is, however, inapplicable to all plates on which silver 
nitrate is present in the free state. The developers previously 
described, either for collodion or paper processes, were dependent 
on the reduction of metallic silver by some such agent as ferrous 
sulphate, the reduction taking place gradually and the reduced 
particles aggregating on those portions of the film which had been 
acted upon by light. The action of light being to reduce the 
silver iodide, bromide or chloride, these reduced particles really 
acted as nuclei for the crystallized metal. It will be evident 
that in such a method of development the molecular attraction 



HISTORY] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



489 



acts at distances relatively great compared with the diameters 
of the molecules themselves. If it were possible to reduce the 
altered particles of silver salt it was plain that development would 
be more rapid, and also that the number of molecules reduced by 
light would be smaller if the metallic silver could be derived from 
silver compounds within shorter distances of the centres of 
molecular attraction. Alkaline development accomplished this 
to a very remarkable extent; but the method is only really 
practicable when applied to films containing silver bromide 
and chloride, as silver iodide is only slightly amenable to the 
alkaline development. The introduction of this developer is 
believed to be of American origin; and it is known that in 
the year 1862 Major C. Russell used it with the dry plates he 
introduced. 

An alkaline developer consists of an alkali, a reducing agent 
and a restraining agent. These bodies, when combined and applied 
to the solid silver bromide or chloride, after being acted upon by 
light, were able to reduce the sub-bromide or sub-chloride, and to 
build up an image upon it, leaving the unaltered bromide intact, 
except so far as it was used in the building up. In 1877 Sir W. 
Abney investigated this action. A dry plate was prepared by the 
bath process m the usual manner (to be described below), and 
exposed in the camera. The exposed film was covered with another 
film of collodiobromide emulsion, which of course had not seen the 
light. An image was obtained from the double film by means 
of the alkaline developer, which penetrated through the upper 
unexposed film. The development was prolonged until an image 
appeared through the unexposed film, when the plate was fixed, 
washed and dried. A piece of gelatinous paper was cemented on 
the upper film, and a similar piece on the lower after both had 
been stripped off the glass. When quite dry the two papers were 
forcibly separated, a film adhering to each. The upper film, although 
never exposed to light, showed an image in some cases more intense 
than the under film. The action of the alkaline developer was here 
manifest: the silver bromide in close contiguity to the exposed 
particles was reduced to the metallic state. Hence, from this 
and similar experiments, Abney concluded that silver bromide could 
not exist in the presence of a freshly precipitated or reduced metallic 
silver, and that a sub-bromide was immediately formed. From this 
it will be seen that the deposited silver is well within the sphere of 
molecular attraction, and that consequently a less exposure (i.e. 
the reduction of fewer molecules of the sensitive salt) would give 
a developable image. 

The alkalis used embraced the alkalis themselves and the 
mono-carbonates. The sole reducing agent up till recent times 
was pyrogallic acid. In the year 1880 Abney found that 
hydroquinone was even more effective than pyrogallic acid, its 
reducing power being stronger. Various other experimentalists 
tried other kindred substances, but without adding to the list 
of really useful agents until recently. 

The following are some of the most effective : 

Eikonogen Developer. 

Eikpnogen 25 parts. 

Sodium sulphite .... 5 i> 

Sodium carbonate .... 50 

Potassium bromide .... j ,, 

Water . .... 1000 _ 

This is a one-solution developer, and acts energetically. 

Metal Developer. 

Solution A. 

Metol 2 parts. 

Sodium sulphite 18 

Water 100 

Solution B. 

Sodium carbonate .... 6 parts. 

Potassium bromide ... ID 

Water 100 

For use, take one part of A to from I to 3 parts of B. 

Amidol Developer. 

Amidol 3 parts. 

Sodium sulphite 100 

Potassium bromide . . . I to 3 

Water 1000 

This developer requires no addition of alkali. 

Ortol Developer. 

Solution A. 
Ortol ........ 15 parts. 

Sodium metabisulphite . . 7 

Water 1000 



Solution B. 

Sodium carbonate .... loo parts. 
Sodium sulphite .... 125 
Potassium bromide ... 3 ,, 

Water _ 1000 

A and B solutions are mixed together in equal proportions. 
Besides these, there are several more, such as adurol, glycin, 
pyrocatechin, which have been used with more or less success. 
They all give a black in lieu of that dark olive-green deposit ;of 
silver which is so often found with pyrogallol developers. All are 
alkaline developers, and the image is built up from the sensitive 
salt within the film. They are applicable to gelatin or collodion 
plates, but for the latter rather more bromide of an alkali is added, 
to retard fogging. 

Another set of developers for dry plates dependent on the 
reduction of the silver bromide and the metallic state is founded 
on the fact that certain organic salts of iron can be utilized. In 
1877 M. Carey Lea of Philadelphia and William Willis announced 
almost simultaneously that a solution of ferrous oxalate in 
neutral potassium oxalate was effective as a developer, and from 
that time its use has been acknowledged. In 1882 J. M. Eder 
demonstrated that gelatino-silver chloride plates could be 
developed with ferrous citrate, which could not be so readily 
accomplished with ferrous oxalate. The exposure for chloride 
plates when developed by the latter was extremely prolonged. 
In the same year Abney showed that if ferrous oxalate were 
dissolved in potassium citrate a much more powerful agent was 
formed, which allowed not only gelatine-chloride plates to be 
readily developed but also collodio-chloride plates. These plates 
were undevelopable except by the precipitation method until 
the advent of the agents last-mentioned owing to the fact that 
the chloride was as readily reduced as the sub-chloride. 

Amongst the components of an alkaline developer we men- 
tioned a restrainer. This factor, generally a bromide or chloride 
of an alkali, serves probably to form a compound with the silver 
salt which has not been acted upon by light, and which is less 
easily reduced than is the silver salt alone the altered particles 
being left intact. The action of the restrainer is regarded by 
some as due to its combination with the alkali. But whichever 
theory is correct the fact remains that the restrainer does make 
the primitive salt less amenable to reduction. Such restrainers 
as the bromides of the alkalis act through chemical means; 
but there are others which act through physical means, an 
example of which we have in the preparation of a gelatin plate. 
In this case the gelatin wraps up the particles of the silver 
compound in a colloidal sheath, as it were, and the developing 
solution only gets at them in a very gradual manner, for the 
natural tendency of all such reducing agents is to attack the 
particles on which least work has to be expended. In the case 
of silver sub-bromide the developer has only to remove one atom 
of bromine, whereas it has to remove two in the case of silver 
bromide. The sub-bromide formed by light and that sub- 
sequently produced in the act of development are therefore 
reduced. A large proportion of gelatin compared with the 
silver salt in a film enables an alkaline developer to be used 
without any chemical restrainer; but when the gelatin bears a 
small proportion to the silver such a restrainer has to be used. 
With collodion films the particles of bromide are more or less 
unenveloped, and hence in this case some kind of chemical 
restrainer is absolutely necessary. We may say that the organic 
iron developers require less restraining in their action than do 
the alkaline developers. 

In Major Russell's process the plate was prepared by immersion in 
a strong solution of silver nitrate and then washed and a preservative 
applied. The last-named agent executes two functions, one being to 
absorb the halogen liberated by the action of light and the other 
to preserve the film from atmospheric action. Tannin, which Major 
Russell employed, if we mistake not, is a good absorbent of the 
halogens, and acts as a varnish to the film. Other collodion dry-plate 
processes carried out by means of the silver- nitrate bath were very 
numerous at one time, many different organic bodies being also 
employed. In most cases ordinary iodized collodion was made 
use of, a small percentage of soluble bromide being as a rule added to 
it. When plates were developed by the alkaline method this 
extra bromide induced density, since it was the silver bromide alone 
which was amenable to it, the icdide being almost entirely unaffected 
by the weak developer which was at that time in general use. 



490 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[HISTORY 



Dry-Plate Bath Process. One of the most successful bat! 
dry-plate processes was introduced by R. Manners Gordon 
The plate was given an edging of albumen and then coated wit! 
ordinary iodized collodion to which one grain per ounce o 
cadmium bromide had been added. It was kept in the silver 
nitrate bath for ten minutes, after which it was washec 
thoroughly. The following preservative was then applied: 

( Gum arabic ....... 20 grs. 

' < Sugar candy ....... 5 

(Water ........ 6 dr. 



2. J Gallic acid 
< Water 



3 grs. 
2 dr. 



These ingredients were mixed just before use and, after 
filtering, applied for one minute to the plate, which was allowec 
to drain and set up to dry naturally. Great latitude is admissible 
in the exposure; it should rarely be less than four times or more 
than twenty times that which would be required for a wet plate 
under ordinary circumstances. The image may be developed 
with ferrous sulphate restrained by a solution of gelatin and 
glacial acetic acid, to which a solution of silver nitrate 
is added just before application, or by an alkaline developer. 

In photographic processes not only has the chemical condition 
of the film to be taken into account but also the optical. When 
light falls on a semi-opaque or translucent film it is scattered by the 
particles in it and passes through the glass plate to the back. Here 
the rays are partly transmitted and partly reflected, a very small 
quantity of them being absorbed by the material of the glass. Theory 
points out that the strongest reflection from the back of the glass 
should take place at the " critical " angle. In 1875 Abney investi- 
gated the subject and proved that practice agreed with theory in 
every respect, and that the image of a point of light in development 
on a plate was surrounded by a ring of reduced silver caused by the 
reflection of the scattered light from the back surface of the glass, 
and that this ring was shaded inwards and outwards in such a manner 
that the shading varied with the intensity of the light reflected at 
different angles. To avoid " halation," as this phenomenon is 
called, it was usual to cover the back of dry plates with some material 
which should be in optical contact with it, and as nearly as possible 
of the same density as glass, and which at the same time should 
absorb all the photographically active rays. This was called 
" backing a plate." 

Collodion Emulsion Processes. In 1864 W. B. Bolton and 
B. J. Sayce published the germ of a process which revolutionized 
photographic manipulations. In the ordinary collodion process 
a sensitive film is procured by coating a glass plate with collodion 
containing the iodide and bromide of some soluble salt, and then, 
when set, immersing it in a solution of silver nitrate in order to 
form silver iodide and bromide in the film. The question that 
presented itself to Bolton and Sayce was whether it might not 
be possible to get the sensitive salts of silver formed in the collo- 
dion whilst liquid, and a sensitive film given to a plate by merely 
letting this collodion, containing the salts in suspension, flow 
over the glass plate. Gaudin had attempted to do this with 
silver chloride, and later G. W. Simpson had succeeded in perfect- 
ing a printing process with collodion containing silver chloride, 
citric acid and silver nitrate; but the chloride until recently has 
been considered a slow working salt, and nearly incapable of 
development. Up to the time of W. B. Bolton and B. J. Sayce's 
experiments silver iodide had been considered the staple of a 
sensitive film on which to take negatives; and though bromide 
had been used by Major Russell and others, it had not met with 
so much favour as to lead to the omission of the iodide. At the 
date mentioned the suspension of silver iodide in collodion was 
not thought practicable, and the inventors of the process turned 
their attention to silver bromide, which they found could be 
secured in such a fine state of division that it remained suspended 
for a considerable time in collodion, and even when precipitated 
could be resuspended by simple agitation. The outline of the 
method was to dissolve a soluble bromide in plain collodion, and 
add to it drop by drop an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate, the 
latter being in excess or defect according to the will of the 
operator. To prepare a sensitive surface the collodion contain- 
ing the emulsified sensitive salt was poured over a glass plate, 
allowed to set, and washed till all the soluble salts resulting from 
the double decomposition of the soluble bromide and the silver 
nitrate, together with the unaltered soluble bromide or silver 



nitrate, were removed, when the film was exposed wet, or 
allowed to dry and then exposed. The rapidity of these plates 
was not in any way remarkable, but the process had the great 
advantage of doing away with the sensitizing nitrate of silver 
bath, and thus avoiding a tiresome operation. The plates were 
developed by the alkaline method, and gave images which, if 
not primarily dense enough, could be intensified by the applica- 
tion of pyrogallic acid and silver nitrate as in the wet collodion 
process. Such was the crude germ of a method which was 
destined to effect a complete change in the aspect of photo- 
graphic negative taking 1 ; but for some time it lay dormant. In 
fact there was at first much to discourage trial of it, since the 
plates often became veiled on development. 

M. Carey Lea of Philadelphia, and W. Cooper, jun., of Reading, 
may be said to have given the real impetus to the method. Carey 
Lea, by introducing an acid into the emulsion, established a practic- 
able collodion emulsion process, which was rapid and at the same time 
gave negative pictures free from veil. To secure the rapidity Carey 
Lea employed a fair excess of silver nitrate, and Colonel H. Stuart 
Wortley gained further rapidity by a still greater increase of it; 
the free use of acid was the only means by which this could be 
effected without hopelessly spoiling the emulsion. The addition of 
the mineral acids such as Carey Lea employed is to prevent the 
formation of (or to destroy when formed) any silver sub-bromide 
or oxide, either of which acts as a nucleus on which development 
can take place. Abney first showed the theoretical effect of acids 
on the sub-bromide, as also the effect of oxidizing agents on both 
the above compounds (see below). A more valuable modification 
was introduced in 1874 by W. B. Bolton, one of the originators of 
the process, who allowed the ether and the alcohol of the collodion 
to evaporate, and then washed away all the soluble salts from the 
gelatinous mass formed of pyroxylin and sensitive salt. After 
washing for a considerable time, the pellicle was dried naturally 
or washed with alcohol, and then the pyroxylin redissolved in ether 
and alcohol, leaving an emulsion of silver bromide, silver chloride 
or silver iodide, or mixtures of all suspended in collodion. In this 
state the plate could be coated and dried at once for exposure. 
Sometimes, in fact generally, preservatives were used, as in the case 
of dry plates with the bath, in order to prevent the atmosphere from 
rendering the surface of the film spotty or insensitive on develop- 
ment. This modification had the great advantage of allowing 
a large quantity of sensitive salt to be prepared of precisely the same 
value as to rapidity of action and quality of film. 

A great advance in the use of the collodion bromide process was 
made by Colonel Stuart Wortley, who in June 1873 made known the 
powerful nature of a strongly alkaline developer as opposed to the 
weak one which up to that time had usually been employed for a 
collodion emulsion plate, or indeed for any dry plate. 

An example of the preparation of a collodion emulsion and the 
developer is the following: 2i oz. of alcohol, 5 oz. of ether, 75 grains 
)f pyroxylin. _ In i oz. of alcohol are dissolved 200 grains of zinc 
jromide 2 ; it is then acidulated with 4 or 5 drops of nitric acid, and 
added to half the above collodion. In 2 drachms of water are 
dissolved 330 grains of silver nitrate, i oz. of alcohol being added. 
The silvered alcohol is next poured into the other half of the collodion 
ind the brominized collodion dropped in, care being taken to shake 
jetween the operations. An emulsion of silver bromide is formed 
n suspension; and it is in every case left for 10 to 20 hours to what 
s technically called " ripen," or, in other words, to become creamy 
when poured out upon a glass plate. When the emulsion has 
ripened it may be used at once or be poured out jnto a flat dish and 
he solvents allowed to evaporate till the pyroxylin becomes gelatin- 
Jus. In this state it is washed in water till all the soluble salts are 
carried away. After this it may be either spread out on a cloth and 
Iried or treated with two or three doses of alcohol, and then re- 
lissolved in equal parts of alcohol (specific gravity, -805) and ether 
specific gravity, -720). In this condition it is a washed emulsion, 
ind a glass plate can be coated with it and the film dried, or it may 
>e washed and some of the many preservatives, such as albumen, 
jeer, coffee, gum, &c., applied. 

The type of a useful alkaline developer for collodion plates is as 
ollows : 

. 96 grs. 
I oz. 

. 12 grs. 

Water distilled i oz. 

Ammonium carbonate .... 80 grs. 

Water i oz. 

!"o develop the plate 6 minims of No. i, J drachm of No. 2, and 3 
drachms of No. 3 are mixed together and made to flow over the plate 
after washing the preservative off under the tap. Sometimes the 



1 . J Pyrogallic acid 
< Alcohol 

2 . j Potassium bromide 
' I 



An account of Sayce's process is to be found in the Photographic 
News of October 1865, or the Photographic Journal of the same date. 
1 The advantages of this salt were pointed out by Leon Warnerke 
n 1875. 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



PLATE I. 




OH 

ad 



O 
Z 

j 

o 



u 



XXI. 4QO. 



PLATE II. 



PHOTOGRAPHY 





i 

2 

3 
u 



o 

CL, 



TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



49 



development is conducted in a flat dish, sometimes the solution 
is poured on the plate. 1 The unreduced salts are eliminated by either 
cyanide of potassium or sodium hyposulphite. Intensity may be 
given to the image, if requisite, either before or after the " fixing" 
operation. Where resort is had to ferrous oxalate development, 
the developer is made in one of two ways (i) by saturating a 
saturated solution of neutral potassium oxalate with ferrous oxalate, 
and adding an equal volume of a solution (10 grains to I oz. of water) 
of potassium bromide to restrain the action, or (2) by mixing, accord- 
ing to Eder's plan, 3 volumes by measure of a saturated solution 
of the potassium oxalate with I volume by measure of a saturated 
solution of ferrous sulphate, and adding to the ferrous oxalate 
solution thus obtained an equal bulk of the above solution of potas- 
sium bromide. The development is conducted in precisely the 
same manner as indicated above, and the image is fixed by one of 
the same agents. 

Gelatin Emulsion Process. The facility with which silver 
bromide emulsion could be prepared in collodion had turned 
investigation into substitutes for it. As early as September 
1871 Dr R. L. Maddox had tried emulsifying the silver salt in 
gelatin, and had produced negatives of rare excellence. In 
November 1873 J. King described a similar process, getting rid 
of the soluble salts by washing. Efforts had also been made in 
this direction by J. Burgess in July 1873. R. Kennett in 1874 
may be said to have been the first to put forward the gelatin 
emulsion process in a practical and workable form, as he then 
published a formula which gave good and quick results. It was 
not till 1878, however, that the great capabilities of silver bromide 
when held in suspension by gelatin were fairly known; in March 
of that year C. Bennett showed that by keeping the gelatin 
solution liquid at a low temperature for as long as seven days 
extraordinary rapidity was conferred on the sensitive salt. The 
molecular condition of the silver bromide seemed to be altered, 
and to be amenable to a far more powerful developer than had 
hitherto been dreamt of. In 1874 J. S. Stas had shown that 
various modifications of silver bromide and chloride were possible, 
and it seemed that the green molecular condition (one of those 
noted by Stas) of the bromide was attained by prolonged warm- 
ing. It may be said that the advent of rapid plates was 1878, 
and that the full credit of this discovery should be allotted to 
C. Bennett. Both Kennett and Bennett got rid of the soluble 
salts from the emulsion by washing; and in order to attain success 
it was requisite that the bromide should be in excess of that neces- 
sary to combine with the silver nitrate used to form the emulsion. 
In June 1879 Abney showed that a good emulsion might be 
formed by precipitating a silver bromide by dropping a solution 
of a soluble bromide into a dilute solution of silver nitrate. The 
supernatant liquid was decanted, and after two or three washings 
with water the precipitate was mixed with the proper amount 
of gelatin. D. B. van Monckhoven of Ghent, in experimenting 
with this process, hit upon the plan of obtaining the emulsion by 
acting on silver carbonate with hydrobromic acid, which left 
no soluble salts to be extracted. He further, in August 1879, 
announced that he had obtained great rapidity by adding to the 
bromide emulsion a certain quantity of ammonia. This addition 
rapidly altered the silver bromide from its ordinary state to 
the green molecular condition referred to above. At this point 
we have the branching off of the gelatin emulsion process into 
two great divisions, viz. that in which rapidity was gained by 
long-continued heating, and the other in which it was gained by 
the use of ammonia a subdivision which is maintained to the 
present day. Opinions as to the merits of the two methods are 
much divided, some maintaining that the quality of the heated 
emulsion is better than that produced by alkalinity, and vice 
versa. We may mention that in 1881 Dr A. Herschel introduced 
a plan for making an alcoholic gelatin emulsion with the idea of 
inducing rapid drying of the plates, and in the same year H. W. 
Vogel of Berlin introduced a method of combining gelatin and 
pyroxylin together by means of a solvent which acted on the 
gelatin and allowed the addition of alcohol in order to dissolve 
the pyroxylin. This " collodio-gelatm emulsion " was only a 
shortlived process, which is not surprising, since its preparation 
involved the inhalation of the fumes of acetic acid. 

1 For further details the reader is referred to Instruction in Photo- 
graphy, nth ed., p. 362. 



The warming process introduced by Bennett was soon super- 
seded. Colonel Stuart Wortley in 1879 announced that, by 
raising the temperature of the vessel in which the emulsion was 
stewed to 150 F., instead of days being required to give the 
desired sensibility only a few hours were necessary. A further 
advance was made by boiling the emulsion, first practised, we 
believe, by G. Mansfield in 1879. Another improvement was 
effected by W. B. Bolton by emulsifying the silver salt in a 
small quantity of gelatin and then raising the emulsion to boiling 
point, boiling it for from half an hour to an hour, when extreme 
rapidity was attained. Many minor improvements in this 
process have been made from time to time. It may be useful 
to give an idea of the relative rapidities of the various processes 
we have described. 

Daguerreotype, originally .... half an hour's exposure. 

Calotype 2 or 3 minutes' 

Collodion 10 seconds' 

Collodion emulsion 15 seconds' ,, 

Rapid gelatin emulsion .... jVth second 

TECHNIQUE or PHOTOGRAPHY 

Gelatin Emulsions. 

The following is an outline of two representative processes. 
All operations should be conducted in light which can act but 
very slightly on the sensitive salts employed, and this is more 
necessary with this process than with others on account of the 
extreme ease with which the equilibrium of the molecules is 
upset in giving rise to the molecule which is developable. The 
light to work with is gaslight or candlelight passing through 
a sheet of Chance's stained red glass backed by orange paper. 
Stained red glass allows but few chemically effective rays to 
pass through it, whilst the orange paper diffuses the light. If 
daylight be employed, it is as well to have a double thickness 
of orange paper. The following should be weighed out: 
Potassium iodide 5 B rs - 



I. 

2. 

3- 
4- 



Potassium bromide ...._. 
Nelson's No. I photographic gelatin 

Silver nitrate 

( Autotype or other hard gelatin 
' ' 



135 
3 
175 

100 

Nelson's No. I gelatin loo 



Nos. 3 and 5 are rapidly covered with water or washed for a few 
seconds under the tap to get rid of any dust. No. 2 is dissolved 
in i J oz. of water, and a little tincture of iodine added till it assumes 
a light sherry colour. No. i is dissolved in 60 minims of water. 
No. 4 is dissolved in J oz. of water, and No. 3 is allowed to swell 
up in I oz. of water, and is then dissolved by heat. All the flasks 
containing these solutions are placed in water at 150 F. and carried 
into the " dark room," as the orange-lighted chamber is ordinarily 
called; Nos. 3 and 4 are then mixed together in a jar or flask, and 
No. 2 added drop by drop till half its bulk is gone, when No. I is 
added to the remainder, and the double solution is dropped in as 
before. When all is added there ought to be formed an emulsion 
which is very ruddy when examined by gaslight, or orange by 
daylight. The flask containing the emulsion is .next placed in 
boiling water, which is kept in a state of ebullition for about three- 
quarters of an hour. It is then ready, when the contents of the 
flask have cooled down to about 100 F., for the addition of No. 5, 
which should in the interval be placed in 2 oz. of water to swell 
and finally be dissolved. The gelatin emulsion thus formed is 
placed in a cool place to set, after which it is turned into a piece 
of coarse canvas or mosquito netting made into a bag. By 
squeezing, threads of gelatin containing the sensitive salt can be 
made to fall into cold water; by this means the soluble salts are 
extracted. This is readily done in two or three hours by frequently 
changing the water, or by allowing running water to flow over the 
emulsion-threads. The gelatin is next drained by straining canvas 
over a jar and turning out the threads on to it, after which it is 
placed in a flask, and warmed till it dissolves, half an ounce of 
alcohol being added. Finally it is filtered through chamois leather 
or swansdown calico. In this state it is ready for the plates. 

The other method of forming the emulsion is with ammonia. The 
same quantities as before are weighed out, but the solutions of 
Nos. 2 and 3 are first mixed together and No. 4 is dissolved in i oz. 
of water, and strong ammonia of specific gravity -880 added to it 
till the oxide first precipitated is just redissolved. This solution 
is then dropped into Nos. 2 and 3 as previously described, and 
finally No. I is added. In this case no boiling is required; but to 
secure rapidity it is as well that the emulsion should be kept an 
hour at a temperature of about 90 F., after which half the total 
quantity of No. 5 is added. When set the emulsion is washed, 
drained, and redissolved as before; but in order to give tenacity 



492 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[TECHNIQUE 



i.- 



2. 



to the gelatin the remainder of No. 5 is added before the addition 
of the alcohol, and before filtering. 

Coating the Plates. Glass plates are best cleaned with nitric 
acid, rinsed, and then treated with potash solution, rinsed again, and 
dried with a clean cloth. They are then ready for receiving the 
emulsion, which, after being warmed to about 120 F., is poured 
on them to cover well the surface. This being done, the plates 
are placed on a level shelf and allowed to stay there till the gelatin 
is thoroughly set ; they are then put in a drying cupboard, through 
which a current of warm air is made to pass. It should be remarked 
that the warmth is only necessary to enable the air to take up 
the moisture from the plates. They ought to dry in about twelve 
hours, and they are ready for use. 

Exposure, With a good emulsion and on a bright day the ex- 
posure of a plate to a landscape, with a lens whose aperture is 
one-sixteenth that of the focal distance, should not be more than 
one-half to one-fifth of a second. This time depends, of course, on 
the nature of the view ; if there be foliage in the immediate foreground 
it will be longer. In the portrait-studio, under the same circum- 
stances, an exposure with a portrait lens may be from half a second 
to four or five seconds. 

Development of the Plate. To develop the image either a ferrous 
ux.il.it i- solution or alkaline pyrogallic acid may be used. _No 
chemical restrainer such as potassium bromide is necessary, since 
the gelatin itself acts as a physical restrainer. If the alkaline 
developer be used, the following may be taken as a good standard : 

Pyrogallol ......... 5 grs. 

Citric acid ......... 10 

Water .......... i oz. 

Potassium bromide ....... 10 grs. 

Water .......... I oz. 

Ammonia, -880 ........ i dr. 

Water .......... 9 

One dram of each of these is taken and the mixture made up 
to 2 oz. with water. The plate is placed in a dish and the above 
poured over it without stoppage, whereupon the image gradually 
appears and, if the exposure has been properly timed, gains suffi- 
cient density for printing purposes. It is fixed in a solution of 
hyposulphite of soda, as in the other processes already described, 
and then thoroughly washed for two or three hours to eliminate all 
the soluble salt. This long washing is necessary on account of 
the nature of the gelatin. 

Intensifying the Negative. Sometimes it is necessary to intensify 
the negative, which can be done in a variety of ways with mercury 
salts. An excellent plan, introduced by Chapman Jones, is to use 
a saturated solution of mercuric chloride in water. After thorough 
washing the negative is treated with ferrous oxalate. This process 
can be repeated till sufficient density is attained. With most 
other methods with mercury the image is apt to become yellow and 
to fade ; with this apparently it is not. 

Varnishing the Negative. The negative is often protected by 
receiving first a film of plain collodion and then a coat of shellac 
or other photographic varnish. This protects the gelatin from 
moisture and also from becoming stained with the silver nitrate 
owing to contact with the sensitive paper used in silver printing. 
Another varnish is a solution of celloidin in amyl acetate. This is 
an excellent protection against damp. 

Printing Processes. 

The first printing process may be said to be that of Fox 
Talbot (see above), which has continued to be generally em- 
ployed (with the addition of albumen to give a surface to the 
print an addition first made, we believe, by Fox Talbot). 

Paper for printing is prepared by mixing 150 parts of ammonium 
chloride with 240 parts of spirits of wine and 2000 parts of water, 
though the proportions may vary. These ingredients are dissolved, 
and the whites of fifteen fairly-sized eggs are added and the whole 
beaten up to a froth. In hot weather it is advisable to add a drop 
of carbolic acid to prevent decomposition. The albumen is allowed 
two or three days to settle, when it is filtered through a sponge 
placed in a funnel, or through two or three thicknesses of fine muslin, 
and transferred to a flat dish. The paper is cut of convenient 
size and allowed to float on the solution for about a minute, when 
it is taken off and dried in a warm room. For dead prints, on 
which colouring is to take place, plain salted paper is useful. It 
can be made of the following proportions 90 parts of ammonium 
chloride, 100 parts of sodium citrate, 10 parts of gelatin, 5000 parts 
of distilled water. The gelatin is first dissolved in hot water 
and the remaining components are added. It is next filtered, and 
the paper allowed to float on it for three minutes, then withdrawn 
and dried. 

Sensitizing Bath. To sensitize the paper it is floated on a 10 % 
solution of silver nitrate for three minutes. It is then hung up 
and allowed to dry, after which it is ready for use. To print the 
image the paper is placed in a printing frame over a negative and 
exposed to light. It is allowed to print till such time as the image 
appears rather darker than it should finally appear. 



Toning and Fixing the Print. The next operation is to tone and 
fix the print. In the earlier days this was accomplished by means 
of a bath of sel d'or a mixture of hyposulphite of soda and gold 
chloride. This gilded the darkened parts of the print which light 
had reduced to the semi-metallic state: and on the removal of the 
chloride by means of hyposulphite an image composed of metallic 
silver, an organic salt of silver and gold was left behind. There 
was a suspicion, however, that part of the coloration was due to a 
combination of sulphur with the silver, not that pure silver sulphide 
is in any degree fugitive, but the sulphuretted organic salt of silver 
seems to be liable to change. This gave place to a method of 
alkaline toning, or rather, we should say, of neutral toning, by 
employing gold chloride with a salt, such as the carbonate or 
acetate of soda, chloride of lime, borax, &c. By this means there 
was no danger of sulphurization during the toning, to which the 
method by sel d'or was prone owing to the decomposition of the 
hyposulphite. The substances which can be employed in toning 
seem to be those in which an alkaline base is combmeu with a weak 
acid, the latter being readily displaced by a stronger acid, such as 
nitric acid, which must exist in the paper after printing. This branch 
of photography owes much to the Rev. T. F. Hardwich, he having 
carried on extensive researches in connexion with it during 1854 an d 
subsequent years. A. Davanne and A. Girard, a little later, also 
investigated the matter with fruitful results. 

The following may be taken as two typical toning-baths: 



IGold chloride 
Sodium carbonate 
Water .... 
Borax . 
Water . . 
Gold chloride 



(ft) 



Water 



i part. 
10 parts. 
5000 

100 

4000 

i part. 
4000 parts 



In the latter (a) and (/3) are mixed in equal parts immediately 
before use. Each of these is better used only once. A third bath 



Gold chloride 2 parts. 

Chloride of lime 2 

Chalk 40 

Water 8000 

These are mixed together, the water being warmed. When cool 
the solution is ready for use. In toning prints there is a distinct 
difference in the modus operandi according to the toning-bath 
employed. Thus in the first two baths the print must be thoroughly 
washed in water to remove all free silver nitrate, that salt forming 
no part in the chemical reactions. On the other hand, where free 
chlorine is used, the presence of free silver nitrate or some active 
chlorine absorbent is a necessity. In 1872 Abney showed that 
with such a toning-bath free silver nitrate might be eliminated, 
and if the print were immersed in a solution of a salt such as lead 
nitrate the toning action proceeded rapidly and without causing 
any fading of the image whilst toning, which was not the case 
when the free silver nitrate was totally removed and no other 
chlorine absorbent substituted. This was an important factor, 
and one which had been overlooked. In the third bath the free 
silver nitrate should only be partially removed by washing. The 
print, having been partially washed or thoroughly washed, as the 
case may be, is immersed in the toning-bath till the image attains 
a purple or bluish tone, after which it is ready for fixing. The 
solution used for this purpose is a 20% solution of hyposulphite 
of soda, to which it is best to add a dew drops of ammonia in order 
to render it alkaline. About ten minutes suffice to effect the 
conversion of the chloride into hyposulphite of silver, which is 
soluble in hyposulphite of soda and can be removed by washing. 
The organic salts of silver seem, however, to form a different salt, 
which is partially insoluble, but which the ammonia helps to remove. 
If it is not removed there is a sulphur compound left behind, 
according to J. Spiller, which by time and exposure becomes yellow. 

The use of potassium cyanide for fixing prints is to be avoided, 
as this reagent attacks the organic coloured oxide which, if removed, 
would render the print a ghost. The washing of silver prints should 
be very complete, since it is said that the least trace of hyposulphite 
left behind renders the fading of the image a mere matter of time. 
The stability of a print has been supposed to be increased by 
immersing it, after washing, in a solution of alum. The alum, 
like any acid body, decomposes the hyposulphite into sulphur and 
sulphurous acid. If this be the case, it seems probable that the 
destruction of the hyposulphite by time is not the occasion of fading, 
but that its hygroscopic character is. This, however, is a moot 
point. It is usual to wash the prints some hours in running 
water. We have found that half a dozen changes of water, and 
between successive changes the application of a sponge to the 
back of each print separately, are equally or more efficacious. 
On drying the print assumes a darker tone than it has after leaving 
the fixing bath. 

Different tones can thus be given to a print by different toning- 
baths; and the gold itself may be deposited in a ruddy form or in 
a blue form. The former molecular condition gives the red and 
sepia tones, and the latter the blue and black tones. The degree 
of minute subdivision of the gold may be conceived when it is 



TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



493 



stated that, on a couple of sheets of albuminized paper fully printed, 
the gold necessary to give a decided tone does not exceed half a 
grain. 

Collodio-chloride Silver Printing Process. In the history of the 
emulsion processes we stated that Gaudin attempted to use silver 
chloride suspended in collodion, but it was not till the year 1864 
that any practical use was made of the suggestion so far as silver 
printing is concerned. In the autumn of that year George Wharton 
Simpson worked out a method which has been more or less suc- 
cessfully employed. The formula appended is Simpson's : 

J Sijver nitrate 60 parts. 

I Distilled water 60 

Strontium chloride 64 

Alcohol 1000 . 

Citric acid 64 

Alcohol 1000 ,, 

To every 1000 parts of plain collodion 30 parts of No. I, previ- 
ously mixed with 60 parts of alcohol, are added ; 60 parts of No. 2 
are next mixed with the collodion, and finally 30 parts of No. 3. 
This forms an emulsion of silver chloride and also contains citric 
acid and silver nitrate. The defect of this emulsion is that it con- 
tains a large proportion of soluble salts, which are apt to crystallize 
out on drying, more particularly if it be applied to glass plates. 
The addition of the citric acid and the excess of silver nitrate is 
the key to the whole process; for, unless some body were present 
which on exposure to light was capable of forming a highly-coloured 
organic oxide of silver, no vigour would be obtained in printing. 
If pure chloride be used, though an apparently strong image would 
be obtained, yet on fixing only a feeble trace of it would be left, 
and the print would be worthless. The collodio-chloride emulsion 
may be applied to glass, or to paper, and the printing carried on in 
the usual manner. The toning takes place by means of the chloride 
of lime or by ammonium sulphocyamde and gold, which is practi- 
cally a return to the sel d'or bath. The organic salt formed in 
this procedure does not seem so prone to be decomposed by keeping 
as does that formed by albumen, and the washing can be more 
completely carried out. There are in the market several papers 
which are collodio-chloride. 

Gelatino-citro-chloride Emulsion. A modified emulsion printing 
process was introduced by Abney in 1881, which consisted in sus- 
pending silver chloride and silver citrate in gelatin, there being no 
excess of silver present. The formula of producing it is as follows : 

Sodium chloride 40 parts. 

Potassium citrate 40 

, Water 500 

Silver nitrate 150 ,, 

Water 500 

Gelatin 300 ,, 

Water 1700 

Nos. 2 and 3 are mixed together whilst warm, and No. I is then 
gently added, the gelatin solution being kept in brisk agitation. 
This produces the emulsion of citrate and chloride of silver. The 
gelatin containing the suspended salts is heated for five minutes at 
boiling point, when it is allowed to cool and subsequently slightly 
washed, as in the gelatino-bromide emulsion. It is then ready for 
application to paper or glass. The prints are of a beautiful colour, 
and seem to be fairly permanent. They may be readily toned by 
the borax or by the chloride of lime toning-bath, and are fixed with 
the hyposulphite solution of the strength before given. Most, if 
not all, of the gelatin papers now extant are made somewhat after 
this manner. 

Printing with Salts of Uranium. The sensitiveness of the salts 
of uranium to light seems to have been discovered by Niepce, and 
was subsequently applied to photography by J. E. Burnett in 
England. One of the original formulae consisted of 20 parts of 
uranic nitrate with 600 parts of water. Paper, which is better if 
slightly sized previously with gelatin, is floated on this solution. 
When dry it is exposed beneath a negative, and a very faint image 
is produced ; but it can be developed into a strong one by 6 to 10 % 
solution of silver nitrate to which a trace of acetic acid has been 
added, or by a 2% solution of gold chloride. In both these cases 
the silver and gold are deposited in the metallic state. Another 
developer is a 2% solution of potassium ferrocyanide to which a 
trace of nitric acid has been added, sufficient to give a red coloration. 
The development takes place most readily by letting the paper 
float on these solutions. 

Self-toning Papers. There are several self-toning papers based 
on the chloride emulsion process. These contain the necessary 
amount of gold to tone the print. The print is produced in the 
ordinary way and then immersed in salt and water or in some cases 
potassium sulphocyanide. The print is finished by immersing in 
weak hyposulphite of soda. 

Printing with Chromates: Carbon Prints. The first mention of 
the use of potassium bichromate for printing purposes seems to have 
been made by Mungo Ponton in May 1839, when he stated that 
paper, if saturated with this salt and dried, and then exposed to the 
sun's rays through a drawing, would produce a yellow picture 
on an orange ground, nothing more being required to fix it than 



washing it in water, when a white picture on an orange ground was 
obtained. In 1840 Edmond Becquerel announced that paper 
sized with iodide of starch and soakeu in potassium bichromate was, 
on drying, more sensitive than unsized paper. Joseph Dixon of 
Massachusetts, in the following year, produced copies of bank-notes 
by using gum arabic with potassium bichromate spread upon a 
lithographic stone, and, after exposure of the sensitive surface 
through a bank-note, by washing away the unaltered gum and 
inking the stone as in ordinary fithography. The same process, 
with slight modifications, has been used by Simonau and Toovey 
of Brussels, and produces excellent results. Dixon's method, 
however, was published in the Scientific American for 1854, and 
consequently, as regards priority, it ranks after Fox Talbot's photo- 
engraving process (see below), published in 1852. On the I3th 
of December 1855 Alphonse Poitevin took out a patent in England, 
in which he vaguely described a method of taking a direct carbon- 
print by rendering gelatin insoluble through the action of light on 
potassium bichromate. This idea was taken up by John Pouncey 
of Dorchester, who perhaps was the first to produce veritable 
carbon-prints, notwithstanding that Testud de Beauregard took 
out a somewhat similar patent to Poitevin's at the end of 1857. 

Pouncey published his process on the 1st of January 1859; but, 
as described by him, it was by no means in a perfect state, half- 
tones being wanting. The cause of this was first pointed out by 
Abb6 Laborde in 1858, whilst describing a kindred process in a 
note to the French Photographic Society. He says, "In the sensi- 
tive film, however thin it may be, two distinct surfaces must be 
recognized an outer, and an inner which is in contact with the 
paper. The action of light commences on the outer surface ; in the 
washing, therefore, the half-tones lose their hold on the paper and 
are washed away." J. C. Burnett in 1858 was the first to endeavour 
to get rid of this defect in carbon printing. In a paper to the 
Photographic Society of London he says, " There are two essential 
requisites ... (2) that in printing the paper should have its 
wnprepared side (and not its prepared side, as in ordinary printing) 
placed in contact with the negative in the pressure-frame, as it 
is only by printing in this way that we can expect to be able after- 
wards to remove by washing the unacted-upon portions of the 
mixture. In a positive of this sort printed from the front or pre- 
pared side the attainment of half-tones by washing away more or 
less depth of the mixture, according to the depth to which it has 
been hardened, is prevented by the insoluble parts being on the 
surface and in consequence protecting the soluble part from the 
action of the water used in washing; so that either nothing is 
removed, or by steeping very long till the inner soluble part is 
sufficiently softened the whole depth comes bodily away, leaving 
the paper white." This method of exposing through the back of 
the paper was crude and unsatisfactory, and in 1860 Fargier 
patented a process in which, after exposure to light of the gelatin 
film which contained pigment, the surface was coated with collodion, 
and the print placed in warm water, where it separated from tht 
paper support and could be transferred to glass. Poitevin success, 
fully opposed this patent, for he had used this means of detaching 
the films in his powder-carbon process, in which ferric chloride and 
tartaric acid were used. Fargier at any rate gave an impetus to 
carbon-printing, and J. W. Swan took up the matter, and in 1864 
secured a patent. One of the great features in Swan's innovations 
was the production of what is now known as " carbon-tissue," 
made by coating paper with a mixture of gelatin, sugar and 
colouring matter, and rendered sensitive to fight by means of 
potassium or ammonium bichromate. After exposure to light 
Swan placed the printed carbon-tissue on an india-rubber surface, 
to which it was made to adhere by pressure. The print was immersed 
in hot water, the paper backing stripped off, and the soluble gelatin 
containing colouring matter washed away. The picture could 
then be retransferred to its final support of paper. In 1869 J. R. 
Johnson of London took out a patent in which he claimed that 
carbon-tissue which had been soaked in water for a short period, 
by its tendency to swell further, would adhere to any waterproof 
surface such as glass, metal, waxed paper, &c., without any adhesive 
material being applied. This was a most important improvement. 
Johnson also applied soap to the gelatin to prevent its excessive 
brittleness on drying, and made its final support of gelatinized 
paper, rendered insoluble by chrome alum. In 1874 J- R- Sawyer 
patented a flexible support for developing on ; this was a sized paper 
coated with gelatin and treated with an ammoniacal solution of 
shellac in borax, on which wax or resin was rubbed. The advantage 
of this flexible support is that the dark parts of the picture have no 
tendency to contract from the lighter parts, which they were apt 
to do when a metal plate was used, as was the case in Johnson's 
original process. With this patent, and minor improvements 
made since, carbon-printing has arrived at its present state of 
perfection. 

According to P. E. Liesegang, the carbon-tissue when prepared 
on a large scale consists of from 120 to 150 grains of gelatin (a soft 
kind), 15 grains of soap, 21 grains of sugar and from 4 to 8 grains 
of dry colouring matter. The last-named may be of various kinds, 
from lamp-black pigment to soluble colours such as alizarin. The 
gelatin, sugar and soap are put in water and allowed to stand for 
an hour, and then melted, the liquid afterwards receiving the 



494 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[TECHNIQUE 



colours, which have been ground on a slab. The mixture is filtered 
through fine muslin. In making the tissue in large quantities the 
two ends of a piece of roll-paper are pasted together and the paper 
hung on two rollers; one of wood about 5 in. in diameter is fixed 
near the top of the room and the other over a trough containing 
the gelatin solution, the paper being brought into contact with 
the surface of the gelatin by being made to revolve on the rollers. 
The thickness of the coating is proportional to the rate at which 
the paper is drawn over the gelatin : the slower the movement, the 
thicker the coating. The paper is taken off the rollers, cut through, 
and hung up to dry on wooden laths. If it be required to make 
the tissue sensitive at once, 120 grains of potassium bichromate 
should be mixed with the ingredients in the above formula. ^The 
carbon-tissue when prepared should be floated on a_ sensitizing 
bath consisting of one part of potassium bichromate in 40 parts 
of water. This is effected by turning up about I in. from the 
end of the sheet of tissue (cut to the proper size), making a roll 
of it, and letting it unroll along the surface of the sensitizing solu- 
tion, where it is allowed to remain till the gelatin film feels soft. 
It js then taken off and hung up to dry in a dark room through 
which a current of dry warm air is passing. Tissue dried quickly, 
though not so sensitive, is more manageable to work than if more 
slowly dried. As the tissue is coloured, it is not possible to ascertain 
by inspection whether the printing operation is sufficiently carried 
out, and in order to ascertain this it is usual to place a piece of 
ordinary silvered paper in an actinometer, or photometer, alongside 
the carbon-tissue to ascertain the amount of light that has acted 
on it. There are several devices for ascertaining this amount, the 
simplest being an arrangement of a varying number of thicknesses 
of gold-beater's skin. The value of I, 2, 3, &c., thicknesses of the 
skin as a screen to the light is ascertained by experiment. Sup- 
posing it is judged that a sheet of tissue under some one negative 
ought to be exposed to light corresponding to a given number of 
thicknesses, chloride of silver paper is placed alongside the negative 
beneath the actinometer and allowed to remain there until it takes 
a visible tint beneath a number of thicknesses equivalent to the 
strength of the negative. After the tissue is removed from the 
printing-frame supposing a double transfer is to be made it is 
placed in a dish of cold water, face downwards, along with a piece 
of Sawyer's flexible support. When the edges of the tissue begin 
to curl up, its surface and that of the flexible support are brought 
together and placed flat. The water is pressed out with an india- 
rubber squeezer or " squeegee " and the two surfaces adhere. About 
a couple of minutes later they are placed in warm water of about 
90 to 100 F., and the paper of the tissue, loosened by the gelatin 
solution next it becoming soluble, can be stripped off, leaving the 
image (reversed as regards right and left) on the flexible support. 
An application of warm water removes the rest of the soluble 
gelatin and pigment. When dried the image is transferred to its 
permanent support. This usually consists of white paper coated 
with gelatin and made insoluble with chrome alum, though it may 
be mixed with barium sulphate or other similar pigments. This 
transfer- paper is made to receive the image by being soaked in hot 
water till it becomes slimy to the touch; and the surface of the 
damped print is brought into contact with the surface of the re- 
transfer-paper, in the same manner as was done with the flexible 
support and the carbon-tissue. When dry the retransfer- paper 
bearing the gelatin image can be stripped off the flexible support, 
which may be used again as a temporary support for other pictures. 
If a reversed negative be used the image may be transferred at once 
to its final support instead of to the temporary flexible support, 
which is a point of practical value, since single-transfer are better 
than double-transfer prints. 

Printing with Salts of Iron. Sir John Herschel and Robert Hunt 
entered into various methods of printing with salts of iron. At 
the present time two or three are practised, being used in draughts- 
men's offices for copying tracings (see SUN-COPYING), 

Photo-mechanical Printing Processes. Poitevin claimed to have 
discovered that a film of gelatin impregnated with potassium 
bichromate, after being acted upon by light and damping, would 
receive greasy ink on those parts which had been affected by light. 
But Paul Oreloth seems to have made the discovery previous to 
1854, for in his patent of that year he states that his designs were 
inked with printing ink before being transferred to stone or zinc. 
C. M.TessiedeMotay (in 1865) and C. R. Marechal of Metz, however, 
seem to have been the first to produce half-tones from gelatin films 
by means of greasy ink. Their general procedure consisted in 
coating metallic plates with gelatin impregnated with potassium 
or ammonium bichromate or tri-chromate and mercuric chloride, 
then treating with silver oleate, exposing to light through a negative, 
washing, inking with a lithographic roller, and printing from the 
plates as for an ordinary lithograph. The half-tints by this process 
were very good, and illustrations executed by it are to be found 
in several existing works. The method of producing the plates, 
however, was most laborious, and it was simplified by A. Albert 
of Munich. He had been experimenting for many years, endeavour- 
ing to make the gelatin films more durable than those of Tessie de 
Motay. He added gum-resins, alum, tannin and other such 
matters, which had the property of hardening gelatin; but the 
difficulty of adding sufficient to the mass in its liquid state before 



the whole became coagulated rendered these unmanageable. It 
at last occurred to him that if the hardening action of light were 
utilized by exposing the surface next the plate to light after or 
before exposing the front surface to the film and the image, the 
necessary hardness might be given to the gelatin without adding 
any chemical hardeners to it. In Tessie de Motay 's process the 
hardening was almost absent, and the plates were consequently not 
durable. It is evident that to effect this one of two things had to 
be done: either the metallic plate used by Tessie de Motay must 
be abandoned, or else the film must be stripped off the plate and 
exposed in that manner. Albert adopted the transparent plate, 
and his success was assured, since instead of less than a hundred 
impressions being pulled from one plate he was able to take over a 
thousand. This occurred about 1867, but the formula was not 
published for two or three years afterwards, when it was divulged 
by Ohm and Grossman, one of whom had been employed by Albert 
of Munich, and had endeavoured to introduce a process which 
resembled Albert's earlier efforts. The name of " Lichtdruck " was 
given about this time to these surface-printing processes, and Albert 
may be considered, if not the inventor, at all events the perfecter of 
the method. Another modification of " Lichtdruck " was patented 
in England by Ernest Edwards under the name of " heliotype." 

Woodbury Type. This process was invented by W. Woodbury 
about the year 1864, though we believe that J. W. Swan had been 
working independently in the same direction about the same time. 
In October 1864 a description of the invention was given in the 
Photographic News. Marc Antoine A. Gaudin claimed the principle 
of the process, insisting that it was old, and basing his pretensions 
on the fact that he had printed with translucent ink from intaglio 
blocks engraved by hand; but at the same time he remarked that 
the application of the principle might lead to important results. 
It was just these results which Woodbury obtained, and for which 
he was entitled to the fullest credit. Woodbury subsequently 
introduced certain modifications, the outcome being what is known 
as the " stannotype process," of which in 1880 he read a description 
before the French Photographic Society (see PROCESS). 

Photo-lithography. Reference has been made to the effect of 
light on gelatin impregnated with potassium bichromate, whereby 
the gelatin becomes insoluble, and also incapable of absorbing water 
where the action of the light has had full play. It is this last 
phenomenon which occupies such an important place in photo- 
lithography. In the spring of 1859 E. J. Asser of Amsterdam 
produced photographs on a paper basis in printer's ink. Being 
anxious to produce copies of such prints mechanically, he conceived 
the idea of transferring the greasy ink impression to stone, and 
multiplying the impressions by mechanical lithography. Following 
very closely upon Asser, J. W. Osborne of Melbourne made a 
similar application; his process is described by himself in the 
Photographic Journal for April 1860 as follows: "A negative is 
produced in the usual way, bearing to the original the desired ratio. 
... A positive is printed from this negative upon a sheet of 
(gelatinized) paper, so prepared that the image can be transferred to 
stone, it having been previously covered with greasy printer's ink. 
The impression is developed by washing away the soluble matter 
with hot water, which leaves the ink on the lines of print of the 
map or engraving." The process of transferring is accomplished in 
the ordinary way. Early in 1860 Colonel Sir H. Tames, R.E., 
F.R.S., brought forward the Southampton method of photo-litho- 
graphy, which had been carefully worked out by Captain de Courcy 
Scott, R.E. The " papyrotype process " was published by Abney 
in 1870 (see LITHOGRAPHY and PROCESS). 

Photographs in Natural Colours. 

The first notice on record of coloured light impressing its 
own colours on a sensitive surface is in the passage already 
quoted from the Farbenlehre of Goethe, where T. J. Seebeck 
of Jena (1810) describes the impression he obtained on paper 
impregnated with moist silver chloride. In 1839 Sir J. Herschel 
(Athenaeum, No. 621) gave a somewhat similar description. 
In 1848 Edmond Becquerel succeeded in reproducing upon a 
daguerreotype plate not only the colours of the spectrum 
but also, up to a certain point, the colours of drawings 
and objects. His method of proceeding was to give the 
silver plate a thin coating of silver chloride by immersing it in 
ferric or cupric chlorides. It may also be immersed in chlorine 
water till it takes a feeble rose tint. Becquerel preferred to 
chlorinize the plate by immersion in a solution of hydrochloric 
acid in water, attaching it to the positive pole of a voltaic couple, 
whilst the other pole he attached to a platinum plate also 
immersed in the acid solution. After a minute's subjection to 
the current the plate took successively a grey, a yellow, a violet 
and a blue tint, which order was again repeated. When the 
violet tint appeared for the second time the plate was withdrawn 
and washed and dried over a spirit-lamp. In this state it 



TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



495 



produced the spectrum colours, but it was found better to heat 
the plate till it assumed a rose tint. At a later date Niepce de St 
Victor chlorinized by chloride of lime, and made the surface more 
sensitive by applying a solution of lead chloride in dextrin. 
G. W. Simpson also obtained coloured images on silver chloride 
emulsion in collodion, but they were less vivid and satisfactory 
than those obtained on daguerreotype plates. Poitevin obtained 
coloured images on ordinary silver chloride paper by preparing 
it in the usual manner and washing it and exposing it to light. 
It was afterwards treated with a solution of potassium bichromate 
and cupric sulphate, and dried in darkness. Sheets so prepared 
gave coloured images from coloured pictures, which he stated 
could be fixed by sulphuric acid (Comptes rendus, 1868, 61, p. n). 
In the Bulletin de la Societi Fran$aise (1874) Colonel St Florent 
described experiments which he made with the same object. He 
immersed ordinary or albuminized paper in silver nitrate and 
afterwards plunged it into a solution of uranium nitrate and zinc 
chloride acidulated with hydrochloric acid; it was then exposed 
to light till it took a violet, blue or lavender tint. Before 
exposure the paper was floated on a solution of mercuric nitrate, 
its surface dried, and exposed to a coloured image. 

It is supposed though it is very doubtful if it be so that the 
nature of the chloride used to obtain the silver chloride has a 
great effect on the colours impressed; and Niepce in 1857 made 
some observations on the relationship which seemed to exist 
between the coloured flames produced by the metal and the colour 
impressed on a plate prepared with a chloride of such a metal. 
In i8&o Abney showed that the production of colour really 
resulted from the oxidation of the chloride that was coloured by 
light. Plates immersed in a solution of hydrogen peroxide took 
the colours of the spectrum much more rapidly than when not 
immersed, and the size of the molecules seemed to regulate the 
colour. He further stated that the whole of the spectrum colours 
might be derived from a mixture of two or at most three sizes of 
molecules. 

In 1841, Robert Hunt published some results of colour-photography 
by means of silver fluoride. A paper was washed with silver nitrate 
and with sodium fluoride, and afterwards exposed to the spectrum. 
The action of the spectrum commenced at the centre of the yellow 
ray and rapidly proceeded upwards, arriving at its maximum in the 
blue ray. As far as the indigo the action was uniform, whilst in 
the violet the paper took a brown tint. When it was previously 
exposed, however, a yellow space was occupied where the yellow 
rays had acted, a green band where the green had acted, whilst in 
the blue and indigo it took an intense blue, and over the violet 
there was a ruddy brown. In reference to these coloured images 
on paper it must not be forgotten that pure salts of silver are not 
being dealt with as a rule. An organic salt of silver is usually mixed 
with silver chloride paper, the organic salt being due to the sizing of 
the paper, which towards the red end of the spectrum is usually 
more sensitive than the chloride. If a piece of ordinary silver 
chloride paper is exposed to the spectrum till an impression is 
made, it will usually be found that the blue colour of the darkened 
chloride is mixed with that due to the coloration of the darkened 
organic compound of silver in the violet region, whereas in the blue 
and green this organic compound is alone affected, and is of a differ- 
ent colour from that of the darkened mixed chloride and organic 
compound. This naturally gives an impression that the different 
rays yield different tints, whereas this result is simply owing to 
the different range of sensitiveness of the bodies. In the case of 
the silver chlorinized plate and of true collodio-chloride, in which no 
organic salt has been dissolved, we have a true coloration by the 
spectrum. At present there is no means of permanently fixing the 
coloured images which have been obtained, the effect of light being 
to destroy them. If protected from oxygen they last longer than 
if they have free access to it, as is the case when the surface is 
exposed to the air. 

A method devised by Gabrielle Lippmann, of Paris, by which the 
natural colours of objects are reproduced by means of interference, 
may be briefly described as follows: A sensitive plate is placed 
in contact with a film of mercury, and the exposure to the spectrum, 
or to the image of coloured objects to be photographed, is made 
through the back of the plate. On development, the image appears 
coloured when viewed at one particular angle, the colours being 
approximately those of the object. The necessary exposure to 
produce this result was very prolonged in the first experiments 
in which the spectrum was photographed, and a longer exposure 
had to be given to the red than was required for the blue. Lippmann 
at first employed collodion dry plates, prepared, it is believed, with 
albumen, and it required considerable manipulation to bring out 
the colours correctly. A. Lumiere used gelatin plates dyed with 



appropriate dyes (orthochromatic plates); the exposure was much 
diminished, and very excellent representations were produced 
of all natural colours. The main point to aim at in the preparation 
of the plate seems to be to obtain a very sensitive film without any, 
or, at all events, with the least possible, " grain " in the sensitive 
salt. A formula published by Lumiere seems to attain this object. 
Viewed directly, the developed images appear like ordinary nega- 
tives, but when held at an angle to the light the colours are vivid. 
They are not pure monochromatic colours, but have very much 
the quality of colours obtained by polarized light. It appears 
that they are produced by what may be termed " nodes " of different- 
coloured lights acting within the film. Thus in photographing 
the spectrum, rays penetrate to the reflecting mercury and are 
reflected back from it, and these, with the incident waves of light, 
form nodes where no motion exists, in a somewhat similar way to 
those obtained in a cord stretched between two points when plucked. 
In the negative these nodal points are found in the thickness of the 
silver deposit. When white light is sent through the film after 
the image has been developed, theoretically only rays of the wave- 
lengths which formed these nodes are reflected to the eye, and thus 
we get an impression of colour. 

Action of Light on Chemical Compounds. 
Reference has been made above to early investigations on 
the chemical action of light. In 1777 Karl Wilhelm Scheele 
(Hunt's Researches in Light) made the following experiments 
on silver salts: 

" I precipitated a solution of silver by sal-ammoniac; then I 
edulcorated it and dried the precipitate and exposed it to the 
beams of the sun for two weeks; after which I stirred the powder, 
and repeated the same several times. Hereupon I poured some 
caustic spirit of sal-ammoniac (strong ammonia) on this, in all 
appearance, black powder, and set it by for digestion. This men- 
struum dissolved a quantity of luna cornua (horn silver), though 
some black powder remained undissolved. The powder having 
been washed was, for the greater part, dissolved by a pure acid of 
nitre (nitric acid), which, by the operation, acquired volatility. 
This solution I precipitated again by means of sal-ammoniac 
into horn silver. Hence it follows that the blackness which the 
luna cornua acquires from the sun's light, and likewise the solution 
of silver poured on chalk, is silver by reduction. ... I mixed so 
much of distilled water with well-edulcorated horn silver as would 
just cover this powder. The half of this mixture I poured into a 
white crystal phial, exposed it to the beams of the sun, and shook 
it several times each day ; the other half I set in a dark place. After 
having exposed the one mixture during the space of two weeks, I 
filtrated the water standing over the horn silver, grown already 
black ; I let some of this water fall by drops in a solution of silver, 
which was immediately precipitated into horn silver." 

This, as far as we know, is the first intimation of the reducing 
action of light. From this it is evident that Scheele had found 
that the silver chloride was decomposed by the action of light 
liberating some form of chlorine. Others have repeated these 
experiments and found that chlorine is really liberated from the 
chloride; but it is necessary that some body should be present 
which would absorb the chlorine, or, at all events, that the 
chlorine should be free to escape. A tube of dried silver chloride, 
sealed up in vacua, will not discolour in the light, but keeps its 
ordinary white colour. A pretty experiment is to seal up in 
vacua, at one end of a bent tube, perfectly dry chloride, and at 
the other a drop of mercury. The mercury vapour volatilizes 
to a certain extent and fills the tube. When exposed to light 
chlorine is liberated from the chloride, and calomel forms on 
the sides of the tube. In this case the chloride darkens. Again, 
dried chloride sealed up in dry hydrogen discolours, owing to the 
combination of the chlorine with the hydrogen. Poitevin and 
H. W. Vogel first enunciated the law that for the reduction by 
light of the haloid salts of silver halogen absorbents were necessary, 
and it was by following out this law that the present rapidity in 
obtaining camera images has been rendered possible. To put 
it briefly, then, the visible action of light is a reducing action, 
which is aided by or entirely due to the fact that other bodies are 
present which will absorb the halogens. 

In the above we have alluded to the visible results on silver 
salts. It by no means follows that the exposure of a silver salt 
to light for such a brief period as to leave no visible effect must 
be due to the same effect, that is, that any of the molecules are 
absolutely reduced or split up by the light. That this or some 
other action takes place is shown by the fact that the silver 
salt is capable of alkaline development, that is, the particles 



49 6 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[TECHNIQUE 



which have suffered a change in their molecules can be reduced 
to metallic silver, whilst those which have not been acted upon 
remain unaltered by the same chemical agency. Two theories 
have been offered to explain the invisible change which takes 
place in the salts of silver. One is based on the supposition that 
the molecules of the salt can rearrange their atoms under the 
vibrations caused by the ether waves placing them in more 
unstable positions than they were in before the impact of light 
took place. This, it is presumed, would allow the developer to 
separate the atoms of such shaken molecules when it came in 
contact with them. The other theory is that, as in the case of the 
visible effects of light, some of the molecules are at once reduced 
and that the developer finishes the disintegration which the light 
has begun. In the case of the alkaline development the unaltered 
molecules next those primarily reduced combine with the reduced 
silver atom and again form an unstable compound and are in 
their turn reduced. 

The first theory would require some such action as that just 
mentioned to take place and cause the invisible image formed by 
the shaking apart of the light-stricken molecules to become visible. 
It is hard to see why other unacted upon molecules close to those 
which were made unstable and which have been shaken apart 
by the developer should themselves be placed in unstable equilibrium 
and amenable to reduction. In the second theory, called the 
" chemical theory," the reduction is perfectly easy to understand. 
Abney adopts the chemical theory as the balance of unsubstantiated 
evidence is in its favour. There is another action which seems to 
occur almost simultaneously when exposure takes place in the 
absence of an active halogen absorbent, as is the case when the ex- 
posure is given in the air, that is, an oxidizing action occurs. The 
molecules of the altered haloid salts take up oxygen and form oxides. 
If a sensitive salt be briefly exposed to light and then treated with 
an oxidizing substance, such as potassium bichromate, potassium 
permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, an image is not developed, 
but remains unaltered, showing that a change has been effected 
in the compound which under ordinary circumstances is developable. 
If such an oxidized salt be treated very cautiously with nascent 
hydrogen, the oxygen is withdrawn and the image is again capable 
of development. 1 

Spectrum Effects on Silver Compounds. The next inquiry is 
as to the effect of the spectrum on the different silver compounds. 
We have already described Seebeck's (1810) experiments on 
silver chloride with the spectrum whereby he obtained coloured 
photographs, but Scheele in 1777 allowed a spectrum to fall on 
the same material, and found that it blackened much more 
readily in the violet rays than in any other. Senebier's experi- 
ments have been already quoted. We merely mention these 

HAG F E DCBA 




Agl+AgNOs on paper P. 



AgCl+AgNOs on paper P. 



Agl+AgNOa in albumen 



D. 

(l.e.) 



Agl prepared in bath, treated with KI, 
washed, redipped in silver bath, de- 
veloped with pyrogallic acid. 

Grey AgBr in gelatin, developed alka- D. 
line or ferrous ozalate (I.e.) 



Orange AgBr in collodion or gelatin, 
alkaline ferrous oxalate or acid de- 
veloper. 



Green AgBr in collodion, developed 
ferrous oxalate ... . . 

AgCl in collodion, excess of AgNOs or 
Nad present, ferrous citrate or acid 
development. 

Agl+AgBr, washed from AgNOa 



FIG. i. Spectrum Effects on Salts of Silver. 
[P. = print; D. = developed; I.e. = long exposure]. 

two for their historical interest, and pass on to the study of the 
action of the spectrum on different compounds by Sir J. Herschel 
(Phil. Trans., 1840). He describes many experiments, which 
1 See Abney, " Destruction of the Photographic Image," Phil. 
Mag. (1878), vol. v.; also Proc. Roy. Soc. (1878), vol. xxvii. 



have become the foundation of nearly all subsequent researches 
of the same kind. The effects of the spectrum have been studied 
by various experimenters since that time, amongst whom we 
may mention Edmond Becquerel, John William Draper, Alphonse 
Louis Poitevin, H. W. Vogel, Victor Schumann and W. de W. 
Abney. Fig. i is compiled from a cut which appeared in the 
Proc. Roy. Soc. for 1882, and shows the researches made by 
Abney as regards the action of the spectrum on the three 
principal haloid salts of silver. No. 7 shows the effect of the 
spectrum on a peculiar modification of silver bromide made by 
Abney, which is seen to be sensitive to the infra-red rays. 

Effect of -JDyes on Sensitive Films. In 1874 Dr H. W. Vogel 
of Berlin found that when films were stained with certain dyes 
and exposed to the spectrum an increased action on develop- 
ment was shown in those parts of the spectrum which the dye 
absorbed. The dyes which produced this action he called 
" optical sensitizers," whilst preservatives which absorbed the 
halogen liberated by light he called " chemical sensitizers." A 
dye might, according to him, be an optical and a chemical sensi- 
tizer. He further claimed that, if a film were prepared in which 
the haloid soluble salt was in excess and then dyed, no action 
took place unless some " chemical sensitizer " were present. 
The term " optical sensitizer " seems a misnomer, since it is 
meant to imply that it renders the salts of silver sensitive to 
those regions of the spectrum to which they were previously 
insensitive, merely by the addition of the dye. The idea of the 
action of dyes was at first combated, but it was soon recognized 
that such an action did really exist. Abney showed in 1875 
that certain dyes combined with silver and formed true coloured 
organic salts of silver which were sensitive to light; and Dr 
Robert Amory went so far as to take a spectrum on a combination 
of silver with eosin, which was one of the dyes experimented 
upon by J. Waterhouse, who had closely followed Dr Vogel, and 
proved that the spectrum acted simply on those parts which 
were absorbed by the compound. Abney further demonstrated 
that, in many cases at all events, the dyes were themselves 
reduced by light, thus acting as nuclei on which the silver could 
be deposited. He further showed that even when the haloid 
soluble salt was in excess the same character of spectrum was 
produced as when the silver nitrate was in excess, though the 
exposure had to be prolonged. This action he concluded was 
due to the dye. 

Correct Rendering of Colours in Monochrome. In Plate II., fig. 
14 the sensitiveness of a plate stained with homocol 
is shown, and it is evident that as it is sensitive 
throughout the visible spectrum there must be some 
means of cutting off by a transparent screen so 
much of the spectrum luminosity at different parts 
that every colour having the same luminosity to the 
eye shall be shown on a negative of equal density. 
When this is done the relative luminosities of all 
colours will be shown by the same relative densities 
or in a print by different depths of greys. Abney 
devised a sensitometer which should be used to 
ascertain the colour of the screen that should be 
employed. By proper means the luminosity of 
the light of day coming through a red, a green, a 
blue and an orange glass can be very accurately 
measured; if |-in. squares of these coloured glasses, 
together with a white glass of the same area, be 
placed in a row and cemented on white glass, we 
have a colour-screen which we can make available 
for finding the kind of light-filter to be employed. 
This is readily done by reducing the luminosity of 
U.e.) the light coming through all the glasses to that of 
the luminosity of the light coming through the blue 
glass. If the luminosity of the blue be 5 and that of 
the white light 100, then the luminosity of the former must be re- 
duced to-jVof its original value, and so with the other glasses. 
The luminosity of the light coming through each small glass square 
can be made equal by rotating in front of them a disk in which 
apertures are cut corresponding to the reduction required. The 



P. 



D. 



D. 
(I.e.) 

D. 



P. 






PHOTOGRAPHY 



PLATE in. 




8 

4J 

a 



d 



U 



ffi -3 

J3 

s ? 

en . 



< '3 




XXI. 496 



PLATE IV. 



PHOTOGRAPHY 




5 ' ' 16 ' ' 15 ' ' 20 ' ' 26 ' 

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM TAKEN WITH THE ELECTRIC ARC. 



10 15 

FLUORESCENT SPECTRUM OF EOSIN. 




5 ' ' 10 ' ' 15 ' 20 ' 25 ' 30 ' 35 

SPECTRUM OF VOLATILIZED LITHIUM AND SODIUM. 




15 20 2 

ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF EOSIN. 




35 




GRADUATION SCALE ON HOMOCOL STAINED "SEED" PLATE. 




GRADUATION SCALE ON UNSTAINED PLATE. 



10 ' ' 15 ' ' 20 ' ' 25 ' '30 ' ' 35 ' ' 40 ' ' 48 ' ' ' 50 

IMPRESSED CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM. 




I 



10 



15 ' 20 25 ' ' 30 ' 35 ' '40 

SPECTRUM OF BRIGHT LINES OF METALS. 



45 50 



55 




TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



497 



blue glass, for instance, would not be covered by the disk at all, 
while opposite the white square the disk would have an aperture 
of an angle of 18. When a plate is exposed behind the row of 
glass squares, with the light passing through the rotating disk, 
having the appropriate apertures for each glass, the negative 
obtained would under ordinary conditions, show square patches 
of very different opacity. A light-filter of some transparent 
colour, if placed in the path of the light, will alter the opacities, 
and eventually one can be found which will only allow such 
coloured light to be transmitted as will cause all the opacities 
in the negative to be the same. As the luminosities of the white 
light passing through the glasses are made equal, and as the 
photographic deposits are also rendered equal, this light-filter, 
if used in front of the camera lens, will render all coloured objects 
in correct monochrome luminosity. Another plan, based on the 
same principles, is to place segments of annuluses of vermilion, 
chrome yellow, emerald green, French blue and white on a disk, 
and to complete the annuluses with black segments, the amount 
of black depending on the luminosity of the pigments, which can 
be readily measured. When the disk is rotated, rings of colour, 
modified in brightness by black, are seen, and each ring will be 
of the same luminosity. As before, a screen (light-filter) to be 
used in front of the lens must be found which will cause the 
developed images of all the rings to appear of equal opacity. 
It must be remembered that the light hi which the object is 
to be photographed must be the same as that in which the 
luminosity of the glasses or pigments is measured. 

Action of the Spectrum on Chromic Salts. The salts most 
usually employed in photography are the bichromates of the 
alkalis. The result of spectrum action is confined to its own most 
refrangible end, commencing in the ultra-violet and reaching as 
far as in the solar spectrum. Fig. 2 shows the relative action of 



No. I 



No. 2 

FIG. 2. The top letters have reference to the Fraunhofer lines; 
the bottom letters are the initials of the colours. The relative 
sensitiveness is shown by the height of the curve above the base-line, 
the various parts of the spectrum on potassium bichromate. If 
other bichromates are employed, the action will be found to be 
tolerably well represented by the figures. No. i is the effect of a 
long exposure, No. 2 of a shorter one. It should be noticed that 
the solution of potassium bichromate absorbs those rays alone 
which are effective in altering the bichromate. This change is 
only possible in the presence of organic matter of some kind, such 
as gelatin or albumen. 

Action of the Spectrum on Asphaltum. This seems to be 
continued into and below the red, the blue rays, however, are 
the most effective. The action of light on this body is to render 
it less soluble in its usual solvents. 

Action of the Spectrum on Salts of Iron. The commonest 
ferric salt in use is the oxalate, by which the beautiful platinotype 
prints are produced. We give this as a representation (fig. 3) of 



1 




- 


C 


I 1 


- 1 
^ 


: c 


c 


B: 


t 














VI B O Y OR 



h 


1 

, 


C 
" 


) 1 




t 


)( 


B , 


i 






















VI B G Y O R 



FIG. 3. Same description as for fig. 2. 

the spectra obtained on ferric salts in general. Here, again, we 
have an example of the law that exists as to the correlation 
between absorption and chemical action. One of the most 
remarkable compounds of iron is that experimented upon by Sir 
J. Herschel and later by Lord Rayleigh, viz. ferrocyanide of 



potassium and ferric chloride. If these two be brushed over 
paper, and the paper be then exposed to a bright solar spectrum, 
action is exhibited into the infra-red region. This is one of the 
few instances in which these light-waves of low refrangibility 
are capable of producing any effect. The colour of this solution 
is a muddy green, and analysis shows that it cuts off these rays as 
well as generally absorbs those of higher refrangibility. 

Action oj Light on Uranium. The salts of uranium are affected 
by light in the presence of organic matter, and they too are only 
acted upon by those rays which they absorb. Thus nitrate of 
uranium, which shows, too, absorption-bands in the green blue, 
is affected more where these occur than in any other portion of 
the spectrum. 

Some salts of mercury, gold, copper, lead, manganese, molyb- 
denum, platinum, vanadium, are affected by light, but in a less 
degree than those which we have discussed. In the organic 
world there are very few substances which do not change by the 
continuous action of light, and it will be found that as a rule they 
are affected by the blue end of the spectrum rather than by the 
red end (see PHOTOCHEMISTRY). 

The following table gives the names of the observers of the 
action of light on different substances, with the date of publica- 
tion of the several observations. It is nearly identical with 
one given by Dr Eder in his Geschichte der Photo-Chemie. 



Substance. 


Observer. 


Date. 


Silver. 
Nitrate solution mixed with 
chalk, gives in sunshine copies 
of writing 
Nitrate solution on paper 
Nitrate photographically used 


J. H. Schulze . . 

Hellot .... 
Wedgwood and 
Davy. 
Fulhame . 


1727 

1737 
1802 

1797 


Nitrate with white of egg. 
Nitrate with lead salts 
Chloride 


Rumford . 
B. Fischer 
Herschel . 
J. B. Beccarius 


1798 
1812 

1839 

1757 


Chloride in the spectrum . 
Chloride photographically used . 
Chloride blackened .... 
Iodide 


Scheele. . . . 
Wedgwood 
Lassaigne . 
Davy .... 


1777 
1802 

1839 
1814 


Iodide by action of iodine (on 
metallic silver). 
Iodide photographically used 
Iodide with gallic acid 
Iodide with ferrous sulphate . 
Chloride and iodide by chlorine 
and iodine (on metallic silver). 
Bromide 
Bromide by action of bromine (on 
metallic silver). 
Sulpho-cyanide 
Nitrite 


Daguerre . 

Herschel . 
Talbot .... 
Hunt . . . . 
Claudet . . . 

Balard . . . 
Goddard . 

Grotthus . 
Hess . . . . 


1839 

1840 
1841 
1844 
1840 

1826 
1840 

1818 
1828 


Oxide with ammonia .... 


Mitscherlich . 
Bergman n . 


1827 
1779 




Vauquelin . 


1798 


Carbonate 


Buchholz . 


1800 




Bergmann . 


1779 


Benzoate 
Citrate 


Trommsdorf . 
Vauquelin 


1793 
1798 




Henry and Plisson 


1829 




Rose 


1830 




Stromeyer 


1830 




Pelouze and Gay- 


1833 




Lussac. 
Hunt . 


1844 




Hunt . . . 


1844 


Sulphide by vapour of sulphur 
(on metallic silver). 
Phosphide by vapour of phos- 
phorus (on metallic silver). 
Gold. 
Oxide 


Niepce. 
Niepce . 

Scheele. 


1820 
1820 

1777 


Chloride on paper 


Hellot . . . 


!737 


Chloride on silk . PW . 


Fulhame . 


1794 


Chloride in ethereal solution . . 
Chloride with ferrocyanide and 
ferricyanide of potassium. 
Chloride and oxalic acid . 


Rumford . 
Hunt . . . 

Dobereiner 
Hunt . . . 


1793 
1844 

1831 

1844 


Plate of gold and iodine vapour 


Goddard . . 


1842 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[TECHNIQUE 



Substance. 


Observer. 


Date. 


Platinum. 








Gehlen 


1804 


Chloride with lime . 


Herschel . 


1840 


Iodide 


Herschel . 


1840 










Hunt . 


1844 


Double chloride of platinum and 


Dobereiner 


1828 


potassium. 






Mercury. 






Oxide (mercurous) .... 


Gay-Lussac and 


1811 




Th6nard. 




Oxide 


Davy . . . . 


1812 


Oxide (mercuric) 


Davy .... 


1797 


Oxide (more accurate observa- ( 


Abildgaard 


1797 




Harup not till . 


1801 


Chloride (mercurous) . . . 


K. Neumann pre- 


1739 




viously to 




Chloride (mercuric) . . . 


Boullay 


1803 


Chloride with oxalic acid . 


Bergmann . 


1776 




Meyer . . . . 


1764 


Oxalate (mercuric) . . . . 


Bergmann . 


1776 


Oxalate (mercurous) . . . 


Harff . . . . 


1836 


Sulphate and ammonia (mer- 


Fourcroy . 


1791 


curous). 






Acetate (mercurous) .... 


Garot 


1826 


Bromide (mercuric) . 
Iodide (mercurous) . . . | 


Lowig 
Torosewicz 
Artus . . . 


1828 
1836 
1836 


Iodide (mercuric) 


Field . . . 


1836 


Citrate (mercuric) .... 


Harff . . . 


1836 


Tartrate and potassium (mer- 


Carbonell and 


1831 


curous). 


Bravo 




Carbonate (mercuric). 


Davy .... 


1812 


Nitrate 


Herschel 


1840 


Sulphide (mercuric) .... 


Vitruvius . ' . . 


I B.C. 


Iron. 






Sulphate (ferrous) 


Chastaing . 


1877 


Chloride (ferric) and alcohol 


Bestuscheff 


1725 


Chloride and ether .... 


Klaproth . 


1782 


Oxalate (ferric) 


Dobereiner 


1831 


Ferrocyanide of potassium . 


Heinrich . 


I808 


Sulphocyanide 


Grotthus . 


1818 


Prussian blue 


Scopoli 


1783 


Ferric citrate with ammonium . . 


Herschel 


1840 


Ferric tartrate 


Herschel . . . 


1840 


Chromate 


Hunt .... 


1844 


Copper. 






Chloride (cupric dissolved in 


Gehlen 


1804 


ether). 






Oxalate with sodium .... 


A. Vogel . . . 


1813 


Chromate > 






Chromate with ammonium . 






Carbonate 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


Iodide 






Sulphate 






Chloride (cuprous) .... 


A. Vogel . . . 


1859 


Copper plates (iodized) 


Kratoch . . . 
Talbot .... 


1841 
1841 


Manganese. 






Sulphate 


Brandenburg 


1815 


Oxalate 


Suckow 


1832 


Potassium permanganate 
Peroxide and cyanide of potas- 


Frommberg 
Hunt . . . . 


1824 
1844 


sium 






Chloride 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


Lead. 






Oxide 


Davy .... 


1802 


Iodide ) 
Sulphite 5 


Schonbein . 


1850 


Peroxide 


Gay-Lussac 


lltl 


Red lead and cyanide of potas- 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


sium 






Acetate ...:... 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


Nickel. 






Nitrate ~| 






Nitrate with ferro-prussiates . r 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


Iodide J 






Tin. 






Purple of cassius 


Uncertain . 




Various Substances. 






Cobalt salts 


Hunt . 


I S l l 


Arsenic sulphide (realgar) 
Antimony sulphide .... 


Sage .... 
Suckow 


1803 
1832 



Substance. 


Observer. 


Date. 


Bismuth salts 1 






Cadmium salts t 


Hunt . . . . 


1844 


Rhodium salts J 






Vanadic salts ..._... 


Roscoe 


1874 


Iridium ammonium chloride . 


Dobereiner 


1831 


Potassium bichromate 


Mungo Ponton 


1838 


Potassium with iodide of starch 


Becquerel . 


1840 


Metallic chromates . 


Hunt . . . . 


1843 


Chlorine and hydrogen . 


Gay-Lussac and 


1809 




Thenard. 




Chlorine (tithonized) .... 


Draper 


1842 


Chlorine and ether .... 


Cahours 


1810 


Chlorine in water 


Berthollet . . . 


1785 


Chlorine and ethylene 


Gay-Lussac and 


1809 




Thenard 




Chlorine and carbon-monoxide 


Davy . . . . 


1812 


Chlorine and marsh gas . . . . 


Henry . 


1821 


Chlorine and hydrocyanic acid . 


Serullas 


1827 


Bromide and hydrogen . 


Balard .... 


1832 


Iodine and ethylene .... 


Faraday 


1821 


Cyanogen, solution of ... 


Pelouze and 


1837 




Richardson. 




Various other methyl compounds 
Hydrocyanic acid 
Hypochlorites (calcium and po- 


Cahours 
Torosewicz 
Dobereiner 


1846 
1836 
1813 


tassium) 






Uranium chloride and ether . 


Gehlen 


1804 


Molybdenate of potassium and 


Jager . . . . 


1800 


tin salts. 






Crystallization of salts under J 
influence of light. 


Petit . . . . 
Chaptal . . . 
Dize . . . . 


1722 
1788 
1789 


Phosphorus (in hydrogen, nitro- 


Bockmann. 


1800 


gen, &c.) 






Phosphuretted hydrogen 


A. Vogel . . . 


1812 


Nitric acid 


Scheele. 


1777 


Hog's fat 


Vogel . . . . 


1806 


Palm oil 


Fier . 


1832 


Asphalt 


Niepce 


1814 


Resins (mastic, sandarac, gam- 


Senebier 


1782 


boge, ammoniacum, &c.). 






Guaiacum 


Hagemann 


1782 


Bitumens all decomposed, all 
residues of essential oils. 


Daguerre . 


1839 


Coloured extracts from flowers . 


Senebier 


1782 


Similar colouring matters spread 


Herschel . 


1842 


upon paper. 






Yellow wax bleached 


Pliny . . . . 


istcent.A.D. 


Eudoxia macrembolitissa (purple 




loth cent. 


dye). 






Other purple dyes j 


Cole . . . . 
Reaumur . 


1684 
1711 


Oils generally 


Senebier 


1782 


Nitric ether 


Sencbier 


1782 


Nicotine 


Henry & Boutron- 


A 1 U*, 

1836 




Charlard. 




Santonine 


Merk . 


I88 3 



Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide on Sensitive Plates. Dr W. J. 
Russell made a series of experiments on the effect of exposure of 
sensitive plates to the action of vapours and gases for long 
periods. It has long been known that contact of plates with such 
substances as wood caused a sensitive surface to show " fog " 
on development. By a somewhat exhaustive series of experi- 
ments, Russell showed that the probable cause of this fog is 
hydrogen peroxide, since substances which favoured its for- 
mation produced the same effect. This is somewhat remarkable, 
as this same substance will completely destroy the effect that 
light has had on a sensitive plate; indeed, it affords one way of 
destroying a light image on a sensitive collodion plate. The 
experiments of Russell give a warning to store exposed plates for 
brief periods. It appears that negatives wrapped in paraffin 
paper are secure from this danger. 

The Application of Photography to Quantitative Measures. In 
order to employ photography for the measurement of light it 
was necessary that some means should be devised by which the 
opacity of the deposit produced on the development of a plate 
could be determined. It is believed that in 1874 the first attempt 
was made by Sir W. Abney to do this. In the Phil. Mag. he 
showed how density could be measured by means of an instru- 
ment, the diaphanometer, he had devised, in which transparent 



TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



499 



black wedges were used to make matches between the naked light 
and the same light after passing through the photographic opacity 
that had to be measured. In 1887, owing to the perfecting of 
the rotating sectors, which could be made to increase or diminish 
the apertures at pleasure during its rotation, the measurement of 
opacities became easy. The Rumford method of comparing 
the light through the deposit with the naked beam, using the 
sectors to equalize the illumination, was adopted, the deposit 
being placed between the light and the screen, the comparison 
light being a beam reflected from the same light on to the 
screen. 

Owing to the fact that photographic deposit scatters light more 
or less, the opacities measured by this plan were slightly greater 
than_was shown when such opacities were to be used for contact 
printing. The final plan adopted by Abney was to place the 
part of the plate carrying the deposit to be measured behind a screen 
constructed as above. C D (fig. 4) is a 
dull black card with an aperture cut 
in it which may be of any desired shape. 
This aperture was covered with trans- 
parent paper, as was also a portion B, 
the same size as A, but pasted on the 
black card itself. Light thrown from 
behind A would be matched with light 
thrown on to B from the front when a 




FIG. 4. 



rod in the path of this last beam was made to prevent this light 
falling on A. When a portion of a plate bearing a deposit was 
placed behind and close to A, the light thrown on B had to be 
diminished by the sector till the two squares appeared equally bright 
and the aperture of the sector was noted and compared with that 
required when the deposit was removed. 

With this screen accurate measures of printing densities can be 
made, and it can also be used in the determination of the com- 
parative photographic brightness of the light issuing from different 
objects. For instance, the relative brightness of the different parts 
of the corona as seen in a total eclipse can be readily determined if 
a " time scale " of gradation is impressed on the plate on which it 
is taken. Both scale and streamer can then be enlarged optically 
and thrown on the part of the screen A. The measures of the 
streamer densities can then be directly compared with the densities 
of the scale and the relative " photographic " brightness of the 
different parts of the streamer be ascertained by comparison with 
this scaje also. 

The same method of measurement was adopted in ascertaining 
quantitatively the sensitiveness of the spectrum of ordinary plates 
and of plates in which dyes are present. The figures on PI. IV show 
reproductions of plates which were exposed to the spectrum. No. I 
js a continuous spectrum taken with the electric light ; no. 7 is an 
impressed continuous spectrum; no. 8 shows the bright lines of 
metals ; no. 3 the line_ spectrum of volatilized lithium and sodium 
to indicate the position of the spectrum colours. Nos. 4 and 2 
are the absorption and fluorescent spectra of eosin. No. 5 is the 
graduation scale formed by a bromogelatin "Seed" plate stained 
with homocol, a cyanine derivative sensitive to the red; no. 6 
is a similar scale formed by an unstained plate. The small 
numbers placed below the different bands show an empiric scale 
which is made to apply to each of them. The first step is to measure 



' Plate 

\o the Sptctru 
rater of the 
etrto-tigttt 

bright titles of 




O 1O SO SO 4O 

Empiric Scale of the spectrum 
FIG. 5. 

the opacity of the gradation scale, next the opacity of the continuous 
spectrum at the various numbers of the empiric scale, and also the 
opacity of the other bands at the same scale numbers. The con- 
tinuous spectrum will give the sensitiveness of the plate to the 
different parts of the spectrum when the measures of its different 
opacities are compared with those of the scale of gradation, and a 
curve of sensitiveness can be plotted from these comparisons. 
It is evident that the measures of the other two bands will give us 
information as to the fluorescence and the absorption of the eosin. 
Fig. 5 shows the curve of opacity of the image of the spectrum at 



its different parts, and also the curve of sensitiveness of the plate 
to the different parts of the spectrum. This last is derived from a 
comparison of the measured densities with those of the gradation 
scale. 

Measurement of the Rapidity of a Plate. The first attempt that 
was made to ascertain the rapidity of a plate was by Abney 
(Phil. Mag. 1874), who demonstrated that within limits the 
transparency of deposit varied as the logarithm of the exposure. 

The last formula has been accepted for general use, though it is 
believed that it is not absolutely correct, though very approxi- 
mately true and sufficiently near to be of practical value. This 
belief is based on the further researches described below. 1 

In 1888 Sir W. Abney pointed out that the speed of a plate could 
be determined by the formula T = E-p(logE+C) 2 , where T is the 
transparency, E is the exposure (or time of exposure X intensity of 
light acting), and C a constant. If the abscissae (exposures) are 
plotted as logarithms, the curve takes the same form as that of 
the law of error, which has a singular point, a tangent through 
which lies closely along the curve and cuts the axis of Y at a point 
which has a value of 2/VE. If the total transparency be unity, 
this ordinate has a value of 1-212, the singular point having a 
value of 0-606. The ordinate of the zero point of the curve will be 
where the tangent to the singular point cuts the line drawn at 
i -2 12. The difference between the measurements of this zero 
point for two kinds of plates (i.e. C in the formula) from the points 
in the abscissae marking the same exposure, will give the relative 
sensitiveness of the two plates in terms of log x 1 . In 1800 Hurter 
and Driffield (Journ. Soc. Ghent. Ind. Jan. 19, 1891) worked out a 
less empirical formula connecting the exposure E with the density 
of deposit, which in an approximate shape had the form D =7log(E/), 
where D is the density of deposit (or log I/T), i the " inertia " of the 
plate, T the transparency of the deposit. In the customary way a 
small portion of a plate was exposed to a constant light at a fixed 
distance and for a fixed time, and another small portion to the same 
light for double the time, and so on. By measuring the densities of 
the various deposits and constructing a curve, a large part of 
which was approximately a straight line, it was found possible, by 
the production of the straight portion to meet the axis of X, to 
give the relative sensitiveness of different plates by the distance 
of the intersection from the zero point L. (See also Exposure 
Meters, below, under i, APPARATUS.) 

Effect of Temperature on Sensitiveness. In 1876 Abney 
showed that heat apparently increased, while cold diminished, 
the sensitiveness of a plate, but the experiments were rather of 
the qualitative than the quantitative order. In 1893, from fresh 
experiments, 2 he found that the effect of a difference in tempera- 
ture of some 40 C. invariably caused a diminution in sensitive- 
ness of the sensitive salt at the lower temperature, a plate often 
requiring more than double the exposure at a temperature of 
about 1 8 C. than it did when the temperature was increased to 
+33 C. The general deduction from the experiments was that 
increase in temperature involved increase in sensitiveness so 
long as the constituents of the plate (gelatin, Sic.) were unaltered. 
Sir James Dewar stated at the Royal Institution in 1896 that 
at a temperature of 180 C. certain sensitive films were reduced 
in sensitiveness to less than a quarter of that which they possess 
at ordinary temperatures. It appears also, from his subsequent 
inquiry, that when the same films were subjected to the tempera- 
ture of liquid hydrogen ( 252 C.) the loss in sensitiveness 
becomes asymptotic as the absolute zero is approached. Pre- 
sumably, therefore, some degree of sensitiveness would still 
be preserved even at the absolute zero. 

Effect of Small Intensities of Light on a Sensitive Salt? When 
a plate is exposed for a certain time to a light of given intensity, 
it is commonly said to have received so much exposure (E). If 
the time be altered, and the intensity of the light also, so that the 
exposure (time X intensity) is the same, it was usually accepted 
that the energy expended in doing chemical work in the film was 
the same. A series of experiments conducted under differing 
conditions has shown that such is not the case, and that the more 
intense the light (within certain limits) the greater is the chemical 
action, as shown on the development of a plate. Fig. 6 illustrates 
the results obtained in three cases. The exposure E is the same 
in all cases. The curves are so drawn that the scale of abscissae 

* Those applicable to the correction of star magnitudes as deter- 
mined by photography have been verified and confirmed .by 
Schwarzchild, Michalke and others. 

2 Abney, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893. 

5 Abney, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893, and Journ. Camera Club, 1893. 



500 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[TECHNIQUE 



is the intensity of the light in powers of 2, and the ordinates 
show the percentages of chemical action produced. If the 
chemical action remained the same when the intensity of light 
was reduced, E remaining the same, each of the curves would 
be shown as a straight line at the height of 100, which is the trans- 
parency of deposit with the unit of light. As it is, they show 
diminishing percentages as the light intensity is diminished. 




o Set It ttVf 

t Intensities 

of Light 

FIG. 6. 

Thus, when the intensity of the light is reduced to^V of the 
original, and the time of exposure is prolonged 64 times, the useful 
energy expended on a lantern plate is only 50 % of that expended 
when the light and time of exposure are each unity. In the cases 
to which the diagram refers, the light used was a standard 
amyl acetate lamp, and the unit of intensity taken was this light 
at a distance of 2 ft. from the plate, and the unit of time was 
10 seconds. The lamp being moved to 16 ft. from the plate, 
gave an intensity of ^the unit, and the time of exposure had 
to be increased to 640 seconds, so that E was the same in both 
cases. Further, it was found that when the times of exposure 
on different parts of the plate were successively doubled, light 
at a fixed distance being used for one series, and altered for a 
second series, the slopes of the curves of transparency (i.e. the 
gradation) were parallel to one another. This investigation is 
of use when camera images are in question, as the picture is 
formed by different intensities of light, not very different from 
those of the amyl acetate lamp, the time of exposure being the 
same for all intensities. The deductions made from the investi- 
gation are that with a slow plate the energy expended in chemical 
action is smaller as the intensity is diminished, while with a quick 
plate the variation is much less. As a practical deduction, we 
may say that to obtain proper contrast in a badly lighted picture 
it is advisable to use a slow plate. 



b' 

f< 

i 1 

; 

,?; 

v 

8- 

th 

5 ' 

s 

n 

I 



5: 



s 



N 



\ 



X 



/ 2 3 4 S 6 

Scale of Intensities in 

Powers of 2 

FIG. 7. 



Effect of very Intense 
Light on a Sensitive Salt. 
Another investigation 
was made as to the effect 
of very intense light 
on sensitive surfaces. In 
this case a screen of 
step-by-step graduated 
opacities was made use 
of, and plates exposed 
through it to the action 
of lights markedly differ- 
ing in intensity, one 
being that of the amyl 
acetate lamp, another 
that of the arc light, 
and a third the light 
emitted from the spark 
of a Wimshurst machine. 
The exposures were so 
made that one of the 
opacities produced on 
the plate from exposure 
to each source of light 
was approximately the 
same. The unit of 



intensity of light is, of course, in each case widely different. 
The slope of the curve due to the spark light is less 
steep than that due to the arc light, and the latter, again, 
is much less steep than that due to the amyl acetate lamp. 
A further investigation was made of the effect of increasing 
the time of exposure when the intense light was diminished, 
and it was found that with all plates the useful chemical 
energy acting on a plate was least with the most intense light, 
but increased as the intensity diminished, though the time 
was correspondingly increased. This is the reverse of what we 
have recorded as taking place when a comparatively feeble light 
was employed. Further, it was proved that the variation was 
greatest in those plates which are ordinarily considered to be the 
most rapid. It follows, therefore, that there is some intensity 
of light when the useful chemical energy is at a maximum, and 
that this intensity varies for each kind of plate. 

Intermittent Exposure of a Sensitive Salt. The same investi- 
gator has shown that, if a total exposure is made up of inter- 
mittent exposures, the chemical action on a sensitive salt is less 
than it is when the same exposure is not intermittent. It was 
also proved that the longer the time of rest between the inter- 
mittent exposures (within limits) the less was the chemical action. 
We may quote one case. Exposures were first made to a naked 
light, and afterwards to the same light for six times longer, as a 
rotating disk intervened which had 12 apertures of 5 cut in it at 
equal intervals apart, and 720 intermittent exposures per second 
were given. The plate was moved to different distances from 
the light, so that the intensity was altered. The apparent loss of 
exposure by the intervention of the disk increases as the intensity 
diminishes, the ratios of the chemical energy usefully employed 
of the naked light exposure to that of the intermitting exposures 
being: 

For intensity I i to -815 

1 I -500 

A i ,, -423 

.. .. sV i -37 

These results appear to be explicable by the theoretical con- 
siderations regarding molecular motion. 

Effect of Monochromatic Light of Varying Wave-lengths on a 
Sensitive Salt. It has been a subject of investigation as to 
whether the gradation on a plate is altered when exposures are 
made to lights of different colours; that is to say, whether the 
shades of tone in a negative of a white object illuminated by, 
say, a red light, would be the same as those in the negative if 
illuminated by a blue light. Abney J announced that the 
gradation was different; and, quite independently, Chapman 
Jones made a general deduction for isochromatic plates that, 
except with a certain developer, the gradation was steeper (that 
is, the curve shown graphically would be steeper) the greater 
the wave-lengths of the light to which the sensitive salt was 
subjected. For plates made with the ordinary haloid salts of 
silver Chapman Jones's deduction requires modification. When 
monochromatic light from the spectrum is employed, it is found 
that the gradation increases with wave-lengths of light which 
are less, and also with those which are greater, than the light 
whose wave-lengths has a maximum effect on the sensitive salt 
experimented with. Thus with bromo-iodide of silver the maxi- 
mum effect produced by the spectrum is close to the blue lithium 
line, and the gradation of the plate illuminated with that light 
is less steep than when the light is spectrum violet, green, yellow 
or red. From the red to the yellow the gradation is much the 
steepest. Whether these results have any practical bearing on 
ordinary photographic exposures is not settled, but that they 
must have some decided effect on the accuracy of three-colour 
work for the production of pictures in approximately natural 
colours is undoubted, and they may have a direct influence on 
the determination of star magnitudes by means of photography. 
Reproduction of Coloured Objects by means of Three Photo- 
graphic Positives. Ives's Process. A practical plan of produc- 
ing images in approximately the true colours of nature has been 
devised by preparing three positives of the same object, one 
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1900. 



TECHNIQUE] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



illuminated by a red, the other by a green, and the third by a blue 
light; the images from these three transparencies, when visually 
combined, will show the colours of the object. This plan was 
scientifically and practically worked out by F. E. Ives of Phila- 
delphia, though in France and elsewhere it had been formulated, 
especially by Hauron Du Cros. 

The following description may be taken as that of Ives's pro- 
cess: by the trichromatic theory of colour- vision every colour in 
nature can be accounted for by the mixture of two or three of the 
three-colour sensations, red, green and blue, to which the eye is 
supposed to respond. Thus a mixture of a red and green sensation 
produces the sensation of yellow; of a green and blue, that of a 
blue-green; of red and blue, that of purple; and of all three, that 
of white. For the sensations we may substitute those colours 
which most nearly respond to the theoretical sensations without 
any material loss of purity in the resulting sensation. We must 
take the spectrum of white light as the only perfect scale of pure 
colours. It has been proved that the red sensation in the eye is 
excited by a large part of the visible spectrum, but with varying 
intensities. If, then, we can on a photographic plate produce a 
developed image of the spectrum which exactly corresponds in 
opacity and position to the amount of red stimulation excited 
in those regions, we shall, on illuminating a transparent positive 
taken from such a negative with a pure red light, have a repre- 
sentation of the spectrum such as would be seen by an eye which 
was only endowed with the sensation of red. Similarly, if 
negatives could be taken to fulfil the like conditions for the green 
and for the blue sensations, we should obtain positives from them 
which, when illuminated by pure green and blue light respectively, 
would show the spectrum as seen by an eye which was only 
endowed with a green or a blue sensation. Evidently if by some 
artifice we can throw the coloured images of these three positives 
on a screen, superposing them one over the other in their proper 
relative positions, the spectrum will be reproduced, for the over- 
lapping colours, by their variation in intensity, will form the 
colours intermediate between those used for the illumination of 
the positives. For the purpose of producing the three suitable 
negatives of the spectrum, three light-filters, through which 
the image has to pass before reaching the photographic plate, 
have to be found. With all present plates these are compromises. 
Roughly speaking, the screens used for taking the three negatives 
are an orange, a bluish-green and a blue. These transmit those 
parts of the spectrum which answer to the three sensations. 
When these are obtained an image of a coloured object can be 
reproduced in its true colours. 

Abney devised sensitometers for determining the colours of the 
screens to be placed before the lens in order to secure the three- 
colour negatives which should answer these requirements. Their 
production depends upon the same principles indicated as neces- 
sary for the correct rendering in monochrome of a coloured object. 
When the sensitonjeter takes the form of glasses through which light 
is transmitted to the plate, the luminosities of the coloured lights 
transmitted are determined, and also their percentage composition 
in terms of the red, green, and blue lights, and thence are deduced 
the luminosities in terms of red, green and blue. For ascertaining 
what screen should be used to produce the red negative the 
luminosity transmitted through each glass is so adjusted that the 
luminosity of the red components in each is made equal by rotating 
a disk with correct apertures cut out close to the row of glasses. 
This gives a sensitometer of equal red values. A coloured screen has 
to be found which, when placed in front of the lens, will cause the 
opacities of the deposit on the plate, corresponding to each square 
of glass, to be the same throughout. This is done by trial, the 
colour being altered till the proper result is obtained. In a similar 
way the " green " and " blue " screens are determined. Coloured 
pigments rotating on a disk can also be employed, as indicated in 
the paragraph on the correct rendering of colour in monochrome. 

As to the camera for the amateur, whose plates are not as a rule 
large, all of the three negatives should be obtained on one plate, since 
only in this way can they be developed and the densities increased 
together. (For commercial work the negatives often cannot be 
taken on the same plate, as it would make the plate too large to 
manipulate.) The camera may be of an ordinary type, with a 
repeating back, bringing successively three different portions of 
the plate opposite the lens. It is convenient to have a slide, in 
front of which a holder containing the three screens can be fixed, 
which will then be close to the plate; such a one has been devised 
by E. Sanger-Shepherd. The light passes through them one by 



one as the plate is moved into the three positions. The three 
exposures are given separately, after which the plate is ready for 
development. The three separate exposures are, however, a 
source of trouble at times, particularly in the case of landscapes, 
for the lighting may vary and the sky may have moving clouds, 
in which case the pictures would show variations which should 
not exist. Sanger-Shepherd has a " one-exposure " camera by 
which the three images are thrown side by side on the plate. Thus 
any movement in the picture affects all three negatives alike. 
Abney has also introduced a " one-exposure " camera which takes 
in a larger angle than that of Sanger-Shepherd. The next point 
is the exposures which should be given through each screen. This 
can be done by placing in front of the plate and extending its whole 
length a scale of gradation through which the light coming from a 
sun-illuminated white card passes, as well as through the screens. 
In the case of the three-exposure camera the times of exposure are 
varied till the densities of the image of the gradation appear the 
same in each of the three images. In the case of the one-exposure 
camera, the light reaching the plate through the screens is altered 
by cutting off with a shutter more or less of the lens used. As the 
plates employed for the purpose of the three-colour negatives must 
be sensitive to every colour, the ordinary dark-room light should 
be most cautiously used. If used at all, it should be very feeble 
and development must be carried out in a dish with a cover to it. 
The plate is manipulated in the usual way. 

Joly's Process. Professor J. Joly, of Dublin, in 180:7 introduced 
a colour process by which an image in approximately natural 
colours could be thrown upon a screen by an optical lantern, 
only one transparency being employed, instead of three, as in 
the Ives process. A " taking " screen was ruled with alternating 
orange, blue-green and blue lines -j-J-^ to $$-$ in. apart, touching 
one another and following one another in the above order. 
When such a screen was placed in front of a sensitive plate in the 
camera, and exposure made to the image of a coloured object, 
there were practically three negatives on the same plate, each 
being confined to the area occupied by lines of the same colour. 
The shades of colour and the depth of the colours used in ruling 
depended on the brand of plate. When a perfect triune negative 
was obtained, a transparency was made from it, and in contact 
with this was placed a screen ruled with lines the same distance 
apart, but of the colours corresponding to the three colour sensa- 
tions, namely red, green and blue. The red lines were made 
to fall on the image taken through the orange lines, the green 
on that of the blue-green, and the blue or violet on that of the 
blue. On the screen there are practically three differently 
coloured images shown by one transparency. The eye blends the 
different colours together and a picture is seen in approximately 
the correct colours of the original. 

Autochrome. A very remarkable process, founded on J. Joly's 
process, was introduced in 1907 by A. Lumiere et ses Fils of 
Lyons. Starch grains of very minute size, some of which were 
dyed with a red stain, a second portion with a green, and a third 
portion with a blue, are mixed together in such proportions that 
a fine layer of them appears grey when viewed by transmitted 
light. Under a magnifying glass the grains are coloured, but 
owing to the want of focus in the eye the colours blend one with 
the other. Such a layer is embedded on the surface of a glass 
plate in a waterproof vehicle, and a film of sensitive emulsion 
held in situ in some material, the composition of which has not 
been published, covers this layer. When such a plate is placed 
in the camera, with the back of the plate next the lens, the light 
passes through the coloured granules, and again we have three 
negatives on one plate, but instead of each negative being repre- 
sented by lines as in the Joly process they are represented by 
dots of silver deposit. Owing to the way in which the three- 
coloured film is prepared, it is evident that a positive taken from 
such a negative could not be backed with granules of the 
right colour, as the granules are placed at random in the layer. 
Lumiere, to overcome this difficulty, converted the negative into a 
positive in a very ingenious way. The plate was developed with 
pyrogallic and ammonia in the usual way, but instead of fixing 
it it was plunged into a solution of potassium permanganate 
and sulphuric acid. This dissolved all the silver that had been 
deposited during development and left a film of unaltered silver 
salt. On looking through the plate the colours of the coloured 
layer coming through the different dots where the silver was at 



502 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



first deposited appeared in view, and the image was the image 
in colour of the object photographed. The plate after being 
washed was taken into the light and redeveloped with an alka- 
line developer, which converted the sensitive salt of silver to the 
metallic state. The image now consisted of black particles of 
silver and the coloured image. The plate was next fixed in 
hyposulphite of soda to remove any unreduced silver salt that 
might be left, and the picture after washing was complete. The 
coloured image so obtained is a very close representation of the 
'true colours, but as the " taking " screen is the same as the 
" viewing " screen some little variation must result. 

Positives in Three Colours. Ives was the first to show that a 
transparency displaying approximately all the colours in nature 
could be produced on the same principles that underlie the three- 
colour printing. This he effected by printing each of the three 
negatives, produced for his triple projection process as already 
described, on gelatine films sensitized by bichromate of potash. 
Each of the three transparent films was dyed with a colour com- 
plementary to the colour of the light which he transmitted 
through the positives when used for projection. Thus the " red " 
positive he dyed with a blue-green dye, the " green " positive 
with a purple dye, and the " blue " positive with a yellow dye. 
These three films, when superposed, gave the colours of the 
original object. Sanger-Shepherd has made the process a 
commercial success (see PROCESS) and produces lantern slides of 
great beauty, in which all colours are correctly rendered. Instead 
of using a dye for the " red " transparency, he converts the silver 
image of a positive image into an iron salt resembling Prussian 
blue in colour. (W. DE W. A.) 

n. PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS 

Photographic apparatus consists essentially of the camera 
with lens and stand, lens shutters, exposure meters, prepared 
plates for the production of negatives or transparencies, sensi- 
tive papers and apparatus for producing positive prints, direct 
or by enlargement. Besides these there are many subsidiary 
accessories. 

Since the introduction of highly sensitive dry plates and their 
extended use in hand cameras, the art and practice of photo- 
graphy have been revolutionized. Numerous special forms of 
apparatus have been created suitable for the requirements of the 
new photography, and their manufacture and sale have become 
important industries. The value of the exports of photographic 
materials from the United Kingdom in 1906 was 22,716. The 
most important improvement has been in the construction of 
anastigmatic lenses, which, having great covering power, flatness 
of field, and freedom from astigmatism, can be worked with very 
much larger apertures than was possible with the earlier forms of 
rectilinear or aplanatic lenses. The increased rapidity of work- 
ing thus gained has rendered it easy to photograph objects in 
very rapid motion with great perfection. This has encouraged 
the construction of the very light and compact hand cameras 
now so universally in use, while, again, their use has been greatly 
simplified by improvements in the manufacture of sensitive 
plates and films and the introduction of light, flexible, sensitive 
films which can be changed freely in daylight. The introduction 
in 1907 of Messrs Lumiere's " Autochrome " process of colour 
photography has also been a great advance, tending to popularize 
photographic work by the facility it offers for reproducing objects 
in the colours of nature. 

The Camera. 

Historical. The camera obscura (q.v.) was first applied to 
photographic use by Thomas Wedgwood between 1792 and 1802. 
No description of his camera is available, but it was probably 
one of the sketching cameras then in use. In 1812 W. H. 
Wollaston found that by using a meniscus lens with a concave 
surface towards the object and the convex towards the screen, a 
diaphragm being placed in front, the projected image of the 
camera obscura was greatly improved in sharpness over a larger 
field. The first photographic lenses made by V. and Ch. L. 
Chevalier in Paris (1830-1840) were on this principle. The 
photographic camera in its simplest form is a rectangular box, 



one end of which is fitted to carry a lens and the opposite one 
with a recess for holding the focusing screen and plate holders, 
these ends being connected by a rigid or expanding base-board 
and body, constructed to keep out all light from the sensitive 
plate except that passing through the lens. In 1816 Joseph 
Nic6phore Niepce, of Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, for his photographic 
experiments made a little camera, or artificial eye, with a box 
six inches square fitted with an elongated tube carrying a len- 
ticular glass. There are now in the Chalon Museum cameras of 
his with an iris diaphragm for admitting more or less light to 
the lens; some with an accordion bellows, others with a double 
expanding rigid body for adjusting the focus. The iris dia- 
phragm was adopted later by Chevalier for his photographic 
lenses. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot constructed simple box 
cameras for taking views of his house on sensitive paper, and 
claimed them as the first photographs of a building (Phil. Mag. 
1839, 14, p. 206). Fr. von Kobell and C. A. Steinheil, early in 
1839, made a camera with an opera glass lens for taking land- 
scapes on paper. Later in 1839 J. W. Draper successfully used 
a camera for his daguerreotype experiments made of a spectacle 
lens, 14 in. focus, fitted into a cigar box. He also used a camera 
fitted with a concave mirror instead of a lens. Similar cameras 
were constructed by A. T. Wolcott (1840) and R. Beard (1841) 
for reversing the image in daguerreotype portraits. They have 
also been recommended by V. Zenger (1875) and D. Alach (1890) 
for scientific work. 

L. J. M. Daguerre's camera, as made by Chevalier in 1839 for 
daguerreotype, was of Niepce's rigid double body type, fitted 
with an achromatic meniscus lens with diaphragm in front on 
Wollaston 's principle, the back part with the plate moving away 
from the lens for focusing, and fixed in its place with a thumb- 
screw. This expanding arrangement enabled lenses of different 
focal lengths to be used. With modifications cameras of this 
type were in use for many years afterwards for portrait and 
studio purposes. For work in the field they were found incon- 
venient, and many more portable forms were brought out, among 
them G. Knight's and T. Ottewill's single and double folding 
cameras (1853), made collapsible with hinges, so as to fold on to 
the base-board. Cameras with light bodies made of waterproof 
cloth, &c., also came into use, but these were superseded by 
cameras with collapsible bellows-body of leather, which, invented 
by Niepce, were used in France, in 1839, by Baron A. P. de 
Seguier and others for daguerreotype. The first record of them 
in England is, apparently, J. Atkinson's portable stereoscopic 
camera of parallel-side bellows form (Ph. Journ. 1857, 3, p. 261), 
which was soon followed by C. T. H. Kinnear's lighter conical 
form, made by Bell of Edinburgh (Ph. Journ. 1858, 4, p. 166). 
They have since been made in various patterns, conical, oblong 
and square, by P. Meagher, G. Hare and others, and are still, 
in modified forms, in general use as studio, field or hand cameras. 
When wet collodion plates were used many cameras were fitted 
with arrangements for developing in the field. 

Information on these and other early cameras will be found in 
the photographic journals, in C. Fabre's Traitk encyclopedique de 
photographic, vol. i., and in J. M. Eder's Ausfuhrliches Handbuch 
der Photographic, 2nd ed., vol. i., pt. ii. 

The distinctive feature of present day photography is the 
world-wide use of the hand camera. Its convenience, the ease 
with which it can be carried and worked, and the remarkably 
low prices at which good, useful cameras of the kind can be 
supplied, concurrently with improvements in rapid sensitive 
plates and lenses, have conduced to this result. It has also had 
a valuable educational influence in quickening artistic perception 
and scientific inquiry, besides its use in depicting scenes and pass- 
ing events for historical record. Small portable cameras had 
been made by B. G. Edwards (1855), T. Scaife (Pistolgraph, 
1858), A. Bertsch (1860), T. Ottewill (1861), and others, but it 
was not until rapid gelatin dry plates were available in 1881 that 
T. Bolas brought out his " detective " camera (Ph. Journ. 1881, 
p. 59). It consisted of a double camera (one as finder, the other 
for taking the picture) enclosed in another box, suitably covered, 
which also contained the double-plate carriers and had apertures 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



503 



in front of the viewing and taking lenses. In another forir the 
finder was omitted. A month later A. Loisseau and J. B. 
Germeuil-Bonnaud patented an opera glass camera. Various 
forms of portable magazine cameras followed, among them A. 
Pumphrey's " Repeating Camera " (1881), W. Rouch's " Eureka " 
(1887), R. Krugener's camera (book form, 1888), and others in 
collapsible or box forms disguised as books, watches, &c., but 
they did not come into general use before 1888, when the East- 
man Company of Rochester, U.S.A., brought out their very 
portable roll-film cameras, now known under the trade name of 
" Kodak." The manufacture of these and other light hand 
cameras has since become a very important and flourishing 
industry in Great Britain, Germany, France and the United 
States. It is noteworthy that the most modern form of hand 
camera, the reflex, goes back to an early type of portable camera 
obscura, figured by Johann Zahn in 1686, in which a mirror was 
used for reflecting the image on to a horizontal focusing screen, 
at the same time reversing it. The first photographic camera on 
this principle was T. Sutton's (1860), which has served as a basis 
for many subsequent developments. A. D. Loman's (1889) and 
R. Krugener's (1891) were early examples of the hand camera 
type, but great improvements have since been made. 

Modern cameras differ so much in details of improved construction 
that only a few of the more important requirements can be noticed. 
A camera should be well and strongly made of seasoned wood or 
of metal, perfectly rigid when set up, to avoid any shifting of the 
axis of the lens in respect to the sensitive plate. The front and 
back of the camera should normally be vertical and parallel, and 
the axis of the lens perpendicular to the centre of the plate, but 
arrangements are usually made by vertical and lateral adjustments 
on the camera front for raising the lens to take in less foreground 
or vice versa, or for moving it right or left, the latter becoming a 
vertical movement when the camera has to be turned on its side. 
In the Adams " Idento " camera the lens and finder can be rotated 
together on the rising front according as the camera is used horizon- 
tally or vertically, the finder showing in either case the identical 
view projected on the plate. The best modern field cameras are 
fitted with a swing-back or swing-front and sometimes with both. 
A swing-back is necessary for bringing back the plate to the vertical 
position, so as to prevent convergence of vertical lines, when the 
camera has to be tilted. A rising swing-front, in which the lens 
is tilted, answers the same purpose, provided the camera is kept 
level. If further tilting is necessary, when taking high buildings 
&c., the swing-back and front may both be required, but must be 
kept vertical and parallel and the effect is that of an abnormal 
rising front. Many modern cameras are fitted with a double rising 
front. The vertical and side swings are also useful for equalizing 
the definition of objects at different distances from the camera, 
but they alter the perspective. These swing-movements should 
preferably be round the central horizontal or vertical axis of the 
back or front, but are frequently effected by simple inclination of 
the back or lens front on a hinge. When the rising front is used 
a lens of extended covering power is desirable, and it may be neces- 
sary to stop it down to obtain good definition over the extended 
area of the picture. A slight inclination of the lens may also be 
useful in readjusting the focus. The camera and plate carriers 
must be perfectly light-tight and all inner bright surfaces made 
dead black to prevent reflections from bright spots being thrown 
on the plate. The black varnish used, preferably of shellac and 
lampblack in spirit, must have no deleterious effect on the plates. 
Although the weight and bulk are increased it is convenient to have 
the camera square and fitted with a reversible back, so that the 
greatest length of the plate may be horizontal or vertical, as desired. 
Many cameras are fitted with revolving backs to be used in either 
position. In some French cameras the back part of the camera 
with the bellows is reversible, to be used upright or horizontal. 

Focusing. -The earlier cameras were focused by drawing out 
the back and clamping it with a thumb-screw working in a slot in 
the base-board. When bellows cameras were introduced they were 
focused by an endless screw, and these are still used for large copy- 
ing cameras. Most modern cameras are fitted with rack and pinion 
movements working either in front or at the back of the camera or 
both. Many hand cameras, requiring to be brought to focus at 
once, are fitted with studs (infinity catches) which fix the front in 
focus for distant objects, nearer distances being noted on an engraved 
scale attached to the base-board. Such scales should be verified 
by measurement. In hand cameras with fixed infinity focus, 
the necessary adjustments for distance of near objects are made on 
the lens mount. The focusing screen may be ruled with parallel 
cross lines for purposes of measurement, and as a check on the 
verticality of the camera when photographing buildings or other 
objects with vertical lines. The distance of the lens from the focus- 
ing screen and from the sensitive plate in the dark slide must coincide 
exactly. This can be tested by measurement or by focusing a 



bright, well-defined object on the screen and then on a ground- 
glass plate placed in each of the slides to be examined. A level or 
other means of showing that the camera is level and the plate vertical 
should be attached to the camera, also a view meter or finder, 
showing the exact extent of the picture on the focusing glass. In 
the view meter the picture is viewed directly through a pin-hole 
mounted at the back of the camera as it appears in a frame with 
cross wires on the rising front, adjusted to the size of the plate and 
the focus of the lens. Finders are practically small reflex cameras, 
and a reduced image is seen reflected from a mirror or prism. A 
rectangular concave glass mounted on the camera is also a con- 
venient form, it can be combined with a mirror for vertical observa- 
tion, and in Watson's new form is also arranged as a level and 
telemeter (B. J. A. p. 724, 1908). The image seen in the finders 
should correspond exactly with that on the plate. When the rising 
front is used special arrangements have to be made to ensure the 
correspondence of the images in the finder and on the ground- 
glass. This is done in the " Adams Identoscope " (1908), which 
is fitted to the swing front and adjusted by a lever to follow the 
movement of the lens. 

Plate-holders or Dark-slides. The dark-slides or backs, holding 
sensitive plates, are made either single or double, the former usually 
for wet plates, the latter for dry plates. The ordinary book-form 
double dark-slide has been in use since the early days of calotype 
paper negatives, and contains two plates separated by a blackened 
metal plate; three of them usually form a set, the shutters being 
numbered I to 6, the odd numbers on the opening side. Inner 
frames can be used for smaller plates if desired. The slides should 
fit easily into the camera and the shutters run smoothly out and 
jn. They must be perfectly light-tight, the corner joints, the hinges 
in the shutters, and the openings in the sides and top of the book- 
form slides are all weak points requiring occasional careful examina- 
tion or protection by metal plates. The shutters of dark-slides 
are either jointed or solid and removable; the former is perhaps 
the more convenient, but both forms may become liable to let in 
light. Various forms of solid slides, single and double, are now 
made in wood or metal, or of wood for the frame and metal for the 
shutters; they are lighter, more compact and less liable to admit 
light to the plates. In some cases one slide can suffice for the 
exposure of several plates or stiff films, enclosed in separate 
envelopes, as in the Wishart-Mackenzie " slide, the " Victrix " 
and other similar ones, or contained in a single packet, as in the 
" Premo Filmpack," and 
similar arrangements which 
enable twelve thin celluloid 
films to be placed in the 
camera, exposed one after 
the other, and removed 
again safely in daylight, 
the pack being replaced, if 
necessary, by another. The 
packets of films are made 
of light cardboard, and 
effect a great saving of bulk 
and weight (fig. i). Roll- 
holders are also a convenient 
way of carrying sensitive 
celluloid films in lengths of 
six or twelve exposures, 
rolled on spools, which can 
be changed in daylight. 
Changing boxes for holding 
a reserve of plates or cellu- 
loid films in sheaths, are 
used with some magazine and other cameras. They are arranged 
to fit on the camera in place of the dark-slide and the plates are 
changed automatically so that exposed plates are placed in 
order successively at the back, a fresh plate going forward for 
exposure and the number of the exposure being recorded at the same 
time. 

Studio cameras, for portraiture, are usually of the square bellows 
type, of solid construction, to take large and heavy lenses; adjustable 
from front and back with rack and pinion movements, to enable 
long or short focus lenses to be used, with extra extension for copy- 
ing or enlarging. They are generally fitted with repeating backs, 
allowing two or more exposures to be made on one plate. The 
backs are square or reversible, so that the plates can be used up- 
right or lengthways, and are fitted with double swing movements 
at the back. When single dark slides are used they are best fitted 
with a flexible shutter to avoid jerking and movement of the 
camera. For portraiture they are mounted on solid pillar stands, 
being raised or lowered with an endless screw or rack-work, and 
the table-top usually has vertical and horizontal angular move- 
ments. Large cameras with long extension for copying purposes 
are made in many forms with special arrangements for the various 
photo-mechanical processes, and are mounted on substantial 
table-stands with screw adjustments for obtaining the various 
motions above noted, and also a rectilinear traversing motion 
right or left. All these stands should be absolutely rigid and free 
from tremor. Process cameras are, however, sometimes mounted, 




FIG. I. Premo Film-pack. 



54 



PHOTOGRAPHY 




FIG. 2. Sinclair Folding Camera. 



together with the copying board, on swinging stands, to avoid the 
effects of vibration. 

Portable and field cameras include cameras of the Hare and 
Meagher types for outdoor work and general purposes on plates 
15 in. X 12 in. to 8J in. X 6J in., and in lighter forms from 6J in. 
X 4f in. to 4i in. X 3i in. For general purposes they are usually 
made with square bellows and folding tail-board, rather more sub- 
stantially than those with conical bellows intended for_ outdoor 
work. There are many patterns, the principal modern improve- 
ments in field cameras being swinging fronts, tripod head and turn- 
table in the base-board, double and sometimes triple extension 
movements from the back and front for lopg or short focus lenses, 
and the use of aluminium for some of the metal-work. They are 
fitted with a focusing screen and are intended for use on a tripod 
stand, though some of the smaller sizes of the modern light hand or 
stand cameras can be used as hand cameras with finders. The 
plates are carried in the usual dark-slides, but the smaller sizes, 
from half-plate downwards, can be fitted with roll-holders for flexible 
films, or with film packs or other daylight changing arrangements. 
Folding and Hand Cameras. Folding cameras form a class of 
modern portable cameras which have many conveniences for hand 

or stand work from 
quarter-plate to 7 in. X 
5 in. They may have 
all the fittings of a stand 
camera and be made to 
take glass plates, flat or 
roll films, but have the 
advantage of forming 
when closed a convenient 
package enclosing cam- 
era, lens and shutter, all 
in position for immediate 
use when opened out 
(fig. 2). Most of them 
are fitted with focusing 
glass and finders, and 
may focus by scale in 
the same way as hand 
cameras. With an ap- 
paratus of this kind on 
a light stand any class 
of ordinary indoor or outdoor work can be undertaken within the 
size of the plate, and the extension of the bellows, which should be 
quite double the focus of the lens. 

The multiplicity of forms and arrangements of hand cameras 
makes it difficult to classify them into distinct types; but they may 
be mainly divided into box and folding cameras, and further into 
(a) cameras with enclosed changing magazines for plates or flat 
films ; (b) with enclosed roll film on spools ; (c) with separate changing 
magazines, changing boxes or roll-holders; (d) with single, double 
or multiple plate carriers or film-packs. Most cameras that will 
take glass plates in the ordinary plate-holders will take cut films in 
suitable sheaths or can be fitted with envelope slides, film-packs 
or roll-holders. The normal size for hand cameras is the quarter- 
plate (4i in. X Z\ in.), or the continental size 9X12 cm. ; 5 in. X 4 in. 
is also a popular size, and cameras for the post-card size, 5! in. X si in. 
or 15 X 10 cm. have been largely adopted. Smaller sizes are also 
made for lantern plates and for the lighter pocket cameras, some 
in the form of stereoscopes, field-glasses or watches, as in the 
" Ticka," but the pictures are small and require enlarging. Hand 
cameras are constructed on the same principles as stand cameras, 
but, being specially intended for instantaneous work, they are 
simplified and adapted for rapid focusing and exposing. The 
fpcusing screen is superseded or supplemented by finders arranged 
to show the limits of the subject on the plate, the focus being; ad- 
justed by the infinity catches and focusing scales above noticed. 
Swing-backs and fronts are often dispensed with, but are desirable 
adjuncts, and a rising and falling front particularly so. Lenses of 
fairly large aperture, f/6 to f/8, and good covering power, preferably 
of the anastigmatic type, or a rapid aplanat, should be used, but 
for very rapid work anastigmats working from //4 to f/6 will be 
more useful. Hand cameras can also be fitted with telephoto 
objectives of large aperture. Some cheap hand cameras are fitted 
with single landscape lenses or aplanats working about //n or 
lower, but the want of intensity limits their use to well-illuminated 
subjects. Shutters of the between-lens type are now generally 
used in hand cameras, and for ordinary purposes should give fairly 
accurate exposures from ^ to fa of a second or less and also time 
exposures. Some central shutters are speeded for shorter exposures 
to rjj of a second, but for these focal plane shutters are preferable, 
and for the more rapid exposures to j^ of a second and less are 
necessary. The shutter should be efficient, regular in action, and 
readily ^released by gentle pressure, pneumatic or otherwise. 
Mechanism for automatically changing plates or films in hand 
cameras of the box magazine type must be certain in action, simple 
and not readily put out of order, special care being taken to avoid 
rubbing or abrasion of the plates in changing or transport. In 
changing plates or films the number of plates exposed should 
be recorded automatically, and duplicate exposures prevented as 



[APPARATUS 

far as practicable. A circular level placed near the finder is 
useful. 

The choice of a hand camera depends upon the circumstances 
in which it is to be used, and the purpose for which it is principally 
required. For general work and with the modern facilities for 
carrying and changing plates and films in daylight, the numerous 
folding hand or stand cameras for plates, flat or roll films, with full 
adjustments, will be found most useful. Box or magazine cameras 
in which a supply of cut films or plates can be carried, changed 
mechanically, and exposed rapidly in succession, are convenient, 
but their use is limited and they are liable to get out of order. 
A third class are the reflex 
and other hand cameras 
with focal plane shutters for 
specially rapid instantan- 
eous work as noticed below. 
There are two types of light 
folding hand or stand cam- 
eras, specially adapted for 
hand camera work those 
made for taking glass plates 
and cut films, and the fold- 
ing pocket Kodak or other 
roll - film cameras. The 
former are now made of 
very light construction with 
mahogany or metal bodies, 
wooden or aluminium base- 
boards, thin metal dark- 
slides (fig. 3). The cameras 
of the pocket Kodak type 
are of similar construction, 
but made to take roll films FIG. 3. Ernemann's Pocket Camera, 
on spools, or with an attach- 
ment for focusing glass and dark-slides for taking plates and cut 
films. Attached to a sling-strap _the quarter-plate size can be 
quite conveniently carried in a side-pocket. Watson's " Deft " 
folding camera is fitted with 
a focal plane shutter (fig. 4). 
The " Selfix carbine " camera 
has a self-erecting front bring- 
ing the lens at once into 
position for use on opening 
out. Those fitted with lenses 
of fairly large aperture, double 
extension, and rising and fall- 
ing fronts are to be preferred. ' 
Of box or magazine cameras 
there is an immense variety. 
In some the lens is fixed in 
focus for all objects within a 
certain distance, in others it 
is adjusted by a focusing 
scale on the lens or by an Flr A __ rhf ., rw t Fo i d!ng 





FIG. 4. The " Deft ' 
Focal-plane Camera. 



extending front. Some have 

a single magazine, others two 

or more. Some take only glass plates, others plates or cut films. 

All of them are, however, self-contained and ready for immediate 

exposure. One of the earliest forms of single magazine cameras, 

still in use, as in the " Eureka " and " Yale," is the " bag," in 




FIG. 5. Double-magazine Box 
Camera. 



FIG. 6. The Verascope, 
Richard. 



which a supply of plates or films in sheaths, is kept in a magazine 
behind the camera, ready for exposure, the plates as exposed 
being lifted with the fingers into a bag or expanding chamber 
above the magazine and placed behind the rest of the plates at 
the back, a fresh plate taking its place in front. In some forms the 
magazines are removable and replaceable by others. The arrange- 
ment is simple and effective, but the bag, usually made of soft 
leather or cloth, is liable to wear and puncture, and may make 
dust. The cameras with double magazines in which _unexposed 
plates are kept in one recess and transferred successively after 
exposure to a second recess are more complicated, and many 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



505 



ingenious devices have been invented for effecting the change 
(fig. 5). Some forms are effective and popular on account of their 
compactness and readiness for immediate exposure, but there is 
always a risk of the mechanism failing, and care has to be taken in 
charging them to lay the plates truly in their places. The very 
handy binocular cameras, or photo-jumelles, of which the " yera- 
scope " (fig. 6) is a type, are of this class, and have additional 





FIG. 7. Beck's Dai-Cornex Daylight-loading Camera, 
magazines. So also are hand cameras of R. and J. Beck's " Frena " 
type, specially constructed for using stiff celluloid films. The 
films are notched on two sides and packed in bundles alternately 
with cards similarly notched. The pack of films and cards is placed 
in a magazine at the back of the camera, and by the movement of 

. a lever, after exposure, the 

exposed film and its following 
card are released, and by turn- 
ing the camera down are 
dropped into a second re- 
ceptacle. A " folding Frena " 
is now made as a folding 
camera with attached maga- 
zine for films, without which 
it can be used separately for 
plates. R. and J. Beck's new 
Dai-Cornex " is a great im- 
provement in this form of 
camera, being a daylight- 
loading box magazine camera 
for plates, the plates being 
packed in a bundle of ridged 
sheaths, so that they are 
FIG. 8. Watson s Vnl Camera. quite prote cted from light and 
can be put into or taken out of the camera in full daylight. In 
other respects it resembles other magazine cameras (fig. 7). Another 
useful magazine camera is the " Zambex," carrying either plates 
or films, held in skeleton frames in envelopes which can be loaded 
or unloaded in daylight, and are kept ready for use in the back 
of the camera and exposed consecutively. For work in which 
speed is of primary importance hand 
cameras fitted with very rapid lenses 
and focal plane shutters are necessary, 
and several forms of portable collapsible 
cameras of this kind are now available, 
such as the Goerz-Anschutz, Zeiss's 
" Palmos," Watson's " Vril " (fig. 8) 
Adams, " Idento," &c., and are lighter 
and more portable than the reflex 
cameras. Hand cameras are generally 
fitted with screw-bushes for mount- 
ing on a tripod stand when time ex- 
posures are wanted. The light folding 
wooden or aluminium stands noted 
belaw are specially suitable. 

Twin-lens and Reflex Cameras. For 
photographing animals, objects in motion, 

FIG. o Camera fitted public functions, &c., it is important to 
with Twin Lenses, section have the means of watching the movement 
till the critical moment of exposure 
arrives. For this it is convenient to 
have a camera fitted with twin lenses 
working in two separate compartments 
(fig. 9) or more simply with a mirror 
throwing a full-sized unreversed image 
of the object from the lens on to 
the focusing screen (fig. 10). With the 
former, which has the advantage that 
the image is seen before, during, and 
after exposure, the lenses must be ol 
exactly equal focus and focused together by the same motion ol 
the rack-work, the object being viewed on the focusing screen ol 
the upper compartment, and the plate kept ready in the lower 




to show working. 

A, Hood of finder. 

B, Ground glass screen. 

C, Mirror. 

D, Viewing lens. 

E, Working lens. 

F, Shutter. 

G, Focusing pinion. 
H, Plate carrier. 

i, Plate. 



to be exposed when desired. Binocular hand cameras are also 
made on this principle, one compartment serving for focusing, 
the other holding lens and plates. Stereoscopic cameras are 
another form of twin-lens cameras, and are usually made for 
also taking single panoramic pictures. 

In reflex cameras only one lens is necessary, though two are con- 
venient, and can be used somewhat as in fig. 9. They generally 
consist of a cubical box camera containing a movable mirror facing 
;he lens at an angle of 45 and throwing up the image projected from 
t on to a horizontal focusing screen, on which it is viewed through a 
lexible hood which folds down in the upper part of the camera when 
not in use (fig. 10). In order to get the greatest rapidity of 
exposure a focal-plane shutter is generally fitted, and by a 
single movement of the release the mirror is smoothly lifted and 
the plate exposed simultaneously. They should be fitted with 
anastigmatic lenses working at large apertures for very rapid 
work. In some forms the lens is fixed, but usually there is a front 
Dellows extension for long-focus lenses, with rising and falling front, 
to which swing motion may be given, a swing-back not being gener- 
ally used with the focal plane shutter. In the " Ernex " camera 
E. Human has made an arrangement by which the camera back, 
lorizontal viewing screen and reflector are made to swing simul- 
taneously, by a rack and pinion movement. They may also have 
reversing or revolving backs for quickly changing the position of 
the plate, s in. X 4 in. and 3J in. X 4i in. are the usual sizes of 
the plates, but larger and smaller sizes are also available. These 
cameras require the best workmanship and perfect mechanism 
"or successful working and freedom from any jarring movement 
in releasing the shutter or mirror. The focusing screen must also 
oe in accurate register with the focus of the Tens on the plate. 
Those forms in which the image can also be viewed at the height 
of the eye, as in the Graflex 
(fig. 10), are preferable. Al- 
though reflex cameras are 
rather heavy and bulky as 
hand cameras, they have many 
advantages over the ordinary 
hand camera with finder and 
focusing scales for the purpose 
of the press photographer, the 
naturalist and others, in ob- 
serving and recording very 
rapid movements, and have 
come into very general use for 
such purposes. They permit 
the accurate focusing of a full- 
sized image on the ground- 
glass up to the moment of 
exposure, especially useful 
when lenses of long or short 
focus are required and when 
the rising or swing front is in 
use. The aspect of this image 
on the ground-glass is also a 
great aid in the selection and 




FIG. 10. Reflex Camera. 

A, Lens. 

B, Mirror. 

C, Ground-glass. 

D, Plate. 

E, Supplementary mirror. 



placing of the subject and in judging the exposure required for 
ft. They practically have all the advantages of a stand camera 
and can be used as such on a stand for subjects requiring prolonged 
exposure. They are also coming into increasing use in studio work 
for portraits of children, &c. Their use and adjustments are 
discussed by G. E. Brown in the British Journal Almanac for 1909. 
Panoramic Cameras. Many so-called " panoramic " cameras 
have been introduced from time to time, among them T. Sutton's 
(1861), and J. R. Johnson's " Pantascopic " (1864), but did not 




FIG. II. Section of " Al- Vista " Panoramic Camera. 

come into general use till the use of curved surfaces of celluloid 
film enabled such cameras of convenient size and weight to be put 
on the market. They are on the same principle as one made by 
F. von Martens in 1845 for curved daguerreotype plates, and cover- 
angle of 150. P. Moessard's " Cylindrographe " of 1889 



ing an angle of 150" 

was the first of the modern type. 



It consists of a semi-circular 



506 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 




FIG. 12. " Al- Vista " Panoramic 
Camera, closed. 



camera, the front of it formed of light-proof cloth and the back 
by the curved flexible carriers. The lens is fitted on a vertical 
axis, so that the nodal point of emergence remains motionless, and 
is revolved round it by means of a handle worked by hand and carry- 
ing a view meter. The illumination of the image is regulated by 
an adjustable vertical slit in a tube attached to the lens inside the 
box, and by altering the rate at which the lens is revolved. The 
pictures taken embrace less than 180. The apparatus folds 
together and is quite portable; it is fully described in Moessard's 
Le Cylindroeraphe (Paris, 1889). The " Al-Vista " (1901) and the 
" Panoram Kodak " (1900) are on the same principle, but arranged 
as roll-holder hand cameras, in two sizes, carrying film for several 
exposures, 7 in. X 2i in. or 4 in. X 12 in. They work instanta- 
neously, and by means of a clock-spring the lens rotates rapidly 
over a half-circle when released. The angle of view is about 120" 

(figs, ii and 12). The 
views taken with this 
kind of camera are some- 
times disappointing, on 
account of the develop- 
ment of cylindrical per- 
spective on a plane sur- 
face causing apparent dis- 
tortion. This distortion 
is avoided in Carl Zeiss's 
"Palmos Panoram" 
camera for plates 6| in. X 
3! in., fitted with " Tes- 
sar " lens and focal plane 
shutter, and other similar 
cameras which can be 
used for stereoscopic or single pictures. Other more elaborate instru- 
ments driven by clockwork have been made for making a complete 
tour of the horizon. Among them C. Damoizeau's " Cyclographe," 
which can be used with lenses of different foci and takes the pictures 
on a roll-film, which is unrolled as the instrument revolves on its 
axis, the lens also rotating on its nodal point of emergence; and 
thus the image always remains sharp (Bull. Soc. Franc, d. Phot., 

1891, p. 183). Commandant A. Daubresse has improved on 
Moessard's apparatus, by placing the lens vertically between two 
right-angled prisms, the upper of which receives the image and 
projects it through the lens on to the lower prism, from which, by 
rotation of the system on the vertical axis, it is projected on to a 
cylindrical film through an angle of 360 (Ibid. 1906, p. 430; E. Jb., 
1 97> P- 9')- The " Periphote " and Ernemann's " Rundblick " 
camera are improved forms (E. Jb., 1908, p. 322). 

Many early forms of panoramic cameras are described in B. J. A . 

1892, p. 517. Colonel R. W. Stewart's " Panoram " (1893), 
A. Chevalier's " Photographic Plane Table," J. Bridges Lee's 
" Photo-Theodolite " (1894), and similar cameras fitted with 
telescopes, levels and divided circles, are instruments of precision 
suitable for photographic surveying. Improved instruments for 
topographical surveying with stereo-photographic apparatus, on 
the principle worked out by Dr C. Pulfrich, of Messrs Zeiss & Co., 
in his stereo-comparator (1903), are being practically developed, 
and much information regarding them will be found in papers by 
E. Dolezal and others in J. M. Eder's Jahrbiicher, 1903 to 1908; 
also a paper by Lieut. F. V. Thompson in Geographical Journal, 
1908, xxxi. 534. 

Cameras for Three-Colour Photography. Many forms of camera 
have been constructed for making the three negatives required 

for trichromatic photography. They 
fall into two types: (i) those with 
a repeating back fitted with three 
colour-screens or filters red, green 
and violet through which the 
colour impressions are made suc- 
cessively with one lens upon a 
single colour-sensitive plate, as in 
the Sanger-Shepherd system. The 
colour-screens are placed immedi- 
ately in front of the sensitive plate 
in the repeating back, which is 
moved on for each exposure. In a 
more recent form, by the same 
FIG. 13. Diagram of Camera maker, the three images are taken 
for Three-colour Photography, on the sensitive plate with one 

exposure. The camera is divided 

into three compartments, and fitted with a special diaphragm which 
can be regulated for the varying sensitiveness of different batches of 
plates. The central image is impressed directly on the plate; the 
other two by reflection from prisms arranged so as to equalize the sizes 
of the three images on the sensitive plates, the light rays passing 
in each case through a suitable colour-filterred, green and blue- 
violet somewhat on the principle of F. E. Ives's camera of 1900 
(fig. 13). It is convenient and successful in working. (2) 
Cameras made on the reflecting principle of L. Ducos du 
Hauron (1876), elaborated by F. E. Ives (1894) in his photo- 
chromoscope, in which three images are taken through three 
colour-screens on separate plates with one lens, the respective 




exposures being regulated by reflection of the light coming from 
the lens by plane mirrors on to the sensitive plates, and its 
filtration through the colour-screens in front of them. Many 
variations of this method have been proposed, in which reflecting 
prisms replace the mirrors. The different systems have been dis- 
cussed by W. Gamble (Ph. Jour. 1905, xlv. 150), the latter also by 
E. T. Butler (Ibid. p. 199). Sir W. de W. Abney has described 
three-colour cameras for landscape work in Ph. Jour. 1904, xliv. 
81, and 1908, xlviii. 331. 

Enlarging Cameras. These cameras vary in form, according to 
the nature of the illumination, but ordinarily consist of a double 
or triple extension bellows camera, with a holder for the negative 
or transparency at one end, and for the sensitive plate or paper 
at the other, the lens being placed on a fixed partition between the 
two. Some recent forms of " daylight enlargers " can be used as 
an ordinary camera. Other cheaper ones are on the fixed focus 
principle. Enlargers for use with artificial light are made like a 
magic lantern, with a condenser, projecting an enlarged image on 
to a sensitive plate or paper fixed on an easel or screen. A simple 
arrangement for daylight enlarging is to fix a suitable camera on 
to a larger one by a sliding front, and mount the two on a studio 
stand tilted so that the image may be illuminated by the open sky. 

Cinematographs. Many special cameras and lenses have been 
introduced for taking on a long flexible sensitive film an extended 
series of small photographs of the successive phases of movements, 
and again projecting them on a screen so as to reproduce the scene, 
with an illusion of motion, in what are known as " living pictures," 
biographs, &c. As each photograph requires a certain minimum 
time for exposure and must be kept in true position in sequence 
with the rest, some means of regulating the intermittent exposures 
and keeping the film in position have to be adopted ; and there are 
many different ways of doing it, either by a continuous or inter- 
mittent motion and exposure of the film while it is being unwound 
from one roller on to another. The films used are similar to the 
ordinary celluloid films, but in narrow bands from if in. to 2 in. 
in width, the length varying with the number of exposures re- 
quired, at the rate of 16 to 20 per second. They are perforated 
on both sides, so that they may run true and have the necessary 
intermittent motion, the perforations fitting on to studs on a sprocket 
wheel in connexion with the driving wheel and crank handle. 
Special lenses of short focus, from I in. to 3 in., with good covering 
power and large apertures //4 to f/2, are required both for photo- 
graphing and projecting; several such are noted below. Absolute 
rigidity in the camera is essential. Special stands are made for 
the purpose, but if a tripod stand is used it should be well braced. 
Special apparatus is required for developing and fixing the exposed 
films. They are wound on large rollers supported over troughs 
containing the necessary solutions (see CINEMATOGRAPH). The 
mechanical arrangements are treated in H. V. Hopwood, Living 
Pictures (1899); F. P. 



Jahrbiicher. 

A method of cinematography in colour was introduced by G. A. 
Smith and C. Urban in 1908, the main features of it being the use 
of a film sensitive to all colour waves to the furthest red; super- 
imposing the colour records by persistence of vision; the use of 
two-colour records instead of three, in order to reduce the interval 
between the successive presentations; adaptation to existing 
cinematograph machinery and films. These conditions are fulfilled 
by the use, in place of the ordinary revolving sector shutter in front 
of the lens passing intermittent white light, of a special, more 
rapidly revolving shutter divided into four sectors, one fitted with 
orange-red glass, another with bluish-green glass and two inter- 
mediate opaque sectors, so that at every revolution of the shutter 
an exposure is made through the red and green glasses alternately. 
The former passes white and yellow, and then orange, scarlet to 
deepest red; whilst the latter also passes white and yellow, green, 
blue-green, blue, all in proportion according to the red and green 
sensitiveness of the specially sensitized panchromatic emulsion on 
the film. The same shutter and colour screens are used for pro- 
jection, some supplementary blue rarys being added. The results 
are satisfactory and the method promises to be of great practical 
value (see Jour. Roy. Soc. Arts, 1908, 57, No. 2926). 

Special cameras are made for various branches of scientific 
research in photo-micrography, photo-spectroscopy, astronomical 
photography, &c. 

Tripod Stands. Field cameras are usually supported on wooden 
tripod stands, folding in two or more sections, the head being 
separate or fixed in the base-board of the camera. The legs should 
be capable of extension to about 5 ft. and adjustable in length for 
use on uneven ground. A tripod stand may be light, but must 
be firm and rigid when set up. To prevent slipping, shoes of india- 
rubber or cork may be fitted to the points of the legs, and in some 
cases it may be desirable to strengthen the tripod by a folding 
adjustable brace. W. Butler's " Swincam " camera stand is made 
to enable the camera to be securely fixed in awkward positions, 
and has many valuable special features, great extension, swivel 
points to the feet, &c. For hand cameras the very light, portable 
metal folding and walking-stick stands are convenient. 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



507 



Photographic Objectives or Lenses. 

The objective is the most important item of photographic 
apparatus, because upon it depends the perfection with which 
a correct and well-defined picture is projected upon the plane 
surface of the sensitive plate of objects in the different planes form- 
ing the field of view, which naturally would come to a focus on a 
series of curved surfaces. This flattened picture must be equally 
illuminated and sharply defined, within a limit of confusion from 
riff to . zkv f an inch, over a sufficiently wide angle. A good 
objective must also pass sufficient light to produce the required 
effect on the photographic plate with short exposures; the chemical 
and visual foci must coincide exactly, and it must not distort 
straight or parallel lines. The fulfilment of these conditions is 
complicated by the presence of sundry focal displacements or aberra- 
tions, (i) Spherical aberration, or non-coincidence of the foci of 
the central and marginal pencils of rays passing through the lens. 
It is corrected by varying the curves of the component lenses and by 
the use of a diaphragm. (2) Coma, or blur, due to lateral spherical 
aberration of oblique rays, and mostly found in unsymmetrical 
combinations and single view lenses. It is partly eliminated by 
the diaphragm. (3) Astigmatism, which accompanies coma in 
single lenses, and is usually present in symmetrical aplanats, mani- 
fests itself by forming two sets of images of points off the axis, 
lying in two separate curved surfaces, one set focusing tangentially 
as more or less horizontal lines, the other radially as more or less 
vertical lines. It increases with the obliquity of the rays and 
causes want of definition and difference of focus between horizontal 
and vertical lines away from the centre. (4) Curvature of field, 
also increasing with the obliquity of the rays. (5) Distortion, 
outward or inward, according to the nature and construction of 
the objective. With the single meniscus view lens, used with its 
concave surface towards the object and a diaphragm in front, a 
square will appear barrel shaped from inward contraction of the 
lines towards the centre ; but with the convex surface towards the 
object and the diaphragm behind, it will appear with concave 
sides from outward expansion from the centre. It can be corrected 
by using two such lenses with the convex sides outwards and a 
central diaphragm, as in periscopic or rectilinear lenses. Lenses 
of the orthoscopic and telephoto types generally show the latter 
form of distortion. (6) Chromatic aberration, produced by the 
dispersion of the white light passing through the lens, and the 
different coloured rays composing it coming to a focus at different 
distances from the visual focus in the order of their wave-lengths. 
It thus affects both the positions and sizes of the image for the dif- 
ferent colours. For ordinary photographic work it suffices for the 
blue-violet and yellow rays to be coincident, but for the new pro- 
cesses of photography in three colours, apochromatic lenses, in 
which perfect coincidence of the coloured rays is secured, are re- 
quired to obtain the accurate register of the three images. The 
corrections are effected by compensating lenses of different refractive 
powers (see ABERRATION). 

In constructing photographic objectives these aberrations and 
distortions have to be neutralized, by regulating the curves of the 
different positive and negative component lenses, the refractive 
and dispersive indices of the glasses from which they are made, 
and the distances of the refracting surfaces, so as to make the 
objective as far as possible stigmalic or focusing to a point, giving 
an image well defined and undistorted. This perfect correction 
could never be effected in objectives made before 1887, and very 
few could be effectively used at their full apertures, because although 
linear distortion could be overcome there were always residual 
aberrations affecting the oblique rays and necessitating the use of 
& diaphragm, which by lengthening out the rays caused them to 
define clearly over a larger surface, at the expense of luminous 
intensity and rapidity of working. The introduction of rapid 
gelatin dry plates enabled photographs to be taken with much 
greater rapidity than before, and led to a demand for greater 
intensity of illumination and better definition in lenses to meet 
the requirements of the necessarily very rapid exposures in hand 
cameras. For studio and copying work quick-acting lenses are 
also valuable in dull weather or in winter. 

The rapidity of a lens with a light of given intensity depends 
upon the diameter of its aperture, or that of the diaphragm used, 
relatively to the focal length. In order, therefore, to obtain in- 
creased rapidity combined with perfect definition, some means 
had to be found of constructing photographic objectives with larger 
effective apertures. This necessity had long been recognized and 
met by many of the best makers for objectives of the single meniscus 
and aplanatic types, but with only partial success, because such 
objectives are dependent upon the diaphragm for the further 
correction necessary to obtain good definition over an extended 
field. The difficulty was in the removal of astigmatism and curva- 
ture of the field, which, as J. Petzval had shown, was impossible 
with the old optical flint and crown glasses. In 1886 Messrs 
E. Abbe and O. Schott, of Jena, introduced several new varieties 
of optical glasses, among them new crown glasses which, with a 
lower dispersion than flint glass, have a higher instead of a lower 
refractive power. It was thus rendered possible to overcome 
the old difficulties and to revolutionize photographic optics by 



enabling objectives to be made free from astigmatism, working at 
their full apertures with great flatness of field independently of 
the diaphragm, which is now chiefly used to extend the area of 
definition or angle of view, and the so-called " depth of focus " 
for objects in different planes. 

Photographic objectives may be classed as follows: 

1. Single achromatic combinations. "1 

2. Unsymmetrical doublets. lni,i . 

3. Symmetrical doublets. 

4. Triple combinations. J 

5. Anastigmatic combinations symmetrical ~| 

and unsymmetrical. I j 

6. Telephotographic objectives. 

7. Anachromatic combinations. J 

They are also sometimes classified according to their rapidity, a 
expressed by their effective apertures, into " extra rapid," with 
apertures larger than//6; " rapid," with apertures f rom //6 to//8; 
" slow," with apertures less than //I I. Another classification is 
according to the angle of view, " narrow angle " up to 35; " medium 
angle " up to 60; " wide angle " up to 90, 100, or more. Many 
lenses are made in series, differing in rapidity and angle of view as 
well as in length of focus. 

i. Single Achromatic Combination or Landscape Lens. This is 
the earliest form of photographic objective, evolved from W. H. 
Wollaston's improved single periscopic meniscus camera obscura 
lens (1812). It was made achromatic by Ch. Chevalier, and so used 
by L. J. M. Daguerre, though it required correction for chemical 
focus, as did the object glasses of telescopes or opera classes first 
used for photography. The single landscape lens usually consists 
of an achromatic compound meniscus, formed of a biconvex positive 
crown cemented to a biconcave negative flint to secure achromatism 
and partially correct the spherical aberration, and may' be taken 
as the type of the " old photographic achromat " 
(fig. 14) - 1 It is used with its concave side towards 
the object and a diaphragm in front, thus pro- 
ducing inward or barrel-shaped distortion, inherent 
in this type of objective, and rendering it unsuit- 
able for copying or architecture, though not very 
noticeable in landscape work. The full aperture 
has to be largely reduced by a diaphragm to im- 
prove definition; so it is slow, though many im- 
proved forms have been brought out. It has ..^ 
always been popular for pure landscape work on p ij-S 
account of the equality of illumination over f T 
the plate, depth of focus, and the softness and * ' 
brilliancy of the image owing to its thinness and 
freedom from reflecting surfaces. In some of its improved and 
" long focus " forms it is preferred by portraitists for large 
heads, on account of the general softness it gives when used with 
large apertures. 

The following are some of the" best-known improved objectives 
of this type: T. Grubb's "Aplanatic" (1857), //is to 7/30 



-* 



r 



T 



FIG. 16.- 



-Rapid Landscape Lens. 
Long Focus. 



FIG. 15. Grubb's 
" Aplanatic " Lens. 

(fig. 15) ; J. H. Dallmeyer's " Wide Angle Landscape Lens " (1865), 
//I5, angle 75. In it distortion was reduced and marginal defi- 
nition improved. The " Rapid 
(long focus) Landscape Lens " 
(1884), //I2, angle 40* (fig. 16), 
was a modification of it, and 
at //8 is useful for heads in 
portraiture. W. Wray's 
Landscape Lens " (1886), 
flu, is also useful for por- 
traiture in the larger sizes at 
//8. Fr. Voigtlander's " Wide- 
Angle Landscape Lens " (1888) 



FIG. 17. Rectilinear Landscape 
Lens. 



1 In the diagrams of lenses which follow, a uniform system of 
indicating the nature of the glass employed by means of the shading 
has been adopted. 

Flint glass is indicated thus: 

Crown glass of low refractive power thus : 

Crown glass of high refractive power thus: 

(These two are used indiscriminately in lenses made 
before the introduction of the new Jena glass.) 

Extra light flint glass thus: 
In most cases the front of the lens is on the right. 



508 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



f/lS, angle 90, with great covenng power and depth of focus. 
T R. Dallmeyer's " Rectilinear Landscape Lens " (1888), //I4, 
angle 60 (fig. 17), was of novel construction, free from distortion, 
brilliant in working and useful for copying. Messrs Ross's " Wide- 
Angle Landscape Lens " (1890), //i6, angle 70, triple cemented 
and made of Jena glass. Many other excellent objectives of 
this type have been made by British and foreign makers and are 
still used, though somewhat superseded by the fully corrected 
anastigmats specially made to work singly, or as single elements 
of anastigmatic doublets, as noticed in 5. 

2 Unsymmetrical Doublets: Old Types. This class includes 
objectives with comparatively large apertures formed of two 
dissimilar combinations, in most cases correcting each other, with 
a diaphragm between them. In some the single elements may be 
used independently. All the older " portrait lenses, some of the 
aplanatic doublets and Fr. von Voigtlander's " Orthoscopic 
Lens (1857), now disused, are of this type. Even with the present 
improved conditions, the portraitist working in a studio requires 
a quick-acting objective of large effective aperture and compara- 
tively short focus, giving a brilliant well-defined image of near 
objects in different planes over a restricted field of view. The 
early single lenses were found to be too slow for portraiture by the 
daguerreotype and talbotype processes, and the efforts of opticians 
were directed to the problem of obtaining the maximum amount 
of light, together with good definition and flatness of field, and 
about 1840 compound lenses were brought out by Andrew Ross and 
C. Chevalier, consisting of two achromatic compounds, one at 
each end of a tube. Ross's lens, made for H. Collen, is interesting 
as the first lens corrected photographically, so that the visual and 
chemical foci were coincident (fig. 18). Ch. Chevalier also com- 
bined lenses of different foci, as is now done for " convertible 
objectives, used singly or combined. He also fitted them with 
iris diaphragms. These forms were soon superseded by the com- 
pound portrait lens, calculated by J. Petzval and brought out by 



FIG. 1 8. First English 

Portrait Lens. FIG. 19. Portrait Lens. 

Fr. von Voigtlander in 1841. It consists of two dissimilar achro- 
matic combinations widely separated. At first the diaphragms 
were in front, but now they are central. The front element is a 
plano-convex composed of a biconvex crown cemented to a plano- 
concave flint, while the back element is a double convex, com- 
posed of a biconvex crown separated by an air-space from a concavo- 
convex flint (fig. 19). This form of objective quickly supplanted all 
other for portraitures, and is still largely used, though it has defects 
which prevent its use for general purposes and is being superseded 
for portraiture by some of the rapid anastigmats. In his " Quick 
Acting Portrait Lens " (1860), fj^, angle 45, J. H. Dallmeyer 
improved the correction for spherical aberration, and in his " Extra 
Quick Acting Portrait Lens " (1860), f/2 -2, used for cinematograph 
work, attained greater rapidity. In the " Patent Portrait Lens " 

(1866), // 3 , // 4 and //6, angles 
5 to 55 (fig. 20), he made 
great changes in the form and 
relative positions of the back 
elements, giving a flatter field 
' and freedom from flare spot. By 
separating the two components 
of the back element more or less 
spherical aberration could be in- 
troduced to give softer definition 



FIG. 20. Dallmeyer's Patent 
Portrait Lens. 



and greater depth of focus. In 
1875 Dr. A. Steinheil made an 
Unsymmetrical aplanatic por- 
trait combination of peculiar construction, working at //3- 2. It was 
an improvement on his similar symmetrical " Portrait-Aplanat," 




FIG. 21. Portrait Antiplanet. FIG. 22. Group Antiplanet. 
Form I. of 1874, but was superse_ded in 1881 by the " Portrait 
Antiplanet," //4 and free from astigmatism over an angle of 14. 



It had six reflecting surfaces and nearly approached a triplet 
(fig. 21). Steinheil's "Group Aplanats " (1879), //6'4, angle 70, 
were an improvement on the ordinary " Aplanats, but were 
superseded in 1881 by the " Group Antiplanets," f/$, angle 70, 
lenses of a distinct type (fig. 22). They were a further advance 
on the " Aplanats, working at larger apertures and giving 
better definition. This lens is interesting as the first in which 
astigmatism was eliminated by combining a " crown-shaped " 
lens of high refractivity, with a " flint-shaped " of lower 
refractivity, though made of the old glasses. In his " Rapid 
Antiplanet" (1893), f/6-5, angle 30, Dr R. Steinheil improved 
the " Group Antiplanet " as regards astigmatism and covering 
power by replacing the thick back combination by a triple long- 
focus negative element consisting of a crown between two flints, 
with a heavy barium crown in the front element instead of a flint 
(fig. 23). Voigtlander, who originally constructed the Petzval 
portrait lens, improved it in 1878 and 1885, and now makes two 
lenses on the same principle, series I. //3'2, angle 28, for ordinary 
portraiture and projection, and series la., //2-3, angle 22 (1900) 
for astrophotography, cinematography, &c., when intense illumina- 
tion is required over a small field. Both are quite free from coma. 




FIG. 23. R. Steinheil's Im- FIG. 24. Ordinary Angle 

proved Group Antiplanet. Actinic Doublet. 

Most of the above are portrait objectives of large aperture, but 
Unsymmetrical doublets have also been made for landscape work. 
J. T. Goddard's " Combination Landscape Lens " (1859) was one 
of the first, and was free from distortion, gave a flat field, and 
could be used as a convertible lens. In 1864 T. Ross issued his 
" Actinic Doublets," modified from the Collen lens, in three series 
"small angle," f/8, angle 40 to 50; " ordinary angle," //id, 
angle 60 to 75 (fig. 24); " large angle," //i6, angle 80 to 95 . 
These lenses were similar to the " Globe," but Unsymmetrical 
and more rapid. The separate elements could be used alone. 
Some of them were fitted with a shutter near the diaphragm. They 
were superseded by the " Symmetrical " lenses. 

3. Symmetrical Doublets. This class includes objectives formed 
of two similar combinations of lenses, usually of the convergent 
meniscus form, with their concave surfaces inwards and a diaphragm 
between them; consequently they are rectilinear and practically 
free from marginal distortion. Until the introduction of anastig- 
,matic doublets they were in general use for all purposes under the 
names " Aplanat," " Rectilinear," " Symmetrical, " Euryscope," 
&c. They are still largely used and have been improved by the 
use of Jena glasses in their construction. 

The first recorded lens of this type was Dr J. W. Draper's com- 
bination used in 1839 for daguerreotype portraits, consisting of 
two double-convex Tenses 4 in. diameter, with a united focus 
of 8 in., mounted in a tube with a diaphragm 3$ in. in front. 
In 1841 T. Davidson made a combination of two single landscape 
lenses very similar to the later rectilinear doublets. Being slower 
than the Petzval portrait lens its value as a non-distorting lens for 
general purposes was not recognized. G. S. Cundell (1844) combined 
two unconnected meniscus lenses with a diaphragm between them. 
In 1860 T. Sutton brought out his " Panoramic Lens," which 
worked on curved plates covering about 100. It was followed 

I 





FIG. 25. C. A. Steinheil's 

" Periskop." FIG. 26. A. Steinheil's "Aplanat." 

by C. C. Harrison's " Globe Lens " (1862), angle 75, composed of 
a symmetrical pair of deep compound menisci, the exterior surfaces 
forming part of a sphere. Though defective and slow it was popular 
for a time. C. A. Steinheil's " Periskop " (1865, f 113-5, angle 90, 
was a symmetrical doublet formed of two plain crown menisci 
with central diaphragm (fig. 25). It gave a larger field than the 
" Globe," the lenses being closer together. Being nonachromatic 
it had to be adjusted for chemical focus. It was quite free from 
distortion, with a very flat field, and both nodal points together. 
It is _ considered the best possible combination of two plain lenses, 
and is still _ used in some of the cheaper hand cameras with fixed 
focus, the difference of the chemical and visual foci being allowed for 
in the camera or by adjustable lens mounts. G. Rodenstock's 
" Bistigmats " are of this class. J. Zentmayer made a similar un- 
symmetrical lens. In A. Steinheil's " Aplanat " (1866) the same 
principle was carried out with achromatized lenses, and a great 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



509 



improvement was effected in the construction of non-distorting 
objectives of fairly large aperture. It consisted of two positive 
cemented flint menisci, each composed of a dense flint with negative 
focus outside and a light flint with positive focus inside, its concave 
surfaces facing the centre (fig. 26). This use of flint glasses alone 
was peculiar, former achromatic lenses having been made of flint 
and crown. These lenses were made in three rapidities : " Ordinary," 
f/6 or//7, angle 60; " Landscape," //I2 to//!5, angle 90, also used 
in convertible sets; " Wide Angle Landscape," //2O to //25, angle 
104; " Wide Angle Reproduction," similar to the last, but with 
sharper definition. The " Aplanat " had many advantages over 
previous doublets and the triplet, being more rapid, perfectly 
symmetrical, so that there was no necessity for turning them when 
enlarging, and free from distortion or flare. There was no chemical 
focus. Each component could be used alone for landscape work 
with double focus, subject to the ordinary defects of single lenses. 
By the use of Jena glasses in the "Universal Aplanat" (1886) the 
components of this lens were brought closer together, its intensity 
increased, and it was made more portable. J. H. Dallmeyer had 
been working in the same direction simultaneously with Steinheil, 
and in 1866 brought out his " Wide Angle Rectilinear," //I5, angle 
100, made of flint and crown, the front element being larger than the 
back (fig. 27). It was slow for ordinary purposes and was succeeded 
in 1867 by the well-known " Rapid Rectilinear," f/8, on the same 




FIG. 27. Wide-Angle 
Rectilinear Lens. 



FIG. 28. Rapid Rectilinear Lens. 



principle as Steinheil's " Aplanat, but made of flint and crown 
(fig. 28). Ross's " Rapid " and " Portable Symmetrical " lenses, 
Voigtlander's " Euryscopes," and other similar lenses of British 
and foreign manufacture are of the same type, and still in use. They 
are excellent for general purposes and copying, but astigmatism is 
always present, and although they can be used with larger apertures 
than the triplets they displaced, they require stopping down to secure 
good marginal definition over the size of plate they are said to cover. 
By the use of Jena glasses they have been improved to work at 
larger apertures, and some are made with triple cemented elements. 
4. Triple Combinations: OW Types. This class comprises objectives 
composed of three separate combinations of glasses widely separated 
from each other. An early form of this type was made by Andrew 
Ross (1841) for W. H. Fox Talbot, others by F. S. Archer, J. T. 
Goddard (1859), T. Sutton (1860), but they never came into general 

use. J. H. Dallmeyer's " Triple 
Achromatic Lens (i86l),//io, 
angle 60, now out of date, 
was an excellent non-distorting 
^~~ lens, very useful for general 
work and copying (fig. 29). As 
made by Dallmeyer, the inner 
surfaces of the front and back 



FIG. 2 9 .-Triple Achromatic Lens. ^ve^buTi'n 

Triplets " (1861), //i6, they were flat. The centre lens was an 

achromatic negative serving to flatten the field. 

5. Anastigmatic Combinations, Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical. 
As already stated, it was found practically impossible to obtain 
flatness of field, together with freedom from astigmatism, in objectives 
constructed with the old optical glasses. A. Steinheil attempted it 
in the " Antiplanets," but with only partial success. The Abbe and 
Schott Jena glasses, issued in 1886, put a new power into the hands of 
opticians by largely increasing their choice of glasses with different 
refractive and dispersive powers. Whereas the old glasses had 
high refractivity with higher dispersion, in the new ones high refrac- 
tivity with lower dispersion could be set against lower refractivity 
with higher dispersion. 

Between 1887 and 1889 the first attempts to make anastigmatic 
objectives with the new glasses were made by 
M. Mittenzwei of Zwickau, R. D. Gray of New 
Jersey, E. Hartnach and A. Miethe of Berlin 
(" Pantoscope "), K. Fritsch of Vienna (" Apo- 
chromat ") and Fr. von Voigtlander of Brunswick, 
with more or less success, but progress was hindered 
by the instability of some of the early glasses, 
which was afterwards overcome by sandwiching 
the soft glasses between two hard ones. In 1888 
Dr H. L. H. Schroeder worked out for Messrs Ross 
the " Concentric Lens " (fig. 30) issued in 1892 
(Ph. Jour., id, p. 276). It was a symmetrical 
doublet of novel construction, each element con- 
sisting of a plano-convex crown of high refrac- 
tivity cemented to a plano-concave flint of lower 
refractivity, but about equal or higher dispersion. Both the 




FIG. 30. Con- 
centric Lens. 



uncemented surfaces were spherical and concentric. At //1 6 it gave 
sharp definition and flatness of field with freedom from astigma- 
tism, distortion or flare over an angle of 75. It was an excellent 
lens, though slow, and has been superseded by the " Homocentric " 
and other more rapid anastigmats. Dr Paul Rudolph, of Messrs 
Carl Zeiss& Co., Jena, worked out in 1889 a new and successful method 
of constructing a photographic objective by which astigmatism of 
the oblique rays and the want of marginal definition due to it could be 





FIG. 31. Anastigmat. FIG. 32. Anastigmat. 

Series II. //6-3- Series Ilia. Jjg. 

eliminated without loss of rapidity, so that a comparatively extended 
field could be covered with a large aperture. This he did on the prin- 
ciple of the opposite or opposed gradation of the refractive indices in 
the front and back lenses, by a combination of two dissimilar systems 
of single lenses cemented together, the positive element of each having 
in one case a higher and in the other a lower refractive index than that 
of the negative element with which it was associated. The front 
system, relied upon for the correction of spherical aberration, was 
made of the old glasses, a crown positive of low and a flint negative 
of high refractivity, whilst the back system, relied upon for the 
anastigmatic flattening of the field, was made of the new glasses, 
a crown positive of high and a flint negative of low refractivity. 
Both systems being spherically and chromatically corrected for a 
large aperture, the field was flattened, the astigmatism of the one 
being corrected by the opposite astigmatism of the other, without 
destroying the flatness of the field over a large angle (see E. Jb., 
1891 and 1893; M. von Rohr's Geschichte, and O. Cummer, Photo- 
graphic Optics, for further details). They were issued by Messrs 
Zeiss and their licencees (in England, Messrs Ross), in 1890, in two 
different types. The more rapid had five lenses (fig. 31), two of 
ordinary glasses in the front normal achromat, and three in the 
back abnormal achromat, two crowns of very high refractive power, 
with a negative flint of very low refractive power between them. 





FlG. 33. Anastigmat. 
Series VI. 



FIG. 34. Satz Anastigmat. 
Series VIo. 



The fifth lens assisted in removing spherical aberrations of higher 
orders with large apertures. The second type, series Ilia., //9, 
1899 (fig. 32), had only two lenses, the functions of which were as 
above. These combinations could not be used separately as single 
lenses. They are now issued as " Protars," series Ha., f/8; Ilia., 
//9; V., //l8. In 1891 Dr Rudolph devoted himself to perfecting 
the single landscape lens, and constructed on the same principle a 
single combination of three lenses, the central one having a refractive 
index between the indices of the two others, and one of its cemented 
surfaces diverging, while the other was converging. At //I4'5 this 
lens gave an anastigmatically flat image with freedom from spherical 
aberration on or off the axis. It was, however, not brought out till 
1893, as a convertible lens or " Satz- Anastigmat," series VI.,//I4'5, 
and VIo.,//7-7 (figs. 33 and 34). In the meantime Dr E. von Hoegh 
(C. B. Goerz) and Dr A. Steinheil had also been working at the pro- 
blem and had independently calculated lenses similar to Rudolph's, 
but, whereas he had devoted himself to perfecting the single lens, 
they sought more perfect correction by combining two single anas- 
tigmatic lenses to form a doublet. Dr Rudolph had had the same 
idea, but Messrs Goerz secured the priority of patent in 1892, and 
in 1893 brought out their " Double Anastigmat," .now known as 





FIG. 35. 

Ross-Goerz " Dagor." Series III. Ross-Goerz. Series IV. 
" Dagor." It was the first symmetrical anastigmat which combined 
freedom from astigmatism with flatness of field and great covering 
power at the large aperture of //7>7 (fig. 35). Both these types of 
Zeiss's " Protars " and Goerz's " Dagor " anastigmats have since 



5*0 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



been made by Messrs Ross in England. Messrs Steinheil brought 
out their first " Orthostigmats " in 1893, but, owing to patent diffi- 
culties, were unable to manufacture them in Germany, and they were 
issued later in France and England. They were followed by a second 
type, which has since been issued in several series by Messrs Steinheil 
and 'by Messrs Beck in England (fig. 36). According to Dr R. 
Steinheil (E. Jb., 1897, p. 172) this lens was an application of two 
principles recognized by Dr A. Steinheil as necessary for the spherical 
and anastigmatic correction of a lens. He attempted to carry them 
out in the " Antiplanet," but was prevented by the want of suit- 
able glass. He found that for anastigmatic correction an objective 
should have the separating surface between two media concave 
towards the medium of higher refraction (new achromat), and for 





FIG. 36. Steinheil's FIG. 37-" Collinear." 

" Orthostigmat." Series II. 

spherical correction the separating surface should be convex towards 
the higher refracting medium. A fully corrected cemented lens 
cannot, therefore, be made with less than three glasses, but with 
uncemented lenses an air-space may form one of the media. In 
1895 Dr D. Kaempfer worked out the " Collinear " for^ Messrs 
Voigtlander, constructed on the same principles as the " Ortho- 
stiemat," type II., and similar to it (fig. 37). It is made in three 
series: II., //5'4 and //6- 3 ; III., //6'8 and fin (convertible); IV., 
f/12'5, and the apochromatic collinear //8, calculated by Dr H. 
Halting for three-colour reproduction, &c. (Ph. Jour., 1901, 25, 

In 1894 Dr Rudolph extended the application of his principle 
by combining the old achromat and the new achromat into a single 
quadruple cemented lens (fig. 38), which, according to T. R. Dall- 
meyer, was the most perfectly corrected single lens that had been 





Series Vila. //6-3- 



FIG. 38. 

Series VII. //I2-5. 
evolved up to 1900, Dr Rudolph having succeeded in obtaining 
freedom from spherical aberration and astigmatism, and also in 
eliminating coma (Ph. Jour. 1901, 25, p. 68). These lenses were 
issued in 1895 as series VII. singly and Vila., in combinations now 
known as " Convertible Protars, and the earlier series VI. and Via. 
were withdrawn. The single lenses of series VII., //I2'5, angle 85, 
have great anastigmatic flatness of field and only very slight marginal 
distortion, a condition not realized before in a single lens. The rela- 
tive rapidities of the double combinations of series Vila, vary from 
//6'3 to //8, according to the lenses used. They are excellent lenses 
for all general purposes. 

In their " Convertible Protars," series IV. (1908), //I2'5, angle 
60, Messrs Zeiss have simplified and cheapened the construction 
of these lenses by the use of new Jena glasses, so that they consist 
of three instead of four lens elements cemented together, while 
possessing the same high efficiency as series VI I. They are issued 
as " single " or " double " Protars, //I2'5 and //6;3 or //7, also in 
sets of three or four objectives of different foci, which are combined 
to give pictures of different angles of view from the same standpoint. 
With both series when using the " Protar " lens singly, it should 
be screwed behind the iris diaphragm of the mount, to avoid curva- 
ture of the field, and when two such lenses are combined the one 
with the greater focal length should be placed in front. 

In 1895 Messrs Goerz patented a double anastigmat, f/5'6, with 
quintuple single lens components as a convertible lens, for which 
greater sharpness of definition and intensity, with perfect freedom 
from astigmatism and distortion in the single lens, were claimed. 
It was issued in 1898, but, like an earlier analogous quintuplet of 
Messrs Turner & Reich (1895), it has not come into use on account 
of the cost and difficulty of construction. The latter firm, however, 
brought out in 1906 a new symmetrical quintuplet at//6'8. 

A triple anastigmatic combination containing remarkable new 
features, constructed and patented by H. D. Taylor, was issued in 
1895 by Messrs Taylor, Taylor & Hobson under the name of the 
" Cooke Lens," and later by Messrs Voigtlander as the "Triple 
Anastigmat." It consists of three single lenses, two of them positive 
crossed lenses of crown glass with high refraction and low dispersion, 
with their most convex sides outwards, and between them, in front 
of the diaphragm, a single biconcave of light flint (fig. 39). All 



these lenses are designed to be free from diaphragm corrections, 
while the focal power of the negative lens is made as closely equal to 
the combined focal powers of the two positive lenses as may be 




FIG. 40. "Cooke" Lens. 
Series III. 



FIG. 39. " Cooke " Portrait Lens. 
Aperture //4~5. 

necessary for the flattening of the field and correcting marginal 
astigmatism. They are not convertible, but arrangements are made 
for replacing the back lens by a low-power extension lens (Ph. 
Jour. 1895, 19, p. 64). Series III., //6'5 (fig. 40), and series IV., 
//5'6, are portrait lenses. In the larger objectives of series II. 
the back lenses are adjustable for uniform sharp definition or a soft 
diffusion of focus. In a later series VI. (190?). //5'6, this adjustment 
for diffusion is given to the front lens and is so arranged for portrai- 
ture that the diffusing adjustment and iris diaphragm can be operated 
from the back of the camera while viewing the focusing screen. 
A special fully corrected " Process " lens on the same general 
principle has recently been brought out for three-colour work and 
fine-line reproduction. Another distinctly new type of anastigmatic 
objective involving several new principles of construction was 
patented by H. L. Aldis in 1895, and brought out by Messrs Dall- 
meyer in three series, under the name of "Stigmatic" (Ph. Jour., 
1896, 20, p. 117). It also approaches the triplet construction and 
depends on the introduction of air-spaces between the component 
lenses. According to Aldis, three conditions must be observed to 
obtain a flat field free from marginal astigmatism : (i ) The converging 
lenses must be of high, the diverging of low, refractive index; (2) 
the converging and diverging components must be separated by a 
considerable interval; (3) thick meniscus glasses should be used. 
The first " Stigmatic " was a portrait lens, series I., 1896, //4- It 
has been made in two forms, first with a triple front lens, and a back 
negative system formed of a single thick crown lens of high refrac- 
tivity with a negative ce- 
mented meniscus. In the 
second form (fig. 41) the 
front component consists 
of a cemented positive and 
negative, and both parts 
of the back component 
are cemented lenses. All 
the converging lenses are 
of dense baryta crown, 
while both the diverging 

lenses in the back component are a light silicate crown. It is 
fully corrected for spherical and chromatic aberration, free from 
distortion and nearly so for astigmatism, giving equal illumination 
over a flat field of 60. Diffusion of focus is obtained by unscrewing 
the back cell. Series II. (1897) is on the same principle but differs 
in construction, working at //6 over an angle of 85 as a universal 
and convertible lens (fig. 42). The 
front or back component can be used 
alone, giving the choice of two focal 
lengths, 1 1 and twice the focal 
length of the complete lens. The 
principles of its construction were 
described by T. R. Dallmeyer in Ph. 
Jour. 1897, 21, p. 167. Series III., 
//7'5, will at //i6 give sharp defini- 
tion over a plate two sizes larger. 
The single components are not con- 
vertible. 




FIG. 41. Stigmatic Portrait Lens. 
Series I. 




FIG. 42. Stigmatic Lens. 
Series II. 



In 1897 Messrs Zeiss issued the " Planar," an objective of large 
aperture based on the principle of the Gauss telescope objective. 
It is a symmetrical doublet, each element consisting of three lenses, 
the two inner ones being a double convex and a double concave, of 
equal refractive but different dispersive power, cemented together 
and separated by an air-space from the outer convex meniscus (fig. 
43). Its special points are its good colour correction, large relative 
aperture and intensity, varying from //3'6 to //6, with perfectly 
sharp definition and anastigmatic flatness of field over an angle of 
view from 62 to 72. It is a very rapid wide-angle lens useful for 
instantaneous work with the cinematograph and hand cameras, also 
for portraits and groups, photo-micrography and enlargements or 
reductions (see E. Jb., 1898, p. 79, Von Rohr, p. 390, and Lummer, 
p. 81). Apochromatic planars with reduced secondary spectrum were 
brought out in 1903 for three-colour photography, and are also 
useful for astrophotography, the circle of diffusion being very small. 
The " Unar " (1900), f/4'5 in the smaller and//6 - s in the larger sizes, 
angle 65 and 68, was a further improvement by Dr Rudolph. It 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



5 11 



consists of two unsymmetrical combinations, each formed of two 
single lenses of very transparent glass, dense baryta crown and light 
flint, separated by positive and negative air-spaces (fig. 44). The 
separate halves cannot be used as single lenses, neither being fully 
corrected for colour. It is well adapted for portraiture, groups or 
landscapes, especially for rapid hand camera work, on account of 
its covering power, with freedom from astigmatism and sharp 
definition with large relative aperture. 




FIG. 43. Planar. Series la. 



FIG. 44. Zeiss's " Unar." 



In 1898 Messrs Goerz patented their " Double Anastigmat Celor," 
series I6..//4-5 to//5-5- It is a symmetrical doublet, each element 
consisting of two thin single lenses : a positive of high and a negative 
of low refractive index, separated by an air-space (fig. 45). It is 
derived from the triple anastigmats by decreasing the refractive 
power of the central convex meniscus to the refractive power 
of air, so that it becomes a convex air-space between a double 
convex and a double concave lens. Less deeply curved surfaces 
can be given to the lenses, and the doublet gives anastig- 
matic flatness of field over an angle of 62 to 66, equal to 
the best anastigmats with a still larger aperture. Series \c., //6-3, 
is similar and recommended for hand cameras, the aperture 
being smaller. Goerz's " Hypergon," (1900) f/22, angle 135, is a 




FIG. 45. Goerz's " Celor." FIG. 46. Goerz's " Alethar." 

symmetrical doublet of remarkable construction, consisting of only 
two single semi-globular, very thin lenses, with diaphragm at the 
centre of curvature between them. Astigmatism and curvature 
have been eliminated, and definition is good over the above wide 
angle with no distortion. Chromatic aberration is uncorrected, but 
compensated for by using a small stop. A star mask is fitted in 
front of the lens to allow for falling off of illumination towards the 
margin (E. Jb., 1901, p. 103). The " Syntor " (1903), Series Id., 
//6-8, angle 64 to 70, is on the same principle as the " Celor," but 
cheaper, for use in hand cameras or telephoto combinations. The 
" Alethar," series V. (1903), f/l i, is a lens with diminished secondary 
spectrum, for three-colour reproductions, half-tone process work, 
and general purposes. It is a symmetrical doublet, each element 
consisting of a negative and positive separated by an air-space 
(fig. 46). The negative is composed of three cemented lenses, 
which correct the spherical and chromatic aberrations more fully 
than hitherto possible, so that all the colours of the spectrum are 
focused in the same invariable plane. It gives great crispness 
of definition at full aperture (W. Zschokke, E. Jb., 1904, p. 165). 
Goerz's " Pantar," //6-3 (1904), is a convertible 4-lens anastigmat, 
and an improvement on the " Dagor," in that the single elements 
are completely corrected for coma, and thus form efficient long-focus 
lenses for landscape, &c., at an aperture of //I2-5, while the doublets 
formed by various combinations of the single elements are universal 
objectives working from //6-3 to //7-7- The single elements are 
similar to those of the " Dagor," but have an additional negative 





FIG. 47. Aldis Lens. 
Series II. 



FIG. 48. Aldis Lens. 
Series III. 



lens at the back, so that the outer two of the three cemented surfaces 
have a collective and the inner one a dispersive action, by which 
coma is eliminated (E. Jb., 1905, p. 55). 

In 1902 H. L. Aldis issued the Aldis Lens," //6, a doublet 
composed of a cemented meniscus in front and a single double 



convex back lens. It is a long-focus objective with short back focus, 
and is made in two forms, series II., //6 (fig. 47), and series III. 
(i9 3). //7'7 (fig- 4 8 ) In tne latter the back element is very thin, 
and the front combination of infinite focal length. By discarding 
the symmetrical form simplicity is secured, while open or reflecting 
surfaces are avoided. Special attention has been paid to perfect 
correction of spherical aberration in the centre of the field. It is 
ighter, smaller and cheaper than series II. The " Duo " lens of the 
same maker (1907) is intended to replace the front lens and double 
the focus, but with less rapidity and without any loss of quality. 
The " Trio " (1908) is similar, but only increases the focus one and a 
half times and is thus more suitable for cameras of short extension. 
The Aldis " Oxys " anastigmat, series II. (1908), //5-6s, angle 85, 
is an improved form. Being an unsymmetrical cemented doublet 
it is free from the defects incidental to air-spaces and is constructed 
to give more perfect correction for flatness of field with large aperture 
and wide angle. 

It is generally stated that it is impossible to make a spherically, 
chromatically and anastigmatically corrected photographic objective 
with the old optical glasses. K. Martin, of Messrs Busch of Rathenow, 
has, however, shown (E. Jb., 1902, p. 68) that it is quite possible to 
do so with a system of separated lenses, and that it is immaterial 
whether the index of the flint or the crown is the higher. An 
anastigmat on this principle was issued by Messrs Busch in 1902, 
as the " Omnar," series III., //y-y (fig. 49). Series II.,//5-5, angle 
75, and I., //4'5, have since been issued. It is a symmetrical 





FIG. 49. " Omnar," 
Series III. 



FIG. 50. Ross's 
" Homocentric." 



doublet, each element consisting of a negative flint meniscus of 
higher refraction, and a positive crown of Tower refraction with an 
air-space between them in the form of a negative lens. The back 
element can be used alone. The " Lumar series, by G. Roden- 
stock, is similar. In 1902 Messrs Ross brought out the " Homo- 
centric," a symmetrical doublet, each element consisting of a nega- 
tive and positive meniscus separated by an air-space (fig. 50). It is 
constructed so that all rays of light emanating from any one point 
of the object are converged again into one point in the image. It is 
also quite free from spherical zones, is not altered in focus with 
different diaphragms, and thus has exquisite defining power. The 
colour correction is so perfect that the different coloured images are 
identical in size and position, thus rendering it specially suitable 
for three-colour and process work. The back lens can be used alone, 
with diaphragms, as a single lens of about double the focus of the 
doublet. It is made in several series: II.,//5-6, and III.,//6-3, for 
rapid and instantaneous work; V., //8, for ordinary purposes; VI., 
//8, for process work and three-colour reproduction. A later series, 
IV. (1907), " Compound Homocentric," //6-8, differs from the others 
in being a symmetrical doublet composed of two triple cemented 
elements, very close together and separated by a diaphragm. It is 





FIG. 51. Zeiss's 
" Tessar." 



FIG. 52. Voigtlander's 
" Heliar." 



specially suitable for outdoor work, also for copying and enlarging, 
having good covering power. Zeiss's " Tessar ' (1902) is a rapid 
unsymmetrical doublet, formed of two separated uncemented posi- 
tive and negative lenses in the front element and a cemented meniscus 
at the back (fig. 51). The two halves cannot be used separately. 
The glasses used are very transparent, permanent and lessen the 
secondary spectrum. Three series are made by Messrs Ross, lc., 
//3'5 for cinematographic work and portraiture, and 7/4-5 for hand- 
camera work and portraiture; 116., //6-3 for general purposes, and 
VIII., the " Apochromatic Tessar, specially corrected for three- 
colour work and reproduction. They all give fine definition over 
a large flat field, free from any zonal aberration. The//3'5 portrait 
lenses, with double the field and covering power of the Petzval lens, 
are anastigmatic and free from distortion. Messrs Voigtlander's 
" Heliar" (1902), //4~5, angle 50, calculated by Dr H. Halting, is 
an objective of large aperture, suitable for portraits and very rapid 
instantaneous work, being well corrected for astigmatism, coma and 
curvature of field, with freedom from flare. It is a triplet consisting 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



of a central negative lens, with cemented double front and back 
lenses (fig. 52). The negative lenses are of light silicate flint, the 
two positive of the heaviest baryta crown. Besides being a rapid 
universal lens, it is specially suitable for half-tone process work, 
with a large diaphragm (E. Jb., 1903, p. 117). The " Dynar " 
(1903)1 //6, angle 60 , is of somewhat similar construction, but 
differs from the " Heliar " in the positive lenses of the cemented 
pairs being outside instead of towards the central lens. It can only 
be used as a whole.-. It is made of hard colourless Jena glasses, 
giving great brilliancy and uniformity of illumination over a large 
angle, and is specially adapted for very rapid hand-camera work. 

Dr R. Steinheil's " Unofocal " (1903), //4'5 is a symmetrical 
doublet, each element consisting of two single separated lenses of 
equal refractive power and of equal focus of opposite signs, hence 
its name. Each half can be used as a single lens with small stops. 
In its construction a quite new principle was followed, the separation 
of the lenses fulfilling an important part in the colour correction, as 
explained by Conrad Beck in Ph. Journ. (1904), 44, p. 177. This plan 
satisfies the Petzval condition and removes its restrictions, so that 
a lens of //4>5 can be produced with telescopic central definition, 
perfect freedom from distortion and flare over a flat field of 60, 
with great equality of illumination (fig. 53). They are made by 
Messrs Beck in two series: II., //4'5, for portraiture, rapid hand- 
camera work, telephotography and projection; and I..//6, in which 
the lenses are closer together, for hand-camera work and general 
purposes. E. Arbeit's Euryplan " anastigmats (1903), made by 
Schulze Bros., Potsdam, are apochromatic objectives of quite new 
construction, giving perfect definition with large apertures over a 



FIG. 53. Beck-Steinheil 
" Unofocal." 




FIG. 54. Euryplan, 



wide angle, made in four series: I., //4'5, angle 80; II., f/5-6, angle 
90; III., //6-8 to 7-5, angle 82; IV., f/6-5. They are symmetrical 
doublets, each element consisting of three lenses, a new achromat 
formed of a biconvex of heavy baryta crown of high refractivity and 
low dispersion, separated by an air-space from a positive meniscus 
of the same baryta crown, with its concave side towards the dia- 
phragm. In series I., //4 - 5, the two positives are placed outside 
(fig. 54), in series II. and III. they are inside. The single elements 
are fully corrected astigmatically and chromatically, and can be 
used singly at double the focus (E. Jb. 1904, p. 35). 

Beck's Isostigmar " (1907) is a new anastigmat showing a dis- 
tinct departure from the ordinary principles of construction, in that 
it does not fulfil the Petzval condition that the sum of the focal 
powers of its individual lenses multiplied by the reciprocals of their 
respective refractive indices should be equal to zero, or 2(l/jif) =o. 
It is a 5-lens combination, two separated thin single lenses in the 
front element and three in the back 
(fig- 55)- I? departing from the 
Petzval condition very low power 
lenses can be used, thus reducing the 
initial errors to be corrected; no indi- 
vidual component having a shorter 
focal length than one-half that of a 
complete objective. A special feature 
is the excellent correction of the oblique 
spherical aberrations and central aber- 
rations, giving a practically flat field 
without astigmatism over angles from 




FIG. 55. Beck's 
stigmar." 



Iso- 



60 to 90. The half combinations can also be used alone with 
diaphragms as long focus lenses of different foci (Ph. Journ. 1907, 47, 
p. 191). It is issued in six series: I. (1908), //4'5, large aperture, 
series, for reflex press work and portraiture; Ia.,//6-5, angle 6o-65, 



latter is very useful when an extended use of the rising front is 
required, either at a wide or ordinary angle. V. (1908), //n, 
" Process " lenses specially corrected to give a flat field for copying. 
They can be fitted with suitable reversing prisms. VI. (1908), //5-6, 
variable portrait lenses, adjustable for sharp or soft definition from 
the back of the camera while focusing. 

The above represent the principal types of anastigmats, but 
many more objectives of the kind, triple or quadruple, cemented 
or uncemented, with air-spaces, in many modifications, have been 
issued by English and foreign makers. 

6. Telephotographic Objectives. For some years past special 
objectives, or attachments, have been constructed for photographing 
near or distant objects on an enlarged scale with an ordinary camera, 
the extension required being very much less than would be needed 
to obtain an image of the same size with an ordinary long-focus lens 
without enlargement. They consist of a combination of a positive 
converging with a negative dispersing lens, by which the image is 
picked up and enlarged to varying degrees, according to the system 
of lenses used and the extension given to the camera, thus producing 
the same effect as a positive lens of very much longer focus. Enlarged 
images of this kind can also be made by a combination of two con- 
verging lenses, one of them forming an image of the object, which is 
received on the other of shorter focus and projected on the sensitive 
plate, being enlarged more or less according to the optical conditions 
and relative positions of the lenses and sensitive plate. The photo- 
heliographs at Greenwich and other solar observatories, designed 
by Warren de la Rue, are on this principle. Portable apparatus 
of the kind was made in 1869 by MM. Borie and de Tournemire, and 
later by Jarret, but this system requires much greater extension of 
the camera, entailing more loss of intensity of the image, and has 
never come into use. 

The modern telephotographic combination is generally looked 
upon as an application of the principle of the " Barlow " lens, but 
it really goes back to the Galilean telescope (c. 1610). J. B. Porta 
mentions the combination of concave and convex lenses for giving 
enlarged and clearer images of near and distant objects (Magia 
Naturalis, lib. 17, cap. 10, 1589). J. Kepler showed that by a com- 
bination of a convex with a concave lens images of objects could be 
depicted on paper of a larger size than by the convex lens alone, 
but reversed (Dioptrice, Prob. cv. 1611). Christopher Scheiner 
made use of the same principle in his " Helioscope " for solar observa- 
tions (Rosa Ursina, cap. vii. 1630). F. M. Deschales and P. Z. 
Traber also dealt with the question, and in J. Zahn's Oculus artifi- 
cialis Teledioptricus (1686) we find figured a reflecting camera 
fitted with a compound enlarging lens on this principle. In his 
Nova Dioptrica (1692), W. Molyneux has given some interesting 
problems for calculating the position of the compound focus of a 
convex with a concave lens, also the angles subtended by an object 
on the focal plane. If for the simple unconnected glasses then used 
we substitute a system of photographically corrected positive and 
negative lenses, suitably mounted, and put a sensitiye plate in place 
of the paper, we have the modern telephotographic arrangement. 
I. Porro seems to have been the first to use a combination of this 
kind for photographing an eclipse in 1857, and later for terrestrial 
objects. It consisted of a small achromatic single lens combined 
with a concave lens. Many attempts were afterwards made in 
France, and also in England, to utilize the principle, but special 
lenses for the purpose were not available. Ad. Steinheil constructed 
one in 1889 for the Brussels Observatory, and another in 1890 for 
the Marine Department in Berlin. In 1891, curiously enough, 
three such combinations were worked out quite independently 
and patented, by T. R. Dallmeyer in London, A. Miethe in Berlin 
and A. Duboscq in Paris. Since that time these combinations 
have been greatly improved by increase in the working apertures 
and reduction in size and weight, so that they can be used in hand 
cameras. They are exceedingly valuable for obtaining details of 
inaccessible objects at a distance, whether architectural or topo- 
graphical, and for photographing animals without approaching them 
too closely. Large portraits can also be taken with much better 
perspective effects and more conveniently than 
by using long-focus lenses much nearer to * 

the sitter. With the very perfect telephoto- *" ' 

+ 

L, Li 



1 
' 


'J. 


-Al- 


..A 


IT 


11 7 


r-rft 


1 




m 


..----^ 


i 


<( 


t 










, 


-->' 










?' 


[ 










i 






f->. : 





long focus, for portraiture, &c.; II..//S-8, angle 70, for general use, 
III.//7-7, angle 65, similar to II. but less rapid ; IV. //6-3, angle 90; 
wide an^le, giving satisfactory definition at full aperture over an angle 
trom 80 to 85 . Having such a large reserve of covering power the 



FIG. 56. 



graphic objectives now available the loss of intensity of illumination, 
which no doubt was the bar to early progress in this direction, has 
been overcome, and definition has also been improved, so that snap- 
shots can readily be made with combinations of high intensity, while 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



with those of ordinary intensity the exposures are not unduly 
prolonged, and good definition can be obtained over an extended 
field. 

The optical principle on which these combinations are based 
is yery simple, and will be understood from fig. 56. It depends 
mainly on the fact that in order that a real image may be thrown 
on the screen of an object AB, the rays proceeding from it, which 
pass through the positive system Lj, must come to a focus at a 
point / within the secondary focus /" of the negative system L 2 . 
Falling within this limit, they will be intercepted by L 2 and made 
less convergent, so that instead of coming to a focus at /, they will 
continue to converge till they reach the screen at /*, and will there 
form a proportionally larger image a'b' of AB than the image ab 
given by the positive lens alone at /; just as stated in Kepler's 
problem. Moreover, this image a'b' will be of the same size as if 
it had been produced directly by a positive lens L 3 with a focal 
length equal to //'", and this distance is the equivalent focal length 
of the entire system. It can be found from the formula F =/i/2/d, 
where ft and Ji are the focal lengths of L! and L 2 respectively, and 
d=fi+fis, s being the distance between the lenses. In many 
instruments of the kind a scale showing the value of d is engraved 
on the mount. If the rays from AB come to a focus in front of 
Lj, on it, or beyond /", no real image can be projected on the screen. 
There is therefore a certain limit, which is greater in proportion to 
the length of focus of the negative system, within which the focus 
of the positive system LI may fall and produce a series of well-defined 
images on the screen, which can be varied in size by altering the 
amount of separation of the two systems of lenses within the above 
limit, and the distance of the screen from LJ. Every change in the 
position of the screen will involve a corresponding adjustment of 
the lenses. The greater the extension of the camera and the closer 
the lenses, the greater the size of the image, and vice versa. The 
camera extension for a given magnification can be found by multiply- 
ing the focal length of the negative system by the number of magnifi- 
cations, less one. The magnification produced by a given camera 
extension is found by dividing the latter by the focal length of the 
negative system, and adding one. 

In its usual form (fig-. 57) the telephotographic combination con- 
sists of a quick-acting portrait lens, or an anastigmatic doublet of 



FIG. 57. T. R. Dallmeyer's Compound Telephotographic Lens. 

large aperture and relative intensity of suitable focal length, fitted 
at one end of a tube, in which slides a smaller tube carrying a properly 
corrected negative system, which may vary in focus, but must be 
of shorter focus than the positive (usually about half); the shorter 
the focus the greater the magnifying power for a given extension of 
camera. The amount of separation of the lenses is limited on the 
one hand by the position of the focus of the positive system, and on 
the other by the focus of the negative system, as explained above, 
and can be adjusted within these limits by a rack and pinion. The 
tubes are adjusted so that when closed up the two foci may coincide, 
or nearly so, and d = o, or its minimum value; and when opened 
to their fullest extent the focus of the positive may fall upon the 
negative system, or so that d may not exceed the focal length of the 
negative system. Within these limits the focal length of the com- 
bination will be positive, and a real image formed on the screen. 
Several forms of them have been brought out by various makes, 
some, as Zeiss's, with a special positive lens, others for use with ana- 
stigmats and other lenses of large apertures. The negative lenses 
are also made of various powers. 

Messrs Dallmeyer's " Adon " (1902) is a telephotographic lens, 
for use with hand cameras, composed of two achromatic combina- 
tions adjusted for parallel rays, a front positive lens 4J in. focal 
length, and a back negative lens of 2\ in. focus. These are mounted 
to permit of great variation in the separation, so that when the 
" Adon " is fixed on the front of a suitable lens, near or distant 
objects may be taken on an enlarged scale without altering the 
focus of the camera, or the enlargement can be varied with further 
extension of the camera. Used alone it is a complete telephoto 
ens of moderate magnifying power, and will cover plates 15 in. X 
12 in. In 1903 a special form, the " Junior Adon," was made in 
three kinds for use with kodaks and similar folding hand cameras, 
single and double extension, giving a fixed degree of magnification 
without loss of rapidity, while focusing can be effected by scale. 
It is intended to replace the front lens of an R.R. or anastigmatic 
lens and cannot be used independently. Messrs Busch's " Bis- 
Telar," //9 (1905), is another compact fixed focus telephoto lens, 
specially for use with hand cameras. It is a complete lens in itself, 
requiring no attachments and can be fitted to a central shutter. _ It 
is made in three sizes magnifying from two to three times. An im- 
proved form of this lens (1908), working at the large aperture of 

XXI. 17 



//7, is similar to an old form of " Dialytic " lens worked out by 
J. Petzval, having a positive front and negative back meniscus, 
with their concave surfaces facing 
inwards (fig. 58). As in the old 
" Orthoscopic " and lenses of that 
type there is some outward dis- 
tortion, but it is very slight. These 
lenses are made in five sizes with . 
foci from 8 to 22 in., requiring 
camera extensions from 4i in. to 
1 1 J in. They magnify about twice. 
According to K. Martin, a telephoto- 
combination of the Bis-Telar type 
can be used in a reversed position 
as a projecting lens for the lantern, 



FIG. 58." Bis-Telar." 




with the advantage of increasing the illumination from a given 
source of light (E. Jb. 1908, p. 46). 

Captain Owen Wheeler proposed in 1907 a high-power telephoto 
arrangement, made by Messrs Staley, in which the negative attach- 
ment consists of three negative lenses, any single one of which can 
be used separately, giving magnifications of about 6, 9, and 13 dia- 
meters with a camera extension of 14 in. By combining the three 
a magnification of_ 30 diameters is attainable with the same short 
extension, which is a great advantage in many ways. In 1908 
Messrs Zeiss issued their " Special Tele-objectives " in two sizes 
working at //io, the larger with an aperture of 3-14 in. and 32 in. 
focal length fitted in a special " tele-camera " for plates 9 X 12 cm. 
with a monocular field glass magnifying four times as finder. The 
smaller one, with 18 in. focus, is adapted for hand cameras with 6 in. 
bellows extension. They consist of specially corrected positive and 
negative combination with a definite focal length and requiring a 
definite camera extension, and are specially suitable for balloon 
photography, instantaneous portraiture, &c. The theory, construc- 
tion and use of telephoto lenses has been fully described by T. R. 
Dallmeyer in his Telephotography. 

7. Anachromatic Lenses. For large portraiture a certain amoun' 
of softness and diffusion of the image has long been recognized by 
artists as desirable, and in 1895 the " Dallmeyer-Bergheim Lens 
was constructed with this special object. It is composed of a single 
uncorrected positive meniscus front lens, with a diaphragm in front 
of it, and an uncorrected negative meniscus back fens, and in the 
larger sizes it has great range of focal length on the telephotographic 
principle. The spherical and chromatic aberration produced by the 
uncorrected single lenses gives the diffusion of focus which produces 
the peculiarly soft and delicate, effect aimed at. It is most useful 
for large heads and life-size studies, the great depth of focus conduc- 
ing to uniformity of definition. There is no distortion, and by stop- 
ping down to about one-third perfect definition can be obtained. 
It works with great brilliancy, both elements being single glasses. 
It was the first of the anachromatic portrait lenses. Since 1903 
Messrs C. Puyo and L. de Pulligny have been experimenting with 
various combinations of uncorrected lenses for producing the same 
effect in portrait and landscape photography by the diffusion of 
focus produced by chromatic aberration, and suitable lenses of this 
kind have recently been brought out in Paris as Les Objectifs d' artiste. 
In their construction the principal points to be considered arc 
spherical aberration, to be minimized in the form and arrangement of 
the lenses selected ; distortion, corrected by using a symmetrical 
system ; astigmatism, avoided by using combinations of low power. 
The lenses used by Puyo have been: (i) a plano-convex crown with 
convex side in front at//8 or//g, or even //5 for heads; (2) a simple 
thin concavo-convex meniscus, with concave side in front, is better 
and suitable for full lengths at//io; (3) a symmetrical system formed 
of two similar crown menisci, concave sides inwards, is generally 
useful when worked at //io, or even //5- Arrangements are made in 
mounting these lenses for automatically making the necessary 
correction for colour. Another form is the " Adjustable Landscape 
Lens," formed of an anterior plano-convex crown, 3 cm. diameter, 
and a posterior plano-concave crown, each of io cm. focus, and 
the same radii of curvature. In contact they have an infinite focus, 
but when slightly separated any focus can be obtained up to about 
io cm. In such a telephotographic system, properly stopped down, 
anastigmatism, flatness of field, and rectilinearity are secured over 
a fairly large field. These lenses are fully described in Les Objectifs 
d'artiste, by L. de Pulligny and C. Puyo (Paris, 1906), and various 
forms, portrait and landscape, have been made by Messrs Hermagis, 
Turillon & Morin (see Fabre, T. E. P. Suppl. D. 101). 

Diaphragm Apertures. In order to regulate the intensity of the 
illumination by the lens, to enlarge its field, and, in the case of 
the older forms of objectives, to extend the area of good marginal 
definition, diaphragms are used, usually with circular apertures. 
They are made in different ways: (i) as single metal plates, fitting 
into a slot in the lens tube (Waterhouse diaphragms) ; (2) Rotatory : 
a single plate revolving on a central axis and pierced with apertures 
cut to fit centrically in the opening of the lens; (3) Iris: a form of 
diaphragm now very generally used, and very convenient, because 
it can be easily adjusted as required for intermediate apertures. 
As a rule they are placed at the optical centre between the elements 
of a compound lens or in front of a single one. 

In order to provide a uniform system of diaphragm apertures, 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



the Royal Photographic Society in 1881 drew up some rules, which 
were revised in 1891 and again in 1901. The former standard unit 
f/A. and the numerical notation used with it, have been abolished 
in favour of the unit f/i established at the International Congress 
in Paris 1900. Intensity ratio is denned as dependent upon the 
effective aperture of a lens, and not upon the diameter of the dia- 
phragm in relation to the focal length of a lens. The effective 
aperture of the lens is determined as follows: The lens must be 
focused for parallel rays. An opaque screen is then placed in the 
principal focal plane, and a pinhole is made in the centre of the plate 
(in the axis of the lens) ; an illuminant is placed immediately behind 
the pinhole itself, when the diameter of the beam emerging from the 
front surface of the lens may be measured. (It will be found that 
except in the case of the diaphragm being placed in front of the lens, 
the diameter of the diaphragm itself is seldom that of the effective 
aperture.) Every diaphragm is to be marked with its true intensity 
ratio as above defined^ but the present intensity ratios are retained 
in their order of sequence: //I.//I-4.//2 J/2-8,//4,//5-6,//8,//u-3, 
//i6, //22-6, //32,//45-2, //64, &c., each diaphragm requmng double 
the exposure required by the preceding one. In other cases apertures 
are to be made in uniformity with the scale, with the exception of the 
highest intensity, e.g. a lens of f/6-3 would be marked for f/6-3, 
//8, &c. The corresponding numbers are known as/ numbers, but 
are only applicable for a lens focused for distance. Other systems 
of notation are in use, but the above is generally adopted (see Fabre, 
T.E.P. Suppl. C. 38). Special diaphragms are in use for process 
work with ruled screens (see N.S. Amstutz, Handbook of Photo- 
engraving, 1907). Standards for the screws of photographic lens- 
flange fittings, and for the screws fitted to cameras for attachment 
to the stand or for fixing movable parts, have also been laid down 
(Ph. Journ. 1901, 25, p. 322). 

Instantaneous Shutters. 

The general use of rapid dry plates and hand cameras has ren- 
dered it necessary to have some mechanical means of regulating 
exposures in small fractions of a second, especially for objects in 
rapid motion, and this instantaneous shutter has become an essential 
part of modern photographic equipment in many forms and patterns, 
but practically three types are preferred the between-lens shutter, 
the roller-blind shutters, used before or behind the lens, and the focal 
plane shutter, in front of and close to the plate and forming part of 
the back of the camera. The usual limit of rapidity of the two 
former is nominally about rfar of a second, and for ordinary pur- 
poses higher speeds are seldom required, while with the latter speeds 
of i^ot to usta of a second may be attained. 

Two important factors in the use of lens shutters are the rapidity 
or speed, measured by the total duration of exposure from opening 
to closing, and the efficiency, measured by the ratio of the time 
during which the shutter is fully open and the time occupied in 
opening and closing. Both factors are more or less variable, either 
with differences of construction, of diaphragm opening or of position 
of the shutter with regard to the plate and lens. In any case 
the efficient exposure is always less than the actual, and may be 
considerably so. 

The rapidity required of a shutter in photographing moving 
objects is regulated by the minimum time necessary to produce 
a well-exposed image upon the plate, with a loss of definition, or 
blurring, by displacement not exceeding too. or preferably jtu to 
slo of an inch, if enlargement is extended. This will depend 
on the state of the light and the illumination of the object, the rela- 
tive intensity of the lens as measured by its effective aperture 
and focal length, the sensitiveness of the plate, and the amount 
of effective light passing through the shutter during the exposure. 
The amount of displacement to be guarded against depends upon 
the rate of movement of the object, the direction in which it is mov- 
ing with reference to the axis of the lens, its distance from the camera, 
and the focal length of the lens. It will be proportionately less as 
the distance of the object increases, and as the rate of its motion 
and the focal length of the lens for a given distance decrease, and 
vice versa. It will be greatest when the object is moving at right 
angles to the axis of the lens, and least when the motion is directly 
towards it ; but in that case there will be some increase in the apparent 
size of the object as it approaches the camera. For example: 
An object moving I m. an hour advances 17-6 in. per second. With 
a lens of 5-in. focus this would represent a displacement on the 
ground glass, for an object o ft. away, amounting to -146 in. per 
second, and it would require exposures between ^ and V of 
a second to give maximum or minimum displacements of the 
image between T JTJ and tl s of an inch. An object at the same 
distance moving ten times as fast would require i-io of the above 
exposures. If, however, the distance be increased, the possible 
exposure may also be increased in the same proportion, so that the 
object moving 10 m. an hour at 500 ft. distance would only require 
the original exposures of fr to ,V of a second. On the other hand, 
the limits of exposure for an object moving I m. an hour within 
10 ft. of the lens would be between j* and T b of a second. This 
is entirely independent of the sensitiveness of the plate, and only 
represents the maximum duration of exposure permissible in order 
to reduce the blurring of the image between certain limits. The 
sensitiveness of the plate, and the intensity and amount of light 



acting upon it through the lens and shutter, must be adjusted so 
as to produce the desired photographic effect within that time. 
With a lens of 8 in. focal length the displacement would have in- 
creased in the first instance to -23 in. per second, and the maximum 
exposure permissible would be from 8 V to ^ of a second. This 
shows that there is an advantage in using short-focus lenses for very 
rapid exposures. In practice, most work of this kind is done upon 
quarter-plates (4.JX31 in.) with lenses of 4$ to 55 in. focus. As the 
displacement will be greatest for an object moving at a right angle 
across the axis of the lens, an exposure sufficient for this case will 
be sufficient for any other. Sir William Abney has discussed this 
question practically in his Instantaneous Photography, and it is 
treated mathematically by W. B. Coventry in his Technics of the 
Hand Camera, in which will be found formulae and tables for ascer- 
taining the distances and limiting exposures for moving objects, 
allowing for a blur of T ^ of an inch. In foreign treatises the limit 
is usually calculated for a displacement of -fa of a millimetre, or 
about jjp of an inch. 

An efficient shutter should fulfil the following conditions: It 
should be light and compact, simple in construction and action, 
strongly made, and not liable to get out of order; capable of being 
set without admitting light into the camera; easily released with a 
slight pressure of the finger, if a pneumatic release is not fitted, and 
free from any tendency to shake the camera on release. It should 
open and close quickly, allowing the largest possible proportion of 
the exposure to be made with the full aperture, and it must not cut 
off any of the effective light passing through the lens, but should 
distribute it evenly all over the plate: though in landscape work 
it is an advantage to give the foreground more exposure than the 
sky. It should be adjustable for variable instantaneous and for 
prolonged or " time " exposures. With a good shutter there is 
less risk of shaking the camera in short " time exposures, from } to 
i second, than there is in taking off a cap. Shutters working between 
the lenses must permit of the use of diaphragms in the lenses, and of 
alterations of speed while set. Above all, a shutter must be con- 
stant in its action, giving short and variable exposures always cor- 
rectly or relatively so, an important condition which cannot always 
be fulfilled, and the exposures marked on the indicator should be 
capable of being repeated with tolerable certainty. Shutters should 
also be adaptable tor use with different lenses. Three methods of 
varying the speed of a shutter are in use: (l) by altering the length 
of the slot; (2) by the retarding action of a pneumatic brake; (3) 
by varying the tension of a spring. The latter is considered by 
W. B. Coventry as far the best. They are usually released by the 
pressure of the finger on the end of a lever holding the moving part 
in a state of tension; or better, by J. Cadett's system of pneumatic 
pressure, applied by means of a compressible rubber bulb and tube, 
which may drive a piston acting on the lever holding the shutter, or 
inflate a collapsible bulb at the other end of the tube and thus exert 
the necessary pressure on the lever. With W. Watson's " Antinous " 
release a flexible wire acts directly on the piston or trigger release 
of a^cylinder shutter. It is also adapted for roller-blind, focal plane, 
flap, and various forms of between-lens shutters. It is durable, 
effective and convenient (see fig. 3). In many cases both methods 
can be used as desired, the mechanical release being preferable on 
account of its convenience and freedom from liability to shake the 
camera. 

The following are the principal types of instantaneous shutter: 
(l) Flap, (2) drop, (3) combined drop and flap, (4) rotary, (5) roller 
blind, (6) focal plane, (7) moving blade central, (8) iris. They can 
be applied in four different positions: (a) in front of the lens; (b) 
centrally, near the diaphragm; (c) behind the lens (d) immediately 
in front of the sensitive plate. They all, however, come under two 
main classes: Lateral, including those in which the exposure 
commences and ends at the circumference of the lens aperture; 
and Central, those in which the exposure begins and ends at the centre 
of the aperture. Some of them are " lateral " in their single form 
and " central " when double. The form and position of the effective 
aperture of a shutter, relatively to the lens and plate, have a strong 
influence, either favourable or unfavourable, on the amount of 
effective light passing through the lens, and its even distribution 
over the plate. This is especially the case during the incomplete 
phases of opening and closing the aperture. It seems to be agreed 
that the best position for lens shutters of the lateral type is behind 
the objective, and for those of the central type, between the com- 
ponent lenses. In this latter position the whole of the plate is 
illuminated during the full period of exposure, with a gradually 
Increasing intensity, until the full opening is reached, and then the 
illumination gradually falls off until the shutter is closed. The 
most effective shutter is one in which the first and third phases of 
incomplete illumination, during the opening and closing, are the 
shortest compared with the second phase of full opening. 

With the focal plane shutters, however, different portions of the 
plate are exposed in succession, the lens working at its full aperture 
and efficiency throughout the exposure. 

To secure successful results in using instantaneous shutters, the 
operator should make himself acquainted with the working of his 
shutter and its efficiency in various circumstances of exposure with 
the lenses, plates and developer he proposes to use ; ascertaining the 
actual .value of the various exposures marked on the indicator, and f 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



515 



what is more important, how far they can be depended on for 
regularity. There are many simple ways in which the actual time 
of exposure from opening to closing can be ascertained sufficiently 
closely for practical purposes. They depend upon the measurement 
of the trace left on a sensitive plate by the passage of a brightly 
illuminated object revolving at a known speed or falling vertically 
through a known distance, when photographed with different speeds 
of the shutter against a dark background. These, and the more 
elaborate methods for obtaining more accurate determinations of the 
shutter-exposure periods and of the corresponding effective exposures 
i.e. showing the actual effect of the shutter through its different 
phases from opening to closing have been described by Sir William 
Abney in the work already mentioned, by A. Londe in La Photo- 
graphic moderne and La Photographie instantanee. An apparatus for 
testing shutters at the National Physical Laboratory was described 
by J. de Graaf Hunter in the Optician, 1906. 

I. Flap Shutters. The simple flap shutters consisting of a hinged 
flap opening upwards in front of the lens, though favourites in early 
days lor landscape work, and still useful for intermittent exposures 
or as sky-shades for securing cloud effects or increasing foreground 
exposures, have been almost superseded by quicker and more com- 
pact forms. They are used with single and double flaps for portrai- 
ture and studio work, for which purpose they are made to act 
noiselessly and not attract the attention of the sitters. Guerry's 
(figs. 59 and 60) is a good example of the type. W. Watson's " Silent " 





FIG. 59. Guerry's 
Single-flap Shutter. 



FIG. 60. Guerry's 
Double-flap Shutter. 



shutter is hemispherical in form and collapsible, the two wings 
opening out and folding together, when actuated by a special 
" Antinous " release, and R. & J. Beck's is another form, a single 
lifting flap with pneumatic release. 

2. Drop Shutters. The old simple drop shutter, in which a plate 
having an opening in it falls in front of the lens aperture, has been 
superseded by the more compact and quicker-working roller-blind 
shutters, which act on much the same principle. It had a theoretical 
interest in connexion with the effect of different forms of aperture 
circular, square, or elongated used with shutters of the lateral 
type, but it is now generally recognized that a more or less extended 
rectangular opening, of at least the full width of the lens aperture, is 
best for securing the even admission of light from all parts of the image 
with shutters of the rectilinear lateral type, to which this and similar 
shutters, in which a single opening passes across the lens aperture, 
belong. In Busch's " sky shade " shutter (1907), fitting on the front 
of the lens a single leaf moves vertically upwards and descends again, 
giving less exposure to the sky. 

3. Combined Drop and Flap Shutters. In early dry-plate days 
several forms of this kind of shutter were brought out, under the 
names of Phoenix, Phantom, &c., but are now little used. In these 
shutters, in addition to the drop slide, there was also a lifting flap, 
which on release opened from below, and, having fully uncovered 
the aperture, released the drop slide, which fell and closed the shutter. 
They were useful and effective in the smaller sizes, but heavy and 
cumbrous in the larger. Speed could only be estimated very 
roughly by the use ol india-rubber bands for giving tension. 

4. Rotary Shutters. These are of the lateral type, and consist of a 
circular metal disk revolving on an axis eccentric to the axis of the 
lens, and furnished with a radial sector-shaped opening, which 
passes laterally in front of the lens aperture when the tension of a 

spring is released (fig. 61). They are 
used in various patterns in cheap hand 
cameras, usually in front of the objective, 
though they may be placed behind it or 
between the component lenses. So long 
as the opening is at least equal to the size 
of the lens aperture, the illumination is 
sufficiently even, but the openings are 
usually elongated so as to give a longer 
period of full opening. Working by a 
spring they are more portable and con- 
"*" "" venient than drop shutters. Beck's 

FIG. 61. -Rotary Shutter. " Celverex " between-lens shutter (1906) 
is of this type, the disk being revolved by 

a spring and the variations of exposure obtained by altering the 
size of the opening passing over the lens aperture, and not the 
tension of the spring. It is speeded for exposures of A, yj, 
fa, jg sec.; also "bulb" and "time." It is fairly accurate and 
consistent in action, but loses efficiency at the highest speeds by the 
diminution of the opening. 




5. Roller-Blind Shutters. For general use the well-known roller- 
blind shutter of the single lateral type, as made by Thorn ton- Pickard 
and others, is undoubtedly one of the most popular and efficient. It 
possesses most of the qualities laid down as essential to a good shutter, 
gives good illumination, appears to be fairly regular in its action 
and can be used for time or instantaneous exposures. It consists 
of a light mahogany or aluminium box, arranged so that it can be 
fitted in front of or behind the objective. It is made in different 
sizes, and each size can be adjusted to smaller objectives (fig. (>2 >. 
It is also made with a disappearing cord, and in an improved pattern, 
the " Royal," all the fittings are inside the box. By pulling the cord 





FIG. 62. Thornton-Pickard Roller-Blind 
Shutter with automatic exposure appliance. 



FIG. 63. Mechanism 
of the Thornton- 
Pickard Roller- 
Blind Shutter. 

A, Upper roller. 

B, Lower roller, 
c, Cord. 

L>, Black curtain. 
H, Aperture incurtain. 
R, Rubber ring 
adapter. 



an opaque black curtain with an elongated rectangular aperture is 
unrolled from the lower roller on to the upper one, and held by a 
coiled spring on the lower roller (fig. 63). Pressure on a pneumatic 
bulb inflates a second smaller bulb, raising a lever which releases the 
spring, and thus brings the blind down with a rapidity which can be 
adjusted by turning a handle actuating the spring, the corresponding 
speed being shown on an indicator. For time exposures, pressure 
on the bulb opens the shutter, and another pressure closes it, but 
an arrangement is now made by which time exposures of }, i, J, 
i, 2, 3 seconds can be given automatically, the pressure of the bulb 
opening the shutter, which closes of itself at the expiration of the 
exposure required. The theory of shutters of this type has 
been very fully discussed by Coventry (op. cit. p. 50), who shows 
that for any given tension of the spring the actual exposure decreases 
as the size of the lens aperture diminishes, while the effective 
exposure remains constant for all apertures. This is peculiar to 
the lateral shutter. He also shows that with plates of very different 
rapidities, though the exposure may be the same, the actual exposure 
effective is less with the rapid plate and a small stop than with 
the slow plate and a large stop; consequently the blur due to the 
movement of the object would be proportionately less on the rapid 
plate than on the slow one. Also that for any given lens the smaller 
the shutter the more rapid the exposure can be made, though 
with the same lens a larger shutter is capable of giving a more efficient 
though less rapid exposure. It is better, therefore, for moderate 
exposures, to have a larger shutter than the size of the lens requires. 
Sir William Abney had given diagrams of the action of a shutter of 
this kind in his book referred to; they show clearly that the centre 
of the plate gets more exposure than the margins; but practically 
this is not very noticeable, and the action is very regular. 

6. Focal Plane Shutters. These are also roller-blind shutters with 
mechanism similar to the foregoing, but arranged so that the slit 
in the curtain may move rapidly closje in front of the sensitive plate, 
exposing different portions of it in turn, the intensity of the exposure 
aemg regulated by the width of the slit, whether adjustable or not, 
and the rapidity with which it is moved by the unwinding of a spring. 
The advantages of these shutters are now being fully appreciated, 
:he principal being that they are quite independent of the lens, so 
that one shutter will serve for different lenses, and any suitable lens 
nay be used at its full intensity, without the loss of efficiency in- 
lerent in the ordinary forms of lens-shutters. They thus add 
effectively, if not actually, to the speed of a slow lens, or if a lens be 
stopped down there is less loss of efficiency, with a gain in increased 
depth and definition. They are particularly well adapted for the 
very short exposures required in photographing near and quickly 
noving objects, racing horses, divers, &c., and many reflex and other 
land cameras are fitted with them. They are constructed in 
different forms, either for short exposures with high speeds alone, 
or for short and prolonged exposures ; with a single slit of fixed or 
variable width moved at regulated speeds, or with a series of slits 
or openings varying in width, their speeds being adjusted by the 



S i6 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



tensions of the springs. Thus the new Goerz-Anschutz shutter has 
ten tensions and nine curtain apertures, providing for ninety differ- 
ent speeds or exposures, rang- 
ing from f 6 to j-j'oo of a second, 
besides autobulb exposures 
from i to 5 seconds and time 
exposures (fig. 64). Most of 
these shutters are now pro- 
vided with a self-capping 
device for protecting the 
sensitive plate during the 
setting of the shutter. As the 
slit moves progressively over 
the plate, if it is too narrow 
or moving too slowly, it may 
cause distortion of the images 
of quickly-moving objects, 
especially if near the camera, 
but with due care in regulating 
the width of the slit and the 
duration of exposure this is 
practically not often percep- 
tible, especially if the slit is 
arranged to move in the 
same direction as the object. 




FIG. 64. Goerz-Anschiitz Focal 
Plane Shutter. 



The theory of these shutters is discussed by Coventry (op. cil. p. 69), 
more fully by Fabre (T. E. P. Suppl., C. p. 128), and their practical 
use in Focal Plane Photography (" Photo-Miniature Series,' No. 77, 
1907). 

7. Moving Blade Central Shutters. These shutters, in which 
two thin metal or ebonite plates or opaque curtains with round or 
rectangular apertures, or in other cases two curved blades, pass 
very quickly over each other in opposite directions, are largely 
used in many patterns fitted between the lenses of a combination 
or attached to them in front or behind. Formed of two single 
lateral shutters opening and closing in the centre of the lens aperture, 
they become central, the exposure taking place during the short 
period in which the openings are passing each other or the curved 
blades opening out and closing again. To obtain the greatest 
efficiency the size of the openings should correspond with the full 
aperture of the lens. If each plate moves as fast as a drop shutter 
the combination gives double the speed, corresponding to half 
the exposure. The sensitive plate will be most evenly and strongly 
illuminated when the leaves of the shutter work inside the lens 
near the diaphragm, as in Bausch and Lomb's " Unicum " and 
other similar between-lens shutters, in general use (fig. 65). This 
necessitates the fitting of the lens to the shutter, but with adapters 




FIG. 65. Bausch and Lomb's FIG. 66. Lancaster's 

" Unicum " Shutter. " See-Saw ". Shutter, 

it is possible to fit other lenses. Some forms are, however, suitable 
for use in front of the lens, such as the " Constant " and Lancaster's 
" See-Saw " (fig. 66), while those of the double roller-blind type 
can be used either in front of or behind the lens, though this position 
is not a favourable one. In these the rectangular form of aperture 
is the best, circular apertures cutting off a good deal of light, as in 
the case of drop shutters. W. B. Coventry (op. cit. p. 60) has 
discussed the action of the double roller-blind shutter as typical 
of the central class of shutters, and shows that while, under similar 
conditions, with the lateral shutter the effective exposure is con- 
stant and the actual exposure variable at all apertures, it is the 
reverse with the central shutters, and it will not be so easy to 
calculate exposures with different sized stops. A central shutter, 
acting as a diaphragm of variable aperture, g^ves a more efficient 
exposure than a lateral shutter of the same dimensions, as long as 
the opening is greater than the lens aperture, the coefficient of 
illumination of the lens varying as long as the shutter opening is 
smaller than that of the diaphragm used. It is desirable, there- 
fore, to increase the speed and use as large an aperture as possible, 
so that the diaphragm used may be entirely uncovered during the 
greater part of the exposure. 




FIG. 67. Goerz's "Sector" 
Shutter. 



8. 7m Shutters. These are a further development of the double 
curved blade central shutters, and constructed on the principle of 
the " Iris " diaphragm, with several leaves opening out from the 
centre of the lens and closing again. They are usually fitted 
between the lenses of double objectives, and can be made very 
light and compact. Theoretically this central position of the 
shutter is the best, and the " Iris " is the best form for ensuring 
the most equal distribution of light over the plate, provided, as 
before, that the opening is equal to the full aperture of the lens. 
They are made so that the periods 
of opening and closing may be as 
short as possible compared with that 
of full opening. They require great 
care in construction and fitting to 
the lens, and so are expensive. 
They can, however, be used with 
convertible sets of lenses of different 
foci fitting the same mount. Several 
forms are made by British and 
foreign makers, with three, four or 
more leaves. . Goerz's " Sector " 
shutter (fig. 67) may be taken as a 
type. Georgen's " Central " shutter 
is very light and smooth in working, 
and can be used in front of a lens 
for telephoto work. Further details 
regarding the different forms of 
shutters, theoretical and practical, 
will be found in the works by 
Abney, Coventry, Eder, Fabre and Londe. 

Exposure Meters. 

When gelatin dry plates came into general use, and were made 
of many different degrees of sensitiveness, the want of a guide to 
the proper exposure for the various makes of plates under different 
conditions of lighting began to be felt, and several methods were 
devised for meeting it. Some of them depend solely upon data 
derived from observations of the action of the principal factors 
affecting the result, namely: (i) the speed of the plate; (2) the 
actinic power of the sun's light for the time of year in a given 
latitude and its position at the particular time of day; (3) the 
effective diaphragm aperture of the lens ; (4) the nature of the sub- 
ject and its illumination as affected by local and atmospheric 
conditions. With others these data are supplemented by, and 
practically based upon, actinometric observations of the action of 
the light upon sensitive paper exposed near the camera or the 
subject at the time. Both methods are in many cases of undoubted 
use, but the information given by instruments of this kind can 
only be considered as approximate, and much is left to the judgment 
of the operator, whose surest guide will be an intelligent study of 
the principles on which these instruments are based, together 
with carefully-recorded observations of the combined working of 
his lenses, shutters, plates and methods of development under the 
varying conditions of practical work. Before using any of these 
instruments it is necessary to know approximately the relative 
sensitiveness or " speed " of the plate in use. In the early days of 
gelatin dry plates their rapidities were stated as so many times those 
of wet plates, or (as they are still) " ordinary," " instantaneous," 
" rapid ' or " extra-rapid," terms which, though suitable for one make 
of plate, may not be so for others. This was improved upon by the 
adoption, in 1878, of Leon Warnerke's " Sensitometer," which was 
in use as a standard for some years. It consisted of a transparent 
scale of 25 squares of different intensities, marked with opaque 
numbers and arranged so thr.t each third number indicated a doubled 
rapidity. This was placed in a frame in front of the sensitive 
plate, and exposed for thirty seconds to the constant light emitted 
by a phosphorescent tablet, supplied with the instrument, which 
was previously excited by burning one inch of magnesium ribbon 
in front of it. The exposed plate was then developed and fixed, 
and the highest number visible indicated the rapidity of the plate. 
In 1890 F. Hurter and V. C. Driffield introduced an entirely new 
system of calculating the sensitiveness of plates of different rapidi- 
ties. They make a series of exposures in seconds on different 
parts of the plate in geometrical progression with a standard candle 
at one metre distance. After development for a certain fixed 
period with a standard developer, fixing, washing and drying, the 
' densities " or logarithms of the opacities of the different parts are 
measured by a special photometer and plotted on a skeleton diagram, 
producing a curve, one portion of which will practically be a straight 
line. The position of this line with reference to a scale of exposures 
given on the diagram decides the rapidity of the plate, while its 
length indicates the " capacity " of the plate for the truthful 
rendering of tone. The elaborate investigations by which these 
results were obtained are of great interest, and were published in 
the Journal of the Society for Chemical Industry (1890, 1891), and 
later ones in the Photographic Journal (1898). A complete account 
of the system by V. C. Driffield was published in 1903, as No. 56 of 
the " Photo Miniature Series." The sensitiveness shown on the 
H. & D. scale is directly proportional to the speed number given. 
The method has been adopted by saveral dry-plate makers in 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



5*7 



denoting the sensitiveness of their different brands, and is more or 
less the basis on which the plate-speeds for the modern English 
dry-plate actinometers and exposure meters are calculated. Several 
systems of photometry and measurement of the speeds of dry 
plates have been discussed at the meetings of the Congres Inter- 
national de Photographic, in 1889, 1891, 1900 and 1905, but no 
definite standard has been finally adopted. In Germany the use 
of J. Scheiner's sensitometer has been adopted, and appears to be 
extending. It is based on a system of photographing the gradu- 
ated tints given by rotating sectors. A full account of the instru- 
ment, and of a system of sensitometry based on its use, is given by 
J. M. Eder in the Photographische Correspondenz (1898) p. 469, and 
(1900) p. 244. In 1901 Chapman Jones brought out a convenient 
plate-tester on the same principle as the Warnerke sensitometer, 
but extended by the addition of a colour sensitometer, which is 
useful for the comparison of orthochromatic dry plates, colour 
screens, light filters, &c. It consists of a screen plate, 4iX3i in., 
containing a series of twenty-five tints of graduated densities; 
a series of coloured squares, blue, green, yellow and red, and 
a strip of neutral grey, all five being of approximately equal 
luminosity; a series of four squares of special pure colours, each 
representing a definite portion of the spectrum ; also a space of line 
design, over which is superposed a half-tone negative. To use 
the instrument, a quarter-plate of the brand to be tested is exposed 
behind the screen for a few seconds to the light of a standard candle 
placed at the distance of a foot, developed, fixed and washed. 
An examination of the plate will show the sensitiveness, range of 
gradation, possible range of exposure, sensitiveness to colour, 
size of grain, amount of halation, and the most suitable light for 
development. It can be used for many other tests, and enables 
any brand of plates to be readily tested by the user and compared 
with any standard he may find convenient. In making these and 
similar tests, a standard developer should be allowed to act for a 
fixed period and at a uniform temperature (Ph. Journ., 1901, 25, 
p. 246). 

The next important factor is the actinic power of the light. It 
depends normally on the height of the sun for the latitude of the 

Elace at the time when the photograph is taken, and exposures in 
right sunlight are found to vary approximately as the cosecant 
of the sun's altitude above the horizon. The light of the sun itself 
is practically the same at any given time and place year after year, 
but is liable to more or less local and temporary diminution by the 
amount of cloud, haze, dust, &c., present in the atmosphere at the 
time. It is also affected by the time of day, increasing from sunrise 
to noon, and then decreasing to sunset, ihe remaining factor 
is the effective diaphragm aperture of the lens in relation to its 
focal length. In most cases of ordinary outdoor exposures this 
can be taken at its normal value, but becomes smaller and increases 
exposure if the focal length is much increased for photographing 
near objects. Besides these principal factors, the nature and colour 
of the objects, their distance, and the amount of light received 
and reflected by them under various atmospheric conditions, have 
a great influence on the exposure required. W. B. Coventry has 
shown (op. cit. p. 75) how the " light coefficient L," for full sun- 
light, can be found, and has given a table of values of L for the 
latitude of London for every hour of the day in periods of ten days 
throughout the year, also the relative coefficients for " diffused 
light, " cloudy," " dull " and " very dull." Tables of exposures 
for different subjects under varying conditions of light have been 
published by W. K. Burton, A. S. Platts, F. W. Mills, Sir D. Salomons 
and others, and in preparing them Dr J. A. Scott's tables, showing 
monthly and daily variations of light for countries about N. 
lat. 53 , are generally used. The more modern tables, such as are 
published in the printed " exposure notebooks," also take into 
account the plate speeds, but unfortunately there is no uniform 
standard of plate speeds, owing to the difficulty of fixing a 
definite standard of light. The subject is fully treated in the British 
Journal Almanac (1901), p. 675, the Watkins Manual, H. Bour- 
sault's Calcul du temps de pose en plioloaraphie, and similar works 
by A. de la Baume Pluvinel, G. de C. d'Espinassoux and others. 

Based on the same principle as these exposure tables, various 
portable exposure meters have been brought put, in which scales 
representing the coefficients for plate-speed, light and diaphragm 
are arranged as in a slide rule, so that, when properly set, the 
normal exposure required can be found by inspection, and in- 
creased or diminished according to circumstances. In Hurter 
and Driffield's " Actinograph " the light coefficient is given by a 
printed card showing the curves for every day in the year and for 
every hour of the day, the unit being the jfo part of the brightest 
possible diffused daylight when the altitude of the sun is 90. The 
lens " scale shows the ratios of aperture to focal length in general 
use, and is calculated for single, double and triple systems of lenses. 
The " speed " scale is based on the exposure in seconds which with 
one actmograph degree of light will produce a perfect negative 
of an ordinary landscape. An additional scale is given for five 
different degrees of illumination " very bright," " bright," 
" mean," " dull," " very dull." A table of factors for " views," 
" portraiture," " interiors," " copying," is also given, and these 
regulate the figure to be taken for the exposure. The scales are 
engraved on boxwood, and there are two sliding pieces (fig. 68). 



It is specially adapted for use with plates of speed numbers agree- 
ing with the H. & D. scale, but can be used with any plate of which 
the relative speed number is known. Convenient exposure meters 
have been made since 1890 by A. Watkins, of Hereford, in different 




SPICD OF PLATE 

HURTCR tDRIFriELO'S ACTINOGRAPH 
PATENT NO 5545 1888 




FIG. 69. Watkins's " Stan- 
dard " Meter. 



FIG! 68. Hurter & Driffield's Actinograph. 

forms based upon an actinometrical test of the light at the time of 

exposure. In the complete " Standard Meter " (1890) scales corre- 
sponding to "speed of plate," "diaphragm/ numbers," "light," 

" subject " and " enlarging," marked P. D. A. S. and E., are arranged 

on rings adjustable round a cylinder. The plate-speeds are taken 

from a table and the " light coefficient," or " actinometer number," 

is ascertained at the time by ex- 
posing a piece of sensitive paper 

in the actinometer at the end of 

the instrument for the number of 

seconds required to match a fixed 

tint as shown by an attached 

pendulum. Many improvements 

have been made in it and the 

latest pattern (1908) is made in 

magnalium (fig. 69). The " Dial " 

meter (1901) is a simpler form in 

a circular metal case with four 

apertures marked " plate," 

" stop," " act " and " exp." above 

the corresponding scales, and an actinometer for testing the light. 

The numbers showing the speed of the plate in use, the / value 

of the diaphragm, and the actinometer exposure in seconds are 

brought into the respective apertures and the exposure required 

is read off in the " exposure " aperture. 

An " indoor meter " is also made, and a 

" hand camera calculator " for use with 

the " Standard " or " Bee " meters. The 

" Queen Bee " and " Bee " meters (1903) 

are later, smaller and more convenient 

patterns which have superseded the 

" Dial " meter and have the plate num- 
bers and exposures marked round the 

case, and the scales of "/ numbers " and 

" light " on a revolving glass plate. This 

is revolved till the / number on the right 

is opposite the speed number of the plate; 

opposite the " actinometer number " on 

the left, found as above, will be found 

the exposure in seconds (fig. 70). The _ 

"Queen Bee" meter is similar to the FlG - 7- The Watkins s 

" Bee," but of better construction and ** ee Meter. 

fitted with a pendulum. 

G. F. Wynne's " Infallible " exposure meter (1893) is also in 

dial form, but the sensitive paper is exposed directly, no pendulum 

is used, and the scales are open on 
the dial. In use, the glass carrying 
the movable scale is turned untfl 
the actinometer time in seconds 
upon the exposure scale is opposite 
the diaphragm number of the plate, 
as given in the list of plate speeds; 
the correct exposure will then be 
found against each stop given on 
the scale. There are practically 
only two scales: the scale of dia- 
phragms representing the dia- 
phragm apertures or / numbers, 
the speed of plate and the vari- 
ation of exposure due to subject; 
and the time scale, represent- 
i f i ing the actinometer time and the 
.-,-. - lnla1 ' exposure (fig. 71). The actino- 

hble Exposure Meter. ^^ is pT ^ ect( ! d ' by a ye i low g i ass 

screen when not in use. In a smaller form the scales are on the 





5 i8 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



circumference of a locket, and the actinometer at the back. An 
" Infallible " Printmeter is also made for showing exposures in 
contact printing on sensitive papers, but can also be used for 
testing speeds of plates and papers. Beck's " Zambex " Exposure 
Meter gives the exposure and stop to be used, also the depth of 
focus to be obtained with different diaphragm apertures. The 
required exposure is set to the " speed " number on the next 
scale of the meter. The third scale corresponds to the times 
of darkening the sensitive paper in the actinometer attached to 
the meter, and shows the diaphragm aperture suitable for the 
given exposure. Other scales show the distances that will be 
in focus with the different stops used, arranged so that the focal 
depth of four different lenses can be found. Several other ex- 
posure meters are made on the principle of the slide rule, with scale 
corresponding to the factors of " plate speed," " diaphragm number," 
" light," " subject," " exposure," and the exposure is found by 
simple inspection without an actinometer. They are designed 
for use with particular brands of plates, but can be used for others 
of similar speeds. 

Another class of exposure meters comprises those in which 
the intensity of the light is estimated visually by extinction 
through a semi-transparent medium of increasing intensity, such as 
J. Decoudun's (1888), in which the exposure is judged by the 
disappearance of a series of small clear openings on a graduated 
scale of densities when laid on the most important part of the image 
as seen on the ground-glass. Its indications are not very definite, 
and the paper scale changes in density after a time. A better 
form is E. Degen's Normal Photometer " (1903), consisting of 
two sliding violet glass prisms, one adjusted for the diaphragm 
apertures, the other for the actinic illumination of the object. 
They are mounted with their outer faces parallel. In use the upper 
slide with prism is drawn out so that the pointer coincides with the 
division indicating the diaphragm aperture to be used ; the object 
to be photographed is then viewed directly through openings at 
one end of the instrument, and the lower slide is drawn out and 
pushed back slowly till the object viewed is almost obscured. 
The attached pointer will then indicate the exposure required, 
or, reversing the order, the diaphragm aperture for a given exposure 
can be found. Auxiliary scales are attached for very short or very 
long exposures. The principle of construction is that the logarithms 
of the times of exposure are proportional to the thickness of the 
coloured prisms. " G. Heyde's Actino-Photometer " (1906) is 
on a somewhat similar principle, and consists of a circular metal 
box with dark violet glass viewing screens in the centre of both 
sides, with an obscuring iris inside the case worked by revolving 
the back of the box. On the front of the instrument exposure 
tables are given for plates of every rapidity, and for diaphragm 
apertures from //3 to f/4$. Exposure meters of this type are 
specially applicable for open-air work where there is sufficient 
light for ready measurement. Other simple actinometers are in 
use for carbon and process printing, consisting generally of trans- 
lucent graduated scales in different densities of paper, coloured 
gelatin, &c., or of a photographed scale graduated by increasing 
exposures. The " Burton actinometer," for pigment printing, 
made on this principle, contains several small negatives of different 
densities, one of which is selected of equal depth to the one to be 
printed, and the progress of the printing is estimated by exposing 
a piece of sensitive paper under it and examining it from time to 
time. 

SENSITIVE PLATES, FILMS AND PAPERS 

Sensitive Dry Plates. A special feature of modern photography 
is the use of trustworthy ready-prepared sensitive dry plates and 
films in different grades of sensitiveness, so that there is iu. necessity 
for the photographer to prepare his own plates, nor, indeed, could 
he do so with any advantage. The practice of outdoor and studio 
photography has thus been very greatly simplified; and although 
with wet collodion there was the advantage of seeing the results 
at once and retaking a picture if necessary, the uncertainties con- 
nected with the use of the silver bath and collodion, and the amount 
of cumbrous apparatus necessary for preparing and developing 
the plates, far outweighed it. There is also an enormous saving 
of time, in using dry plates as compared with wet, by deferring 
development. In tropical climates, also, dry plates can be used 
when work with wet plates would be impossible. On the other 
hand, the uncertainty of more or less random exposures on ready- 
prepared elates must not be overlooked. Besides their use in 
taking negatives, gelatin dry plates are also largely used for print- 
ing transparencies, lantern slides, enlargements, &c. For negative 
work they are prepared with an emulsion in gelatin of silver bromide, 
alone or with the additjon of silver iodide or chloride, and are to 
be obtained in five or six degrees of rapidity: " slow," for photo- 
mechanical or "process" work; "ordinary," for general purposes 
when quick exposures are not required; "rapid, for landscape 
and portraits; "extra rapid," for instantaneous exposures; and 
" double extra rapid," for very quick snapshot work in dull weather 
or for special subjects. These latter kinds are exceedingly sensitive, 
and require great care in use to avoid fog. In order to prevent 
halation, or irregular action by reflection from the back surface of 
the glass, dry plates are coated with a non-actinic " backing," 
which can easily be removed before development. 



Self-developing dry plates were introduced in 1906, in which the 
developing agent is mixed in the film itself, as in the Ilford 
" Amauto " plate, which only requires immersion in a solution of 
washing soda for development, or, as in the Wellington " Watalu " 
plates, applied on the back of the plate, plain water only being re- 
quired for development, this application also preventing halation. 
The slow plates used for printing lantern slides and transparencies 
are usually prepared with an emulsion of silver chloride with ot 
without free silver nitrate and other haloids. 

The rendering of photographic plates isochromatic or sensitive 
to all colours by dyeing them with eosin, or other suitable dyes, 
has been greatly improved by the use of new dyes, especially 
those of the isocyamn group, prepared by Dr E. Konig of the 
Hoechst factory, and known as orthochrom T," " dicyanin," 
"pinaverdol," " pinachrom " and " pinacyanol," the" latter of 
which can confer on a silver bromide plate as high a degree of 
sensitiveness for red as erythrosin does for yellow; also F. Bayer's 
" Homocol," Dr A. Miethe's " ethyl red," and other similar dyes 
(see E. Jb., 1905, pp. 183, 336). Panchromatic plates are now largely 
manufactured and used for all photographic work in which a true 
rendering of the relative colour luminosities is essential, and more 
particularly for the various methods of colour reproduction in 
which plates are required to be sensitive to red, green and blue- 
violet. They are made in different degrees of general and colour 
sensitiveness, according to the purpose for which they are required, 
the ordinary " isochromatic " being most sensitive for yellow and 
green, and the " panchromatic " for red, orange and yellow, as 
well as for green, blue and violet. To obtain the best results 
from all these plates it is necessary to screen off the blue and violet 
rays with yellow or orange transparent screens, or colour filters, 
made of coloured glass, or glass coated with coloured gelatin, 
collodion, &c., or with glass cells containing solutions of suitable 
dyes or salts. For the various processes of three-colour reproduc- 
tion panchromatic plates and special red, green and blue-violet 
filters have to be used for taking the three negatives, their intensities 
and absorptions being carefully adjusted to the particular plates 
in use; the same applies, but jess strictly, to the yellow screens 
used with ordinary isochromatic plates. Dyes specially suitable 
for these colour-filters have been prepared by Dr E. Konig. Various 
kinds of colour screens for ordinary, microscopic and trichromatic 
work are made commercially, and Messrs Schott of Jena make a 
special yellow glass in three tints for the purpose. 

Plates for Colour Photography. In 1868 Louis Ducos du Hauron, 
among various trichromatic methods patented for photographically 
reproducing coloured objects in the colours of nature, described one 
in whicli the trichromatic principle, instead of being carried out 
on three separate plates, was to be combined in one plate by means 
of a transparent medium covered by a trichromatic screen divided 
into narrow juxtaposed lines or minute spaces, corresponding tc 
the three primary colours, red, green and blue-violet, the trans- 
parent colour of each of these lines or spaces acting as a colour 
filter. A sensitive panchromatic plate was to be exposed in con- 
tact with this screen to produce a negative with lines or spot! 
corresponding to the relative strength of the three coloured lights 
passing through it, so that a diapositive print on glass properly 
registered with the tricolour screen would show the object in its 
proper colours. This method could not be carried out successfully 
for want of efficient panchromatic plates and other difficulties. 

Between 1892 and 1898 several patents were taken out by I. W. 
McDonough and J. Joly for various methods of preparing trichro- 
matic ruled screens (Ph. Journ., 1900, p. 191). The Joly method was 
fairly successful in action, but had several disadvantages owing to 
the coarseness of the lines, the necessity for having two screens, 
one for taking and another for viewing, and the cost of making 
them (B. J. A., 1899, p. 671). The "Florence" chromatic plate 
(I9 O 5), worked out in America by J. H. Powrie and Florence 
M. Warner, was an improvement on the Joly method, the colour screen 
being photographically printed on a glass plate, coated with pan- 
chromatic emulsion and exposed to the coloured object through 
the screen (Penrose Pictorial Annual, 1905-1906, p. in). Some 
good results were produced, but it has not come into use. 

After several years of laborious research, Messrs Lumifire, of 
Lyons, adopting Ducos du Hauron's coloured grain method, suc- 
ceeded where he had failed, and in 1907 brought out their " Auto- 
chrome " plates, in a very complete and practical form, making it 
possible to produce photographs in the colour of natural objects 
by one exposure instead of three, as in the ordinary three-colour 
processes. Glass plates are coated with an adhesive medium over 
which is spread a mixture of potato starch grains, of microscopic 
fineness, stained violet, green and orange, the interstices being 
filled in with fine carbon powder to form a tricolour screen, dark by 
reflected and of a pinkish, pearly appearance by transmitted light. 
This is varnished and coated with a thin sensitive panchromatic 
emulsion of gelatino-silver bromide. The plates are exposed in 
the camera from the back, through the tricolour films, using also 
a special compensating orange-yellow screen, before or behind 
the lens, then developed as usual, producing a negative coloured 
image in the complementary colours, which is then treated and re- 
versed so as to produce a positive coloured image by transmission, 
showing the picture in its proper colours. The results thus obtained 



APPARATUS] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



are remarkably good and practically solve the problem of direct 
colour photography in a simple and fairly inexpensive manner 
(see Agenda Lumikre, 1909). 

In C. L. Finlay's " Thames " colour plate (1908) the tricolour 
screen is formed by rows of circular dots coloured alternately 
orange-red and green and the intermediate spaces blue. It is used 
alone, the coated surface being placed in contact with a panchro- 
matic plate, the uncoated side towards the lens. It carries register 
marks for adjusting it to the finished picture after development 
and reversal of the image. These screens, being more transparent 
than the " Autochrome," require less exposure, but the colour 
rendering is not so perfect. In the Jougla " Omnicolore " plate 
(1909) the tricolour screen and sensitive surface are combined on 
one plate as in the " Autochrome," but the screen is made up of 
a series of blue-violet parallel lines, with intermediate alternate 
broken 'lines of orange-red and yellowish-green at right angles to 
them, the red narrower than the green. The relative sizes of the 
coloured dots in the three plates are approximately : 



8 J 5 ,, 



" Autochrome " starch grains . -^fa to 
" Thames " plate, dots, diameter . 
" Omnicolore " plates, blue line . 
red square . 

E. Fenske's " Aurora " plate (1909) is a tricolour screen formed 
by coating a glass plate with a mixture of finely divided particles 
of gelatin, dyed orange-red, green and blue-violet, without any 
intervening spaces. The grain generally is coarser and more 
irregular than in the " Autochrome " plates, but optically corre- 
sponds more closely to them than the " Thames " or " Omnicolore " 
screens do. These plates are issued uncoated for use with any 
suitable panchromatic plate. A later process is due to Dufay. 
With the exception of the " Autochrome," these processes are still 
more or less in the experimental stage. 

Celluloid Films. In order to avoid the weight of glass plates, 
which may become burdensome on a tour, and also the risk of 
breakage of valuable records, thin films or sheets of celluloid coated 
with sensitive emulsions can be used, with great saving of bulk 
and weight and no loss of efficiency, though such films are some- 
times liable to deterioration by long keeping before or after ex- 
posure. They are made in two thicknesses, stiff or flexible, the 
stiff being used exactly as plates, but held in a carrier or simply 
backed with a card or glass plate, while the flexible are made up 
in separate sheaths with cardboard backing, as in the " Kodoid ' 
films, or in convenient packages of twelve or more in " fijm packs " 
of various patterns. Flexible films of this kind on celluloid have for 
many years past also been prepared in long strips of different 
widths suitable for use in hand cameras of the Kodak types and in 
roll-holders. In the early forms of roll-holders the films were used 
alone, and being unprotected had to be changed in the dark room, 
but, as already stated, they are now supplied on spools in cartridges 
which can be changed in daylight. C. Silvy seems to have been 
the first to employ this method in 1870. In these cartridges the 
film is attached to a much longer strip of black paper, and rolled 
up with it, so that several turns of the paper have to be unrolled 
before the film is ready for exposure, this point being marked 
on the outside paper for the successive exposures, with numbers 
visible through a red screen at the back of the holder. When all 
have been exposed, the black paper is rolled on for several turns, 
and when taken out of the holder the loose end is fastened up till 
the film is developed. As these films are principally used for 
landscape work, it is now usual to make them isochromatic, and 
they may be used with or without a yellow screen. They are also 
made " non-curling " by being coated with gelatin on both sides. 
Negatives taken on these thin films have the advantage that they 
can be printed from either side without perceptible loss of definition, 
which is useful in printing by the single transfer carbon process, 
and in some of the photo-mechanical printing methods. Flexible 
transparent films in sheets and rolls have also been prepared upon 
hardened gelatin, but it is difficult to retain the original dimensions 
of the film owing to expansion of the gelatin. Paper coated with 
sensitive emulsions has been successfully used for making negatives 
in the same way as the celluloid films, and is cheaper, but much 
more liable to deterioration from atmospheric action before and 
after exposure, and unless developed soon after exposure the im- 
pressed images may fade and become undevelopable. Such papers 
are, however, still used in meteorological and other self-recording 
instruments. Stripping films of thin celluloid upon a paper support 
were introduced by Messrs Wellington and Ward, and had advan- 
tages for printing from either side, but are not now made. 

Photographic Printing Papers. Part passu with the supply of 
ready-prepared plates, all kinds of photographic printing papers 
can now be obtained ready for use, so that the photographer has 
nothing to do with the preparation of his sensitive plates or papers. 
The old albuminized papers have been generally superseded by 
ready-prepared sensitive papers coated by machinery with emulsions 
of silver haloids in gelatin, with or without citrate or other organic 
silver salts, the chloride being used for most of the " P.O.P." or 
" printing out papers," which contain more or less free silver 
nitrate, and in the " self-toning " papers some salt of gold. Some 
of these printing out papers are also made with emulsions of silver 



chloride in collodion, and known as " C.C." or " collodiochloride." 
The basis of most of the developable bromide papers used for en- 
largements and direct copying, containing no free silver nitrate, 
and with which an invisible image is brought out by development, 
much in the same way as with dry plates, is silver bromide. These 
papers are made in great variety of tints and surfaces, " smooth " 
and " rough," " glossy " and " matt," for producing different 
effects. They are largely used for direct printing by artificial 
light or daylight, for enlargements, and for printing photographic 
post-cards, &c., in large numbers by machinery, the prints being 
made on a long band with an almost instantaneous exposure, and 
developed and fixed by being passed through the proper solutions 
on large rollers or otherwise. Papers for the platinotype processes, 
sensitized with salts of platinum and iron, are also manufactured 
for printing out entirely or for development with potassic oxalate. 
Prints on these papers have the advantage of being permanent. 

Messrs York Schwartz and J. Mallabar s process of developing and 
toning prints made on a special sensitive paper prepared with an 
emulsion of silver phosphate was introduced by Messrs Houghton 
in 1908 under the name of " Ensyna." Very short exposures to 
day or artificial light are required, and with a special developer 
(" Ensynoid ") permanent prints are obtained with a varied scale 
of tones similar to those given by toning with gold, the colour of 
the print being determined by the exposure, short exposures giving 
purple and long exposures brown or reddish tones. The process 
is a rapid one, the operations of printing, developing, fixing and 
washing being completed within about ten minutes or even less. 

For the various methods of printing in permanent pigments 
(" Autotype," &c.) tissues are prepared coated with pigmented 
gelatin in various colours, and very successful results in colour 
photography have been obtained by printing from suitable negatives 
in three colours with specially prepared yellow, blue and pink 
tissues. Similar papers, prepared with pigmented gum instead of 
gelatin, are used in the " gum bichromate " process, and " single 
transfer " papers, coated with plain gelatin, are used in the pigment 
printing processes to receive the developed print, and are also 
useful for photo-lithography, the new " oil-printing " methods, 
and in trichromatic printing on paper by the Sanger-Shepherd 
method and Dr Konig's " Pinatype." For Manly's " Ozotype " 
and " Ozobrome " processes special gelatinized and pigmented 
papers are made. " Cyanotype " and " Ferrogallic " papers are 
prepared for the use of architects, engineers, &c., in rolls of consider- 
able width, for the direct reproduction of tracings and drawings 
as blue or black prints by these and similar methods. 

Apparatus for Development. The recognition of the fact that 
the two principal factors in the development of modern photo- 
graphic dry plates with a suitable developer are time and tempera- 
ture, and also that a prolonged immersion in dilute solutions is in 
many cases a more convenient and equally efficient method of 
development, has led to the construction of apparatus for enabling 
the operation to be carried out almost automatically and for timing 
its duration. 

In 1894 A. Watkins brought out his factorial system of develop- 
ment based on the principle " that with a correct exposure on a 
given plate with a given developing agent, the time of development 
required for a given printing opacity has a fixed arithmetical 
ratio to the time of appearance of the high lights of the image, 
provided the developing power of the solution remains constant 
during development; and this rule holds good for all variations 
of strength, amount of alkali or bromide, and temperature within 
those limits which have been found safe in practice ' (Photo. News, 
1894, 38, pp. 115, 729; and further, Ph. Journ., 1900, 24, p. 221). By 
a series of observations he ascertained the multiplying factors of 
most of the developers in ordinary use, and in 1905 brought out 
his " factorial calculator " and a " dark-room clock " for facilitating 
the working of the method. The former is made of aluminium, 
and consists of two circular disks, the upper smaller one rotating 
and carrying a pointer. The outer disk is marked with a scale of 
Watkins' factors for the different developers, as given in the " in- 
structions " accompanying the instrument, and is used to denote 
the " time of development " in minutes. The scale on the inner 





FIG. 72. Watkins's Factorial FIG. 73. Watkins's Dark- 

Calculator, room Clock, 

disk shows the " time of appearance " in seconds or minutes. In use 
the pointer is set to the factor for the developer in use, and against 
the " time of appearance " on the inner scale will be found the total 
number of minutes required for complete development (fig. 72). 



5 2 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[APPARATUS 



The " calculator " can be used with any ordinary clock or watch, 
but the " dark-room clock " (fig. 73) has been specially constructed 
for the factorial system. It is an improvement on the earlier 
forms of Watkins' " Eikronometer," and has a 4 in. dial with 10 
minute and 100 seconds divisions, very plain for dark rooms, 
centre seconds hand, stop action and outside indicator to mark 
the completed time. The seconds hand completes the revolution 
in too seconds, while the minute hand does so in 10 minutes, or 
sufficient for the longest ordinary development, though it runs on, 
if necessary, very much longer, both hands starting together 
always at O. 

In 1908 Watkins brought out another system of thermo- 
development " by time dependent on the use of a standard " time 
developer," the duration of the development, at a given tempera- 
ture, being modified according to the make and speed of the partic- 
ular plate in use. The temperature variations are indicated by 
a movable scale, or " thermo-calculator," on the bottle of de- 
veloper, the variations for development speed of various plates 
being given approximately on the " Watkins' Plate Speed List, 
which thus shows the " speed of plate " and " speed of develop- 
ment " with the standard developer at 60. This method is well 
adapted for plates, films and stand development in tanks or 
machines, no observation of the plate being required, and the times 
are most conveniently observed with the " dark-room clock. 
Full details of these two distinct methods of development will be 
found in the 4th edition of the Watkins' Manual of Exposure and 
Development. 

C. W. Piper's " photographer's stop clock " (1906) is a more 
elaborate clock, intended for use not only in " time development " 
but for all photographic operations in which accurate control 
in regard to time is of importance. It is fitted with a gong and 
arranged to work by " time " or " bulb." Once started, by pressure 
on a lever or on the bulb, it will continue to go until stopped, 
striking the gong at the completion of every minute, when the 
seconds hand reaches the zero point. A second pressure on the 
bulb stops the clock, so long as the pressure is continued, while 
pressure on a lever stops it permanently. It is thus useful for timing 
any intermittent operations, whilst the clock adds up the separate 
times and prevents the occurrence of errors difficult to avoid when 
timing with an ordinary watch. By an additional attachment 
a prolonged time exposure with the camera may be terminated, 
or an " instantaneous " or short " time " exposure given at any 
prearranged time. Messrs Houghton's " Ensign " clock for time 
development has a dial with 60 divisions, a single hand, and is 
fitted with a gong. It can be set to ring an alarm bell at the 
expiration of any period from one minute to one hour, can be started 
or stopped immediately and is easily read in the dark-room. _ It 
requires no winding up, the action of setting providing the tension 
for the recording movements. It can be stopped and started at 
will and the bell arranged to give a short or prolonged ring. S. 
Stanley's is another convenient Torm, with a 4j in. dial, divided into 
60 seconds and 60 minutes, the thick hand recording the seconds 
and the thin hand the minutes. 

Several forms of developing tanks and machines have been 
constructed for developing a number of exposed plates, together 
with ordinary or dilute developers, with the aid of the factorial 
system or independently of it. The Kodak " Automatic Develop- 
ing Tank " (1905) is a useful arrangement by which bands of ex- 
posed roll films can be developed in daylight, without any need of 
a dark-room (fig. 74). The exposed film is wound from the spool 




FIG. 74. Kodak Developing Tank. 

into a rea celluloid apron contained in a box A, then placed in the 
tank B, where it is left in a dilute developer for about twenty 
minutes, and requires no attention. It gives very good results. 
For the " Brownie " films a special daylight developing box is made. 
With the Kodak " Eastman Plate-developing Tank " (1908) the 
exposed plates are removed, in the dark-room, from the plate 
holders and placed, in pairs back to back, in a special framework 
holding six pairs, which is lowered into a metal tank containing 
the developer, and is fitted with a watertight lid so that it can 
be inverted during development. A clock face, with pointer, by 
which the period of development may be noted is fitted outside 
the tank. Another apparatus of the kind is made for developing 
celluloid films exposed in the " Premo Film Packs " (fig. 75). 



Other forms are made, and in some the fixing and washing can also 
be effected. These tanks undoubtedly save much time and trouble 
in developing a large number of exposed plates or films, and have 
been found to work with efficiency and regularity. Eastman Kodak 
Co. brought out in 1907 a machine for developing paper prints on 
bromide or gaslight papers. 




FlC. 75. Premo Film Pack Tank (1908). 
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING APPARATUS 

For ordinary printing- purposes pressure frames, with or without 
glass fronts, are used for holding the negative and sensitive paper 
in close contact during exposure to light. They are fitted with 
hinged backs enabling the progress of the printing to be seen. The 
pressure is usually given with springs or with screws or wedges 
acting on the back. They are made in different kinds shown in 
the dealers' catalogues. For copying large tracings and engineers' 
drawings by the cyanotype and similar processes large glazed 
frames are used, mounted on a stand with axle, so that they may 
be easily turned over for refilling or fixed at a suitable angle to 
the light. The pressure is given by an elastic cushion or vacuum 
arrangement, by which air is pumped out from under an india- 
rubber sheet covering the back of the frame, thus securing a per- 
fectly uniform pressure of about 14 Ib to the square inch without 
strain on the front glass. Such frames are also useful for various 
photo-mechanical printing processes with large negatives or metal 
plates. 

For rapid printing of post-card and other negatives up to 8JX 
6J in. a handy and simple apparatus the " Rapide " has been 
brought out, consisting of a lantern fitted for oil, gas or electric 
light, with a sloping front, in which a special printing frame is fixed 
and arranged so that the prints can be rapidly exposed one after 
another (B. J. A. 1909), p. 691. In another form arrangements 
are made for exposing a large number of printing frames on a suit- 
able stand, in one or two tiers round a central arc lamp, which 
may be provided, as in the " Westminster " revolving printing 
frame, with a shade to protect the eyes of the operator when 
examining the prints or changing the frames. 

For printing tracings, &c., in long rolls, cylinder and rotatory 
machines of various types are used, so that the tracing and sensitive 
paper may be drawn together at a regulated speed in close contact 
round a glass cylindrical surface within which electric arc or mercury 
vapour lamps supply the source of light. Several machines of 
this kind are described in Eder's Jahrbuch for 1908, also in the 
patent records and photographic journals. 

AUTHORITIES. Apparatus in general: Sir W. de W. Abney, 
Instruction in Photography (nth ed., 1905); R. C. Bayley, The 
Complete Photographer (1906); Dr J. M. Eder, AusjuhrliCnes Hand- 
buch der Photographic (2nd ed., pt. i. (2), 1892); Jahrbuchcr fur 
Photographic und Reproductions Technik (E. Jb.), (1887-1908). 
Valuable for reference on all forms of apparatus: Dr C. Fabre, 
Traite encyclopedique de photographic (T E. P.) (vol. i., 1889; Supple- 
ments A, 1892; B, 1897; C, 1902; D, 1906), also gives much informa- 
tion about photographic apparatus and optics; Chapman Jones, 
An Introduction to the Science and Practice of Photography (4th ed., 
1904); British Journal Photographic Almanacs to 1909 (B. J. A.); 
Patent Office, Abridgments of Specifications, class 98, " Photo- 
graphy " : Photography Annuals (1891 to 1899) ; Photographic Journal 
(Ph. Journ.) ; Year Books of Photography to 1907. 

Lenses and Optics: C. Beck and A. Andrews, Photographic Lenses 
(6th ed.); W K. Burton, Optics for Photographers (1891); R. S. 
Cole, A Treatise on Photographic Optics (1899); T. R. Dallmeyer, 
Telephotography (1899); J. A. Hodges, Photographic Lenses (1895); 
Captain Houdaille Sur une methode d'essai scie.ntifique et pratique 
des objectijs photographiques (1894); G. L. Johnson, Photographic 
Optics and Colour Photography (1909); O. Lummer, Contributions 
to Photographic Optics, translated and augmented by Professor 
S. P. Thompson (1900); Dr A. Miethe, Optiq'M photographique sans 
devellopements mathematiques , translation by A. Noaillon and V. 
Hassreidter (1896); Lieut.-Coloncl P. Moessard, L'Optique photo- 
graphique (1898), L'Objectif photographique (1899); C. W. Piper, 
A First Book of the Lens (1901); Dr M. von Rohr, Theorie und 
Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs (1899), a most valuable 
theoretical and historical summary of photographic optics and its 
literature; Hans Schmidt, Das Fern-Objectiv im fortrat- Archi- 
tectur- und Landschaftsfache (1898); Dr H. Schroeder, Die Elemente 



PICTORIAL] 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



521 



der photographischen Optik (1891); J. T. Taylor, The Optics of 
Photography and Photographic Lenses (3rd ed., 1904); The " Photo- 
Miniature Series," No. I (1899), Modern Lenses, No. 26 (1901), 
Telephotography; No. 36 (1902), Lens Facts and Helps; No. 79 
(1907), The Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses. 

Hand Cameras, Shutters, Exposure Meters, &c. : Sir W.de W. Abney, 
Instantaneous Photography (1895); H. Boursault, Calcul du temps 
de pose en photographie (1896); W. B. Coventry, The Technics of 
the Hand Camera (1901), the working principles of lenses, shutters, 
&c., for instantaneous exposures are treated mathematically and 
practically; L. David, Die Moment-Photographie (1898); G. de 
Chapel d'Espinassoux, Traite pratique de la determination du temps 
de pose (1890) ; Dr R. Kriigener, Die Hand Camera und ihre Anwen- 
dung fur die Moment-Photographie (1898); A. Londe, La Photo- 
graphie instantanee, theorie et pratique (3rd ed., 1897); F. W. Pilditch, 
Drop-Shutter Photography (1896) ; A. de la Baume Pluvinel, Le Temps 
de pose (1890); A. Watkins, The Watkins Manual of Exposure and 
Development (4th ed., 1908). The Practical Photographer, No. 8 
(1904), " Hand Camera Work." The " Photo-Miniature Series," 
No. 3 (1899), Hand Camera Work; No. 37 (1902), Film Photography; 
No. 56 (1903), The Hurter and Driffield System; No. 76 (1906), 
The Hand Camera; No. 77 (1907), Focal Plane Photography. 

Colour Photography; Agenda Lumiere, La Photographie des 
couleurs et les plaques autochromes (1909) ; G. E. Brown and C. W. 
Piper, Colour Photography with the Lumiere Autochrome Plates 
(1907) ; Baron A. von Hiibl, Three Colour Photography, translated 
by H. O. Klein (1904); Theorie und Praxis der Farben Photographie 
mil Autochrom Flatten (1908); G. L. Johnson, Photographic Optics 
and Colour Photography (1909); Dr E. Konig, Natural Colour 
Photography (trans, by E. J. Wall (1906) ; Die Autochrom Photographie 
und die verwandten Dreifarbenraster-verfahren (1908). (J. WA.) 

III. PICTORIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 

Pictorial photography differs from other branches of photo- 
graphic practice in the motive by which it is prompted. Employ- 
ing the same methods and tools, it seeks to use photographic 
processes as a means of personal artistic expression. Thus in the 
early days of Fox Talbot's calotype, about 1846, David Octavius 
Hill, a successful Scottish painter, took up this method of 
portrayal, and, guided by an artist's knowledge and taste, and 
unfettered by photographic convention, which indeed had 
then scarcely begun to grow, produced portraits which for 
genuine pictorial quality have perhaps never been surpassed, 
especially if some allowance be made for the necessary im- 
perfections of the " Talbotype " (see plate). Whether they 
were in their day typical examples of Talbotype with all the 
latest improvements, Hill probably never cared. When, again, 
a few years later, Sir William J. Newton, the eminent 
miniature painter, read a paper before the newly formed 
Photographic Society of Great Britain (now the Royal Photo- 
graphic Society), his recommendation to depart from the 
custom of defining everything with excessive sharpness caused 
his address to be almost epoch-making. " I do not conceive 
it to be necessary or desirable," he said, " for an artist to repre- 
sent, or aim at, the attainment of every minute detail, but to 
endeavour at producing a broad and general effect. ... I do 
not consider that the whole of the subject should be what is 
called ' in focus '; on the contrary, I have found in many in- 
stances that the object is better obtained by the whole subject 
being a little out of focus." The doctrine has been persistently 
repeated ever since, but only within the last decade of the ipth 
century was the suppression or diffusion of focus received by 
photographers generally with anything better than ridicule or 
contempt, because it was unorthodox. O. G. Rejlander, Mrs 
Julia Margaret Cameron, H. P. Robinson, and others, by precept 
or practice, strove against such photographic conventions as 
had arisen out of those technical exigencies to which pictorial 
qualities were so often sacrificed. As late as 1868, in the 
Manual of Photographic Manipulation, by Lake Price, the old 
advice to arrange a group of persons in crescent form, so as to 
adapt the subject to the curve of the field of the lens, was repeated 
with the additional recommendation of plotting out on the 
ground beforehand the " curve of the focus " as a guide. As a 
defiance of this dictum, Rejlander, in 1869, produced a group of 
the members of the Solar Club in which some of the chief figures 
were set widely out of the " curve of the focus." The mere 
technical difficulties of this performance with wet collodion 
plates, and in an ordinary upper room, need not be touched upon 



here, but it is to be noted as one of those triumphant departures 
from convention which have marked the progressive stages of 
pictorial photography. At about the same period, Mrs Cameron, 
carrying the recommendation of " a little out of focus " rather 
further, regardless of how her lens was intended to be used by 
its maker, secured the rendering dictated by her own taste and 
judgment, with the result that many of her portraits, such as 
those of Tennyson, Carlyle, &c., are still in their way unsur- 
passed. Contemporaneously, Adam Salomon, a talented sculp- 
tor, " sunned " down the too garish lights of his photographic 
prints, and strengthened the high lights by working on the back 
of the negative. 

But, during the concluding quarter of the igth century, 
probably the most powerful influence in pictorial photography 
was that of H. P. Robinson, who died in February 1901, and, but 
for a brief period about the year 1875, was one of the most 
prolific " picture makers." Inspired by Rejlander, of whom he 
was a contemporary, Robinson will perhaps be best remembered 
by his earlier advocacy of combination printing. As early as 
1855 Berwick and Annan exhibited a photograph which was the 
result of printing from more than one negative, a figure from one 
plate being cunningly introduced into a landscape print from 
another. Then came from Rejlander " The Two Ways of Life," 
in which, with wonderful ingenuity, thirty different negatives 
were combined. Robinson followed, and between 1858 and 1887 
exhibited numerous examples of combination-printing, one of 
the most popular and fairly typical examples being " Carolling " 
(see plate) , which received a medal in the exhibition of the Royal 
Photographic Society in 1887. 

Though in this combination-printing one may perhaps perceive 
the germ of incentive towards the production of special effects 
not seen in the original, yet the practice was not destined to 
become very popular, for even in the most capable hands there 
remains the difficulty, if not impossibility, of fitting a portion of 
one negative into a print from another and still preserving true 
rela^ve tonality, and even true proportion. Skilfully produced, 
eminently popular in character though " Carolling " may be, 
such errors are not absent. Of this combination-printing 
Dr P. H. Emerson has said: " Cloud printing is the simplest 
form of combination-printing, and the only one admissible when 
we are considering artistic work. Rejlander, however, in the early 
days of photography, tried to make pictures by combination- 
printing. This process is really what many of us practised in the 
nursery, that is, cutting out figures and pasting them into white 
spaces left for that purpose in the picture-book. With all the ' 
care in the world the very best artist living could not do this 
satisfactorily. Nature is so subtle that it is impossible to do 
this sort of patchwork and represent her. Even if the greater 
truths be registered, the Jesser truths, still important, cannot 
be obtained, and the softness of outline is easily lost. The rela- 
tion of the figure to the landscape can never be truly represented 
in this manner, for all subtle modelling of the contour of the 
figure is lost." 

Pictorial photography received a large accession of votaries 
in consequence of the greater facilities offered by the introduction 
of the gelatino-bromide, or dry-plate, process, which, although 
dating from 1880, did not notably affect photographic communi- 
ties until some years afterwards; and although improvement in 
appliances and instruments had little to do with the advance 
of the pictorial side of photography, yet, indirectly at least, the 
dry-plate and the platinotype printing process have had an 
undoubted effect. The former gave enormously increased 
facility, and dispensed with tedious manipulations and chemical 
knowledge, while its increased light-sensitiveness decreased the 
limitations as to subjects and effects. The platinotype process 
was discovered in 1874-1880 by W. Willis, who employed his 
chemical skill and knowledge to give the world a printing process 
more likely than the hitherto prevalent silver papers to satisfy 
artistic requirements. 

Up to 1882 but few outdoor photographers had ventured to 
run counter to the general dictum that photographs should only be 
taken during sunshine or good bright light, and unquestioning 



522 



PHOTOGRAPHY 



[PICTORIAL 



consent would have been given everywhere to the proposition 
that it would be absurd to work when anything like fog or atmo- 
spheric haze was present. Isochromatic plates, introduced for 
the purpose of equalizing the actinic power of various colour 
luminosities, and so rendering colours in correct relative value, 
were recommended by one writer, who applauded their supposed 
advantage of enabling the photographer to photograph distance 
without any suggestion of atmosphere. That evening or morn- 
ing haze might enhance the beauty of a landscape, or that the 
mystery of half-concealment might itself be beautiful, does not 
seem to have occurred to the photographer, who had become 
infatuated by the exquisite clearness and sharpness which, with a 
minimum of labour, he was able to achieve. It is therefore 
interesting to note one of the first photographic successes which 
broke away from this convention, just as Rejlander's Solar Club 
group defied the formula of arranging human figures like the 
tiers of an amphitheatre. William M'Leish, of Darlington, a 
Scottish gardener who had taken to photography, and who seems 
to have been less under the influence, or it may have been that he 
was ignorant, of the old dicta, sent to the Royal Photographic 
Society's Exhibition in 1882 a photograph entitled " Misty Morn- 
ing on the Wear," a very beautiful view of Durham Cathedral 
as seen through the mist from across the river. The judges, 
although they that year awarded eleven medals, passed this by; 
but appreciation came from outside, for newspaper critics, and 
practically all those who were not blinded by prejudice and 
conventionality, declared it to be the photograph of the year. 
The -exhibitions immediately succeeding revealed numerous 
imitators of M'Leish, and both figure and landscape work began 
to be shown in which there was evidence of greater freedom 
and originality. 

Meanwhile the Photographic Society of Great Britain had 
drifted away from its artistic starting-point, and had become 
chiefly absorbed in purely scientific and technical subjects. But 
the general apathy which existed in respect of the artistic aspira- 
tions of some workers was the forerunner of a period of renaissance 
which was to end in lifting the pictorial side of photography into 
a greatly improved position. In 1886 Dr P. H. Emerson read 
before the Camera Club a paper on " Naturalistic Photography," 
which served as an introduction to the publication (1887) of his 
book under that title. Unquestionably this book struck a 
powerful blow at the many conventionalities which had grown 
up in the practice of photography; the chief doctrines set forth 
being the differentiation of focus in different planes, a more 
complete recognition and truer rendering of " tone," a kind of 
truthful impressionism derived from a close study and general 
acquaintance of nature, and a generally higher and more intel- 
lectual standard. After the publication of a second edition in 
1889 Dr Emerson publicly renounced the views he had published, 
by issuing in January of 1891 a bitterly worded, black-bordered 
pamphlet, entitled The Death of Naturalistic Photography. But 
the thoughts which the book had stirred were not to be stilled 
by its withdrawal. Towards the end of the same year the 
conflict which within the Photographic Society had become 
apparent as -between the pictorial enthusiasts and the older 
school, culminated in connexion with some matters respecting 
the hanging of certain photographs at the exhibition of that year; 
and a number of prominent members resigned their membership 
as a protest against the lack of sympathy and the insufficient 
manner in which pictorial work was represented and encouraged. 
This secession was to prove the most important event in the 
history of that branch of photography. The secessionists being 
among the most popular contributors to the annual exhibition 
gathered round them numerous sympathizers. In the following 
year they formed themselves into a brotherhood called " The 
Linked Ring," and in 1893 held their first " Photographic Salon," 
at the Dudley Gallery, Piccadilly. The most noteworthy of the 
early adherents attracted to the new body was James Craig 
Annan, whose work was practically unknown until he exhibited 
it at the first Salon; and almost at once he, by general consent, 
took a position amongst pictorial photographers second to none 
(see plate). 



Aroused into greater activity by these events, the Royal 
Photographic Society began to pay more attention to what had 
now become the more popular phase. At subsequent exhibitions 
the technical and scientific work was hung separately from the 
" Art Section," and a separate set of judges was elected for each 
section. It became the custom to allot by far the greater 
amount of space to the " artistic "; and later, artists were elected 
as judges, by way of encouraging those who were devoted to the 
pictorial side to send in for exhibition. In the autumn of 1900 
the New Gallery was secured, and a comprehensive exhibition 
of all phases of photography was held. 

It is interesting to note that as a distinct movement pictorial 
photography is essentially of British origin, and this is shown 
by the manner in which organized photographic bodies in Vienna, 
Brussels, Paris, St Petersburg, Florence and other European 
cities, as well as in Philadelphia, Chicago, &c., following the 
example of London, held exhibitions on exactly similar lines to 
those of the London Photographic Salon, and invited known 
British exhibitors to contribute. The international character 
of the " Linked Ring " encouraged an interchange of works 
between British and foreign exhibitors, with the result that the 
productions of certain French, Austrian and American photo- 
graphers are perfectly familiar in Great Britain. This, in the 
year 1900, led to a very remarkable cult calling itself " The New 
American School," which had a powerful influence on contem- 
poraries in Great Britain. 

It may be well to glance at such improvements of process or 
apparatus as have not been direct and essential means to pictorial 
advance, but rather modifications and improvements made in 
response to the requirements of the artistic aspirant. Such im- 
provements are of two orders those which are devised with the 
aim of securing greater accuracy of delineation, the correction of 
distortion and of apparent exaggeration of perspective, and the 
more truthful rendering of relative values and tones; and those 
which seek to give the operator greater personal control over the 
finished result. While great advances have been made in photo- 
graphic optics, it cannot be said that pictorial work has been 
thereby materially assisted, some of the most successful exponents 
preferring to use the simplest form of uncorrected objective, or 
even to dispense with the lens altogether, choosing rather to employ 
a minute aperture, technically called a " pinhole." This is but 
one example of many which might be quoted to bear out the state- 
ment that in photography the advance of anything in the nature 
of artistic qualities has not been correlative with mechanical im- 
provements. The hand camera can only be said to have had an 
indirect influence: it has increased the photographer's facilities, 
and by removing the encumbrance of heavy tools has widened his 
sphere of operations; but it is perhaps in connexion with the plates 
and printing processes that more direct advantages have been 
gained. The fact that the actinic power of colours is not pro- 
portional to their luminosity was long regretted as an obstacle to 
correct representation; but by the introduction of orthochromatic 
or isochromatic plates in 1886 (when B. J. Edwards bought the 
Tailfer and Clayton patent, under which he shortly brought out 
his orthochromatic plates) this original disability was removed; 
while with increased rapidity in the isochromatic plate colour 
values may still further be corrected by the use of coloured screens 
or light filters, without interfering with the practicability of making 
sufficiently rapid exposures for most subjects. Again, by a better 
knowledge of what is required in artistic representation, certain 
modifications in the formulated treatment of ordinary and un- 
corrected plates are found to do much towards removing the evil; 
hence, with an ordinary plate " backed " so as to counteract over- 
exposure of the higher lights, an exposure may, except in extreme 
cases, be given of length sufficient to secure the feeble rays of the 
less actinic colours, and by subsequent suitable development a 
result hardly distinguishable from that of a colour corrected plate 
may be secured. Chemical experiment has placed in the photo- 
grapher's hands improved and easier means of entire, unequal and 
local intensification and reduction, but utility of these is restricted. 
By the artistic worker it is claimed that the lens and camera are 
but the tools, and the negative the preliminary sketch or study, 
the final print standing to him in the same relation as the finished 
painting does to the artist. In the production of the print various 
means of personally controlling the formation of the image have 
been resorted to. Thus the local development of platinotype 
by means of glycerine has its champions, but it seems to have been 
little used, its resuscitation being chiefly due to two or three promi- 
nent workers in New York. Here should also be mentioned the 
revival in 1898 of rough-surface printing papers, chiefly those 
sensitized with silver, the roughest texture drawing papers being 
employed to break up the excessive sharpness of the photographic 
image, and by the superficial inequalities introducing the effect 



PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL 



of luminousness to over-dark shadows and variety to blank whites. 
The almost forgotten process of Pouncy, and of Poitevin, now known 
as the gum bichromate process, was rehabilitated in 1894 by M. 
Rouille Ladeveze expressly to meet the needs of the pictorial 
worker. Perhaps the best results that have been achieved by it 
are those of M. Robert Demachy of Paris, though many English 
workers have used it with remarkable success. In it paper of any 
kind may be selected as the support. The power of the operator 
to modify the printed image to almost any extent, even to intro- 
ducing and eliminating lights and shadows, and in other ways to 
depart widely from the image given by the negative, depends upon 
the fact that the coating of gum and pigment (which, being bichro- 
matized, becomes insoluble in proportion as it is acted upon by light) 
holds the pigment but imperfectly, and yields it up upon a vigorous 
application of water. According, therefore, to its application or 
retention, the operator can lighten or deepen in tone any portion. 
Numberless variations of other methods, such as brush develop- 
ment and local toning or stopping, have been suggested with the 
same object. Other workers have shown that by dexterously shutting 
off and admitting the light to various parts of the negative whilst 
printing, the disposition of the lights and shades in the print can 
be modified to so great an extent as to alter the general contour of 
the scene. Examples of an original unaltered print, and one 
which has been thus modified, are shown in the accompanying 
plate. Portions are shaded in by allowing the light to have access 
to the print, either through the negative in which case the image 
with all its details, prints more deeply or by removing the negative, 
when the action of the light is to flatten and suppress both detail 
and contrast. Latterly some few have resorted to extensive 
working on the negative, both on the back and on the film ; drawing 
by hand is practised on the film to render too prominent features less 
obtrusive, and objects in the background are merged by an intricacy 
of lines and cross-hatching. Many of the results are very pleasing, 
although one hesitates to justify the means, however good the 
end. On the other hand, to exclaim for purity of method and the 
exclusion of extraneous aids is very like setting up an arbitrary 
standard no less unreasonable than those conventions against 
which pictorial photography has so long striven. 

AUTHORITIES. P. H. Emerson, Naturalistic Photography; H. P. 
Robinson, Picture-making by Photography; Art Photography; 
Pictorial Effect in Photography ; Elements of a Pictorial Photograph ; 
A. H. Wall, Artistic Landscape Photography (1896); A. Horsley 
Hinton, Practical Pictorial Photography (1898), and subsequent 
editions; C. Puyo, Notes sur la photographie artislique (Paris). 

(A. H. H.) 

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL. The requisites for celestial 
photography are best explained by a comparison with ordinary 
photography in several essential points. 

a. Illumination. In taking a portrait artificial light is used, 
being thrown on to the face of the sitter either directly or by 
reflection. If the day is dull a longer exposure is required, and 
artificial light may be used when the daylight fails. In photo- 
graphing the stars there is no question of illuminating them by 
artificial light; for the strongest searchlight which we could 
throw in the direction of the heavenly bodies would have no 
sensible effect. The light used is their own, and its feebleness 
renders it necessary to make long exposures, the length increasing 
as we attempt to get images of fainter objects. The invention 
of the dry plate, by making it possible to give very long exposures, 
caused a revolution in celestial photography. With the wet 
plate, exposures were limited to the few minutes during which 
the film would remain wet; but the dry plate can remain in the 
telescope for days, weeks or even years if necessary. On the 
approach of daylight, the cap is put on the camera, or the plate 
removed into the dark room; but when night returns the plate 
is put back in the telescope, which is accurately pointed to the 
same stars, the cap is removed, and the exposure is resumed 
without any loss from the interruption. 

b. Magnification. In taking a portrait we can obtain a large 
or small size by placing the camera near the sitter or far away. 
But this method is not available for the heavenly bodies, since 
we cannot sensibly approach them. To magnify an image we 
must lengthen the focus of the camera, either directly or in- 
directly. The direct method is to construct a lens or mirror of 
long focus; the camera becomes similar in length to a telescope; 
and indeed resembles a telescope in other respects, except that 
we take away the eye-piece and put in a photographic plate 
instead. If, however, we already have a lens of short focus which 
we wish to use, we may lengthen the focus indirectly by using a 
secondary magnifier, that is by putting in another lens near the 
focus of the first. In either case -the profitable magnification 



523 

is limited, not only by the imperfections of the optical apparatus 
but by disturbances in the atmosphere. Air currents, either 
outside or inside the telescope, act as irregular lenses of varying 
shape, and produce such defects in the image that we gain 
nothing by enlarging it beyond a certain point. Such air dis- 
turbances do not trouble the ordinary photographer at all, or 
scarcely at all: he is only concerned with a few feet of air, 
whereas the celestial photographer cannot escape from the 
necessity of looking through many miles of it. 

c. Steadiness. In taking a portrait the photographer is only 
concerned to fix his camera firmly and to induce his sitter to 
remain still. The heavenly bodies are in constant motion, 
though their real and apparent movements are fortunately 
smooth, except for air disturbances above mentioned. If, there- 
fore, it were possible to devise perfectly smooth clockwork, we 
could keep the camera or telescope continually pointed to the 
required star or stars. But human workmanship has not yet 
made clockwork of sufficient strength and accuracy to keep a 
large telescope satisfactorily pointed. The clockwork which 
had been found good enough for use with visual telescopes was 
soon found to be quite inadequate for photography. The first 
method adopted was to bind two telescopes, one visual and the 
other photographic, firmly together; and by looking through the 
visual one to keep some object steadily on the crosswires by 
using the slow motion screws; meanwhile the other telescope 
was kept properly pointed for taking a photograph. As it was 
sometimes found that extremely fine movements were required, 
electrical arrangements were devised, whereby the observer, on 
simply pressing a button, could accelerate or retard the rate of 
the clockwork by a minute amount, instead of actually turning 
the screws by hand. And about the same time the idea arose 
of making these corrections automatically. This automatic 
correction is based on the principle that a freely swinging 
pendulum, which has no work to do, will naturally keep 
much better time than the clockwork which has to drive a 
heavy telescope; and if such a pendulum is therefore arranged 
to send a current every second through certain electro-magnets, 
apparatus can be devised to detect whether the clockwork is 
going properly; and to correct it in the right direction, if it is 
not. One or more of these three methods, which may be called 
hand-guiding, electrical control, and automatic electric control, 
are used in taking all celestial photographs. 

The Photographic Image. The image of a star en the plate 
should be, theoretically, merely a point; but in practice it is a 
small patch on the plate which grows in size as the exposure is 
lengthened, while at the same time it becomes darker in the 
middle. One reason for this is that light is many-coloured, and 
when we attempt to focus it by a lens, we can only get a very few 
colours into even approximate focus; the other colours are not 
brought to focus at all, and form concentric patches of fainter 
light on the plate, which increase in size with the error of focus. 
Thus at best our focusing is only a compromise. When the 
exposure is short, those colours which have most nearly been 
brought to focus have an effect, while the faint light of the others 
may produce no sensible impression. It is natural to select for 
the colours to be brought most sharply to focus those which are 
most important photographically, viz. those at the violet end of 
the spectrum. As the exposure proceeds the faint light of the 
other colours affects the plate by accumulation, and hence the 
image spreads, while at the same time the central part naturally 
becomes blacker. 

A reflecting telescope brings all colours to the same focus; and 
it might appear, therefore, that images formed with it will not 
spread in this way. There is, however, another cause of spread- 
ing besides that due to colour; neither the reflecting telescope 
nor the lens can focus all the light received by them for more 
than one particular star. It is just theoretically possible to 
construct a mirror which would focus all the light from a star 
seen in the direction of its axis; but the light from another star 
seen in a slightly different direction would not be truly focused, 
since directly we leave the axis, some parts of the mirror have a 
focus slightly different from other parts; and if the image 



524 



PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL 



produced is magnified, it is seen to have a shape like that of a 
kite. As the exposure is prolonged the small kite-shaped figure 
gradually increases in size from the point towards the head, and 
this defect is the more pronounced the farther we depart from 
the centre of the plate. The result is, speaking generally, that 
the images near the centre of a plate may be fairly small and 
circular, but at a certain distance from the centre they become 
distorted and large. It is a practical problem of great importance 
to have this distance as great as possible, so that the field of good 
definition may be large. Estimating in terms of angular distance 
from the centre of the field, the reflecting telescope has a good 
field of not more than 40'; a telescope with one compound lens 
(the ordinary refractor) a field of about i, while if two compound 
lenses are used (as is the case in portrait photography) the field 
may be very greatly extended, 10 or 15 having been successfully 
covered. This is naturally a very great advantage of the 
" doublet " over other forms of telescope, an advantage which 
has only recently been fully realized. But there is a compen- 
sating drawback; to get a large field we must either use a large 
plate, which is liable to bend or to have a permanent curvature; 
or if we use a small plate the picture will be on a small scale, so 
that we lose accuracy in another way. 

Star Charts may thus be made by photography with any 
desired combination of these advantages. The Cape Photo- 
graphic Durchmusterung is a photographic survey of the southern 
hemisphere by means of 250 plates each covering 5 X 5 taken 
at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope; the plates being 
afterwards measured at Groningen in Holland by Professor J. C. 
Kapteyn who recorded the places to O"'i and O"i. A much 
higher degree of accuracy is aimed at in the international scheme 
for a map of the whole sky undertaken jointly by eighteen 
observatories in 1887. The plates are only 2 X 2, and each of 
the eighteen observatories must take about 600 to cover its zone 
of the sky once, 1200 to cover it twice. Exposures of 6 min., 
3 min., and 20 sec. are given, the telescope being pointed in a 
slightly different direction for each exposure; so that each star to 
about the pth magnitude shows 3 images, and stars to the nth 
or 1 2th magnitude show 2; which has the incidental advantage 
of distinguishing stars from dust-specks. A reseau of lines 
accurately ruled at distances of 5 mm. apart in two directions at 
right angles is impressed on the plate by artificial light and de- 
veloped along with the star images; and by use of these reference 
lines the places of all stars shown with 3 min. exposure are 
measured with a probable error, which, by a resolution of the 
executive committee, is not to exceed 0-20"'. An additional 
scheme for a series of charts enlarged from similar plates with 
much longer exposure has proved too costly, and only a few 
observatories have attempted it. Meanwhile Professor E. C. 
Pickering of Harvard, by using doublet lenses which cover a much 
larger field at once, has photographed the whole sky many times 
over. The plates have not been measured, and would not in 
any case yield results of quite the same accuracy as those of the 
international scheme; but being systematically stored at the 
Harvard Observatory they form an invaluable reference library, 
from which the history of remarkable objects can be read back- 
wards when once attention is drawn to them. Thus the history 
of the asteroid Eros, discovered in 1898, was traced back to 1894 
from these plates; new stars have been found on plates taken 
previous to the time of discovery, and the epoch of their blazing 
up recovered within narrow limits; and the history of many 
variable stars greatly extended. The value of this collection of 
photographs will steadily increase with time and growth. 

Spectroscopic Star Charts. By placing a glass prism in front 
of the object glass of a telescope the light from each star can be 
extended into a spectrum: and a chart can thus be obtained 
showing not only the relative positions, but the character of the 
light of the stars. This method has been used with great effect 
at Harvard: and from inspection of the plates many discoveries 
have been made, notably those of several novae. 

The Geometry of the Star Chart. Let OS in the figure be the object 
glass with which the photograph is taken, and let its optical centre 
be C. Let PL be the plate, and draw CN perpendicular to the sur- 




face of the plate. The point N is of fundamental importance in the 
geometry of the star chart and it is natural to call it the plate centre; 
but it must be carefully distin- 
guished from two other points which 
should theoretically, but may not in 
practice, coincide with it. The first 
is the centre of the material plate, 
as placed in position in the telescope. 
In the figure NL is purposely 
drawn larger than PN, and this 
material centre would be to the 
right of N. The second point is 
that where the optical axis of the 
object glass (CG in the figure) cuts 
the plate. The object glass is drawn 
with an exaggerated tilt so that CG 
falls to the right of CN. To secure 
adjustment, the object glass should 
be " squared on " to the tube by a 
familiar operation, so that the tube 
is parallel to CG : and then the plate 
should be set normal to the tube 
and therefore to CG. This is done 
by observing reflected images, com- 
bined with rotation of the plate in its plane. 

The field of the object glass will in general be curved: so that 
the points of best focus for different stars lie on a surface such as 
AGB (purposely exaggerated). The best practical results for 
focus will thus be obtained by compromise, placing the plate so 
that some stars, as A, are focused beyond the plate, and others, as 
B, nearer the object glass: exact focus only being possible for a 
particular ring on the plate. The star A will thus be represented 
by a small patch of light, pq on the plate, which will grow in size as 
above explained. When we measure the position of its image we 
select the centre as best we can: and in practice it is important 
that the point selected should be that where the line Ca drawn from 
the star to the optical centre cuts the plate. If this can be done, 
then the chart represents the geometrical projection of the heavens 
from the point C on to the plane PL. The stars are usually conceived 
as lying on the celestial sphere, with an arbitrary radius and centre 
at the observer, which is in this case the object glass: describing 
such a sphere with C as centre and CN as radius, the lines 6CB and 
aCA project the spherical surface on to a tangent plane at the point 
N, which we call the plate centre. If we point the telescope to a 
different part of the sky, we select a different tangent plane on which 
to project. It is a fundamental property of projections that a 
straight line projects into a straight line; and in the present instance 
we may add that every straight line corresponds to a great circle 
on the celestial sphere. Hence if we measure any rectilinear co- 
ordinates (x, y) of a series of stars on one plate, and co-ordinates 
(X, Y) of the same stars on another plate, and (x, y) are connected 
by a linear relation, so must (X, Y) be. This property leads at 
once to the equations 

X = (ax+by+c)/(i-kx-ly), V=(dx+ey+f)Ki-kx-ly'), (i) 
the numerators being any linear functions of (x, y) but the 
denominators being the same linear function. When x = o, 
y = O, then X = c and Y /, which are thus the co-ordinates of 
the origin of (xy) on plate (XY). The co-ordinate of the origin of 
(XY) on plate (xy) can be shown to be (k, I) if proper units of length 
be chosen. 

As a particular case the co-ordinates 

* = cot 8 cos a, y = tan S sin o (2) 

represent the rectangular co-ordinates of a star of RA and declina- 
tion a and S, projected on the tangent plane at the north pole. If 
the same star be projected on the tangent plane at the point (A, D), 
then its rectangular co-ordinates (, ij) will be 

= tan (a A) sin q sec (q D), i) = tan (q D), ) 
where tan g = tan & sec (a A), ) (3) 

the axis of i) being directed towards the pole. It can readily be verified 
that (, ij) can be expressed in terms of (x, y) by relations of the form 
(i). The co-ordinates (,17) have been named "standard co-ordinates" 
and represent star positions on an ideal plate free from the effects 
of refraction and aberration. For plates of not too large a field, 
differential refraction and aberration are so small that their product 
by squares of the co-ordinates may be neglected, and the actual 
star positions (x, y) are connected with (, 17) by linear relations. 
The linearity of these relations is obviously not disturbed by the 
choice of origin of axes and of orientation; in which the effects of 
procession and mutation for any epoch may be included. Hence 
to obtain the standard co-ordinates (, 77) of any object on a plate it is 
only necessary to know the position of the plate centre (the point 
N in fig. i) and the six constants in the relations 

= Ax+B;y+C, 7j = D*+Ey+F, (4) 

where (x, y) are rectilinear co-ordinates referred to any axes. The 
constants can theoretically be determined when there are three 
stars on the plate for which , ; are known: but in practice it is 
better to use as many " known " stars as possible. These equations 



PHOTOMETRY 



525 



are well adapted to solution by least squares or any equivalent 
device. 

Photography of Nebulae and Clusters. Some of the earliest 
and most striking successes in celestial photography were the 
pictures of nebulae. Dr A. A. Common (1841-1903), F.R.S., 
of Baling, led the way in 1883 with a successful picture of the 
great nebula in Orion, taken with a 3 ft. concave mirror 
by Calver. Dr Isaac Roberts (1829-1904) was the first to show 
the real structure of the great nebula in Andromeda, by a photo- 
graph also taken with a reflector. In the clear atmosphere of 
the Lick Observatory in California, small nebulae were photo- 
graphed in great numbers by Professor J. E. Keeler (1857-1900): 
and it was shown what a large percentage were spiral in form. 
Prof. G. W. Ritchey, at the Yerkes Observatory, has followed 
up these successes with a 2-ft. reflector, and is constructing a 
S-ft., to be erected on Mt Wilson (Cal.); but he has also shown 
that pictures of clusters are best taken with a telescope of long 
focus, such as the great Yerkes refractor; and incidentally 
that this telescope, although intended for visual work, can be 
adapted to photography by using a " colour screen " just in front 
of the plate, which sifts out the rays not brought to focus. 

Photography of the Moon. G. W. Ritchey has used the 
same device of a colour screen for the moon, and obtained even 
better pictures than" those obtained at Paris, which were pre- 
viously the best. The positions of a large number of craters 
and other points have been measured by Dr J. H. G. Franz 
and S. A. Saunder on photographs, and a new epoch in lunar 
topography has thereby been created. 

Photography of the Planets. Some striking successes have 
been obtained at the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona: 
by cutting down the aperture of the object-glass some of the 
delicate markings, called canals, on the planet Mars have been 
photographed; but even these do not approach what can be 
seen by the eye. 

Photography of Comets. Some wonderful pictures have been 
obtained of comets by Professor E. E. Barnard and others. 
Here, as in the case of nebulae, the photograph is superior to 
the eye in detecting faint luminosity, and delicate details of 
the tail structure have been photographed which could never 
be seen. In several pictures the tails have an appearance of 
violent shattering, and if successive pictures can be obtained 
at such times we may learn something of the nature of such 
disturbances. 

Solar Photography. The light of the sun is so intense that 
the chief difficulty is to obtain a short enough exposure. When 
successfully taken, photographs of the surface show the well- 
known spots and the mottling of the surface. The image 
sensibly falls off in intensity towards the limb, owing to the 
absorption of light by the solar atmosphere; and the bright 
faculae (which are thus inferred to lie above the main absorbing 
layer) are seen near the limb. But an immense advance in 
solar photography was made about a dozen years ago by the 
invention of the spectroheliograph, which is an instrument for 
photographing in the light of one very definite colour say 
a single hydrogen line. The faculous appearances can be photo- 
graphed with this instrument all over the sun's disk, instead 
of merely near the limb. The appearance presented varies 
enormously with the line selected, or (in the case of the wide 
" lines " in the spectrum, such as the H and K lines) with the 
particular part of the same line selected. But for a full accounl 
of such matters reference must be made to the articles SUN and 
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH. 

AUTHORITIES. Various papers in the Monthly Notices of the Roya 
Astronomical Society and in the A slrophysical Journal. Also the 
bulletins and circulars of the Harvard, Lick and Yerkes Observa 
tories ; and of the Executive Committee for the A strographic Catalogui 
(published by Gauthier Villars for the Paris Academic des Sciences) 
See also more especially a paper by G. W. Ritchey in the Decennia 
Papers of the University of Chicago, reprinted in vol. ii. (1903) o 
the Yerkes Observatory Publications. (H. H. T.) 

PHOTOMETRY (from Gr. <&, farbs, light, iikrpov, a mea 
sure), the art and science of comparing the intensities or illumin 
ating powers of two or more sources of light. As in all scientifii 



measurements, its methods are attempts to give quantitative 

ccuracy to the crude comparisons made by the eye itself. The 

lecessity for this accuracy in practical affairs of life has arisen 

iecause of the great development of artificial lighting in recent 

imes. The eye soon learns to associate with any particular 

ource of light a quality of brightness or power of illumination 

which diminishes with increase of distance of the source from 

he eye or from the surface illuminated. This quality depends 

upon an intrinsic property of the source of light itself, generally 

cnown as its " candle power." The aim of photometry is to 

measure this candle power; and whatever be the experimental 

means adopted the eye must in all cases be the final judge. 

In the photometric comparison of artificial lights, which 
requently vary both in size and colour, direct observation of 
he sources themselves does not yield satisfactory results. It 
s found to be much better to compare the illuminations pro- 
duced on dead white surfaces from which no regular reflection 
akes place, or through colourless translucent material uniformly 
lluminated by the light placed on the further side. By such 
Drocesses there is always loss of light, and we must be certain 
.hat the various coloured constituents of the light are reduced 
n the same proportion. This necessary condition is practically 
satisfied by the use of white diffusing screens. 

Two principles of radiation underlie many photometric 
applications, namely, the inverse square distance law, and J. H. 
Lambert's " cosine law." Both can be established / nverse 
on theoretical grounds, certain conditions being square 
iulfilled. But as these conditions are never abso- Distance 
.utely satisfied, the applicability of the two laws Law. 
must in the end be tested by experiment. Since we find that 
within the errors of observation four candles, placed together at a 
distance of 2 ft. from a diffusing screen, produce the same illu- 
mination as one candle at a distance of i ft., we may regard the 
inverse square distance law as satisfied. Thus if two lights of 
intensities A and B produce equal illuminations on a screen when 
their distances from the screen are respectively a and b, we at once 
write down the relation between the two intensities in the form 
A : B = o 2 : 6 2 . The theoretical basis of the law follows at once 
from the universally accepted view that light is energy radiating 
outwards in all directions from the source. If we assume that 
there is no loss of energy in the transmitting medium, then the 
whole amount of radiant energy passing in one second across 
any closed surface completely surrounding the source of light 
must be the same whatever the size or form of the surface. 
Imagine for simplicity a point source of light, or its equivalent, 
a uniformly radiating spherical surface with the point at its 
centre, and draw round this point a spherical surface of unit 
radius. Across this surface there will pass a definite amount 
of radiant energy, in other words a definite total luminous 
flux, E, which will be the same for all concentric spherical 
surfaces. Since the area of a spherical surface of radius r is 
4irr 2 , the flux which crosses unit area is E/47rr 2 . 1 his quantity 
is the " illumination." It is measured in terms of the unit 
called the lux, which is defined as the illumination produced by 
a light of unit intensity on a perfectly white surface at a distance 
of i ft. In the great majority of photometers the illumina- 
tions are compared, and the intensities are deduced by applying 
the law of the squared distances. 

Lambert's cosine law has to do with the way in which a 
luminous surface sends off its radiations in various directions. 
It is a matter of common observation that the 
disk of the sun appears equally bright all over the 
surface. Careful measurements show that this is Lgw 
not strictly true; but it is sufficiently near the truth 
to suggest that under certain definable conditions the law 
would hold accurately. Again, when a glowing surface is viewed 
through a small hole in an opaque plate, the brightness is very 
approximately independent of the angular position of the 
incandescent surface. This is the same phenomenon as the 
first mentioned, and shows that the more oblique, and therefore 
larger, element of surface sends the same amount of radiation 
through the hole. Hence the amount per unit surface sent off 



526 



PHOTOMETRY 



Talbofs 
Law. 



at a given angle with the normal must be less than that sent off 
in the direction of the normal in the inverse ratio of the areas 
of the corresponding normal and oblique elements; that is, as 
the cosine of the given angle to unity. For most practical 
purposes, and so long as the obliquity is not great, Lambert's 
law may be assumed to hold. 

In almost all accurate methods of photometry the aim is to 
bring the illuminating powers of the two sources to equality. 
This may be effected by altering the distance of either light 
from the illuminated surface. Or we may use polarized light 
and diminish the intensity of the stronger beam by suitable 
rotation of a Nicol prism, a method particularly useful in spectro- 
photometers. The same result may also be effected by inter- 
posing absorbent disks, the precise absorbing powers of which 
must, however, be known with great accuracy. Another useful 
method is that first described by H. Fox Talbot in 
1834, and used with effect by Professor William 
Swan (1849), and more recently by Sir W. de W. 
Abney. Talbot's law is thus enunciated by H. von Helmholtz: 
" When any part of the retina is excited by regularly periodic 
intermittent light, and when the period is sufficiently short, the 
resulting impression will be continuous, and will be the same as 
that which would be produced if the whole light were distributed 
uniformly throughout the whole period." Talbot deduced the 
principle from the well-known experiment in which a continuous 
luminous line is produced by rapid rotation of a luminous point. 
If the principle be granted, it is obvious that any mechanism 
by which a ray of light is obstructed in a regularly rhythmic 
manner during definite intervals t' ', separated by intervals t, 
during which the light is allowed to pass, will have the effect 
of reducing the apparent brightness of the ray in the ratio 
//(t + /') This is frequently accomplished by placing in the ray 
a rotating disk perforated by radial sectors, the so-called 
Talbot disk. 

If photometric results are to be of general value it is essential 
to have a unit in which to express all other intensities. For 
example, electric lights are classified according to 
their " candle-power." The candle, in terms of 
whose brightness the brightness of other sources of 
light is to be expressed, must, of course, fulfil the conditions 
demanded of all standards. It must give under definite and 
easily realizable conditions a definite and constant luminous 
effect, and it must be easily reproducible. The earlier attempts 
to get a candle of constant brightness were not very satisfactory. 
The British standard is a sperm candle which weighs ft, and 
loses in burning 120 grains per hour. It is found that these 
conditions are not sufficient to determine the luminous power 
of the candle, since the length and shape of the wick, the height 
of the flame, and the composition, temperature and humidity 
of the atmosphere all have an effect upon its brightness. The 
same is true of other similar sources of light for example, 
the German standard candle, which is made of paraffin, has a 
diameter of 2 cm., and has its wick cut until the flame is 5 cm. 
high, but which with all precautions suffers continual altera- 
tions in brightness. For ordinary practical purposes, however, 
these candles are steady enough. Other kinds of flame have 
also been used as a standard source of light. The oldest of 
these is the French Carcel lamp, which is provided with a 
cylindrical Argand burner, and gives the standard brightness 
vernoa- when 42 grammes of colza oil are consumed per hour. 
Harcourt The supply and draught are regulated by clockwork. 
Pentaae A. G. Vernon-Harcourt's pentane standard, in which 
a mixture of gaseous pentane and air is burnt so as 
to maintain a flame 2-5 in. high at ordinary barometric pressure, 
gives good results, and is readily adjustable to suit varied con- 
ditions. Several forms of this standard have been constructed, 
one of the most important being the 10 candle-power pentane 
lamp, in which air saturated with pentane vapour is burnt in a 
specially-designed burner resembling an Argand burner. For 
photometric purposes a definite length of the lower part of the 
flame is used, the upper part being hidden within an opaque tube. 
The amyl-acetate lamp designed by H. von Hefner-Alteneck has 



Standards 
of Light. 



Standard. 



Hefner 
Lamp. 



been elaborately studied by the German authorities, and at present 
is probably more used than any other flame for photometry. It 
is of simple construction, and gives the standard 
brightness when it burns with a flame 4 cms. in 
height in still air of humidity 0-88% and free of 
carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon dioxide and increase 
in the humidity have a marked effect in diminishing the brilliancy 
of the flame. If the vapour pressure is e and the barometric 
pressure p, the strength of the flame, when all other conditions 
are fulfilled, is given by the formula 

i-049-s-se/(/-e) 

One disadvantage for photometric purposes is the reddish colour 
of the flame as compared with the whiter artificial lights in 
general use. 

For an interesting account of the various experimental investi- 
gations into the properties of the Hefner flame see E. L. Nichols, 
" Standards of Light," Transactions oj the International Electrical 
Congress, vol. ii. (St Louis, 1904). Angstrom's determination of 
the radiation of the flame in absolute energy units is also of special 
interest. 

Attempts have been made, but hitherto with limited success, 
to construct a convenient standard with acetylene flame. 
Could a satisfactory burner be devised, so that a steady brilliancy 
could be easily maintained, acetylene would, because of its 
intense white light, soon displace all other flames as standards. 

J. Violle has proposed to use as standard the light emitted 
by a square centimetre of surface of platinum at its melting- 
point, but there are obvious practical difficulties in the 
way of realizing this suggested standard. J. E. vioik's 
Petavel, who carefully examined the necessary condi- Platinum 
tions for producing it (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1899), finds s ' afl ta t 
that the platinum must be chemically pure, that the crucible 
must be made of pure lime, that the fusion must be by means of 
the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, that the gases must be thoroughly 
mixed in the proportion of 4 volumes of hydrogen to 3 of oxygen, 
and that the hydrogen must contain no hydro-carbons. Under 
these conditions the variation in the light emitted by the molten 
platinum would probably not exceed i %. O. Lummer and F. 
Kurlbaum have proposed as a standard a strip of platinum foil 
25 mm. wide and -015 mm. thick brought to incandescence by 
an electric current of about 80 amperes. The temperature 



is gradually increased until 



of the total radiation is trans- 



mitted through a water trough 2 cm. in width. This ratio is 
determined by means of a bolometer, and so long as it is adjusted 



to -^th the light is practically constant. 

For comparative photometric work the incandescent electric 
light is very convenient, having the one great advantage over 
candles and flames that it is not affected by atmospheric changes. 
But it does not satisfy the requirements of a primary standard. 
It ages with use, and when run at constant voltage gradually 
loses in brilliancy, partly because of changes in the filament itself, 
partly because of the deposit of carbon on the interior of the 
bulb. Professor J. A. Fleming has shown that very good results 
can be obtained if carbon filaments carefully selected Fleming's 
and run in ordinary bulbs for a definite time at a incandes- 
little above their normal voltage are remounted cent Lamp 
in large clear glass bulbs 6 or 8 in. in diameter. sta *>dard. 
If used sparingly, and never above their marked voltage, these 
large incandescent bulbs have been found to remain constant 
for years, and therefore to be eminently suitable as secondary 
standards. In his Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and 
Testing Room (vol. ii.) Fleming concludes that the best primary 
standards are the Violle incandescent platinum and the Vernon- 
Harcourt pentane one-candle flame; and that the most con- 
venient practical standards are the Hefner lamp, the ten-candle 
pentane lamp, and the Fleming large bulb incandescent electric 
lamp. Comparisons of the intensities of these various standards 
do not give quite concordant results. Thus three different 
authorities have estimated the ic-candle pentane lamp as being 
equal to 10-75, JI ' ! U'4 Hefner lamps. 

A specially constructed instrument or piece of apparatus 
for comparing light intensities or illuminations is called a 



PHOTOMETRY 



527 



Photo- 
meters. 



photometer. The earlier forms of photometers were very simple 
and not capable of giving very precise results. The principles of 
construction are, however, the same in all the recog- 
nized forms down to the most elaborate of recent 
inventions. Two of the earliest forms were described 
by P. Bouguer and W. Ritchie. The Ritchie wedge constitutes 
the basis of many varieties of type. The two lights to be 
, compared illuminate the sides of the wedge, which 
wedge * s P' ace d between them, so that the eye set in front of 
the wedge sees the two sides illuminated each by one 
of the lights. The edge should be as sharp as possible so that the 
two illuminated surfaces are in close contact. The illuminations 
are made equal either by shifting the wedge along the line 
joining the lights or by moving one of the lights nearer to or 
farther from the wedge as may be required. The lights given 
out by the sources are then as the squares of the distances from 
Rumford's tne matched parts of the surfaces. Count Rumford 
Photo- suggested the comparison of the intensity of the 
meter. shadows of the same object thrown side by side on 
a screen by the two lights to be compared. In this case 
the shadow due to one source is lit up by the other alone; 
and here again the amounts of light given out by the sources 
are as the squares of their distances from the screen when 
the shadows are equally intense. The shadow-casting object 
should be near the screen, so as to avoid penumbra as much 
as possible; yet not too near, so that the shadows may not 
overlap. 

R. Bunsen suggested the very simple expedient of making 
a grease-spot on white paper for photometric purposes. When 
Bunsen's the paper is equally illuminated from both sides 
Photo- the grease-spot cannot be seen except by very 
meter. close inspection. In using this photometer, the 
sources are placed in one line with the grease-spot, which lies 
between them and can be moved towards one or other. To 
make the most accurate determinations with this arrangement 
the adjustment should first be made from the side on which 
one source lies, then the screen turned round and the adjust- 
ment made from the side of the other source in both cases, 
therefore, from the same side of the paper screen. Take the 
mean of these positions (which are usually very close together), 
and the amounts of light are as the squares of the distances 
of the sources from this point. The efficiency of the Bunsen 
photometer has been improved by using two inclined mirrors 
so that the eye views both sides of the paper simultaneously. 

Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested a hollow glass bead, silvered 

internally, and made to describe very rapidly a closed path, for 

wh t use as a photometer. When it is placed between two 

i. sources we see two parallel curves of reflected light, 

'" one due to each source. Make these, by trial, equally 

bright; and the amounts of light from the sources are, 

again, as the squares of the distances. 

William Swan's prism photometer, invented in 1859, is a beautiful 
application of the principle embodied in Bunsen's grease-spot photo- 
meter (see Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol. xxi.). The essential 
Ti 8 part of the instrument is fundamentally the same as 
that described by O. Lummer and E. Brodhun in 1889. 
It consists of two equal right-angled isosceles glass 
prisms placed with their diagonal faces together so as to form a cube 

(fig. l), and cemented together by 
a small patch of Canada balsam, 
which spreads out into a circle 
when the prisms are pressed to- 
gether. In the figure, which 
represents a central section of the 
bi-prism, the Canada balsam is 
represented by the letter N. The 

. light from two illuminated sur- 

faces, PQ, RS, is allowed to fall 
perpendicularly on the faces AB, 

AD. In each case that part of the 

light falling internally on the por- 
tion of the diagonal face which is 
not backed with the Canada 
balsam is totally reflected. On 
the other hand, the light which 
falls on the portion backed by the 
' ft Canada balsam is almost wholly 

FIG. i. transmitted. Thus an eye placed 



TS 



7/ 



in the position glp receives light from both sources, the surface 
RS supplying nearly all the light that seems to come from the patch 
N, and the surface PQ supplying all the light which seems to 
come from the region immediately surrounding N. The patch N 
will in general be visible; but it will quite disappear when the 
luminosity of the ray Tt, which traverses the Canada balsam, ic 
exactly equal to the luminosity of the rays Pp, Qq, which have come 
after total reflection from the surface PQ. This condition of in- 
visibility of N is arrived at by adjusting the positions of the 
sources of light which illuminate the surfaces PQ, RS. The 
brightnesses of the two sources will then be as the squares of their 
distances from their respective screens. 

The essential part of Lummer and Brodhun's photometer is a 
combination of prisms very similar to Swan's. In its most im- 
proved form the bi-prism or " optical cube " has one 
of its component prisms cut in a peculiar manner. Broa^a"" 1 
The diagonal face is partly cut away, so that the central photometer 
part only of this face can be brought into contact with 
the diagonal face of the other prism. The Canada balsam 
is dispensed with, the surfaces being pressed closely together 
so that no layer of air is left between them. In order to make the 
instrument convenient for use with an optical bench, Lummer and 
Brodhun make the illuminated surfaces which are to be compared 
the opposite sides of an opaque screen set in the continuation of 
the diagonal (CA) of the bi-prism, the rays being brought by reflec- 
tion from symmetrically situated mirrors so as to enter the sides 
AB and AD perpendicularly. An important modification, due 
also to Lummer and Brodhun, is the following: By means of a 
sand-blast a portion, which may be called r, is removed from one 
half of the diagonal face of the one prism, and from the other half 
of the same prism there is removed in like manner all but a part / 
corresponding to the part r. The portions which have not been 
removed are pressed close to the diagonal face of the other prism, 
and become the parts through which light is freely transmitted. 
On the other hand, the light which enters the second prism and falls 
on the portions of surface backed by the layers of air filling 
the cut-out parts is totally reflected. The general result is the pro- 
duction of two similar luminous patches / and r, each of which is 
surrounded by a field of the same intensity as the other patch. 
When the photometric match is made the whole region will be 
uniformly bright. But, by insertion of strips of glass so as to 
weaken equally the intensity in the surrounding fields, the match 
will be obtained when these fields are made of equal intensity and 
when at the same time the two patches differ equally in intensity 
from them. Under these conditions the eye is able to judge more 
certainly as to the equality of intensity of the two patches, and an 
untrained observer is able to effect a comparison with an accuracy 
which is impossible with most forms of photometer. 

J. Joly's diffusion photometer consists of two equal rectangular 
parallelepipeds of a translucent substance like paraffin separated 
by a thin opaque disk. It is set between the sources . , 

of light to be compared in such a way that each paraffin D^* .,-, 
r * ! j r j_t- j ooioincicr, 

block is illuminated by one only of the sources, and is 

adjusted until the two blocks appear to be of the same brightness. 
The method is made more sensitive by mounting the photometer 
on an elastic vibrator so as to render it capable of a slight to- 
and-fro oscillation about a mean position. 

A form of photometer which is well adapted for measuring the 
illumination in a region is that due to L. Weber. It consists of a 
horizontal tube across one end of which is fitted another Weber , s 
tube at right angles. This second tube can be rotated photometer. 
into any position perpendicular to the horizontal tube. 
Where the axes of the two tubes meet is placed in the later forms of 
the instrument one of Lummer and Brodhun's modified Swan cubes. 
At the other end of the horizontal tube a standard flame is set 
illuminating a piece of ground glass which may be moved to any 
convenient position in the tube. The eye looks along the cross 
tube, at the farther end of which is placed another piece of ground 
glass illuminated from the outside. The illuminations of the two 
pieces of ground glass as viewed through the photometer double 
prism are brought to equality, either by shift of the ground glass 
to or from the standard light, or by means of two Nicol prisms 
placed in the cross tube. One advantage of the instrument is its 
portability. 

The photometry of incandescent electric lamps has led to 
several special modifications and devices. The candle power 
varies distinctly in different horizontal directions, 
and one measurement in any particular direction 
is not sufficient. Sometimes the lamp is rotated 
about three times a second about a vertical axis and 
an average value thus obtained. But there is always a risk 
of the filament breaking; and in all cases the effect of centrifugal 
force must alter the form of the filament and therefore the 
distances of the different parts from the screen. Accuracy 
demands either the measurement of the radiation intensity in 
a number of directions all round the lamp, or one combined 



Incan- 
descent 
Electric 
Lamp. 



528 



PHOTOMETRY 



measurement of as many rays as can be conveniently com- 
bined. One of the best methods of effecting this is by means of 
Matthews'* C. P. Matthews's integrating photometer. By the 
integrating use of twelve mirrors arranged in a semicircle whose 
ioMneter. d j arneter co i nc id e s with the axis of the lamp, twelve 
rays are caught and reflected outward to a second set of 
twelve mirrors which throw the rays on to the surface of 
a photometric screen. This combined effect is balanced by the 
illumination produced by a standard lamp on the other side of 
the screen (see Trans. Amer. Insl. Elect. Eng., 1902, vol. xix.). 

So long as the lights to be compared are of the same or nearly 
the same tint, the photometric match obtained by different 
Hetero- observers is practically the same. If, however, they 
chromatic are o f distinctly different colours, not only do dif- 
P6o<ome<o'. ferent observers obtain different results but those 
obtained by the same observer at different times are not 
always in agreement. Helmholtz was of opinion that photo- 
metric comparison of the intensities of different coloured 
lights possessed no real intrinsic value. There can be little 
doubt that in a rigorous sense this is true. Nevertheless it is 
possible under certain conditions to effect a comparison which 
has some practical value. For example, when the intensities 
of two differently coloured lights differ considerably there is 
no difficulty in judging which is the stronger. By making the 
one light pass through a fairly large range of brightness we may 
easily assign limits outside which the intensities are undoubtedly 
different. After some experience these limits get close; and 
many experimenters find it possible, by taking proper precau- 
tions, not only to effect a match, but to effect practically the 
Abney's same match time after time. According to Abney, 
Expert- whose memoirs on colour photometry (Phil. Trans., 
meats. J886, 1892) form a most important contribution to 
the subject, the observer in making his judgment as to the 
equality of luminosity of two patches of colour placed side by 
side must not begin to think about it, but must let the eye act 
as unconsciously as possible. His method was to compare the 
coloured patch with white light given by a particular standard 
and cut down to the proper intensity by use of a Talbot's 
rotating sector, which could be adjusted by means of a suitable 
mechanism while it was rotating. 

At the same time, although the eye may be able to effect a 
definite matching of two patches of colour of a particular 
luminosity, it has been long known that a change in the lumi- 
nosity will destroy the apparent equality. This depends upon a 
physiological property of the retina discovered by J. E. Purkinje 
in 1825 (see below, Celestial Photometry). In virtue of this 
property the blue and violet end of the spectrum is more stimu- 
lating to the eye than the red end when the general luminosity 
is low, whereas at high luminosities the red gains relatively in 
brightness until it becomes more stimulating than the blue. 
Unless therefore account is taken in some definite measifrable 
manner of the absolute brightness, there must always be some 
uncertainty in the photometric comparison of the intensities 
of differently coloured sources of light. 

Instead, however, of trying to effect a photometric match 
in any of the ways which have been found sufficient when the 
sources are of the same or nearly the^ame tint, we may effect 
important practical comparisons in what is called hetero- 
chromatic photometry by an appeal to other physiological 
properties of the eye. For example, the power of clearly dis- 
criminating patterns in differently coloured lights of various 
intensities is obviously of great practical importance; and this 
power of detailed discrimination may be made the basis of a 
method of photometry. According to this method two lights 
Discrimina- are arranged so as to illuminate two exactly similar 
tioa Photo- patterns of lines drawn, for example, on the sides 
meter. o f a Richie W edge, and their distances are adjusted 
until the patterns are seen equally distinct on the two sides. 
Application of the usual distance law will then give the relation 
between the two lights. A discrimination photometer con- 
structed on this principle has been designed by J. A. Fleming. 
Its results do not agree with the indications of an ordinary 



luminosity photometer; for it is found that the eye can dis- 
criminate detail better with yellow than with blue light of the 
same apparent luminous intensity. 

Another and very promising method of photometry depends 
upon the duration of luminous impressions on the retina. J. A. F. 
Plateau observed in 1829 that the blending into packer 
a homogeneous impression of a pattern of alternate Photometry. 
sectors of black and some other colour marked on a disk 
when that disk was rotated occurred for rates of rotation 
which depended on the colour used. A form of experiment 
suggested in Professor O. N. Rood's Modern Chromatics seems 
to have been first carried out by E. L. Nichols (Amer. Journ. of 
Science, 1881). A black disk with four narrow open sectors was 
rotated in front of the slit of a spectroscope. When the rotation 
was not too quick the yellow part of the spectrum appeared as a 
succession of flashes of light separated by intervals of darkness 
of appreciable length, whereas towards both the red and violet 
ends no apparent interruption in the steady luminosity could be 
observed. As the rate of rotation increased the part of the 
spectrum in which flickering appeared contracted to a smaller 
length extending on each side of the yellow, and finally with 
sufficiently rapid alternation the yellow itself became steady. 
This seems to show that the retinal image persists for a shorter 
time with yellow light than with light of any other colour; for 
with it the intervals of darkness must be shorter before a con- 
tinuous impression can be obtained. Now yellow is the most 
luminous part of the spectrum as it affects the normal human 
eye; and E. S. Ferry (Amer. Journ. of Science, 1892) has shown 
that the duration of luminous impression is mostly, if not entirely, 
determined by the luminosity of the ray. Hence the determina- 
tion of the minimum rate of intermittence at which a particular 
colour of light becomes continuous may be regarded as a measure 
of the luminosity, the slower rate corresponding to the lower 
luminosity. Although in the experiment just described the 
red part of the ordinary solar spectrum becomes continuous 
for a slower rate of intermittence than the yellow part, yet we 
have simply to make a red ray as luminous as the yellow ray to 
find that they become continuous for the same rate of inter- 
mittence. It is, however, highly improbable that the duration 
of impression depends only on the luminosity of the light and 
not to some extent upon the wave-length. There are indeed 
phenomena which require for their explanation the assumption 
that the duration of luminous impression does depend on the 
colour as well as on the brightness. 

Nevertheless the luminosity is by far the more important factor, 
as shown by Ogden N. Rood's experiments. He found (Amer. 
Journ. of Science, 1893) that, when a disk whose halves 
differ in tint but not in luminosity is rotated rather p rimenis." 
slowly, the eye of the observer sees no flickering 
such as is at once apparent when the halves differ slightly in 
luminosity. Rood himself suggested various forms of photo- 
meter based on this principle. In his latest form (Amer. Journ. of 
Science, Sept. 1899) the differently coloured beams of light which 
are to be compared photometrically are made to illuminate the 
two surfaces of a Ritchie wedge set facing the eye. Between 
the wedge and the eye is placed a cylindrical concave lens, 
which can be set in oscillation by means of a motor in such a 
way that first the one illuminated surface of the wedge and then 
the other is presented to the eye in sufficiently rapid alternation. 
The one source of light is kept fixed, while the other is moved 
about until the sensation of flicker disappears. From work 
with this form of instrument Rood concluded that " the accuracy 
attainable with the flicker photometer, as at present con- 
structed, and using light of different colours almost spectral 
in hue, is about the same as with ordinary photometers using 
plain white light, or light of exactly the same colour." 

Various modifications of Rood's forms have been constructed 

from time to time by different experimenters. The,j._ n 

. lAiiX'i i * . * stmmancv 

simmance and Apady nicker photometer is an ^ n K enlou ^ ant i / \oad y's 

and yet mechanically simple method by which (as ^photometer 

were) the wedge itself is made to oscillate so as to throw 

on the eye in rapid succession, first the one side and then 

the other. The rim of a wheel of white material is bevelled 



PHOTOMETRY 



529 



in a peculiar manner. The sharp edge, which passes slightly obliquely 
across the rim from one side of the wheel to the other and back 
again, is the meeting of two exactly similar conical surfaces facing 
different ways and having their axes parallel to, but on opposite 
sides of, the axis of rotation of the wheel. As the wheel rotates 
with its rim facing the eye, the intersection of the two surfaces 
crosses and recrosses the line of vision during each revolution. 
Hence first the one illuminated side and then the other are pre- 
sented to the eye in rapid alternation. The inventors of this instru- 
ment claim that their instrument can gauge accurately and easily 
the relative intensities of two lights, whether of the same 
or of different colour (Phil. Mag., 1904). There is no doubt that 
results obtained by different observers with a flicker photometer 
are in better agreement than with any other form of photometer. 
The comparative ease with which the balance is obtained even when 
the tints are_markedly different shows that its action depends upon 
a visual distinction which the eye can readily appreciate, and this 
distinction is mainly one of brightness. 

The spectrophotometer is an instrument which enables us to 
make photometric comparisons between the similarly coloured 
Spectra- portions of the spectra of two different sources of 
photometry, light, or of two parts of the same original source after 
they have passed through different absorbing media. When 
it is desired to compare the intensities of the spectra from 
two different sources a convenient form is the one described 
by E. L. Nichols. A direct vision spectroscope mounted upon 
a carriage travels along a track between the two sources. In 
front of the slit two right-angled triangular prisms are set so 
that the light from each source enters the one side of one prism 
perpendicularly and is totally reflected into the spectroscope. 
The two spectra are then seen side by side. Attention being 
fixed on some chosen narrow portion, say, in the green, the 
instrument is moved along the track between the sources until 
the two portions appear of the same intensity. The process is 
then repeated until the whole spectrum has been explored. 

In Lummer and Brodhun's form of spectrophotometer the rays 
to be compared pass in perpendicular lines through the modified 
f Swan double prism, and then together side by side 

through a spectroscope. By means of a simple modifi- 
cation in the form of the two prisms, Professor D. B. 
"' Brace (Phil. Mag., 1899) made the combined prism 
serve to produce the spectra as well as to effect the desired 
comparison. In this arrangement the compound prism ABC 

(fig. 2) is made up of two 
equal right-angled prisms 
ADB and ADC placed with 
their longer sides in contact, 
so that the whole forms an 
equilateral prism with three 
polished faces. Part of the 
interface AD is silvered, the 
silvering forming a narrow 
central strip running parallel 
to AD. Along the rest of the 
interface the two prisms are 
cemented together with 
Canada balsam or other 
material having as nearly as 
possible the same refractive 
index as the glass. When two 




FIG. 2. 



rays R S enter symmetrically from opposite sides of the base of the 
compound prism as shown in the diagram, the ray R will pass through 
the prism except where the silver strip intercepts it, and will form a 
part of a spectrum visible to the eye placed at R', while to the 
same eye there will be visible the similarly dispersed ray SS' reflected 
from the silvered surface. Thus two systems of incident' parallel 
rays of white light will form on emergence two spectra with 
corresponding rays exactly parallel. With these and other forms 
of instrument the aim of the experimenter is to make the two spectra 
of equal intensity by a method which enables him to compare the 
original intensities of the sources. In most cases the relative 
intensities of the portions of the spectra being compared cannot 
conveniently be altered by varying the distances of the sources. 
Recourse is therefore generally had to one of the other methods 
already mentioned, such as the use of polarizing prisms or of rotating 
sectors. Under certain conditions K. Vierordt's method of allowing 
the two rays to pass through slits of different width leads to good 
results, but too great confidence cannot be placed upon it. 

In other types of spectrophotometer, such as those associated 
with the names of H. Trannin, A. Crova, H. Wild, G. Hufner, 
J. Konigsberger, A. Konig, F. F. Martens and others, the equaliza- 
tion in brightness of two rays is effected by using polarized light, 
which can be cut down at pleasure by rotation of a Nicol prism. 
For -example, in the Konig-Martens instrument the two rays 
which are to be compared enter the upper and lower halves of a 



divided slit. After passing through a lens they pass in succession 
through (l) a dispersing prism, (2) a Wollaston prism, (3) a bi- 
prism, and are finally focused where the eight spectra so 
produced can be viewed by the eye. Of these only two "* 
are made use of, the others being cut out. These two ^ 
are polarized in perpendicular planes, so that if be- %*'?"'' t 
tween the spectrum images and the eye a Nicol prism p 
is introduced the intensities of any two narrow corresponding 
portions of the two spectra can be readily equalized. In terms 
of the angle of rotation of the Nicol the relative intensities 
of the original rays can be calculated. An important application 
of the spectrophotometer is to measure the absorptive powers 
and extinction coefficients of transparent substances for the 
differently coloured rays of light. By appropriate means the in- 
tensities of chosen corresponding parts of the two contiguous 
spectra are made equal in other words, a match is established. 
Into the path of the rays of one of the spectra the absorbent 
substance is then introduced, and a match is again established. 
A measure of the loss of luminosity due to the interposition of the 
absorbent substance is thus obtained. 

To facilitate experiments of this nature Dr J. R. Milne has 
devised a spectrophotometer which presents some novelties of 
construction (see Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 
1905, vol. i.). The light from a bright flame is suitably *" 
projected by a lens so as to illuminate a small hole in the I 
end of the collimatcr. The rays from this point-source pat 
are made parallel by the collimator, and then pass, partly through 
the absorbing medium, partly through the space above it. These 
two parts of the original beam are transmitted through a dispersing 
prism and then fall upon a screen with two similar rectangular 
openings, the upper one allowing the unabsorbed part of the beam 
to pass, the lower that part which has been transmitted through 
the absorbing medium. The objective of the observing telescope 
converges the rays suitably upon a Wollaston prism, so that two 
spectra are seen side by side, having their light polarized in per- 
pendicular planes. A Nicol prism is placed between the Wollaston 
prism and the eye-piece of the telescope, and by its rotation in the 
manner already described the intensities of any two corresponding 
portions of the two spectra can be brought to equality. By careful 
attention to all necessary details Milne shows that his instrument 
satisfies the requirements of a good spectrophotometer ; for (l) the 
rays through the absorbing medium can be made strictly parallel; 
(2) the two spectra can be brought with ease accuiately edge to 
edge without any diffraction effects; (3) the plane of the delimiting 
screen can be made conjugate to the retina of the observer's eye; 
(4) not only do the two spectra touch accurately along their common 
edge, but the two fans of rays which proceed from eveiy point of the 
common edge lie in one and the same plane; (5) the eye is called 
upon to judge the relative intensities not of two narrow slits but 
of two broad uniformly illuminated areas. Milne also points out 
that this instrument can be used as a spectropolarimcter. 

E. L. Nichols considers that spectrophotometers which depend 
for their action upon the properties of polarized light are 
necessarily open to serious objections, such as: selective absorp- 
tion in the calcspar, altering the relative intensities of the con- 
stituents in the original rays; selective losses by reflection of 
polarized rays at the various optical surfaces; and the neces- 
sarily imperfect performance of all forms of polarizing media. 
To eliminate these defects as far as possible great care in con- 
struction and arrangement is needed, otherwise corrections 
must be applied. 

It is evident that if the successive parts of two spectra are 
compared photometrically we may by a process of summation 
obtain a comparison of the total luminosities of the lights which 
form the spectra. This process is far too tedious to be of any 
practical value, but sufficiently accurate results may in certain 
cases be obtained by comparison of two or more particular parts of 
the spectra, for example, strips in the red, green and blue. Similar 
in principle is the method suggested by J. Mace de Lepinay, 
who matches his lights by looking first through a red glass 
of .a particular tint and then through a chosen green. If R 
and G represent the corresponding ratios of the intensities, 

the required comparison is calculated from the formula 
p 

I = -rr-- A. Crova, one of the earliest workers 

i + 0-208 (i OR) 

in this subject, effects the photometric comparison of differently 
coloured lights by matching those monochromatic rays from the 
two sources which have the same ratio of intensities as the 
whole collected rays that make up the lights. Careful experi- 
ment alone can determine this particular ray, but were it once 
ascertained for the various sources of light in use the method 
would have the merits of rapidity and accuracy sufficient for 



530 



PHOTOMETRY 



practical needs. Spectrophotometric observations are necessary 
to determine the position in the spectrum of the particular mono- 
chromatic ray, but when it has been determined a coloured 
glass may be made which allows light in the neighbourhood ol 
this ray to pass, and the photometric comparison may then be 
effected by looking through this glass. 

This article has been confined strictly to the methods of visual 
photometry, with very little reference to the results. Comparison 
of intensities of radiation by photographic means or by methods 
depending on the effects of heat introduces considerations quite 
distinct from those which lie at the basis of photometry in its usual 
signification. (C. G. K.) 

CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR, PHOTOMETRY 

The earliest records that have come down to us regard- 
ing the relative positions of the stars in the heavens have 
always been accompanied with estimations of their relative 
brightness. With this brightness was naturally associated 
the thought of the relative magnitudes of the luminous bodies 
from whence the light was assumed to proceed. Hence in the 
grand catalogue of stars published by Ptolemy (c. 150 A.D.), 
but which had probably been formed three hundred years 
before his day by Hipparchus, the 1200 stars readily visible 
to the naked eye at Alexandria were divided into six 
classes according to their lustre, though instead of that term 
he uses the word fityeBos or " magnitude "; the brightest he 
designates as being of the first magnitude, and so downwards 
till he comes to the minimum visible, to which he assigns the 
sixth. These magnitudes he still further divides each into three. 
To those stars which, though not ranged in any particular order 
of brightness, nevertheless exceed the average of that order in 
lustre he attaches the letter n, the initial letter ih^ttfcoi' (greater), 
and to those in the same order which exhibit a lustre inferior to 
that of the average he affixes the letter e, the initial letter of 
k\a.a(T<j}V. With this sort of subdivision he passes through all 
the six orders of magnitude. He does not, indeed, tell us the 
precise process by which these divisions were estimated, but the 
principle involved is obvious. It is one of the many remarkable 
instances of the acuteness and precision of the Greek mind that 
for upwards of 1500 years no real improvement was made in 
these estimations of lustre. J. Flamsteed extended the estima- 
tion of magnitude of stars visible only by the telescope, and he 
improved Ptolemy's notation by writing 4-3 instead of 5, /z 
indicating thereby an order of magnitude brighter than the 
average of a fourth, but inferior to that of a third and 3-4 for 
5, e, and so on; but it was not till the year 1796 that any real 
advance was made in stellar photometry. Sir W. Herschel, 
instead of assigning a particular magnitude to stars, arranged 
them in small groups of three or four or five, indicating the order 
in which they differed from each other in lustre at the time of 
observation. This method was admirably adapted to the 
discovery of any variations in brightness which might occur in 
the lapse of time among the members of the group. Sir William 
observed in this way some 1400 stars, published in four cata- 
logues in the Philosophical Transactions from 1796 to 1799; and 
two additional catalogues were discovered among his papers 
in 1883 by Professor E. C. Pickering of Harvard (see Harvard 
Annals, xiv. 345), and have recently been published by Colonel 
J. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1906). These researches of the 
elder Herschel were in due time followed by those of his son, 
Sir John, about the year 1836 at the Cape of Good Hope. He 
both extended and improved the methods adopted by his father 
at Slough, and by a method of estimated sequences of magnitude 
he hoped to arrange all the stars visible to the naked eye at 
the Cape or in England in the order of their relative lustre, 
and then to reduce his results into the equivalent magnitudes 
adopted by the universal consent of astronomers. Sir John, 
however, like his father, left this important labour incomplete. 
Not only is the work one of great and continuous effort, but the 
effects of ever-varying meteorological conditions greatly impede 
it. Moreover, there is an unsatisfactory indefiniteness attending 
all estimations made by the Unaided eye; numerical or quantita- 
tive comparisons are out of the question, and hence we find 



Sir John, in the very midst of establishing bis " sequences," 
adopting also an instrumental method which might lead him 
to more definite results. 

In the year when Sir John Herschel concluded his photo- 
metric work at the Cape (1838) Dr F. W. A. Argelander com- 
menced, and in 1843 completed, his Uranometria nova, in 
which the magnitudes of all stars visible to the unaided eye in 
central Europe are catalogued with a precision and completeness 
previously unknown. It contains 3256 stars, and although 
it will probably be superseded by instrumental photometry it 
must ever remain a monument of intelligent patience. Arge- 
lander's labours were not confined to stars visible to the naked 
eye; by the aid of his assistants, Dr E. Schonfeld and Dr A. 
Kriiger, three catalogues of magnitudes and celestial co-ordinates 
were ultimately published (1859-1862) as the Bonn Durch- 
musterung, including the enormous number of 324,188 stars, 
and an additional volume containing 133,659 stars south of 
the equator was published in 1886. 

Dr B. A. Gould (1824-1896), in his Uranometria argenlina 
(1879), has done similar work for 7756 stars visible only in the 
southern hemisphere, and his successor at Cordoba, J. M. Thome, 
has published (1904) three volumes of the Argentine (C6rdoba) 
Durchmusterung containing 489,662 stars between declination 
22 to 52. There have been other worthy labourers in the 
same field, each of whom has rendered efficient service, such as 
Dr E. Heis and M. J. C. Houzeau. 

It is to Sir John Herschel that we are indebted for the first 
successful attempt at stellar photometry by what may be 
termed " artificial " means. He deflected the light of the moon 
(by means of the internal reflection of a rectangular prism) 
through a small lens 0-12 in. in diameter and of very short 
focus (0-23 in.) so as to form a sort of artificial star in its 
focus. With strings and a wooden pole he could move this 
artificial star of comparison so as to be in the same line of sight 
with any actual star whose light he proposed to measure. Other 
strings enabled him to remove it to such a distance from the eye 
that its light was adjudged to be sensibly the same as that of 
the star compared; and the distance was measured by a gradu- 
ated tape. While he was thus busy at the Cape of Good Hope, 
K. A. Steinheil at Munich had completed for Dr P. L. Seidel 
an instrument nearly the same in principle but more manageable 
in form. He divided the small object-glass of a telescope into 
two halves, one of which was movable in the direction of its 
axis. The images of two stars whose light he desired to compare 
were formed by prismatic reflection, nearly in the same line of 
sight, and one of the lenses was then moved until the light of 
the two images seemed equal. The distance through which it 
was necessary to bring the movable lens furnished the data for 
comparing the relative lustre of the two stars in question. 
More recently other photometers have been devised, and de- 
scriptions of three of them, with which considerable researches 
have been conducted will now be given. With the first mentioned 
below Professor Pickering of Harvard has made more than a 
million measures with his own eyes. The results of his observa- 
tions, and of those of his assistants, will be found in the Harvard 
Annals especially in vol. xlv. published in 1901, which con- 
tains a general catalogue of about 24,000 stars brighter than 
magnitude 7-5, north of declination 40. With the Zollner 
photometer Drs Gustav Miiller and P. Kempf of Potsdam have 
recently completed a similar piece of work, their catalogue of 
stars north of the equator brighter than 7-5 containing 14,199 
stars (Potsdam Publications, 1907, vol. xvii.). The catalogue 
of Professor C. Pritchard was smaller, containing 2784 stars 
Brighter than magnitude about 6-5 and north of declination 
10; but it was published in 1886, when very little had yet been 
done towards the systematic measurement of the brightness 
of the stars (Uranometria nova oxoniensis, vol. ii. of the Oxford 
University Observatory publications). 

Pickering's meridian photometer (Ann. Aslron. Obs. Hani. vols. 
xiv. and xxiii.) consists of two telescopes placed side by side pointing 
due east, the light from the stars on the meridian being reflected into 
:hem by two mirrors inclined at an. angle of 45 to this direction. 
',( there were a star exactly at the Pole, one of these mirrois 



PHOTOMETRY 



would be absolutely fixed and would constantly reflect the light 
of this star down the axis of its telescope ; in practice a slight motion 

can be given to the mirror so as to keep in view 
Pickering's the polar star selected, whether Polaris, with which 
Meridian the brighter stars were compared, or X Ursae 
Photometer. Minons, which was used for fainter stars. The second 

mirror (which projects a little beyond the first so as 
to get an unobstructed view of the meridian) can be rotated round 
the axis of the telescope by means of a toothed-wheel gearing, and 
can thus be made to reflect any star on the meridian down the 
second telescope; it is also provided with a small motion in the 
perpendicular direction, so as to command a degree or two on each 
side of the meridian. Near the common eyepiece of the telescopes 
there is a double image prism which separates the light received from 
each into two pencils; the pencil of ordinary rays from one object- 
glass is made to coincide with that of extraordinary rays from the 
other, and the two remaining pencils are excluded by a stop. The 
two coincident pencils then pass through a Nicol prism to the eye 
of the observer, who by rotating the prism round its axis can 
equalize them at a definite reading depending on their relative 
intensities. This reading gives in fact the difference of magnitude 
between the two stars selected for comparison. It may be re- 
marked that the position of the double image prism is important. 
It should be just within, not at, the common focus: this position 
prevents any noticeable colour in the images, and gives the 
ordinary and extraordinary pencils a sufficient separation at the 
eye-stop to permit the entire exclusion of one without the loss of 
any part of the other. If the prism were exactly at the focus, 
and any part of the superfluous images were admitted, the resulting 
secondary images would coincide with the others and thus lead 
to errors in observing. But in the actual construction of the instru- 
ment the secondary images would appear, if at all, only as 
additional stars near those under observation, and too faint to 
produce any inconvenience. It is worthy of note that Professor 
Pickering has extended his survey into the southern hemisphere, 
so that the Harvard photometry is the most complete of all. Each 
observation consists of four comparisons; after the first two the 
observer reverses the position of the star images in the field, and 
also reverses the double-image prism. The former precaution is 
necessary in order to eliminate a curious error depending on the 
relative position of the images, which may amount to several tenths 
of a magnitude. Errors of this kind affect all estimations of the 
relative brightness of two stars in the same field, as has been 
repeatedly shown; a striking instance is given by A. W. Roberts, of 
Lovedale, South Africa ^Mon. Not. R.A.S. April 1897), who found 
that his eye-estimations of the brightness of variable stars required 
a correction depending on the position-angle of the comparison 
star ranging over nearly two magnitudes. 

In Zollner's instrument an artificial star is taken as the standard 
of comparison. There is only one telescope, and inside the tube 

near the eye end is a plate of glass placed at an angle 
ZoHnefs of 45 with the axis, so that the rays from a lamp which 
Photometer, enter the tube from the side are reflected down the tube 

to the eyepiece, while the light from the star passes 
through the plate unobstructed. The lamplight passes through a 
Nicol prism and a plate of rock crystal, which give control over 
the colour; through two Nicols which can be rotated round the 
axis of the beam to definite positions read off on a graduated circle ; 
and then through a convex lens which forms an image reflected by 
the glass plate to focus alongside the star. The whole of this 
apparatus is carried in a compact form on the eye end of the telescope, 
it being arranged that the lamp shall always stand upright. The 
measures are made by rotating the Nicols until the brightness of 
the artificial star is equal to that of the star viewed through the 
object glass, and reading the graduated circle. 

Professor Pritchard's (1808-1893) wedge photometer is con- 
structed on the principle that the absorption of light in passing 
The Wedtre through a uniform medium depends, caeteris paribus, 
Photometer. u P n the thickness. On this principle a thin wedge 
' is constructed of homogeneous and nearly neutral- 
tinted glass, through which the images of stars formed in the 
focus of a telescope are viewed. Simple means are contrived for 
measuring with great exactness the several thicknesses at which 
the light of these telescopic star-images is extinguished. In this 
way the light of any star can be readily compared with that of 
Polaris (or any other selected star) at the moment of observa- 
tion, and thus a catalogue of star-magnitudes can be formed. 
Two material improvements suggested by Dr E. J. Spitta are 
worthy of notice. The first (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1889, 47, 15) corrects 
a slight defect in the form of the instrument. If a pencil of rays 
passes through a thin wedge of tinted glass, the rays do not all pass 
through the same thickness of glass. Dr Spitta proposes to substi- 
tute a pair of wedges with their thicknesses increasing in opposite 
directions. By sliding one over the other_ we obtain a parallel 
plate of glass of varying thickness, and a uniform beam of light of 
sensible dimensions can then be extinguished satisfactorily. He 
has also pointed out a source of error in the method of " evaluating 
the wedge and shown how to correct it. The scale value was 
determined by Professor Pritchard by the use of a doubly refracting 
prism of quartz and a Nicol prism. Using this method subsequently, 



Pheno- 
menon. 



Dr Spitta found that internal reflections within the Nicol prism 
interfered with the accuracy of the result, but that this error could 
be eliminated by using a suitable diaphragm (Mon. Not. R.A.S. 
March 1890; Abney, ibid., June 1890). 

Since 1885 systematic catalogues of stellar brightness have 
been constructed with all these instruments, and it has been of 
great interest to compare the results. The com- The 
parison has in general shown a satisfactory agreement, Purkinje 
but there are small differences which are almost 
certainly systematic, due to the difference of method 
and instrument. One cause of such differences, the reality 
of which is undoubted, but the effects of which have as yet 
not been perhaps fully worked out, is the " Purkinje phenom- 
enon " (Pfliigers Archiii. Ixx. 297). If a blue source of light 
and a red source appear equally bright to the eye, and if the 
intensity of each be diminished in the same ratio, they will no 
longer appear equally bright, the blue now appearing the brighter ; 
in more general terms, the equalizing of two differently 
coloured lights by the eye depends upon their intensity. It is 
clear that this phenomenon must affect all photometric work 
unless the stars are all exactly of the same colour, whieh we 
know they are not. For let us suppose that both the comparison 
star of the meridian photometer and the artificial star of the 
Zollner photometer were equalized with a bright star A, and that 
they could be also compared inter se and found equally bright. 
Then when a faint star B comes under observation and the inten- 
sities of the comparison stars are both reduced to equality with B, 
they will no longer appear equal to one another unless they are 
exactly the same in colour. In other words, the observed ratio of 
intensities of A and B will vary with the colour of the comparison 
star, and similarly it will also vary with the aperture of the 
telescope employed. Now it is one of the merits of the Potsdam 
catalogue above mentioned that it gives estimates of the colours 
of the stars as well as of their magnitudes so that we now for the 
first time have this systematic information. In a most interesting 
section of their introduction it is shown that two of the Harvard 
photometric catalogues show systematic differences, due to 
colour, and amounting to nearly half a magnitude: and that 
the Purkinje phenomenon is a satisfactory explanation of these 
differences. This is the first instance in which the effect of 
this phenomenon has been measured in the case of the stars, 
though it was known to be sensible. But there is a set of 
numerical results obtained in the laboratory which is of impor- 
tance for all such works, viz. those obtained by Sir W. Abney 
(Proc. Roy. Soc. May 1891; and Mon. Not. R.A.S. April 1892), 
giving the limiting intensity at which each pure colour vanishes. 
If we start with lights C D E F G of the colours usually denoted 
by these letters in the spectrum, and each so bright that it 
appears to the eye as bright as an amyl-acetate lamp at i ft., 
and if then the intensity of each be gradually diminished, the 
C light will disappear when the original intensity has been 
reduced to 22,000 ten-millionths of the original value. Theother 
colours will disappear at the following intensities, all expressed 
in ten-millionths of the original: D at 350, E at 35, F at 17, 
and G at 15. If then we had a mixture of two lights, one of 
C colour as bright as before, and the other of G colour 1000 
times fainter (a combination in which the eye would be unable 
to distinguish the G light at all), and if we continually reduced 
the combined intensity, the luminosity of the C light would 
diminish so much more rapidly than that of the G that the latter 
would begin to assert itself, and when the combined intensities 
were reduced to 22,000 ten-millionths of the original value, the 
C light would have all disappeared, while the G light would not. 
Hence the colour of the light would appear pure violet, though 
it was originally deep red. This extreme case shows that the 
" last ray to disappear " when a light is gradually extinguished 
may be very different in colour from that of the original light, 
and when more usual light-mixtures are considered, such as 
those of sunlight and starlight, which appear nearly white to 
the eye, the " last ray to disappear " is found to be in the green, 
very near E in the spectrum. This result has two important 
bearings on the use of the wedge photometer. In the first place, 



532 



PHOTOMETRY 



either the wedge itself should be of a greenish hue, or green light 
should be used in finding the scale-value (the constant B in the 
formula m = A+Bw). In the second, star magnitudes obtained 
by extinction with the wedge will agree better with those obtained 
by photography than those obtained with other visual photo- 
meters, since photographic action is chiefly produced by rays 
from E to G in the spectrum, and the E light of ultimate impor- 
tance with the wedge photometer is nearer this light in character 
than the D light with which other photometers are chiefly 
concerned. It would also appear that results obtained with the 
wedge photometer are independent of the aperture of telescope 
employed, which is not the case with other photometers. 

Passing now to the consideration of photographic methods, 
it is found that when a plate is exposed to the stars, the images 
Photo- of tne brighter stars are larger and blacker than 
graphic those of the fainter ones, and as the exposure is 
Photo- prolonged the increase in size and blackness contin- 
metr y- ues. Much of the light is brought to an accurate 
focus, but, owing to the impossibility of perfect achromatism in 
the case of refractors, and to uncorrected aberration, diffraction, 
and possibly a slight diffusion in both refractors and reflectors, 
there are rays which do not come to accurate focus, grouped in 
rings of intensity gradually diminishing outwards from the focus. 
As the brightness of the star increases, or as the time of exposure 
is prolonged, outer and fainter rings make their impression on 
the plate, while the impression on the inner rings becomes 
deeper. Hence the increase in both diameter and blackness of 
the star disks. As these increase concurrently, we can estimate 
the magnitude of the star by noting either the increase in 
diameter or in blackness, or in both. There is consequently 
a variety in the methods proposed for determining star 
magnitudes by photography. But before considering these 
different methods, there is one point affecting them all 
which is of fundamental importance. In photography a 
new variable comes in which does not affect eye-observations, 
viz., the time of exposure, and it is necessary to consider 
how to make due allowance for it. There is a simple law 
which is true in the case of bright lights and rapid plates, 
that by doubling the exposure the same photographic effect 
is produced as by increasing the intensity of a source of light 
twofold, and so far as this law holds it gives us a simple method 
of comparing magnitudes. Unfortunately this law breaks down 
for faint lights. Sir W. Abney, who had been a vigorous advo- 
cate for the complete accuracy of this law up till' 1893, in that 
year read a paper to the Royal Society on the failure of the 
law, finding that it fails when exposures to an amyl-acetate 
lamp at i ft. are reduced to o'-ooi, and " signally fails " for 
feeble intensities of light; indeed, it seems possible that there is 
a limiting intensity beyond which no length of exposure would 
produce any sensible effect. This was bad news for astronomers 
who have to deal with faint lights, for a simple law of this kind 
would have been of great value in the complex department of 
photometry. But it seems possible that a certain modification 
or equivalent of the law may be used in practice. Professor 
H. H. Turner found that for plates taken at Greenwich, when 
the time of exposure is prolonged in the ratio of five star magni- 
tudes the photographic gain is four magnitudes (Mon. Not. 
R.A.S. Ixv. 775), and a closely similar result has been obtained 
by Dr Schwarzschild using the method presently to be 
mentioned. 

Stars of different magnitudes impress on the plate images 
differing both in size and blackness. To determine the magni- 
D/aneterastude from the character of the image, the easiest 
Testof quantity to measure is the diameter of the image, 
Magnitude. an( j wnen measurements of position are being made 
with a micrometer, it is a simple matter to record the 
diameter as well, in spite of the indefiniteness of the border. 
Accordingly we find that various laws have been proposed for 
representing the magnitude of a star by the diameter of its 
image, though these have usually been expressed, as a pre- 
liminary, as relations between the diameter and time of exposure. 
Thus G. P. Bond found the diameter to increase as the square of 



the exposure, Turner as the cube, Pritchard as the fourth power, 
while W. H. M. Christie has found the law that the diameter 
varies as the square of the logarithm of the exposure within 
certain limits. There is clearly no universal law it varies with 
the instrument and the plate but for a given instrument and 
plate an empirical law may be deduced. Or, without deducing 
any law at all, a series of images may be produced of stars of 
known brightness and known exposures, and, using this as a 
scale of reference, the magnitudes of other images may be 
inferred by interpolation. A most important piece of systematic 
work has been carried out by. the measurement of diameters in 
the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung (Ann. Cape Obser. 
vols. Hi., iv. and v.) of stars to the tenth magnitude in the south- 
ern hemisphere. The measurements were made by Professor 
J. C. Kapteyn of Groningen, on photographs taken at the Cape 
of Good Hope Observatory; he adopts as his purely empirical 
formula 

magnitude = B/(diameter+ C), 

where B and C are obtained independently for every plate, from 
comparison with visual magnitudes. C varies from 10 to 28, 
and B from 90 to 260. The part of the sky photographed was 
found to have an important bearing on the value of these con- 
stants, and it was in the course of this work that Kapteyn found 
a systematic difference between stars near the Milky Way and 
those far from it, which may be briefly expressed in the law, the 
stars of the Milky Way are in general bluer than the stars in other 
regions of the sky. It is intended, however, in the present 
article to discuss methods rather than results, and we cannot 
here further notice this most interesting discovery. 

Of methods which choose the blackness of the image rather 
than the diameter for measurement, the most interesting is 
that initiated independently by Pickering at Harvard 
and C. Schwarzschild at Vienna, which consists 
in taking star images considerably out of focus. 
The result is that these images no longer vary appreciably in 
size, but only in blackness or density; and that this gradation 
of density is recognizable through a wide range of magnitudes. 
On a plate taken in good focus in the ordinary way there is a 
gradation of the same kind for the faintest stars; the smallest 
images are all of approximately the same size, but vary in tone 
from grey to black. But once the image becomes black it 
increases in size, and the change in density is not easy to follow. 
The images-out-of-focus method seems very promising, to judge 
by the published results of Dr Schwarzschild, who used a pre- 
pared comparison scale of densities, and interpolated for any 
given star from it. The most satisfactory photographic method 
would certainly be to take account of both size and blackness, 
i.e. to measure the total deposit in the film; as, for instance, 
by interposing the whole image in a given beam of light, and 
measuring the diminution of the beam caused by the obstruction. 
But no considerable piece of work has as yet been attempted on 
these lines. 

Even in a rapid sketch of so extensive a subject some .notice 
must be taken of the application of photometry to the determina- 
tion of the relative amount of light received on the Light of the 
earth from the sun, the moon and the planets. Sua, noon 
The methods by which these ratios have been"'"' p/a " e ' s - 
obtained are as simple as they are ingenious; and for them 
we are mainly indebted to the labours of P. Bouguer and 
W. C. Bond (1789-1859). The former compared the light 
received from the sun with that from the moon in the following 
fashion in 1725. A hole one-twelfth of a Paris inch was made 
in the shutter of a darkened room; close to it was placed a con- 
cave lens, and in this way an image of the sun 9 in. in dia- 
meter was received on a screen. Bouguer found that this light 
was equal to that of a candle viewed at 16 in. from his eye. 
A similar experiment was repeated with the light of the full 
moon. The image now formed was only two-thirds of an inch 
in diameter, and he found that the light of this image was 
comparable with that of the same candle viewed at a distance 
of 50 ft. From these data and a very simple calculation it 
followed that the light of the sun was about 256,289 times that 



PHRAATES 



533 



of the moon. Other experiments followed, and the average 
of all the results was that the light of the sun was about 300,000 
times the average light of a full moon, both being viewed in 
the heavens at the same altitudes. The details will be found in 
Bouguer's Trails d'optique. W. H. Wollaston in 1829 tried a 
series of experiments in which the ratio 801,072 was obtained; 
but the omission of certain necessary precautions vitiates the 
result (Phil. Trans. 1829). Bond (Mem. Amer. Acad. 1861, 
p. 295) adopted a different process. He formed the image of 
the sun on a silvered globe of some 10 in. diameter; the light of 
this image was reflected on to a small mercurial thermometer 
bulb; and then this second image was compared with a Bengal 
light so moved that the lights appeared to be equal. The same 
process was adopted with the full moon instead of with the sun. 
The result was that the sun's light was 470,980 times that of 
the moon. Seidel long before this date had compared the light 
of the mean full moon with that of Jupiter in mean opposition; 
his result is 6430. So also this light of Jupiter was found to be 
4864 times that of Venus at her brightest; and Jupiter was 
found to give 8-2 times the light of a Lyrae. If, then, these 
numbers could be accepted with confidence, we should have the 
means of comparing the light received from the sun with that 
received from any of the stars. Adopting these precarious 
numbers on the authorities of Bond and Seidel we have the 
following results: 

Sun's light = 470,980 that of the full moon. 

= 622,600,000 Venus at her brightest. 

= 302,835,000 , Jupiter at mean opposition. 

= 5.970,500.000 Sirius. 

Lastly, Bouguer, by comparing the light of the full moon 
viewed at different altitudes with an artificial light, found 
that the atmosphere absorbs -1877 of the light incident on it 
at the zenith of any place. Professor Pritchard, from photo- 
metric measures taken at Cairo, found this .number to be -157. 
At Oxford it was -209. Thus Bouguer's determination indicates 
an absorptive capacity in the atmosphere of Brittany just midway 
between those of Oxford and Cairo. Seidel at Munich expresses 
" surprise " at finding his own results so nearly accordant with 
Bouguer's. Although rather outside the domain of photometry 
in the strict sense, a word or two may be said here about recent 
attempts to measure the heat received from the stars, the first 
being made with the " radio-micrometer " of C. V. Boys. (Proc. 
Roy. Soc. 1890). This is an extremely delicate instrument for 
Very little measuring radiant heat, and consists of a very light 
Heat from thermo-electric circuit (two tiny bars of antimony 
the Stars. anc j bismuth soldered together at one edge, the 
outer edges being connected by a hoop of copper wire) 
suspended by a quartz fibre (a torsion fibre of the very 
greatest sensitiveness) in a strong magnetic field. A minute 
quantity of radiant heat falling on one of the junctions of the 
circuit sets up a current in the circuit, which thus rotates in the 
magnetic field until brought to rest by the torsion of the fibre. 
For use on the heavenly bodies the radiant heat is collected to 
focus by a reflecting telescope (an object-glass would absorb it), 
and when the telescope is pointed to the moon the varying 
radiation from different parts of the disk is beautifully shown. 
No heat comes from the unlit portion, and of the illuminated 
portion the maximum is obtained from near the limb. But 
when pointed to the brightest stars no indications were obtained, 
although the instrument is sensitive enough to detect the heat 
from a candle more than a mile off. It seems certain that 
indications of heat from the stars obtained by previous observers 
must be spurious. It is also manifest that to obtain satisfactory 
results even more sensitive apparatus must be devised, and by 
using a radiometer and the powerful resources of the Yerkes 
Observatory E. F. Nichols succeeded in 1808 and 1900 in obtain- 
ing indications of heat from Arcturus and Vega, as well as from 
Jupiter and Saturn (Astro physical Journ. xiii., 101), the heat 
received being comparable with that from a candle 6 m. away. 
We may place alongside this result that obtained by W. J. 
Dibdin (Proc. Roy. Soc. April 1892), who compared candle- 
light with twenty-one stars ranging to the sixth magnitude, 



and found the light of a second magnitude star equal to that 
of a candle at 1260 ft. (H.H.T.) 

PHRAATES (PHRAHATES; Pers. Frahat, modern Ferhat), the 
name of five Parthian kings. 

1. PHRAATES I., son of Priapatius, reigned c. 175-170 B.C. 
He subdued the Mardi, a mountainous tribe in the Elburz 
(Justin xli. 5; Isid. Charac. 7). He died young, and appointed as 
his successor not one of his sons, but his brother Mithradates I. 
(Justin xli. 5). 

2. PHRAATES II., son of Mithradates I., the conqueror of 
Babylonia, reigned 138-127. He was attacked in 130 by 
Antiochus VII. Sidetes, who, however, in 129 was defeated and 
killed in a great battle in Media, which ended the Seleucid rule 
east of the Euphrates (see SELEUCID DYNASTY). Meanwhile 
the kingdom was invaded by the Scythians (the Tochari of 
Bactria), who had helped Antiochus. Phraates marched against 
them, but was defeated and killed (Justin xlii. i; Johannes 
Antioch,/r. 66). 

3. PHRAATES III., "the God" (Phlegon, fr. 12 ap. Photius 
cod. 97 and on some of his coins) , succeeded his father, Sanatruces, 
in 70 B.C., at the time when Lucullus was preparing to attack 
Tigranes of Armenia, who was supreme in western Asia and had 
wrested Mesopotamia and several vassal states from the Parthian 
kingdom. Naturally, Phraates declined to assist Mithradates 
of Pontus and Tigranes against the Romans (see TIGRANES). 
He supported his son-in-law, the younger Tigranes, when he 
rebelled against his father, and invaded Armenia (65 B.C.) in 
alliance with Pompey, who abandoned Mesopotamia to the 
Parthians (Dio. Cass. xxxvi. 45, 51; Appian, Mit.hr. 104; Liv. 
Epit. too). But Pompey soon overrode the treaty; he acknow- 
ledged the elder Tigranes, took his son prisoner, occupied the 
vassal states Gordyene and Osroene for the Romans, and denied 
the title of " king of kings," which Phraates had adopted again, 
to the Parthian king (Plut. Pomp. 33, 38; Dio. Cass. xxxvii. 
5 seq.). About 57 Phraates was murdered by his two sons, 
Orodes I. and Mithradates III. 

4. PHRAATES IV., son of Orodes I., by whom he was appointed 
successor in 37 B.C., after the death of Pacorus. He soon 
murdered his father and all his thirty brothers (Justin xlii. 5; 
Plut. Crass. 33; Dio Cass. xlix. 23). He was attacked in 36 
by Antonius (Mark Antony), who marched through Armenia 
into Media Atropatene, and was defeated and lost the greater 
part of his army. Believing himself betrayed by Artavasdes, 
king of Armenia, he invaded his kingdom in 34, took him prisoner, 
and concluded a treaty with another Artavasdes, king of Atro- 
patene. But when the war with Octavianus Augustus broke 
out, he could not maintain his conquests; Phraates recovered 
Atropatene and drove Artaxes, the son of Artavasdes, back 
into Armenia (Dio. Cass. xlix. 24 sqq., 39 seq., 44; cf. li. 16; 
Plut. Antonius, 37 seq.). But by his many cruelties Phraates 
had roused the indignation of his subjects, who raised Tiridates 
II. to the throne in 32. Phraates was restored by the Scythians, 
and Tiridates fled into Syria. The Romans hoped that Augustus 
would avenge the defeat of Crassus on the Parthians, but he 
contented himself with a treaty, by which Phraates gave back 
the prisoners and the conquered eagles (20 B.C., Man. Anc. 5, 
40 sqq. ; Justin xlii. 5) ; the kingdom of Armenia also was recog- 
nized as a Roman dependency. Soon afterwards Phraates, 
whose greatest enemies were his own family, sent five of his sons 
as hostages to Augustus, thus acknowledging his dependence 
on Rome. This plan he adopted on the advice of an Italian 
concubine whom he made his legitimate wife under the name 
of " the goddess Musa "; her son Phraates, commonly called 
Phraataces (a diminutive form), he appointed successor. About 
4 B.C. he was murdered by Musa and her son (Joseph. Ant. 
xviii. 2, 4). 

5. PHRAATES V., or PHRAATACES, the younger son of Phraates 
IV. and the " goddess Musa," with whom he is associated on 
his coins. Under him a war threatened to break out with 
Rome about the supremacy in Armenia and Media. But when 
Augustus sent his adopted son Gaius Caesar into the east in 
order to invade Parthia, the Parthians preferred to conclude a 



534 



PHRANTZA PHRENOLOGY 



treaty (A.D. i), by which once again Armenia was recognized as 
in the Roman sphere (Dio. Cass. Iv. 10; Velleius ii. 101). Soon 
after Phraataces and his mother were slain by the Parthians, 
about A.D. 5 (Joseph. Ant. xviii. 2, 4). (Eo. M.) 

PHRANTZA, GEORGE [GEORGIOS PHRANTZES] (1401-*;. 1477), 
the last Byzantine historian, was born in Constantinople. At 
an early age he became secretary to Manuel II. Palaeologus, in 
1432 protovestiarius (great chamberlain), in 1446 praefect of 
Sparta, and subsequently great logothete (chancellor). At the 
capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) he fell into their 
hands, but managed to escape to Peloponnesus, where he 
obtained protection at the court of Thomas Palaeologus, despot 
of Achaea. After the downfall of the Peloponnesian princes 
(1460) Phrantza retired to the monastery of Tarchaniotes in 
Corfu. Here he wrote his Chronicle, containing the history of 
the house of the Palaeologi from 1258-1476. It is a most 
valuable authority for the events of his own times. 

Editions by I. Bekker (1838) in the Corpus scriptorum hist, byz., 
and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, clvi; see also C. Krumbacher, 
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 

PHRAORTES, the Greek form of Framrtish, king of Media. 
According to Herodotus (i. 102) he was the son of Deioces, and 
began the Median conquests. He first subjugated the Persians, 
and then a great many other peoples of Asia, till at last he 
attacked the Assyrians, but was defeated and killed in a battle, 
after a reign of twenty-two years (about 646-625 B.C.; but 
perhaps, as G. Rawlinson supposes, the fifty-three years of 
Deioces ought in reality to be transferred to him). From other 
sources we obtain no information whatever about Phraortes; 
but the data of the Assyrian inscriptions prove that Assur-bani- 
pal (see BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA), at least during the greater 
part of his reign, maintained the Assyrian supremacy in Western 
Asia, and that in 645 he conquered Susa. The Medians too were 
subject to him as far as the Elburz and the central Iranian 
desert. 

When after the assassination of Smerdis all the Iranian tribes, 
the Babylonians and the Armenians rebelled against Darius 
and the Persian rule, " a man of the name of Fravartish (i.e. 
Phraortes), a Mede, rebelled in Media and spoke to the 
people thus: I am Khshathrita, of the family of Uvakhshatra 
(Cyaxares)." He reigned for a short time, but was defeated by 
Hydarnes, and afterwards by Darius himself, taken prisoner 
in Rhagae (Rai), and executed in Ecbatana (520 B.C.; see 
inscription of Darius at Behistun). (Eo. M.) 

PHRENOLOGY, (from Gr. (ppfiv, mind, and A67os, discourse), 
the name given by Thomas Ignatius Forster to the empirical 
system of psychology formulated by F. J. Gall, and developed 
by his followers, especially by J. K. Spurzheim and G. Combe, 
by whom it was named " cranioscopy," " craniology," 
" physiognomy " or " zoonomy." The principles upon which 
it is based are five: (i) the brain is the organ of the mind; 
(2) the mental powers of man can be analysed into a definite 
number of independent faculties; (3) these faculties are innate, 
and each has its seat in a definite region of the surface of the 
brain; (4) the size of each such region is the measure of the 
degree to which the faculty seated in it forms a constituent 
element in the character of the individual; (5) the correspon- 
dence between the outer surface of the skull and the contour 
of the brain-surface beneath is sufficiently close to enable the 
observer to recognize the relative sizes of these several organs 
by the examination of the outer surface of the head. It 
professes primarily to be a system of psychology, but its second 
and more popular claim is that it affords a method whereby the 
disposition and character of the subject may be ascertained. 

History. That the phenomena of mind are in some measure 
connected with the action of the brain has been recognized from 
a very early age of philosophy. It is true that Aristotle 1 
describes the brain as the coldest and most bloodless of bodily 
organs, of the nature of water and earth, whose chief purpose 
is to temper the excessive heat of the heart, as the cooler regions 
of the firmament condense the vapours rising from the earth. 
1 De partibus animalium, ii. c. 7 (Paris, 1629, p. 986). 



In his view, as in that of most of the earlier writers of other 
nations of antiquity, the heart is the seat of life; to it, not to the 
brain, the Hebrew writers refer thoughts and affections, while 
they considered judgment as seated sometimes in the head, 
sometimes in the kidneys. 2 This was likewise the teaching of 
the ancient Egyptian philosophy; and hence, while many rites 
were practised and prayers offered for the preservation of the 
heart of the deceased, there were none for the conservation of 
the brain. 3 We learn from Diogenes Laertius 4 that Pythagoras 
held more accurate physiological views, as he taught that the 
mind and the intellect have their seat in the brain. The theory 
of Hippocrates was Pythagorean rather than Aristotelian, for, 
although in one passage in his work De corde he expresses himself 
doubtfully, yet elsewhere he clearly states that he considers the 
brain to be the index and messenger of the intellect. 6 The 
cerebral seat of sense-perception is also taught by Plato, 6 who 
puts into the mouth of Socrates the theory that the brain is the 
organ affected by the senses, whereby memory and opinion arise, 
and from whence knowledge springs. The classic poets also 
notice this dependence of mind on brain; for example, in the 
Clouds (v. 1276) Strepsiades accuses Amynias of not being in 
his right mind, and, on being asked why, responds, " You seem 
to me as if you had had a concussion of the brain." 

The two founders of anatomical science, Erasistratus and 
Herophilus, who lived in the days of Ptolemy Soter, taught not 
only that the brain was the seat of sensation and of intellect, 
but also that there was therein a certain degree of localization 
of function. Erasistratus believed that the sensory nerves arose 
from the brain-membranes, the motor from the cerebral sub- 
stance. Herophilus was apparently the first who held that the 
vital forces resided in and circulated from the ventricles of the 
brain, at least so we gather from Celsus and the other authors 
who have preserved his views. By the influence of the writings 
of Galen, 7 which directly teach that the brain is the seat of soul 
and intellect the Pythagorean doctrine prevailed among the later 
philosophers. According to the Galenical theory the animal 
spirits have their origin in the ventricles of the brain, and pass 
into the heart from which they are conveyed by the arteries 
through the body. Galen in one place (viii. 159) refers their 
origin to the brain-substance, but the ventricular theory was that 
adopted by his followers, some of whom suggested that there was 
some relation between the shape of the head and the character 
and disposition of the mind. 8 The Arabian physicians Averroes 9 
and Rhazes 10 adopted the Galenical doctrine and developed the 
hypothesis of a fourfold ventricular localization of faculties, 
which the Greeks had originated. Avicenna 11 added to these a 
fifth region. Such of the early Christian authors as referred in 

J In the Chaldee portion of Daniel (ii. 28, iv. 5, yii. i) visions and 
thoughts are referred to the head. For other particulars as to early 
views see Nasse on the psychical relations of the heart in Zeitschr. f. 
psychische Aerzte (1818), vol. i. A few of the later medical writers 
express similar views; see Santa Cruz,0puscula medico, Madrid (1624). 

3 Book of the Dead, ch. xxvi. xxx. 

4 viii. 30; ed. Cobet, Paris (1850), p. 211, $/xyas & <cai rmn>, ri. iy 



6 De morbo sacro, on Opp. ed. Kiihn, i. 612 seq.; also Epist. iii. 
824. Among later writers Licetus of Genoa taught the co-extension 
of soul and body, upon which subject he wrote two books (Padua, 
1616). In this connexion may be noted a curious work by Schegkius, 
Dialogus de animae principatu, Aristotelis el Galeni rationes praeferens 
quibus ille cordi, hie cerebro, principatum attribuit (Tubingen, 1542). 

' Phaedo, Valpy's ed. 1833, ch. xlv., p. 128. See also Haller's 
Bibl. anat., i. 30. 

7 De usu partium, ed. Kiihn, iii. 700, rds iAv otv A7roSe(eis rov 
r^f \ofiaTueriv ^vxty OiKtiv iv iyKttj>a\u> , ai wtviia. ^VXIK& tv airrif 
TttpitxtaOtii. Tr&jnroXu. See also v. 288, viii. 159, xv. 360. In his 
Definitiones medicae (467, xix. 459) he says that the brain has a 
^uxuci) Mfd/iK, but does not specify in what part the power inheres. 

8 See Paulus Aegineta, Stephen's ed. 1567, cap. 62, col. 363, also 
Actuarius, De actionibus et affectibus spintus ammalis (Paris, 1556), 

p. 22, C. 7. 

9 Comment, in Arist., Latin tr. (Venice, 1550), yi. 73. 

10 " Imaginatio quidem in doubus ventricuhs anterioribus 
perficitur. Cogitatio verq in medio expletur. Memoria autem 
posteriorem possidet ventriculam." I De re medica, G6rard's trans. 
(Basel, 1554), 1.9. 

11 Lib. canonis (1507), p. 19, and De naturalibus, c. 6. 



PHRENOLOGY 



535 



their writings to the relation of soul to body naturally adopted 
the teaching of Galen which they accommodated to their 
theology, thereby conferring on it an importance which rendered 
correction difficult. Tertullian 1 in a sense expresses his belief 
in a theory of localization as also at a later period does Thomas 
Aquinas. 2 

Early in the I3th century Albertus Magnus 3 gave a detailed 
description of the distribution of mental and psychical faculties 
in the head. The anterior region he assigned to judgment, the 
middle to imagination, and the posterior to memory. A some- 
what similar allocation was made by Gordon, professor of 
medicine in MontpeUier (i2g6), 4 who assigned common sensation 
and the reception of impressions to the anterior cornua of the 
lateral ventricles, phantasia to the posterior, this power being 
two-fold (imaginativa and cogitativa) , judgment or aeslimativa 
to the third ventricle, and memory to the fourth. 6 Figures of a 
similar division were given by Petrus Montagnana 6 and Lodo- 
vico Dolce 7 still later by Ghiradelli of Bologna 8 and by Theodore 
Gall of Antwerp. 9 That the " vital spirits " resided in the 
ventricles was doubted by many, and denied by a few of the 
anatomists of the zyth century. G. Bauhin in 1621 10 attacked 
the old view, and Hoffmann of Altorf showed that, as the 
ventricles were closed cavities, they could not transmit any 
material fluid. That these spirits existed at all was doubted by 
Alexander Benedictus, 11 Plater, 12 and a few others; but they were 
believed in by the great majority of lyth and even of i8th century 
medical writers, many of whom conceived that the ventricles 
were semper pleni spiritibus animalibus flammulis similibus, 
quorum beneficiis intelligimus, sentimus, et movemus, and the 
opponents of this view were strongly assailed by J. Riolan and 
others as revolutionary. Columbus 14 ridiculed the idea that 
the convoluted surface can have anything to do with intellect, 
as the ass, a proverbially stupid animal, has a convoluted cere- 
brum. According to his view, the convolutions are for the 
purpose of lightening the brain and facilitating its movements. 
The grey matter of the surface of the cerebrum was recognized 
as the true dynamic element by M. Malpighi 15 and T. Willis. 1 * 

I De anima, cxiv. (ed. Franeker, 1597), p. 268. 

* Summa theologiae, ed. Migne, i. 1094, 1106-7. Prochaska and 
his translator, Laycock (Mind and Brain, ii. 163), charge Duns 
Scotus with holding this view; probably he did, but he does not 
express it, as he simply specifies the cerebrum and its root, the 
spinal cord, as the source of the nerves along which sensory impulses 
travel. Comment, de anima, i. 515 (Leiden, 1637). 

8 Opera, iii. 124, vi. 20 (Leiden, 1651). 

4 Lilium medicinae, 101 (Venice, 1494). 

6 Avicenna's fifth region is interposed between imaginativa and 
aestimativa (De naturalibus, c. vi.). Thomas Aquinas combines the 
last two, which he says are possessed by the same eminence. On 
the other hand, he says of ratio particularis, " medici assignant 
determinatum organum, scilicet mediam partem capitis " (i. 1106). 

6 Physiognomia (Padua, 1491). 

7 Dialogo nel quale si ragione del modo di accrescere e conservar la 
memoria, 27 (Venice, 1562). 

8 Physiognomia, 1670. 

9 Tabulae element, scientiae (Rome, 1632). 

10 Theatr. anal. (Basel, 1621, iii. 314); Caspar Hoffmann, De usu 
cerebri (Leipzig, 1619). See also Spigelius, De corp. humani fabrica, 
296 (Amsterdam, 1645); Varolius (1591), p. 6; Wepfer, Historiarum 
apoplecticarum potissimum anatomiae subjectorum auctarium (Amster- 
dam, 1681). See also many of the anatomical works of this age, 
such as those of Fernel, Cabrol, Argenterius, Rolfinck, &c. 

II Alexander Benedictus, Anatomica, vol. iii. (Basel, 1527). Quer- 
cetanus is said by Laycock (following Prochaska )to have assailed this 
doctrine of spirits; on what ground is not apparent, as he certainly 
expresses himself as a believer in the old view; see Tetras graviss. 
totius capitis affect, x. 89 (Marburg, 1606). Possibly Prochaska may 
allude to an obscure passage in the work of the other Quercetanus 
(Eustachius), Acroamaton in librum Hippocratis, p. 14 (Basel, 1549), 
not to the better-known Josephus Armeniacus; but he gives no 
reference. 

u Opera, col. 22, 89 (Basel, 1625). 

13 Joelis opera medica, 22 (Amsterdam, 1663). 

14 De re anatomica, p. 350 (Frankfort, 1593). 

" " Epist. de cerebro et cort. cereb. ad Fracassatum," in Opp., 
vol. ii. (Geneva, 1685). 

u De anima brutorum, p. 71 (Oxford, 1677), " hae particulae sub- 
tilissimae, spiritus animates dictae, partium istarum substantias 
corticales primo subeuntes, exinde in utriusque meditullia," &c.; 
also p. 76 seq. 



The latter regarded the convoluted surface of the cerebrum as 
the seat of the memory and the will, the convolutions being 
intended to retain the animal spirits for the various acts of 
imagination and memory. Imagination he described as seated 
in the corpus callosum, sense-perception in the corpus striatum, 
and impetus et perturbatio in the basal parts of the cerebrum above 
the crura. The thalami he regarded as the centres of sight and 
the cerebellum of involuntary acts. Succeeding anatomists 
simply varied these localizations according to their respective 
fancies. G. M. Lancisi placed sense-perception in the corpus 
callosum, R. Vieussens in the centrum ovale majus. R. Descartes 
supposed the soul to be seated in the pineal gland, others in the 
brain-commissures especially the pons Varolii. 17 Meyer con- 
sidered abstract ideas to arise in the cerebellum, and memory 
to have its seat at the roots of the nerves. 18 

Of later writers three deserve special notice, as having largely 
prepared the way for the more modern school of phrenology. 
J. A. Unzer, of Halle, in his work on physiology extended the 
pre-existing theories of localization. Metzger, 19 twenty years 
before the publication of Prochaska's work, had proposed to 
make a series of observations on the anatomical characters of 
the brains of persons of marked intellectual peculiarity; but 
apparently he did not carry this into effect. In a more special 
manner Prochaska of Vienna may be looked upon as the father 
of phrenology, as in his work an the nervous system, published 
in Vienna in 1784, are to be found the germs of the later views 
which were propounded in that city twelve years later. 20 

The system formulated by "Gall (q.v.) is thus a modern expan- 
sion of an old empirical philosophy, and its immediate parentage 
is easily traced, although, according to Gall's account, it was 
with him the result of independent observations. These, he 
tells us, he began to make at an early age, by learning to correlate 
the outward appearances and mental qualities of his school- 
fellows. Gall's first published paper was a letter in the Deutscher 
Merkur of December 1798, but his principal expositions were 
oral, and attracted much popular attention, which increased 
when, in 1802, he was commanded by the Austrian government, 
at the instance of the ecclesiastical authorities, to discontinue 
his public lectures. In 1804 he obtained the co-operation of 
Spurzheim (1776-1832), a native of Longwich, near Treves, who 
became his pupil in 1800, and proved a powerful ally in pro- 
mulgating the system. Master and pupil at first taught in 
harmony, but they found it advisable to separate in 1813; and 
we find Spurzheim, several years after their parting, declaring 
that Gall had not introduced any improvements into his system 
since their separation (notes to Chenevix, p. 99). " My philoso- 
phical views," he also says, " widely differ from those of Gall." 

In Paris, where he settled in 1807, Gall made many influential 
converts to his system. F. J. V. Broussais, H. M. D. de Blain- 
ville, H. Cloquet, G. Andral, E. Geoffroy St-Hilaire, Vimont and 
others adopted it and countenanced its progress. Gall visited 
Great Britain, but the diffusion of phrenology here was chiefly 
due to Spurzheim, who lectured through the country and through 
America, and with the aid of his pupil, George Combe, attracted 
a large popular following. His most influential disciples were 
J. Elliotson, Andrew Combe, Sir G. S. Mackenzie, R. Macnish, 
T. Laycock and Archbishop R. Whately, and in America Caldwell 
and J. Godman. On the opposite side many influential men 
took up a strongly antagonistic position, prominent among whom 
were J. Barclay the anatomist, P. M. Roget, Sir Charles Bell, 
Sir W. Hamilton, F. Jeffrey, H. P. Brougham, T. Brown and Sir 
B. Brodie. The nature of the system rendered it eminently fitted 
to catch public attention, and it rapidly attained to so great a 

17 Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik, ii. 396. 

18 Some of the medieval views were very fanciful, thus Shabbethai 
b. Abraham, the earliest Jewish writer on medicine (d. A.D. 959), 
thought that the spirit of life has its seat in the brain-membrane, 
expanded over the brain and subarachnoid fluid, as the Shekinah 
in the heavens arched over the earth and waters. See Der Mensch 
als Gottes Ebenbild, ed. Jellinek (Leipzig, 1854), and Castelli, 
Commento (Florence, 1880). 

19 Vermischte medicinische Schriften (1764), i. 58. 

20 See Laycock's trans., in Sydenh. Society's Pub. (1851). 



536 



PHRENOLOGY 



degree of popularity that in 1832 there were twenty-nine phreno- 
logical societies in Great Britain, and several journals devoted 
to phrenology in Britain and America; of these the Phrenological 
Journal, a quarterly, edited chiefly by George Combe with aid 
from others of the Edinburgh confraternity, notably Sir George 
Mackenzie and Macnish, " the modern Pythagorean," lived 
from 1823 to 1847, through twenty volumes. The controversy 
in many places was heated and often personal, and this largely 
increased the popular interest. In the Edinburgh Review the 
theory was severely criticized by Thomas Brown, and afterwards 
in a still more trenchant manner by Jeffrey. In Blackwood it. 
was ridiculed by Professor John Wilson. Being a subject which 
lent itself easily to burlesque, it was parodied cleverly in a long 
rhyme by two authors, " The Craniad," 87 pages long, published 
in 1817, while, on the other hand, verse was pressed into its 
service in the rhyme " Phrenology in Edinburgh " in 1824.* 
The best defence of the system was that by Chenevix in the third 
number of the Foreign Quarterly, afterwards reprinted with notes 
by Spurzheim. 

The Faculties and their Localities. The system of Gall was 
constructed by a method of pure empiricism, and his so-called 
organs were for the most part identified on slender grounds. 
Having selected the place of a faculty, he examined the heads of 
his friends and casts of persons with that peculiarity in common, 
and in them he sought for the distinctive feature of their charac- 
teristic trait. Some of his earlier studies were made among low 
associates, in gaols and in lunatic asylums, and some of the 
qualities located by him were such' as tend to become perverted 
to crime. These he named after their excessive manifestations, 
mapping out organs of murder, theft, &c. ; but as this cast some 
discredit on the system the names were changed by Spurzheim, 
who claimed as his the moral and religious considerations 
associated with it. Gall marked out on his model of the head 
the places of twenty-six organs as round enclosures with vacant 
interspaces. Spurzheim and Combe divided the whole scalp 
into oblong and conterminous patches (see the accompanying 
figures). Other methods of division and other names have been 
suggested by succeeding authors, especially by Cox, Sidney 
Smith (not Sydney), Toulmin Smith, K. G. Carus of Dresden, 
Don Mariano Cubi i Solar, W. B. Powell of Kentucky, J. R. 
Buchanan of Cincinnati, Hittel of New York. Some, like 
the brothers Fowler, raise the number of organs to forty-three; 
but the system of Spurzheim and Combe is that which has 
always been most popular in Britain. 

Spurzheim separated the component faculties of the human 
mind into two great groups and subdivided these as follows: 

I. Feelings, divided into 

1. Propensities, internal impulses inviting only to certain 

actions. 

2. Sentiments, impulses which prompt to emotion as well 

as to action. 

A. Lower those common to man and the lower animals. 

B. Higher those proper to man. 
II. Intellectual faculties. 

1. Perceptive faculties. 

2. Reflective faculties. 

In the following list the locality and the circumstances of the 
first recognition of the organ are appended to the names, which 
are mostly the inventions of Spurzheim. Gall's names are placed 
in brackets. 2 

Propensities. 

I. Amativeness (Instinct de la generation), median, below the 
inion ; first determined by Gall from its heat in an hysterical widow, 
supposed to be confirmed by many observations, and referred to 
the cerebellum. 3 



_ * Other burlesque and satirical writings were published at this 
time, notably The Phrenologists, a farce by Wade (1830) ; The Head- 
piece, or Phrenology opposed to Divine Revelation, by James the Less; 
and A Helmet for the Headpiece, or Phrenology incompatible with 
Reason, by Daniel the Seer. 

2 For topographical purposes Broca's names are adopted as the 
most convenient for localities on the head. 

8 Apollonius Rhodius speaking of the love of Medea for Jason 
(Argonaittica, iii. 760-765) says, &&.KPV 8' dir' A^aXijwK pktvtv&oOi 
5 aid Ttlp 6&ln>ri aniixovaa. 5i4 XpoAs, &n<t>l dpaias Ivot Koi Kti/iaXijs, VTT& 
vtlarov Iviov 



2. Philoprogenitiyeness (Amour de la progeniture), median, on 
the squama occipitis, and selected as the organ for the love of 
children because this part of the skull is usually more prominent 
in apes and in women, in whom the love of children is supposed 
to be stronger than in men. 

3. Concentrativeness, below the obelion and over the lambda. 
This is a region of uncertain function, unnoticed by Gall, but de- 
scribed as Inhabitiveness by Spurzheim, because he found it large 
in cats and in a clergyman fond of his home. It has since been con- 
sidered by Combe to be the seat of the power of concentration, 
whereof he believed Inhabitiveness to be a special case. 

4. Adhesiveness (Amilie), over the lateral area of the lambdoidal 
suture. This region was prominent in a lady introduced to Gall 
as a model of friendship, and is said by him to be the region where 
persons who are closely attached put their heads together. 

5. Combativeness (Instinct de la defense), above the asterion; it 
was found by Gall by examining the heads of the most quarrelsome 
of his low companions whom he had beforehand stimulated by 
alcohol. It was verified by comparing this region with the same 
part of the head of a quarrelsome young lady. 




6. Destructiveness (Instinct carnassier), above the ear meatus. 
This is the widest part of the skulls of carnivorous animals, and 
was found large in the head of a student so fond of torturing animals 
that he became a surgeon, also large in the head of an apothecary 
who became an executioner. 

da. Alimentiveness, over the temporal muscle and above the 
ear. Hoppe describes it as being large in a gourmand acquaintance, 
and he therefore supposes it to be the origin of selecting food. 

7. Secretiveness (Ruse, Finesse), the posterior part of the squam- 
ous suture. 

8. Acquisitiveness (Sentiment de la propriete), on the upper edge 
of the front half of the squamous suture. This part of the head Gall 
noticed to be prominent in the pickpockets of his acquaintance. 

9. Constructiveness (Sens de mechanique), on the stephanipn; 
detected by its prominence on the heads of persons of mechanical 
genius. It was found large on the head of a milliner of uncommon 
taste and on a skull reputed to be that of Raphael. 

The organ of Vitativeness, or love of life, is supposed by Combe 
to be seated at the base of the skull. To this locality Herophilus 
referred most of the intellectual powers. 

Lower Sentiments. 

10. Self-esteem (Orgueil, fierle), at and immediately over the 
obelion; found by Gall in a beggar who excused his poverty on 
account of his pride. This was confirmed by the observation that 
proud persons held their heads backwards in the line of the organ. 

11. Love of Approbation (Vanite), outside the obelion; the 
region in which Gall saw a protuberance on the head of a lunatic 
who fancied herself queen of France. 

12. Cautiousness (Circons pec lion), on the parietal eminence; 
placed here because an ecclesiastic of hesitating disposition and a 
vacillating councillor of state had both large parietal eminences. 



PHRENOLOGY 



537 



Superior Sentiments. 

13. Benevolence (Bonte), on the middle of the frontal bone in 
front of the coronal suture; here Gall noticed a rising on the head 
of the highly commended servant of a friend, as well as on a bene- 
volent schoolmate who nursed his brothers and sisters when they 
were ill. To this spot Xenocrates referred the intellectual powers. 

14. Veneration (Sentiment religieux), median at the bregma. 
Gall noted when visiting churches that those wh'o prayed with the 
greatest fervour were prominent in this region, and it was also 
prominent in a pious brother. 

15. Conscientiousness, Believingness (Forster) unknown to Gall; 
recognized by Spurzheim usually from its deficiency, and placed 
between the last and the parietal eminence. 

16. Firmness (Fermete), median, on the sagittal suture from 
behind the bregma to the front of the obelion. Lavater first 
pointed out that persons of determination had lofty heads. 

17. Hope, not regarded as primary by Gall, who believed hope 
to be akin to desire and a function of every faculty which desires 
and left this territory unallocated. 

18. Wonder, said to be large in vision-seers and many psychic 
researchers. A second similar organ placed between this and the 
next is called Mysterizingness by Forster, and is said to be the seat 
of belief in ghosts and in the supernatural. 

19. Ideality (Poesie), noted by Gall from its prominence in the 
busts of poets ; said to be the part touched by the hand when com- 
posing poetry. 

20. Wit (Esprit caustique), the frontal eminence, the organ of 
the sense of the ludicrous, prominent in F. Rabelais and J. Swift. 

21. Imitation (Faculte d'imiter), disposition to mimicry, placed 
between Benevolence and Wonder. 

Perceptive Faculties. 

22. Individuality, over the frontal sinus in the middle line; 
the capacity of recognizing external objects and forming ideas 
therefrom; said to have been large in Michelangelo, and small in 
the Scots. 

23. Form (M&moire des personnes), capacity of recognizing faces; 
gives a wide interval between the eyes; found by Gall in a squinting 
girl with a good memory for faces. 

24. Size, over the trochlea at the orbital edge; described by 
Spurzheim and Vimont as the capacity of estimating space and 
distance. 

25. Weight, outside the last on the orbital edge and, like it, 
over the frontal sinus. The prominence of ridge here is due to 
large sinus or a projecting bone. Certain old writers, such as Strato 
Physicus, located the whole intellect in this ridge. 

26. Colour, also on the orbital edge external to the last. 

27. Locality (Sens de localite), placed above Individuality on 
each side, and corresponding to the upper part of the frontal sinus 
and to the region immediately above it. 

28. Number, on the external angular process of the frontal bone, 
large in a calculating boy in Vienna. 

29. Order, internal to the last, first noted by Spurzheim in an 
orderly idiot. 

30. Eventuality (Memoire des chases), the median projection above 
the glabella, supposed to be the seat of the memory of events. 

31. Time, below the frontal eminence and a little in front of 
the temporal crest. 

32. Tune (Sens des rapports des tons), on the foremost part of the 
temporal muscle, where Gall noticed a bulge on the head of a musical 
prodigy of five. 

33. Language (Sens des mots), behind the eye. This was the 
first organ noticed by Gall, as a clever schoolfellow, quick at lan- 
guages, had prominent eyes. Old authors had noted the con- 
nexion between prominent eyeballs and mental development; thus 
Gazzali and Syenensis Medicus Cyprius place the intellect and soul 
behind the eyeballs. 

Reflective Faculties. 

34. Comparison (Sagacite comparative), median, at the top of the 
bare region of the forehead, where a savant friend of Gall's, fond of 
analogies, had a prominent boss. 

35. Causality (Esprit metaphysique) , the eminence on each side 
of Comparison, noticed on the head of Fichte and on a bust of Kant; 
the seat Oi the faculty of correlating causes and effects. 

The first identification of each organ was made by an induction 
from very limited data, but the founders and exponents of the 
system have collected all available instances wherein enlargements of 
each of these regions coexisted with increased powers of the faculty 
supposed to reside therein, and in some cases they have discovered 
coincidences of a surprising nature. When, however, such do not 
exist, a convenient excuse is found by reference to the indefinite 
article of temperament, or by a supposed explanation of the faculty 
in question as not simple but produced by the co-operation of other 
influences. Thus, as Sheridan's bump of wit was small, he is said 
not to- have been truly witty; but to have had comparison and 
memory strongly developed. The girl Labrosse (described in 
F6russac's Bulletin for October 1831), who exhibited strong amative- 
ness but had a rudimentary cerebellum, is said to have obliterated 



it by over-use. Thurtell, a cold-blooded murderer, whose organ of 
benevolence was large, is said to have been generous, as he once gave 
half-a-guinea to a friend, &c. 

The method whereby the sizes of organs are estimated is arbitrary 
and the boundaries of the regions indefinite. The attempts of Nicol, 
Straton and Wight to devise mechanical and accurate modes 
of measurement have not been very successful and have not found 
favour with the professional phrenologist. 

Anatomical Aspect of Phrenology. The phrenological con- 
troversy served the useful purpose of stimulating research into 
the anatomy of the brain; but we owe very little of solid progress 
to the advocates of the system. Gall is the only writer of his 
creed in whose works original observations of value are to be 
found, and Dr B. Hollander has cited many interesting and care- 
fully recorded anatomical and clinical facts in his writings. 
Although the study of the surface of the cerebrum is of the 
essence of phrenology, yet nowhere in the circle of phrenological 
literature are the convolutions of the brain accurately described; 
our knowledge of their order and disposition comes from the 
morphologist, not from the phrenologist. The first real step 
towards their systematic description was made by L. Rolando, 1 
who in 1830 described the fissure to which his name is attached, 
and very little advance was made until the publication in 1856 
of L. P. Gratiolet's 2 and Huschke's 3 memoirs. These works 
for the first time placed the description of the surface of the brain, 
imperfectly attempted by L. A. Desmoulins in 1825, 4 on a satis- 
factory basis. 

A description of the anatomy of the brain is given under the 
heading BRAIN, so it is necessary here only to refer to points not 
included in that account. 

1. Any psychological theory which correlates brain-action and 
mental phenomena requires a correspondence between brain-size 
and mental power; and, speaking generally, the brains of those 
whose capacities are above the average are larger than those of the 
general run of their fellow-men. 

2. Direct measurements of the relative developments of different 
portions of brains are difficult and troublesome to make; but their 
importance to phrenologists is so great that it is remarkable that no 
attempts to obtain any such were made by them. The series given 
by R. Wagner of the relative sizes of the cerebral lobes of four 
brains is almost the only record of importance in this direction, and 
is appended. 



Brain of 


Square Inches, 
ice of Frontal Lobe. 


ce of Parietal Lobe. 


ce of Occipital Lobe. 


rface of Temporo- 
Sphenoidal. 


of Frontal Lobe (Pcr- 
ind Rellective Organs) 
whole Surface = i. 


ion of Parietal Lobe 
nents) to Surface=i. 


of Remaining Surface 
nsities) to Surface i. 


mt of Free Surface. 


tent of Surface of 
Involutions. 


1 Extent of Surface. 


ight in Grammes. 




^ 




,fl 


3 





ra'* 2 


<= n 


*j 


fi 


3 


fe 




9 


3 




C/3 




~ Sr 


. o 


u4 




,o 


f 




cfi 








S'5 


BStn 


rt n, 
























M 










Fuchs, clinical 
























teacher . . 


I43'4 


69'.? 


59 


6?'5 


'4'9 


'203 


'340 


no'7 


23I'3 


342 


1499 


Gauss, mathe- 
























matician . . 


'39 


70'6 


59'4 


68-4 


407 


207 


'374 


112-8 


228-2 


341 


1492 


Workman . . 


II3'2 


62-3 


SO'3 


62 


385 


'214 


385 


Q7'4 


1936 


291 


1273 


Woman . . 


130 


6s 


51 


668 


409 


204 


'3/0 


107-5 


209.9 


3'7'4 


1185 



From this it appears that the woman exceeded Gauss in percep- 
tive and reflective organs, exceeded Fuchs in sentiment, and fell 
below the workman in propensities. It must be said, however, 
that the phrenological divisions do not accurately coincide with the 
anatomical. It would furnish important physiological data if 
the brains of men distinguished for special qualities were examined 
in this or some comparable way. 

3. It is important in relation to phrenology to ascertain the 
constancy of the convolutions. Many varieties in the detail of 
the surface-patterns have been recorded by Tenchini, Poggi, Gia- 
comini, N. Rudinger, Cunningham and Sernow, 6 but the general 
plan is fairly uniform. A still more important question has been 
recently raised by J. N. Langley, viz. how far identical spots on 

1 Delia Struttura degli emisferi cerebrali (Turin, 1830). 

2 Mtmoire sur les plis cerebraux de I'homme et des primates (Paris, 
1856). 

3 Schadel, Him, und Seek (Jena, 1856). 

4 Magendie and Desmoulins, Anal, du syst. nerveux (Paris, 1825). 
6 Rivista sperimentale di freniatria (1883), ii. 193; ibid. iv. 403; 

Archivfiir Anlhropologie (1879), xi. 289. 



PHRENOLOGY 



identical convolutions in different brains consist of nerve-cells with 
precisely the same connexions. The convoluted arrangement results 
from growth of brain-surface under constraint, hence as the different 
tracts of surface undergo proportional overgrowth they may fold 
along different lines. The occurrence of small differences in the 
rate of overgrowth, testified to by the varieties of the resulting 
pattern, can nardly fail to cause considerable alteration in the place 
of definite territories of grey cells. Some method for the deter- 
mination of the limits of these shiftinp of place is required before 
comparisons can be of value as phrenological data. 

4. The comparison of the rate of growth of brain with the develop- 
ment of mental faculties is important not only to the phrenologist 
but to the psychologist. No observations on this point were made 
by phrenological writers, who only refer to the first and rather 
crude observations of the earlier anatomists. We have, however, 
recently learned from the researches of T. L. W. von Bischoff, 
Tuczec, Cunningham, and S. Exner 1 many particulars as to the rate 
and progress of brain-growth. At birth the brain weighs one-tenth 
of the weight of the body, and averages about 11 oz. For the 
first year brain-growth and consequently expansion of the skull 
proceed with great rapidity, the growth during a large part of this 
period averaging one cubic centimetre daily. This enormous 
increase is chiefly due to the rapid development of medullated nerve- 
fibres, which are deficient in the foetal brain. During the second 
and third years growth takes place more slowly, the occipital and 
parietal lobes increasing more than the frontal or temporo-sphenoidal. 
During these and the four succeeding years the base elongates 
commensurately with the increasing depth of the face. In the 
sixth and seventh years the frontal lobes grow faster than the 
parietals, and at seven the average brain has attained the weight 
of 1340 grammes, being the weight of the body as 1 : 20. In 
the period between seven years and puberty growth is slight, but 
at puberty the whole brain grows actively, especially the frontal 
lobes. This activity lasts until about eighteen years of age, then 
diminishes; but the average brain does not reach its maximum size 
until about thirty, from a little after which period the brain tends 
to diminish towards senility. 2 

5. The estimation of the relative development of grey and white 
matter in the several lobes is important to any theory of cerebral 
dynamics which allocates functions specifically diverse to each 
separate part of the brain-surface ; but no attempt has been made by 
the phrenologist to obtain precise results in this direction, nor even 
to determine the physical constants of the two forms of brain-matter. 
The recently introduced method of Bourgoin and B. Danilewski, 
based upon the differing specific gravities of grey and white matter, 
promises to give definite information as to the relative amounts of 
these forms of brain-matter; but further experiments are needed 
to perfect the method.* 

6. The relations, if any, between the alterations which take place 
in the shape and position of the head and alterations in brain-surface 
have been speculated on by the phrenologist. Broussais is reported 
to have said that his organ of causality had enlarged with increasing 
use, and a list of cases of similar alterations of head-shape is given 
by Deville (Phr&n. Journ. xiv. 32), most of which are simply age- 
changes, of the kind described by Professor J. Cleland (Phil. 
Trans., 1870). There are no exact measurements recorded which 
indicate the occurrence of topical increases of a normal brain in 
special directions coincident with the cultivation of definite faculties. 
All the so-called cases are given vaguely, with no measurements, 
and the careful measurements of George Combe in such cases as 
were available to him showed no appreciable alterations in adult 
heads even at long intervals of time (see also Andrew Combe, Phren. 
Journ. x. 414). 

7. The phrenological want of knowledge of the topography of 
the brain-surface was necessarily correlated with ignorance of the 
exact relations of the convolutions to the interior of the cranial 
bones; these have been carefully worked out by E. Huschke, Heffler, 
W. A. Turner, Cunningham and Reid. Some latitude, however, 
must be allowed in topography, as the exact relation of convolution 
of skull varies with the shape of the skull. Giacomini showed that 
the fissure of Rolando is perceptibly farther back from the coronal 
suture in dolichocephalic than in brachycephalic skulls, and it is still 
farther back in the extreme boat-shaped form of long-headedness. 
Passet shows that there is a slight topographical difference in the 
two sexes (Arch. f. Anthrop., 1882, xiv. 89), and in the heads of those 
with a symmetrically-shaped skull there is often a want of lateral 
symmetry of convolution. Artificial deformations likewise alter 
the topographical relations of convolutions, and have served not a 
little to puzzle the phrenologist. Thus, the artificial dolichocephaly 
of the Caribs having bulged the squama occipitis, they decided that 
these people must be amiable lovers of children, 4 &c. 



1 Neurologisches Centralblatt (1883), p. 457. 

2 Weisbach, Med. Jahrbuch. der k. Gesellsch, der Aerzte, xvii. 133 
(Vienna, 1869) ; Merkel, Beitragez. post-embryonalen Entwickelung des 
menschl. Schddel (Bonn, 1882); Calori, Mem. de Vaccad. di Bologna 
(1871), x. 35. Cunningham, Cunningham Memoir, Royal Irish 
Academy. 

3 Centralblatt (1880), No. 14; Beitrage zur Biologie (Stuttgart 1882). 

4 Martius tells us that the Caribs castrate their own children, 



8. The existence of structural differences between different areas 
of cerebral surface is important to any theory of cerebral localiza- 
tion, but no phrenologist has given us any original information on this 
point. Since the investigation of I. G. F. Baillarger 6 and Bevan- 
Lewis it has been shown that some local differentiations of structure 
do really exist. Thus in the convolutions around the fissure of 
Rolando the ganglion-cells of the fourth layer are of large size (giant- 
cells of Betz), and in the convolutions of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe 
a layer of small angular cells (granule-cells) is interposed between the 
larger pyramidal and the ganglion-cells, so that, while in the parts 
of the brain above the fissure of Sylvius the gray cortex is for the 
most part five-layered, below and behind that fissure it is six-layered. 
There is no abrupt passage from the one to the other, the only sudden 
transition of structure of the grey cortex being at the hippocampal 
sulcus; and giant-cells, although of smaller size, and less like those 
of the anterior cornu of the spinal cord, are scattered over other 
parts of the cerebral grey matter. 6 

Other local variations in structure have been described by Elliot 
Smith and other histologists. 

The teaching of anatomy with regard to phrenology may be 
summarized thus: (l) the rate of growth of brain is concurrent 
with the rate of development of mental faculty; (2) there- is some 
degree of structural differentiation as there are varying rates of 
development of different parts of the cerebral surface; (3) there is 
no accordance between the regions of Gall and Spurzheim and definite 
areas of cerebral surface. 

Physiological Aspect. The theory of some of the older meta- 
physicians, that the mind, in feeling and reflection, makes use 
of no material instrument is not now accepted by psychologists. 
It was advanced by Brougham and Jeffrey as against the theory 
of phrenology; but the doctrine that the brain is the organ of 
the mind is now universally received. While it is probable that 
certain molecular changes in the grey matter are antecedents 
or concomitants of mental phenomena, the precise nature of 
these processes, to what extent they take place, or how they vary 
among themselves have not as yet been determined experi- 
mentally; the occurrence of the change can only be demonstrated 
by some such coarse method as the altered pulsation of the carotid 
arteries, 7 the increase of the temperature of the head, 8 the 
abstraction, during brain-action, of blood from other organs as 
shown by the plethysmograph, or the formation of lecithin and 
other products of metabolism in brain-substance. As yet no 
light has been shed on the connexion between the molecular 
changes in the nerve-cell and the phenomena of thought and 
feeling. While our knowledge of the anatomy of the brain, 
especially of the grey nuclei and of the white bands uniting them, 
has in recent years become much more accurate (see articles 
BRAIN and MUSCLE AND NERVE), our knowledge of the physiology 
of the nerve centres is still indefinite and fragmentary, even when 
the utmost allowance is made for the experimental work of 
C. S. Sherrington, A.S.F. Griinbaum, F. Goltz and others; and 
the hypotheses relating to the division of labour in the nerve- 
centres is chiefly based on anatomical structure. Certain 
masses of grey nerve-matter situated in the spinal cord and 
medulla oblongata are so linked by nerve-cords to organs outside 
the nervous system which are set apart for the discharge of 
separate functions that they obviously form parts of the 
mechanism for the fulfilment of such functions. In cases where 
these can be subjected to experiment we learn that they are 
nervous centres presiding over the discharge of such functions; 
and it has been determined by experiment, or else deduced 
from anatomical structure, that in those lower parts of the 
nervous centres which are more directly connected with the 
segmental elements of the body there is a certain localization 
of function; hence the centres of pelvic actions, of respiration, 
cardiac action, and inhibition of vaso-motor influence, degluti- 
tion, secretions, &c., can be mapped out in ascending series. As 
certain of these centres are united by bands of fibres to the larger 

fatten and eat them, an abuse of the organ of philoprogenitiveness ; 
see also Garcilaso de la Vega, Hist, des Incas, i. 12. 

6 Mem. de I'acad. de medecine (1840), viii. 149. 

* For further particulars of structure, in addition to the authors 
quoted at i. 878, see Bevan-Lewis and Clark, P.R.S., (1878), and 
Phil. Trans. (1880 and 1882). 

7 See Eugene Gley, " Sur les conditions physiologiques de la 
pens6e," in Archives de physiologic (1881), p. 742. 

8 J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Journal (June 1867), and Experimental 
Researches on the Regional Temperature of the Head (London, 1872). 



PHRENOLOGY 



539 



and higher-lying grey portions of the nervous centres there is 
an a priori presumption in favour of the extension of this principle 
of localization. This has been premised on metaphysical as well 
as on anatomical grounds. A. B. Bonnet long ago believed each 
portion of the brain to have a specifically separate function, and 
Herbert Spencer has said that " no physiologist can long resist 
the conviction that different parts of the cerebrum subserve 
different kinds of mental action. Localization of function is the 
law of all organization; separateness of duty is universally 
accompanied with separateness of structure, and it would be 
marvellous were an exception to exist in the cerebral hemispheres. 
Let it be granted that the cerebral hemispheres are the seats 
of the higher psychical activities; let it be granted that among 
these higher psychical activities there are distinctions of kind 
which, though not definite, are yet practically recognizable, and 
it cannot be denied, without going in direct opposition to 
established physiological principles, that these more or less 
distinct kinds of psychical activity must be carried on in more 
or less distinct parts of the cerebral hemisphere." 

For a masterly review of the old and the new association and 
localization theories, see W. Wundt's Grundzuge der physiologischen 
Psychologic, \. 289 sqq. ; also the same author's Essays, Leipzig 
(1888), pp. 109 sqq. 

There is a large weight of evidence in favour of the existence 
of some form of localization of function. So little is known of 
the physical changes which underlie psychical phenomena, or 
indeed of the succession of the psychical processes themselves, 
that we cannot as yet judge as to the nature of the mechanism 
of these centres. So much of the psychic work of the individual 
life consists in the interpretation of sensations and the translation 
of these into motions that there are strong a priori grounds 
for expecting to find that much of the material of the nerve- 
centres is occupied with this kind of work, but in the present 
conflict of experimental evidence it is safer to suspend judgment. 
That these local areas are not centres in the sense of being 
indispensable parts of their respective motor apparatuses is 
clear, as the function abolished by ablation of a part returns, 
though tardily, so that whatever superintendence the removed 
region exercised apparently becomes assumed by another part 
of the brain. 1 Experimental physiology and pathology, by 
suggesting other functions for parts of the brain-surface, are 
thus directly subversive of many details of the phrenology of 
Gall and Spurzheim. 

Psychological Aspect. The fundamental hypothesis which 
underlies phrenology as a system of mental science is that mental 
phenomena are resolvable into the manifestations of a group of 
separate faculties. A faculty is defined as " a convenient 
expression for the particular states into which the mind enters 
when influenced by particular organs; it is applied to the feelings 
as well as to the intellect, thus the faculty of benevolence means 
every mode of benevolence induced by the organ of benevolence " 
(Combe). In another work the same author says it is " used 
to denote a particular power of feeling, thinking, perceiving, 
connected with a particular part of the brain." The assumption 
is contained in the definition that the exercise of a faculty is the 
physical outcome of the activity of the organ, and in several 
of the standard works this is illustrated by misleading analogies 
between these and other organs; thus the organs of benevolence 
and of firmness are said to be as distinct as the liver and pancreas. 
The mind, according to another author, consists of the sum of all 
the faculties. In this view the unity of consciousness is some- 
what difficult to explain, and consequently there is assumed 
by others a single unifying substratum, and on this the organs 
are supposed to act; thus thoughts are defined as " relations 
of the simple substance, mind, to certain portions of the en- 
cephalon " (Welsh, Phren. Journ. i. 206). Gall himself believed 
that there was but a single principle which saw, felt, tasted, 
heard, touched, thought and willed (Fonctions du cerveau, 
i. 243); and the American exponent of phrenology, Caldwell, 
says " the mind is as single in its power as it is in its substance; 

1 For cases, see Rochefontaine, Archives de Physiologic (1883), 28; 
Bianchi, La Psichiatria, i. 97. 



it is a quickening and operating principle, essential to all the 
mental faculties, but does not, by any means, possess them 
itself " (Elements, p. 16). It is not easy to understand the sup- 
posed relation of this hypothetical substratum to the separate 
faculties acting on it. It must be both immaterial and uncon- 
nected with the brain, as the whole two thousand million cells 
supposed to exist in the cerebral hemispheres are all parcelled 
out among the faculties, and none are left for the unifying nous. 

Each organ is considered as engaged, either independently 
in bringing forth its own product, or collectively with others in 
elaborating compound mental states, and according to their 
several degrees of development and activity they are considered 
capable of perceiving, conceiving, recollecting, judging or 
imagining each its own subject. This mechanical conception 
of the division of labour in the production of the phenomena 
of mind has the charm of simplicity, but is attended with the 
difficulty that arises in discriminating the operations of the 
different organs one from the other. Phrenologists are apt to 
be vague respecting the limits of the several faculties, as about 
the boundaries of the separate organs. It was pointed out by 
Jeffrey that the lines of demarcation between benevolence, 
adhesiveness and philoprogenitiveness were indeterminate, 
although the organs are not very close, and the same applies 
to other organs. 

It is unfortunate for the clearness of the definition that, 
although historically the faculties were the first phenomena 
noted, independent of and previous to their localization, yet 
in the definition the faculties are defined in terms of their 
localities. 

The following arguments are adduced in favour of the funda- 
mental separateness of the faculties: (i) analogy elsewhere 
in the animal economy division of labour is the rule; (2) the 
variety of mental endowment observed among children before 
they are influenced by education, and the inequalities in the 
mental endowments of individuals; (3) the phenomena of 
insanity, especially of monomania; (4) the varying periods at 
which individual faculties attain their maximum development; 
(5) the phenomena of dreams, and the awakening of a limited 
number of faculties during them; (6) pain being felt in an organ 
when it is overtaxed. 2 

Such faculties are supposed to be primary (i) as exist in 
some animals and not in others, (2) as vary in their development 
in the sexes, (3) as are developed in varying proportions with 
regard to other faculties, (4) as may act separately from other 
faculties, (5) as are not necessarily simultaneous with other 
faculties in action, (6) as are hereditary, and (7) as may be 
singly diseased. 

According to the development of their powers mankind may 
be divided into six classes: (i) those in whom the highest 
qualities are largely developed and the animal qualities feeble; 
(2) those with the reversed conditions developed, with large 
animal and feeble intellectual and moral faculties; (3) those 
in whom good and evil are in constant war, with active animal 
and strong intellectual faculties and sentiments; (4) those partial 
geniuses in whom a few qualities are unusually developed, while 
the rest are at or below the mediocre standard; (5) those men 
of moderate endowment in whom some faculties are nearly or 
quite deficient; (6) those with an unvarying standard of 
undistinguished mediocrity in all their faculties. 

It is perhaps unfortunate that the word " faculty " has been 
used in this sense of original power by phrenologists. It would 
have been better to employ, as Mr Lewes suggests, the term 

s It is interesting in this connexion to note that in a case published 
by Professor Hamilton in Brain (April 1884), where a tumour existed 
on the occipital lobe, the pain was persistently referred to the fore- 
head. Many similar cases are to be noticed among the records of 
localized brain-lesions. Bearing on this point also it is worth noting, 
once for all, that in nothing is the purely hypothetical nature of 
phrenological description better realized than in the accounts of 
what these authors call the " natural language of the faculties," 
that poets are supposed to touch ideality when composing, 
musicians to press on tone and time, and painters on form and 
colour, when in the exercise of their arts! Yet we are gravely 
taught this in the standard works on the subject. 



540 



PHRENOLOGY 



" function " for the native activity of an organ, and to leave 
" faculty " for the expression of an acquired activity. " Faculty 
is properly limited to active power, and therefore is abusively 
applied to the mere passive affections of the mind " (Hamilton, 
Lectures, i. 177). 

An attempt has been recently made by Dr Bernard Hollander 
to correlate the doctrines of phrenology with the modern physio- 
logical and pathological observations which bear upon the 
localization of function. In his works The Mental Functions 
of the Brain, under the sub-title " The Revival of Phrenology " 
(1901), and in Scientific Phrenology (1902), the author endeavours 
to bring Gall's clinical and pathological instances into line with 
more modern observations. He deprecates the craniology of 
Gall, as far as it deals with mere " bumps," and honours him, 
with justice, as the recorder of many facts worth saving out 
of the wreck of his system; and he endeavours, though with 
doubtful success, to establish an unbroken connexion between 
phrenology, in the Greek sense, and our present knowledge of 
cerebral localization. 

The substance of Hollander's first work is of two kinds. The one 
kind is a tabulated statement of many hundred cases of different 
forms of mania, with injury or disease limited to one portion of 
the brain; the other kind is a tabulated statement of cases of injury 
or disease of the brain, followed by perversion, or exaltation, or loss 
of some definite instinct or faculty of consciousness. 

He divides the tabulated cases of mania into three groups: 
(i) Melancholia; (ii) Irascible Insanity, " Mania furiosa "; (iii) Mania 
with suspicion and delusions of persecution. For these three groups 
of cases he lays down the following rules: (i) Melancholia is especially 
associated with injury or disease of the parietal lobe of the brain, 
more particularly with injury or disease of the convolutions under- 
lying the parietal eminences of the skull, i.e. the supramarginal and 
angular convolutions, (ii) Mania furiosa is especially associated 
with injury or disease of the central portion of the temporal lobe, 
(iii) Mania with suspicion and delusions of persecution is especially 
associated with injury or disease of the posterior portion of the 
temporal lobe. 

The second kind of cases, where injury or disease of the brain, 
strictly localized to one part or another of its grey matter, was 
followed by perversion, exaltation or loss of some one instinct, habit 
or faculty, includes cases of kleptomania, cases of voracious hunger 
and thirst, cases of sexual desire exalted or lost, and cases of loss of 
certain special memories, as of words, tunes, numbers and the like. 

These two collections of recorded cases, taken from a vast mass of 
clinical and pathological literature accumulated during the past 
century, have been arranged by Dr Hollander with great industry ; 
so as to extend the limits of the study of cerebral localization, and 
' to advance it from the observation of the motor areas and the special 
sense centres to the observation of the higher acts and states of con- 
sciousness. Modern physiology, from its objective point of view, 
is engaged over finer and finer issues of microscopic and experimental 
work; and, from its subjective point of view, is becoming more and 
more psychological, seeking a higher level of interpretation, and a 
statement of the departmental life of the brain in terms of ever- 
increasing complexity. The motor centres, governing the voluntary 
purposeful movements of the body, are considered to be not simply 
motor, but "psycho-motor"; the speech-centres are not homo- 
geneous, but are on experimental grounds differentiated into sub- 
centres for the utterance of words, the recognition of words and the 
understanding of words; the visual centres are in like manner sub- 
divided according to the consciousness involved in the complete 
act of vision. There is room, therefore, for a " higher phrenology," 
if it can show clear evidence in favour of the localization, in deter- 
minate regions of the brain, of the physical changes accompanying 
certain states of consciousness. 

Of the two kinds of cases that Dr Hollander has tabulated, it 
cannot be said that the cases of mania are convincing. Some of 
them are altogether beside the mark; e.g. he quotes two cases of 
melancholia, after an injury over the left parietal bone, which were 
cured by an operation limited to the scalp (excision of a painful 
scar, removal of a small nerve-tumour of the scalp); in neither 
case was anything done to the skull or to the brain, but both patients 
were cured of their melancholy. Again, the acceptance of these 
rules as to the localization of these insane thoughts involves the 
localization of sane thoughts in the same areas of the brain, and 
this in turn involves assumptions that are wholly unwarranted by 
our present knowledge. Moreover, cases of mania are so common 
that it might be possible to find an equal number of cases to con- 
trovert his rules: we want consecutive, not picked cases. If 5000 
consecutive fatal cases of these different kinds of mania, with the 
post mortem record of each case, were tabulated, we should then begin 
to stand on surer ground. Again, though Dr Hollander seems to 
argue well, where he says that the facial and other movements, 
induced by direct electrical stimulation of certain convolutions are 
such as express the mental states which he attributes to those 



convolutions, yet this argument is insecure, partly because Sherring- 
ton's recent work, on the motor area of the anthropoid apes, has 
rendered it necessary to reconsider the present localization of the 
motor area in man, and partly because the interpretation of facial 
and muscular movements as representing this or that state of the 
emotions is always precarious. 

The second kind of cases, where injury or disease limited to one 
portion of the brain is followed by perversion, exaltation or loss of 
some special instinct or habit, is more valuable and more convincing; 
especially the cases of voracious hunger and thirst, those of true 
kleptomania, and those of the loss of certain special memories. 
It is not so easy to believe that the cerebellum is in any primary 
way associated with sexual desire : its position, its structure and its 
proved association with the co-ordination of muscular movements 
seem clearly to indicate that its work is wholly subordinate and 
complementary to the work of the cerebral hemispheres ; and the 
evidence adduced in favour of its being the " seat ' of the sexual 
impulses hardly amounts to more than a probability that it may 
transmit or co-ordinate the performance of the sexual act. 

Practical Application. " Die Schadellehre ist allerdings nicht 
so sehr Irrthum in der Idee als Charlatanerie in der Ausfuhrung," 
says one of its most acute critics. Even though no fault could 
be found with the physiology and psychology of phrenology, 
it would not necessarily follow that the theory could be utilized 
as a practical method of reading character; for, although the 
inner surface of the skull is moulded on the brain, and the outer 
surface approximates to parallelism thereto, yet the correspon- 
dence is sufficiently variable to render conclusions therefrom 
uncertain. The spongy layer or diploe which separates the two 
compact tables may vary conspicuously in amount in different 
parts of the same skull, as in the cases described by Professor 
Humphry (Journ. of Anat. viii. 137). The frontal sinus, that 
opprobrium phrenologicum, is a reality, not unfrequently of large 
size, and may wholly occupy the regions of five organs. The 
centres of ossification of the frontal and parietal bones, the 
muscular crests of these and of the occipital bones also, differ 
in their prominence in different skulls. Premature synostoses 
of sutures mould the brain without doing much injury to its 
parts. In such cases there are compensatory dilatations in other 
directions modifying sometimes to an extreme degree the relation 
of brain-surface to skull-surface. The writer has found such 
displacements in extremely scaphocephalic skulls; the same is 
true of accidental deformations due to pressure on the infantile 
skull before it consolidates. Artificial malformations alter the 
apparent skull shape considerably while they affect the relative 
development of the parts of the brain cortex but little. All 
these and other cogent reasons of a like kind, whose force can 
be estimated by those accustomed to deal with the component 
soft parts of the head, should lead phrenologists to be careful 
in predicating relative brain-development from skull-shape. 
Psychology, physiology and experience alike contribute to 
discredit the practical working of the system and to .show how 
worthless the so-called diagnoses of character really are. Its 
application by those who are its votaries is seldom worse than 
amusing, but it is capable of doing positive social harm, as in its 
proposed application to the discrimination or selection of servants 
and other subordinate officials. It has even been proposed to 
use it for the purposes of the guarantee society and for the 
selection of parliamentary representatives. The sarcastic 
suggestion which originated with Christopher North of moulding 
children's heads so as to suppress the evil and foster the good 
was actually repeated in good faith by a writer on phrenology, 
but experience of the effects of malformation leads one to be 
sceptical as to the feasibility of this mode of producing a social 
Utopia. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Prochaska, Functions of the Nervous System (tr. 
by Laycock, in Sydenham Society's series, 1851); Gall, Recherches 
sur le systeme neraeux, &c. (Paris, 1809), Anatomic el pjhysiologie 
du systeme nerveux, &c. (Paris, 1810-1819), Traite des dispositions 
innees de I'ame et de I'esprit (Paris, 1811) and Sur les fonctions 
du cerveau (6 vols., 1825); Beryk, Bemerkungen u. Zweifel liber die 
Schadellehre des Dr Galls (Leipzig, 1803); Marton, Leichtfassliche 
Darstellung der Gehirn- und Schadellehre (Leipzig, 1803); Metzger, 
Ueber den menschlichen Kopf (Konigsberg, 1803); Walther, Neue 
Untersuchungen der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schadellehre (Munich, 
1804) ; Kessler, Prufung des Gall'schen Systems (Jena, 1805) ; Bischoff, 
Darstellung der Gall schen Gehirn- und Schadellehre, &c. (Berlin, 1805) ; 
Ackermann, Die Gall'sche Gehirnlehre widerlegt (Heidelberg, 1806); 



PHRYGIA 



Himly, Erorterung der Gall'schen Lehre (Halle, 1806) ; Thomas I. M. 
Forster, " Sketch of the New Anatomy and Physiology of the 
Brain," in Pamphleteer (1815, vol. v., pt. ix., No. 10, reprinted 
with additions, 1817); Spurzheim, The Physiognomical System of 
Gait and Spurzheim (London, 1815), Phrenology, or the Doctrine of the 
Mind (1825), and The Anatomy of the Human Brain (1826); Gordon, 
Observations on the Structure of the Brain, comprising an estimate of 
the Claims of Gall and Spurzheim, &c. (1817) ; Three Familiar Lectures 
on Craniological Physiognomy, anonymous and satirical (London, 
Wilson, 1816); G. Combe, Essays on Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1819), 
Elements of Phrenology (1824), System of Phrenology (1825), Constitu- 
tion of Man (1827), Lectures on Phrenology by Boardman (1839), 
and Outlines of Phrenology (1847); Dewhurst, Guide to Human and 
Comparative Phrenology (London, 1831); Otto, Phrcenologien eller 
Galls og Spurzheims Hjasrne- pg Organlcere (Copenhagen, 1825); 
Broussais, Cours de phrenologie (Paris, 1836); Vimont, Traite de 
Phrenologie humaine et comparee (1836) ; Noel, Grundzuge der Phreno- 
logie (Leipzig, 1836 and 1856), and Die materielle Grundlage des 
Seelenlebens (Leipzig, 1874); Macnish, Introduction to Phrenology 
(Glasgow, 1836); Capen, Phrenological Library (Boston, 1836); 
Ferrarese, Memorie risguardanti la dottrina frenologica (1836-1838); 
Watson, Statistics of Phrenology (1836) ; Azais, Traite de la phrenologie 
(Paris, 1839) ; Sidney Smith, Principles of Phrenology (Edinburgh, 
1838); Joshua T. Smith, Synopsis of Phrenology; Forichon, Le 
Materialisme et la phrenologie combattu (Paris, 1840); K. G. Carus, 
Grundzuge einer neuen und wissenschaftlich begriindeten Kranioskopie 
(Stuttgart, 1841), and Atlas der Kranioskopie (1864); Castle, Die 
Phrenologie (Stuttgart, 1845); Struve, Geschichte der Phrenologie 
(Heidelberg, 1 843) ; ld]iez,Cours de phrenologie (Paris, 1847) ; Flourens, 
Examen de la phrenologie (Paris, 1842), De la Phrenologie (1863); 
Serrurier, Phrenologie morale (Paris, 1840); Mariano Cubi i Solar, 
Lemons de phrenologie (Paris, 1857); Morgan, Phrenology; Donovan, 
Phrenology; Struve and Hirschfeld, Zeitschrift fur Phrenologie 
(Heidelberg, 1843-1845); Phrenological Journal (20 vols., 1823- 
1847); Lelut, Qu'est ce que la phrenologie? (1836), and Rejet de 
I'organologie phrenologique (1843); Scheve, Katechismus der Phreno- 
logie (Leipzig, 1896); Tupper, Enquiry into Dr Gall's System (1819); 
Wayte, Antiphrsnology (1829); Stone, Observations on the Phreno- 
logical Development of Murderers (Edinburgh, 1829); Epps, Horae 
Phrenologicae (1829); Crock, Compendium of Phrenology (1878); 
Aken, Phrenological Bijou (1839); Hall, Phreno- Magnet (1843); 
Hollander, The Mental Functions of the Brain (1901), Scientific 
Phrenology (1902). (A. MA.) 

PHRYGIA, the name of a large country in Asia Minor, in- 
habited by a race which the Greeks called <bp\rffs, freemen. ' 
Roughly speaking, Phrygia comprised the western part of the 
great central plateau of Anatolia, extending as far east as the 
river Halys; but its boundaries were vague, 2 and varied so much 
at different periods that a sketch of its history must precede 
any account of the geography. According to unvarying Greek 
tradition the Phrygians were most closely akin to certain tribes 
of Macedonia and Thrace; and their near relationship to the 
Hellenic stock is proved by all that is known of their language 
and art, and is accepted by almost every modern authority. 
The country named Phrygia in the better known period of 
history lies inland, separated from the sea by Paphlagonia, 
Bithynia, Mysia and Lydia. Yet we hear of a Phrygian 
" thalassocracy " at the beginning of the gth century B.C. The 
Troad and the district round Mt Sipylus are frequently called 
Phrygian, as also is the seaport Sinope; and a district on the 
coast between Sestus and the river Cius was regularly named 
Little Phrygia; names like Mygdones, Doliones and Phryges or 
Briges, &c., were widely current both in Asia Minor and in 
Europe. The inference has been generally drawn that the 
Phrygians belonged to a stock widespread in the countries 
which lie round the Aegean Sea. There is, however, no con- 
clusive evidence whether this stock came from the east over 
Armenia, or was European in origin and crossed the Hellespont 
into Asia Minor; but modern opinion inclines decidedly to the 
latter view. 

According to Greek tradition there existed in early time a 
Phrygian kingdom in the Sangarius valley, ruled by kings among 
whom the names Gordius and Midas were common. It was 
known to the ancient Greeks of Ionia and the Troad as something 
great and half-divine. When the goddess appeared to her 
favourite Anchises she represented herself as daughter of the 
king of Phrygia; the Phrygians were said to be the oldest people, 

1 The meaning is given in Hesych, s.v. " Bp-ys." 

2 The difficulty of specifying the limits gave rise to a proverb 
Xwpis TCL 



and their language the original speech of mankind; the Phrygian 
kings were familiar associates of the gods, and the heroes of 
the land tried their skill against the gods themselves; we hear 
of the well-walled cities of Phrygia and of the riches of its 
kings. Tradition is completely corroborated by archaeological 
evidence. In the mountainous region on the upper waters of 
the Sangarius, between Kutaiah Eski Shehr and Afium (Afiom) 
Kara Hissar, there exist numerous monuments of great antiquity, 
showing a style of marked individuality, and implying a high 
degree of artistic skill among the people who produced them. 
On two of these monuments are engraved the names of " Midas 
the King " and of the goddess " Kybile the Mother." Even the 
title " king " (aval-) 3 appears to have been borrowed by Greek 
from Phrygian. 

It is impossible to fix a date for the beginning of the Phrygian 
kingdom. It appears to have arisen on the ruins of an older 
civilization, whose existence is revealed to us only by the few 
monuments which it has left. These monuments, which are 
found in Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia and Lycaonia, as well as 
in north and central Syria, point to the existence of a homo- 
geneous civilization over those countries; they show a singularly 
marked style of art, and are frequently inscribed with a peculiar 
kind of hieroglyphics, engraved boustrophedon; and they origi- 
nated probably from a great Hittite kingdom, whose kings ruled 
the countries from Lydia to the borders of Egypt. There can 
be traced in Asia Minor an ancient road-system, to which belongs 
the " royal road " from Sardis to the Persian capital, Susa 
(Herod, v. 55). The royal road followed a route so difficult 
and circuitous that it is quite unintelligible as the direct path 
from any centre in Persia, Assyria or Syria to the west of 
Asia Minor. It can be understood only by reference to an 
imperial centre far in the north. The old trade-route from 
Cappado'cia to Sinope, which had passed out of use centuries 
before the time of Strabo (pp. 540, 546), fixes this centre with 
precision. It must be far enough west to explain why trade 
tended to the distant Sinope, 4 hardly accessible behind lofty 
and rugged mountains, and not to Amisus by the short and easy 
route which was used in the Graeco-Roman period. This road- 
system, then, points distinctly to a centre in northern Cappadocia 
near the Halys. Here must have stood the capital of some great 
empire connected with its extremities, Sardis or Ephesus on 
the west, Sinope on the north, the Euphrates on the east, the 
Cilician Gates on the south, by roads so well made as to continue 
in use for a long time after the centre of power had changed to 
Assyria, and the old road-system had become circuitous and 
unsuitable. 6 The precise spot on which the city stood is marked 
by the great ruins of Boghaz Keui, probably the ancient Pteria, 
of which the wide circuit, powerful walls and wonderful rock- 
sculptures make the site indisputably the most remarkable in 
Asia Minor. On this site Wtnckler found in 1907 the records 
of the Hittite kings who fought against Egypt and Assyria. 

The ancient road from Pteria to Sardis crossed the upper 
Sangarius valley, and its course may be traced by the monuments 
of this early period. Close to its track, on a lofty plateau which 
overhangs the Phrygian monument inscribed with the name 
of " Midas the King," is a great city, inferior indeed to Pteria 
in extent, but surrounded by rock-sculptures quite as remarkable 
as those of the Cappadocian city. The plateau is 2 m. in cir- 
cumference, and presents on all sides a perpendicular face of 
rock 50 to 200 ft. in height. This natural defence was crowned 
by a wall partly Cyclopean, partly built of large squared stones. 6 
This city was evidently the centre of the old Phrygian kingdom 

3 FavaxTu on the Midas tomb. It is expressly recorded that 
Tvpawos is a Lydian word. Boo-iAeis resists all attempts to explain 
it as a purely Greek formation, and the termination assimilates it to 
certain Phrygian words. 

4 Sinope was made a Greek colony in 751 B.C., but it is said to 
have existed long before that time. 

6 When the Persians conquered Lydia they retained, at least for 
a time, this route, which they found in existence. 

6 The stones have all fallen, but the line where they were fitted 
on the rocks can be traced by any careful explorer. The small 
fortress Pishmish Kalessi is a miniature of the great city beside it. 
(See Perrot, Explor. Archeol. p. 169 and pi. viii.) 



542 



PHRYGIA 



of the Sangarius valley, but at least one of the monuments in 
it seems to belong to the older period of Cappadocian supremacy, 
and to prove that the city already existed in that earlier time. 
The Phrygian kingdom and art therefore took the place of an 
older civilization. It is probable that the tradition of battles 
between the Phrygians and the Amazons on the banks of the 
Sangarius preserves the memory of a struggle between the two 
races and the victory of the Phryges. 

Of the monuments that exist around this city two classes may 
be confidently referred to the period of Phrygian greatness. 
That which is inscribed with the name of " Midas the King " is 
the most remarkable example of one class, in which a large 
perpendicular surface of rock is covered with a geometrical 
pattern of squares, crosses and maeanders, surmounted by a 
pediment supported in the centre by a pilaster in low relief. 
In some cases a floral pattern occupies part of the surface, and 
in one case the two sides of the pediment are filled by two 
sphinxes of archaic type. 1 In some of these monuments a door- 
way is carved in the lower part; the door is usually closed, but in 
one case, viz. the sphinx monument just alluded to, the valves 
of the door are thrown wide open and give access to a little 
chamber, on the back of which is sculptured in relief a rude 
image of the Mother-goddess Cybele, having on each side of her 
a lion which rests its forepaws on her shoulder and places its 
head against hers. Sometimes a grave has been found hidden 
behind the carved front; in other cases no grave can be detected, 
but it is probable that they are all sepulchral. 2 The imitation 
of woodwork is obvious on several monuments of this kind. 
The second class is marked by the heraldic type of two animals, 
usually lions rampant, facing one another, but divided by a pillar 
or some other device. This type is occasionally found conjoined 
with the preceding; and various details common to both classes 
show that there was no great difference in time between them. 
The heraldic type is used on the monuments which appear to 
be the older, and the geometrical pattern is often employed on 
the inscribed monuments, which are obviously later than the 
earliest uninscribed. Monuments of this class are carved on the 
front of a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which is a small 
doorway placed high' and inaccessible in the rocks. There are 
also many rock monuments of the Roman time. 

Early Phrygian art stands in close relationship with the art 
of Cappadocia. The monuments of the type of the Midas 
tomb are obviously imitated from patterns which were employed 
in cloth and carpets and probably also in the tilework on the 
inside of chambers varying slightly according to the material. 
Such patterns were used in Cappadocia, and the priest in the rock- 
sculpture at Ibriz wears an embroidered robe strikingly similar 
in style to the pattern on the Midas tomb; but the idea of using 
the pattern as the Phrygians did seems peculiar to themselves. 
The heraldic type of the second class is found also in the art of 
Assyria, and was undoubtedly adopted by the Phrygians from 
earlier art; but it is used so frequently in Phrygia as to be 
specially characteristic of that country. 3 While Phrygian 
art is distinctly non-Oriental in spirit, its resemblance to archaic 
Greek art is a fact of the greatest importance. It is not merely 
that certain types are employed both in Phrygia and in Greece, 
but several favourite types in early Greek art can be traced in 
Phrygia, employed in similar spirit and for similar purposes. 
The heraldic type of the two lions is the device over the principal 
gateway of Mycenae, and stamps this, the oldest great monument 
on Greek soil, with a distinctly Phrygian character. Mycenae 
was the city of the Pelopidae, whom Greek tradition unhesita- 
tingly declares to be Phrygian immigrants. A study of the topo- 
graphy of the Argive plain suggests the conclusion that Mycenae, 

1 Published in Journ. Hell. Stud. (1884). 

1 The monuments of Phrygia fall into two groups, which probably 
mark the sites of two cities about 16 m. distant from each other, 
Metropolis and Conni. One group lies round the villages of Yazili- 
Kaya, Kumbet, Yapuldak and Bakshish; the other beside Liyen, 
Bei Keui, Demirli and Ayazin. 

8 The heraldic type continues on gravestones down to the latest 
period of paganism. Carpets with geometrical patterns of the 
Midas-tomb style are occasionally found at the present time in the 
houses of the peasantry of the district. 



Midea and Tiryns form a group of cities founded by an immigrant 
people in opposition to Argos, the natural capital of the plain 
and the stronghold of the native race. Midea appears to be 
the city of Midas, and the name is one more link in the chain 
that binds Mycenae to Phrygia. This connexion, whatever 
may have been its character, belongs to the remote period when 
the Phrygians inhabited the Aegean coasts. In the 8th and 
probably in the 9th century B.C. communication with Phrygia 
seems to have been maintained especially by the Greeks of Cyme, 
Phocaea and Smyrna. About the end of the 8th century Midas, 
king of Phrygia, married Damodice, daughter of Agamemnon, 
the last king of Cyme. Gyges, the first Mermnad king of Lydia 
(687-653), had a Phrygian mother. The worship of Cybele spread 
over Phocaea to the west as far as Massilia: rock monuments 
in the Phrygian style and votive reliefs of an Anatolian type are 
found near Phocaea. Smyrna was devoted to the Phrygian 
Meter Sipylene. It is then natural that the Homeric poems 
refer to Phrygia in the terms above described, and make Priam's 
wife a Phrygian woman. After the foundation of the Greek 
colony at Sinope in 751 there can be no doubt that it formed 
the link of connexion between Greece and Phrygia. Phrygian 
and Cappadocian traders brought their goods, no doubt on 
camels, to Sinope, and the Greek sailors, the auvavrai of Miletus, 
carried home the works of Oriental and Phrygian artisans. 
The Greek alphabet was carried to Phrygia and Pteria, either 
from Sinope or more probably direct east from Cyme, in the 
latter part of the 8th century. The immense importance of 
Sinope in early times is abundantly attested, and we need not 
doubt that very intimate relations existed at this port between 
the Ionic colonists and the natives. The effects of this commerce 
on the development of Greece were very great. It affected Ionia 
in the first place, and the mainland of Greece indirectly; the 
art of Ionia at this period is almost unknown, but it was 
probably closely allied to that of Phrygia. 4 A striking fact in 
this connexion is the use of a very simple kind of Ionic capital 
in one early Phrygian monument, suggesting that the " proto- 
lonic " column came to Greece over Phrygia. It is obvious 
that the revolution which took place in the relations between 
Phrygians and Greeks must be due to some great movement 
of races which disturbed the old paths of communication. 
Abel is probably correct in placing the inroads of the barbarous 
European tribes, Bithynians, Thyni, Mariandyni, &c., into 
Asia Minor about the beginning of the gth century B.C. 
The Phrygian element on the coast was weakened and in many 
places annihilated; that in the interior was strengthened; and 
we may suppose that the kingdom of the Sangarius valley now 
sprang into greatness. The kingdom of Lydia appears to have 
become important about the end of the 8th century, and to 
have completely barred the path between Phrygia and Cyme 
or Smyrna. Ionian maritime enterprise opened a new way 
over Sinope. 6 

The downfall of the Phrygian monarchy can be dated with 
comparative accuracy. Between 680 and 670 the Cimmerians 
in their destructive progress over Asia Minor overran Phrygia; 
the king Midas in despair put an end to his own life; and from 
henceforth the history of Phrygia is a story of slavery, degrada- 
tion and decay, which contrasts strangely with the earlier 
legends. The catastrophe seems to have deeply impressed the 
Greek mind, and the memory of it was preserved. The date 
of the Cimmerian invasion is fixed by the concurrent testimony 
of the contemporary poets Archilochus and Callinus, of the late 
chronologists Eusebius, &c., and of the inscriptions of the 
Assyrian king Esar-haddon. The Cimmerians were finally 
expelled from Asia Minor by Alyattes before his war with the 
Medes under Cyaxares (590-585 B.C.). The Cimmerians, 
therefore, were ravaging Asia Minor, and presumably held 
possession of Phrygia, the only country where they achieved 

4 See Furtwangler, Goldfund von Vettersfelde, Winckelm. Progr. 
(1884) ; Hogarth, &c., The Archaic Artemisia(British Museum, 1908). 
The closest analogies of old Phrygian art are to be found in the earliest 
Greek bronze work in Olympia, Italy and the northern lands. 

5 Hipponax, jr. 36 [49], proves that a trade-route from Phrygia 
down the Maeander to Miletus was used in the 6th century. 



PHRYGIA 



543 



complete success, till some time between 610 and 590 Phrygia 
then fell under the Lydian power, and by the treaty of 585 the 
Halys was definitely fixed as the boundary between Lydia and 
Media (see LYDIA and PERSIA). The period from 675 to 585 
must therefore be considered as one of great disturbance and 
probably of complete paralysis in Phrygia. After 585 the 
country was ruled again by its own princes under subjection 
to Lydian supremacy. To judge from the monuments, it appears 
to have recovered some of its old prosperity; but the art of 
this later period has to a great extent lost the strongly marked 
individuality of its earlier bloom. The later sepulchral monu- 
ments belong to a class which is widely spread over Asia Minor 
from Lycia to Pontus. The graves are made inside a chamber 
excavated in the rock, and the front of the chamber imitates a 
house or temple. No attempt is made to conceal the entrance 
or to render it inaccessible. The architectural details are in some 
cases unmistakably copied, without intentional modification, 
from the architecture of Greek temples; others point perhaps 
to Persian influence, while several which are perhaps among 
the early works of this period show the old freedom and power 
of employing in new and original ways details partly learned 
from abroad. This style continued in use under the Persians, 
under whose rule the Phrygians passed when Cyrus defeated 
Croesus in 546, and lasted till the Roman period. One monu- 
ment appears to presuppose a development of Greek plastic art 
later than the time of Alexander 1 and is almost certainly of 
the Roman time. It would, however, be wrong to suppose 
that the influence of truly Hellenic art on Phrygia began 
with the conquest of Alexander. Under the later Mermnad 
kings the Lydian empire was penetrated with Greek influence, 
and Xanthus, the early Lydian historian, wrote his history in 
Greek. Under the Persian rule perhaps it was more difficult 
for Greek manners to spread far east; but we need not think 
that European influence was absolutely unfelt even in Phrygia. 
The probability is that Alexander found in all the large cities 
a party favourable to Greek manners and trade. Very little 
is to be learned from the ancient writers with regard to the 
state of Phrygia from 585 to 300. The slave-trade flourished: 
Phrygian slaves were common in the Greek market, and the 
Phrygian names Midas and Manes were stock-names for slaves. 
Herodotus (i. 14) records that a king Midas of Phrygia dedicated 
his own chair at Delphi; the chair stood in the treasury of 
Cypselus, and cannot have been deposited there before 680 to 
660 B.C. It is not improbable that the event belongs to the 
time of Alyattes or Croesus, when Greek influence was favoured 
throughout the Lydian empire; and it is easy to understand 
how the offering of a king Midas should be considered, in the 
time of Herodotus, as the earliest made by a foreign prince to 
a Greek god. The Phrygian troops in the army of Xerxes were 
armed like the Armenians and led by the same commander. 

It is to be presumed that the cities of the Sangarius valley 
gradually lost importance in the Persian period. The final 
castastrophe was the invasion of the Gauls about 270 to 250; 
and, though the circumstances of this invasion are almost 
unknown, yet we may safely reckon among them the complete 
devastation of northern Phrygia. At last Attalus I. settled 
the Gauls permanently in eastern Phrygia, and a large part of 
the country was henceforth known as Galatia. Strabo mentions 
that the great cities of ancient Phrygia were in his time either 
deserted or marked by mere villages. The great city over the 
tomb of Midas has remained uninhabited down to the present 
day. About 5 m. west of it, near the modern Kumbet, stood 
Metropolis, a bishopric in the Byzantine time, but never men- 
tioned under the Roman empire. 

Alexander the Great placed Phrygia under the command of 
Antigonus, who retained it when the empire was broken up. 
When Antigonus was defeated and slain, at the decisive battle 
of Ipsus, Phrygia came under the sway of Seleucus. As the 
Pergamenian kings grew powerful, and at last confined the 
Gauls in eastern Phrygia, the western half of the country was 

1 A gorgoneum of Roman period, on a tomb engraved in Journ. 
Hell. Stud. (PI. xxvi.). 



incorporated in the kingdom of Pergamum. Under the Roman 
empire Phrygia had no political existence under a separate 
government, but formed part of the vast province of Asia. In 
autumn 85 B.C. the pacification of the province was completed 
by Sulla, and throughout the imperial time it was common for 
the Phrygians to date from this era. The imperial rule was 
highly favourable to the spread of Hellenistic civilization, 
which under the Greek kings had affected only a few of the 
great cities, leaving the mass of the country purely Phrygian. 
A good deal of local self-government was permitted; the cities 
struck their own bronze coins, inscribed on them the names of 
their own magistrates, 2 and probably administered their own 
laws in matters purely local. The western part of the country 
was pervaded by Graeco-Roman civilization very much sooner 
than the central, and in the country districts the Phrygian 
language 3 continued in common use at least as late as the third 
century after Christ. 

When the Roman empire was reorganized by Diocletian at 
the end of the 3rd century Phrygia was divided into two pro- 
vinces, distinguished at first as Prima and Secunda, or Great 
and Little, for which the names Pacatiana and Salutaris soon 
came into general use. Pacatiana comprised the western half, 
which had long been completely pervaded by Graeco-Roman 
manners, and Salutaris the eastern, in which the native man- 
ners and language were still not extinct. Each province was 
governed by a praeses or riyefiitiv about A.D. 412, but shortly after 
this date an officer of consular rank was sent to each province 
(Hierocles, Synecd.). About 535 Justinian made some changes 
in the provincial administration: the governor of Pacatiana 
was henceforth a comes, while Salutaris was still ruled by a 
consularis. When the provinces of the Eastern empire were 
reorganized and divided into themata the two Phrygias were 
broken up between the Anatolic, Opsician and Thracesian 
themes, and the name Phrygia finally disappeared. Almost 
the whole of Byzantine Phrygia is now included in the vilayet 
of Brusa, with the exception of a small part of Parorius and the 
district about Themisonium (Karayuk Bazar) and Ceretapa 
(Kayadibi), which belong to the vilayet of Konia, and the 
district of Laodicea and Hierapolis, which belongs to Aidin. 
The principal modern cities are Kutaiah (Cotyaeum), Eski 
Shehir (Dorylaeum), Afiom Kara Hissar (near Prymnessus), 
and Ushak (Trajanopolis). 

It is impossible to say anything definite about the boundaries 
of Phrygia before the sth century. Under the Persians Great 
Phrygia extended on the east to the Halys and the Salt Desert ; 
Xenophon (Anab. i. 2, 19) includes Iconium on the south- 
east within the province, whereas Strabo makes Tyriaeum the 
boundary in this direction. The southern frontier is unknown: 
the language of Livy (xxxviii. 15) implies that the southern 
Metropolis (in the Tchul Ova) belonged to Pisidia; but Strabo 
(p. 629) includes it in Phrygia. Celaenae, beside the later city 
of Apamea (Dineir), and the entire valley of the Lycus, were 
Phrygian. The Maeander above its junction with the Lycus 
formed for a little way the boundary between Phrygia and Lydia. 
The great plateau now called the Banaz Ova was entirely or in 
great part Phrygian. Mt Dindymus (Murad Dagh) marked the 
frontier of Mysia, and the entire valley of the Tembrogius or 
Tembris (Porsuk Su) was certainly included in Phrygia. The 
boundaries of the two Byzantine Phrygias were not always 
the same. 

Taking Hierocles as authority, the extent of the two provinces 
at the beginning of the 6th century will be readily gathered from 
the accompanying list, in which those towns which coined money 
under the Roman empire are italicized and the name of the 
nearest modern village is appended. 

I. PACATINA. (i) Laodicea (Eski Hissar) ; (2) Hierapolis (Pambuk 
Kalessi); (3) Mosyna (Geveze) ; [(4) Motellopolis, only in Notitiae 

1 This liberty was not granted to the cities of any.other province 
in Anatolia. 

3 A number of inscriptions in a language presumably Phrygian 
have been discovered in the centre and east of the country; they 
belong generally to the end of the 2nd and to the 3rd century. 



544 



PHRYGIA 



Episcop. (Medele)]; (5) Attudda (Assar); (6) Trapezopohs (Bolo S. 

from Serai Keui) ; (7) Colossae (near Chonas) ; (8) Ceretapa Diocaesarea 

(Kayadibi); (9) Themisonium (Karayuk Bazar); (10) Tacma (Yar- 

ishli); (u) Sanaus (Sari Kavak, in Daz Kiri) ; (12) Dtonysopohs 

(Orta Keui) ; (13) Anastasiopolis, originally a village of the Hyrgaleis 

(Utch Kuyular); (14) Attanassus (Eski Aidan) ; (15) Lunda (Eski 

Seid); (16) Peliae (Karayashlar) ; (17) Eumenea (Ishekh); (IS) 

Siblia (Homa) ; (19) Pepuza (Duman or Suretli) ; (20) Brio, (Bourgas) ; 

(21) Sebaste (Sivasli); (22) Eluza or Aludda (Hadjimlar); (23) 

Acmonia (Ahat Keui); (24) Alia (Kirka); (25) Siocharax (Otourak), 

26) Dioclea (Dola); (27) Aristium (Karaj Euren, in Sitchanh Ova); 

28) Cidyessus (Geukche Eyuk); (29) Apia (Abia); (30) Colyaeum 

Kutaiah) ; (31) Aezani (Tchavdir Hissar) ; (32) Tibenopohs (Amed) ; 

33) Cadoi (Gediz) ; (34) Ancyra (Kilisse Keui) ; (35) Synaus (Simav) ; 

(36) Flaviopolis Temenothyrae (Ushak) ; (37) Trajanopolis Gnmeno- 

thyrae (Giaour Euren, near Orta Keui) ; (38) Blaundus (Suleimanh) 

II. SALUTARIS. (i) Eucarpia (Emir Assar); (2) Hieropohs 

(Kotch Hissar) ; (3) Otrous (Tchor Hissar) ; (4) Stectorium (Mentesh) ; 

(5) Bruzus (Kara Sandykly) 1 ; (6) Beudus (Aghzi Kara) ; (7) Augusto- 

polis, formerly Anabura (Surmeneh); (8) Sibidunda (Baljik Hissar); 

9) Lysias (Oinan) ; (10) Synnada (Tchifut Cassaba) ; (l l) Prymnessus 

Seulun); (12) Ipsus, afterwards Julia (near Sakly); (13) Polybotus 

Bolawadun); (14) Docimium (Istcha Kara Hissar); (15) Metropolis 

Kumbet), including Conni (B. Tchorgia) and Ambasus (Ambanaz) ; 

16) Merus (Doghan Arslan); (17) Nacolea (Seidi Ghazi); (18) Dory- 

aeum (Eski Sheher); (19) Midaeum (Kara Euuk) ; (20) Lycaones 

(Kalejik) ; (21) Aulocra (in Dombai Ova) ; (22) Amadassus (unknown, 

perhaps corrupt : it should include Kinnaborion near Geneli) ; (23) 

Praepenissus (Altyntash). In later times the important fortress 

(and bishopric) of Acroenus was founded on the site of the present 

Afiom Kara Hissar. 

Besides these, certain cities beyond the bounds of the Byzantine 
Phrygias belonged under the Roman empire to the province of 
Asia and are usually considered Phrygian: (i) in Byzantine Pisidia, 
Philomelium (Ak Shehr), Hadrianopolis; (2) in Byzantine Galatia, 
Amorium (Assar near Hamza Hadji), Orcistus (Alikel or Alekian), 
Tricomia or Trocmada or Trocnada (Kaimaz); (3) in Byzantine 
Lycia, Cibyra (Horzum). 

Phrygia contains several well-marked geographical districts, 
(i) PARORIUS, the long, level, elevated valley stretching north-west 
to south-east between the Sultan Dagh and the Emir Dagh from 
Holmi (about Tchai) to Tyriaeum (Ilghin) ; its waters collect within 
the valley, in three lakes, which probably supply the great fountains 
in the Axylon and through them the Sangarius. (2) AXYLON, 
the vast treeless plains on the upper Sangarius; there burst forth 
at various points great perennial springs, the Sakaria fountains 
(Strabo p. 543), Ilije Bashi, Bunar Bashi, Geuk Bunar, Uzuk Bashi, 
&c., which feed the Sangarius. Great part of the Axylon was 
assigned to Galatia. (3) The rest of Phrygia is mountainous (except 
the great plateau, Banaz Ova), consisting of hill-country intersected 
by rivers, each of which flows through a fertile valley of varying 
breadth. The northern half is drained by rivers which run to the 
Black Sea; of these the eastern ones, Porsuk Su (Tembris or Tem- 
brogius), Seidi Su (Parthenius), Bardakchi Tchai (Xerabates), 
and Bayat Tchai (Alandrus), join the Sangarius, while the western, 2 
Taushanly Tchai (Rhyndacus) and Simav Tchai (Macestus), meet 
and flow into the Propontis. The Hermus drains a small district 
included in the Byzantine Phrygia, but in earlier times assigned 
to Lydia and Mysia. Great part of southern and western Phrygia 
is drained by the Maeander with its tributaries, Sandykly Tchai 
(Glaucus), Banaz Tchai, Kopli Su (Hippurius), and Tchuruk Su 
(Lycus); moreover, some upland plains on the south, especially the 
Dombai Ova (Aulocra), communicate by underground channels 
with the Maeander. Finally, the Karayuk Ova in the extreme south- 
west drains through the Kazanes, a tributary of the Indus, to the 
Lycian Sea. Phrygia Parorius and all the river-valleys are exceed- 
ingly fertile, and agriculture was the chief occupation of the ancient 
inhabitants; according to the myth, Gordius was called from the 
plough to the throne. The high-lying plains and parts of the vast 
Axylon furnish good pasturage, which formerly nourished countless 
flocks of sheep. The Romans also obtained fine horses from Phrygia. 
Grapes, which still grow abundantly in various parts, were much 
cultivated in ancient times. Other fruits are rare, except in a 
few small districts. Figs cannot be grown in the country, and the 
ancient references to Phrygian figs are either erroneous or due to a 
loose use of the term Phrygia. 3 Trees are exceedingly scarce in the 
country ; and the pine-woods on the western tributaries of the San- 
garius and the valonia oaks in parts of the Banaz Ova and a few other 
districts form exceptions. The underground wealth is not known 
to be great. Iron was worked in the district of Cibyra, and the 
marble of Synnada, or more correctly of Docimium, was largely 
used by the Romans. Copper and quicksilver were mined in the 
Zizima district, north of Iconium. The scenery is generally mono- 
tonous; even the mountainous districts rarely show striking features 

1 Nos. 1-5 were called the Phrygian " Pentapolis." 
* This district was according to the Greek view part of Mysia. 
' In Strabo, p. 577, X<u60uroc must be wrong; 6.itirt\b^>vrov is 
true to fact, and is probably the right reading. Olives cannot 
now grow on these uplands, which are over 3000 ft. above sea-level. 



or boldness of character; where the landscape has beauty it is of a 
subdued melancholy character. The water-supply is rarely abun- 
dant, and agriculture is more or less dependent on an uncertain 
rainfall. The circumstances of the country are well calculated to 
impress the inhabitants with a sense of the overwhelming power of 
nature and of their complete dependence on it. Their mythology 
so far as we know it, has a melancholy and mystic tone, and their 
religion partakes of the same character. The two chief deities 
were Cybele, the Mother, the reproductive and nourishing power of 
Earth, and Sabazius, the Son, the life of nature, dying and reviving 
every year (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). The annual vicissi- 
tudes of the life of Sabazius, the Greek Dionysus, were accompanied 
by the mimic rites of his worshippers, who mourned with his suffer- 
ings and rejoiced with his joy. They enacted the story of his birth 
and life and death ; the Earth, the Mother, is fertilized only by an act 
of violence by her own child ; the representative of the god was prob- 
ably slain each year by a cruel death, just as the god himself died. 
The rites were characterized by a frenzy of devotion, unrestrained 
enthusiasm, wild orgiastic dances and wanderings in the forests, 
and were accompanied by the music of the flute, cymbal, and tam- 
bourine. 4 At an early time this worship was affected by Oriental 
influence, coming over Syria from Babylonia. Sabazius was iden- 
tified with Adonis or Attis (Atys), Cybele with the Syrian goddess; 
and many of the coarsest rites of the Phrygian worship, the mutila- 
tion of the priests, the prostitution at the shrine, 6 came from the 
countries of the south-east. But one point of Semitic religion never 
penetrated west of the Halys: the pig was always unclean and 
abhorred among the Semites, whereas it was the animal regularly 
used in purification by the Phrygians, Lydians, Lycians and Greeks. 
The Phrygian religion exercised a very strong influence on Greece. 
In the archaic period the Dionysiac rites and orgies spread from 
Thrace into Greece, in spite of opposition which has left many traces 
in tradition, and the worship of Demeter at Eleusis was modified 
by Cretan influence ultimately traceable to Asia Minor. Pindar 
erected a shrine of the Mother of the gods beside his house, and the 
Athenians were directed by the Delphic oracle to atone for the 
execution of a priest of Cybele during the Peloponnesian War by 
building the Metroon. In these and other cases the Phrygian 
character was more or less Hellenized; but wave after wave of 
religious influence from Asia Minor introduced into Greece the 
unmodified " barbarian " ritual of Phrygia. The rites spread first 
among the common people and those engaged in foreign trade. 
The comic poets satirized them, and Plato and Demosthenes in- 
veighed against them; but they continued to spread, with all their 
fervid enthusiasm, their superstition and their obscene practices, 
wide among the people, whose religious cravings were not satisfied 
with the purely external religions of Hellenism. The orgies or' 
mysteries were open to all, freemen or slaves, who had duly performed 
the preliminary purifications, and secured to the participants 
salvation and remission of sins. Under MYSTERIES (q.v.) a dis- 
tinction of character has been pointed out between the true Hellenic 
mysteries, such as the Eleusinian and the Phrygian; but there 
certainly existed much similarity between the two rituals. In 
the first centuries after Christ only the Phrygian and the Egyptian 
rites retained much real hold on the Graeco-Roman world. Phrygia 
itself, however, was very early converted to Christianity. Christian 
inscriptions in the country begin in the 2nd and are abundant in the 
3rd century. There is every appearance that the great mass of the 
people were Christians before 300, and Eusebius (H.E. y. 16) is 
probably correct in his statement that in the time of Diocletian 
there was a Phrygian city in which every living soul was Christian. 
The great Phrygian saint of the 2nd century was named Avircius 
Marcellus (Abercius) ; the mass of legends and miracles in the late 
biography of him long brought his very existence into dispute, but a 
fragment of his gravestone, discovered in 1883, and now preserved 
in the Lateran Museum in Rome, has proved that he was a real per- 
son, and makes it probable that the wide-reaching conversion of the 
people attributed to him did actually take place. The strange 
enthusiastic character of the old Phrygian religion was not wholly 
lost when the country became Christian, but is clearly traced in the 
various heresies that arose in central Anatolia. Especially the wild 
ecstatic character and the prophecies of the Montanists recall the 
old type of religion. Montanus (see MONTANISM) was born on the 
borders of Phrygia and Mysia (probably south-east from Philadel- 
phia), and was vehemently opposed by Abercius. 

Of the old Phrygian language very little is known; a few words 
are preserved in Hesychius and other writers. Plato mentions that 
the Phrygian words for " dog, " "fire," &c., were the same as the 
Greek; and to these we may add from inscriptions the words for 
" mother," " king," &c. A few inscriptions of the ancient period 
are known, and a larger number of the Roman period have been 
published in the Oesterreichische Jahreshefte (1905). 

Owing to the scantiness of published material about Phrygia 
frequent reference has been made in this article to unpublished 

4 The influence which was exerted on Greek music and lyric poetry 
by the Phrygian music was great; see MARSYAS; OLYMPUS. 

6 There is no direct evidence that this was practised in the wor- 
ship of Cybele, but analogy and indirect arguments make it pretty 
certain. 



PHRYNE PHTHALIC ACIDS 



545 



monuments. Besides the works already quoted of Abel and Perrot, 
see Ritter's " Kleinasicn," in his Erdkunde von Asien; Leake Asia 
Minor (1824); Kiepert appendix to Franz, Funf Inschr. u. funf 
Stddte Kleinasiens (1840); Haase, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklop. 
art. " Phrygien " ; Hamilton, Travels in Asia Minor (1842); Hirschfeld 
" Reisebericht," in the Berl. Monatsber (1879) ; Texier, Asie mineure 
(1862); Steuart, Ancient Monuments cf Lydia and Phrygia, besides 
the special chapters in the geographical treatises of Cramer, Vivien 
St Martin, Forbiger, &c.; numerous articles by recent travellers; 
I. G. C. Anderson in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1898, &c ); D. G. 
Hogarth, ibid.; Korte in Mittheil. Inst. Athen., &c., and his book 
Gordium (1904); Humann and Judeich, Hierapolis (1898); Radet 
in his work En Phrygie ; Ramsay [in addition to articles m Mitlheil. 
Instil. Athen. (1882 sqq.), Bulletin de corresp. hellen (1883 sqq.), 
Journal of Hellenic Studies (1882, sqq.), American Journal of Archaeo- 
logy, Revue des etudes anciennes]. Cities and- Bishoprics of Phrygia, 
vols. i. ii. (1895 sqq.) ; Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern 
Provinces (1906); Pauline and other Studies (1906); Historical Com- 
mentary on Galatians, &c. (1899); Cities of St Paul (1907); see also 
T. Eisele, " Die Phrygischen Kulte " in Neue Jahrb. f. das klass. 
Altertum (Sept. 1909). (W. M. RA.) 

PHRYNE, Greek courtesan, lived in the 4th century B.C. Her 
real name was Mnesarete, but owing to her complexion she 
was called Phryne (toad), a name given to other courtesans. 
She was born at Thespiae in Boeotia, but seems to have lived 
at Athens. She acquired so much wealth by her extraordinary 
beauty that she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, which 
had been destroyed by Alexander the Great (336), on condition 
that the words " Destroyed by Alexander, restored by Phryne 
the courtesan," were inscribed upon them. On the occasion 
of a festival of Poseidon at Eleusis she laid aside her garments, 
let down her hair, and stepped into the sea in the sight of the 
people, thus suggesting to the painter Apelles his great picture 
of Aphrodite Anadyomene, for which Phryne sat as model. 
She was also (according to some) the model for the statue of the 
Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles. When accused of profaning 
the Eleusinian mysteries, she was defended by the orator 
Hypereides, one of her lovers. When it seemed as if the verdict 
would be unfavourable, he rent her robe and displayed her lovely 
bosom, which so moved her judges that they acquitted her. 
According to others, she herself thus displayed her charms. 
She is said to have made an attempt on the virtue of the philo- 
sopher Xenocrates. A statue of Phryne, the work of Praxiteles, 
was placed in a temple at Thespiae by the side of a statue of 
Aphrodite by the same artist. 

See Athenaeus, pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590, 591; Aelian, Var. 
Hist. ix. 32; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 71. 

PHRYNICHUS i. Son of Polyphradmon and pupil of Thespis, 
one of the earliest of the Greek tragedians. Some of the ancients, 
indeed, regarded him as the real founder of tragedy. He gained 
his first poetical victory in 511 B.C. His famous play, the 
Capture of Miletus, was probably composed shortly after the 
conquest of that city by the Persians. The audience was moved 
to tears, the poet was fined for reminding the Athenians of their 
misfortunes, and it was decreed that no play on the subject 
should be produced again. In 476 Phrynichus was successful 
with the Phoenissae, so called from the Phoenician women who 
formed the chorus, which celebrated the defeat of Xerxes at 
Salamis (480). Themistocles acted as choragus, and one of the 
objects of the play was to remind the Athenians of his great 
deeds. The Persians of Aeschylus (472) was an imitation of 
the Phoenissae. Phrynichus is said to have died in Sicily. 
Some of the titles of his plays, Dana/ides, Actaeon, Alcestis, 
Tantalus, show that he treated mythological as well as con- 
temporary subjects. He introduced a separate actor as distinct 
from the leader of the chorus, and thus laid the foundation of 
dialogue. But in his plays, as in the early tragedies generally, 
the dramatic element was subordinate to the lyric element as 
represented by the chorus and the dance. According to 
Suidas, Phrynichus first introduced female characters on the 
stage (played by men in masks), and made special use of the 
trochaic tetrameter. 

Fragments in A. Nauck, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta (1887). 

2. A poet of the Old Attic comedy and a contemporary of 
Aristophanes. His first comedy was exhibited in 429 B.C. He 
xxi. 18 



composed ten plays, of which the Solitary (Mowrpoiros) was 
exhibited in 414 along with the Birds of Aristophanes and gained 
the third prize. The Muses carried off the second prize in 405, 
Aristophanes being first with the Frogs, in which he accuses 
Phrynichus of employing vulgar tricks to raise a laugh, of 
plagiarism and bad versification. 
Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, (1880). 

3. PHRYNICHUS ARABIUS, a grammarian of Bithynia, lived 
in the 2nd century A.D. According to Suidas he was the author 
of (i) an Alticist, or On Attic Words, in two books; (2) liBeiitvuv 
avvayuyfi, a collection of subjects for discussion; (3) 2o<#>iori/ci> 
irapa.o'Ktvfi, or Sophistical Equipment, in forty-seven (or 
seventy-four) books. As models of Attic style Phrynichus 
assigned the highest place to Plato, Demosthenes and Aeschines 
the Socratic. The work was learned, but prolix and garrulous. 
A fragment contained in a Paris MS. was published by B. de 
Montfaucon, and by I. Bekker in his Anecdota graeca (1814). 
Another work of Phrynichus, not mentioned by Photius, but 
perhaps identical with the Alticist mentioned by Suidas, the 
Selection ('E/cXo-y^) of Attic Words and Phrases, is extant. It is 
dedicated to Cornelianus, a man of literary tastes, and one of the 
imperial secretaries, who had invited the author to undertake 
the work. It is a collection of current words and forms which 
deviated from the Old Attic standard, the true Attic equivalents 
being given side by side. The work is thus a lexicon anti- 
barbarum, and is interesting as illustrating the changes through 
which the Greek language had passed between the 4th century 
B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. 

Editions of the 'EicXoT^, with valuable notes, have been published 
by C. A. Lpbeck ( 1 820) and W. G . Rutherford ( 1 88 1 ) ; Lobeck devotes 
his attention chiefly to the later, Rutherford to the earlier usages 
noticed by Phrynichus. See also J. Brenous, De Phrynicho Atticista 
(1895). 

4. An Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War. He 
took a leading part in establishing the oligarchy of the Four 
Hundred at Athens in 411 B.C., and was assassinated in the same 
year (Thucydides viii.). 

PHTHALAZINES (benzo-orthodiazines or benzopyridazines), 
in organic chemistry a group of heterocyclic compounds contain- 
ing the ring complex shown in formula I. They are isomeric 
with the cinnolines (q.v.}. The parent substance of the group, 
phthalazine, C 8 H 6 N 2 , is best obtained from the condensation 
of co-tetrabromorthoxylene with hydrazine (D. Gabriel, Ber., 
1893, 26, p. 2210), or by the reduction of chlorphthalazine with 
phosphorus and hydriodic acid (Ber., 1897, p. 3024). It possesses 
basic properties and forms addition products with alkyl iodides. 
On oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate it yields 
pyridazine dicarboxylic acid. Zinc and hydrochloric acid 
decompose it with formation of orthoxylylene diamine. 

The keto-hydro derivative phthalazone, CsHjONj, (formula II.), 
is obtained by condensing hydrazine with orthophthalaldehydo- 
acid. On treatment .with phosphorus oxychloride it yields a chlor- 
phthalazine which with zinc and hydrochloric acid gives isoindole, 
C 8 H 7 N, and with tin and hydrochloric acid phthalimidine, 
the second nitrogen atom being eliminated as ammonia. 



NH 



Uv 



I. Phthalazine. II. Phthalazone. 

PHTHALIC ACIDS, or BENZENE DICARBOXYLIC Acros, 
C 6 H 4 (CO 2 H)2. There are three- isomers: (i) ortho, or phthalic 
acid; (2) meta, or isophthalic acid; (3) para, or terephthalic 
acid. 

Phthalic acid was obtained by Laurent in 1836 by oxidizing 
naphthalene tetrachloride, and, believing it to be a naphthalene 
derivative, he named it naphthalenic acid; Marignac determined 
its formula and showed Laurent's supposition to be incorrect, 
upon which Laurent gave it its present name. It is manufactured 
by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride (prepared from naph- 
thalene, potassium, chlorate and hydrochloric acid) with nitric 
acid, or, better, by oxidizing the hydrocarbon with fuming 
sulphuric acid, using mercury or mercuric sulphate as a catalyst 
(German pat. 91, 202). It also results on the oxidation of ortho- 



54 6 



PHTHISIS PHYLLITE 



diderivatives of benzene. It forms white crystals, melting at 
213 with decomposition into water and phthalic anhydride; 
the latter forms long white needles, melting at 128 and boiling 
at 284. Heated with an excess of lime it gives benzene; calcium 
benzoate results when calcium phthalate is heated with one 
molecule of lime to 33O-35O. The acid (and anhydride) are 
largely used in the colour industry (see FLUORESCEIN; PHENOL- 
PHTHALEIN). 

Phthalyl chloride, C,H 4 (COC1) 2 or C,H 4 (CCh)(CO)0, formed by 
heating the anhydride with phosphorus chloride, is an oil which 
solidifies at o and boils at 275. In some reactions it behaves 
as having the first formula, in others as having the second. Phthalyl 
chloride with phosphorus pentachloride gives two phthalylene 
tetrachlorides, one melting at 88 and the other at 47. They cannot 
be changed into one another, and have been given the formulae 
C,H 4 (CC1 3 )(COC1) and CH 4 (CC1 2 ) 2 O. Phthalimide, C 6 H 4 (CO) 2 NH, 
is formed by heating phthalic anhydride or chloride in ammonia 

fas or by molecular rearrangement of ortho-cyanbenzoic acid, 
t forms N-metallic and alley! salts. Bromine and potash give 
anthranilic acid, C,H 4 (NH 2 )(CO 2 H). (See INDIGO.) 

Isophthalic acid is obtained by oxidizing meta-xylene with 
chromic acid, or by fusing potassium meta-sulphobenzoate, or 
meta-brombenzoate with potassium formate (terephthalic acid 
is also formed in the last case). It melts above 300, and dissolves 
in 7800 parts of cold water and in 460 of boiling. The barium 
salt (+6H 2 O) is very soluble (a distinction between phthalic and 
terephthalic acids). Uvitic acid, s-methyl isophthalic acid, is 
obtained by oxidizing mesitylene or by condensing pyroracemic 
acid with baryta water. 

Terephthalic acid, formed by oxidizing para-diderivatives 
of benzene, or best by oxidizing caraway oil, a mixture of 
cymene and cuminol, with chromic acid, as almost insoluble in 
water, alcohol and ether; it sublimes without melting when 
heated. 

For the reduced phthalic acids see POLYMETHYLENES. 

PHTHISIS (Gr. <0i<ns " wasting "), a term formerly applied 
(like " Consumption ") to the disease of the lung now known 
as Tuberculosis (q.v.). 

PHYLACTERY (<f>v\a.KrfipLov), a Greek word meaning 
" guard " (sc. against misfortune), i.e. an amulet. It is applied 
in the New Testament to the tefillin or " prayer-thongs " worn 
by orthodox Jews daily at morning-prayer (whether at home or 
in the synagogue). The title employed in Hebrew, tefillin, seems 
really to be derived from an Aramaic term meaning " attach- 
ments," " ornaments "; it corresponds to the Biblical Hebrew 
word rendered " frontlets " (tolafoth). The tefillin or phylac- 
teries are worn, one on the left arm (the " hand-tefilla "), and 
the other on the head (the " head-tefilla "). In each case the 
leather thongs support a small satchel which is fastened to the 
arm and the forehead respectively, and contains certain passages 
of the Law written (in Hebrew) on parchment, viz. Exod. xiii. 
i-ioamd 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9 and xi. 13-21. The custom of wear- 
ing phylacteries seems to have been derived in the first instance 
from the Pharisees. By the Sadducees and the generality of 
the people in the time of Christ it seems not to have been 
practised. Later it became not without protest one of the 
badges of orthodox Judaism. It is significant that the custom 
is entirely unknown to the Samaritan community. 

The phylacteries, together with the " fringe " (tsitsith) and 
door-post symbol (mezuza) which latter consists of a piece of 
parchment, containing the Hebrew text of Deut. vi. 4-9 and xi. 
13-21 enclosed in a glass or metal tube, and fixed upon the right 
hand post of the door of each dwelling-room in a house form 
the three sets of visible signs by which the Israelite is constantly 
reminded of his duty to God (cf. Num. xv. 39-40; Deut. vi. 9; 
xi. 20). The " fringe " (or " tassels ") was originally attached 
to the common outer garment a large square wrap) the loose 
end of which hung over the left shoulder. This garment with 
tassels is mentioned in the New Testament (cf. Matt. ix. 20; 
xiv. 36; xxiii. 5 and parallels). Among modern Jews it has sur- 
vived in two forms: (i) the fringed praying shawl called talith 
worn by every male orthodox Jew at the synagogue morning ser- 
vice; and (2) an under-garment, shaped like a chest-protector, 



one part covering the chest, the other the back, which is 
worn continuously by male orthodox Jews. It is called Arba 
Kanfoth (i.e. " Four Corners," Deut. xxii. 12) or " little Talith," 
and is, of course, " fringed." Both phylactery and mezuza 
were supposed to keep off hurtful demons (Targ. on Cant, 
viii. 3). 

See Surenhusius, Mischna, i. 9 seq. ; and Bodenschatz, Kirch. 
Verf. d. heutigen Juden, iv. 9 seq. (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.) 

PHYLARCHUS, a Greek historian, who nourished during the 
time of Aratus, the strategus of the Achaean League, in the 3rd 
century B.C. His birthplace is variously given as Athens, 
Naucratis, or Sicyon. He was probably a native of Naucratis, 
and subsequently migrated to Athens. He was the author of a 
history in 28 books, covering the period from the expedition of 
Pyrrhus king of Epirus to Peloponnesus (272) to the death cf the 
Spartan king Cleomenes (220) after his defeat by 'Antigonus 
Doson. Polybius (ii. 56-63) charges him with undue partiality 
for Cleomenes and unfairness towards Aratus; Plutarch (Aratus, 
38 ), who is of the same opinion, did not hesitate to use him freely 
in his own biographies of Agis and Cleomenes. 

Fragments and life in C. W. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum 
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); monographs by J. F. Lucht (1836) and 
C. A. F. Bruckner (1839) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium 
der alien Geschichte (1895). 

PHYLE, a mountain fortress, on a pass leading from Athens 
to Boeotia and Thebes, and commanding a fine view of the Attic 
plain. It is situated on the south-west end of Mt Parnes. It 
is chiefly famous for its occupation by Thrasybulus at the head 
of the Athenian exiles during the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in 
404 B.C. After defending himself from attack, with the help 
of a snowstorm, he succeeded by a venturesome night march 
in seizing Munychia. Close to Phyle is the cliff called Harma, 
over which the Pythian lightnings were watched for from 
Athens. 

PHYLLITE (Gr. <j>v\\ov, a leaf, probably because they 
yield leaf-like plates, owing to their fissility), in petrology, a 
group of rocks which are in practically all cases metamorphosed 
argillaceous sediments, consisting essentially of quartz, chlorite 
and muscovite, and possessing a well-marked parallel arrange- 
ment or schistosity. They form an intermediate term in the 
series of altered clays or shaly deposits between clay-slates 
and mica-schists. The clay-slates have a very similar mineral 
constitution to the phyllites, but are finer grained and are 
distinguished also by a very much better cleavage. In the 
phyllites also white mica (muscovite or sericite) is more abundant 
as a rule than in slate, and its crystalline plates are larger; the 
abundance of mica gives these rocks a glossy sheen on the smooth 
planes of fissility. Many of the best Welsh slates are rich in 
small scales of white mica, which polarize brightly between 
crossed nicols. The Cornish slates are still more micaceous and 
rather coarser grained, so that they might be called mica-slates 
or even phyllites. 

A microscopical section of a typical phyllite shows green chlorite 
and colourless mica both in irregular plates disposed in parallel 
order, with a greater or smaller amount of quartz which forms small 
lenticular grains elongated parallel to the foliation. Grains of iron 
oxide (magnetite and haematite) and black graphitic dust are very 
commonly present. Feldspar is absent or scarce, but some phyllites 
are characterized by the development of small rounded grains of 
albite, often in considerable numbers. The minute needles of 
rutile, so often seen in clay-slates, are not often met with in phyllites, 
but this mineral forms small prisms which may be intergrown with 
black magnetite; at other times it occurs as networks of sagenite. 
Other phyllites contain carbonates (usually calcite but sometimes 
dolomite) in flat or spindle-shaped crystals, which often give evidence 
of crushing. Very tiny blue needles of tourmaline are by no means 
rare in phyllites, though readily overlooked. Garnet occurs some- 
times, a good example of garnetiferous phyllite being furnished by 
the whetstones of the Ardennes, in which there are many small 
isotropic crystals of magnesian garnet. Hornblende, often in 
branching feathery crystals, is a less frequent accessory. In some 
phyllites a mineral of the chloritoid group makes 'its appearance; 
this may be ottrelite, sismondine or other varieties of chloritoid, 
and occurs in large sub-hexagonal plates showing complex twinning, 
and lying across the foliation planes of the rock, so that they seem 
to have developed after the movements and pressures which gave 
rise to the foliation had ceased. 



PHYLLOXERA 



547 



The structural variations presented by the phyllites are compara- 
tively few. The most finely crystalline specimens have generally 
the most perfect parallel arrangement of their constituents. The 
foliation is generally flat or linear, but in some rocks is undulose 
or crumpled. From the imperfection of their cleavage phyllites 
are rarely suitable for roofing materials; their softness renders them 
valueless as road stones, but they are not uncommonly employed 
as inferior building materials. They are exceedingly common in 
all parts of the world where metamorphic rocks occur; as in the 
Scottish Highlands, Cornwall, Anglesey, north-west Ireland, the 
Ardennes, the Harz Mountains, .Saxony, the Alps, Norway, the 
Appalachians, the Great Lakes district in America, &c. (J. S. F.) 

PHYLLOXERA (Gr. <j>i,\\ v, leaf, and rjpos, dry), a genus 
of insects belonging to the family of Aphidae, or Plant-lice, in the 
Homopterous section of the order Hemiptera. It is chiefly 
known from the causal relation of one of its species to the most 
serious of vine-diseases. The name was first given in 1834 to 
a plant-louse which was observed to "dry up the leaves" of oaks 
in Provence. About twenty-seven species are now known, all 
characterized by length not exceeding -06 of an inch, flat wings, 
three articulations in the antennae, one or two articulations in 
the tarses, with digitules, but without cornicles on the abdomen. 
The following full description of the only species which attacks 
the vine, the Phylloxera vastalrix, or grape-louse, is reprinted from 
the article VINE in the gth edition of this encyclopaedia. 

" The symptoms of the disease, by means of which an infected spot 
may be readily recognized, are as follows: The vines are stunted and 
bear few leaves, and those small ones. When the disease reaches an 
advanced stage the leaves are discoloured, yellow or reddish, with 
their edges turned back, and withered. The grapes are arrested 
in their growth and their skin is wrinkled. If the roots are examined 
numerous fusiform swellings are found upon the smaller rootlets. 
These are at first yellowish in colour and fleshy; but as they grow 
older they become rotten and assume a brown or black colour. If 
the roots on which these swellings occur be examined with a lens, 
a number of minute insects of a yellowish-brown colour are observed ; 

these are the root-forms (radi- 
cola) of Phylloxera (fig. i); they 
are about -8 mm. long, of an 
oval outline and with a swollen 
body. No distinction between 
head, thorax and abdomen can 
be observed. The head bears 
small red eyes and a pair of 
three-jointed antennae, the first 
two joints being short and thick, 
the third more elongated, with 
the end cut off obliquely and 
FIG. i. Root-inhabiting Form slightly hollowed out. Under- 
(Radicola.) of Phylloxera, with pro- neath, between the legs, lies the 
boscis inserted into tissue of root rostrum, which reaches back to 
of vine. the abdomen. The insect is fixed 

by this rostrum, which is inserted 

into the root of the vine for the purpose of sucking the sap. The 
abdomen consists of seven segments, and these as well as the anterior 
segments bear four rows of small tubercles on their dorsal surface. 
These root-dwelling insects are females, which lay parthenogenetic 
eggs. The insect is fixed by its proboscis, but moves its abdomen 
about and lays thirty to forty yellow eggs in small clusters. After 
the lapse of six, eight or twelve days, according to the temperature, 
the larvae hatch out of the eggs. These are light yellow in colour 
and in appearance resemble their mother, but with relatively 
larger appendages. They move actively about for a few days and 
then, having selected a convenient place on the young roots, insert 
their proboscis and become stationary. They moult five times, 
becoming with each change of skin darker in colour; in about three 
weeks they become adult and capable of laying parthenogenetic 
eggs. In this way the insect increases with appalling rapidity: 
it has been calculated that a single mother which dies after laving 
her eggs in March would have over 25,000,000 descendants by 
October. If, however, the insect were content with this method of 
reproduction the disease could be isolated by surrounding the 
infected patches with a deep ditch full of some such substance as 
coal-tar, which would prevent the insects spreading on to the roots 
of healthy vines. The fertility of the parthenogenetically produced 
insects would also diminish after a certain number of generations 
had been produced. 

As the summer wears on a second form of insect appears amongst 
the root-dwellers, though hatched from the same eggs as the form 
described above. These are the nymphs, destined to acquire 
wings; their body is more slender in outline, and at first they 
bear well-marked tubercles. After several moults the rudiments 
of two pairs of wings appear, and then the insect creeps up to the 
surface of the earth, and on to the vine. Here it undergoes 
its fifth and last moult, and appears as a winged female, capable 
of reproducing parthenogenetically. The winged form has a 
slender body with distinct head (fig. 2). The eyes are well developed, 




with numerous facets; the antennae have three joints, the ter- 

minal one shaped like that of the root-dwellers. The wings 

are transparent, with few nervures, and are well adapted for 

flight. The anterior pair reach far 

beyond the end of the abdomen; the 

posterior are narrower and not so long. 

These winged forms arc about I mm. 

long. They fly about from July till 

October, living upon the sap of the 

vine, which is sucked up by the 

rostrum from the leaves or buds. 

They lay their parthenogenetically 

produced eggs in the angles of the 

veins of the leaves, in the buds, or, if 

the season is already far advanced, in 

the bark. In very damp or cold 

weather the insect remains in the 

ground near the surface, and deposits 

its eggs there. The eggs are very few 

in number and of two sizes, small 

and large (fig. 3, b and c). From the 

larger a female (fig. 4) is hatched in 

eight or ten days, and simultaneously, 

for the first time in the life-history of 

the Phylloxera, a male (fig. 3) appears 

from the smaller egg. Neither male 

nor female has wings; the rostrum is 

replaced by a functionless tubercle; 

and there is no alimentary canal. 

The female is larger than the male 

and differs from it and the other forms _ , , , 

in the last joint of the antennae. ,,J IG -, 2 ,T~ , y l l? e ,. r a ' 

The life of these sexual forms lasts W "?g ed Feraal ? ^ hlch h . ves 

but a few days, and is entirely taken n 1( f ves and buds of vine, 

up with reproduction. The female is and lays parthenogenetically 

fertilized by the male and three or e Sf ? f tw . kinds - P e dc - 




. 

four days later lays a single egg-the Doping ' nto r 
winter egg and then dies This Tegg is female ' the other lnto a 
laidinthecrevicesofthebarkofthevine, male - 

and as it is protectively coloured it is almost impossible to find it. 
Here the winter eggs remain undeveloped during the cold months; 
but in the following spring, as a rule in the month of April, they give 





FIG. 3. a, Male produced 
from small egg c, laid by winged 
female (fig. 2); b, large egg; c, 
small egg. 



FIG. 4. Wingless Female pro- 
duced from large egg (fig. 3, 6), 
laid by winged female (fig. 2). 



birth to a female insect without wings, which resembles the root- 
dwelling forms, but has pointed antennae. These forms are termed 
the stock-mothers; they creep into the buds of the vine, and, as these 
develop into the young leaves, insert their proboscis into the upper 
side. By this means a gall is produced on the under side of the leaf. 

Scheme of the Various Forms of Phylloxera vastatrix. 
A. Root -infesting forms, $ 



Root-infesting forms. 2nd generation, 

Root -infesting forms, }rd generation, ? 

I 
&c. 



Winged forms, S 



Wingless female. 



Male. 

I 



Winter egg. 

I 
Stock -mother. 

! 

Gall-producing 9 Root-infesting 
ditto A. 



The gall is cup-shaped, and its outer surf ace is crumpled and covered 
with small warts and hairs. The opening upon the upper surface 



PHYSHARMONICA PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL 



of the leaf is protected by similar structures. Within this gall the 
stock-mother lives and surrounds herself with numerous partheno- 
cenetically produced eggs sometimes as many as two hundred 
m a single gall; these eggs give birth after six or eight days to a 
numerous progeny (gallicola), some of which form new galls and 
multiply in the leaves, whilst others descend to the roots and become 
the root-dwelling forms already described. The galls and the ga I - 
producing form are much commoner in America than in the Old 
World. 

The particular species of phylloxera which attacks the vine 
is a native of the United States, probably originating among the 
wild vines of the Colorado district. It was first observed in 
1856 by Asa Fitch (1800-1878), who did not suspect its mischief, 
and called it Pemphigus wtifoliae. In 1863 it was independently 
discovered by West wood in an English vinery at Hammersmith; 
he was ignorant of Fitch's observation, and called it Peritymbia 
vitisana. From 1858 to 1863 there were many importations 
of American vines for grafting purposes to Bordeaux, Roque- 
maure and other parts of France, England, Ireland, Germany, 
Portugal, &c. It is practically certain that the deadly phyl- 
loxera was imported on these plants. A year or two later certain 
vine-growers in the South of France began to complain of the 
new vine-disease. M. Delorme, of Aries, in 1865, appears to have 
been the first who recognized its novelty and had a presentiment 
of disaster. The disease steadily spread outwards in concentric 
circles from its first place of lodgment near Roquemaure. 
Within two or three years whole departments were infested. 
In 1866 a second centre of infection made its appearance near 
Bordeaux. The vine-growers were at their wits' end to account 
for this new plague, which threatened to be even more costly 
than the oldium. The completeness of the ruin which threatened 
them may be illustrated by the statistics for a single commune, 
that of Graveson, whose average annual production of wine in 
the years 1865-1867 was about 220,000 gallons. In 1868 this fell 
to 121,000 gallons, in 1869 to 48,400 gallons, in 1870 to 8800 
gallons, and by 1873 to noo gallons. 

In 1868 Planchon proved that the disease was due to a new 
species of phylloxera, which was invariably found on the roots 
of the affected vines, and to which he accordingly gave the 
prophetic name of Phylloxera -oastatrix. During the next ten 
years a series of students, of whom only Riley and Balbiani need 
be mentioned here, worked out the natural history of Phylloxera 
vastatrix, and proved its identity with the American grape-louse. 
Its devastations rapidly assumed gigantic proportions. In 
France, where the disease was by far the most prevalent owing 
in great part to the obstinacy with which the vine-growers at 
first refused to take any reasonable precautions against its 
spread M. Lalande, president of the chamber of commerce 
at Bordeaux, in 1888 calculated the direct loss to the country by 
the phylloxera at 10 milliards (400,000,000), or double the 
indemnity which had been paid to Germany in 1871 ! 

The phylloxera has made its appearance in almost every vine- 
growing country in the world. Thus it appeared in Austria-Hungary 
in 1868; in Italy, in spite of the frantic efforts made as in other 
countries to keep it out by strict legislation against the import of 
vines, in 1879; in R uss ' a m 1880; in Germany, on the Rhine and 
Moselle, and in Switzerland in 1872 ; in Madeira, Spain and Portugal, 
about 1876. The pest even crossed the oceans, and appeared in 
Australia, at Geelong, about 1880; it has since twice broken out in 
Victoria, and has ravaged the vineyards of South Australia and New 
South Wales. At the Cape, in spite of a long endeavour to prohibit 
the import of the phylloxera, it appeared about 1884. In 1885 it 
crossed the Mediterranean to Algeria. There was only one country 
where its ravages were long unimportant; that was its home in the 
United States, where the native vines had become, by the operation 
of natural selection, immune to its attacks. Yet no imported vine 
has ever lived there more than five years, and in 1890 the phylloxera 
crossed the Rocky Mountains, and seriously damaged the vineyards 
of California, where it had previously been unknown. 

Three different methods of fighting the pest have been success- 
fully adopted. One is to kill the phylloxera itself; another, to 
destroy it along with the infected vines, and plant fresh and 
healthy plants; the third, to adapt the secular therapeutics of 
nature, and to introduce American vines which a long acquain- 
tance with the phylloxera has made immune to its ravages. 
Insecticides, of which the bisulphide of carbon (CS 2 ) and the 



sulpho-carbonate of potassium (KSCS 2 ) remain in use, were 
injected into the earth to kill the phylloxera on the roots of the 
vine. These methods were chiefly advocated in vineyards of 
the first class, where it was worth while to spend a good deal of 
money and labour to preserve the old and famous vines: the 
Chateau Leoville Poyferre and Clos Vougeot are instances. 
Some good judges attribute the peculiar and not unpleasing 
flavour of certain clarets of 1888 to means thus adopted to kill 
the phylloxera. The second plan was largely adopted in 
Switzerland and on the Rhine, where measures resembling those 
taken with cattle suspected of anthrax were applied to all 
diseased vineyards. The third plan, which consists in replanting 
the affected vineyard with American vines such as the Vitis 
'abrusca, V. riparia, V. rupeslris or V. monticola has proved 
the most generally successful. 

A very good bibliography will be found in Les Jnsectes de la vigne, 
by Professor Majet of Montpellier (1890), which is the best book on 
the subject. Reference may also be made to the classic memoirs 
of Planchon, culminating in Les Maurs de la phylloxera de la 
vigne (1877); Dreyfus, Uber Phylloxerinen (1889); Lichtenstein, 
Histoire du phylloxera; the Rapports annuels a la commission 
superieure du phylloxera; and the excellent Report on Phylloxera 
drawn up by the Hon. I. W. Taverner (Victoria, 1899, No. 68). 

(W. E. G. F.) 

PHYSHARMONICA, a keyboard instrument fitted with free- 
reeds, a kind of harmonium much used in Germany. The phys- 
harmonica resembles a small harmonium, but is differentiated 
from it by having no stops; being without percussion action, it 
does not speak readily or clearly. As in the harmonium, the 
bellows are worked by the feet by an alternate movement, which 
also affords a means of varying the dynamic force of the tone 
according as more or less energetic pedalling increases or 
decreases the pressure of the wind supply. The physharmonica 
was invented in 1818 by Anton Hackel, of Vienna; in the original 
instrument the bellows were placed right and left immediately 
under the shallow wind-chest, and were worked by means of 
pedals connected by stout wire. A specimen, having a compass 
of four octaves and a very sweet tone, is preserved in the collec- 
tion of Paul de Wit, formerly in Leipzig, now transferred to 
Cologne. (K. S.) 

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA, in the terminology of spiritualism 
and psychical research, molar or molecular phenomena in the 
physical world not traceable to ordinary causes and referred to 
the action of spirits or of mediums in abnormal psychical states. 
Among the phenomena or alleged phenomena are: materializa- 
tion, levitation or elongation of the medium; passage of matter 
through matter, alteration of weight in a balance, tying of knots 
in an endless cord, apports (objects brought from a distance) and 
movements of objects (telekinesis); the production of writing, 
imprints of plaster or other objects; raps, voices and other 
sounds, including music; spirit photographs; lights and perfumes. 
To these may be added immunity against the effects of fire and 
the untying of ropes. 

Analogous phenomena are found in many parts of the world 
(see POLTERGEIST; FIREWALKING) ; spectral lights are associated 
with the tombs of Mahommedan saints, with Buddhist shrines, 
with religious revivals, with Red Indian and other magicians, 
&c., and as sporadic phenomena in the Highlands and Norway. 
Levitation is asserted of Australian wizards, the rope-trick of 
Eskimo angekoks; glyphs and direct writing are found in Mexican 
and Tibetan cults. 

See F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism ; F. W. H. Myers, Human 
Personality, ii. 506; Journal S. P. R., vi. 309 sq. (N. W. T.) 

PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL, the name given to a group of 
French economists and philosophers. The heads of the school 
were Francois Quesnay (q.v.) and Jean Claude Marie Vincent, 
sieur de Gournay (1712-1759). The principles of the school had 
been put forward in 1755 by R. Cantillon, a French merchant 
of Irish extraction (Essai sur la nature du commerce en general). 
whose biography W. S. Jevons has elucidated, and whom he 
regards as the true founder of political economy; but it was in 
the hands of Quesnay and Gournay that they acquired a system- 
atic form, and became the creed of a united group of thinkers 



PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL 



549 



and practical men, bent on carrying them into action. The 
members of the group called themselves les economises, but it is 
more convenient, because unambiguous, to designate them by 
the name physiocrats (Gr. <j>v<ns, nature, and Kparttv, to rule), 
invented by P. S. Dupont de Nemours (1730-1817), who was 
one of their number. In this name, intended to express the 
fundamental idea of the school, much more is implied than the 
subjection of the phenomena of the social, and in particular the 
economic, world to fixed relations of coexistence and succession. 
This is the positive doctrine which lies at the bottom of all true 
science. But the law of nature referred to in the title of the sect 
was something quite different. The theological dogma which 
represented all the movements of the universe as directed by 
divine wisdom and benevolence to the production of the greatest 
possible sum of happiness had been transformed in the hands of 
the metaphysicians into the conception of a jus naturae, a 
harmonious and beneficial code established by the favourite 
entity of these thinkers, nature, antecedent to human institu- 
tions, and furnishing the model to which they should be made to 
conform. 

The general political doctrine is as follows: Society is com- 
posed of a number of individuals, all having the same natural 
rights. If all do not possess (as some members of the negative 
scliool maintained) equal capacities, each can at least best 
understand his own interest, and is led by nature to follow it. 
The social union is really a contract between these individuals, 
the object of which is the limitation of the natural freedom of 
each just so far as it is inconsistent with the rights of the others. 
Government, though necessary, is a necessary evil; and the 
governing power appointed by consent should be limited to the 
amount of interference absolutely required to secure the fulfil- 
ment of the contract. In the economic sphere this implies 
the right of the individual to such natural enjoyments as he can 
acquire by his labour. That labour, therefore, should be undis- 
turbed and unfettered, and its fruits should be guaranteed to 
the possessor; in other words, property should be sacred. Each 
citizen must be allowed to make the most of his labour; and there- 
fore freedom of exchange should be ensured, and competition 
in the market should be unrestricted, no monopolies or privileges 
being permitted to exist. 

The physiocrats then proceed with the economic analysis as 
follows: Only those labours are truly " productive " which add 
to the quantity of raw materials available for the purposes of 
man; and the real annual addition to the wealth of the com- 
munity consists of the excess of the mass of agricultural products 
(including, of course, metals) over their cost of production. 
On the amount of this produit net depends the well-being of the 
community and the possibility of its advance in civilization. 
The manufacturer merely gives a new form to the materials 
extracted from the earth; the higher value of the object, after 
it has passed through his hands, only represents the quantity of 
provisions and other materials used and consumed in its elabora- 
tion. Commerce does nothing more than transfer the wealth 
already existing from one hand to another; what the trading 
classes gain thereby is acquired at the cost of the nation, and it 
is desirable that its amount should be as small as possible. The 
occupations of the manufacturer and merchant, as well as the 
liberal professions, and every kind of personal service, are 
" useful " indeed, but they are " sterile," drawing their income, 
not from any fund which they themselves create, but from the 
superfluous earnings of the agriculturist. The revenue of the 
state, which must be derived altogether from this net product, 
ought to be raised in the most direct and simplest way namely, 
by a single impost of the nature of a land tax. 

The special doctrine relating to the exclusive productiveness 
of agriculture arose out of a confusion between " value " on the 
one hand and " matter and energy " on the other. A. Smith 
and others have shown that the attempt to fix the character of 
" sterility " on manufactures and commerce was founded in 
error. And the proposal of a single impdt territorial falls to the 
ground with the doctrine on which it was based. But such 
influence as the school cxcrte'd depended little, if at all, on these 



peculiar tenets, which indeed some of its members did not hold. 
The effective result of its teaching was mainly destructive. It 
continued in a more systematic form the efforts in favour of the 
freedom of industry already begun in England and France. It 
was to be expected that the reformers should, in the spirit of 
the negative philosophy, exaggerate the vices of established 
systems; and there can be no doubt that they condemned too 
absolutely the economic action of the state, both in principle 
and in its historic manifestations, and pushed the laissez- 
faire doctrine beyond its just limits. But this was a necessary 
incident of their connexion with the revolutionary movement, 
of which they really formed one wing. In the course of that 
movement, the primitive social contract, the sovereignty of the 
people and other dogmas now seen to be untenable, were 
habitually invoked in the region of politics proper, and had a 
transitory utility as ready and effective instruments of warfare. 
And so also in the economic sphere the doctrines of natural rights 
of buying and selling, of the sufficiency of enlightened selfishness 
as a guide in mutual dealings, of the certainty that each member 
of the society will understand and follow his true interests, and 
of the coincidence of those interests with the public welfare, 
though they will not bear a dispassionate examination, were 
temporarily useful as convenient and serviceable weapons for 
the overthrow of the established order. 

These conclusions as to the revolutionary tendencies of the 
school are not at all affected by the fact that the form of govern- 
ment preferred by Quesnay and some of his chief followers was 
what they called a legal despotism, which should embrace 
within itself both the legislative and the executive function. 
The reason for this preference was that an enlightened central 
power could more promptly and efficaciously introduce the 
policy they advocated than an assembly representing divergent 
opinions and fettered by constitutional checks and limitations. 
Turgot used the absolute power of the Crown to carry into 
effect some of his measures for the liberation of industry, though 
he ultimately failed because unsustained by the requisite force 
of character in Louis XVI. But what the physiocratic idea 
with respect to the normal method of government was appears 
from Quesnay's advice to the dauphin, that when he became 
king he should " do nothing, but let the laws rule," the laws 
having been, of course, first brought into conformity with the 
jus naturae. The partiality of the school for agriculture was in 
harmony with the sentiment in favour of " nature " and primi- 
tive simplicity which then showed itself in so many forms in 
France, especially in combination with the revolutionary spirit, 
and of which Rousseau was the most eloquent exponent. The 
members of the physiocratic group were undoubtedly men of 
thorough uprightness, and inspired with a sincere desire for the 
public good, especially for the material and moral elevation of 
the working classes. Quesnay was physician to Louis XV., and 
resided in the palace at Versailles; but in the midst of that 
corrupt court he maintained his integrity, and spoke with manly 
frankness what he believed to be the truth. And never did any 
statesman devote himself with greater singleness of purpose or 
more earnest endeavour to the service of his country than 
Turgot, who was the principal practical representative of the 
school. ' 

The physiocratic school never obtained much direct popular 
influence, even in its native country, though it strongly attracted 
many of the more gifted and earnest minds. Its members, 
writing on dry subjects in an austere and often heavy style, did 
not find acceptance with a public which demanded before all 
things charm of manner in those who addressed it. The physio- 
cratic tenets, which were in fact partly erroneous, were regarded 
by many as chimerical, and were ridiculed in the contemporary 
literature; as, for example, the impdt unique by Voltaire in his 
L'Homme aux quarante ecus, which was directed in particular 
against P. P. Mercier-Lariviere (1720-1794). It was justly 
objected to the group that they were too absolute in their view 
of things; they supposed, as Smith remarks in speaking of 
Quesnay, that the body politic could thrive only under one 
precise regime that, namely, which they recommended and 



55 



PHYSIOGNOMY 



thought their doctrines universally and immediately applicable 
in practice. They did not, as theorists, sufficiently take into 
account national diversities or different stages in social develop- 
ment; nor did they, as politicians, adequately estimate the 
impediments which ignorance, prejudice and interested opposi- 
tion present to enlightened statesmanship. 

The physiocratic system, after guiding in some degree the 
policy of the Constituent Assembly, and awakening a few echoes 
here and there in foreign countries, soon ceased to exist as a 
living power; but the good elements it comprised were not lost 
to mankind, being incorporated into the more complete construc- 
tion of Adam Smith. 

See the article on QUESNAY, with bibliography appended thereto, 
also the articles on MIRABEAU and TURGOT. Most French histories 
contain an account of the school; see especially Tocqueville, 
L'Ancien regime et la revolution, ch. iii. ; Taine, Les Origines de la 
France contemporaine, vol. i. ; R. Stourm, Les Finances de I'annen 
regime el de la revolution (1885); Droz, Histoire du rigne de Louis 
X VI. ; also L. de Lavergne, conomistes }ranc,ais du X VHP siecle ; 
H. Higgs, The Physiocrats (London, 1897, with authorities). 

PHYSIOGNOMY, the English form of the middle Greek 
<t>vaioyvuiM.a, a contraction of the classical QvffLoyvunovia 
(from <t>u<ru, nature, and yvwtuuv, an interpreter), (i) a term 
which denotes a supposed science for the " discovery of the 
disposition of the mind by the lineaments of the body " (Bacon) ; 
(2) is also used colloquially as a synonym for the face or outward 
appearance, being variously spelled by the old writers -.fysenamy 
by Lydgate, phisnomi in UdalFs translation of Erasmus on 
Mark iv., physnomie in Bale's English Votaries (i. 2. p. 44), and 
fisnomie in All's well that ends well, iv. 5 (first folio). 

Physiognomy was regarded by those who cultivated it as a 
twofold science: (i) a mode of discriminating character by the 
outward appearance, and (2) a method of divination from form 
and feature. On account of the abuses of the latter aspect of 
the subject its practice was forbidden by the English law. By 
the act of parliament 17 George II. c. 5 (1743) all persons pre- 
tending to have skill in physiognomy were deemed rogues and 
vagabonds, and were liable to be publicly whipped, or sent to 
the house of correction until next sessions. 1 The pursuit thus 
stigmatized as unlawful is one of great antiquity, and one which 
in ancient and medieval times had an extensive though now 
almost forgotten literature. It was very early noticed that the 
good and evil passions by their continual exercise stamp their 
impress on the face, and that each particular passion has its own 
expression. Thus far physiognomy is a branch of physiology. 
But in its second aspect it touched divination and astrology, of 
which Galen 2 says that the physiognomical part is the greater, 
and this aspect of the subject bulked largely in the fanciful 
literature of the middle ages. There is evidence in the earliest 
classical literature that physiognomy formed part of the most 
ancient practical philosophy. Homer was a close observer of 
expression and of appearance as correlated with character, as 
is shown by "his description of Thersites 3 and elsewhere. Hippo- 
crates, writing about 450 B.C., expresses his belief in the influence 
of environment in determining disposition, and in the reaction 
of these upon feature, 4 a view in which he is supported later 
by Trogus. Galen, in his work Hept rSiv rrjs i^vx'is iftuv, having 
discussed the nature and immortality of the soul, proceeds in 
ch. vii. to a brief study of physiognomy (ed. Kuhn iv. 795). 
In this passage he deprecates current physiognomical specula- 
tions, saying that he might criticize them but feared to waste 
time and become tedious over them. In chapter viii. he quotes 
with approbation the Hippocratic doctrine referred to above; and 

'The Act 39 Elizabeth c. 4 (1597-1598) declared "all persons 
fayning to have knowledge of Phisiognomie or like Fantastical! 
Ymaginacious " liable to " be stripped naked from the middle up- 
wards and openly whipped until his body be bloudye." This was 
modified by 13 Anne c. 26 (1713), still further by 17 George II. c. 5, 
which was re-enacted by the Vagrancy Act 1824. This last act only 
specifies palmistry. 

2 Galen. Ilepl KartucXi<reu>? irpo-rvu<TTu<6. (ed. Kuhn xix. 530). 

3 Iliad, ii. 214. See also Blackwell's Inquiry, (2nd ed. 1736), p. 330. 
A physiognomical study of the Homeric heroes is given by Malalas, 
Chronogr. ed. Dindorf, v. 105. 

4 Hfpl &ip'jiv, MOTUJ', rotrav (ed. Kuhn, i. 547). 



in a later work, Ilept KaraK\i(7os irpoyvucrTiKa. , he speaks of the 
advantage of a knowledge of physiognomy to the physician. 6 
We learn both from lamblichus 6 and Porphyry 7 that Pytha- 
goras practised the diagnosis of the characters of candidates for 
pupilage before admitting them, although he seems to have 
discredited the current physiognomy of the schools, as he 
rejected Cylo, the Crotonian, on account of his professing these 
doctrines, and thereby was brought into some trouble. 8 Plato 
also tells us that Socrates predicted the promotion of Alcibiades 
from his appearance; and Apuleius 9 speaks of Socrates recog- 
nizing the abilities of Plato at first view. On the other hand, it 
has been recorded by Cicero 10 that a certain physiognomist, 
Zopyrus, who professed to know the habits and manners of men 
from their bodies, eyes, face and forehead, characterized Socrates 
as stupid, sensual and dull (bardus), " in quo Alcibiades cachin- 
num dicitur sustulisse." Alexander Aphrodisiensis adds that, 
when his disciples laughed at the judgment, Socrates said it was 
true, for such had been his nature before the study of philosophy 
had modified it. Zopyrus is also referred to by MaximusTyrius 11 
as making his recognitions " intuitu solo." 

That one's occupation stamps its impress on the outward 
appearance was also noticed at an early period. In the curious 
poem in the Sallier papyrus (II.), written about 1800 B.C., Duan, 
son of Khertu, expatiates on the effects of divers handicrafts on 
the workmen as compared with the elevating influences of a 
literary life. 12 Josephus tells us that Caesar detected the pretence 
of the spurious Alexander by his rough hands and surface." 

The first systematic treatise which has come down to us is 
that attributed to Aristotle, 14 in which he devotes six chapters 
to the consideration of the method of study, the general signs 
of character, the particular appearances characteristic of the 
dispositions, of strength and weakness, of genius and stupidity, 
of timidity, impudence, anger, and their opposites, &c. Then 
he studies the physiognomy of the sexes, and the characters 
derived from the different features, and from colour, hair, body, 
limbs, gait and voice. He compares the varieties of mankind 
to animals, the male to the lion, the female to the leopard. The 
general character of the work may be gathered from the following 
specimen. While discussing noses, he says that those with 
thick bulbous ends belong to persons who are insensitive, 
swinish; sharp-tipped belong to the irascible, those easily 
provoked, like dogs; rounded, large, obtuse noses to the mag- 
nanimous, the lion-like; slender hooked noses to the eagle-like, 
the noble but grasping; round-tipped retrousse noses to the 
luxurious, like barndoor fowl; noses with a very slight notch 
at the root belong to the impudent, the crow-like; while snub 
noses belong to persons of luxurious habits, whom he compares 
to deer; open nostrils are signs of passion, &c. 

The practice of physiognomy is alluded to in many of the 
Greek classics." Apion speaks of the metoposcopists, who judge 
by the appearance of the face, and Cleanthes the Stoic says it is 

5 Op. cit., xix. 530. 

6 Ilfpi filou Hv8ayopu<ov Xo-yos, i. 17, 59 (Amsterdam, 1707). 

7 De vita Pythagorae, p. 16 (Amsterdam, 1707). This author tells 
us that he applied the same rule to his friends. See also Aulus 
Gellius, i. ix. 

8 lamblichus, p. 49. 

' De dogmate Platonis, i. 567, p. 34 (Leiden, 1714). 

10 Tuscul. quaestionum, iv. 37. De fato, v. 

11 Diss., xv. 157 (Cambridge, 1703). 

" Select Papyri, PI. xv., xix., and (Anastasi) ibid., cxxviii., cxxxiii. 

13 Ant., xvii. 12, 2. 

14 Authors differ in their views as to its authenticity, but Diogenes 
Laertius (v. 22) and Stobaeus (Serm. clxxxix.) both believe it to be 
genuine. The chief difficulty is the reference to a certain sophist, 
Dionysius, but this is probably an interpolation. There are phy- 
siognomic references in other writings of Aristotle (cf. Anal, pr., ii. 
c. 30; Hist, anim., i. 8, &c.) sufficient to justify the attribution of the 
treatise to him. On this, see Franz, Preface, p. vi. seq., of his Scrip- 
tores physiognomiae veteres (Leipzig, 1780). 

15 See an interesting paper on " Stretching and Yawning as Signs 
of Madness," by Professor Ridgeway (Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., i. 
201), which refers to Aristoph. Wasps, 642, with which he compares 
Plautus, Menaechmi, 279. Other references exist to physiognomy 
in Cassiodorus, Isidorus, Meletius and Nemesius, but none of any 
great importance. 



PHYSIOGNOMY 



possible to tell habits from the aspect (cf. Ecclus. xix. 29, 30). 
Polemon (c. A.D. 150) compiled a treatise (published 1534, in 
Latin) on the subject, similar in character to that of Aristotle; 
but he excels in graphic descriptions of different dispositions, 
and differs only from Aristotle in some of his animal comparisons. 
A more important work was written by a converted Jew, 
Adamantius, about A.D. 415. This is in two books, the first on 
the expression of the eye, the second on physiognomy in general, 
mostly Aristotelian in character. 

Among the Latin classical authors Juvenal, Suetonius and 
Pliny in well-known passages refer to the practice of physiog- 
nomy, and numerous allusions occur in the works of the Christian 
Fathers, especially Clement of Alexandria and Origen (for 
example, the familiar passage in his work against Celsus, i. 33).' 

While the earlier classical physiognomy was chiefly descriptive, 
the later medieval authors particularly developed the predictive 
and astrological side, their treatises often digressing into chiro- 
mancy, onychomancy, clidomancy, podoscopy, spasmatomancy, 
and other blanches of prophetic folk-lore and magic. 

Along with the medical science of the period the Arabians 
contributed to the literature of physiognomy; 'Ah' b. Ragel wrote 
a book on naevi; Rhazes (1040) devoted several chapters to it; 
and Averroes (1165) made many references to it in his De sanitate, 
p. 82 (Leiden, 1537)- Avicenna also makes some acute physiog- 
nomical remarks in his De animalibus, which was translated by 
Michael Scot about 1270. Among medieval writers Albertus 
Magnus (born 1205) devotes much of the second section of his 
De animalibus to physiognomy; but this chiefly consists of 
extracts from Aristotle, Polemon and Loxus. He does not enter 
into the animal comparisons of his predecessors, but occupies 
himself chiefly with simple descriptive physiognomy as indicative 
of character; and the same is true of the scattered references 
in the writings of Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas. The 
famous sage of Balwearie, Michael Scot, while court astrologer 
to the emperor Frederick II., wrote his treatise De hominis 
phisiognomia, much of which is physiological and of curious 
interest. It was probably composed about 1272, but not 
printed until 1477. This was the first printed work on the 
subject. Physiognomy also forms the third part of his work 
De secretis naturae. In 1335 Pietro d'Abano of Padua delivered 
in Paris a course of lectures on this subject (afterwards edited 
by Blondus, 1544), a few years before he was burned for 
heresy. 

The 1 6th century was rich in publications on physiognomy. 
The works of the classical authors before mentioned were printed, 
and other treatises were published by John de Indagine, Codes, 
Andreas Corvus, Michael Blondus, Janus Cornaro, Anselm 
Douxciel, Pompeius Ronnseus, Gratarolus, Lucas Gauricus, 
Tricassus, Cardanus, Taisnierus, Magnus Hund, Rothman, 
Johannes Padovanus, and, greatest of all, Giambattista della 
Porta. The earliest English works were anonymous: On the 
Art of Foretelling Future Events by Inspection of the Hand (1504), 
and A Pleasant Introduction to the Art of Chiromancie and 
Physiognomie (1588). Dr Thomas Hill's work, The Contempla- 
tion of Mankynde, contayning a singular Discourse after the Art 
of Physiognomie, published in 1571, is a quaintly written adapta- 
tion from the Italian authors of the day. The undated book on 
moles and naevi by " Merlin Britannicus, " after the model of 
'Ali ibn Ragel, is of about the same date. 

The development of a more accurate anatomy in the I7th 
century seems to have diminished the interest in physiognomy, 
by substituting fact for fiction; and consequently the literature, 
though as great in quantity, became less valuable in quality. 
The principal writers of this age were T. Campanella, R. Coclen- 
ius, Clement, Timpler, J. E. Gallimard, Moldenarius, Septalius, 
Saunders, C. Lebrun (a precursor of Charles Bell), Elsholz, de la 
Belliere, J. Evelyn (in the appendix to Numismata), Baldus, 
Bulwer (in his Pathomyotomid), Fuchs, Spontoni, Ghiradelli, 

1 For Scriptural allusions to physiognomy see Vecchius, Obsenia- 
tiones in diy. script. (Naples, 1641). Other classical references are 
contained in the Prooemium to the 1593 edition of the works of 
Baptista Portae. 



Chiaramonti, A. Ingegneri, Finella, De la Chambre, Zanardus, 
R. Fludd, and others of less importance. 

The 1 8th century shows a still greater decline of interest in 
physiognomy. Historians of philosophy, like J. Meursius and 
Franz, re-edited some of the classical works, and G. G. Fulleborn 
reviewed the relation of physiognomy to philosophy. Indeed, 
the only name worthy of note is that of J. K. Lavater (q.v.). 
The other authors of this century are Peuschel, Spon, Schutz, 
Wegelin, J. Pernetti, Girtanner, Grohmann, and several anony- 
mous writers, and from the anatomical side G. M. Lancisi, J. 
Parsons and Peter Camper. The popular style, good illustra- 
tions and pious spirit pervading the writings of Lavater have 
given to them a popularity they little deserved, as there is no 
system in his work, which chiefly consists of rhapsodical com- 
ments upon the several portraits. Having a happy knack of 
estimating character, especially when acquainted with the 
histories of the persons in question, the good pastor contrived 
to write a graphic and readable book, but one much inferior 
to Porta's or Aristotle's as a systematic treatise. The treatises 
of Nicolai and of Lichtenberg were written to refute his theory. 
With Lavater the descriptive school of physiognomists may be 
said to have ended, as the astrological physiognomy expired 
with de la Belliere. The few works which have since appeared, 
before the rise of the physiological school of Sir Charles Bell and 
Charles Darwin, are undeserving of notice, the development of 
phrenology having given to pure physiognomy the coup de grace 
by taking into itself whatever was likely to live of the older 
science. The writers of the igth century are Horstig, Maas, 
Rainer, Thone, A. Stohr, Sehler, Dr Rubels, Polli, Cardona, 
Mastriani, Diez, Carus, Piderit, Burgess and P. Gratiolet. 

The physiological school of physiognomy was foreshadowed 
by Parsons and founded by Sir Charles Bell, whose Essay on 
the Anatomy of the Expression, published in 1806, was the first 
scientific study of the physical manifestation of emotions in 
the terms of the muscles which produce these manifestations. 
In the later editions of this essay the thesis is elaborated with 
greater detail. Moreau's edition of Lavater, in 1807, was some- 
what along the same lines. In 1817 Dr Cross of Glasgow wrote 
his defence of a scientific physiognomy based on general physio- 
logical principles. The experiments of G. B. A. Duchenne 
(Mecanisme de la physiognomic humaine, Paris, 1862) showed 
that by the use of electricity the action of the separate muscles 
could be studied and by the aid of photography accurately 
represented. These observations confirmed by experimental 
demonstration the hypothetical conclusions of Bell. The 
machinery of expression having thus been indicated, the con- 
nexion of the physical actions and the psychical state was made 
the subject of speculation by Herbert Spencer (Psychology, 1855). 
These speculations were reduced to a system by Darwin (Expres- 
sion of Emotions, 1872), who formulated and illustrated the 
following as fundamental physiognomical principles: 

(i) Certain complex acts are of direct or indirect service, under 
certain conditions of the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain 
sensations or desires; and whenever the same states of mind are 
induced the same sets of actions tend to be performed, even when 
they have ceased to be of use. (2) When a directly opposite state 
of mind is induced to one with which a definite action is correlated, 
there is a strong and involuntary tendency to perform a reverse 
action. (3) When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force 
is generated in excess, and is transmitted in definite directions, 
depending on the connexions of nerve-cells and on habit. 

The last of these propositions is adversely criticized by P. 
Mantegazza as a truism, but it may be allowed to stand with the 
qualification that we are ignorant concerning the nature of the 
influence called " nerve-force." It follows from these proposi- 
tions that the expression of emotion is, for the most part, not 
under control of the will, and that those striped muscles are the 
most expressive which are the least voluntary. To the fore- 
going may be added the following three additional propositions, 
so as to form a more complete expression of a physiognomical 
philosophy: 

(4) Certain muscles concerned in producing these skin-folds be- 
come strengthened by habitual action, and when the skin diminishes 



552 



PHYSIOLOGUS 



in elasticity and fulness with advancing age, the wrinkles at 
right angles to the course of the muscular fibres become permanent. 
(O To some extent habitual muscular action of this kind may, by 
affecting local nutrition, alter the contour of such bones and cartilages 
as are related to the muscles of expression. (6) If the mental dis- 
position and proneness to action are inherited by children from their 
parents, it may be that the facility in, and disposition towards, 
certain forms of expression are in like manner matters of heredity. 

Illustrations of these theoretic propositions are to be found in 
the works of Bell, Duchenne and Darwin, and in the later publi- 
cations of TheodorPiderH.,MimikeundPhysiognomik (1886) and 
Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression (1890), to which the 
student may be referred for further information. 

For information on artistic anatomy as applied to physiognomy 
see the catalogue of sixty-two authors by Ludwig Choulant, Ge- 
schichte und Bibliographic der anatomischen Abbildung, &c. (Leipzig, 
1852), and the works of the authors enumerated above, especially 
those of Aristotle, Franz, Porta, Cardan, Corvus and Bulwer. I- or 
physiognomy of disease, besides the usual medical handbooks, see 
Cabuchet, Essai sur V expression de la face dans les maladies (Pans, 
1801); Mantegazza, Physiology of Pain (1893), and Polli, Saggw 
di fisiognomonia e potognomonia (1837). For ethnological physi- 
ognomy, see amongst older authors Gratarolus, and amongst moderns 
the writers cited in the various textbooks on anthropology, especially 
Schadow, Physionomies nationales (1835) and Park Harrison, Journ. 
Anthrop. Inst. (1883). The study of the physical characteristics of 
criminals is discussed at great length by Lombroso, V Uomo dehn- 
quente (1897); Ferri, L'Omicidio (1895); von Baer, Der Verbrecher 
(1893) Laurent, Les Habitues des prisons (1890) ; and Havelock Ellis, 
The Criminal (1901). (A. MA.) 

PHYSIOLOGUS, the title usually given to a collection of some 
fifty Christian allegories much read in the middle ages, and still 
existing in several forms and in about a dozen Eastern and 
Western languages. As nearly all its imagery is taken from the 
animal world, it is also known as the Bestiary. There can be 
hardly a doubt about the time and general circumstances of its 
origin. Christian teachers, especially those who had a leaning 
towards Gnostic speculations, took an interest in natural history, 
partly because of certain passages of Scripture that they wanted 
to explain, and partly on account of the divine revelation in the 
book of nature, of which also it was man's sacred duty to take 
proper advantage. Both lines of study were readily combined 
by applying to the interpretation of descriptions of natural 
objects the allegorical method adopted for the interpretation of 
Biblical texts. Now the early Christian centuries were anything 
but a period of scientific research. Rhetorical accomplishments 
were considered to be the chief object of a liberal education, and 
to this end every kind of learning was made subservient. Instead 
of reading Aristotle and other naturalists, people went for 
information to commonplace books like those of Aelian, in which 
scraps of folk-lore, travellers' tales and fragments of misappre- 
hended science were set forth in an elegant style. Theological 
writers were not in the least prepared to question the worth of 
the marvellous descriptions of creatures that were current in 
the schools on the faith of authorities vaguely known as " the 
history of animals," " the naturalists," and " the naturalist " in 
the singular number (^ucrioXityos). 1 So they took their notions 
of strange beasts and other marvels of the visible world on 
trust and did their best to make them available for religious 
instruction. In some measure we find this practice adopted by 
more than one of the Fathers, but it was the Alexandrian school, 
with its pronounced taste for symbolism, that made the most of 
it. Clement himself had declared that natural lore, as taught 
in the course of higher Christian education according to the 
canon of truth, ought to proceed from " cosmogony " to " the 
theological idea," 2 and even in the little that is left of the works 
of Origen we have two instances of the proceeding in question. 
And yet the fact that these reappear in the Physiologus would 
not suffice to stamp the work as a series of extracts from Alex- 
andrian writings, as parallels of the same kind can be adduced 

'Origen, Sel. in Jerem. xvii. n, b> T$ irtpl ftfwr laroplt/.; 
Epiphan. Adv. haer. i. 3, p. 274 (ed. D. Petav.), &s <j>aaiv ol 
<t>vau>\6yoi; Origen, Horn, xvii., in Gen. xliv. 9, "nam physiologus 
de catulo leonis scribit." 

2 Strom., iv. p: 564 (ed. Potter), ^ lovv KO.T& r&v TTJS i\rif)tias Kavbva. 
yvuKrTiicfjs irapa56<reatt </>ucrioAo'yta, /laXXoP 5 (iroirTfia, kK TOV rtpi 
Koa/M>yoviat <jpT7|7-<u Xo7ou, tvOfvbi laiafialvovaa liri T& SeoXo'yuii' eI5os. 



from Epiphanius (loc. cit.) and Ephraem Syrus (Opp. Syr. ii. 
17, 130). Father Cahier would even trace the book to Tatian, 
and it is true that that heresiarch mentions a writing of his own 
upon animals. Still, the context in which the quotation occurs 
makes it evident that the subject-matter was not the nature of 
particular species nor the spiritual lessons to be drawn therefrom, 
but rather the place occupied by animal beings in the system of 
creation. On the other hand, .the opinion of Cardinal Pitra, 
who referred the Physiologus to the more orthodox though 
somewhat peculiar teaching of the Alexandrians, is fully borne 
out by a close examination of the irregularities of doctrine 
pointed out in the Physiologus by Cahier, all of which are to be 
met with in Origen. The technical words by which the process 
of allegorizing is designated in the Physiologus, like ^pjuijveia, 
0opia, &vafwjri, dXXrryopia, are familiar to the students 
of Alexandrian exegesis. It has, moreover, been remarked 
that almost all the animals mentioned were at home in the 
Egypt of those days, or at least, like the elephant, were to be seen 
there occasionally, whereas the structure of the hedgehog, for 
instance, is explained by a reference to the sea-porcupine, better 
known to fish-buyers on the Mediterranean. The fables of the 
phoenix and of the conduct of the wild ass and the ape at the 
time of the equinox owe their origin to astronomical symbols 
belonging to the Nile country. 3 In both chapters an Egyptian 
month is named, and elsewhere the antelope bears its Coptic 
name of " antholops." 

That the substance of the Physiologus was borrowed from 
commentaries on Scripture 4 is confirmed by many of the sec- 
tions opening with a text, followed up by some such formula as 
" but the Physiologus says." When zoological records failed, 
Egypto-Hellenic ingenuity was never at a loss for a fanciful 
invention distilled from the text itself, but which to succeeding 
copyists appeared as part of the teaching of the original Physio- 
logus. As a typical instance we may take the chapter on the 
ant-lion not the insect, but an imaginary creature suggested 
by Job. iv. n. The exceptional Hebrew for a lion (layish] 
appeared to the Septuagint translators to call for a special 
rendering, and as there was said to exist on the Arabian coast 
a lion-like animal called " myrmex " (see Strabo xvi. 774, 
Aelian, N.A., vii. 47) they ventured to give the compound noun 
" myrmekoleon." After so many years the commentators had 
lost the key to this unusual term, and only knew that in common 
Greek " myrmex " meant an ant. So the text " the myrme- 
koleon hath perished for that he had no nourishment " set them 
pondering, and others reproduced their meditations, with the 
following result: "The Physiologus relates about the ant-lion: 
his father hath the shape of a lion, his mother that of an ant; 
the father liveth upon flesh, and the mother upon herbs. And 
these bring forth the ant-lion, a compound of both, and in part 
like to either, for his fore part is that of a lion, and his hind part 
like that of an ant. Being thus composed, he is neither able 
to eat flesh like his father, nor herbs like his mother; therefore 
he perisheth from inanition "; the moral follows. 

At a later period, when the Church had learnt to look with 
suspicion upon devotional books likely to provoke the scoffing 
of some and lead others into heresy, a work of this kind could 
hardly meet with her approval. A synod of Pope Gelasius, held 
in 496, passed censure, among others, on the " Liber Physiologus, 
qui ab haereticis conscriptus est et B. Ambrosii nomine signatus, 
apocryphus," and evidence has even been offered that a similar 
sentence was pronounced a century before. Still, in spite of 
such measures, the Physiologus, like the Church History of 
Eusebius or the Pastor of Hermas, continued to be read with 
general interest, and even Gregory the Great did not disdain 
to allude to it on occasion. Yet the Oriental versions, which 
had certainly nothing to do with the Church of Rome, show that 
there was no systematic revision made according to the catholic 

* Cp. Leemans on Horapollo i. 16, 34. 

4 Including the Apocrypha. See the Icelandic account of the 
elephant, also a decidedly Alexandrian fragment upon the nkpym, 
founded upon 4 Mace. i. 3, which has got into the scholia upon the 
Odyssey xviii. 2 (ii. 533, cd. Dindorf, Oxford, 1855). 



PHYSIOLOGUS 



553 



standard of doctrine. The book remained essentially the same, 
albeit great liberties were taken with its details and outward 
form. There must have been many imperfect copies in circula- 
tion, from which people transcribed such sections as they found 
or chose, and afterwards completed their MS. as occasion served. 
Some even rearranged the contents according to the alphabet 
or to zoological affinity. So little was the collection considered 
as a literary work with a definite text that every one assumed a 
right to abridge or enlarge, to insert ideas of his own, or fresh 
scriptural quotations; nor were the scribes and translators by 
any means scrupulous about the names of natural objects, and 
even the passages from Holy Writ. Physiologus had been 
abandoned by scholars, and left to take its chance among the 
tales and traditions of the uneducated mass. Nevertheless, or 
rather for this very reason, its symbols found their way into 
the rising literature of the vulgar tongues, and helped to quicken 
the fancy of the artists employed upon church buildings and 
furniture. 

The history of the Physiologus has become entwined from the 
beginning with that of the commentaries on the account of 
creation in Genesis. The principal production of this kind in 
our possession is the Hexaemeron of Basil, which contains several 
passages very like those of the Physiologus. For instance, in 
the seventh homily the fable of the nuptials of the viper and the 
conger-eel, known already to Aelian and Oppian, and proceeding 
from a curious misreading of Aristotle (Hist. An. v. 4, 540 b, 
Bekk.), serves to point more than one moral. Notwithstanding 
the difference in theology, passages of this kind could not but be 
welcome to the admirers of the Alexandrian allegories. In fact 
a medley from both Basil and the Physiologus exists under the 
title of the Hexaemeron of Eustathius; some copies of the first 
bear as a title Ilepl <u(TioXo7iaj, and in a Milan MS. the 
" morals " of the Physiologus are ascribed to Basil. The Leyden 
Syriac is supplemented with literal extracts from the latter, and 
the whole is presented as his work. Other copies give the 
names of Gregory Theologus, Epiphanius, Chrysostom and 
Isidore. 

As far as can be judged, the emblems of the original Physio- 
logus were the following: (i)the lion (footprints rubbed out with 
tail; sleeps with eyes open; cubs receive life only three days 
after birth by their father's breath) ; (2) the sun-lizard (restores 
its sight by looking at the sun); (3) the charadrius (Deut. xiv. 
16; presages recovery or death of patients); (4) the pelican 
(recalls its young to life by its own blood) ; (5) the owl (or nykti- 
korax; loves darkness and solitude); (6) the eagle (renews its 
youth by sunlight and bathing in a fountain); (7) the phoenix 
(revives from fire) ; (8) the hoopoe (redeems its parents from the 
ills of old age) ; (9) the wild ass (suffers no male besides itself) ; 
(10) the viper (born at the cost of both its parents' death); (n) 
the serpent (sheds its skin; puts aside its venom before drinking; 
is afraid of man in a state of nudity; hides its head and abandons 
the rest of its body) 5(12) the ant (orderly and laborious; prevents 
stored grain from germinating; distinguishes wheat from barley 
on the stalk); (13) the sirens and onocentaurs (Isa. xiii. 21, 22; 
compound creatures); (14) the hedgehog (pricks grapes upon 
its quills); (15) the fox (catches birds by simulating death); 
(16) the panther (spotted skin; enmity to the dragon; sleeps for 
three days after meals; allures its prey by sweet odour); (17) the 
sea-tortoise (or aspidochelone; mistaken by sailors for an island) ; 
(18) the partridge (hatches eggs of other birds); (19) the vulture 
(assisted in birth by a stone with loose kernel); (20) the ant-lion 
(able neither to take the one food nor to digest the other); 
(21) the weasel (conceives by the mouth and brings forth by the 
ear); (22) the unicorn (caught only by a virgin); (23) the beaver 
(gives up its testes when pursued); (24) the hyaena (a her- 
maphrodite) ; (25) the otter (enhydris; enters the crocodile's mouth 
to kill it); (26) the ichneumon (covers itself with mud to kill 
the dragon; another version of No. 25); (27) the crow (takes but 
one consort in its life); (28) the turtle-dove( same nature as No. 
2 7); ( 2 9) tne ir g (either living on land and killed by rain, or in 
the water without ever seeing the sun) ; (30) the stag (destroys 
its enemy the serpent); (31) the salamander (quenches fire); 



(32) the diamond (powerful against all danger); (33) the swallow 
(brings forth but once; misreading of Aristotle, Hist. An. v. 13); 
(34) the tree called peridexion (protects pigeons from the serpent 
by its shadow); (35) the pigeons (of several colours; led by one 
of them, which is of apurple or golden colour); (36) theantelope 
(or hydrippus; caught by its horns in the thicket); (37) the fire- 
flints (of two sexes; combine to produce fire); (38) the magnet 
(adheres to iron) ; (39) the saw-fish (sails in company with ships) ; 
(40) the ibis (fishes only along the shore); (41) the ibex (descries 
a hunter from afar); (42) the diamond again (read " carbuncle "; 
found only by night) ; (43) the elephant (conceives after partaking 
of mandrake; brings forth in the water; the young protected 
from the serpent by the father; when fallen is lifted up only by a 
certain small individual of its own kind); (44) the agate (em- 
ployed in pearl-fishing); (45) the wild ass and ape (mark the 
equinox) ; (46) the Indian stone (relieves patients of the dropsy) ; 
(47) the heron (touches no dead body, and keeps to one dwelling- 
place); (48) the sycamore (or wild fig; grubs living inside the 
fruit and coming out) ; (49) the ostrich (devours all sorts of things; 
forgetful of its own eggs). Besides these, or part of them, 
certain copies contain sections of unknown origin about the bee, 
the stork, the tiger, the woodpecker, the spider and the wild 
boar. 

The Greek text of the Physiologus exists only in late MSS., and 
has to be corrected from the translations. In Syriac we have a full 
copy in a 12th-century Leyden MS., published in J. P. N. Land's 
Anecdota syriaca; thirty-two chapters with the " morals" left out 
in a very late Vatican copy, published by Tychsen; and about the 
same number in a late MS. of the British Museum (Add. 25878). 
In Armenian Pitra gave some thirty-two chapters from a Paris MS. 
(l3th century). The Aethiopic exists both in London and Paris, 
and was printed at Leipzig by Dr Hommel in 1877. In Arabic 
we have fragments at Paris, of which Renan translated a specimen 
for the Spicilegium solesmense, and another version of thirty-seven 
chapters at Leiden, probably the work of a monk at Jerusalem, 
which Land translated and printed with the Syriac. The Latin 
MSS. of Bern are, after the Vatican glossary of Ansileubus, the oldest 
of which we know; there are others in several libraries, and printed 
editions by Mai, Heider and Cahier. Besides these, a few fragments 
of an old 'abridgment occur in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome's works 
(vol. xi. col. 218). A metrical Physiologus of but twelve chapters 
is the work of Theobaldus, probably abbot of Monte Cassino (A.D. 
1022-1035). From this was imitated the Old-English fragment 
printed by Th. Wright, and afterwards by Maetzner; also the Old- 
French Sensuyl le bestiaire d'amours. The prose Physiologus was 
done into Old High German before 1000, and afterwards into rhyme 
in the same idiom; since Von der Hagen (1824) its various forms 
have found careful editors among the leading Germanists. The 
Icelandic, in a Copenhagen MS. of the I3th century, was printed by 
Professor Th. Mobius in his Anale.cta norroena (2nd ed., 1877); at 
the same time he gave it in German in Dr Hommel's Aethiopic 
publication. Some Anglo-Saxon metrical fragments are to be 
found in Grein's Bibliothek, vol. i. The Provencal (c. 1250), pub- 
lished in Bartsch's Chrestomathie proven^ale, omits the "morals," 
but is remarkable for its peculiarities of form. Before this there 
had been translations into French dialects, as by Philippe de Thaun 
(1121)., by Guillaume, " clerc de Normandie," also, about the same 
period, by Pierre, a clergyman of Picardy. All the Old-French 
materials have not yet been thoroughly examined, and it is far 
from improbable that some versions of the book either remain to 
be detected or are now lost past recovery. A full account of the 
history of the Physiologus should also embrace the subjects taken 
from it in the productions of Christian art, the parodies suggested 
by the original work, e.g. the Bestiaire d'amour by Richard de 
Fournival, and finally the traces left by it upon the encyclopaedical 
and literary work of the later middle ages. 

Nearly all the information now obtainable is to be found in the 
following works and such as are there quoted: 5. Epiphanius ad 
physiologum, ed. Ponce de Leon (with woodcuts) (Rome, 1587); 
another edition, with copper-plates (Antwerp, 1588); S.Eustathii in 
hexahemeron commentarius, ed. Leo Allatius (Lyons, 1629; cf. H. 
van Herwerden, Exercitt. Critt., pp. 180-182, Hague, 1862); Physio- 




, ________ _ ..... ______ 

Cahier and Martin, Melanges d'archeologie, &c. ii. 85 seq 



, 

(Paris, 1851), iii. 203 seq. (1853), iv. 55 seq. (1856); Cahier, Nouveaux 
melanges (1874), p. 106 seq.; J. B. Pitra, Spicilegium solesmense 111. 
xlvii. seq., 338 seq., 416, 535 (Paris, 1855) ; Maetzner, Altengl. Sprach- 
proben (Berlin, 1867), vol. i. pt. i. p. 55 seq.; J. Victor Carus, Cesch. 
der Zoologie (Munich, 1872), p. 109 seq.; J. P. N. Land, Anecdota 
syriaca (Leiden, 1874), iv. 31 seq., 115 seq., and in Verslagen 
en Mededeelingen der kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen, 2nd series, 
vol. iv. (Amsterdam, 1874); Mobius and Honvnel in their 



554 



PHYSIOLOGY 



publications quoted above. See also Lauchert, Geschicbte des 
Physiologus (Strassburg, 1889) and E. Peters, Der gnechische 
Physiologus und seine orientalischen Ubersetzungen (Berlin, 1898). 



PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. <u<w, nature, and Xo-yos, discourse), 
the science or theory of the properties, processes and functions 
of living organisms. Physiology is distinguished from anatomy 
as dealing specifically with the functions of an organism, rather 
than its structure. The two main branches of the science are 
animal and plant (vegetable) physiology, and in animal physi- 
ology that of man stands out as primarily associated with the 
word. 

Ever since men began to take a scientific interest in the 
problems of life two distinct rival explanatory principles of vital 
phenomena have claimed attention: a natural and 
a m y stical Principle. The first outcome of the 
scientific attempt to explain vital phenomena after 
the natural method and by a unitary principle was the doctrine 
of the Pneuma, held by the followers of Hippocrates, which 
found its clearest expression in Galen's system. According to 
this doctrine, the origin of all vital phenomena was a very fine 
substance, the Pneuma, which was supposed to exist in atmo- 
spheric air, to be inhaled into the lungs of man, and thus through 
the blood to reach all the parts of the body, where it produced 
vital phenomena. This doctrine an attempt to explain the 
phenomena of life which was not altogether natural, but even 
materialistic was accepted by the middle ages together with 
Galen's system. With its translation into the Latin spiritus, 
however, the conception of the Pneuma lost its original force. 
The spiritus animales of the middle ages developed ere long into 
mystical powers, the result being the explanation of vital 
phenomena by a supernatural theory. Not until the scientific 
renaissance of the i6th and lyth centuries did views again 
undergo a change. After the establishment of a scientific 
method in physiology by William Harvey, and the development 
of Descartes' mechanical system of regarding living bodies, the 
natural explanation of vital phenomena once more universally 
found favour. Two schools arose, which endeavoured by 
dissimilar methods to find a mechanical explanation of vital 
phenomena: the iatrophysical, originating with the gifted and 
versatile Borelli, and the ialrochemical, founded by the Dutch- 
man, F. de la Boe (Sylvius). But when both chemical and 
physical methods of explanation failed at such problems as, for 
instance, irritability and evolution, another change in opinion 
took place. By degrees there emerged once more the tendency 
to explain vital phenomena by mystical means, finding expression 
in the Animism of Stahl, to quote an example; and in the second 
half of the i8th century Vitalism, originating in France, began 
its victorious march throughout the whole scientific world. 
Again the opinion came to be entertained that the cause of vital 
phenomena was a mystical power (force hypermecanique) that 
" vital force " which, neither physical nor chemical in its nature, 
was held to be active in living organisms only. Vitalism 
continued to be the ruling idea in physiology until about the 
middle of the igth century, and its supremacy was only gradu- 
ally overthrown by the great discoveries in natural science of 
that century. The chemical discoveries resulting from Wohler's 
synthesis of urea first showed that typical products of the animal 
body, the production of which had hitherto been supposed to be 
solely the result of the operation of vital force, could be obtained 
artificially by purely chemical methods. Then above all came 
the discovery of the law of the Conservation of Energy by Robert 
Mayer (1814-1878) and Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), 
and its application to the living organism by Mayer, Helmholtz, 
Pierre Louis Dulong (1785-1838), Edward Frankland, Max 
Rubner and others, to prove that the manifestations of energy 
by the organism are simply the result of the quantity of potential 
energy received into the body by means of food. Finally, the 
stupendous results arrived at by Darwin and the establishment 
of the fundamental law of " biogenesis " by Ernst Haeckel, 
prepared the way for a natural explanation of the enigma of 
evolution and structure of organisms. Thus by the second 
half of the igth century the doctrine of vital force was definitely 



and finally overthrown to make way for the triumph of the 
natural method of explaining vital phenomena, which down to 
the present time has continued to spread and flourish with an 
unparalleled fertility. It would, it is true, appear as if in our 
day, after the lapse of half a century, mystical tendencies were 
again disposed to crop up in the investigation of life. Here and 
there is heard once more the watchword of Vitalism. But all 
the so-called neo-vilalistic efforts such as those of Alexander von 
Bunge (1803-1890), Georg Evon Rindfleisch (b. 1835), Johannes 
Reinke (b. 1849) and others have nothing to do with the old 
vitalism. They originate solely in a widespread confusion with 
regard to the boundaries of natural science, their principal 
tendency being to amalgamate psychological and speculative 
questions with problems of purely natural science. In the face 
of all these efforts, which by their unfortunate designations 
of Vitalism and Neo-vitalism give rise to entirely false concep- 
tions, and which by their intermingling of psychological ques- 
tions and questions of natural science have led to mere confusion 
in research, it is essential that natural philosophy should be 
called upon to realize its own limits, and above all clearly to 
understand that the sole concern of physical science is the inves- 
tigation of the phenomena of the material world. Physiology, 
as the doctrine of life, must therefore confine itself to the material 
vital phenomena of organisms. It is self-evident, however, that 
only such laws as govern' the material world will be found 
governing material vital phenomena the laws, that is, which 
have hitherto been brought to their most exact and most logical 
development by physics and chemistry, or, more generally 
speaking, by mechanics. The explanatory principles of vital 
phenomena must therefore be identical with those of inorganic 
nature that is, with the principles of mechanics. 

The investigation of vital phenomena in this sense requires, 
in the first place, an exact knowledge of the substratum in which 
these phenomena are manifested, just as in chemistry ultimate 
and physics a thorough knowledge of the composition Elements of 
of the material world is a necessary premise to the t//e - 
investigation of the phenomena of inorganic nature. The 
knowledge of the composition and structure of organisms has in 
the course of the scientific development of anatomy attained 
to an ever-increasing minuteness of detail, without having 
as yet reached a definite limit. The last important step in this 
direction was the discovery by Matthias Jakob Schleiden 
(1804-1881) and Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) that all organ- 
isms are built up of elementary living structural components, 
namely of cells (see CYTOLOGY). The details of the anatomical 
construction of organisms are described under various appro- 
priate headings, and a general guide to these will be found under 
ANATOMY and ZOOLOGY. We would here merely point out that 
a cell is the simplest particle of living substance which appears 
to be permanently capable of life. Different elements are 
essential, however, to the existence of the cell two, at least, so 
far as has hitherto been discovered the protoplasm and the 
nucleus. It must at present be regarded as at least very 
doubtful whether the centrosome, which in recent times it has 
been possible to demonstrate as existing in very many cells, 
and which appears sometimes in the protoplasm, sometimes in 
the nucleus, is a general and third independent cell-constituent. 
On the other hand, the number of special constituent parts which 
appear in various cell-forms is very large. A question which 
has long been discussed, and which has received special and 
animated attention, is that with regard to the finer structure 
of the cells with regard, that is, to the protoplasm and the 
nucleus lying in it. Views on this subject have diverged very 
widely, and several totally diverse theories have been opposed 
to one another. One theory maintains that the living cell- 
substance has a reticular structure; another, that it is fibrillous. 
According to a third theory, the essence of the construction of 
the cell-substance lies in the granules which it contains; and 
according to a fourth, it lies in the ground-substance in which 
these granules are embedded. One view holds this ground 
substance to be homogeneous, another regards it as possessing 
a fine foam-structure. It may at present be regarded as 



PHYSIOLOGY 



555 



incontrovertible that living substance is more or less fluid, and 
that there does not exist any general structure for all cell-forms. 
But in some special cases all the theories which have been quoted 
are to a certain extent correct. In different cells there are 
reticular, fibrillous and granular differentiations respectively, 
and differentiations in foam-structure; in many cells, however, 
the protoplasm appears to be beyond doubt homogeneous and 
without a distinct structure, and only under certain conditions 
to assume changing structures. But the fact which is of most 
importance for the right understanding of vital phenomena 
is that the cell-substance is always more or less fluid, for only 
in a fluid substratum can such intense chemical processes be 
enacted as are to be found in every living cell. 

Where the analytical powers of the microscope in anatomy 
can go no farther, chemical analysis of the composition of the 
cell steps in. By its means the discovery is made that there is 
no elementary difference between organic and inorganic nature, 
for only such chemical elements as are known to exist in the 
inorganic world are found in the organic. On the other hand, 
however, the living cell-substance possesses chemical compounds 
which find analogues nowhere in inorganic nature. The charac- 
teristic organic substances which are present in every cell are 
proteids and proteid-compounds. Besides these there occur, 
widely disseminated, carbohydrates, fats and other organic 
substances, which partly originate hi the decomposition of 
proteids and their compounds, and are partly used for their 
construction. Lastly, there are in addition great quantities of 
water and some inorganic salts. 

Such are the structure and composition of the substratum 
in which vital phenomena play their part. When we consider 
General vital phenomena themselves in the various living 
Phenomeoa organisms in protista, plants, animals, man there 
itLife. appears an incalculable diversity of phenomena. 
Here, however, as in the case of the structure of organisms, 
we have to analyse and to penetrate ever farther and deeper 
till we reach the fundamental phenomena. We then find 
that the great variety of vital manifestations may be traced 
back to a few fundamental general groups, which are precisely 
the same groups of phenomena as those to be observed in in- 
organic nature. All the processes that take place in the organic 
world may be regarded from the three different standpoints of 
their changes in substance, in energy and in form ; for substance, 
energy and form are all necessary to our conception of matter. 
Accordingly, the general elementary vital phenomena likewise 
fall into three groups metabolism, the mechanism of energy, 
and the assumption of form. Every cell, so long as it is living, 
takes in certain substances from its environment, submits them 
to chemical transformation in its interior, and gives out other 
substances. This metabolism is manifested in several special 
functions in nutrition and digestion, respiration and circu- 
lation, secretion and excretion. The essence of the whole 
process is the fact that while out of these ingested stuffs 
living substance is always again being formed by the living 
substance which already exists, it is itself continually under- 
going decomposition, and the products of this decomposition 
are what the cell gives off again to the outside. With 
metabolism, however, there is inseparably associated a 
transformation of energy. These substances taken in by 
the cell contain a large quantity of potential energy, which 
is transformed into kinetic energy. This has for its result the 
manifold activities of the organism, more especially motion, heat, 
electricity and light. Finally, the chemical transformations in 
living substance may also manifest themselves outwardly in 
changes of form, as is the case generally in the matter of growth, 
reproduction and development. The three general elementary 
groups of vital phenomena are therefore in reality merely the 
expression of the various aspects of one and the same process 
of the actual vital process itself. The ultimate object 
of all physiology is to discover what this vital process is that 
is to say, what is the exact cause of these manifold vital 
phenomena a goal from which it is at the present day still very 
remote. 



As every physical and chemical phenomenon of inorganic 
nature occurs only under distinct conditions, so vital phenomena 
are also dependent upon certain conditions of life. 
Every living body, every living cell, requires food, 
water, oxygen, and, further, a certain temperature 
and a certain pressure in its environment. These are the general 
conditions of life. But the special conditions on which depends 
the continued existence of the individual forms of organism are as 
numerous as the forms of organisms themselves. Now, just as 
the physicist or chemist varies those conditions under which a 
phenomenon occurs in order to get at its causes, so does the 
physiologist try to experiment with vital phenomena, altering 
the vital conditions: and testing the changes which are thereby 
produced. The great importance of this method consists in 
the power it gives the experimenter of analysing vital phenomena 
systematically from definite points of view. Every change in 
its normal vital conditions which produces any effect whatsoever 
upon an organism is termed a stimulus. This is the only general 
definition we have for a conception which is of such vast impor- 
tance to physiology. According to it, experimental physiology 
is entirely a physiology of stimuli. It further follows from this 
conception of stimulation that there must be an enormous 
multiplicity of stimuli, since each particular vital condition may 
be subjected to some change capable of acting upon it as a 
stimulus. But, besides this, other factors may be brought to 
bear upon organisms which have absolutely no place among 
their vital conditions: for instance, many chemical reagents and 
electric currents. These influences come under the general 
definition of stimulus, because they likewise imply a change 
in the conditions under which the organism lives. From their 
qualitative nature stimuli are distinguished as chemical, thermal, 
photic, mechanical and electrical. Each of these several 
varieties may, however, be applied quantitatively in various 
degrees of intensity, and may in consequence produce quite 
different results. This opens up to experimental physiology a 
vast field of research. But the physiology of stimulation is 
not only of the greatest value as a means of research: its 
importance is much increased by the fact that in nature itself 
stimuli are everywhere and constantly acting upon the 
organism and its parts. Hence the investigation of their 
action comes to be not merely a means, but a direct end of 
research. 

Although it is not at present possible to define all the laws that 
govern stimulation, on the one hand because the number of 
stimulating effects known to us in the whole organic 
world is as yet too limited, and on the other because stimuli. 
those already known have not yet been thoroughly 
analysed, yet it is within our power to classify stimula- 
ting effects according to their various characteristics, and 
to ascertain a few facts concerning their general and funda- 
mental conformity to law. The first fact, apparent from 
a glance at a great many of the various forms of stimulation, 
is that all their effects are manifested in either a quanti- 
tative or a qualitative alteration of the characteristic vital 
phenomena of each living object. The quantitative is the 
usual mode of action of stimuli. It is generally found that a 
stimulus either increases or diminishes the intensity of vital 
phenomena. In the first case the effect is one of excitation; in 
the second of depression. It is the more important to bear in 
mind this twofold operation of stimuli, owing to the fact that 
in former times physiologists were very apt to conceive of 
excitation and stimulation as identical. It is now, however, an 
undisputed fact that depression may also occur as a typical effect 
of stimulation. This is most apparent in cases where the same 
stimulus that produces excitation may on being applied for a 
longer period and with greater intensity, produce depression. 
Thus narcotics (alcohol, ether, chloroform, morphia, &c.) on 
certain forms of living substance produce the phenomena of 
excitation when their action is weak, whereas when it is stronger 
they produce complete depression. Thus, likewise, temperature 
stimuli act differently upon vital phenomena according to the 
degree of temperature: very low temperatures depressing, 



556 



PHYSIOLOGY 



medium temperatures exciting with increasing intensity, and 
higher temperatures from a certain height upwards again de- 
pressing. The effects of stimulation are not, however, always 
manifested in merely quantitative changes of the normal vital 
phenomena. Sometimes, especially in the case of long uninter- 
rupted and chronic stimuli, stimulation is found gradually to 
produce phenomena which are apparently quite foreign to the 
normal vital phenomena of the cell in question. Such qualitative 
alterations of normal vital phenomena are perceptible chiefly in 
chronic maladies in the cells of different organs (the heart, liver, 
kidneys, spleen, &c.), in which the vital conditions become 
gradually more and more modified by the cause of the malady. 
To this category pertain all the so-called chronic processes of 
degeneration which in pathology are known as fatty degeneration, 
mucous degeneration, amyloid degeneration, and so forth. The 
characteristic element in all these processes is that the normal 
metabolism is diverted into a wrong channel by the altered vital 
conditions of the cells of the organ affected, so that substances 
are formed and accumulated in the cell which are entirely foreign 
to its normal life. But this class of stimulation is still very 
obscure as regards causes and inner processes, and it is within 
the range of possibility that the ultimate cause of the qualitative 
changes in the normal metabolism is to be found simply in the 
processes of excitation and depression which chronic stimulation 
produces in separate parts of the metabolism. Thus, at least 
with regard to fat-metamorphosis (fatty degeneration), it is 
highly probable that fat is deposited in the protoplasm simply 
because, owing to an inadequate supply of oxygen, it cannot, 
when it originates, be oxidized in the same proportion as it is 
formed, whereas in the normal cell all fat which originates in 
metabolism is consumed as soon as it is produced. According 
to this conception, therefore, fatty degeneration is attributable 
primarily to a depression of the processes of oxidation in the cell. 
If we may accept this view as correct with regard to the other 
metamorphic processes also, the qualitative changes in vital 
phenomena under the influence of stimuli would after all depend 
simply upon the excitation or depression of the constituent parts 
of the vital process, and, according to such a view, all stimuli 
would act primarily only as exciting or as depressing agents upon 
the normal process of life. 

In accordance with the three groups into which general vital 
phenomena are divided, it follows as a matter of course that the 
excitation or depression produced by a stimulus can manifest 
itself in the cell's metabolism, assumption of form, and mani- 
festation of energy. The effects of excitation upon the produc- 
tion of energy are the most striking, and were therefore in former 
times frequently thought to have a claim par excellence to rank 
as stimulating effects. These reactions attract most attention 
in cases where the production of energy is proportionately very 
great as with muscle, for instance, which is made to twitch and 
perform work by a feeble stimulus. Processes of discharge 
(Auslosungsvorgange), however, lie at the bottom of cases like 
these. Potential chemical energy, which is stored up in a con- 
siderable quantity in living substance, is converted by the 
impulse of the stimulus into kinetic energy. Therefore the 
amount of the effect of stimulation that is to say, the quantity 
of work performed bears no proportion whatever to the amount 
of energy acting as a stimulus upon the muscle. The amount 
of energy thus acting may be very small as contrasted with an 
enormous production of energy on the part of the living sub- 
stance. It will not do to make generalizations, however, with 
regard to this proportion, as was frequently done in former 
times. All processes of stimulation are not processes of discharge. 
The influence of many stimuli, as has been observed, consists 
far more in depression than in excitation, so that in certain 
circumstances a stimulus actually diminishes the normal 
liberation of energy. There is therefore no general law as to 
the proportion which the amount of energy acting as a stimulus 
upon living substance bears to the amount of energy liberated. 

Among special varieties of stimulation there is one class of 
stimuli which has attracted particular attention namely, those 
which act unilaterally upon free-moving organisms. It is 



principally with the lowest forms of life that we have here to do 
unicellular protista and free-living cells in the bodies of higher 
organisms (sp'erm-cells, leucocytes, &c.). When from Directive 
one direction a stimulus be it chemical, thermal, stimuUt- 
photic, electrical, or of any other kind acts upon a a - 
these organisms in their medium, they are impelled to move in a 
course bearing a definite relation to the source of the stimulus 
either directly towards that source or directly away from it, 
more rarely in a course transverse to it. This directive action 
of stimulation is under such a fixed conformity to law, that it 
vividly recalls such purely physical processes as, for instance, the 
attraction and repulsion of iron particles by the poles of a magnet. 
For example, if light falls from one side upon a vessel full of water 
containing unicellular green algae, according to the intensity of 
the light these organisms swim either towards the illuminated 
side, where they form a compact mass on the edge of the vessel, 
or away from it, to cluster on the opposite edge. In the same 
way infusoria in water are observed to hasten towards or to flee 
from certain chemical substances, and leucocytes in our bodies 
act in the same manner towards the metabolic products of pus- 
forming bacteria which have penetrated into an open wound. 
The suppuration of wounds is always accompanied by an 
amazing conglomeration of leucocytes at the seat of the lesion. 
Perhaps the most striking effects are those of the constant 
electric current upon unicellular organisms, since in this case 
the motion follows the cause with absolutely automatic regularity, 
certainty and rapidity. Thus, for example, after the establishment 
of the current many Infusoria (Paramaecium) accumulate at the 
negative pole with great celerity and without deviation, and turn 
round again with equal celerity as soon as the direction of the 
current is altered. As such cases of directive stimulation may 
occur among all varieties of stimuli whenever stimuli act unilater- 
ally, they have been designated, according to the direction in 
which they occur in relation to the source of the stimulus, as 
positive or negative chemotaxis, phototaxis, thermotaxis, 
galvanotaxis, and so forth. The strange and perplexing element 
in these phenomena becomes clear to us as soon as we know the 
characteristic method of locomotion for each form of organism, 
and whether the stimulus in question in the given intensity 
exercises an effect of excitation or of depression upon the special 
form. The direction of motion is the essential mechanical 
result of unilateral stimulation of the organs of locomotion. 
Seeing that these reactions are exceedingly widely distributed 
throughout the whole organic world, and possess a deep biological 
significance for the existence and continuance of life, the interest 
they have awakened is thoroughly justified. 

One of the most important physiological discoveries of the 
ioth century was that of the " Specific Energy of Sense-sub- 
stances." Johannes Mtiller was the first to establish 
the fact that very different varieties of stimuli applied 
to one and the same organ of sense always produce 
one and the same variety of sensation, and that, conversely, the 
same stimulus applied to the different organs of sense produces a 
different sensation in each organ the one, in fact, which is its 
specific attribute. Thus, for example, mechanical, electrical 
and photic stimuli applied to the optic nerve produce no other 
sensation than that of light; and, conversely, any one variety of 
stimulus take the electrical, for example produces sensations 
of light, hearing, taste or smell, according as it affects the optic, 
auditory, gustatory or olfactory nerves. This law of the 
" Specific Energy of Sense-substances," as Johannes Muller 
(1809-1875) called it, has come to have a highly important 
bearing upon scientific criticism, since it proves experimentally 
that the things of the outer world are in themselves in no way 
discernible by us, but that from one and the same outward object 
the electric current, or a mechanical pressure, for instance we 
receive altogether different sensations and form altogether 
different conceptions according to the sense-organ affected. 
But this law does not possess significance for psychology alone; 
as regards physiology also it has a much more general and more 
comprehensive force than Muller ever anticipated. It holds 
good, as demonstrated by Ewald Hering (b. 1834) and others, 



PHYSIOLOGY 



557 



Mechanism 
of Life. 



not of sense-substances only, but of living substance generally, 
Each cell has its specific energy in Johannes Muller's sense, and 
in its extended form there is no more general law for all the 
operations of stimuli than this law of specific energy. To take 
examples, whether a muscle be stimulated by a chemical, 
mechanical, thermal or electrical stimulus the result is in each 
case the same namely, a twitching of the muscle. Let a salivary 
gland be stimulated chemically, mechanically, electrically or 
in any other way, there always follows the same specific action 
a secretion of saliva; no matter what be the kind of stimulus 
acting upon it, the liver-cell always reacts by producing bile, 
and so on. On the other hand, one and the same stimulus the 
electric current, for example gives in each form of living 
substance a specific result: twitching in the muscle, secretion 
of saliva in the salivary gland, production of bile in the liver-cell, 
&c. That is, of course, with the proviso that the effect of the 
stimulus be exciting and not depressing. The following general 
formulation, however, of the law of specific energy brings the 
depressing stimuli also within its scope: " Different stimuli 
produce in each form of living substance an increase or a dimi- 
nution of its specific activity." As already observed, it will 
probably be found that those weak chronic forms of stimulation 
which produce qualitative changes may also be comprised under 
this general law. 

The knowledge thus far acquired from analysis of vital 
phenomena and their changes under the influence of stimuli 
affords but a very indefinite temporary basis for 
the theory of the actual vital process itself, of 
which vital phenomena are the outward manifes- 
tation. The conceptions to which physiological research has 
hitherto attained in this matter are of a more or less doubt- 
ful nature. The facts contained in them still require to be 
linked together by hypotheses if we are to obtain even a 
vague outline of what lies hidden behind the great riddle of life. 
Such hypotheses, serving as they do to link facts consistently 
together, are absolutely essential, however, to the further 
progress of research, and without their aid any systematic 
investigation would be impracticable. But at the same time it 
must never be forgotten that these hypotheses are merely 
provisional, and that whenever they are found to be no longer 
in harmony with the widening range of new experiences and 
ideas they must either be proved to be facts or be subjected to 
modification. This is the point of view from which we must 
deal with modern ideas concerning the nature of the actual vital 
process the mechanism of life.- 

The fundamental fact of life is the metabolism of living 
substance which is continually and spontaneously undergoing 
/Met6o//sm.^ ecom P os ' t ' on ' anc ' building itself up anew with 
'the help of the food-substances it takes in. These 
processes of decomposition and of reconstruction may be 
briefly designated as dissimilation (catabolism) and assimilation 
(anabolism) respectively. Now the question arises: How are 
we to understand this process of dissimilation and assimilation 
from a mechanical standpoint? It is quite evident that we 
have to do with some chemical occurrence; but how are the 
chemical transformations brought about? There are obviously 
two possibilities. It is conceivable that the decomposition of 
food-stuffs and the formation of excretion-products in the cell- 
body are caused by the repeated casual encounter of a great series 
of chemical combinations and by their repeatedly reacting upon 
one another in the same manner, bringing about transformations 
and forming waste products which are excreted, while at the same 
time certain chemical affinities are always taking in from without 
new chemical combinations (food-stuffs) and uniting them. 
This theory was in fact occasionally advanced in former times, 
particularly in its chemical aspect, and the belief was especially 
entertained that the enzymes in living substance might play an 
important part in these transformations. This assumption, 
however, leads to no clear and lucid image of what takes place, 
and, moreover, draws too largely upon auxiliary hypotheses. It 
has therefore met with but little acceptance. The other possible 
explanation of metabolism is that its whole process is confined 



to one single class of chemical combinations whose tendency it 
is to be constantly undergoing spontaneous decomposition and 
regeneration. This latter theory was founded by Ludimar 
Hermann (b. 1838), Eduard Friedrich Pfliiger (b. 1829) and 
others, and has met with universal recognition because of its 
naturalness, simplicity and clearness. 

Starting with this hypothesis, the path of further research 
lies clear and well defined before us. In the first place, we are 
obviously met by the question: What conception are Pmteida. 
we to form of these combinations on which hinges the 
whole vital process? Among the organic matters which compose 
living substance, proteids perform the most important part. 
Proteids and proteid-compounds form the only organic matter 
which is never absent from any cell. They form also the greater 
part of all the organic compounds of the cell, unless reserve-stuffs 
are accumulated to a considerable extent, and they are by far 
the most complicated of the compounds of living substance. 
While animal life is impossible without proteid food, there are, 
on the other hand, animals which can continue to subsist on 
proteid alone. This series of facts proves very conclusively 
that proteids and their compounds play by far the most impor- 
tant part of all organic matter in the processes of life. The idea 
thus naturally presents itself that the required hypothetical 
compound forming the central point of metabolism will be 
found to bear a very close relation to proteids. But another 
point must be here considered. The proteids and their com- 
pounds known to us are, comparatively speaking, stable com- 
pounds, which never undergo spontaneous decomposition sc 
long as they are protected from outward injury, whereas the 
hypothetical combination which lies at the centre of organic 
metabolism is extraordinarily liable and continually undergoing 
spontaneous decomposition. Therefore we have to think not of 
ordinary proteids in this case, but of still more complicated 
combinations, the atoms in the molecule of which have a strong 
tendency to group themselves in new arrangements. Owing to 
their fundamental importance, these combinations have been 
termed " biogens." When we come to inquire how such labile 
biogen molecules are built up out of the proteids of food, we 
find our knowledge very much restricted. Doubtless the intra- 
molecular addition of inspired oxygen has much to do with it; 
for living substance when deprived of oxygen loses its irritability 
that is to say, its tendency to decomposition. The fact that the 
decomposition of living substance is always associated with the 
formation of carbonic acid a circumstance obviously necessi- 
tating the aid of oxygen also points to the absolute indis- 
pensableness of oxygen in the matter. Pfliiger has further 
suggested that the molecule of living substance owes its lability 
and its tendency to form carbonic acid when joined by oxygen 
atoms principally to cyanogen groups which are contained in it. 
According to this view, the following is supposed to be the process 
of the formation of biogen molecules: It is assumed that the 
biogen molecules already present in living substance take out 
of the proteids of food certain groups of atoms, and dispose them 
so as to produce cyanogen-like compounds. The addition of 
oxygen atoms then brings the biogen molecule to the maximum 
of its power of decomposition, so that partly spontaneously, 
but more especially when impelled by a stimulus- it breaks 
down somewhat explosively, causing the formation of carbonic 
acid. In this proceeding, according to the hypothesis which is 
the most widely accepted and the most fruitful in results, would 
lie the very germ of the vital process. 

If we accept these views as far as their general principle is 
concerned, assimilation is the re-formation of biogen molecules 
by those already existing, aided by food-stuffs; 
dissimilation, the decomposition of biogen molecules. ot ^ey/./// e< 
To this primary process, however, is attached a whole 
series of secondary chemical processes, which serve partly to work 
upon the food so as to fit it for the building up of biogen mole- 
cules, and partly to form out of the direct decomposition-products 
of the biogen molecules the characteristic secretion-products 
of living substance (excretions and secretions). The various 
workings of matter in the cell are rendered very much more 



558 



PIACENZA 



complex by the circumstance that the living cell exhibits various 
morphological differentiations above all, the differentiation in 
protoplasm and nucleus. Again, a transformation of energy is 
inseparably connected with metabolism. Along with food and 
oxygen potential chemical energy is continually being introduced 
into the cell, to be accumulated in the biogen molecules, and at 
their decomposition transformed into kinetic energy, which finds 
an outlet in the various manifestations of energy in the cell 
motion, heat, and so forth. In the light of this hypothesis the 
operations of stimuli also become comprehensible. Seeing that 
there is an initial tendency to the occurrence of certain definite 
chemical processes, which are associated with the reconstruction 
and decomposition of biogen molecules, various stimuli will 
either further or hinder the course of this metabolic series. A 
. cell which is exposed to no outward disturbance, and which 
continues always in the unvarying medium provided by an exact 
sufficiency of food, will be in " metabolic equilibrium " that is 
to say, its assimilation and its dissimilation will be equal (A = D). 
When, however, the influence of external stimuli is brought to 
bear upon them that is to say, any change in their environing 
vital conditions A and D will either be altered in similar 
proportion, or their mutual equilibrium will be disturbed. In 
the former case the vital processes will merely be intensified in 
their course; in the latter and usual case the result will be deter- 
mined according to the part of metabolism excited or depressed. 
When the effect of a stimulus is to excite D continuously in a 
high degree without correspondingly increasing A, the result is a 
dying off an atrophy. In the contrary case, when A remains 
continuously greater than D, the result is growth, increase and 
Metabolic reproduction of the cell. Experience proves, how- 
Bguiii- ever, that A and D stand in a certain relation of 
brium. mutual dependence to each other, with the result 
that when D has been increased by a stimulus, for example, A 
correspondingly increases during the stimulation, and continues 
to do so after its cessation, till the loss in living substance 
produced by the stimulation of D is eventually made good, and 
metabolic equilibrium is restored. The muscle may be taken as 
an example of this self-regulation of metabolism common to all 
living substance (Hering's Selbstsleuerung des Sloffwechsels) . 
When a muscle has been fatigued by some stimulation causing an 
enormous increase of D, there is a corresponding spontaneous 
increase in A. After some time the muscle is observed to have 
recovered. It has once more become capable of performing 
work; its metabolism is again in equilibrium. 

The vital phenomena of the cell may be derived mechanically 
from metabolism and the changes it undergoes under the 
influence of stimuli. Our ability to do this will increase more 
rapidly as we become better acquainted with the details of the 
metabolism of the cell itself. The foregoing outline must be 
regarded, of course, as embodying only a fragmentary hypo- 
thesis, which can serve as a guide for further research only so 
long as it does not clash with facts, and which must be amplified, 
specialized and developed with the widening of specific knowledge 
regarding the cell's metabolism. The relations already known 
are so exceedingly complex that only by slow degrees can we 
pursue the investigation of separate fragments of the entire 
metabolic series. The differentiation of nucleus and protoplasm 
in the living substance of the cell alone gives rise to an extra- 
ordinary complication in the metabolic process, for these two 
parts of the cell stand in the most complicated correlation with 
Cel j. one another as well as with the environing medium a 

Processes fact of which the experiments made by vivisection 
tlle Secret j n various free-living cell-forms have furnished 
' e ' abundant evidence. The farther such knowledge 
advances, the more rounded, clear and free from hypotheses 
will become our conception of the cell's metabolism. But 
the cell is the elementary component part of all organisms, 
and from the life of individual cells is constructed the life 
of the separate tissues and various organs, and thus of the 
entire organism. Hence the cell is the only vital element 
which the organism possesses, and therefore the investi- 
gation of the vital processes in its separate cells leads 



ultimately to a knowledge regarding the mechanism of life 
in the whole. 

Vegetable physiology is dealt with in the article PLANTS : Physio- 
logy. For details of different parts of the animal body, see ANIMAL 
HEAT; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; VASCULAR SYSTEM; TOUCH; SMELL; 
TASTE; VISION; HEARING; VOICE; MUSCLE AND NERVE; SLEEP; 
HYPNOTISM ; BRAIN ; SPINAL CORD ; SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM ; BLOOD ; 
LYMPH; PHAGOCYTOSIS; DIGESTIVE ORGANS; NUTRITION, &c. 

The principal modern English textbooks of animal physiology 
are those of Sir Michael Foster (1885), A. E. Schafer (1898), Noel 
Paton (1908), Halliburton (1909), and Starling (1909). See, how- 
ever, the bibliographical notes to the separate articles. (M. V.) 

PIACENZA (Lat. Placentio), a town and episcopal see of 
Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Piacenza, 42! m. 
S.E. of Milan and 91 m. N.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1906), 
39,786. It lies on the Lombard plain, 217 ft. above sea-level, 
near the right bank of the Po, which here is crossed by road and 
railway bridges, just below the confluence of the Trebia. It is 
still surrounded by walls with bastions and fosse in a circuit of 
4 m. The cathedral was erected between 1122 and 1233, in the 
Lombard Romanesque style, under the direction of Santo da x 
Sambuceto, on the site of a church of the gth century which had 
been destroyed by earthquake. The west front has three doors 
with curious pillared porches. The campanile is a massive square 
brick tower 223 ft. high; the iron cage attached to one of its 
windows was put up in 1495 by Ludovico il Moro for the confine- 
ment of persons guilty of treason or sacrilege. The crypt is a 
large church supported by one hundred columns. The entire 
edifice has been restored since 1898, and the frescoes by Guercino 
and Caracci, which decorate parts of its roof, though good in 
themselves, are inappropriate to its severe style. Sant' Antonino, 
which was the cathedral church till 877, is supposed to have been 
founded by St Victor, the first bishop of Piacenza, in the 4th 
century, and restored in 903; it was rebuilt in 1104, and altered in 
1857. It was within its walls that the deputies of the Lombard 
League swore to the conditions of peace ratified in 1183 at Con- 
stance. The Gothic brick vestibule (II Paradiso) on the north 
side is one of the older parts of the building. San Francesco, a 
spacious Gothic edifice begun by the Franciscans in 1278, was 
erected on the site of the palace of Ubertino Landi, a leader 
of the Ghibelline party. S. Savino, a fine Romanesque building of 
A.D. 903 (well restored in 1903), contains a mosaic pavement of 
this period with curious representations, including one of a game 
of chess. S. Sisto, which dates from 1499, and takes the place of 
the church founded in 874 by Angilberga (consort of the emperor 
Louis II.), lost its chief attraction when Raphael's Sistine 
Madonna (now in Dresden) was sold by the monks in 1754 to 
Frederick Augustus III. Its place, however, is occupied by a 
copy by Avanzini, and there are also several good intarsias by 
Bartolomeo da Busseto. S. Sepolcro and S. Maria della Campagna 
are both good early Renaissance churches; the latter is rich in 
frescoes by Pordenone. S. Anna, dating from 1334, was the 
church of the barefooted Carmelites. Of the secular buildings 
the most interesting is the Palazzo Communale, begun in 1281, 
one of the finest buildings of its kind in Italy. The square in 
front is known as the Piazza dei Cavalli, from the two bronze 
equestrian statues of Ranuccio (1620) and his father Alexander, 
prince of Parma, governor of the Netherlands (1625). Both were 
designed by Francesco Mocchi. The Palazzo dei Tribunali and 
the Palazzo degli Scoti are fine early Renaissance brick buildings 
with terra-cotta decorations. The huge Farnese palace was begun 
after Vignola's designs by Margaret of Austria in 1558, but it was 
never completed, and since 1800 it has been used as barracks. 
Other buildings or institutions of note are the old and the new 
bishop's palace, the fine theatre designed by Lotario Tomba in 
1803, the great hospital dating from 1471, the library presented 
to the commune in 1846 by the marquis Ferdinando Landi, and 
the Passerini library founded in 1685. The Museo Civico, 
formed in 1903, contains collections of antiquities (though many 
of the Roman antiquities of Piacenza have passed to the museum 
of Parma), some good Flemish tapestries and a few pictures. 
The castle erected by Antonio da Sangallo the younger has been 
demolished. Piacenza is the junction of the Milan and Bologna 
line with that from Voghera and Turin. From Codogno, 7 m. 



PIANOFORTE 



559 



to the north, a branch line runs to Cremona. By road Piacenza 
is 88 m. north-east of Genoa. The town has an arsenal, a 
technical and arts school, and various industries iron and brass 
works, foundries, silk-throwing, printing works and flour- 
mills. 

Piacenza was made a Roman colony in 218 B.C. While its 
walls were yet unfinished it had to repulse an attack by the 
Gauls, and in the latter part of 218 it afforded protection to the 
remains of the Roman army under Scipio which had been de- 
feated in the great battle on the Trebia. In 205 it withstood a 
protracted siege by Hasdrubal. Five years later the Gauls 
burned the city; and in 190 it had to be recruited with three 
thousand families. In 187 it was connected with Ariminum and 
the south by the construction of the Via Aemilia. Later on it 
became a very important road centre; the continuation north- 
wards of the Via Aemilia towards Milan, with a branch to Ticinum, 
crossed the Po there, and the Via Postumia from Cremona to 
Dertona and Genoa passed through it. Later still Augustus 
reconstructed the road from Dertona to Vade, and into Gallia 
Narbonensis, and gave it the name of Julia Augusta from 
Placentia onwards. The rectangular arrangement of the streets 
in the centre of the town, through which passes the Via Aemilia, 
is no doubt a survival from Roman times. Placentia is mentioned 
in connexion with its capture by Cinna and a defeat of the forces 
of Carbo in the neighbourhood (82 B.C.), a mutiny of Julius 
Caesar's garrison (50 B.C.), another mutiny under Augustus 
(40 B.C.), the defence of the city by Spurinna, Otho's general, 
against Caecina, Vitellius's general (A.D. 69), and the defeat of 
Aurelian by the Marcomanni outside the walls (A.D. 271). In 
546 Totila reduced Piacenza by famine. Between 997 and 1035 
the city was governed by its bishops, who had received the title 
of count from Otho III. At Roncaglia, 5 m. to the east, the 
emperor Conrad II. held the diet which passed the Salic law. In 
the latter part of the i2th century it was one of the leading 
members of the Lombard League. For the most part it remained 
Guelph, though at times, as when it called in Galeazzo Visconti, 
it was glad to appeal to a powerful Ghibelline for aid against its 
domestic tyrants. In 1447 the city was captured and sacked by 
Francesco Sforza. Having been occupied by the papal forces 
in 1512, it was in 1545 united with Parma (q.v.) to form an here- 
ditary duchy for Pierluigi Farnese, son of Paul III. In 1746 a 
battle between the Franco-Spanish forces and the Austrians was 
fought under the city walls, and in 1796 it was occupied by 
the French. In 1848 Piacenza was the first of the towns of 
Lombardy to join Piedmont; but it was reoccupied by the 
Austrians till 1859. 

PIANOFORTE (Ital. piano, soft, and forte, loud). The group 
of keyed stringed musical instruments, among which the piano- 
forte is latest in order of time, has been invented and step by 
step developed with the modern art of music, which is based 
upon the simultaneous employment of different musical sounds. 
In the loth century the " organum " arose, an elementary 
system of accompaniment to the voice, consisting of fourths and 
octaves below the melody and moving with it; and the organ 
(q.v.), the earliest keyed instrument, was, in the first instance, the 
rude embodiment of this idea and .convenient means for its 
expression. There was as yet no keyboard of balanced key 
levers; sliders were drawn out like modern draw-stops, to admit 
the compressed air necessary to make the pipes 
Evolution soun d. About the same time arose a large stringed 
instrument, the organistrum, 1 the parent of the 
now obsolete hurdy-gurdy; as the organ needed a blower as 
well as an organist, so the player of the organistrum required 
a handle-turner, by whose aid the three strings of the instru- 
ment were made to sound simultaneously upon a wheel, and, 
according to the well-known sculptured relief of St George 
de Boscherville, one string was manipulated by means of a 

1 An organistrum is shown in the lower right hand corner of the 
full page miniature of a fine I2th century psalter of English work- 
manship, forming part of the Hunterian collection in University 
Court Library, Glasgow. No. 31 in Catalogue of the Exhibition of 
Illuminated MSS. at the Burlington Fine Arts Club (1908). 



row of stoppers or tangents pressed inwards to produce the 
notes. The other strings were drones, analogous to the drones 
of the bagpipes, but originally the three strings followed the 
changing organum. 

In the nth century, the epoch of Guido d'Arezzo, to whom the 
beginning of musical notation is attributed, the Pythagorean 
monochord, with its shifting bridge, was used in the singing 
schools to teach the intervals of the plain-song of the church. 
The practical necessity, not merely of demonstrating the pro- 
portionate relations of the intervals, but also of initiating pupils 
into the different gradations of the church tones, had soon after 
Guide's time brought into use quadruplex-fashioned monochords, 
which were constructed with scales, analogous to the modern 
practice with thermometers which are made to show both 
Reaumur and Centigrade, so that four lines 
indicated as many authentic and as many plagal 
tones. This arrangement found great acceptance, 
for Aribo, 2 writing about fifty years after Guido, says that 
few monochords were to be found without it. Had the clavi- 
chord then been known, this make- 
shift contrivance would not have 
been used. Aribo strenuously en- 
deavoured to improve it, and " by 
the grace of God" invented a mono- 
chord measure which, on account of 
the rapidity of the leaps he could 
make with it, he named a wild-goat 
(caprea). Jean de Muris (Musica 
speculativa, 1323) teaches how true 
relations may be found by a single- 
string monochord, but recommends 
a four-stringed . one, properly a 
tetrachord, to gain a knowledge of 
unfamiliar intervals. He describes 
the musical instruments known in 
his time, but does not mention the 
clavichord or monochord with keys, 
which could not have been then 
invented. Perhaps one of the earliest 
forms of such an instrument, in which 
stoppers or tangents had been 
adopted from the organistrum, is FIG. I. Earliest existing 
shown in fig. i, from a wood carving representation of a Keyed 
of a vicar choral or organist, pre- Stringed Instrument, from 

sTV 11 s M , ary>s ; hurch ' 

Shrewsbury. The latest date to 

which this interesting figure may be 

attributed is 1460, but the conventional representation shows 

that the instrument was then already of a past fashion, although 

perhaps still retained in use and familiar to the carver. 

In the Weimar Wunderbuch, 3 a MS. dated 1440, with pen and 
ink miniatures, is given a " clavichordium " having 8 short and 
apparently 16 long keys, the artist has drawn 12 strings in a 
rectangular case, but no tangents are visible. A keyboard of 
balanced keys existed in the little portable organ known as the 
regal, so often represented in old carvings, paintings and stained 
windows. Vitruvius, De architectura, lib. x. cap. xi., translated 
by Newton, describes a balanced keyboard; but the key appar- 
atus is more particularly shown in The Pneumatics of Hero of 
Alexandria, translated by Bennet Woodcroft (London, 1851). 
In confirmation of this has been the remarkable recovery at 
Carthage 4 of a terra-cotta model of a Hydraulikon or water 
organ, dating from the 2nd century A.D., in which a balanced 
keyboard of 1 8 or 19 keys is shown. It seems likely the balanced 
keyboard was lost, and afterwards reinvented. The name of 

2 See " Musica aribonis scholastic!," printed by Martin Gerbert 
in Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra (1784), ii. 197; and in J. P. 
Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, vol. 150, col. 1307. 

3 Grossherzogliche Bibliothek. See also Dr Alwin Schulz, Deutsches 
Leben im xiv. and xy. Jahrhund. (Vienna, 1892), p. 58, fig. 522. 

4 For an illustration of this important piece of evidence, see under 
ORGAN: Ancient History; and for description and illustration of 
balanced keys, see KEYBOARD. 




fore 



5 6 



PIANOFORTE 



regal was derived from the rule (regula) or graduated scale of 
keys, and its use was to give the singers in religious processions 
the note or pitch. The only instrument of this kind known to 
exist in the United Kingdom is at Blair Atholl, and it bears the 
very late date of 1630. The Brussels regal 1 may be as modern. 
These are instances of how long a some-time admired musical 
instrument may remain in use after its first intention is forgotten. 
We attribute the adaptation of the narrow regal keyboard to 
what was still called the monochord, but was now a complex of 
monochords over one resonance board, to the latter half of the 
i4th century; it was accomplished by the substitution of tangents 
fixed in the future ends of the balanced keys for the movable 
bridges of the monochord or such stoppers as are shown in the 
Shrewsbury carving. Thus the monochordium or " payre of 
monochordis " became the clavichordium or " payre of clavi- 
chordis " pair being applied, in the old sense of a " pair of 
steps," to a series of degrees. This use of the word to imply 
gradation was common in England to all keyed instruments; 
thus we read, in the Tudor period and later, of a pair of regals, 
organs, or virginals. Ed. van der Straeten 2 reproduces a so- 
called clavichord of the isth century from a MS. in the public 
library at Ghent. The treatise is anonymous, but other treatises 
in the same MS. bear dates 1503 and 1504.- Van der Straeten 
is of opinion that the drawing may be assigned to the middle of 
the 1 5th century. The scribe calls the instrument a clavicim- 
balum, and this is undoubtedly correct; the 8 strings in the 
drawing are stretched from back to front over a long sound- 
board, the longest strings to the left; 8 keys, 4 long and 4 short 
with levers to which are attached the jacks, are seen in a 
horizontal line behind the keyboard, and behind them again 
are given the names of the notes a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h. In the 
Weimar Wunderbuch is a pen-and-ink sketch of the " clavicim- 
balum" 3 placed upon a table, in which we recognize the 
familiar outline of the harpsichord, but on a smaller scale. 
The keyboard shows white and black notes the latter short 
keys, one between each group of two white keys, precisely as 
in the instrument reproduced by Van der Straeten but no 
mechanism is visible under the strings. 

The earliest known record of the clavichord occurs in some 
rules of the minnesingers, 4 dated 1404, preserved at Vienna. 
The monochord is named with it, showing a differentiation of 
these instruments, and of them from the clavicymbalum, the 
keyed cymbal, cembalo (Italian), or psaltery. From this we 
learn that a keyboard had been thus early adapted to that 
favourite medieval stringed instrument, the " cembalo " of 
Boccaccio, the " sautrie " of Chaucer. There were two forms of 
the psaltery: (i) the trapeze, one of the oldest representations 
of which is to be found in Orcagna's famous Trionfo della Morte 
in tBe Campo Santo at Pisa, and another by the same painter in 
the National Gallery, London; and (2) the contemporary " testa 
di porco," the pig's head, which was of triangular shape as the 
name suggests. The trapeze psaltery was strung horizontally, 
the " istromento di porco " either horizontally or vertically 
the notes, as in the common dulcimer, being in groups of three or 
four unisons. In these differences of form and stringing we see 
the cause of the ultimate differentiation of the spinet and harpsi- 
chord. The compass of the psalteries was nearly that of Guide's 
scale; but according to Mersenne, 5 the lowest interval was a 
fourth, G to C, which is worthy of notice as anticipating the later 
" short measure " 6 of the spinet and organ. 

The simplicity of the clavichord inclines us to place it, in 
order of time, before the clavicymbalum or clavicembalo; but 
we do not know how the sounds of the latter were at first excited. 
There is an indication as to its early form to be seen in the church 
of the Certosa near Pavia, which compares in probable date with 

1 See Victor C. Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif (1880), I. p. 320, 
No. 454: regal with two bellows, end of XVI. C. Compass E to a 2 . 

2 La Musique aux Pays Bas, \. 278. 

3 See Dr Alwin Schulz, op. cit., fig. 524. 

4 V. 410 and 414. See Ambros, Geschichte der Musik (1892), 
ii. 226. 

' L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), livre III. p. 107. 

A. J. Hipkins, History of Pianoforte (London, 1896), p. 51. 



the Shrewsbury example. We quote the reference to it from Dr 
Ambros. 1 He says a carving represents King David as holding 
an " istromento di porco " which has eight strings and as many 
keys lying parallel to them; inside the body of the instrument, 
which is open at the side nearest the right hand of King David, 
he touches the keys with the right hand and damps the strings 
with the left. The attribution of archaism applies with equal 
force to this carving as to the Shrewsbury one, for when the 
monastery of Certosa near Pavia was built by Ambrogio Fossana 
in 1472, chromatic keyboards, which imply a considerable ad- 
vance, were already in use. There is an authentic representation 
of a chromatic keyboard, painted not later than 1426, in the 
St Cecilia panel (now at Berlin) of the famous Adoration of the 
Lamb by the Van Eycks. The instrument depicted is a positive 



111 



FIG. 2. Diatonic Clavichord Keyboard (Guido's Scale) from 
Virdung. Before 1511. 

organ, and it is interesting to notice in this realistic painting that 
the keys are evidently boxwood, as in the Italian spinets of later 
date, and that the angel plays a common chord A with the 
right hand, F and C with the left. But diatonic organs with 
eight steps or keys in the octave, which included the B flat and 
the B natural, as in Guido's scale, were long preserved, for 
Praetorius speaks of them as still existing nearly two hundred 
years later. This diatonic keyboard, we learn from Sebastian 
Virdung (Musica getutscht und auszgezogen, Basel, 1511), was the 
keyboard of the early clavichord. We reproduce his diagram as 
the only authority we have for the disposition of the one short 
key. 

The extent of this scale is exactly Guido's. Virdung's diagram 
of the chromatic is the same as our own familiar keyboard, and 
comprises three octaves and a note, from F below the bass stave 
to G above the treble. But Virdung tells us that even then 
clavichords were made longer than four octaves by repetition 
of the same order of keys. The introduction of the chromatic 
order he attributes to the study of Boetius, and the consequent 
endeavour to restore the three musical genera of the Greeks the 
diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. But the last-named had 
not been attained. Virdung gives woodcuts of the clavichordium, 
the virginal, the clavicymbalum and the clavicytherium. We 
reproduce three of them (figs. 3, 6 and 12), omitting the virginal 







FIG. 3. Virdung's Clavichordium, 1511 ; reversed facsimile. 



as obviously incorrect. Writers on musical instruments have 
continually repeated these drawings without discerning that in 
the printing they are reversed, which puts the keyboards entirely 
wrong, and that in Luscinius's Latin translation of Virdung 
(Musurgia, sive praxis musicae, Strasburg, 1536), which has been 
hitherto chiefly followed, two of the engravings, the clavicim- 
balum and the clavicytherium, are transposed, another cause of 
error. Martin Agricola (Musica instrumenlalis, Wittenberg, 
1329) has copied Virdung's illustrations with some differences of 
perspective, and the addition, here and there, of errors of his 
own. 

7 Geschichte der Musik, ii. 544-555. 



PIANOFORTE 



561 



Still vulgarly known as monochord, Virdung's clavichord was 
really a box of monochords, all the strings being of the same 
length. He derives the clavichord from Guide's monochord 
as he does the virginal from the psaltery, but, at the 
same time, confesses he does not know when, or by whom, 
either instrument was invented. We observe in this 
drawing the short sound-board, which always remained a 
peculiarity of the clavichord, and the straight sound- 
board bridge necessarily so when all the strings were of 
one length. To gain an angle of incidence for the tangents 
against the strings the keys were made crooked, an expedient 
further rendered necessary by the " fretting " three tangents, 
according to Virdung, being directed to stop as many notes from 
each single group of three strings tuned in unison; each tangent 
thus made a different vibrating length of string. In the drawing 
the strings are merely indicated. The German for fret is Bund, 
and such a clavichord, in that language, is known as a "gebun- 
denes Clavichord " both fret (to rub) and Bund (from binden, to 
bind) having been taken over from the lute or viol. The French 
and Italians employ " touche " and " tasto," touch. Praetorius 
who wrote a hundred years later than Virdung, says two, three 
and four tangents were thus employed in stopping. There are 
extant small clavichords having three keys and tangents to one 
pair of strings and others have no more than two tangents to a 
note formed by a pair of strings, instead of three. Thus seven 
pairs of strings suffice for an octave of twelve keys, the open 
notes being F, G, A, B flat, C, D, E flat, and by an unexplained 
peculiarity, perhaps derived from some special estimation of the 
notes which was connected with the church modes, A and D are 
left throughout free from a second tangent. A corresponding 
value of these notes is shown by their independence of chromatic 
alteration in tuning the double Irish harp, as explained by 
Vincentio Galilei in his treatise on music (Dialogo delta musica, 
Florence, 1581). Adlung, who died in 1762, speaks of another 
fretting, but it must have been an adaptation to the modern 
major scale, the " free " notes being E and B. Clavichords 
were made with double fretting up to about the year 1700 
that is to say, to the epoch of J. S. Bach, who, taking advantage 
of its abolition and the consequent use of independent pairs of 
strings for each note, was enabled to tune in all keys equally, 
which had been impossible so long as the fretting was maintained. 
The modern scales having become established, Bach was now 
able to produce, in 1722, Das wohltemperirte Clavier, the first 
collection of preludes and fugues in all the twenty-four major 
and minor scales for a clavichord which was tuned, as to con- 
cordance and dissonance, fairly equal. 

The oldest clavichord, here called manicordo (as French 
manicorde, from monochord), known to exist is that shown in 
fig. 4. It will be observed that the lowest octave is here already 




FIG. 4. Manicordo (Clavichord) d'Eleonora di Montalvo, 1659; 
Kraus Museum, Florence. 

" bundfrei " or fret-free. The strings are no longer of equal 
length, and there are three bridges, divisions of the one bridge, 
in different positions on the sound-board. Mersenne's " mani- 
corde " (Harmonie universette, Paris 1636, p. 115), shown in an 
engraving in that work, has the strings still nearly of equal 
length, but the sound-board bridge is divided into five. The 
fretted clavichords made in Germany in the last years of the 
1 7th century have the curved sound-board bridge, like a 
spinet. In the clavichord the tangents always form the second 





*>.. 



FIG. 5. Clavichord Tangent. 



bridge, indispensable for the vibration, besides acting as the 

sound exciters (fig. 5). The common damper to all the strings 

is a list of cloth, interwoven 

behind the tangents. As the 

tangents quitted the strings the 

cloth immediately stopped all 

vibration. Too much cloth 

would diminish the tone of this 

already feeble instrument, which 

gained the name of " dumb 

spinet " from its use. In the 

clavichord in Rubens's St Cecilia 

(Dresden Gallery) interesting 

as perhaps representing that 

painter's own instrument the 

damping cloth is accurately 

painted. The number of keys 

there shown is three octaves and a third, F to A the same extent 

as in Handel's clavichord now in the museum at Maidstone (an 

Italian instrument dated 1726, and not fretted), but with the 

peculiarity of a combined chromatic and short octave in the 

lowest notes, to which we shall have to refer when we arrive 

at the spinet; we pass it by as the only instance we have 

come across in the clavichord. 

The clavichord must have gone out of favour in Great Britain 
and the Netherlands early in the i6th century, before its ex- 
pressive power, which is of the most tender and intimate quality, 
could have been, from the nature of the music played, observed, 
the more brilliant and elegant spinet being preferred to it. 
Like the other keyboard instruments it had no German name, 
and can hardly have been of German origin. Holbein, in his 
drawing of the family of Sir Thomas More, 1528, now at Basel, 
indicates the place for " Klavikordi und ander Seytinspill." 
But it remained longest in use in Germany until even the begin- 
ning of the igth century. It was the favourite " Klavier " of 
the Bachs. Besides that of Handel already noticed there are 
in existence clavichords the former possession of which is attri- 
buted to Mozart and Beethoven. The cl'avichord was obedient 
to a peculiarity of touch possible on no other keyboard instru- 
ment. This is described by C. P. Emmanuel Bach in his famous 
essay on playing and accompaniment, entitled Versuch iiber die 
wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen (" An Essay on the True Way to 
play Keyboard Instruments.") It is the Bebung (trembling), a 
vibration in a melody note of the same nature as the tremolo 
frequently employed by violin players to heighten the expressive 
effect; it was gained by a repeated movement of the fleshy end 
of the finger while the key was still held down. The Bebung was 
indicated in the notation by dots over the note to be affected by 
it, perhaps showing how many times the note should be repeated. 
According to the practice of the Bachs, as handed down to us in 
the above mentioned essay, great smoothness of touch was 
required to play the clavichord in tune. As with the monochord, 
the means taken to produce the sound disturbed the accuracy 
of the string measurement by increasing tension, so that a key 
touched too firmly in the clavichord, by unduly raising the 
string, sharpened the pitch, an error in playing deprecated by 
C. P. Emmanuel Bach. This answers the assertion which has 
been made that J. S. Bach could not have been nice about 
tuning when he played from preference on an instrument of 
uncertain intonation. 

The next instrument described by Virdung is the virginal (virgin- 
alis, proper for a girl), a parallelogram in shape, having the same 
projecting keyboard and compass of keys the same as virdaaJ 
the clavichordium. Here we can trace derivation from 
the psaltery in the sound-board covering the entire inner surface 
of the instrument and in the triangular disposition of the strings. 
The virginal in Virdung's drawing has an impossible position with 
reference to the keyboard, which renders its reproduction as an 
illustration useless. But in the next drawing, the clavi- 
cimbalum, this is rectified, and the drawing, reversed on 
account of the keyboard, can be accepted as roughly 
representing the instrument so called (fig. 6). There would be 






562 



PIANOFORTE 



no difference between it and the virginal were it not for a peculi- 
arity of keyboard compass, which emphatically refers itself to 
the Italian " spinetta," a name unnoticed by Virdung or by his 
countryman Arnold Schlick, who, in the same year 1511, pub- 
lished his Spiegel der Orgelmacher (Organ-builders' Mirror), 
and named the clavichordium and clavicimbalum as familiar 
instruments. In the first place, the keyboard, beginning appar- 
ently with B natural, instead of F, makes the clavicimbalum 
smaller than the virginal, the strings in this arrangement being 
shorter; in the next place it is almost certain that the Italian 
spinet compass, beginning apparently upon a semitone, is 
identical with a " short measure " or " short octave " organ 
compass, a very old keyboard arrangement, by which the lowest 
note, representing B, really sounded G and C sharp in like 
manner A. The origin of this may be deduced from the psaltery 
and many representations of the regal, and its object appears 
to have been to obtain dominant basses for cadences, harmonious 
closes having early been sought for as giving pleasure to the ear. 
Authority for this practice is to be found in Mersenne, who, in 
1636, expressly describes it as occurring in his own spinet 
(espinette). He says the keyboards of the spinet and organ are 
the same. Now, in his Latin edition of the same work he renders 




FIG. 6. Virdung's Clavicimbalum (Spinet), 1511 ; reversed facsimile. 

espinette by clavicimbalum. We read (Harmonic Universelle, 
Paris, 1636, liv. 3, p. 107 " Its longest string [his spinet's] is 
little more than a foot in length between the two bridges. It 
has only thirty-one keys [marches] in its keyboard, and as 
many strings over its sound-board [he now refers to the illustra- 
tion], so that there are five keys hidden on account of the per- 
spective that is to say, three diatonic and two chromatic [feintes, 
same as the Latin ficti], of which the first is cut into two 
[a divided sharp forming two keys] ; but these sharps serve to 
go down to the third and fourth below the first step, C sol [tenor 
clef C], in order to go as far as the third octave, for the eighteen 
principal steps make but an eighteenth, that is to say, a fourth 
more than two octaves." The note we call F, he, on his engrav- 
ing, letters as C, indicating the pitch of a spinet of the second 
size, which the one described is not. The 
third and fourth, reached by his divided sharp, 
are consequently the lower A and G; or, to 
complete, as he says, the third octave, the 
lowest note might be F, but for that he would 
want the diatonic semitone B, which his spinet, 
according to his description, did not possess. 1 
Mersenne's statement sufficiently proves, first, 
the use in spinets as well as in organs of what 
we now call " short measure," and, secondly, 
the object of divided sharps at the lower end 
of the keyboard to gain lower notes. He 
speaks of one string only to each note; unlike 
the double and triple strung clavichord, those 

instruments, clavicimbalum, spinet, or virginal, 

F IG- * Spinet derived from the psaltery, could only present 

"Jack." one string to the mechanical plectrum which 

twanged it. As regards the kind of plectra 

1 A. J. Ellis (History of Musical Pitch, p. 318) sees the Bin 
Mersenne's outline diagram. 




earliest used we have no evidence. The little crow-ouill points 
project from centred tongues in uprights of wood known as 
"jacks" (fig. 7), which also carry the dampers, and rising by 
the depression of the keys in front, the quills set the strings 
vibrating as they pluck them in passing, springs at first of steel, 
later of bristle, giving energy to the twang and governing their 
return J. C. Scaliger in Poetices libri septem (1561, p. 51. c. i.) 
states that the Clavicimbalum and Harpichordum of his 
boyhood are now called Spinets on account of those quill 
points (ab illis mucronibus), and attributes the introduction 
of the name " spinetta " to them (from spina, a thorn). We will 
leave harpichordum for the present, but the early identity 
of clavicimbalum and spinetta is certainly proved. 
Scaliger's etymology remained unquestioned until s P' aet - 
Signor Ponsicchi of Florence discovered another derivation. 
He found in a rare book entitled Conclusione nel suono dell' 
organo, di D. Adriano Banchieri (Bologna, 1608), the following 
passage, which translated reads: " Spinetta was thus named 
from the inventor of that oblong form, who was one Maestro 
Giovanni Spinetti, a Venetian; and I have seen one of 
those instruments, in the possession of Francesco Stivori, 
organist of the magnificent community of Montagnana, 
within which was this inscription Joannes Spinetvs Venetvs 
fecit, A.D. 1503." Scaliger's and Banchieri's statements may 
be combined, as there is no discrepancy of dates, or we may 
rely upon whichever seems to us to have the greater authority, 
always bearing in mind that neither invalidates the other. The 
introduction of crow-quill points, and adaptation to an oblong 
case of an instrument previously in a trapeze form, are synchro- 
nous; but we must accept 1503 as a late date for one of Spinetti's 
instruments, seeing that the altered form had already become 
common, as shown by Virdung, in another country as early as 
1511. After this date there are frequent references to spinets in 
public records and other documents, and we have fortunately the 
instruments themselves to put in evidence, preserved in public 
museums and in private collections. A spinet dated 1490 was 
shown at Bologna in 1888; another old spinet in the Conserva- 
toire, Paris, is a pentagonal instrument made by Francesco di 
Portalupis at Verona, 1523. The Milanese Rossi were famous 
spinet-makers, and have been accredited (La Nobilitd di Milano, 
iS9S) with an improvement in the form which we believe was 
the recessing of the keyboard, a feature which had previously 
entirely projected; by the recessing a greater width was obtained 
for the sound-board. The spinets by Annibale Rosso at South 
Kensington, dated respectively 1555 (fig. 8) and 1577, show this 




FIG. 8. Milanese Spinetta, by Annibale Rosso, 1555; South 
Kensington Museum. 

alteration, and may be compared with the older and purer form 
of one, dated 1568, by Marco Jadra (also known as Marco " dalle 
spinette," or " dai cembali"). Besides the pentagonal spinet, 
there was an heptagonal variety; they had neither covers nor 
stands, and were often withdrawn from decorated cases when 
required for performance. In other instances, as in the 1577 
Rosso spinet, the case of the instrument itself was richly adorned. 
The apparent compass of the keyboard in Italy generally 
exceeded four octaves by a semitone, E to F; but we may regard 
the lowest natural key as usually C, and the lowest sharp key 
as usually D, in these instruments, according to" short measure." 
The rectangular spinet, Virdung's " virginal," early assumed 
in Italy the fashion of the large " cassoni " or wedding chests. 
The oldest we know of in this style, and dated, is 
the fine specimen belonging to M. Terme which 
figures in L' Art decoratif (fig. 9). Virginal is not an Italian name; 



PIANOFORTE 



5 6 3 



the rectangular instrument in Italy is " spinetta tavola." In 
England, from Henry VII. to Charles II., all quilled instruments 
(stromenti di penna) , without distinction as to form, were known 
as virginals. It was a common name, equivalent to the con- 
temporary Italian clavicordo and Flemish clavisingel. From the 
latter, by apocope, we arrive at the French clavecin the French 
clavier (clams, a key), a keyboard, being in its turn adopted by 
the Germans to denote any keyboard stringed instrument. 




FIG. 9. Spinetta Tavola (Virginal), 1568; Viet, and Albert 
Museum. 

Mersenne (op. cit., liv. iii., p. 158) gives three sizes for spinets 
one 25 ft. wide, tuned to the octave of the " ton de chapelle " 
( in his day a half tone above the present English medium pitch), 
one of 35 ft. tuned to the fourth below, and one of 5 ft. tuned 
to the octave below the first, the last being therefore tuned 
in unison to the chapel pitch. He says his own spinet was one 
of the smallest it was customary to make, but from the lettering 
of the keys in his drawing it would have been of the second size, 
or the spinet tuned to the fourth. The octave spinet, of trapeze 
form, was known in Italy as "ottavina" or "spinetta di 
serenata." It had a less compass of keys than the larger instru- 
ment, being apparently three and two-third octaves, E to C 
which by the " short measure " would be four octaves, C to C. 
We learn from Praetorius that these little spinets were placed 
upon the larger ones in performance; their use was to heighten 
the brilliant effect. In the double rectangular clavisingel of the 
Netherlands, in which there was a movable octave instrument, we 
recognize a similar intention. There is a fine spinet of this 




FIG. io. English Spinet (Spinetta Traversa), by Carolus Haward. 
About 1668. 

kind at Nuremberg. Praetorius illustrates the Italian spinet by 
a form known as the " spinetta traversa," an approach towards 
the long clavicembalo or harpsichord, the tuning pins being 
immediately over the keyboard. This transposed spinet, more 
powerful than the old trapeze one. became fashionable in England 
after the Restoration, Haward, Keene, Slade, Player, Baudin, the 
Hitchcocks, Mahoon, Haxby, the Harrir family, and others 



having made such " spinets " during a period for which we have 
dates from 1664 to 1784. Pepys bought his "Espinette" from 
Charles Haward for 5, July 13, 1664. 

The spinets of Keene and Player, made about 1700, have 
frequently two divided sharps at the bass* end of the keyboard, as 
in the description by Mersenne, quoted above, of a spinet with 
short, measure. Such divided sharps have been assumed to be 
quarter tones, but enharmonic intervals in the extreme bass can 
have no justification. From the tuning of Handel's Italian clavi- 
chord already mentioned, which has this peculiarity, and from 
Praetorius we find the further halves of the two divided sharps 
were the chromatic semitones, and the nearer halves the major 
thirds below i.e. the dominant fourths to the next natural keys. 
Thomas Hitchcock (for whom there are dates 1664 and 1703 
written on keys and jacks of spinets bearing Edward Blunt's 
name and having divided bass sharps) made a great advance in 
constructing spinets, giving them the wide compass of five 
octaves, from G to G, with very fine keyboards in which the 
sharps were inlaid with a slip of the ivory or ebony, as the case 
might be, of the naturals. Their instruments, always numbered, 
and not dated as has been sometimes supposed, became models 
for contemporary and subsequent English makers. 

We have now to ask what was the difference beween Scaliger's 
harpichordum and his clavicymbal. Galilei, the father of the 
astronomer of that name (Dialogo delta musica anlica e moderna, 
Florence, 1581), says that the harpichord was so named from 
having resembled an " arpa giacente," a prostrate or " couched" 
harp, proving that the clavicymbal was at first the 

6 , , ij , , Harpsichord; 

trapeze-shaped spinet; and we should therefore ciavkymbaL 
differentiate harpichord and clavicymbal as, in form, 
suggested by or derived from the harp and psaltery, or from 
a " testa di porco " and an ordinary trapeze psaltery. We are 
inclined to prefer the latter. The Latin name " clavicymbalum," 
having early been replaced by spinet and virginal, was in Italy and 
France bestowed upon the long harpichord, and was continued 
as clavicembalo (gravecembalo, or familiarly cembalo only) 
and clavecin. Much later, after the restoration of the Stuarts, 
the first name was accepted and naturalized in England as 
harpsichord, which we will define as the long instrument with 
quills, shaped like a modern grand piano, and resembling a wing, 
from which it has gained the German appellation " Fliigel." 
We can point out no long instrument of this kind so old as the 
Roman cembalo at South Kensington (fig. n). It was made by 
Geronimo of Bologna in 1521, two years before the Paris Porta- 
lupis spinet. The outer case is of finely tooled leather. It has a 
spinet keyboard with a compass of nearly four octaves, E to D. 
The natural keys are of boxwood, gracefully arcaded in front. 
The keyboard of the Italian cembalo was afterwards carried 
out to the normal four octaves. There is an existing example, 
dated 1626, with the bass keys carried out without sharps in 
long measure (unfortunately altered by a restorer). It is sur- 
prising to see with what steady persistence the Italians adhered 
to their original model in making the instrument. As late as 
the epoch of Cristofori, 1 and in his 1722 cembalo at Florence, 2 
we still find the independent outer case, the single keyboard, the 
two unisons, without power to reduce to one by using stops. 
The Italians have been as conservative with their forms of 
spinet, and are to this day with their organs. The startling 
" piano e forte " of 1598, brought to light from the records of 
the house of D'Este by Count Valdrighi of Modena, 3 after much 
consideration and a desire to find in it an anticipation of Cristo- 
fori's subsequent invention of the pianoforte, we are disposed to 
regard as an ordinary cembalo with power to shift, by a stop, 

1 In the harpsichord Cristofori made for Prince Ferdinand dei 
Medici in 1702, recently acquired by Mr Stearns, of Detroit, and 
presented by him to the University of Michigan, U.S.A., there are 
three keyboards, thus arranged: 1st, highest keyboard, octave 
string only; 2nd, middle, octave and first unison; 3rd, lowest, both 
unisons. A harpsichord similarly designed with three keyboards, 
inscribed " Vincentius Sodi Florentinus Fecit, Anno Domini 1779," 
was presented by Mrs J. Crosby Brown to the Metropolitan Museum, 
New York. 

2 In the Kraus Museum Catalogue (1901), No. 559. 

3 See Van der Straeten, vi. 122. 



5 6 4 



PIANOFORTE 



from two unisons (forte) to one string (piano), at that time a 
Flemish practice, and most likely brought to Italy by one of the 
Flemish musicians who founded the Italian school of composition. 
About the year 1600, when accompaniment was invented for 
monody, large cembalos were made for the orchestras to bring 
out the bass part, the performer standing to play. Such an 




FIG. 11. Roman Clavicembalo by Geronimo of Bologna, 1521; 

Albert Museum. 

instrument was called " archicembalo," 1 a name also applied to 
a large cembalo, made by Vito Trasuntino, a Venetian, in 1606, 
intended by thirty-one keys in each of its four octaves one 
hundred and twenty-five in all to restore the three genera of 
the ancient Greeks. How many attempts have been made 
before and since Trasuntino to purify intonation in keyboard 
instruments by multiplying keys in the octave ? Simultaneously 
with Father Smith's well-known experiment in the Temple organ, 
London, there were divided keys in an Italian harpsichord 
to gain a separate G sharp and A flat, and a separate D sharp 
and E flat. 

Double keyboards and stops in the long cembalo or harpsichord 
came into use in the Netherlands early in the i6th century. We 
find them imported into England. The following citations, 
quoted by Rimbault in his History of the Pianoforte, but imper- 
fectly understood by him, are from the privy purse expenses 
of King Henry VIII., as extracted by Sir Harris Nicolas in 

1827. 

" 1530 (April). Item the vj 
daye paied to William Lewes 
for ii payer of virginalls in one 
coffer with iiii stoppes brought to 
Grenewiche in h. And for ii 
payer of virginalls in one coffer 
brought to the More other iii Ii." 

Now the second instrument 
may be explained, virginals 
meaning any quilled instru- 
ment, as a double spinet, like 
that at Nuremberg by Martin 
van der Beest, the octave divi- 
sion being movable. But the 
first cannot be so explained; 
the four stops can only belong 
to a harpsichord, and the two 
pair instrument to a double- 
keyed one, one keyboard be- 
ing over, and not by the side 
FIG. 12. Virdung's Clavicy- of the other. Again from the 




therium (upright Harpsichord), inventory after 
1511; (reversed facsimile). 



the king's 

death (see Brit. Mus. Harl. 
MS. 1419) fol. 247 
1 Invented by Nicola Vicentino; see L'Antica musica ridotto alia 



moderna prattica (Rome, 1555). 



" Two fair pair of new long Virginalls made harp-fashion of 
Cipres, with keys of ivory, having the King's Arms crowned and 
supported by his Grace's beastes within a garter gilt, standing 
over the keys." 

We are disposed to believe that we have here another double 
keyboard harpsichord. Rimbault saw in this an upright 
instrument, such as Virdung's clavicytherium 
(fig. 12). Having since seen the one in the Kraus 
Museum, Florence, it seems that Virdung's 
drawing should not have been reversed; but he 
has mistaken the wires acting upon the jacks for 
strings, and omitted the latter stretched hori- 
zontally across the soundboard (see CLAVI- 
CYTHERIUM). We read in an inventory of the 
furniture of Warwick Castle, 1584, " a faire paire 
of double virginalls," and in the Hengrave 
inventory, 1603, " one great payre of double 
virginalls." Hans Ruckers, the great clavisingel 
maker of Antwerp, lived too late to have 
invented the double keyboard and stops, evident 
adaptions from the organ, and the octave string 
(the invention of which was so long attributed 
to him), which incorporated the octave spinet 
with the large instrument, to be henceforth 
playable without the co-operation of another per- 
former, was already in use when he began his work. 
Viet and Until the last harpsichord was made by Joseph 
Kirkman, in 1798, scarcely an instrument of the 
kind was constructed, except in Italy, without the 
octaves. The harpsichord as known throughout the i8th 
century, with piano upper and forte lower keyboard, was the 
invention of Hans Ruckers's grandson, Jean Ruckers's nephew, 
Jan Couchet, about 1640. Before that time the double keyboards 
in Flemish harpsichords were merely a transposing expedient, 
to change the pitch a fourth, from plagal to authentic and vice 
versa, while using the same groups of keys. Fortunately there is 
a harpsichord existing with double keyboards unaltered, date 
1638, belonging to Sir Bernard Samuelson, formerly in the 
possession of Mr Spence, of Florence, made by Jean Ruckers, the 
keyboards being in their original position. It was not so much 
invention as beauty of tone which made the Ruckers' harpsi- 
chords famous. The Ruckers harpsichords in the i8th century 
were fetching such prices as Bologna lutes did in the I7th or 
Cremona violins do now. There are still many specimens 
existing in Belgium, France and England. Handel had a 
Ruckers harpsichord, now in Buckingham Palace; it completes 
the number of sixty-three existing Ruckers instruments 
catalogued in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 

After the Antwerp make declined, London became pre- 
eminent for harpsichords the representative makers being 
Jacob Kirckmann and Burckhard Tschudi, pupils of a Flemish 
master, one Tabel, who had settled in London, and whose 
business Kirckmann continued through marriage with Tabel's 
widow. Tschudi was of a noble Swiss family belonging to the 
canton of Glarus. According to the custom with foreign names 
obtaining at that time, by which Haendel became Handel, 
and Schmidt Smith, Kirckmann dropped his final n and Tschudi 
became Shudi, but he resumed the full spelling in the facies of 
the splendid harpsichords he made in 1766 for Frederick the 
Great, which are still preserved in the New Palace, Potsdam. 
By these great makers the harpsichord became a larger, heavier- 
strung and more powerful instrument, and fancy stops were 
added to vary the tone effects. To the three shifting registers 
of jacks of the octave and first and second unisons were added 
the " lute," the charm of which was due to the favouring of 
high harmonics by plucking the strings close to the bridge, and 
the " harp," a surding or muting effect produced by impeding 
the vibration of the strings by contact of small pieces of buff 
leather. Two pedals were also used, the left-hand one a combina- 
tion of a unison and lute. This pedal, with the " machine " 
stop, reduced the upper keyboard to the lute register, the plectra 
of which acted upon the strings near the wrest-plank bridge 



PIANOFORTE 



565 



only, the lower keyboard to the second unison. Releasing the 
machine stop and quitting the pedal restores the first unison on 
both keyboards and the octave on the lower. The right-hand 
pedal was to raise a hinged portion of the top or cover and thus 
gain some power of " swell " or crescendo, an invention of 
Roger Plenius, 1 to whom also the harp stop may be rightly 
attributed. This ingenious harpsichord maker had been 
stimulated to gain these effects by the nascent pianoforte which, 
as we shall find, he was the first to make in England. The first 
idea of pedals for the harpsichord to act as stops appears to have 
been John Hayward's (PHaward) as early as 1676, as we learn 
from Mace's Musick's Monument, p. 235. The French makers 
preferred a kind of knee-pedal arrangement, known as the 
" genouilldre," and sometimes a more complete muting by one 
long strip of buff leather, the " sourdine." As an improvement 
upon Plenius's clumsy swell, Shudi in 1769 patented the Venetian 
swell, a framing of louvres, like a Venetian blind, which opened 
by the movement of the pedal, and becoming in England a 
favourite addition to harpsichords, was early transferred to the 
organ, in which it replaced the rude " nag's-head " swell. A 
French harpsichord maker, Marius, whose name is remembered 
from a futile attempt to design a pianoforte action, invented a 
folding harpsichord, the " clavecin brise," by which the instru- 
ment could be disposed of in a smaller space. One, which is 
preserved at Berlin, probably formed part of the camp baggage 
of Frederick the Great. 

It was formerly a custom with kings, princes and nobles 
to keep large collections of musical instruments for actual 
playing purposes, in the domestic and festive music of their 
CHstofoifs courts. There are records of their inventories, 
invention and it was to keep such a collection in playing order 
fthe that Prince Ferdinand dei Medici engaged a Paduan 

rte " harpsichord maker, Bartolommeo Cristofori, the 
man of genius who invented and produced the pianoforte. 2 
We fortunately possess the record of this invention in a 
literary form from a well-known writer, the Marchese Scipione 
Maffei; his description appeared in the Giornale dei letter ati 
d'ltalia, a publication conducted by Apostolo Zeno. The 
date of Mattel's paper was 1711. Rimbault reproduced it, 
with a technically imperfect translation, in his History of the 
Pianoforte. We learn from it that in 1709 Cristofori had 
completed four " gravecembali col piano e forte " keyed- 
psalteries with soft and loud three of them being of the long 
or usual harpsichord form. A synonym in Italian for the 
original cembalo (or psaltery) is " salterio," and if it were struck 
with hammers it became a '' salterio tedesco " (the German 
hackbrett, or chopping board), the latter being the common 
dulcimer. Now the first notion of a pianoforte is a dulcimer 
with keys, and we may perhaps not be wrong in supposing that 
there had been many attempts and failures to put a keyboard 
to a dulcimer or hammers to a harpsichord before Cristofori 
successfully solved the problem. The sketch of his action in 
Maffei's essay shows an incomplete stage in the invention, 
although the kernel of it the principle of escapement or the 
controlled rebound of the hammer is already there. He obtains 
it by a centred lever (linguetta mobile) or hopper, working, when 
the key is depressed by the touch, in a small projection from 
the centred hammer-butt. The return, governed by a spring, 
must have been uncertain and incapable of further regulating 
than could be obtained by modifying the strength of the spring. 

1 Mace describes a primitive swell contrivance for an organ 
65 years before Plenius took out his patent (1741). 

1 The invention of the piano by Cristofori, and him alone, is now 
past discussion. What is still required to satisfy curiosity would be 
the discovery of a Fort Bien or Frederici square piano, said to ante- 
date by a year or two Zumpe's invention of the instrument in London. 
The name Fort Bien was derived, consciously or unconsciously, from 
the Saxon German peculiarity of interchanging B and P. Among 
Mozart's effects at the time of his death was a Forte-Bia.no mil 
Pedal (see Vierzehnter jahrlicher Bericht des Mozarteum, " Salzburg," 
Dec. 19, 1791). Also wanted is the "old movement " for the long 
or grand pianos, sometimes quoted in the Broadwood day-books 
of the last quarter of the 1 8th century with reference to the 
displacement by the Backers English action. 



Moreover, the hammer had each time to be raised the entire 
distance of its fall. There are, however, two pianofortes by 
Cristofori, dated repectively 1720 and 1726, which show a 
much improved, we may even say a perfected, construction, 
for the whole of an essential piano movement is there. The 
earlier instrument (now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York) 
has undergone considerable restoration, the original hollow 
hammer-head having been replaced by a modern one, and the 
hammer-butt, instead of being centred by means of the holes 
provided by Cristofori himself for the purpose, having been 
lengthened by a leather hinge screwed to the block;* but the 
1726 one, which is in the Kraus Museum at Florence, retains 
the original leather hammer-heads. Both instruments possess 
alike a contrivance for determining the radius of the hopper, 
and both have been unexpectedly found to have the " check " 
(Ital. paramartello) , which regulates the fall of the hammer 
according to the strength of the blow which has impelled it to 
the strings. After this discovery of the actual instruments of 
Cristofori there can be no longer doubt as to the attribution of 
the invention to him in its initiation and its practical comple- 
tion with escapement and check. To Cristofori we are indebted, 
not only for the power of playing piano and forte, but for 
the infinite variations of tone, or nuances, which render the 
instrument so delightful. 

But his problem was not solved by the devising of a working 
action; there was much more to be done to instal the pianoforte 
as a new musical instrument. The resonance, that most subtle 




FIG. 13. Cristofori's Escapement Action, 1720. Restored in 
1875 by Cesare Ponsicchi. 

and yet all-embracing factor, had been experimentally developed 
to a certain perfection by many generations of spinet and harpsi- 
chord makers, but the resistance structure had to be thought out 
again. Thicker stringing, rendered indispensable to withstand 
even Cristofori's light hammers, demanded in its turn a stronger 
framing than the harpsi- 
chord had needed. To 
make his structure firm 
he considerably increased 
the strength of the block 
which holds the tuning- 
pins, and as he could not 
do so without materially 
adding to its thickness, he 
adopted the bold expedient 
of inverting it; driving his 
wrest-pins, harp-fashion, 
through it, so that tuning 
was effected at their 
upper, while the wires 
were attached to their 
lower, ends. Then, to 
guarantee the security of 
the case, he ran an 
independent string - block 
-und it of stouter wood Fl ^^ 
than had been used in 

harpsichords, in which block the hitch-pins were driven to 
hold the farther ends of the strings, which were spaced at 
3 Communicated by Baron -Alexander Kraus (May 1908). 




5 66 



PIANOFORTE 



equal distances (unlike the harpsichord), the dampers lying 
between the pairs of unisons. 

Cristofori died in 1731. He had pupils, 1 but did not found a 
school of Italian pianoforte-making, perhaps from the peculiar 
Italian conservatism in musical instruments we have already 
remarked upon. The essay of Scipione Maffei was translated 
into German, in 1725, by Konig, the court poet at Dres- 
den, and friend of Gottfried Silbermann, the renowned organ 
builder and harpsichord and clavichord maker. 2 Incited by 
this publication, and perhaps by having seen in Dresden one of 
Cristofori's pianofortes, Silbermann appears to have 
Stibcrmann, ta k en U p tne new instrument, and in 1726 to have 
manufactured two, which J. S. Bach, according to his pupil 
Agricola, pronounced failures. The trebles were too weak; 
the touch was too heavy. There has long been another version 
to this story, viz. that Silbermann borrowed the idea of his 
action from a very simple model contrived by a young musician 
named Schroeter, who had left it at the electoral court in 1721, 
and, quitting Saxony to travel, had not afterwards claimed it. 
It may be so; but Schroeter's letter, printed in Mitzler's 
Bibliothek, dated 1738, is not supported by any other evidence 
than the recent discovery of an altered German harpsichord, 
the hammer action of which, in its simplicity, may have been 
taken from Schroeter's diagram, and would sufficiently account 
for the condemnation of Silbermann 's earliest pianofortes if 
he had made use of it. In either case it is easy to distinguish 
between the lines of Schroeter's interesting communications 
(to Mitzler, and later to Marpurg) the bitter disappointment 
he felt in being left out of the practical development of so 
important an instrument. 

But, whatever Silbermann's first experiments were based upon, 
it was ascertained, by the investigations of A. J. Hipkins, that 
he, when successful, adopted Cristofori's pianoforte without 
further alteration than the compass and colour of the keys 
and the style of joinery of the case. In the Silbermann grand 
pianofortes, in the three palaces at Potsdam, known to have been 
Frederick the Great's, and to have been acquired by that 
monarch prior to J. S. Bach's visit to him in 1747, we find the 
Cristofori framing, stringing, inverted wrest-plank and action 
complete. Fig. 15 represents the instrument on which J. S. 
Bach played in the Town Palace, Potsdam. 



Mahillon of Brussels, however, acquired a Frederici " upright 

grand " piano, dated 1745 (fig. 16). In Frederici's upright grand 

action we have not to do with the 

ideas of either Cristofori or Schroeter; 

the movement is practically identical 

with the hammer action of a Ger- 
man clock, and has its counterpart 

in a piano at Nuremberg; a fact which 

needs further elucidation. We note 

here the earliest example of the leather 

hinge, afterwards so common in piano 

actions and only now going out of use. 

Where are we to look for Schroeter's 

copyist if not found in Silbermann, 

Frederici, or, as we shall presently see, 

perhaps J. G. Wagner? It might be 

in the harpsichord we have mentioned, 

which, made in 1712 by one Brock for 

the elector of Hanover (afterwards 

George I. of England), was by him 

presented to the Pro- ti 

testant pastor of Schulen- J_ 

berg, near Hanover, and LJ 

has since been rudely F IG - 1 6 Frederici's Upright Grand 

altered into a pianoforte c ^u Action, "745- In the museum 

(fig. 17). There is an 

altered harpsichord in the museum at Basel which appears 

to have been no more successful. But an attempted com- 
bination of harpsichord and pianoforte appears as a very early 
intention. The English poet Mason, the friend 
of Gray, bought such an instrument at Ham- 
burg in 1755, with "the cleverest mechanism 
imaginable." 

It was only under date of 1763 that Schroeter 3 
published for the first time a diagram of his pro- 






FIG. 15. Silbermann Forte Piano; Stadtschloss, Potsdam, 1746. 



It has been repeatedly stated in Germany that Frederici, of 

Gera in Saxony, an organ builder and musical instrument 

maker, invented the square or table-shaped piano, 

the " fort bien," as he is said to have called it, about 

1758-1760. No square piano by this maker is forthcoming, 

though an " upright grand " piano, made by Domenico del 

Mela in 1739, with an action adapted from Cristofori's has 

been discovered by Signer Ponsicchi of Florence. Victor 

1 See Cesare Ponsicchi, // Pianoforte, sua origine e sviluppo 
(Florence, 1876), p. 37. 

'This translation, published at Hamburg and reproduced in 
extenso, may be read in Dr Oscar Paul's Geschichte des Claviers 
(Leipzig, 1868). 



FIG. 17. Hammer and Lifter of altered Harpsichord by Brock. 
Instrument in the collection of Mr Kendrick Pyne, Manchester. 

posed invention, designed more than forty years 
before. It appeared in Marpurg's Krilische Briefe 
(Berlin, 1764). Now, immediately after, 
Johann Zumpe, a German in London, who 
had been one of Shudi's workmen, invented 
or introduced (for there is some tradition that Mason 
had to do with the invention of it) 4 a square piano, 
which was to become the most popular domestic 
instrument. It would seem that Zumpe was in fact 
not the inventor of the square piano, which appears 
to have been well known in Germany before his 
date, a discovery made by Mr George Rose. In 
Paul de Wit's Musical Instrument Museum formerly 
in Leipzig, now transferred to Cologne there is a 
small square piano, 27 in. long, 10 in. wide and 
4! in. high, having a contracted keyboard of 
3 octaves and 2 notes. The action of this small instrument 
is practically identical in every detail with that of the square 
pianofortes made much later by Zumpe (Paul de Wit, Katalog 
des musikhistorischen Museums, Leipzig, 1903. No. 55, 
illustration, p. 38). Inside is inscribed: " Friedrich Hildebrandt, 
Instrumentenmacher in Leipzig, Quergasse," with four figures 
* For arguments in favour of Schroeter's claim to the invention 
of the pianoforte see Dr Oscar Paul, op. cit. pp. 85-104, who was 
answered by A. J. Hipkins in Grove's Diet, of Music and Musicians. 

4 Mason really invented the " celestina " (known as Adam 
Walker's patent No. 1020), as we know from the correspondence 
of Mary Granville. Under date of the nth of January 1775 she des. 
cribes this invention as a short harpsichord 2 ft. long, but played 
with the right hand only. The left hand controlled a kind of violin- 
bow, which produced a charming sostinente, in character of tone 
between the violin tone and that of musical glasses. 



PIANOFORTE 



567 



almost illegible. Paul de Wit refers the instrument to the 
middle of the i8th century. It has all the appearance of being 
a reduced copy of a well-established type, differing very little 
from the later models, except that it has no dampers. It 
seems probable that this small instrument is a converted 
clavichord, and that the action may have been suggested by 
Schroeter's model, left in 1721 at the Electoral Court of Saxony. 
Burney tells us all about Zumpe; and his instruments still 
existing would fix the date of the first at about 1765. Fetis 
narrates, however, that he began the study of the piano on 
a square piano made by Zumpe in 1762. In his simple "old 
man's head " action we have the nearest approach to a realiza- 
tion of Schroeter's simple idea. It will be observed that 
Schroeter's damper would stop all vibration at once. This 
defect is overcome by Zumpe's " mopstick " damper. 

Another piano action had, however, come into use about that 
time or even earlier in Germany. The discovery of it in the 
stein simplest form is to be attributed to V. C. Mahillon, 
who found it in a square piano belonging to Henri 
Gosselin, painter, of Brussels. The principle of this action is 
that which was later perfected by the addition of a good escape- 
ment by Stein of Augsburg, and was again later experimented 




FIG. 18. Schroeter's Model for an Action, 1721. 

upon by Sebastian Erard. Its origin is perhaps due to the 
contrivance of a piano action that should suit the shallow clavi- 
chord and permit of its transformation into a square piano; 
a transformation, Schroeter tells us, had been going on when he 




FIG. 19. Zumpe's Square Piano Action, 1766. 

wrote his complaint. It will be observed that the hammer is, 
as compared with other actions, reversed, and the axis rises 
with the key, necessitating a fixed means for raising the hammer, 
in this action effected by a rail against which the hammer 




FIG. 20. Old Piano Action on the German principle of Escape- 
ment. Square Piano belonging to M. Gosselin, Brussels. 

is jerked up. It was Stein's merit to graft the hopper principle 
upon this simple action; and Mozart's approbation of the inven- 
tion, when he met with it at Augsburg in 1777, is expressed in a 
well-known letter addressed to his mother. No more " blocking " 
of the hammer, destroying all vibration, was henceforth to vex 
his mind. He had found the instrument that for the rest of 
his short life replaced the harpsichord. V. C. Mahillon secured 
for his museum the only Johann Andreas Stein piano which 



is known to remain. It is from Augsburg, dated 1780, and has 
Stein's escapement action, two unisons, and the knee pedal, 
then and later common in Germany. 

Mozart's own grand piano, preserved at Salzburg, and the 
two grand pianos (the latest dated 1790) by Huhn of Berlin, 
preserved at Berlin and Charlottenburg, because they had 




FIG. 21. Stein's Action (the earliest so-called Viennese), 1780. 
belonged to Queen Luise of Prussia, follow Stein in all 
particulars. These instruments have three unisons upwards, 
and the muting movement known as celeste, which no doubt 
Stein had also. The wrest-plank is not inverted; nor is there any 
imitation of Cristofori. We may regard Stein, coming after the 
Seven Years' War which had devastated Saxony, as the German 
reinventor of the grand piano. Stein's instrument was accepted 
as a model, as we have seen, in Berlin as well as Vienna, to 
which city his business was transferred in 1794 by his daughter 
Nanette, known as an accomplished pianist and friend of 
Beethoven, who at that time used Stein's pianos. She had 
her brother in the business with her, and had already, in 1793, 
married J. A. Streicher, a pianist from Stuttgart, and distin- 
guished as a personal friend of Schiller. In 1802, the brother and 
sister dissolving partnership, Streicher began himself to take 
his full share of the work, and on Stein's lines improved the 
Viennese instrument, so popular for many years and famous 
for its lightness of touch, which contributed to the special 
character of the Viennese school of pianoforte playing. Since 
1862, when Steinway's example caused a complete revolution 
in German and Austrian piano-making, the old wooden cheap 
grand piano has died out. We will quit the early German 
piano with an illustration (fig. 22) of an early square piano 




FIG. 22. German Square Action, 1783. 
Dresden. 



Piano by Wagner, 



action in an instrument made by Johann Gottlob Wagner of 
Dresden in 1783. This interesting discovery of Mahillon's 
introduces us to a rude imitation (in the principle) of Cristofori, 
and it appears to have no relation whatever to the dock-hammer 
motion seen in Frederici's. 

Burney, who lived through the period of the displacemsnt of 
the harpsichord by the pianoforte, is the only authority to 
whom we can refer as to the introduction of the latter instrument 
into England. He tells us, 1 in his gossiping way, The piano- 
that the first hammer harpsichord that came to forte la 
England was made by an English monk at Rome, BaglaaA 
a Father Wood, for an English gentleman, Samuel Crisp of 
Chesington; the tone of this instrument was superior to that 
produced by quills, with the added power of the shades of piano 
and forte, so that, although the touch and mechanism were 
so imperfect that nothing quick could be executed upon it, yet 
in a slow movement like the " Dead March " in Saul it excited 
wonder and delight. Fulke Greville afterwards bought this 
instrument for 100 guineas, and it remained unique in England 
for several years, until Plenius, the inventor of the lyrichord, 
made a pianoforte in imitation of it. In this instrument the 
touch was better, but the tone was inferior. We have no date 
for Father Wood. Plenius produced his lyrichord, a sostenente 

1 Rees's New Cyclopaedia, art. " Harpsichord." 



5 68 



PIANOFORTE 



harpsichord, in 1745. When Mason imported a pianoforte in 
1755, Fulke Greville's could have been no longer unique. The 
Italian origin of Father Wood's piano points to a copy of Cristofori, 
but the description of its capabilities in no way confirms this 
supposition, unless we adopt the very possible theory that the 
instrument had arrived out of order and there was on one in 
London who could put it right, or would perhaps divine that it 
was wrong. Burney further tells us that the arrival in London 
of J. C. Bach in 1759 was the motive for several of the second- 
rate harpsichord makers trying to make pianofortes, but with 
no particular success. Of these Americus Backers (d. 1776), 
said to be a Dutchman, appears to have gained the 
e ' first place. He was afterwards the inventor of 
the so-called English action, and as this action is based upon 
Cristofori's we may suppose he at first followed Sllbermann in 




FIG. 23. Grand Piano Action, 1776. The " English " action of 
Americus Backers. 

copying the original inventor. There is an old play-bill of 
Covent Garden in Messrs Broad wood's possession dated the 
i6th of May 1767, which has the following announcement: 
"End of Act I. Miss Brickler will sing a favourite song from 
Judith, accompanied by Mr Dibdin on a new instrument call'd 
Piano Forte." 

The mind at once reverts to Backers as the probable maker 
of this novelty. Backers's "Original Forte Piano" was played 
at the Thatched House in St James's Street, London, in 1773. 
Ponsicchi has found a Backers grand piano at Pistoria, dated 
that year. It was Backers who produced the action continued 
in the direct principle by the firm of Broadwood, or with the 
reversed lever and hammer-butt introduced by the firm of 
Collard in 1835. 

The escapement lever 5s suggested by Cristofori's first action, 
to which Backers has added a contrivance for regulating it by 
means of a button and screw. The check is from 
Cristofori's second action. No more durable action 
has been constructed, and it has always been found 
equal, whether made in England or abroad, to the demands of the 




FIG. 24. Broadwood's Grand Piano Action, 1884. English direct 

mechanism. 

most advanced virtuosi. John Broadwood and Robert Stodart 
were friends, Stodart having been Broadwood's pupil; and they 



were the assistants of Backers in the installation of his invention. 
On his deathbed he commended it to Broadwood's care, but 
Stodart appears to have been the first to advance it Broadwood 
being probably held back by his partnership with his brother- 
in-law, the son of Shudi, in the harpsichord business. (The elder 
Shudi had died in 1773.) Stodart soon made a considerable repu- 
tation with his " grand " pianofortes, a designation he was the first 
to give them. In Stodart's grand piano we first find an adapta- 
tion from the lyrichord of Plenius, of steel arches between the 




FIG. 25. Collard's Grand Piano Action, 1884. English action, 
with reversed hopper and contrivance for repetition added. 

wrest -plank and belly-rail, bridging the gap up which the ham- 
mers rise, in itself an important cause of weakness. These are 
not found in any contemporary German instruments, but may 
have been part of Backers's. 

Imitation of the harpsichord by "octaving" was at this time 
an object with piano makers. Zumpe's small square piano had 
met with great succcess; he was soon enabled to retire, and his 
imitators, who were legion, continued his model with its hand 
stops for the dampers and sourdine, with little change but that 
which straightened the keys from the divergences inherited from 
the clavichord. John Broadwood took this domestic instrument 
first in hand to improve it, and in the year 1780 succeeded in 
entirely reconstructing it. He transferred the wrest-plank and 
pins from the right-hand side, as in the clavichord, to the back 
of the case, an improvement universally adopted after his patent, 
No. 1379 of 1783, expired. In this patent we first find the 
damper and piano pedals, since universally accepted, but at first in 
the grand pianofortes only. Zumpe's action remaining with an 
altered damper, another inventor, John Geib, patented (No. 
1571 of 1786) the hopper with two separate escapements, one 
of which soon became adopted in the grasshopper of the square 
piano, it is believed by Geib himself; and Petzold, a Paris maker, 
appears to have taken later to the escapement effected upon the 
key. We may mention here that the square piano was developed 
and continued in England until about the year 1860, when it 
went out of fashion. 

To return to John Broadwood having launched his recon- 
structed square piano, he next turned his attention to the grand 
piano to continue the improvement of it from the point where 
Backers had left it. The grand piano was in framing and 
resonance entirely on the harpsichord principle, the sound-board 
bridge being still continued in one undivided length. The 
strings, which were of brass wire in the bass, descended in notes 
of three unisons to the lowest note of the scale. Tension was 
left to chance, and a reasonable striking line or place for the 
hammers was not thought of. Theory requires that the notes 
of octaves should be multiples in the ratio of i to 2, by which, 
taking the treble clef C at one foot, the lowest F of the five- 
octave scale would require a vibrating length between the 
bridges of 1 2 ft. As only half this length could be conveniently 
afforded, we see at once a reason for the above-mentioned 
deficiencies. Only the three octaves of the treble, which had 
lengths practically ideal, could be tolerably adjusted. Then 
the striking-line, which should be at an eighth or not less than a 
ninth or tenth of the vibrating length, and had never been 
cared for in the harpsichord, was in the lowest two octaves 
out of all proportion, with corresponding disadvantage to the 
tone. John Broadwood did not venture alone upon the path 



PIANOFORTE 



5 6 9 



towards rectifying these faults. He called in the aid of professed 
men of science Tiberius Cavallo, who in 1788 published his 
calculations of the tension, and Dr Gray, of the British Museum. 
The problem was solved by dividing the sound-board bridge, 
the lower half of which was advanced to carry the bass strings, 
which were still of brass. The first attempts to equalize the 
tension and improve the striking-place were here set forth, to 
the great advantage of the instrument, which in its wooden 
construction might now be considered complete. The greatest 
pianists of that epoch, except Mozart and Beethoven, were 
assembled in London dementi, who first gave the pianoforte 
its own character, raising it from being a mere variety of the 
harpsichord, his pupils Cramer and for a time Hummel, later 
on John Field, and also the brilliant virtuosi Dussek and Steibelt. 
To please Dussek, Broadwood in 1791 carried his five-octave, 
F to F, keyboard, by adding keys upwards, to five and a half 
octaves, F to C. In 1794 the additional bass half octave to C, 
which Shudi had first introduced in his double harpsichords, 
was given to the piano. Steibelt, while in England, instituted 
the familiar signs for the employment of the pedals, which 
owes its charm to excitement of the imagination instigated by 
power over an acoustical phenomenon, the sympathetic vibra- 
tion of the strings. In 1 799 Clementi founded a pianoforte 
manufactory, to be subsequently developed and carried on by 
Messrs Collard. 

The first square piano made in France is said to have been 
constructed in 1776 by Sebastian Erard, a young Alsatian. 
In 1786 he came to England and founded the 
London manufactory of harps and pianofortes 
bearing his name. That eminent mechanician and inventor 
is said to have at first adopted for his pianos the English models. 



Erard. 




FIG. 26. Erard's Double Escapement Action, 1884. The double 
escapement or repetition is effected by a spring in the balance press- 
ing the hinged lever upwards, to allow the hopper which delivers the 
blow to return to its position under the nose of the hammer, before 
the key has risen again. 

However, in 1794 and 1801, as is shown by his patents, he was 
certainly engaged upon the elementary action described as 
appertaining to Gosselin's piano, of probably German origin. 
In his long-continued labour of inventing and constructing 
a double escapement action, Erard appears to have sought to 
combine the English power of gradation of tone with the German 
lightness of touch. He took out his first patent for a " repeti- 
tion" action in 1808, claiming for it " the power of giving 
repeated strokes without missing or failure, by very small 
angular motions of the key itself." He did not, however, 
succeed in producing his famous repetition or double escapement 
action until 1821; it was then patented by his nephew Pierre 
Erard, who, when the patent expired in England in 1835, proved 
a loss from the difficulties of carrying out the invention, which 
induced the House of Lords to grant an extension of the 
patent. 

Erard invented in 1808 an upward bearing to the wrest-plank 
bridge, by means of agraffes or studs of metal through holes 
in which the strings are made to pass, bearing against the upper 
side. The wooden bridge with down-bearing strings is clearly 
not in relation with upward-striking hammers, the tendency 
of which must be to raise the strings from the bridge, to the 
detriment of the tone. A long brass bridge on this principle 



was introduced by William Stodart in 1822. A pressure-bar 
bearing of later introduction is claimed for the French maker, 
Bord. The first to see the importance of iron sharing with 
wood (ultimately almost supplanting it) in pianoforte framing 
was a native of England and a civil engineer by amw u lu , 
profession, John Isaac Hawkins, known as the 
inventor of the ever-pointed pencil. He was living at Phila- 
delphia, U.S.A., when he invented and first produced the familiar 




FIG. 27. Steinway's Grand Piano Action, 1884. The double 
escapement as in Erard's, but with shortened balance and usual 
check. 

cottage pianoforte " portable grand " as he then called it. 
He patented it in America, his father, Isaac Hawkins, taking 
out the patent for him in England in the same year, 1800. 
It will be observed that the illustration here given (fig. 28) 
represents a wreck; but a draughtsman's restoration might be 
open to question. 

There had been upright grand pianos as well as upright 
harpsichords, the horizontal instrument being turned up upon 
its wider end and a keyboard and action adapted to it. William 
Southwell, an Irish piano-maker, had in 1798 tried a similar 
experiment with a square piano, to be repeated in later years 
by W. F. Collard of London; but Hawkins was the first to make 
a piano, or pianino, with the strings descending to the floor, 
the keyboard being raised, and this, although at the moment 
the chief, was not his only merit. He anticipated nearly every 







FIG. 28. Hawkins's Portable Grand Piano, 1800. An upright 
instrument, the original of the modern cottage piano or pianino. 
In Messrs Broadwood's museum and unrestored. 

discovery that has since been introduced as novel. His 
instrument (fig. 28) is in a complete iron frame, independent 
of the case; and in this frame, strengthened by a system of iron 
resistance rods combined with an iron upper bridge, his sound- 
board is entirely suspended. An apparatus for tuning by 
mechanical screws regulates the tension of the strings, which 
are of equal length throughout. The action, in metal supports, 
anticipates Wornum's in the checking, and still later ideas in 
a contrivance for repetition. This remarkable bundle of inven- 
tions was brought to London and exhibited by Hawkins himself; 



570 



PIANOFORTE 



Alh-n. 



but the instrument being poor in the tone failed to bring him 
pecuniary reward or the credit he deserved. Southwell appears 
to have been one of the first to profit by Hawkins's ideas by 
bringing out the high cabinet pianoforte, with hinged sticker 
action, in 1807. All that he could, however, patent in it was 
the simple damper action, turning on a pivot to relieve the 
dampers from the strings, which is still frequently used with 
such actions. The next steps for producing the lower or cottage 
upright piano were taken by Robert Wornum, who in 1811 
produced a diagonally, and in 1813 a vertically, strung one. 
Wornum's perfected crank action (fig. 29) was not complete 
until 1826, when it was patented for a cabinet piano; but it was 
not really introduced until three years later, 
when Wornum applied it to his little " piccolo." 
The principle of this centred lever check action 
was introduced into Paris by Pleyel 1 and Pape, 
and thence into Germany and America. 

It was not, however, from Hawkins's inven- 
tion that iron became introduced as essential to 
the structure of a pianoforte. This 
was due to William Allen, a young 
Scotsman in the employ of the Stodarts. He 
devised a metal system of framing intended 
primarily for compensation, but soon to become, 
in other hands, a framing for resistance. His 
idea was to meet the divergence in tuning caused 
in brass and iron strings by atmospheric changes 
by compensating tubes and plates of the same 
metals, guaranteeing their stability by a cross 
batoning of stout wooden bars and a metal bar 
across the wrest-plank. Allen, being simply a 
tuner, had not the full practical knowledge for 
carrying out the idea. He had to ally himself 
with Stodart's foreman, Thorn; and Allen and 
Thorn patented the invention in January 1820. 

The firm of Stodart at once acquired , 

the patent. I 

We have now arrived " 
at an important epoch 
in pianoforte construc- 
tion the abolition, at 
least in England and 
France, of the wooden 





FIG. 29. Wornum's 
Upright Action, 1826. 
The original of the now 
universal crank action 
in upright pianos. 



construction in favour of a combined construc- 
tion of iron and wood, the 
former material gradually as- 
serting pre-eminence. Allen's 
design is shown in fig. 30. The 
long bars shown in the diagram 
are really tubes fixed at one end 
only; those of iron lie over 
the iron or steel wire, while 
those of brass lie over the 
brass wire, the metal plates 
to which they are attached 
being in the same corre- 
spondence. At once a great 
advance was made in the pos- 
sibility of using heavier strings 
than could be stretched before, 
without danger to the dur- 

ability of the case and frame. 

FIG. 30. Allen's Compensating The nexl ste P was in 1821, to 
Grand Piano, 1820. The first a fixed iron string-plate, the 
complete metal framing system invention of one of Broad- 
apphed over the stnngs. wood>s workmen; Samuel 

Hewe, which was in the first instance applied to one of the 
square pianos of that firm. The great advantage in the fixed 
plate was a more even solid counterpoise to the drawing or 
tension of the strings and the abolition of their undue length 

1 Pleyel exhibited a small upright piano in Paris in 1827. Pierre 
Erard did not turn his attention to upright pianos until 1831. 



behind the bridge, a reduction which Isaac Carter 2 had tried some 
years before, but unsuccessfully, to accomplish with a plate of 
wood. So generally was attention now given to improved 
methods of resistance that it has not been found possible to de- 
termine who first practically introduced those long iron or steel 
resistance bars which are so familiar a feature in modern 
grand pianos. They were experimented on as substitutes for 
the wooden bracing by Joseph Smith in 1798; but to James 
Broadwood belongs the credit of trying them first above the 
sound-board in the treble part of the scale as long ago as 1808, 
and again in 1818; he did not succeed, however, in fixing them 
properly. The introduction of fixed resistance bars is really 
due to observation of Allen's compensating tubes, which were, 
at the same time, resisting. Sebastian and Pierre Erard seem 
to have been first in the field in 1823 with a complete system of 
nine resistance bars from treble to bass, with a simple mode of 
fastening them through the sound-board to the wooden beams 
beneath, but, although these bars appear in their patent of 
1824, which chiefly concerned their repetition action, the Erards 
did not either in France or England claim them as of original 
invention, nor is there any string-plate combined with them 
in their patent. James Broadwood, by his patent of 1827, 
claimed the combination of string-plate and resistance bars, 
which was clearly the completion of the wood and metal instru- 
ment, differing from Allen's in the nature of the resistance being 
fixed. Broadwood, however, left the brass bars out, but added 
a fourth bar in the middle to the three in the treble he had 
previously used. It must be borne in mind that it was the 
trebles that gave way in the old wooden construction before the 
tenor and bass of the instrument. But the weight of the 
stringing was always increasing, and a heavy close overspinning 
of the bass strings had become general. The resistance bars 
were increased to five, six, seven, eight and, as we have seen, 
even nine, according to the ideas of the different English and 
French makers who used them in their pursuit of stability. 

The next important addition to the grand piano in order of 
time was the harmonic bar of Pierre Erard, introduced in 1838. 
This was a gun-metal bar of alternate pressing and drawing 
power by means of screws which were tapped into the wrest- 
plank immediately above 
the treble bearings, mak- 
ing that part of the instru- 
ment nearly immovable; 
this favoured the produc- 
tion of higher harmonics 
to the treble notes, recog- 
nized in what we com- 
monly call " ring." A 
similar bar, subsequently 
extended by Broadwood 
across the entire wrest- 
plank, was to prevent 
any tendency in the 
wrest-plank to rise, from 
the combined upward 
drawing of the strings. A 
method of fastening the 
strings on the string-plate 
depending upon friction, 
and thus dispensing with 
" eyes," was a contri- 
bution of the Collards, 
who had retained James 
Stewart, a man of con- 
siderable inventive power, FlG . 31. Broad wood's Iron Grand 
who had been in America Piano, 1884. Complete iron frame with 
with Chickering. This diagonal resistance bar. 
invention was introduced in 1827. Between 1847 and 1849 

2 Sometime foreman to the pianoforte maker Mott, who attracted 
much attention by a piano with sostenente effect, produced by a 
roller and silk attachments in 1817. But a sostenente piano, how- 
ever perfect, is no longer a true piano such as Beethoven and Chopin 
wrote for. 




PIANOFORTE 



Mr Henry Fowler Broadwood, son of James, and grandson of 
John Broadwood, and also great-grandson of Shudi (Tschudi), 
invented a grand pianoforte to depend practically upon iron, in 
which, to avoid the conspicuous inequalities caused by the break- 
ing of the scale with resistance bars, there should be no bar 
parallel to the strings except a bass bar, while another flanged 
resistance bar, as an entirely novel feature, crossed over the 
strings from the bass corner of the wrest-plank to a point upon 
the string-plate where the greatest accumulation of tension 
strain was found. Broadwood did not continue, without some 
compromise, this extreme renunciation of ordinary resistance 
means. After the Great Exhibition of 1851 he employed an 
ordinary straight bar in the middle of his concert grand scale, 
his smaller grands having frequently two such as well as the 
long bass bar. After 1862 he covered his wrest-plank with a 
thick plate of iron into which the tuning pins screw as well as 
into the wood beneath, thus avoiding the crushing of the wood 
by the constant pressure of the pin across the pull of the string, 
an ultimate source of danger to durability. 

The introduction of iron into pianoforte structure was differ- 
ently and independently effected in America, the fundamental 
idea there being to use a single casting for the metal plate and 
bars, instead of forging or casting them in separate pieces. 
Alphaeus Babcock was the pioneer to this 
kind of metal construction. He also was 
bitten with the compensation notion, and 
had cast an iron ring for a square piano 
in 1825, which, although not a success, 

O/ v / gave the clue to a single casting resis- 

\ j / tance framing, successfully accomplished 

by Conrad Meyer, in Philadelphia, in 
1833, in a square piano which still exists, 
and was shown in the Paris Exhibition 
of 1878. Meyer's idea was improved 
upon by Jonas Chickering (1797-1853) of 
Boston, who applied it to the grand piano 
as well as to the square, and brought the 
principle up to a high degree of perfection 
establishing by it the independent con- 
struction of the American pianoforte. 

We have now to do with over- or 
cross-stringing, by which the bass division 
of the strings is made to cross 
over the tenor part of the 
scale in a single, double or 
treble disposition at diverging angles 
the object being in the first instance to 
get longer bass strings than are attainable 
in a parallel scale, and in the next to 
open out the scale and extend the area 
32. Meyer's of bridge pressure on the sound-board. 
In the i8th century clavichords were 
sometimes overstrung in the lowest octave 
to get a clearer tone in that very indistinct 
part of the instrument (strings tuned an octave higher being 
employed). The first suggestion for the overstringing in the 
piano was made by the celebrated flute-player and inventor 
Theobald Boehm, who carried it beyond theory in London, in 
1831, by employing a small firm located in Cheapside, Gerock & 
Wolf, to make some overstrung pianos for him. Boehm expected 
to gain in tone; Pape, an ingenious mechanician in Paris, tried 
a like experiment to gain economy in dimensions, his notion 
being to supply the best piano possible with the least outlay of 
means. Tomkinson in London continued Pape's model, but 
neither Boehm's nor Pape's took permanent root. The Great 
Exhibition of 1851 contained a grand piano, made by Lichtenthal 
of St Petersburg, overstrung in order to gain symmetry by two 
angle sides to the case. It was regarded as a curiosity only. 
Later, in 1855, Henry Engelhard Stein way (originally Stein weg; 
1797-1871), who had emigrated from Brunswick to 
way ' New York in 1849, and had established the firm of 
Steinway & Sons in 1853 in that city, effected the combination 




Over- 
stringing. 



FIG. 

Metal Frame for a 
Square Piano, 1833. 
In a single casting. 



of an overstrung scale with the American iron frame, which 
exhibited in grand and square instruments shown in London 
in the International Exhibition of 1862, excited the attention of 
European pianoforte makers, leading ultimately to important 
results. The Chickering firm claim to have anticipated the 
Steinways in this invention. They assert that Jonas Chickering 
had begun a square piano on this combined system in 1853, but, 
he died before it was completed, and it was brought out later. 
It is often difficult to adjudicate upon the claims of inventors, 
so rarely is an invention the product of one man's mind alone. 
However, the principle was taken up and generally adopted in 
America and Germany, and found followers elsewhere, not only 
in grand but in upright pianos, to the manufacture of which 
it gave, and particularly in Germany, a powerful impetus. 




FIG. 33. Steinway's Grand Piano, 1884. Metal framing in a 
single casting and overstrung. 

Since 1885 the American system of a metal plate in one casting, 
and cross- or over-stringing by which the spun bass strings 
cross the longer steel diagonally, has become general Recent 
in Europe with the exception of France, where structural 
musical taste has remained constant to the older Changes. 
wooden structure and parallel stringing throughout. The greater 
tenacity of the modern cast-steel wire favours a very much 
higher tension, and consequent easier production of the 
higher partials of the notes, permitting a sostenuto unknown 
to Beethoven, Schumann or Chopin. While in 1862 the highest 
tension of a concert grand piano worked out at sixteen tons, 
since 1885 thirty tons has been recorded. Generally speaking, 
the rise in tension may be expressed musically by the interval 
of a minor third, to the great advantage of the standing in tune. 
First shown by Henry Steinway in the London Exhibition of 
1862, this altered construction attracted extraordinary attention 
at Paris in 1867, and determined the German direction of 
manufacture and a few years later the English. What is now 
particularly noticeable wherever pianos are made is the higher 
average of excellence attained in making, as well as in piano- 
playing. Naturally the artistic quality, the personal note, 
characterizes all first-class instruments, and permits that liberty 
of choice which appertains to a true conception of art. 

Much attention has been given of late years to the touch of 
pianos, to make it less tiring for the modern performer, especially 
since, in 1885-1886, Anton Rubinstein went through the hercu- 
lean feat of seven consecutive historical recitals, repeated in the 
capital cities and principal musical centres of Europe. For even 
this stupendous player a light touch was indispensable. In 



572 



PIANOFORTE 



the competition for power piano makers had been gradually 
increasing the weight of touch to be overcome by the finger, 
until, to obtain the faintest pianissimo from middle C, at the 
front edge of the key, from three to four ounces was a not uncom- 
mon weight. The Broadwood grand piano which Chopin used 
for his recitals in London and Manchester in 1848, an instrument 
that has never been repaired or altered, shows the resistance he 
required: the middle C sounds at two ounces and a half, and to 
that weight piano-makers have returned, regarding two ounces 
and three-quarters as a possible maximum. Owing to the 
greater substance of the hammers in the bass, the touch will 




Fig- 34- Broadwood Barless Grand. 

always be heavier in that department, and lighter in the treble 
from the lesser weight. In balancing the keys, allowance has 
to be made for the shorter leverage of the black keys. When 
the player touches the keys farther back the leverage is propor- 
tionately shortened and the weight increased, and there is also 
an ascending scale in the weight of the player's blow or pressure 
from pianissimo to fortissimo. The sum of the aggregate force 
expended by a pianist in a recital of an hour and a half's duration, 
if calculated, would be astonishing. 

The most important structural change in pianos in recent 
years has been the rejection of support given by metal bars 
or struts between the metal plate to which the strings are hitched 
and the wrest-plank wherein the tuning-pins are inserted. 
These bars formed part of William Allen's invention, brought 
forward by Stodart in 1820, and were first employed for rigidity 
in place of compensation by the Paris Erards two years later, 
Broadwood in London introducing about that time the fixed 
metal plate. The patent No. 1231, for the barless or open-scale 
piano, taken out in London in 1888 by H. J. Tschudi Broadwood, 
is remarkable for simplification of design as well as other qualities. 
Ten years elapsed after the taking out of the patent before 
the first barless grand was heard in public (January 1898 at St 
James's Hall). The metal frame, bolted in the usual manner 
to the bottom framing, is of fine cast steel entirely free from any 
transverse bars or struts, being instead turned up round the edges 



to form a continuous flange, which enables the frame to bear 
the increased modern tension while providing additional elas- 
ticity and equality of vibration power throughout the scaling. 
The absence of barring and bracing tends to subdue the metallic 
quality of tone so often observable in pianofortes constructed 
with heavy iron frames, and the barless steel frame being so 
much more elastic than the latter, no loss in resonance is per- 
ceptible. The tone of the barless grand is of singular beauty 
and sonority and is even throughout the compass. 

The problem of resonance with stringed keyboard instru- 
ments, the reinforcement or amplification of sound has, from 
the days of the lute- and spinet-makers, been 
empirical. With lute, guitar, and viol or violin 7* e 

. ' , .'. . ., . Increase at 

the sound-box comes in, combining in the instrument Kescnsace. 
the distinct properties of string and enclosed air or 
wind. With the spinet, harpsichord and piano we have to do 
chiefly with the plate of elastic wood, to amplify the initial 
sound of the strings; and the old 
plan of a thin plate of spruce, put 
in slightly convex and with an 
under-barring of wood for tension, 
has absorbed the attention of 
piano-makers. The violin belly, 
with its bass bar and sound post, 
has relation to it; but the recent 
invention of the Stroh violin has 
shown that the initial string 
vibrations may be passed through 
a bridge, be concentrated, and 
adequately transferred to an 
aluminium disk not much larger 
than half a crown. The piano, 
with its numerous strings, cannot 
be so reduced, but the reinforce- 
ment problem is open to another 
solution, tentative it is true, but 
a possible rival. The " Gladi- 
ator " soundboard is the invention 
of Albert Schulz, late director 
of the piano manufactory of 
Ritmiiller and Sohne of Gottin- 
gen. Dr Moser's name has been 
associated with the inventor's in 
the English patent. In the 
" Gladiator " two slabs of wood, 
with grain of opposed direction 
to give the necessary tension, are 
glued together, and the whole 
system of belly bars is done away 
with. There is a thinning round 
the edge, to facilitate promptness 
of speech. As we are still feeling 
our way towards an accurate 
and comprehensive statement of 
resonance, this invention is one 
claiming scientific interest, as well 
as being of possible practical im- 
portance. 

To return to the touch. The 
desirability of what is called 
repetition that the 

... , . . Repetition. 

jack or sticker, which 
from the depression of the key 
delivers the blow that raises the 
hammer to the strings, should 
never be far away from the 
notch or nose which receives the 
impulse is as much an object 
of consideration with piano- 
makers now as it has been since 
Sebastian Erard began those 
experiments in 1808 which ended 





FIG. 35. Gary's Repeating 
Action. I, the butt in which 
the hammer is glued. E, a 
spring attached to the butt by 
a link of silk cord passed 
through a wire guide. The 
object is that though the key 
may be still pressed down, 
the hammer returns but a 
short distance to ensure a 
quick response to the blow if 
repeated. 



PIANOFORTE 



573 



in his famous " double escapement " action. The principle of 
this grand action, like that of Wornum patented for upright 
pianos in 1826, has become general. But Joseph Henry Gary 
in 1853 (patent No. 2283) invented a simple contrivance for 
repetition in all pianos, neglected at the time, and subsequently 
repatented and disputed over by others, which has only been 
preserved in the records of the patent office, while the inventor 
has left no other mark. But the utility of the invention has 
come to light. It is increasingly used in the actions of upright 
pianos, and, in combination with the old English grand action, 
is successfully competing with the Erard action proper and 
the simplified Herz-Erard, of late years so very generally 
employed. 

There has been a great change in the freer technique of piano- 
playing, partly favoured by the development of piano-making, 
but reacting and obliging the piano-makers to keep 
their attention incessantly alive to the aim and re- 
quirements of the players. It is true that the genius of Beet- 
hoven dominates a technique that has become obsolete, and so 
completely that the adequate performance of his piano works 
still gives to the sense as well as the intellect the highest pleasure, 
but his annotations to Cramer's Studies, as preserved by Schindler, 
betray the close touch of the clavichord-player and the student 
of C. P. E. Bach's Essay on Clavichord- Playing, as well as the 




FIG. 36. Modern Pianola. 

A, Blowing pedals operated by feet of player connected by metal 
crank to feeder B, which exhausts air from bellows C, which in turn 
exhausts air from all working valves and bellows in Pianola. 

D, is perforated roll passing over tracker bar E winding on to spool 
F operated by a pneumatic motor and controlled by lever G, which 
is connected to metrostyle pointer H. This is used in conjunction 
with a specially marked roll, giving correct interpretation of tempo. 

I, is channel leading to primary pneumatic J operating secondary 
pneumatic K, which exhausts striking motor L, connected to key 
lever M to depress piano key. 

The themodist device consists of two small holes, one at each end 
of tracker bar E, connecting with pneumatic valve, which increases 
power of suction instantaneously when melody notes are being 
played, by means of an extra perforation at each outside edge of 
music roll D; one hole for bass melody at left, and one at right 
edge for treble melody. 

N, is metal arm or bracket connected to lever in front for purpose 
of depressing sustaining pedal of piano. 

O, is the governing bellows of motor for operating music-roll and 
prevents pace of roll being accelerated or retarded by hard or soft 
pedalling, thus allowing great change of expression to be made 
without interfering with speed of roll. 






weakness as a musical instrument of the early piano. The in- 
ventor of a technique so original, and at the time (c. 1830) so 
extraordinary, as Chopin's, sat at the piano with his elbows 
immovable, using, for flexibility, neither wrist nor arm. With 
Chopin, to play loudly was anathema. The modern free style 
of playing comes from Czerny whom Beethoven despised as. 
having no legato (Bindung) through Liszt to the Rubinsteins 
and to the splendidly equipped performers of our time, to 
whom the pedal has become indispensable for cantabile and 
effect. 

The most expert performers are now rivalled technically by 
the recent extraordinary invasion of the American automatic 
piano-players the Angelus, Pianola, Apollo, Ceci- 
lian, and other varieties of the same idea. The use 
of the perforated roll acts by means of the ingenious 
and indeed faultless application of pneumatic leverage to the 
ordinary piano, doing duty for the pianist's fingers; and it is 
made possible to play louder or softer, faster or slower, by 
mechanical arrangement. Such an instrument lacks the player's 
touch, which is as personal and indispensable for sympathy as 
the singer's voice or violinist's bow. Still, to a violinist, it is 
a benefit to have a correct coadjutor in a Beethoven or Brahms 
sonata with one of these handy companions, just as it is to a 
singer to have always at command the accompaniments to his 
or her repertory. The Apollo has the addition of a useful 
transposing apparatus an aid, however, that, though often 
tried, has never yet been adopted; it is possibly too disturbing 
to the musician's ear. The mechanical tuning-pin is an analo- 
gous experiment which comes regularly under notice as the years 
go by, to be as persistently rejected. The most practical of 
these tuning inventions was the Alibert, shown in the Inventions 
Exhibition, 1885. Here, pressure upon the strings above the 
wrest -plank bridge modified their tension after a first rough 
adjustment to pitch had been effected. 

The perforated music-sheet, a mechanism common to piano- 
playing attachments as well as self-playing pianos, first appears 
in a French patent, 1842. A United States patent for a keyboard 
piano-player was issued to E. D. Bootman (Dec. 18, 1860), 
and the first pneumatic keyboard piano-player was patented in 
France in 1863 by M. Fourneaux. Between 1879 and 1902 a total 
of 55 patents had been issued in the States. The first complete 
automatic piano-player ready for performance was the Angeius 
(No. 24799, 1897). The specification is from a communication to 
the British patent office by Edward Hollingworth White, of Meriden, 
New Haven county, Conn., U.S.A. There is a pneumatic chest, 
fulcrum bar, finger levers, bellows and pedals. The whole apparatus 
is contained in a portable cabinet m'ounted upon castors, so as to be 
conveniently moved about a room. The finger levers or key strikers 
correspond with a considerable portion of the manual keys or clavier 
of a piano. Thus the automatic piano-player comprises a portable 
cabinet provided with bellows and operating pedals, a pneumatic 
actuating mechanism, a tracker adjusted for the use of a perforated 
music-sheet, a pneumatic motor and winding-roll mechanism to 
propel the music-sheet, and a series of finger levers operated by the 
pneumatic mechanism, so projecting as to overhang the piano 
keyboard and play upon it, with rockers or levers for depressing 
the piano pedals. Subsequently the apparatus was made capable 
of accelerating or retarding the tempo at the will of the 
operator. A roll of music, 12 in. wide and varying in length accord- 
ing to the composition, can be placed in position promptly, and when 
exhausted can be returned upon its original roll by a simple stop, 
altogether a triumph of mechanical adjustment. The Pianola 
followed in 1898, the Apollo 1900. The difference of all these clever 
contrivances is not conspicuous to the amateur. 

While these allied inventions have had to do with a substitute 
for touch and the necessity for the persevering acquirement of a 
difficult technique, another, the Virgil Practice Clavier, so called 
after the inventor, Mr Almon Kincaid Virgil, an American music 
teacher, is intended to shorten the period of study by doing away 
with tone, so that the finger technique is acquired mechanically and 
unmusically, while value of tone, reading, expression, what- 
ever we understand by musical production exciting our re- 
ceptivity through the ear, is delayed until the player's hand is 
formed and considerably developed. The opinion of some of 
the very greatest pianists is brought forward as approving of 
the system; in the work, for instance, of Vladimir de Pachmann, 
whose technique was formed long before the Virgil Clavier came 
to Europe. Bearing in mind that the minimum weight of the 
touch of a concert piano is not likely to exceed three and a half 
ounces it is hardly likely that these skilled performers use this 
dumb keyboard with the graduated weight advised for advancing 



574 



PIANOSA PIATTI 



pupils, namely, from five to eight ounces. It is allowed that the 
lightest possible touch may be used at first. One high recommen- 
_ . dation certainly remains after all that may be said regard- 
K htard ' n S Mr Virgil s invention: that it is practically silent, 
' almost noiseless, the up and down clicks that mark the 
duration of finger attachment being alone audible, a boon to the 
unwilling hearers of ordinary piano practice, scales and five-finger 
exercises. Mr Virgil's invention was produced in its elementary 
form in 1872, the more satisfactory Practice Clavier dates from 
the completion of the invention, about 1890. It was brought to 
England in 1895 by Mr Virgil. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. Schlick, Spiegel der Orgelmacher (Mainz?, 
151 1 ; Berlin repr., 1869) ; S.Virdung, Musica getuscht und auszgezogen 
(Basel, 1511; reprinted in facsimile, Berlin, 1882); M. Agricola, 
Musica instrumental (Wittenberg, 1529); O. Luscinius, Musurgia 
sive praxis musicae (Strassburg, 1536); M. Pnetorius, Syntagma 
musicum, vol. i. (Wittenberg, 1615); vols. ii. and iii. in German, 
Wolfenbiittel, 1619; M. Mcrsenne, Harmonicorum (Paris, 1635), and 
Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636); C. Huygens, Correspondance, 
(Jonkbloet et Land, Leiden, 1882); T. Mace, Musick's Monument 
(London, 1676); J. S. Bach, Das wohltemperirte Clavier (Coethen, 
1722) ; C. P. E. Bach, Versuch iiber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen 
(Berlin, 1753); J. Adlung, Musica mechanica organoedi (Berlin, 
1768); C. Burney, The Present Stale of Music in France and Italy 
(London, 1771), and The Present State of Music in Germany, the 
Netherlands, &c. (London, 1772); W. A. Mozart, Brief e (Leipzig, 
1878); D. Steibelt, Three Sonatas, Op. 35, preface (London, 1799), 
and Methode de piano forte (Paris, 1805); F. J. Fetis, " Esquisse 
de 1'Histoire du Piano," in the Revue et gazette musicale (Paris, 
1830), partly translated in the Harmonicon (London, 1830-1831); 
" Exposition universelle de Londres," in Gazette musicale (Paris, 
1851), Exposition universelle de Paris, rapport du jury (Paris, 1855), 
" Exposition Internationale de Londres ' in Gazette musicale (Paris, 
1862), and Exposition universelle de Paris, rapport du jury (Paris, 
1867) ; J. S. Broadwood, Some Notes made in 1838, with observations 
and elucidations by H. F. Broadwood (London, 1862); Kuetzing, 
Das Wissenschaftliche der Fortepiano Baukunst (Bern, 1844) ; S. and 
P. Erard, London Exhibition (London, 1851); W. Pole, "Musical 
Instruments of the Great Exhibition," from Newton's Patent Journal 
(London, 1851), and in Jurors' Reports, International Exhibition 
(London, 1862); J. Fischhoff, Versuch einer Geschichte des Clavier- 
baues (Vienna, 1853); Anonymous, Notes sur les travaux de MM. 
Erard (Paris, 1855) ; C. A. Andre, Der Clavierbau, Offenbach, 1855) ; 
H. Wclcker von Gontershausen, Der Fliigel oder die Beschaffenheit 
des Pianos in alien Formen (Frankfort, 1856), and Der Clavierbau 
in seiner Theorie, Technik und Geschichte (Frankfort, 1870); E. F. 
Rimbault, The Pianoforte (London, 1860); J. Broadwood & Son 
International Exhibition (London, 1862); L. de Burbure, Recherches 
sur les facteurs de clavecins d'Anvers (Brussels, 1863) ; A. W. Ambros, 
Geschichte der Musik, vol. ii. (Breslau, 1864) ; O. Paul, Geschichte des 
Claviers (Leipzig, 1868), and Amtlicher Bericht iiber die wiener 
Ausstellung tm Jahre 1873 (Brunswick, 1874); G F. Sievers, // 
Pianoforte guida pratica (Naples, 1868); Patents: Abridgments 
of Specifications relating to Musical Instruments (London, 1871); 
P. Rombouts and T. Van Lerius, De Liggeren der antwerpsche Sint 
Lucasgilde (vol. i., Antwerp, 1872; and vol. ii., The Hague); 
C. Engel, Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum 
(London, 1874), and " Some Account of the Clavichord," in 
Musical Times (London: July, August, September, 1879); E. 
Van Der Straeten, La Musiqite aux Pays-has, vol. iii., (Brussels, 
1875); Chickering & Sons, The Pianoforte (Boston, 1874); C. Chou- 
quet, Le Musee du conservatoire national de musique (Paris, 1875), 
and Exposition universelle et international de Paris, rapport du 
jury (Paris, 1880); L. Puliti, Delia Origine di pianoforte (Florence, 
1876); C. Meyer & Son, On the Full Iron Plate Frame for Pianos 
(Philadelphia, 1876); C. Ponsicchi, // Pianoforte, sua origine e 
svttuppo (Florence, 1876) ; Bosanquet, Elementary Treatise on 
Musical Intervals (London, 1876); A. Kraus, Catalogue des instru- 
ments de musique du musee Kraus (Florence, 1878); V. Mahillon, 
Annuaires du conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles (Brussels, 
1877 to 1883), and Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musee 
instrumental du conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles (Ghent, 
1880-1881); L. F. Valdrighi, Musurgiana (Modena, 1879); E. 
Brinsmead, History of the Pianoforte (London, 1879); S. Blondel, 
Histoire anecdotique du piano (Paris, 1880); A. Reissmann, Illus- 
trirte Geschichte der deutschen Musik (Leipzig, 1880-1881); A. J. 
Ellis, " History of Musical Pitch," with appendices, in Journal 
of the Society of Arts (London, 1880); A. J. Hipkins, various articles 
in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, " History of the Piano- 
forte," with appendix, in Journal of the Society of Arts (London, 
1883), and " The Pianoforte and its Precursors, in the English 
Illustrated Magazine (London, 1884); O. Bie, History of the Piano- 
forte (London, 1899). J. Bluethner and H. Gretschel, Der Piano- 
fortebau (3rd ed. Leipzig, 1909) ; S. Hansing, Das Pianoforte in seinen 
akustischen Anlagen (Schwenn, 1910); F. A. Goehlinger, Geschichte 
des Klavichords (Basel, 1910). (A. J. H.; K. S.) 

PIANOSA (anc. Planasia), an island of Italy, belonging to 
the province of Leghorn, and forming part of the commune 



of Marciana (Elba), from which it is t\ m. S.W. Pop. (1881), 
774. As its name indicates, it is quite flat, and the highest 
point is only 95 ft. above sea-level. Its area is 6 sq. m. Augus- 
tus banished to it his grandson, Agrippa Postumus, and some 
ruins of baths near the harbour still bear his name. It changed 
hands more than cnce in the wars between Pisa and Genoa in 
the 1 2th and i3th centuries; from 1390 it belonged to the prince 
of Piombino, but was depopulated in 1553 by the Turkish fleet, 
and only resettled at the beginning of the ipth century. In 
1857 a penal colony was established here. 

PIARISTS, the popular name of a Catholic educational order, 
the " clerici regulares scholarum piarum," the Pauline Congrega- 
tion of the Mother of God, founded by Joseph Calasanza (Jose- 
phus a Matre Dei) at Rome in the beginning of the i7th century. 
Calasanza, a native of Calasanz in the province of Huesca in 
Aragon, was born on September ii, 1556, studied at Lerida and 
Alcala, and after his ordination to the priesthood removed to 
Rome (1592). Here he organized, in 1607, a brotherhood which 
ultimately, in 1617, became an independent Congregation, 
numbering at that time fifteen priests, under Calasanza as their 
head. To the three usual vows they added a fourth, that of 
devotion to the gratuitous instruction of youth. In 1622 the 
Congregation received a new constitution from Gregory XV., 
and had all the privileges of the mendicant orders conferred 
upon it, Calasanza being recognized as general. In 1643 the 
jealousy of the Jesuits led to his removal from office; owing to 
the same cause the Congregation was deprived of its privileges 
by Innocent X. in 1646. Calasanza, who died on August 22, 
1648, was beatified in 1748, and canonized in 1767. The 
privileges of the Congregation were successively restored in 
1660, 1669 and 1698. The Piarists, who are not numerous, 
are found chiefly in Italy, Spain, the West Indies, Germany, 
and especially in Austria-Hungary. Before the course of study 
was regulated by the state, a Piarist establishment contained 
nine classes: reading, writing, elementary mathematics, schola 
parva or Rudimentorum, schola Principiorum, Grammatica, 
Syntaxis, Humanitas or Poesis, Rhetorica. The general provost 
of the order is chosen by the general chapter, and with a general 
procurator and four assistants resides at Rome. The members 
are divided into professors, novices, and lay brethren. Their 
dress is very similar to that of the Jesuits; their motto " Ad 
majus pietatis incrementum! " 

For Calasanza, see Timon-David, Vie de St Joseph Calasance 
(Marseilles, 1884); on the Piarists, P. Helyot, Hist, des ordres reli- 
gieuses (1715), iv. 281; J. A. Seyffert, Ordensregeln der Piarislen 
(Halle, 1783); J. Schaller, Gedanken iiber die Ordensfassung der Piar- 
islen (Prague, 1805); A. Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen 
(1897) ii. 271; articles by O. Zockler in Herzog-Hauck's Real- 
encyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie (1904), vol. xv. and by 
C. Kniel in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchen-lexikon (1895), vol. ix. 

PIATRA (PEATRA), the capital of the department of Neamtzu, 
Rumania, situated on the left bank of the river Bistritza, where 
it cuts a way through the Carpathian foothills. Pop. (1900), 
17,391. A branch railway passes through the town, and at 
Bacau meets the main line from Czernowitz in Bukowina to 
Galatz. The church of St John's (or the Prince's) monastery 
was founded in 1497 by Stephen the Great. There are saw-mills 
and textile factories in Piatra, which has a considerable trade in 
wine and timber. Neamtzu is one of the most densely forested 
regions in Moldavia. Lumber rafts are floated down the Bis- 
tritza to the Sereth, and so on to Galatz. There are several 
monasteries in the neighbourhood. 

PIATTI, CARLO ALFREDO (1822-1901), Italian violoncellist, 
was born at Bergamo on the 8th of January 1822. He was 
the son of a violinist, and became a pupil at the conservatorio 
of Milan. From 1838 onwards he journeyed over Europe, 
playing with extraordinary success in all the important 
cities of the continent. In 1844 he appeared before the 
London public at a Philharmonic Concert; and in 1859, on 
the foundation of the Popular Concerts, he took up the 
work with which he was most intimately connected for 
thirty-nine seasons, retaining until 1897 the post of first 
violoncello at these famous chamber concerts, during the latter 



PIAUHY PICA 



575 



half of each series. His purely classical style, his wide musical 
sympathies, and his general culture and charm, would have 
ensured him a high position even without his marvellously 
finished technical skill. In 1894 the fiftieth anniversary of his 
first appearance in London was celebrated by a reception given 
in honour of him and his lifelong friend Joachim. He retired 
from public life, owing to a severe illness, in 1897, and until his 
death at Bergamo on the igth of July 1901 divided his time 
between his native town and Cadenabbia. As a composer he 
attained a wide popularity with some graceful and popular 
songs; he did excellent work as an editor; and he was an 
enthusiastic collector and musical antiquary. 

PIAUHY, or PIAUHI, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded 
N. and W. by Maranhao, E. by Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia, 
and S. by Bahia. It has a few miles of Atlantic coast-line on 
the N., and the Rio Parnahyba forms the boundary line with 
Maranhao throughout its entire length. Area, 116,523 sq. m.; 
pop. (1900), 334,328. Part of the state on the Atlantic coast and 
along the lower Parnahyba is low, swampy and malarial. South 
of this the country rises gradually to a high plateau with open 
campos. This plateau region is watered by numerous tributaries 
of the Parnahyba, chief of which are the Urussuhy, the Caninde 
and its tributary the Piauhy, the Gurgueia and its tributary 
the Parahim, which drains the large inland lake of Parnagui, 
the Longa, and the Poty, which has its source in the state of 
Ceara. The Parnahyba is navigable for boats of 3 ft. draught up 
to Nova York, a few miles above the mouth of the Gurgueia, 
and could be made navigable up to the mouth of the Balsas. 
The climate is hot and humid in the lowlands and along the lower 
Parnahyba, but in the uplands it is dry with high sun tempera- 
tures and cool nights. The principal industry is stock-raising, 
which dates from the first settlement in 1674 by Domingos 
Affonso Mafrense, who established here a large number of cattle 
ranges. A secondary industry is the raising of goats, which are 
able to stand neglect and a scanty food supply. Sheep have 
likewise been raised in Piauhy, but there is no market for mutton 
and their wool is not utilized. The agricultural products are 
cotton, sugar and tobacco. Of food-stuffs the people do not 
produce enough for their own consumption. Forest products 
include rubber, carnauba wax and dyewopds. The exports in- 
clude hides, skins, rubber, wax, tobacco and cotton. The 
capital is Therezina, on the right bank of the Parnahyba, 250 m. 
above Parnahyba (town), with which it is connected by a line of 
light-draught river boats. The town dates from 1852, is attrac- 
tively situated, and is regularly laid out with broad, straight 
streets crossing each other at right angles. The population 
of the municipio in 1890 was 31,523, which includes a large 
rural district. Other towns, with their populations in 1890, 
are Oeiras (19,858), founded in 1718 under the name of Moxa; 
Amarante (15,525); Valenca (17,693); and CampoMaior (12,425), 
the figures given of population being those of the large districts 
(municipios) in which the towns are situated. 

PIAZZA, properly an open square or place in an Italian town 
(Ital. piazza, from Lat. platea, broad space, Gr. irXarvs, broad). 
These squares were usually surrounded with a colonnade or 
arcade, and thus the word has been loosely applied to a covered 
walk or arcade along the front of a building, and in America, 
to the veranda of a house. 

PIAZZA ARMERINA, a city of Sicily, in the province of 
Caltanisetta, 39 m. by road E.S.E. from that town, and the 
same distance S. of the railway station of Assoro-Valguarnera, 
43 m. W. of Catania, situated 2360 ft. above sea-level. Pop. 
(1901), 24,119. It has a 15th-century cathedral, with a fine 
campanile, and some of the houses show Norman or Gothic 
architecture. The foundation of the town dates from the nth 
century, and the dialect is Lombard. 

See Mauceri in L'Arte (1906), 14. 

PIAZZI, GIUSEPPE (1746-1826), Italian astronomer, was 
born at Ponte, in the Valtellina, on the i6th of July 1746. He 
entered the Theatine Order in 1764, accepted the chair of 
mathematics in the academy of Palermo in 1780, and persuaded 
the viceroy, Prince Caramanico, to build an observatory there. 



During a visit to England in 1788 he procured from Jesse 
Ramsden a five-foot altazimuth, with which he collected at 
Palermo, 1792-1813, the materials for two admirable star- 
catalogues, published in 1803 and 1814 respectively. While 
engaged on this work he discovered, on the ist of January 1801, 
the first asteroid or minor planet, to which he gave the name of 
Ceres, the tutelary deity of Sicily. He died at Naples on the 
22nd of July 1826. 

See B. E. Maineri, L'Astronomo Giuseppe Piazzi (Milan, 1871); 
R. Wolf, Biographien, Bd. iv. p. 275; Monatliche Correspondenz 
(1810; portrait), xxi. 46; Astr. Jahrbuch, liv. 218; Bulletin des 
sciences (1826), vi. 339; Edin. Journal of Science (1827), vi. 193; 
Memoirs Roy. Astr. Soc. iii. 119; R. Grant, Hist. Phys. Astronomy, 
pp. 238, 510, 549. 

PIBRAC, GUY DU FAUR, SEIGNEUR DE (1529-1584), 
French jurist and poet, was born at Toulouse, of an old family 
of the magistracy. He studied law there with Jacques Cujas, and 
afterwards at Padua. In 1548 he was admitted to the bar at 
Toulouse, at once took high rank, and rose to be juge-mage, 
an office in Languedocian cities about equal to that of prfvdl. 
He was selected in 1562 as one of the three representatives of 
the king of France at the council of Trent. In 1565 he became 
general advocate to the parlement of Paris, and extended the 
renaissance in jurisprudence which was transforming French 
justice. In 1573 he was sent by Charles IX. to accompany as 
chancellor his brother Henry (afterwards Henry III.) to Poland, 
of which country Henry had been elected king. Pibrac's fluent 
Latin won much applause from the Poles, but his second visit 
to Poland in 1575, when sent back by Henry III. to try to save 
the Crown he had deserted, was not so successful. Then he was 
employed in negotiations with the so-called politiques, and he 
managed to keep them quiet for a while. In 1 578 he became the 
chancellor of Marguerite of France, queen of Navarre. Although 
he was fifty, her beauty and intellectual gifts led him to aspire 
to win her affection; but he was rejected with disdain. He died 
in 1584. His oratorical style was too pedantic, but quotations 
from the classics had a fresher meaning in his day. He was 
the friend of Ronsard, de Thou and L'Hopital, and left, among 
ojher literary remains, elegant and sententious quatraines. 

PIBROCH, a form of music as played by the bagpipe. The 
word is derived from the Gaelic piobaireachd, the art of the 
bagpiper. This special form of bagpipe music, consisting of 
a series of variations founded on a theme, was called the urlar. 
These variations are generally of a martial or warlike character 
and include dirges and marches (see BAGPIPE). 

PICA, the name of the European representative of a group 
of diminutive rodent mammals, also known as tailless hares, 
mouse-hares, or piping hares, constituting the family Ochotonidae 
with the single genus Ocholona. From the more typical hares 
and rabbits they differ by the short and rounded ears, the absence 
of a tail, and the relatively shorter hind-limbs, as well as by 
complete collar-bones. The soles of the feet are hairy, and the 
fur is usually soft and thick; while in some cases the last upper 
molar is absent. Picas are inhabitants of cold and desert 
regions. They dwell either in the chinks between rocks, or in 
burrows, although one Himalayan species frequents pine-forests. 
They are very active, and most of the species utter a piping or 
whistling cry. They store up a supply of grass for winter use; 
in Siberia it is stacked in small heaps. The Himalayan Ocholona 
roylei may be seen in the daytime, but most kinds are nocturnal. 
The Siberian species, O. alpina, ranges into eastern Europe, but 
Central Asia is the headquarters, although a few species range 
into Arctic America and the Rocky Mountains. In size picas 
may be compared to guinea-pigs. Till of late years the group 
has been generally known by the name of Lagomys. There are 
several extinct genera. 

See RODENTIA; also J. L. Bouhote, "The Mouse-hares of the 
genus Ochotona," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1905). (R. L.*) 

PICA, the Latin name of a genus of oscine passerine birds, 
the magpies. The Latin word, by interchange of initial p and 
k, is possibly the Gr. daaa (see MAGPIE), and probably the same 
word as picus, the woodpecker (q.v.). Another derivation would 
connect both pica and picus with the root pic- of pingere, to 



57 6 



PICARD PICARESQUE NOVEL 



paint, from the parti-coloured appearance of the bird. It is 
this " pied " or black and white look of the page that probably 
gave the name of pica, " pie " or " pye," to the ordinal printed 
in black-letter (see PIE), and thence to a size of type in printing 
coming next to " English " (see TYPOGRAPHY). The Gr. daaa. 
and Lat. pica were used of a perverted craving for unnatural 
foods; and the word has been adopted in this sense in modern 
medical terminology. 

PICARD, LOUIS JOSEPH ERNEST (1821-1877), French 
politician, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1821. 
After taking his doctorate in law in 1846 he joined the Parisian 
bar. Elected to the corps legislatif in 1858, he joined the group of 
Emile Ollivier. But as Ollivier approximated to the government 
standpoint, Picard, one of the members of the group known as 
Les Cinq, veered more to the left. He founded in 1868 a weekly 
democratic journal, L'Elecleur libre, and in 1869 was elected 
both for Herault and Paris, electing to sit for the former. 
From the 4th of September 1870 he held the portfolio of finance 
in the government of National Defence. In January 1871 he 
accompanied Jules Favre to Versailles to arrange the capitula- 
tion of Paris, and in the next month he -became minister of the 
interior in Thiers's cabinet. Attacked both by the Monarchist 
and the Republican press, he resigned in May. Later in the year 
he was sent as ambassador to Brussels, where he remained for 
two years. On his return to Paris he resumed his seat in the 
Left centre, and in 1875 became life senator. He died in Paris 
on the 13th of May 1877. 

PICARDY (La Picardie), one of the old provinces of France, 
bounded on the N. by Hainaut and Artois, on the E. by Cham- 
pagne, on the S. by the lie de France, and on the W. by Nor- 
mandy and the English Channel. Its maritime frontier ran 
from the mouth of the Aa to the cliffs of Caux, and it included 
ths whole of the basin of the Somme and part of that of the 
Oise. The chief towns of Picardy were Amiens, Boulogne, 
Abbeville, Laon, Soissons, Montreuil, Peronne, Beauvais, 
Montdidier, St Quentin and Noyon. Its principal rivers were 
the Somme and the Oise. Picardy formed part of the arch- 
diocese of Reims, and its bishoprics were Amiens, Beauvais, 
Senlis, Soissons, Noyon and Laon. In 1789 the province of 
Picardy was covered by the three bishoprics of Amiens, Noyon 
and Boulogne. It was one of the provinces of the five great 
fermes, districts subject to the tariff of 1664, and in judicial 
matters was under the authority of the parlement of Paris. 
Its area now forms the department of the Somme and parts 
of the departments of Pas de Calais, Aisne and Oise. 

The name of Picardy does not appear until the I3th century, 
but was employed by Matthew Paris and was in general use in 
the I4th century. In the i3th century the province was 
divided into the two bailliages of Amiens and Vermandois, but 
its regular organization as part of the kingdom of France only 
dates from the beginning of the i6th century. At this time it was 
divided into north and south Picardy. North Picardy, or Picardy 
proper, formed one of the great military governorships of the 
kingdom, while south Picardy was included in the lie de France. 
North Picardy was divided into upper and lower Picardy, the 
former being the interior part of the province and the latter the 
district along the coast. Upper Picardy comprised the districts 
of Amienois, Santerre, Vermandois and Thierache, and lower 
Picardy those of Ponthieu, Vimeu, Boulonnais and Calaisis, 
or the Pays reconquis; south Picardy included the districts of 
Beauvaisis, Laonnais and Soissonais. 

Under the Romans Picardy was part of Belgica secunda; 
it was inhabited by the Morini, the Ambiani, the Veromandui, 
the Bellovaci and the Suessiones, whose names still appear in 
Amiens, Vermandois, Beauvais and Soissons. The Romans 
intersected the district with roads and built several castra to 
defend the valley of the Somme. In the 3rd century Christianity 
was preached here, and St Quentin and others were martyred. 
A little later abbeys were founded, among them Corbie, St 
Val6ry and St Riquier. Early in the sth century Picardy 
became the centre of Merovingian France, for, as the historian 
Michelet says, " 1'histoire de 1'antique France semble entassee 



en Picardie." Clovis had his first capital at Soissons Charle- 
magne had his at Noyon, and Laon was the capital and the 
refuge of the later and feebler Carolingian sovereigns. 

During the later feudal period Picardy was the home of the 
counts of Vermandois, of Clermont and of Ponthieu, the sire of 
Coucy and others. The neighbouring dukes of Burgundy cast 
covetous eyes upon the province; in 1435, by the famous treaty 
of Arras, the royal towns and lands in the valley of the Somme 
were ceded by King Charles VII. to Burgundy. However, after 
the death of Charles the Bold in 1477 Picardy was finally united 
with the crown of France. The province was early an industrial 
district. Flemish immigrants brought with them the lucrative 
trade of weaving cloth, and the Somme towns were soon compet- 
ing with those of Flanders. The Picard towns were noted for 
their love of independence, which often brought them into 
collision with the kings of France during the I3th century. At 
a later time the province received a number of Spanish immi- 
grants. In the middle ages the Picards formed one of the four 
" nations " at the university of Paris. Picardy has a high place 
as a home of Gothic art, this being testified to by the superb 
cathedrals at Amiens and Noyon, while within its borders is 
the famous chateau of Coucy. 

Picardy has a literature of its own, which was rich and popular 
in the J2th century. It suffered greatly from the ravages of 
the Normans, and later during the Hundred Years' War and 
the wars between France and Spain. Within it are the famous 
fields of Crecy, Agincourt and St Quentin, while it also includes 
places of conference like Guines, Amiens and Picquigny. The 
Picard had a high reputation as a soldier, being sometimes called 
the " Gascon of the North," and in 1558 Henry II. created the 
regiment de Picardie. Many anthropological remains have been 
found in the Somme valley. 

See Labourt, Essai sur I'origine des villes de Picardie (Amiens, 
1840); Grenier, Introduction a 1'histoire generate de la province de 
Picardie (Amiens, 1856); and H. Carnoy, Litterature orale de la 
Picardie (1883). 

PICARESQUE NOVEL, THE. This special form of the 
roman d'aventures may be defined as the prose autobiography of 
a real or fictitious personage who describes his experiences as a 
social parasite, and who satirizes the society which he has 
exploited. The picaroon, or rogue type, is represented by 
Encolpos, Ascyltos and Giton in the Satyricon which tradition 
ascribes to Petronius; it persists in Lucian, in the Roman de 
Renart, in the fableaux, and in other works popular during the 
middle ages; and it is incarnated in real life by such men of 
genius as the Archpriest of Hita and Francois Villon. But in 
its final form the picaresque novel may be regarded as a Spanish 
invention. The word picaro is first used, apparently, in a letter 
written by Eugenic de Salazar at Toledo on the isth of April 
1560; the etymology which derives picaro from picar (to pick up) 
is unsatisfactory to philologists, but it suggests the picaroon's 
chief business in life. In the Tesoro de la lengua castellans 
(Madrid, 1611) Sebastian Covarrubias y Orozco, the best of 
Spanish lexicographers, describes a pfcaro as a man of loose 
character engaged in menial work and by extension a rascal 
who attains his ends by skilful dissimulation; and the earliest 
application of the expression picaro to a character in fiction 
occurs in Mateo Alemin's Guzman de Alfarache, the first part of 
which was published in 1599. But a genuine novela picaresca 
existed in Spain before the word picaro became generally 
current. 

The earliest specimen of the kind is La Vida de Lazarillo de 
Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades, an anonymous tale long 
attributed, on insufficient grounds, to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza 
(q.v.) . The authorship of this brilliant book and the circumstances 
of its publication are obscure; however, it was certainly issued 
not later than 1554, and was thrice reprinted before 1559, when it 
was placed on the Index. Imitations of so successful a story 
were inevitable, and so early as 1555 there appeared at Antwerp 
La Segunda parte de Lazarillo de Tormes, an anonymous sequel 
which completely misinterpreted the irreverent wit of the original. 
The first part had been prohibited because of its attacks on the 



PICARESQUE NOVEL 



577 



clergy; in the second part the hero is presented as a devout youth 
transformed into a tunny at the intercession of the Virgin Mary, 
who thus saved him from death; after many extravagant experi- 
ences in this form he is restored to human shape, and proposes 
to teach the submarine language at the university of Salamanca. 
This dull performance naturally failed to please and, meanwhile, 
many surreptitious copies of the first part were introduced into 
Spain; the Inquisition finally gave up the attempt to suppress it, 
and in 1573 an expurgated edition was authorized. With this 
mutilated version the Spanish public was forced to be content 
during the remaining fifteen years of Philip II.'s reign. Upon 
the death of this sombre monarch society relaxed its hypocritical 
pose of austerity, and in 1599 Mateo Aleman (q.v.) published the 
Primera parte de Guzman de Alfarache. It is modelled upon 
Lazarillo de Tormes, being the autobiography of the son of a 
ruined Genoese money-lender; but the writer indulges in a 
tedious series of moralizings. This contrasts sharply with the 
laconic cynicism of Lazarillo de Tormes; but Guzm&n de* Alfarache 
is richer in invention, in variety of episode and in the presentation 
of character. Its extraordinary popularity tempted a Valencian 
lawyer named Juan Jose Marti to publish a Segunda parte de la 
vida del picaro Guzm&n de Alfarache (1602) under the pseudonym 
of Mateo Lujan de Sayavedra. Though partly plagiarized from 
the manuscript of the genuine second part to which Marti had 
somehow obtained access, the continuation was coldly received; 
in 1604 Aleman brought out the true continuation, and revenged 
himself by introducing into the narrative a brother of Marti a 
crazy picaroon of the lowest morality who ultimately commits 
suicide in disgust at his own turpitude. In Lazarillo de Tormes, 
and still more in Guzman de Alfarache, it is difficult to distinguish 
between the invented episodes and the personal reminiscences 
of the authors. The Viage entrelenido (1603) of Agustin de Rojas 
is a realistic account of the writer's experiences as a strolling 
actor and playwright, and, apart from its considerable literary 
merits, it is an invaluable contribution to the history of the 
Spanish stage as well as a graphic record of contemporary low 
life; the chief character in the book is called the caballero del 
milagro, an expression which recurs in Spanish literature as the 
equivalent of a chevalier d'industrie. 

The next in chronological order of the Spanish picaresque tales 
is La Plcara Justina (1605), the history of a woman picaroon, 
which it has long been customary to ascribe to Andres Perez, a 
Dominican monk; there is, however, no good reason to suppose 
that the name of Francisco L6pez de Ubeda on the title-page is a 
pseudonym. The Plcara Justina has wrongly acquired a 
reputation for indecency; its real defects are an affected diction 
and a want of originality. The writer frankly admits that he has 
taken material from the Celestina, from Lazarillo de Tormes, 
from Guevara, Timoneda and Aleman, and he boastfully asserts 
that " there is nothing good in ballad, play or Spanish poet, 
but that its quintessence is given here." Unluckily he has not 
the talent to utilize these stolen goods. The Picara Justina was 
thrice reprinted during the seventeenth century; this is the only 
basis for the untenable theory that it is the source of the cultera- 
nismo which reaches its climax in Gracian's treatises. The 
Plcara Justina is now read solely by philologists in quest of verbal 
eccentricities. Gines de Pasamonte, one of the secondary figures 
in Don Quixote (1605-1615), is a singularly vivid sketch of the 
Spanish rogue, and in the comedy entitled Pedro de Urdemalas 
Cervantes again presents a brilliant panorama of picaresque 
existence. He returns to the subject in Rinconete y Cortadillo 
and in the Coloquio de los perros, two of the best stories in the 
Novelas ejemplares (1613). The attraction of picaresque life 
was felt by pious and learned critics, and expounded in print. 
In the Viage del mundo (1614) the zealous missionary Pedro de 
Cevallos interpolates amusing tales of what befell him in the 
slums of Andalusia before he fled from justice to America, where 
he lived as a sinful soldier till his spiritual conversion was 
accomplished. Cristobal Suarez de Figueroa, a caustic critic 
of his contemporaries and an arbiter of taste, did not think it 
beneath his dignity to show a disconcerting acquaintance with 
the ways of professional rogues, and in El Pasagero (1/117) he 
xxi. 19 



fills in the sketch of the knavish inn-keeper already outlined by 
Cervantes in Don Quixote. Evidence of the widely diffused taste 
for picaresque literature is found in Enrlquez de Castro (1617), an 
interminable story written in Spanish by a Frenchman named 
Francois Loubayssin de Lamarca, who brought out his book at 
Paris; two years previously Loubayssin had introduced some 
clever but risky picaresque episodes in his Enganos deste siglo y 
historia sucedida en nuestros tiempos. But his attempt to fill a 
larger canvas is a complete failure. 

The roving instinct of Vicente Martinez Espinel (q.v.) had led 
him into strange and dangerous company before and after his 
ordination as a priest, and a great part of his Relaciones de la 
vida del escudero Marcos de Obregon (1618) is manifestly the 
confession of one who has regretfully outlived his pleasant vices. 
The baffling compound of fact with fiction and the lucid style 
of which Espinel was a master would suffice to win for Marcos de 
Obregon a permanent place in the history of Spanish literature; 
the fact that it was largely utilized by Le Sage in Gil Bias has 
won for it a place in the history of comparative literature. 
Within five months of its publication at Madrid a fragmentary 
French version by the Sieur d'Audiguier was issued at Paris, and 
at Paris also there appeared a Spanish picaresque story entitled 
La Desordcnada codicia de los bienes ajenos (1619), ascribed con- 
jecturally to a certain Dr Carlos Garcia, who reports his conver- 
sation with a garrulous gaol-bird, and appends a glossary of slang 
terms used by the confraternity of thieves; he was not, however, 
the first worker in this field, for a key to their gross jargon had 
been given ten years previously by Juan Hidalgo in his Romances 
de germania (1609), a series of gipsy ballads. Every kind of 
picaroon is portrayed with intelligent sympathy by Alonso 
Jer6nimo de Salas Barbadillo, who is always described as a picar- 
esque novelist; yet he so constantly neglects the recognized 
conventions of the Spanish school that his right to the title is 
disputable. Thus in La Hija de Celestina (1612) he abandons the 
autobiographical form, in El Subtil cordobis Pedro de Urdemalas 
(1620) he alternates between dialogue and verse, and in El Necio 
bien afortunado (1621) the chief character is rather a cunning 
dolt than a successful scoundrel. The pretence of warning new- 
comers against the innumerable occasions of sin in the capital 
is solemnly kept up by Antonio Linan y Verdugo in his Guia y 
avisos de forasteros que tiienen a la corte (1620), but in most of his 
tales there is more entertainment than decorum. 

The profession of a serious moral purpose on the part of many 
picaresque writers is often a transparent excuse for the intro- 
duction of unsavoury incident. There is, however, no ground 
for doubting the sincerity of the physician Jerommo de Alcala 
Yanez y Ribera, who at one time thought of taking holy orders, 
and studied theology under St John of the Cross. An unusual 
gravity of intention is visible in Alonso, mozo de muchos amos 
(1624-1626), in which the repentant picaro Alonso, now a lay- 
brother, tells the story of his past life to the superior of the 
monastery in which he has taken refuge. It abounds with 
pointed anecdotes and with curious information concerning the 
Spanish gipsies, and this last characteristic explains George 
Sorrow's hyperbolical praise of the work as competing with 
Don Quixote in grave humour, and as unequalled " for knowledge 
of the human mind and acute observation." 

At about this time there lived in Spain an ex-nun named 
Catalina de Erauso, who fled from her convent, dressed herself 
in men's clothes, enlisted, was promoted ensign, and saw more of 
life than any other nun in history. Broadsides relating the story 
of this picaresque amazon were circulated during her lifetime, 
and the details of her adventures arrested the attention of De 
Quincey, who would seem to have read them in a Spanish 
original which has been admirably translated since then by the 
French poet Jose Maria de Heredia. The Spanish original, in 
its existing form, was issued no earlier than 1829 by Joaquin 
Marfa de Ferrer, whose character is not a satisfactory guarantee 
of the work's authenticity; but its interest is unquestionable. 
No such suspicion attaches to the Vida of Alonso de Contreras, 
first published in 1899; this out-at-elbows soldier faithfully 
records how he became a knight of the Order of Santiago, how he 



578 



PICARESQUE NOVEL 



broke all the Commandments, how he found himself stranded in 
Madrid, how his fine air captivated Lope de Vega, who housed 
him for eight months and dedicated to him a play entitled Rey sin 
reino, and how the ex-captain ended by " resolving to retire to a 
lonely spot and there serve God as a hermit." Every convention 
of the picaresque novel is faithfully observed, and the incidents 
are no doubt substantially true, though Contreras, like most 
converts, judges his own past with unnecessary harshness. This 
subtle form of vanity also pervades the Comentarios de el desen- 
ganado de si mismo of Diego duque de Estrada, a rakish soldier 
and inferior dramatist whose autobiography (begun in 1614 and 
continued at intervals during many years) was not printed till 
1860. A far higher order of talent distinguishes the Capitulaci- 
ones de la vida de la corte y oficios entretenidos in ella, a bitterly 
unsparing review of picaresque life written by the great satirist 
Francisco Gomez de Quevedo y Villegas (q.v.). These thumbnail 
sketches were the preparatory studies worked up into the more 
elaborate Vida del buscdn Don Pablos (1626), the cleverest and 
most revolting book of its class. There is no attempt to scare 
the wicked by means of awful examples; the moral lesson is con- 
temptuously thrown aside; the veil of romance is rent in twain, 
and the picaro the nephew of the public executioner is revealed 
as he is, gloating in cruelty and revelling in the conscious enjoy- 
ment of crime. But though Quevedo detests mankind, his 
morose vision of existence rarely degenerates into caricature. 
In his repugnant, misanthropic masterpiece the sordid genius 
of the Spanish picaroon finds absolute expression. Nothing 
further remained to be done in the matter of realism; henceforth 
the taste for picaresque novels grew less keen, and later writers 
unconsciously began to humanize their personages. 

The Varia fortuna del soldado Pindaro (1626) added nothing 
to the established reputation of Gonzalo Cfspedes y Meneses. 
A clever anonymous story, Don Raimundo el entretenido (1627), 
missed fire, even though it was attributed to Quevedo; yet the 
author, Diego Tovar y Valderrama, compiled a sprightly diary 
of the events which make up a picaroon's crowded day, and failed 
solely because the interest in rogues was waning. Other writers 
of undoubted gifts were slow to see that the fashion had changed. 
Alonso de Castillo Solorzano (q.v.) tempted the public with three 
picaresque stories published in quick succession: La Nina de los 
embustes, Teresa de Manzanares ( 1 634) , the .<4 venturas del Bachiller 
Trapaza (1637) and a sequel to the latter entitled La Garduna de 
Sevilla (1642). Clever as Castillo Solorzano's stories are, their 
tricky heroes and heroines were no longer welcomed with the old 
enthusiasm in Spain; the Bachiller Trapaza was destined to be 
continued by Mateo da Silva Cabral in Portugal and to be ex- 
ploited by Le Sage in France, and to these two accidents it owes 
its survival. Le Sage likewise utilized in Gil Bias episodes taken 
from El Siglo pitagdrico (1644), the work of Antonio Enriquez 
Gomez (q.v.) ; but most of El Siglo pitagdrico is in verse, and as it 
was published at Paris by an exiled Portuguese Jew, its circu- 
lation in Spain must have been limited. The normal primitive 
rogue returns to the scene in La Vida y hechos de Estebanillo 
Gonzalez ( 1646) , which is no doubt the genuine autobiography that 
it purports to be. If he is still occasionally read by students he 
owes it to the fact that Le Sage drew upon him in the Histoire 
d' Estevamlle Gonzales. By the general public he is completely 
forgotten, and the same may be said of many subsequent Spanish 
writers who adopted the picaresque formula. The Buscdn is the 
last great book of its kind. 

Meanwhile, the rogue had forced his way into other European 
literatures. The Antwerp continuation (1555) of Lazdrillo de 
Tormes brought the original to the notice of northern readers, 
and this first part was translated into French by Jean Saugrain 
in 1561. A Dutch version was issued anonymously in 1579, and 
it seems extremely likely that the book had been translated into 
English before this date. This follows from a manuscript note 
written by Gabriel Harvey in a copy of the Hoivleglass given him 
by Edmund Spenser; Harvey here mentions that he had received 
the Howleglass, Skoggin, Skelton and Lazarillo from Spenser on 
the zoth of December 1578. The earliest known edition of 
David Rowland's version of Lazarillo de Tormes is dated 1 586, 



but as a licence to print a translation of this tale was granted on 
the 22nd of July 1568/1569, it is probable that a 1576 edition 
which appears in the Harleian Catalogue really existed. 
Numerous reprints (1599, 1639, 1669-1670, 1672, 1677) go to 
prove that Lazarillo de Tormes was very popular, and that 
Shakespeare had read it seems to follow from an allusion in 
Much Ado about Nothing (Act. n., sc. i.): " Now you strike like 
the blind man; 't was the boy that stole your meat, and you will 
beat the post." To Thomas Nash belongs the credit, such as it is, 
of being the first to write a picaresque novel in English: The 
Unfortunate Traveller; or the Life of Jack' Wilton (1594). Nash 
carefully points out that his work is a new experiment, " being 
a cleane different veine from other my former courses of writing ' ' ; 
the only possible Spanish model that he can have had was 
Lazarillo de Tormes, but he has nothing of his predecessor's 
sardonic brevity, and he anticipates later Spanish writers by his 
emphatic insistence on the pleasures of eating and drinking to 
repletion. Nash led the way, and a reference to " Spanish 
pickaroes " in Middleton's Spanish Gipsie indicates that the 
picaroon type had speedily become familiar enough for London 
playgoers to understand the reference. Interest in picaresque 
literature was kept alive in England by a translation (1622) of a 
sequel to Lazarillo de Tormes published at Paris two years earlier 
by Juan de Luna, who came to London to supervise the English 
rendering; by James Mabbe's admirable version (1622) of 
Guzman de Alfarache; by The Son of the Rogue or the Politic Thief 
(1638), an anonymous translation, done through the French, of 
La desordenada codicia; and by another anonymous translation 
(1657), likewise done through the French, of Quevedo's Buscdn. 
The result of this campaign was The English Rogue described in 
the Life ofMerilon Latroon, a witty Extravagant (1665), by Richard 
Head and Francis Kirkman. The authors of this farrago insist 
on the English nationality of their chief character, and repudiate 
the idea that they are in any way indebted to Aleman and 
Quevedo. It is no exaggeration, however, to say that almost 
all the material in the text is taken from Spanish sources, and 
even the thieves' vocabulary is stolen from John Awdeley's 
Fraternitye of Vacabondes or Thomas Harman's Caveat, or 
Warning for Common Cursetors. It is not till Defoe's time that 
the English picaresque novel acquires any real importance, 
and the picaresque intention informs much of his work that 
contravenes the accepted rules of composition. There is a 
female picaroon in Moll Flanders, and, as Defoe read Spanish, it 
is conceivable that Moll Flanders was suggested by the Picara 
Justina; but this resemblance does not make a picaresque novel 
of Moll Flanders. The satirical spirit which is lacking in Moll 
Flanders is abundantly present in Colonel Jack, which bravely 
aims at exhibiting " vice and all kinds of wickedness attended 
with misery." Henceforward the picaroon is naturalized in 
English literature, and is gloriously reincarnated in Fielding's 
Jonathan Wild and in Smollett's Ferdinand, Count Fathom. 
The classification of Sterne's Tristram Shandy and Morier's Hajji 
Baba as picaresque novels is not strictly accurate; like 
Pickwick and Oliver Twist and Barry Lyndon, they are rather 
varieties of the peripatetic novel, but many incidents in all five 
recall the pleasing wiles of the Spanish picaroons. 

The Dutch translation of Lazarillo de Tormes (1579) did not 
enable the picaresque novel to strike root in Holland, yet from 
it is derived one of the best Dutch comedies, De Spaensche 
Brabander Jorolimo (1616) of Gerbrand Bredero. A German 
translation of Guzman de Alfarache was published by Aegidius 
Alberitnus in 1615; both Lazarillo and Rinconete y Cortadillo 
were translated by Niclas Ulenhart in 1716, and in 1627 there 
appeared an anonymous version of the Picara Justina. The 
Spanish tradition was followed by Martin Frewden in a con- 
tinuation (1626) of Guzman de Alfarache, but the only original 
picaresque novel of real value in German is Grimmelhausen's 
Simplicissimus. The attempt to acclimatize the picaresque novel 
in Italy failed completely. Barezzo Barezzi translated Gvzmdn 
de Alfarache, Lazarillo de Tormes and the Picara Juslina in 1606, 
1622 and 1624 respectively, and Giovanni Pietro Franco did the 
Buscdn into Italian in 1634; but there was no important native 



PICAYUNE PICCINNT 



579 



development. The same may be said of Portugal; for though 
Silva Cabral's continuation of the Bachiller Trapaza is called 
the most remarkable of Portuguese picaresque romances, it is 
significant that peralvilho de Cordova remains in manuscript. 

The case was very different in France, where pictures of low 
life had always found admirers. The first translation of Laza- 
rillo de Tormes appeared, as already noted, at Paris in 1561; the 
first translation of the first part of Guzm&n de Alfarache was 
issued there by Gabriel Chappuis in 1600, and the dictator 
Chapelain deigned to translate both parts in 1610-1620; the first 
translation of the Novelas ejemplares was published at Paris in 
1618 by Rosset and d'Audiguier; and French translations of 
Marcos de Obrcgdn, of La Desordenada codicia, of the Buscdn and 
of the Picara Justina were printed in 1618, 1621, 1633 and 1635 
respectively. Before this series of translations was completed 
Charles Sorel recounted in Frandon (1622) " the comic mishaps 
which befall evil-doers," invoking the common excuse that it 
is " lawful to find pleasure at their expense." Many of the 
episodes in Frandon are picaresque in tone, but unfortunately 
Sorel wanders from his subject, and devotes no small part of his 
book to satirizing literary men who, though fribbles or paupers, 
are in no sense picaroons. The legitimate Spanish tradition is 
followed more closely and with much more ability by Paul 
Scarron in the Roman comique (1651), in which horseplay is 
predominant. The framework may have been suggested by 
Agustin de Rojas or Quevedo, both of whom introduce a strolling 
company, and such characters as Liandre, Angelique de 1'Etoile 
and Ragotin might be found in any average novela picaresca. 
Scarron frankly mentions Castillo Solorzano's Garduna de Sevilla 
in his text, and his Precaution inutile and Les Hypocrites are 
convincing proofs of close study of Spanish picaresque, stories: 
the Precaution inutile is taken from Guzman de Alfarache, and 
Les Hypocrites is merely a translation of Salas Barbadillo's 
Hija de Celestina. The Roman bourgeois (1666) of Antoine 
Furetiere is generally described as a picaresque novel, but this 
involves a new definition of the adjective; the Roman bourgeois 
includes some portraits and more satire which seem suggested 
by picaresque reading, but it is concerned with the foibles oi 
the middle class rather than with the sly devices of common 
vagabonds. 

The Spanish picaroon lives again in Gil Bias, where, with a 
dexterity almost rarer than original genius, a master of literary 
manipulation fuses materials unearthed from forgotten and 
seemingly worthless Spanish quarries. Gil Bias is a creation oi 
the gentler, sunnier French spirit; like Beaumarchais' Figaro he 
is a Spaniard born, reared and humanized in Paris, and these 
two are the only picaroons whose relative refinement has nol 
been gained at the cost of verisimilitude. But the old original 
scoundrel was not yet extinct: in the interval between the appear- 
ance of the Barbier de Seville and the Manage de Figaro Restil 
de la Bretonne produced a sequel (1776) to the Buscdn a sequel 
so dull as to be wellnigh unreadable. The untamed Spanish 
rogue had become impossible towards the end of the i8th cen- 
tury: in the ioth he was deliberately rejected when Theophile 
Gautier wrote his Capitaine Fracasse. Yet Gautier conscien- 
tiously provides a Spanish atmosphere; the personages have 
Spanish names; the knife has a Spanish inscription; the host 
speaks French with a Spanish accent; Vallombreuse parts from 
the marquis with a Spanish formula: " beso a vuestra mercec 
la mano, caballero." Capitaine Fracasse is the last important 
book which continues the picaresque tradition. The possibilities 
of picaresque fiction can never be exhausted while human natun 
is unchanged. Pereda (q.v.) in Pedro Sanchez (1884) touche: 
the old theme with the accent of modernity. It may be tha 
instead of one continuous tale, interrupted by episodica 
digressions, the picaresque fiction of the future will take the form 
of short stories independent of one another; but this would be 
nothing more than a convenient mechanical device, a readjust 

ment of means to ends. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Frank Wadleigh Chandler, Romances of Roguery 
pt. i. (New York, 1899) ; Fonger De Hann, An Outline of the History 
of the Novela Picaresca in Spain (The Hague-New York, 1903); W 
Lauser, Der erste Schelmenroman, Lazarillo von Tormes (Stuttgart 



889) ; H. Butler Clarke, " The Spanish Rogue-Story " in Studies in 
European Literature (Oxford, 1900) ; A. Schultheiss, Der Schelmen- 
oman der Spanier und seine Nachbildungen (Hamburg, 1893); 
7 . J. Garriga, Estudio de la novela picaresca (Madrid, 1891); F. M. 
Warren, History of the Novel previous to the Seventeenth Century (New 
York, 1895); H. Koerting, Geschichte des franzosischen Romans 
m 17. Jahrhundert (Oppeln and Leipzig, 1891); Arvede Barine, 
' Les gueux d'Espagne in the Revue des deux mondes, vol. Ixxxvi. 
Paris, 1888); A. Morel Fatio, Etudes sur I'Espagne (3 vols., Paris, 
888-1904). , U- F.-K.) 

PICAYUNE, the name in Florida and Louisiana of the Spanish 

half-real, = ^ of a dollar, 6 cents, and hence used of the United 

States 5 cent piece. The French picaillon, from which the word 

was adapted in America, was an old copper coin of Piedmont. 

Is origin is doubtful, but is possibly related to the Italian piccolo, 

ittle, small. In America the word is used of anything trifling, 

petty, mean or contemptible. 

PICCANINNY, or PICKANINNY, a word applied originally by 
the negroes of the West Indies to their babies. It is adapted 
either from Span, pequeno, small, or Port, pequenino, very small. 
The word spread with the slave trade to America, and has since 
aeen adopted in Australia and in South Africa. 

PICCININO, NICCOLCt (1386-1444), Italian condottiere, born at 
Perugia, was the son of a butcher. He began his military career 
in the service of Braccio da Montone, who at that time was 
waging war against Perugia on his own account, and at the death 
of his chief, shortly followed by that of the latter's son Oddo, 
Piccinino became leader of Braccio's condotta. After serving 
for a short period under the Florentine Republic, he went over to 
Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan (1425), in whose service 
together with Niccolo Fortebraccio he fought in the wars against 
the league of Pope Eugenius IV., Venice and Florence. He 
defeated the papal forces at Castel Bolognese (1434), but another 
papal army under Francesco Sforza having defeated and killed 
Fortebraccio at Fiordimonte, Piccinino was left in sole command, 
and in a series of campaigns against Sforza he seized a number 
of cities in Romagna by treachery. In 1439 he again fought in 
Lombardy with varying success against Sforza, who had now 
entered the Venetian service. Piccinino then induced the duke 
of Milan to send him to Umbria, where he hoped, like so many 
other condottieri, to carve out a dominion for himself. He was 
defeated by Sforza at Anghiari (1440), but although a number of 
his men were taken prisoners they were at once liberated, as 
was usually done in wars waged by soldiers of fortune. Again 
the war shifted to Lombardy, and Piccinino, having defeated 
and surrounded Sforza at Martinengo, demanded of the visconti 
the lordship of Piacenza as the price of Sforza's capture. The 
duke by way of reply concluded a truce with Sforza; but the 
latter, who, while professing to defend the Papal States, had 
established his own power in the Marche, aroused the fears of 
the pope and the king of Naples, as well as of the visconti, who 
gave the command of their joint forces to Piccinino. Sforza 
was driven from the Marche, but defeated Piccinino at Monte- 
lauro, and while the latter was preparing for a desperate effort 
against Sforza he was suddenly recalled to Milan, his army was 
beaten in his absence, and he died of grief and of his wounds in 
1444. Short of stature, lame and in weak health, he was brave 
to the point of foolhardiness, wonderfully resourceful, and never 
overwhelmed by defeat. He was cruel and treacherous, and 
had no aim beyond his own aggrandizement. Piccinino left two 
sons, Jacopo and Francesco, both distinguished condottieri. 

A good account of Piccinino is contained in vol. iii. of E. Ricotti's 
Storia delta compagnie di ventura (Turin, 1845); G. B. Poggio, Vita 
di N. Piccinino (Venice, 1572); see also the general histories of the 
period. 

PICCINNI, NICCOLA (1728-1800), Italian musical composer, 
was born at Bari on the i6th of January 1728. He was 
educated under Leo and Durante, at the Conservatorio 
di Sant' Onofrio in Naples. For this Piccinni had to thank 
the intervention of the bishop of Bari, his father, although 
himself a musician, being opposed to his son's following 
a musical career. His first opera, Le Donne dispeltose, 
was produced in 1755, and in 1760 he composed, at Rome, 
the chef d'ceuvre of his early life, La Cecchina, ossia la buona 



580 



PICCOLO PICCOLOMINI, O. 



Figliuola, an opera buffa which attained a European success. Six 
years after this Piccinni was invited by Queen Marie Antoinette 
to Paris. He had married in 1756 his pupil Vincenza Sibilla, a 
singer, whom he never allowed after her marriage to appear on the 
stage. All his next works were successful; but, unhappily, the 
directors of the Grand Opera conceived the mad idea of deliber- 
ately opposing him to Gluck, by persuading the two composers to 
treat the same subject Ipkigenie en Tauride simultaneously. 
The Parisian public now divided itself into two rival parties, 
which, under the names of Gluckists and Piccinnists, carried 
on an unworthy and disgraceful war. Gluck's masterly Iphi- 
gfnie was first produced on the i8th of May 1779. Piccinni's 
Iphigenie followed on the 23rd of January 1781, and, though 
performed seventeen times, was afterwards consigned to oblivion. 
The fury of the rival parties continued unabated, even after 
Gluck's departure from Paris in 1780; and an attempt was after- 
wards made to inaugurate a new rivalry with Sacchini. Still, 
Piccinni held a good position, and on the death of Gluck, in 1787, 
proposed that a public monument should be erected to his 
memory a suggestion which the Gluckists themselves declined 
to support. In 1 784 Piccinni was professor at the Royal School of 
Music, one of the institutions from which the Conservatoire was 
formed in 1 794. On the breaking out of the Revolution in 1 789 
Piccinni returned to Naples, where he was at first well received by 
King Ferdinand IV.; but the marriage of his daughter to a 
French democrat brought him into irretrievable disgrace. For 
nine years after this he maintained a precarious existence in 
Venice, Naples and Rome; but he returned in 1798 to Paris, 
where the fickle public received him with enthusiasm, but left 
him to starve. He died at Passy, near Paris, on the 7th of May 
1800. After his death a memorial tablet was set up in the house 
in which he was born at Bari. 

The most complete list of his works is that given in the 
Rivista musicale ilaliana, viii. 75. He produced over eighty 
operas, but although his later work shows the influence of 
the French and German stage, he belongs to the conventional 
Italian school of the i8th century. 

See also P. L. Ginguene', Notice sur la vie el les ouvrage: de Niccolo 
Piccinni (Paris, 1801); E. Demoiresterres, La Musique franfaise au 
18' siecle Cluck et Piccinni 1774-1800 (Paris, 1872). 

PICCOLO (Fr. petite flute octave; Ger. Pickelflote; Ital. flauto 
piccolo or ottamno), a small flute of less than half the dimensions 
of the large concert flute and pitched an octave higher. The 
principles of construction and the acoustic properties are the 
same for the piccolo as for the flute, with the exception that the 
piccolo does not contain the additional tail-piece with the extra 
low keys, which give the flute its extended compass. As the 
pitch of the piccolo is so high, the highest of all orchestral instru- 
ments with the exception of a few harmonics on the violin, the 
music for it is written an octave lower than the real sounds in 
order to avoid the ledger lines. The piccolo has been used with 
good effect in imitating the whistling of the wind in storms, as in 
Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, Wagner's Flying Dutchman, 
and in conjunction with the violins in tremolo to depict the rust- 
ling of the leaves in the breeze, as in the " Waldweben " in 
Siegfried. Verdi employed it to advantage in Falstaf as a comic 
agent in humorous situations. The piccolo is generally in D, 
sometimes in Eb or F. (K. S.) 

PICCOLOMINI, the name of an Italian noble family, which 
was prominent in Siena (q.v.) from the beginning of the I3th 
century onwards. In 1220 Enghelberto d'Ugo Piccolomini 
received the fief of Montertari in Val d'Orcia from the emperor 
Frederick II. as a reward for services rendered. The family 
acquired houses and towers in Siena and castles in the republic's 
territory, including Montone and Castiglione; the latter they sold 
to the commune in 1321. They obtained great wealth through 
trade, and established counting-houses in Genoa, Venice, 
Aquileia, Trieste, and in various cities of France and Germany. 
Supporters of the Guelph cause in the civil broils by which Siena 
was torn, they were driven from the city in the time of Manfred 
and their houses demolished; they returned in triumph after 
the Angevin victories, were expelled once more during the brief 



reign of Conradin, and again returned to Siena with the help 
of Charles of Anjou. But through their riotous political activity 
the Piccolomini lost their commercial influence, which passed 
into the hands of the Florentines, although they retained their 
palaces, castles and about twenty fiefs, some of which were in 
the territory of Amalfi and of great extent. Many members of 
the house were distinguished ecclesiastics, generals and statesmen 
in Siena and elsewhere; two of them were popes, viz. Aeneas 
Silvius Piccolomini (Pius II., q.v.) and Francesco Piccolomini 
(Pius III., q.v.). 

See Richter, Die Piccolomini (Berlin, 1874); A. Lisini and A. 
Liberati, Albero della famiglia Piccolomini (Siena, 1899); and 
articles by A. Lisini in the Miscellanea storica senese, 3rd series 
12, and 4th series, 17 and 189. 

PICCOLOMINI, OCTAVIO, PRINCE (1599-1656), duke of 
Amalfi, Austrian general, was born on the nth of November 1599 
in Florence, and carried a pike in the Spanish service at the age 
of sixteen. Two years later, on the outbreak of the Thirty 
Years' War in Bohemia, he was appointed a captain in a cavalry 
regiment sent by the grand duke of Tuscany to the emperor's 
army, and he fought with some distinction under Bucquoy at 
the Weisser Berg and in Hungary. In 1624 he served for a 
short time in the Spanish army and then as lieutenant-colonel 
of Pappenheim's cuirassier regiment in the war in the Milanese. 
In 1627 he re-entered the Imperial service as colonel and captain 
of the lifeguard of Wallenstein, duke of Friedland. In this 
capacity he soon fell into disgrace for practising extortion at 
Slargard in Pomerania, but his adroitness secured him, after no 
long interval, the rank of " colonel of horse and foot." About 
this time the appointment of his younger brother to the arch- 
bishopric of Siena secured him a position of influence in the 
diplomatic world. Diplomatic talent was indeed almost the 
birthright of a member of an Italian family, that had seen two 
of its members occupying the papal chair, and Wallenstein freely 
made use of his subordinate's capacity for negotiation and 
intrigue. In the events of the Mantuan War Piccolomini took a 
prominent part in the dual r61e of the subtle diplomatist and the 
plundering soldier of fortune. At this moment came the invasion 
of Germany by Gustavus Adolphus. Piccolomini was interned 
at Ferrara as a hostage for the ratification of a treaty, but he 
added his voice to the general call for Wallenstein's reappoint- 
ment as commander-in-chief. He was not, however, included in 
the list of promotions that followed the duke's reappearance, 
and he served under General Hoik, an officer brought in from the 
Danish service, in the preliminary operations and in the battle 
of Liitzen. His ambition was gratified when, on reading the 
official report of the battle, the emperor made him a general- 
feldwachtmeister. At the same time, however, Hoik was created 
a field marshal at Wallenstein's instance, much to his rival's 
chagrin. In the campaign of 1633 Piccolomini held the command 
of an important detachment posted at Koniggratz to bar the 
enemy's advance from Silesia into Bohemia. History repeated 
itself on the same ground in 1756, 1778 and 1866; in the first of 
these cases it was a Piccolomini, grand-nephew of Octavio, who 
commanded the Austrians; in the last the victorious Prussians 
passed over the estate of Nachod, which after 1635 was a heredi- 
tary possession of the family. In May Wallenstein entered 
Silesia with the main army with the unavowed object of compel- 
ling or persuading the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony to 
make common cause with the emperor against the Swedes. 
Piccolomini was with him, and, disapproving of the duke's 
policy, joined in a military conspiracy, out of which grew the 
drama that ended with the murder of Wallenstein on the 25th 
of February 1634. Piccolomini's own part in the tragedy has . 
been set forth for all time in the pages of Schiller's Walienstein. 
His reward was his marshal's baton, 100,000 gulden and the 
beautiful estate of Nachod in the Riesengebirge. 

He was Wallenstein's pupil as well as his slayer, and had 
learned the art of war from that master. On the 5th-6th of 
September in the same year he distinguished himself amongst 
the foremost in the great victory of Nordlingen. He soon saw 
the necessity for following out the lines of military policy laid 



PICENE PICHEGRU 



581 



down by the duke, but neither he nor Gallas, the new lieutenant- 
general of the emperor, possessed the capacity for carrying it 
out, and the war dragged on year after year. Piccolomini was 
in 1635 allied with a Spanish army, and bitterly complained that 
their sloth and caution marred every scheme that he formed. 
In 1638 he was made a count of the empire, and in 1639, having 
been fortunate enough to win a great victory over the French 
(relief of Thionville, July 7, 1639), he was rewarded with the 
office of privy councillor from the emperor and with the dukedom 
af Amalfi from the king of Spain. But instead of being appointed, 
as he hoped, Gallas's successor, he was called in to act as ad lalus 
to the Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, with whom he was defeated 
in the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. After this he spent 
some years in the Spanish service and received as his reward the 
title of grandee and the order of the Golden Fleece. Some years 
later, having re-entered the Imperial army, he was again dis- 
appointed of the chief command by the selection of the brave 
veteran Peter Melander, Count Holzapfel. But when in 1648 
Melander fell in battle at Zusmarshausen, Piccolomini was at 
last appointed lieutenant-general of the emperor, and thus con- 
ducted as generalissimo the final campaign of the weary and 
desultory Thirty Years' War. Three days after the commission 
for executing the peace had finished its labours, the emperor 
addressed a letter of thanks ." to 'the Prince Piccolomini," and 
awarded him a gift of 114,566 gulden. Piccolomini died on the 
nth of August 1656. He left no children (his only son Josef 
Silvio, the " Max " of Schiller's Wallenstein, was murdered by 
the Swedes after the battle of Jankau in 1645), and his titles and 
estates passed to his brother's son. With the death of the latter's 
nephew Octavio Aeneas Josef in 1757, the line became extinct. 

PICENE, CzzHu, a hydrocarbon found in the pitchy residue 
obtained in the distillation of peat-tar and of petroleum. This 
is distilled to dryness and the distillate repeatedly recrystallized 
from cymene. It may be synthetically prepared by the action 
of anhydrous aluminium chloride on a mixture of naphthalene 
and ethylene dibromide (R. Lespieau, Bull. soc. Mm., 1891, 
(3), 6, p. 238), or by distilling a-dinaphthostilbene (T. Him, Ber., 
1899, 32, p. 334i)- It crystallizes in large colourless plates 
which possess a blue fluorescence. It is soluble in concentrated 
sulphuric acid with a green colour. Chromic acid in glacial 
acetic acid solution oxidizes it to picene-quinone, picene-quinone 
carboxylic acid, and finally to phthalic acid. When heated with 
hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms hydrides of composition 
C^HiH and C^KM (see E. Bamberger and F.D. Chattaway, Ann., 
1895, 284, p. 61). 

PICENUM, a district of ancient Italy, situated between the 
Apennines and the Adriatic, bounded N. by the Senones and S. 
by the Vestini. The inhabitants were, according to tradition, 
an offshoot of the Sabines. Strabo (v. 4, i) gives the story of 
their migration, led by a woodpecker (picus), a bird sacred to 
Mars, from which they derived their name Picentini (cf. Dion. 
Hal. i. 14, 5), just as the Hirpini derived theirs from liirpus, a 
wolf. The district was conquered by the Romans early in the 
3rd century B.C. and the whole territory was divided up among 
Latin-speaking settlers by the Lex Flaminia in 232 B.C. Hence 
we have very scanty records of any non-Latin Language that may 
have been spoken in the district before the 3rd century. Besides 
the problematic inscriptions from Belmonte, Nereto and Cupra 
Maritima (see SABELLIC), we have one or two Latin inscriptions 
(probably of the 2nd or even the ist century B.C.) which contain 
certain forms showing a distinct affinity with the dialect of 
Iguvium (cf. the name PaSdi= Latin Pacidii). Hence there 
seems some ground for believing that the population which the 
Romans dispossessed, or held in subjection, really spoke a dialect 
very much like that of their neighbours in Umbria. 

For inscriptions, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 449, 
where the place-names and personal names of the district will 
also be found; see further, Livy, Epit. xv.; B. V. Head, Historia 
numorum, p. 19. (R. S. C.) 

It was in Picenum, at Asculum, that the Social War broke out 
in 90 B.C. At the end of the war the district became connected 
with Pompeius Strabo, and his son Pompey the Great threw into 



the scale on the side of Sulla, in 83 B.C., all the influence he 
possessed there, and hoped to make it a base against Caesar's 
legions in 49 B.C. Under Augustus it formed the fifth region of 
Italy, and included twenty-three independent communities, of 
which five, Ancona, Firmum, Asculum, Hadria and Interamnia, 
were coloniae. It was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria, 
and its branch the Via Caecilia. It was also on a branch leading 
from the Via Flaminia at Nuceria Camellaria to Septempeda. 
There were also communications from north to south; a road led 
from Asculum to Urbs Salvia and Ancona, another from Asculum 
and Firmum and the coast, another from Urbs Salvia to Potentia, 
while finally along the whole line of the coast there ran a 
prolongation of the Via Flaminia, the name of which is not 
known to us. 

At the end of the 2nd century A.D. the north-eastern portion 
of Umbria was divided from the rest and acquired the name 
Flaminia, from the high road. For the time it remained united 
with Umbria for administrative purposes, but passed to Picenum 
at latest in the time of Constantine, and acquired the name of 
Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium, the main portion of Picenum 
being distinguished as Suburbicarium. In an inscription of A.D. 
309 Ravenna is actually spoken of as the chief town of Picenum. 
When the exarchate of Ravenna was founded the part of Pice- 
num Annonarium near the sea became the Pentapolis Maritima, 
which included the five cities of Ariminum, Pisaurum, Fanum 
Fortunae, Sena Gallica and Ancona. The exarchate was seized 
by Luitprand in 727, and Ravenna itself was taken by Aistulf 
in 752. In the next year, however, the Emperor Pippin took 
it from him and handed it over to the pope, a grant confirmed by 
his son Charlemagne. (T. As.) 

PICHEGRU, CHARLES (1761-1804), French general, was born 
at Arbois, or, according to Charles Nodier, at Les Planches, near 
Lons-le-Saulnier, on the i6th of February 1761. His father was a 
labourer, but the friars of Arbois gave the boy a good education, 
and one of his masters, the Pere Partault, took him to the military 
school of Brienne. In 1783 he entered the first regiment of 
artillery, where he rapidly rose to the rank of adjutant-sub- 
lieutenant. When the Revolution began he became leader of 
the Jacobin party in Besancon, and when a regiment of volun- 
teers of the department of the Card marched through the city 
he was elected lieutenant-colonel. The fine condition of his 
regiment was soon remarked in the army of the Rhine, and his 
organizing ability was made use of by an appointment on the 
staff, and finally by his promotion to the rank of general of 
brigade. In 1793 Carnot and Saint Just were sent to find 
roturier generals who could be successful; Carnot discovered 
Jourdan, and Saint Just discovered Hoche and Pichegru. In 
co-operation with Hoche and the army of the Moselle, Pichegru, 
now general of division and in command of the army of the Rhine, 
had to reconquer Alsace and to reorganize the disheartened 
troops of the republic. They succeeded ; Pichegru made use of 
the elan of his soldiers to win innumerable small engagements, 
and with Hoche forced the lines of Haguenau and relieved 
Landau. In December 1793 Hoche was arrested, it is said 
owing in part to his colleague's machinations, and Pichegru 
became commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine-and- 
Moselle, whence he was summoned to succeed Jourdan in the 
army of the North in February 1794. It was now that he fought 
his three great campaigns of one year. The English and Austrians 
held a strong position along the Sambre to the sea. After 
vainly attempting to break the Austrian centre, Pichegru 
suddenly turned their left, and defeated Clerfayt at Cassel, 
Menin and Courtrai, while Moreau, his second in command, 
defeated Coburg at Tourcoing in May 1794; then after a pause, 
during which Pichegru feigned to besiege Ypres, he again dashed 
at Clerfayt and defeated him at Rousselaer and Hooglede, while 
Jourdan came up with the new army of the Sambre-and-Meuse, 
and utterly routed the Austrians at Fleurus on the 27th of June 
1794. Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the 
Meuse on the i8th of October, and after taking Nijmwegen 
drove the Austrians beyond the Rhine. Then, instead of going 
into winter-quarters, he prepared his army for a winter 



5 8 2 



PICHLER PICKERING, E. C. 



campaign. On the 28th of December he crossed the Meuse on the 
ice, and stormed the island of Bommel, then crossed the Waal 
in the same manner, and, driving the English before him, entered 
Utrecht on the ipth of January, and Amsterdam on the aoth 
of January, and soon occupied the whole of Holland. This 
grand feat of arms was marked by many points of interest, 
such as the capture of the Dutch ships, which were frozen in 
the Helder, by the French hussars, and the splendid discipline 
of the ragged battalions in Amsterdam, who, with the richest 
city of the continent to sack, yet behaved with a self-restraint 
which few revolutionary and Napoleonic armies attained. The 
former friend of Saint Just now offered his services to the 
Thermidorians, and after receiving from the Convention the 
title of " Sauveur de la Patrie," subdued the sans-culottes of 
Paris, when they rose in insurrection against the Convention on 
12 Germinal (April i). Pichegru then took command of the 
armies of the North, the Sambre-and-Meuse, and the Rhine, and 
crossing the Rhine in force took Mannheim in May 1795. When 
his fame was at its height he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be 
beaten, betrayed all his plans to the enemy, and took part in 
organizing a conspiracy for the return of Louis XVIII., in which 
he was to play, for his own aggrandizement, the part that Monk 
played from higher motives in the English revolution. His 
intrigues were suspected, and when he offered his resignation to 
the Directory in October 1795 it was to his surprise promptly 
accepted. He retired in disgrace, but hoped to serve the royalist 
cause by securing his election to the Council of Five Hundred in 
May 1797. He was there the royalist leader, and planned a 
coup d'etat, but on the i8th Fructidor he was arrested, and with 
fourteen others deported to Cayenne in 1797. Escaping, he 
reached London in 1798, and served on General Korsakov's staff 
in the campaign of 1799. He went to Paris in August 1803 with 
Georges Cadoudal to head a royalist rising against Napoleon; 
but, betrayed by a friend, he was arrested on the 28th of 
February 1804, and on the isth of April was found strangled 
in prison. It has often been asserted that he was murdered by 
the orders of Napoleon, but there is no foundation for the story. 
Pichegru 's campaigns of 1794 are marked by traits of an 
audacious genius which would not have disgraced Napoleon. 
His tremendous physical strength, the personal ascendancy he 
gained by this and by his powers of command made him a 
peculiarly formidable opponent, and thus enabled him to main- 
tain a discipline which guaranteed the punctual execution of his 
orders. He had also, strangely enough, the power of captivating 
honest men like Moreau. He flattered in turn Saint Just and 
the Terrorists, the Thermidorians and the Directors, and played 
always for his own hand a strange egoist who rose to fame as 
the leader of an idealist and sentimental crusade. 

There is no really good life of Pichegru; perhaps the best is 
J. M. Gassier' s Vie du general Pichegru (Pans, 1815). For his 
treason, trial and death, consult Montgaillard's Memoires concernant 
la trahison de Pichegru (1804); Fauche-Borel's Memoires; Savary, 
Memoires sur la mart de Pichegru (Paris, 1825); and G. Pierret, 
Pichegru, son prods et so. mart (1826). 

PICHLER, KAROLINE (1769-1843), Austrian novelist, was 
born at Vienna on the 7th of September 1769, the daughter of 
Hofrat Franz von Greiner, and married, in 1796, Andreas Pichler, 
a government official. For many years her salon was the centre 
of the literary life in the Austrian capital, where she died on the 
9th of July 1843. Her early works, Olivier, first published 
anonymously (1802), Idyllen (1803) and Ruth (1805), though 
displaying considerable talent, were immature. She made her 
mark in historical romance, and the first of her novels of this 
class, Agathodes (1808), an answer to Gibbon's attack on that 
hero in the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, attained great 
popularity. Among her other novels may be mentioned Die 
Belagerung Wiens (1824); Die Schweden in Prag (1827); Die 
Wiedereroberung Ofens (1829) and Henriette von England (1832). 
Her last work was Zeitbilder (1840). 

The edition of Karoline Pichler's Samlliche Werke (1820-1845) 
comprises no less than 60 volumes. Her Denkwiirdigkeiten aus 
metnem Leben (4 vols.) was published posthumously in 1844. A 



selection of her narratives, Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen, appeared 
in 4 vols. in 1894. 

PICKENS, ANDREW (1730-1817), American soldier in the 
War of Independence, was born in Paxton, Bucks county, 
Pennsylvania, on the igth of September 1739. His family 
settled at the Waxhaws (in what is now Lancaster county), 
South Carolina, in 1752. He fought against the Cherokees in 
1761 as a lieutenant. In the War of Independence he rose to 
brigadier-general (after Cowpens) in the South Carolina militia. 
He was a captain among the American troops which surrendered 
at Ninety Six in November 1775. On the I4th of February 
1779, with 300-400 men, he surprised and defeated about 700 
Loyalists under Colonel Boyd on Kettle Creek, Wilkes county, 
Georgia; on the 2oth of June he fought at Stono Ferry; and later 
in the same year at Tomassee defeated the Cherokees, who were 
allied with the British. Upon the surrender of Charleston 
(May 1780) he became a prisoner on parole, which he observed 
rigidly until, contrary to the promises made to him, Major James 
Dunlap plundered his plantation; he then returned to active 
service. His command (about 150 men) joined General Daniel 
Morgan immediately before the battle of Cowpens, in which 
Pickens commanded an advance guard (270-350 men from 
Georgia and North Carolina) and twice rallied the broken 
American militia; for his services Congress gave him a sword. 
With Colonel Henry Lee he harassed Lieut.-Colonel Banastre 
Tarleton, who was attempting to gather a Loyalist force just 
before the battle of Guilford Court House; and with Lee and 
others, he captured Augusta (June 5, 1781) after a siege. At 
Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8, 1781) he commanded the left wing 
and was wounded. In 1782 he defeated the Cherokees again 
and forced them to surrender all lands south of the Savannah 
and east of the Chattahoochee. After the war he was a member 
of the South Carolina House of Representatives for a number 
of years, of the state Constitutional Convention in 1790, and of 
the National House of Representatives in 1793-1795. He died 
in Pendleton district, South Carolina, on the I7th of August 
1817. He had married in 1765 Rebecca Calhoun, an aunt of 
John C. Calhoun. Their son, ANDREW PICKENS (1779-1838), 
served as a lieutenant-colonel in the War of 1812, and was 
governor of South Carolina in 1816-1818. 

PICKENS, FRANCIS WILKINSON (1805-1869), American 
politician, was born in Togadoo, St Paul's parish, South Carolina, 
on the 7th of April 1805, son of Andrew Pickens (1779-1838) 
and grandson of General Andrew Pickens (1739-1817). He 
was educated at Franklin College, Athens, Georgia, and at South 
Carolina College, Columbia, and was admitted to the bar in 1829. 
In 1832 he was elected to the state House of Representatives, 
where, as chairman of a sub-committee, he submitted a report 
denying the right of Congress to exercise any control over the 
states. He was a Democratic member of the National House 
of Representatives in 1834-1843, served in the South Carolina 
Senate in 1844-1845, was a delegate to the Nashville Southern 
Convention (see NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE) in 1850, was United 
States minister to Russia in 1858-1860, and in 1860-1862 
was governor of South Carolina. He strongly advocated the 
secession of the Southern states; signed the South Carolina 
ordinance of secession; protested against Major Robert Ander- 
son's removal from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter; sanctioned 
the firing upon the " Star of the West " (Jan. 9, 1861), which 
was bringing supplies to Anderson, and the bombardment of 
Fort Sumter; and was a zealous supporter of the Confederate 
cause. At the close of his term he retired to his home at 
Edgefield, South Carolina, where he died on the 25th of 
January 1869. 

PICKERING, EDWARD CHARLES (1846- ), American 
physicist and astronomer, was born in Boston on the igth of 
July 1846. He graduated in 1865 at the Lawrence Scientific 
School of Harvard, where for the next two years he was a 
teacher of mathematics. Subsequently he became professor 
of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and 
in 1876 he was appointed professor of astronomy and director 
of the Harvard College observatory. In 1877 he decided to 



PICKERING, T. PICKERING 



583 



devote one of the telescopes of the observatory to stellar photo- 
metry, and after an exhaustive trial of various forms of photo- 
meters, he devised the meridian photometer (see PHOTOMETRY, 
STELLAR), which seemed to be free from most of the sources of 
error. With the first instrument of this kind, having objectives 
of 1-5 inch aperture, he measured the brightness of 4260 stars, 
including all stars down to the 6th magnitude between the North 
Pole and -30 declination. With the object of reaching fainter 
stars, Professor Pickering constructed another instrument of 
larger dimensions, and with this more than a million observations 
have been made. The first important work undertaken with 
it was a revision of the magnitudes given in the Bonn Durch- 
musterung. On the completion of this, Professor Pickering 
decided to undertake the survey of the southern hemisphere. 
An expedition, under the direction of Prof. S. I. Bailey, was 
accordingly despatched (1889), and the meridian photometer 
erected successively in three different positions on the slopes of 
the Andes. The third of these was Arequipa, at which a perma- 
nent branch of the Harvard Observatory is now located. The 
magnitudes of nearly 8000 southern stars were determined, 
including 1428 stars of the 6th magnitude and brighter. The 
instrument was then returned to Cambridge (U.S.A.), where the 
survey extended so as to include all stars of magnitude 7-5 down 
to -40 declination, after which it was once more sent back to 
Arequipa. In 1886 the widow of Henry Draper, one of the 
pioneers of stellar spectroscopy, made a liberal provision for 
carrying on spectroscopic investigations at Harvard College in 
memory of her husband. With Professor Pickering's usual 
comprehensiveness, the inquiry was so arranged as to cover the 
whole sky; and with four telescopes two at Cambridge for 
the northern hemisphere, and two at Arequipa in Peru for the 
southern to which a fine 24-in. photographic telescope was 
afterwards added, no fewer than 75,000 photographs had been 
obtained up to the beginning of 1901. These investigations 
have yielded many important discoveries, not only of new stars, 
and of large numbers of variable stars, but also of a wholly new 
class of double stars whose binary character is only revealed by 
peculiarities in their spectra. The important conclusion has 
been already derived that the majority of the stars in the Milky 
Way belong to one special type. 

PICKERING, TIMOTHY (1745-1829), American politician, 
was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the i7th of July 1745. 
He graduated from Harvard College in 1763 and was admitted 
to the bar in 1768. In the pre-revolutionary controversies he 
identified himself with the American Whigs; in 1773 he prepared 
for Salem a paper entitled Slate of the Rights of the Colonists; in 
1775 he drafted a memorial protesting against the Boston Port 
Bill; and in 1776 he was a representative from Salem in the 
General Court of Massachusetts. In 1766 he had been commis- 
sioned lieutenant and in 1769 captain in the Essex county 
militia; early in 1775 he published An Easy Plan of Discipline 
for a Militia, adopted in May 1776 by the General Court for use 
by the militia of Massachusetts, and he was elected colonel of 
his regiment. In the same year he became judge of the court 
of common pleas for Essex county, and sole judge of the maritime 
court for the counties of Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex. In the 
winter of 1776-1777 he led an Essex regiment of volunteers 
to New York, and he subsequently served as adjutant-general 
(June i777-Jan. 1778) and later as quartermaster-general 
(1780-1785); he was also a member of the board of war from the 
7th of November 1777 until its abolition. With the aid of some 
officers he drew up, in April 1783, a plan for the settlement of 
the North- West territory, which provided for the exclusion of 
slavery. In 1785 he became a commission merchant in 
Philadelphia; but in October 1786, soon after the legislature of 
Pennsylvania had passed a bill for erecting Wyoming district 
into the county of Luzerne, he was appointed prothonotary and 
a judge of the court of common pleas and clerk of the court of 
sessions and orphans' court for the new county, and was com- 
missioned to organize the county. He offered to purchase for 
himself the Connecticut title to a farm, and in the following year 
he was appointed a member of a commission to settle claims 



according to the terms of an act, of which he was the author, 
confirming the Connecticut titles (see WYOMING VALLEY and 
WILKES-BARRE). Pickering was a member of the Pennsylvania 
convention of 1787 which ratified the Federal constitution, and 
of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention of 1789-1790. 
In November 1790 he negotiated a peace with the Seneca 
Indians, and he concluded treaties with the Six Nations in July 
1791, in March 1792 and in November 1794. Under Washington 
he was postmaster-general (1791-1795), secretary of war (1795), 
and after December 1795 secretary of state, to which position he 
was reappointed (1797) by Adams. In 1783, while he was 
quartermaster-general, he had presented a plan for a military 
academy at West Point, and now, as secretary of war, he super- 
vised the West Point military post with a view to its conversion 
into a military academy. As head of the state department 
he soon came into conflict with Adams. His hatred of France 
made it impossible for him to sympathize with the president's 
efforts to settle the differences with that country on a peaceable 
basis. He used all his influence to hamper the president and 
to advance the political interests of Alexander Hamilton, 
until he was dismissed, after refusing to resign, in May 1800. 
Returning to Massachusetts, he served as chief justice of the 
court of common pleas of Essex county in 1802-1803. He was 
a United States senator in 1803-1811 and a member of the 
Federal House of Representatives in 1813-1817. As an ultra 
Federalist he was a prominent member of the group known 
as the Essex Junto he strongly opposed the purchase of 
Louisiana and the War of 1812. He died at Salem, Massachu- 
setts, on the 29th of January 1829. 

The standard biography is that by his son, Octavius Pickering 
(1791-1868), and C. W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering 
(4 vols., Boston, 1867-1873). In the library of the Massachusetts 
Historical Society at Boston, there are sixty-two manuscript 
volumes of the Pickering papers, an index to which was published 
in the Collections of the society, 6th series, vol. viii. (Boston, 1896). 

His son, JOHN PICKERING (1777-1846), graduated at Harvard 
in 1796, studied law and was private secretary to William 
Smith, United States minister to Portugal, in 1797-1799, and 
to Rufus King, minister to Great Britain, in 1799-1801. He 
practised law in Salem and (after 1827) in Boston, where he 
was city solicitor in 1827-1846, and wrote much on law and 
especially on the languages of the North-American Indians. 
He was a founder of the American Oriental Society and published 
an excellent Comprehensive Dictionary of the Greek Language 
(1826). 

See Mary O. Pickering (his daughter), Life of John Pickering 
(Boston, 1887). 

Timothy Pickering's grandson, CHARLES PICKERING (1805- 
1878), graduated at Harvard College in 1823 and at the Harvard 
Medical School in 1826, practised medicine in Philadelphia, 
was naturalist to the Wilkes exploring expedition of 1838-1842, 
and in 1843-1845 travelled in East Africa and India. He wrote 
The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution (1848), 
Geographical Distribution of Animals and Man (1854), Geo- 
graphical Distribution of Plants (1861) and Chronological History 
of Plants (1879). 

PICKERING, a market town in the Whitby parliamentary 
division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 32 m. 
N.E. by N. from York by the North Eastern railway, the 
junction of several branch lines. Pop. of urban district (1901), 
3491. The church of St Peter is Norman and transitional 
Norman, with later additions including a Decorated spire. It 
contains a remarkable series of murai paintings of the isth 
century. The castle, on a hill to the north, is a picturesque 
ruin, the fragmentary keep and several towers remaining. The 
work is in part Norman, but the principal portions are of the 
1 4th century. One of the towers is connected in name and 
story with Fair Rosamond. The castle was held by Earl 
Morcar shortly before the Conquest; it then came into the hands 
of the Crown, and subsequently passed to the duchy of Lancaster. 
It was the prison of Richard II. before his confinement at Ponte- 
fract. During the civil wars of the i7th century the castle was 
held by the Royalists, and suffered greatly in siege. The district 



5 8 4 



PICKET PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA 



surrounding Pickering is agricultural, and the town is a centre 
of the trade. Agricultural implements are manufactured, and 
limestone and freestone are quarried in the vicinity. 

PICKET, PIQUET or PICQUET (Fr. piquet, a pointed stake 
or peg, from piquer, to point or pierce), a military term, signifying 
an outpost or guard, supposed to have originated in the French 
army about 1690, from the circumstance that an infantry 
company on outpost duty dispersed its musketeers to watch, 
the small group of pikemen called piqttel remaining in reserve. 
Thus at the present day the word " picquet " is, in Great Britain 
at any rate, restricted to an infantry post on the outpost line, 
from which the sentries or " groups " of watchers are sent out. 
In the United States a " picket " is synonymous with a sentry, 
and the " pickeUline " is the extreme advanced line of observa- 
tion of an army. In the French army picquets are called 
" grand' gardes," and the phrase " grand guard " is often met 
with in English military works of the I7th and i8th centuries. 
A body of soldiers held in readiness for military or police duties 
within the limits of a camp or barracks is also called a picquet 
or " inlying picquet." These special uses of the word in English 
are apparently quite modern (after about 175)- " Picket " 
in its ordinary meaning of a peg or stake, has always been in 
common military use, being applied variously to the picketing 
pegs in horse-lines, to long pointed stakes employed in palisades 
or stockades, to straight thin rods used for marking out the line 
of fire for guns, &c. Of the various spellings " picquet " is 
officially adopted in Great Britain and " picket " in the United 
States, but the latter is now invariably used when a peg or stake 
is meant. 

Two obsolete meanings of the word should also be mentioned. 
The " picket " was a form of military punishment in vogue in 
the 1 6th and i7th centuries, which consisted in the offender 
being forced to stand on the narrow flat top of a peg for a period 
of time. The punishment died out in the i8th century and was 
so far unfamiliar by 1800 that Sir Thomas Picton, who ordered 
a mulatto woman to be so punished, was accused by public 
opinion in England of inflicting a torture akin to impalement. 
It was thought, in fact, that the prisoner was forced to stand 
on the head of a pointed stake, and this error is repeated in the 
New English Dictionary. In the middle of the ipth century, 
when elongated rifle bullets were a novelty, they were'often, and 
especially in America, called pickets. The ordinary military 
use of the word gives rise to compound forms such as " picket 
boat " or " picket launch," large steam launch or pinnace fitted 
with guns and torpedoes, and employed for watching the waters 
of harbours, &c. For picketing in strikes, &c., see below. 

PICKETING, a term used to describe a practice resorted to 
by workmen engaged in trade disputes, of placing one or more 
men near the works of the employer with whom the dispute is 
pending, with the object of drawing off his hands or acquiring 
information useful for the purposes of the dispute. In England, 
under the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, it 
is an offence wrongfully and without legal authority to watch 
or beset the house or place where another resides or works, or 
carries on business or happens co be, or the approach to such 
house or place, if the object of the watching, &c., is to compel 
the person watched, &c., to abstain from doing or to do an act 
which he is legally entitled to do or to abstain from doing ( 7). 
The definition of the offence was qualified by a proviso excluding 
from punishment those who attend at or near a house or place 
merely to obtain or communicate information, in other words 
what is termed peaceful picketing, without intimidation, molesta- 
tion or direct efforts to influence the course of a trade dispute. 
This enactment led to a great deal of litigation between trade 
unions and employers; and trade unions were in some instances 
restrained by injunction from picketing the works of employers, 
The decisions of the courts upon this subject met with severe 
criticism from the leaders of trade unions, and by the Trades 
Disputes Act 1906 the proviso above quoted was repealed, and 
it was declared lawful for one or more persons acting for them- 
selves or for a trade union or for an individual employer to attend 
at or near a house, &c., " if the attendance is merely for the 



purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information 
or of peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain from 
working." The exact effect of this change in the law has not 
yet been determined by the courts, but during the Belfast carters' 
strike of 1907 serious riots ensued upon the efforts of the authori- 
ties to counteract the interference with lawful business caused 
by free use of picketing. The change in the law is supplemented 
by provisions forbidding actions against trade unions in respect 
of any tortious acts alleged to have been committed by or on 
behalf of the union. 

PICKLE. In the wider sense the term " pickle " is applied 
to any saline or acid preservative solution; in the narrower to 
vegetables preserved in vinegar. The word appears to be an 
adaptation of Dutch pekel, brine, pickle; cf. Ger. Pokel. The 
ultimate origin is unknown; connexions with a supposed in- 
ventor's name, such as Beukeler or Bo'ckel are mere inventions. 
A solution of copper or zinc sulphate is used as a " pickle " for 
railway-sleepers or other wood, a brine containing salt and 
saltpetre as a preservative for meat, lime-water as " pickle " 
for eggs. Domestic pickles are made from small cucumbers, 
onions, cauliflowers, cabbages, mangoes and unripe walnuts, 
by either steeping or boiling them in salt-brine and vinegar. 
On account of the large proportion of water natural to these 
vegetables, only the strongest vinegar, containing from 5 to 6 % 
of acetic acid, can be used. For the better kinds vinegar made 
from malted or unmalted barley is as a rule employed, for 
cheaper varieties simply dilute acetic acid obtained from acetate 
of lime. Sauces such as Worcestershire sauce, or Yorkshire 
relish, consist of fluid pickles, that is of salted and variously 
spiced vinegar solutions or emulsions containing tissue of 
vegetables (tomatoes, mushrooms, &c.), or of fish (sardines or 
anchovies). 

PICKNELL, WILLIAM LAMB (1854-1897), American land- 
scape-painter, was born at Hinesburg, Vermont, on the 23rd 
of October 1854. He was a pupil of George Inness in Rome for 
two years, and of J. L. Ger6me in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 
Paris. With Robert Wylie he worked for several years in 
Brittany, at Pont Aven and Concarneau, where he painted his 
" Route de Concarneau " (Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, 
D.C.). His " Morning on the Loing " received a gold medal 
at the Paris Salon of 1895. In 1880 he became a member of 
the Society of American Artists, and in 1891 an associate of the 
National Academy of Design. He died at Marblehead, Massa- 
chusetts, on the 8th of August 1897. 

PICNIC, a form of entertainment in which the guests are 
invited to join an excursion to some place where a meal can be 
taken in the open air. During the first half of the i9th century 
the essential of a picnic was that the guests should each bring 
with them a contribution of provisions. At the beginning of 
the igth century a society was formed in London called the 
" Picnic Society," the members of which supped at the Pantheon 
in Oxford Street, and drew lots as to what part of the meal each 
should supply (see L. Melville, The Beaux of the Regency, 1908, 
i. 222). The French form pique-nique is said to be of recent 
introduction in 1692 (Menage, Diet. elym.). It is doubtful 
whether picnic is merely a rhyming word, or can be referred 
to pique, pick, and nique, small coin. 

PICO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal, 
and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (190x3), 
24,028; area 175 sq. m. Pico is a conical mountain, rising to 
the height of 7612 ft. The soil consists entirely of pulverized 
lava. The so-called Fayal wine, though named after an adjacent 
island, was formerly produced here, and largely exported to 
Europe. But in 1852 the vines were attacked by the Oidium 
fungus and completely destroyed, while the orange-trees suffered 
almost as much from the Coccus hesperidum. The people were 
consequently forced to emigrate in great numbers, till the 
planting of fig-trees and apricots alleviated the evil. Pico also 
produces a species of wood resembling mahogany, and equal in 
quality to it. Its chief town is Lagens do Pico. Pop. (2975). 

PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNI, COUNT (1463-1404), 
Italian philosopher and writer, the youngest son of Giovanni 



PICRIC ACID PICRITE 



585 



Francesco Pico, prince of Mirandola, a small territory about 
30 Italian miles west of Ferrara, afterwards absorbed in the 
duchy of Modena, was born on the 24th of February 1463. The 
family was illustrious and wealthy, and claimed descent from 
Constantine. In his fourteenth year Pico went to Bologna, 
where he studied for two years, and was much occupied with 
the Decretals. The traditional studies of the place, however, 
disgusted him; and he spent seven years wandering through all 
the schools of Italy and France and collecting a precious library. 
Besides Greek and Latin he knew Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic; 
and his Hebrew teachers (Eliah del Medigo. Leo Abarbanel and 
Jochanan Aleman see L. Geiger Johann Reuchlin (1871), p. 167) 
introduced him to the Kabbalah, which had great fascinations 
for one who loved all mystic and theosophic speculation. His 
learned wanderings ended (1486) at Rome, where he set forth 
for public disputation a list of nine hundred questions and 
conclusions in all branches of philosophy and theology. He 
remained a year in Rome, but the disputation he proposed was 
never held. The pope prohibited the little book in which they 
were contained, and Pico had to defend the impugned theses 
(De omni re scibili) in an elaborate Apologia. His personal 
orthodoxy was, however, subsequently vindicated by a brief 
of Alexander VI., dated i8th June 1493. The suspected theses 
included such points as the following : that Christ descended 
ad inferos not in His real presence but quoad ejfectum; that no 
image or cross should receive latreia even in the sense allowed 
by Thomas; that it is more reasonable to regard Origen as saved 
than as damned; that it is not in a man's free will to believe or 
disbelieve an article of faith as he pleases. But perhaps the 
most startling thesis was that no science gives surer conviction 
of the divinity of Christ than " magia " (i.e. the knowledge of 
the secrets of the heavenly bodies) and Kabbalah. Pico was 
the first to seek in the Kabbalah a proof of the Christian mysteries 
and it was by him that Reuchlin was led into the same delusive 
path. 

Pico had been up to this time a gay Italian nobleman; he was 
tall, handsome, fair-complexioned, with keen grey eyes and 
yellow hair, and a great favourite with women. But his troubles 
led him to more serious thoughts; and he published, in his 28th 
year, the Hcptaplus, a mystical exposition of the creation. 
Next he planned a great seven-fold work against the enemies 
of the Church, of which only the section directed against astrology 
was completed. After leaving Rome he again lived a wandering 
life, often visiting Florence, to which he was drawn by his friends 
Politian and Marsilius Ficinus, and where also he came under 
the influence of Savonarola. It was at Florence that he died 
on the 1 7th of November 1494. Three years before his death 
he parted with his share of the ancestral principality, and 
designed, when certain literary plans were completed, to give 
away all he had and wander barefoot through the world preach- 
ing Christ. But these plans were cut short by a fever which 
carried him off just at the time when Charles VIII. was at 
Florence. 

Pico's works cannot now be read with much interest, but the 
man himself is still interesting, partly from his influence on 
Reuchlin and partly from the spectacle of a truly devout mind 
in the brilliant circle of half-pagan scholars of the Florentine 
renaissance. 

His works were published at Bologna in 1496 by his nephew, 
Giov. Fran. Pico, with a biography, which was translated by Sir 
Thomas More as Life of John Picus, Earl of Mirandola, in 1510. 
See the essay in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1878); and the 
study by J. Rigg, prefixed to the reprint of More's Life in the 
" Tudor Library " (London, 1890). 

PICRIC ACID, or TRINITROPHENOL, C 6 H 2 -OH-(N0 2 ) 3 [i-z-4-6], 
an explosive and dyestuff formed by the action of con- 
centrated nitric acid on indigo, aniline, resins, silk, wool, 
leather, &c. It is the final product of the direct nitration of 
phenol, and is usually prepared by the nitration of the mixture 
of phenol sulphonic acids obtained by heating phenol with 
concentrated sulphuric acid (E. Eisenmann and A. Arche, 
Eng. pat., 4539 (1889). It may also be obtained by 
oxidizing the symmetrical trinitrobenzene with potassium 



ferricyanide in alkaline solution (P. Hepp, Ann. 1882, 215, 
p. 352). It crystallizes from water in yellow plates melting at 
122-5 C., which sublime on careful heating, but explode when 
rapidly heated. It is poisonous and possesses a bitter taste, 
hence its name from the Greek irocp6s, bitter. It has a strongly 
acid reaction, being almost comparable with the carboxylic 
acids. By the action of bleaching powder it is converted into 
chlorpicrin, CCla-NC^. Phosphorus pentachloride converts 
it into picryl chloride, CeH 2 Cl(N0 2 )3, which is a true acid 
chloride, being decomposed by water with the regeneration of 
picric acid and the formation of hydrochloric acid; with ammonia 
it yields picramide, CeH 2 NH 2 (NO 2 )3. Silver picrate and methyl 
iodide yield the methyl ester, which gives with ammonia 
picramide. Picric acid forms many well-defined salts, of a 
yellow or red-brown colour. It also yields crystalline compounds 
with many aromatic hydrocarbons and bases. It imparts a 
yellow colour to wool and silk. The chief application of picric 
acid and its salts is in the manufacture of explosives. When 
ignited, picric acid burns quietly with a smoky flame, and it is 
very difficult to detonate by percussion; its salts, however, are 
more readily detonated. The more important picric powders 
are melinite, believed to be a mixture of fused picric acid and 
gun-cotton; lyddite, the British service explosive, and shimose, 
the Japanese powder, both supposed to be identical with the 
original melinite; Brugere's powder, a mixture of 54 parts of 
ammonium picrate and 45 parts of saltpetre; Designolle's powder, 
composed of potassium picrate, saltpetre and charcoal; and 
emmensite, invented by Stephen Emmens, of the United States. 

It may be detected by the addition of an aqueous solution of 
potassium cyanide, with which it gives a violet-red coloration, 
due to the formation of isopurpuric acid. R. Anschutz (Ber., 1884, 
17, p. 439) estimates picric acid by precipitation with acridine. 

PICRITE (from Gr. iriKp6s, bitter, because these rocks are 
rich in magne'sia, a base which forms bitter salts), a rock belong- 
ing to the ultrabasic group, and consisting mainly of olivine 
and augite often with hornblende and biotite and a greater or 
less amount of plagioclase felspar. The picrites are of 
" hypabyssal " origin and in their natural occurrence are 
connected with dolerites (diabases and teschenites). The 
distinction between them and the peridotites, which have an 
essentially similar composition, is not easy to define, but the 
peridotites accompany the true plutonic rocks, such as gabbro, 
norite and pyroxenite, are often very coarsely crystalline, and 
form large bosses and laccolites, while the picrites usually are 
found in sills or intrusive sheets. 

In hand specimens the picrites are dark green to black; the 
absence or scarcity of lath-shaped plagioclase felspars distin- 
guishes them from diabases and they rarely have the lustre- 
mottling which is a characteristic of the peridotites. Since they 
contain much olivine they readily decompose, passing into deep 
green and brown incoherent masses in which are embedded 
rounded lumps of harder consistency. They have a high specific 
gravity (about 3-0) and may be distinctly magnetic, because 
they are rich in iron ores. Porphyritic structure is rare though 
occurring sometimes in the rocks known as picrite-porphy rites; 
the phenocrysts are olivine and augite. There is seldom any 
fine-grained or glassy groundmass, and the typical micro- 
structure is holocrystalline, moderately fine grained and some- 
what poikilitic. Olivine is abundant in rounded pale green 
crystals. It may form one half of the rock but rarely more than 
this. The augite is generally brown or reddish-brown, sometimes 
violet, and tends to enclose the olivine, yielding poecilitic aggre- 
gates. Brown hornblende often occurs as marginal growths' 
around the pyroxene, and may be so abundant as to replace 
augite to a large extent; rocks of this class are known as 
hornblende-picrites. Bright green or pale-green hornblende are 
less frequently present, and in many cases are really of secondary 
origin. Deep brown biotite is a frequent accessory mineral 
and both biotite and hornblende sometimes enclose olivine. 
A small amount of basic plagioclase occurs in many picrites; 
apatite, iron oxides, chromite and spinels are minor ingredients 
seldom altogether absent. 



586 



PICROTOXIN PICTON 



The minerals of picrites are very frequently decomposed. 
Serpentine partly or wholly replaces olivine, forming radiate 
fibrous masses which are green, yellow or red in microscopic 
sections. Sometimes hornblende (pilite), talc, chlorite and mica 
appear as secondary products after olivine. The augite passes 
into chlorite or into green fibrous or platy amphibole. Horn- 
blende and biotite are often fresh when the other components 
are much altered. The felspar is rarely in good preservation 
but yields epidote, prehnite, sericite, kaolin; calcite and analcite 
are abundant in some weathered picrites. 

Rocks of this type are well represented in Great Britain. In 
the central valley of Scotland several masses of picrite have been 
discovered, always in close association with olivine-diabase and 
teschenite. One of these forms the island of Inchcolm in. the Firth 
of Forth, another lies near Bathgate (in Linlithgowshire), and there 
are others at Aberdour (Fife), Ardrossan and Barnton (Midlothian). 
They belong to the great series of Carboniferous eruptive rocks ot 
the Scottish midland valley. These picrites are not known to be 
represented in England, but, on the other hand, there are Devonian 
picrites in Devon and Cornwall as basic members of the diabase 
and proterobase series of these counties. Some of them contain 
much augite like the picrite (often called palaeopicrite as being of 
palaeozoic age) at Menheniot Station in Cornwall and the picrite 
of Highweek near Newton Abbot in Devonshire. Others are horn- 
blende-picrites like that of Cartuther near St Germans, Cornwall. 
Hornblende-picrite occurs also in the island of Sark and several 
beautiful examples have been described from Anglesey and from 
Penarfynnydd in North Wales and from Wicklow in Ireland. 
Picrites occur in several parts of Germany, notably in the Devonian 
rocks of the Fichtelgebirge and Nassau, where they accompany 
diabases and proterobases like those of Cornwall and Devonshire. 
In Silesia and Moravia picrites are found with teschenites like those 
of Central Scotland. In some of the continental picrites ensta- 
tite is present but is rare. In North America picrites occur 
among the igneous rocks on the Hudson river and in Alabama and 
Montana. (J- S. F.) 

PICROTOXIN, a neutral principle obtained from the Cocculus 
indicus, which is the fruit of the Anamirta paniculata. It is 
used in medicine externally as an antiparasitic. Internally it 
has been successfully used to check the night-sweats of phthisis. 
In large doses it is a powerful poison, causing unconsciousness, 
delirium, convulsions, gastro-enteritis and stimulation of the 
respiratory centre followed by paralysis, from which death 
sometimes results. Formerly low class publicans sometimes 
added Cocculus indicus berries to beer to increase the intoxicat- 
ing effects. Its chemical formula is dsHieOj- H 2 O. 

PICTET DE LA RIVE, FRANCOIS JULES (1800-1872), Swiss 
zoologist and palaeontologist, was born in Geneva on the 27th 
of September 1809. He graduated B. es Sc. at Geneva in 1829, 
and pursued his studies for a short time at Paris, where under 
the influence of Cuvier, de Blainville and others, he worked at 
natural history and comparative anatomy. On his return to 
Geneva in 1830 he assisted A. P. de Candolle by giving demon- 
strations in comparative anatomy. Five years later, when de 
Candolle retired, Pictet was appointed professor of zoology and 
comparative anatomy. In 1846 his duties were restricted to 
certain branches of zoology, including geology and palaeontology, 
and these he continued to teach until 1859, when he retired to 
devote his energies to the museum of natural history and to 
special palaeontological work. He was rector of the academy 
from 1847 to 1850, and again from 1866 to 1868. He was for 
many years a member of the Representative Council of Geneva, 
and in 1862 President of the Constituent Assembly. His earlier 
published work related chiefly to entomology, and included 
Recherches pour serrir a I'histoire el a I'anatomie des Phryganides 
(1834) and two parts of Histoirs nalurelle, generale et particulibre 
des insectes Neuropteres (1842-1845). Feeling the want of a 
hand-book, he prepared his Traite eUmentaire de paleontologie 
(4 vols. 1844-1846). In the first edition Pictet, while adopting 
the hypothesis of successive creations of species, admitted that 
some may have originated through the modification of pre- 
existing forms. In his second edition (1853-1857) he enters 
further into the probable transformation of some species, and 
discusses the independence of certain faunas, which did not 
appear to have originated from the types which locally preceded 
them. He now directed his attention to the fossils of his native 
country, more especially to those of the Cretaceous and Jurassic 



strata, and in 1854 he commenced the publication of his great 
work, MaUriaux pour la paleontologie suisse, a series of quarto 
memoirs, of which six were published (1854-1873). In this 
work Pictet was aided by E Renevier, G. Campiche, P. de 
Loriol and others. Pictet also brought out Melanges paUonto- 
logiques (1863-1868). He died at Geneva on the i5th of March 
1872. 

Obituary by W. S. Dallas, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1873), vol. xxix. 

PICTON, SIR THOMAS (1758-1815), British general, was the 
younger son of Thomas Picton, of Poyston, Pembrokeshire, 
where he was born in August 1758. In 1771 he obtained an 
ensign's commission in the I2th regiment of foot, but he did 
not join until two years afterwards. The regiment was then 
stationed at Gibraltar, where he remained until he was made 
captain in the 75th in January 1778, when he returned to 
England. The regiment was disbanded five years later. On 
the occasion of its disbandment Picton quelled a mutiny amongst 
the men by his prompt personal action and courage, and was 
promised a majority in reward for his conduct. This, however, 
he did not receive, and after living in retirement on his father's 
estate for nearly twelve years, he went out to the West Indies 
in 1794 on the strength of a slight acquaintance with Sir John 
Vaughan, the commander-in-chief, who made him his aide-de- 
camp and gave him a captaincy in the I7th foot. Shortly 
afterwards he was promoted major. Under Sir Ralph Aber- 
cromby, who succeeded Vaughan in 1795, he took part in the 
capture of St Lucia (for which he was promoted lieutenant- 
colonel) and in that of St Vincent. After the reduction of 
Trinidad Abercromby made him governor of the island. He 
administered the island with such success that the inhabitants 
petitioned against the retrocession of the island to Spain, and 
their protest, with Picton's and Abercromby's representations, 
ensured the retention of Trinidad as a British possession. In 
October 1801 he was gazetted brigadier-general. But by this 
time the rigour of his government, as reported by his enemies, 
had led to a demand by humanitarians at home for his removal. 
Colonel William Fullarton (i 754-1808) procured the appointment 
of a commission to govern the island, of which he himself was 
the senior member, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Samuel) 
Hood the second, and Picton himself the junior. Picton there- 
upon tendered his resignation, and Hood, as soon as the nature 
of Fullarton's proceedings became obvious, followed his example 
(1803). On his way home Picton took part with great credit 
in military operations in St Lucia and Tobago. Realizing, 
however, that the attacks upon him were increasing in virulence, 
he quickly returned to England, and in December 1803 he was 
arrested by order of the privy council. He was tried in the 
court of king's bench before Lord Ellenborough in 1806 on a 
charge of unlawfully applying torture to extort a confession 
from Luise Calderon, a mulatto woman of loose character who 
was charged, along with a man, with robbery. The torture 
consisted in compelling the woman to stand on one leg on a flat- 
headed peg for one hour. The punishment was ordered under 
Spanish law (which in default of a fresh code Picton had been 
appointed to administer in 1801) by the local alcalde, and 
approved by Picton. On these grounds the court returned a 
merely technical verdict of guilty, which . was superseded in 
1808 by a special verdict on retrial. It should be mentioned 
that the inhabitants of the island, who had already given him 
a sword of honour, and had petitioned the king not to accept 
his resignation, subscribed 4000 towards his legal expenses, 
which sum Picton contributed in return to the relief of the 
suffering caused by a widespread fire in Port of Spain. He had 
meanwhile been promoted major-general, and in 1809 he had 
been governor of Flushing during the Walcheren expedition. 
In 1810, at Wellington's request, he was appointed to command 
a division in Spain. For the remaining years of the Peninsular 
War, Picton was one of Wellington's principal subordinates. 
The commander-in-chief, it is true, never reposed in him the 
confidence that he gave to Beresford Hill and Craufurd. But 
in the resolute, thorough and punctual execution of a well- 
defined task Picton had no superior in the army. His debut, 



PICTOU PIEDMONT 



587 



owing partly to his naturally stern and now embittered temper, 
and partly to the difficult position in which he was placed, was 
unfortunate. On the Coa in July 1810 Craufurd's division 
became involved in an action, and Picton, his nearest neighbour, 
refused to support him, as Wellington's direct orders were to 
avoid an engagement. Details of the incident will be found in 
Oman, Peninsular War, vol. iii. Shortly after this, however, 
at Busaco, Picton found and used his first great opportunity 
for distinction. Here he had a plain duty, that of repulsing 
the French attack, and he performed that duty with a skill and 
resolution which indicated his great powers as a troop-leader. 
After the winter in the lines of Torres Vedras, he added to his 
reputation and to that of his division, the 3rd, at Fuentes d'Onor. 
In September he was given the local rank of lieutenant-general, 
and in the same month the division won great glory by its rapid 
and orderly retirement under severe pressure from the French 
cavalry at El Bodon. In October Picton was appointed to the 
colonelcy of the 77th regiment. In the first operations of 1812 
Picton and Craufurd, side by side for the last time, stormed the 
two breaches of Ciudad Rodrigo, Craufurd and Picton's second 
in command, Major-General Mackinnon,beingmortallywounded. 
At Badajoz, a month later, the successful storming of the fortress 
was due to his daring self-reliance and penetration in converting 
the secondary attack on the castle, delivered by the 3rd division, 
into a real one. He was himself wounded in this terrible engage- 
ment, but would not leave the ramparts, and the day after, 
having recently inherited a fortune, he gave every survivor of 
his command a guinea. His wound, .and an attack of fever, 
compelled him to return to England to recruit his health, but 
he reappeared at the front in April 1813. While in England he 
was invested with the collar and badge of a K.B. by the prince 
regent, and in June he was made a lieutenant-general in the 
army. The conduct of the 3rd division under his leadership 
at the battle of Vittoria and in the engagements in the Pyrenees 
raised his reputation as a resolute and skilful fighting general 
to a still higher point. Early in 1814 he was offered, but after 
consulting Wellington declined, the command of the British 
forces operating on the side of Catalonia. He thus bore his 
share in the Orthez campaign and in the final victory before 
Toulouse. 

On the break-up of the division the officers presented Picton 
with a valuable service of plate, and on the 24th of June 1814 
he received for the seventh time the thanks of the House of 
Commons for his great services. Somewhat to his disappoint- 
ment he was not included amongst the generals who were raised 
to the peerage, but early in 1815 he was made a G.C.B. When 
Napoleon returned from Elba, Picton, at Wellington's request, 
accepted a high command in the Anglo-Dutch army. He was 
severely wounded at Quatre Bras on the i6th of June, but 
concealed his wound and retained command of his troops, and at 
Waterloo on the i8th, while repulsing with impetuous valour 
" one of the most serious attacks made by the enemy on our 
position," he was shot through the head by a musket bal). His 
body was brought home to London, and buried in the family 
vault at St George's, Hanover Square. A public monument 
was erected to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral, by order of 
parliament, and in 1823 another was erected at Carmarthen by 
subscription, the king contributing a hundred guineas thereto. 

See Robinson's Life of Sir Thomas Picton (London, 1836), with 
which, however, compare Napier's and Oman's histories of the 
Peninsular War as to controversial points. 

PICTOU, a seaport, port of entry, and capital of Pictou 
county, Nova Scotia, 90 m. N.E. by N. of Halifax, on a branch 
of the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1901), 3235. It has 
several valuable industries, and is the shipping port for the 
adjacent coal-mines. The Academy, founded in 1818, played 
an important part in the early educational history of the 
province, and still enjoys a high reputation. 

PICUS, in Roman mythology, originally the woodpecker, the 
favourite bird and symbol of Mars as the god of both nature 
and war. He appears later as a spirit of the forests, endowed 
with the gift of prophecy, haunting springs and streams, with 



a special sanctuary in a grove on the Aventine. As a god of 
agriculture, especially connected with manuring the soil, he is 
called the son of Stercutus (from slercus, dung, a name of 
Saturn). Again, Picus is the first king of Latium, son of Saturn 
and father of Faunus. Virgil (Aen. vii. 170) describes the 
reception of the ambassadors of Aeneas by Latinus in an ancient 
temple or palace, containing figures of his divine ancestors, 
amongst them Picus, famous as an augur and soothsayer. Ac- 
cording to Ovid (Metam. xiv., 320), Circe, while gathering herbs 
in the forest, saw the youthful hero out hunting, and immediately 
fell in love with him. Picus rejected her advances, and the 
goddess in her anger changed him into a woodpecker, which 
pecks impotently at the branches of trees, but still retains 
prophetic powers. The purple cloak which Picus wore fastened 
by a golden clasp is preserved in the plumage of the bird. In 
the simplest form of art, he was represented by a wooden pillar 
surmounted by a woodpecker; later, as a young man with the 
bird upon his head. 

PICUMNUS is merely another form of Picus, and with him is 
associated his brother and double PILUMNUS. Picumnus, a rustic 
deity (like Picus) and husband of Pomona, is specially concerned 
with the manuring of the soil and hence called Sterquilinus, while 
Pilumnus is the inventor of the pounding of grain, so named from 
the pestle (pilum) used by bakers. Under a different aspect, the 
pair were regarded as the guardians of women in childbed and of 
new-born children. Before the child was taken up and formally 
recognized by the father, a couch was set out for them in the atrium, 
where their presence guarded it from all evil. Augustine (De 
civitate dei, vi. 9) mentions a curious custom: to protect a woman 
in childbed from possible violence on the part of Silvanus, the 
assistance of three deities was invoked Intercidona (the hewer), 
Pilumnus (the pounder) and Deverra (the sweeper). These deities 
were symbolically represented by three men who went round the 
house by night. One smote the threshold with an axe, another 
with a pestle, the third swept it with a broom three symbols of 
culture (for trees were hewn down with the axe, grain pounded with 
the pestle, and the fruits of the field swept up with the broom) 
which Silvanus could not endure. 

PIDGIN [or PIGEON] ENGLISH, the lingua franca of the sea- 
ports of China, the Straits Settlements in the Far East, con- 
sisting in a jargon of corrupted English words with some inter- 
mixture of Portuguese and Malay, following Chinese idiomatic 
usage. It is employed as a means of communication between 
foreigners and the native Chinese. The word " pidgin " is the 
Chinese corruption of " business." 

PIE. (i) The name of the bird more generally known as 
the magpie (q.v.). The word comes through the French from 
Lat. pica (q.v.). It is probably from the black and white or 
spotted appearance of the bird that the name " pie " or " pye " 
(Lat. pica) was given to the ordinal, a table or calendar which 
supplemented that which gave the services for the fixed festivals, 
&c., and pointed out the effect on them of the festivals rendered 
movable by the changing date of Easter. An English act of 
I S49 (3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10) abolished " pies " with manuals, 
legends, primers and other service books. The parti-coloured 
appearance of the magpie also gives rise to the term " piebald," 
applied to an animal, more particularly a horse, which is marked 
with large irregular patches of white and black; where the colour 
is white and some colour other than black, the more appropriate 
word is " skew-bald," i.e. marked with " skew " or irregular 
patches. (2) A dish made of meat, fish or other ingredients, 
also of vegetables or fruit, baked in a covering of pastry; in 
English usage, where " fruit " is the ingredient, the dish is 
generally called a " tart," except in the case of " apple-pie." 
The word appears early in the i4th century of meat or fish pies. 

The expression " to eat humble-pie," i.e. to make an apology, 
to retract or recant, is a facetious adaptation of " umbles " 
(O. Fr. nombles, connected with Lat. lumbus, loin or umbilicus, 
navel), the inner parts of a deer, to " humble " (Lat. humilis, 
lowly). An " umble-pie," made of the inner parts of a deer 
or other animal, was once a favourite dish. " Printers' pie," 
i.e. a mass of confused type, is a transferred sense of " pie," the 
dish, or of " pie," the ordinal, from the difficultyof decipherment. 

PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pede- 
montium), a territorial division (compartimento) of northern 



5 88 



PIENZA PIER 



Italy, bounded N. by Switzerland, W. by France, S. by Liguria 
and E. by Lombardy. Physically it may be briefly described 
as the upper gathering-ground and valley of the river Po, 
enclosed on all sides except towards the Lombard plain by the 
vast semicircle of the Pennine, Graian, Cottian, Maritime and 
Ligurian Alps. In 1859 it was divided into the four provinces 
of Alessandria, Cuneo, Novara and Torino (Turin). It has an 
area of 11,340 sq. m. The people are chiefly engaged in agri- 
culture growing wheat, maize and rice, chestnuts, wine and 
hemp; in the reeling and throwing of silk and in the manu- 
facture of cotton, woollens and clothing; there are also 
considerable manufactures at Turin, Savigliano, &c. The 
Piedmontese dialect has been rather strongly influenced by 
French. The chief towns in the several provinces are as follows, 
with their communal populations in 1901: Alessandria (72,109), 
Asti (39,251), Casale Monferrato (31,370), Novi Ligure (17,868), 
Tortona (17,419), Acqui (13,940), Valenza (10,956), Ovada 
(10,284); total of province 825,745, number of communes 343; 
Cuneo (26,879), Mondovi (18,982), Fossano (18,175), Savigliano 
(17,340), Saluzzo (16,028), Bra (15,821), Alba (13,637), 
Boves (10,137); total of province 670,504, number of com- 
munes 263; Novara (44,249), Vercelli (30,470), Biella (19,267) 
Trino (12,138), Borgomanero (10,131); total of province 763,830; 
number of communes, 437; Turin (329,691), Pinerolo (18,039), 
Carmagnola (11,721), Ivrea (11,696), Moncalieri (11,467); total 
of province 1,147,414; number of communes, 442. The total 
population of Piedmont was 2,738,814 in 1859, and in 1901 
3,407,493. The large number of communes is noticeable, as 
in Lombardy, and points to a village life which, owing to greater 
insecurity and the character of the country, is not to be found 
in central and southern Italy as a whole. There are numerous 
summer resorts in the Alpine valleys. The chief railway centres 
are Turin, communicating with the Mont Cenis line, and with 
the Riviera by the railway over the Col di Tenda (in process of 
construction), Novara, Vercelli, Asti, Alessandria., Novi. The 
communications with Liguria are difficult owing to the approach 
of the mountains to the coast, and the existing lines from Genoa 
to Turin and Milan are hardly sufficient to cope with the traffic. 

Piedmont in Roman times until 49 B.C. formed a part of Gallia 
Transpadana, and in Augustus' division of Italy formed with 
what was later known as Lombardy the nth region. It formed 
part of the Lombard kingdom, and it was not till about A.D. 1000 
that the house of Savoy (q.v.) arose. The subsequent history 
of Piedmont is that of its dynasty. 

PIENZA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Siena, 
9 m. west of the town of Montepulciano by road, 1611 ft. above 
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 2730 (town); 3836 (commune). The 
place was originally called Corsignano and owes its present name 
to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II. (q.v.) who was born 
here in 1405. The buildings which he caused to be erected by 
Bernardo Rossellino in 1460-1463 form a noble group of early 
Renaissance architecture round the Piazza del Duomo. The 
latter retains Gothic details in the interior, but the facade is 
simple Renaissance work. The ether three sides are occupied 
by the episcopal and municipal palaces, and the Palazzo Picco- 
lomini; the last, resembling the Palazzo Rucellai at Florence, 
is the finest, and in front of it is a beautiful fountain. The 
episcopal palace contains a museum with some fine ecclesiastical 
vestments, enamels and other works of art. 

PIER (older forms per or pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word 
is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. pierre, Lat. 
petra, stone, is doubtful; equivalents are Fr. piedroit, pilier, 
trumeau; Ital. pila; Ger. Pfeiler), the term given in architecture 
to a vertical support in masonry or brickwork, usually rect- 
angular on plan, which carries an arch or superstructure. The 
term is also sometimes given to the great circular columns which 
in some English cathedrals and churches carry the nave arches. 
In early Christian churches, when antique columns, such as 
abounded in Rome, were not procurable, square piers took the 
place of columns and sometimes alternated with them. The 
introduction of vaulting, however, in the nth century, neces- 
sitated a support of much greater dimensions than those which 



had been deemed sufficient when the roof was of timber only, 
and led to the development of the compound or clustered pier. 
To give extra support to the subordinate arches of the nave 
arcade, semicircular shafts or pilasters were added, carried up 
to the transverse and diagonal ribs of the main vault. In 
Romanesque work the pier was generally square on plan with 
semicircular shafts attached, the angles of the pier being worked 
with smaller shafts. As the rings or orders of the nave arches 
increased in number, additional shafts were added to carry 
tnem, and the pilaster facing the nave had central and side shafts 
rising to carry the transverse and diagonal ribs of the vault; this 
development of the compound pier obtains throughout Europe 
in all vaulted structures. In the Early English period the piers 
become loftier and lighter, and in most important buildings a 
series of clustered columns, frequently of marble, are placed 
side by side, sometimes set at intervals round a circular centre, 
and sometimes almost touching each other. These shafts are 
often wholly detached from the central pier, though grouped 
round it, in which case they are almost always of Purbeck or 
Bethersden marbles. In Decorated work the shafts on plan are 
very often placed round a square set angle-wise, or a lozenge, 
the long way down the nave; the centre or core itself is often 
worked into hollows or other mouldings, to show between the 
shafts, and to form part of the composition. In this and the 
latter part of the previous style there is generally a fillet on the 
outer part of the shaft, forming what has been called a " keel 
moulding " (q.v.). They are also often tied together by bands, 
formed of rings of stone and sometimes of metal. About this 
period, too, these intermediate mouldings run up into and form 
part of the arch moulds, there being no impost. This arrange- 
ment became much more frequent in the Perpendicular period; 
in fact it was almost universal, the commonest section being a 
lozenge set with the long side from the nave to the aisle, and not 
towards the other arches, as in the Decorated period, with four 
shafts at the angles, between which were shallow mouldings, 
one of which was in general a wide hollow, sometimes with wave 
moulds. The small columns at the jambs of doors and windows, 
and in arcades, and also those attached to piers or standing 
detached, are generally called " shafts " (q.v.). 

The term pier is sometimes applied to the solid parts of a wall 
between windows or voids, and also to the isolated masses of 
brickwork or masonry to which gates are hung. (R. P. S.) 

Piers of Bridges. The piers of bridges and viaducts on land 
are constructed of masonry or brickwork and occasionally, in 
the case of high piers, of open braced ironwork, as exemplified 
by the old Crumlin viaduct in Wales and the Pecos viaduct in 
Texas. These piers, besides being proportioned in cross-section 
to the weight they have to support, are widened out at their base, 
so as to distribute the load over a sufficient area for it to be borne 
by the stratum on which it rests without risk of settlement. 
Special provisions have to be made for the foundations of piers 
where the ground is soft for some depth, or loose water-bearing 
strata are encountered, and especially where the piers of large 
bridges crossing rivers have to be constructed under water. 
In soft ground, bearing piles driven down to a firm stratum, and 
surmounted by a planked floor or a layer of concrete, provide a 
convenient foundation for a pier; and in places where timber is 
abundant, wooden cribs filled with rubble stone or concrete 
have been used in the United States for raising the foundations 
for piers out of water. For" river piers, where a firm, watertight 
stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the 
site is often enclosed within a coffer-dam or a plate iron caisson 
carried down into the stratum and raised out of water; and then, 
after the water has been pumped out and the surface layers 
removed, the pier is readily buHt within the enclosure in the 
open air. When, however, a river-bed consists of silt, sand or 
other soft materials extending down to a considerable depth, 
brickwork wells are gradually sunk to a firm stratum by removing 
the material within them with grabs, and on them the piers are 
built out of water; or bottomless caissons are carried down by 
excavating their interiors under compressed air, and the piers 
are built on top of them within a plate-iron enclosure, a system 



PIER 



589 



adopted for the piers of the Brooklyn, St Louis, Forth and other 
large bridges, and essential for forming foundations on sloping 
rock, such as was encountered in places under the Firth of 
Forth. 

The methods indicated above as employed for the foundations 
of the piers of bridges under favourable conditions belong 
equally to the foundations of other structures (see FOUNDA- 
TIONS) ; but there are some methods which, by combining bridge 
piers and their foundations ' in a single structure, appertain 
entirely to piers. Thus iron screw piles, sunk by turning into 




20 FEET 



FIG. i. Pier with Disk Piles. 

the soft bed of a river till they reach a firm stratum or one 
sufficiently consolidated by the superincumbent layers to enable 
it to support the wide blades of the screws with the weight 
imposed on them, were formerly often arranged in converging 
clusters joined together at the top, so as to serve as the piers of 
bridges having several comparatively small spans, and intended 
for carrying lightly constructed railways across rivers in India 
and elsewhere. Hollow, cast-iron, cylindrical piles also, with a 
broad circular disk at the bottom to increase their bearing 
surface, have been used for piers founded in sandy or silty strata 



bolted together with a specially strong bottom ring, sometimes 
made of wrought iron and having a cutting edge, have been often 
employed for the construction of the river piers of bridges, being 
gradually carried down to a watertight stratum by excavating 
inside, and subsequently filled up solid with concrete and brick- 
work; the piers of the Charing Cross and Cannon Street bridges 
across the Thames are notable instances of the adoption of this 
method, which is well illustrated by the piers of the bridges across 
the River Chittravati in India 
(fig. 2). Sometimes, instead of two 
or more independent cylinders being 
sunk, the whole site of a pier is 
enclosed within a wrought-iron 
caisson, usually divided into sections 
by vertical partitions, which is sunk 
and filled up solid in the same way 
as cylinders, a system adopted, for 
instance, for the piers of the bridge 
across the Hawkesbury River in New 
South Wales. 

Promenade Piers. The term pier 
is often applied to works sheltering 
harbours, such as the Tynemouth 
piers, which are strictly breakwaters. 
Landing stages also, whether solid 
or open, have for a long time been 
called piers, as the Admiralty Pier 
and the Prince of Wales's Pier at 
Dover; but the open promenade 
piers which form a common feature 
at seaside resorts are the type of 
pier best known to the general 
public. These piers are supported 
upon open pilework of timber or 
iron, and consequently expose little surface to waves in storms 
and do not interfere with the drift of shingle or sand along the 
coast (fig. 3). 1 Timber piles are best suited for withstanding 
the shocks of vessels at landing stages, at which places they 
are generally used; but since they are subject to the attacks of 
the teredo, and expose a considerable surface to the waves, iron 
piles are generally adopted for the main portion of these piers. 

The pioneer of these piers was the old chain pier at Brighton, 
which was erected in 18221823. It was founded upon oak piles, 
was 1136 ft. long, and had a timber landing-stage at the end. It 
consisted of four spans suspended from chains on the model of the 
Menai Suspension Bridge, then in course of construction, and was 
destroyed by a gale in December 1896. A wider and more modern 
type of pier was erected at the west end of Brighton in 1865-1866, 




ROCK. 



SCALE ioo. 
FIG. 2. Cylindrical Piers 
for River Bridges. 




FIG. 3. Promenade Pier. 



of considerable thickness; they are sunk to the requisite depth 
by lowering a pipe down the inside of the pile to the bottom and 
emitting a powerful jet of water which, stirring up the soft 
material and scouring it away from under the disk, causes the 
pile to descend. This system was first adopted for the piers 
of a railway viaduct crossing the wide, sandy Kent and Leven 
estuaries opening into Morecambe Bay (fig. i). Cast-iron 
cylinders, consisting of a series of rings formed of segments all 



and subsequently extended; whilst a new pier was completed in 
1900 near the site of the old chain pier, 1700 ft. king. The Southport 
pier, erected in 1859-1860 and afterwards prolonged, furnishes 
an example of an iron pier supported on disk piles sunk in sand as 
described above (fig. i); whilst the much more commonly used 
iron screw piles, adopted as early as 1847 for an open landing-pier 
on the Irish coast at Courtown, which was exposed to a great 
littoral drift of sand, are shown as the mode of support for the pier 

1 The Engineer (1888), i. 380, 381 and 384. 



59 



PIERCE PIERO DI COSIMO 



reached for steamers of moderate draught to come alongside the 
end of the pier. Thus, whereas a length of 900 ft. has sufficed for 
the St Leonards pier on a somewhat steep, shingly beach, the pier 
at Ryde, constituting the principal landing-place for the Isle of 
Wight passengers, has had to be carried out about half a mile across 
a flat alluvial foreshore to reach water deep enough for the access 
of the steamboats crossing the Solent. The vast sands, moreover, 
at the outlet of the Ribble estuary, stretching two or three miles 
in front of Southport at low water of spring tides, have necessitated 
the construction of a pier 4395 ft. long merely to get out to an 
old flood-tide channel, which is now completely severed by the 
sands at low water from all connexion with the river. 

(L. F. V.-H.) 

PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804-1869), fourteenth president of 
the United States, was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, 
on the 23rd of November 1804. His father, Benjamin Pierce 
(1757-1839), served in the American army throughout the War 
of Independence, was a Democratic member of the New Hamp- 
shire House of Representatives from 1789 to 1803, and was 
governor of the state in 1827-1829. The son graduated in 1824 
at Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, Maine, where he formed a 
friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Pierce then studied law, 
and in 1827 was admitted to the bar and began, to practise 
at Hillsborough. He at once took a lively interest in politics, 
and from 1829 to 1833 served in the state House of Representa- 
tives, for the last two years as Speaker. In 1833 he entered the 
national House of Representatives, and although he achieved 
no distinction in debate he was a hard worker, and a loyal sup- 
porter of the policies of President Jackson. After four years 
in the House he entered the Senate, being its youngest member. 
In 1842, before the expiration of his term, he resigned his seat, 
and at Concord, New Hampshire, began his career at the bar in 
earnest, though still retaining an interest in politics. In 1845 
he declined the Democratic nomination for governor, and also 
an appointment to the seat in the United States Senate made 
vacant by the resignation of Judge Levi Woodbury. He 
accepted, however, an appointment as Federal District Attorney 
for New Hampshire, as the duties of this office, which he held in 
1845-1847, were closely related to those of his profession. In 
1846 he again declined public honours, when President Polk 
invited him to enter the cabinet as attorney-general. Soon 
after the outbreak of the war with Mexico, in 1846, Pierce 
enlisted as a private at Concord, but soon (in February 1847) 
became colonel of the Ninth Regiment (which joined General 
Winfield Scott at Pueblo on the 6th of August 1847), and later 
(March, 1847) became a brigadier-general of volunteers. At the 
battle of Contreras, on the igih of August 1847, he was thrown 
from his horse and received severe injuries. At the end of the 
war he resigned his commission and returned to Concord. In 
1850 Pierce became president of a convention assembled at 
Concord to revise the constitution of his state, and used his 
influence to secure the removal of those provisions of the con- 
stitution of 1792 which declared that only Protestants should be 
eligible for higher state offices. This amendment passed the 
convention in April 1852, but was rejected by the electorate of 
the state; a similar amendment was adopted by popular vote in 
1877. In January 1852 the legislature of New Hampshire 
proposed him as a candidate for the presidency, and when the 
Democratic national convention met at Baltimore in the follow- 
ing June the Virginia delegation brought forward his name on 
the thirty-fifth ballot. Although both parties had declared 
the Compromise of 1850 a finality, the Democrats alone were 
thoroughly united in support of this declaration, and therefore 
seemed to offer the greater prospect of peace. This fact, com- 
bined with the colourless record of their candidate, enabled 
them to sweep the country at the November election. Pierce 
received 254 electoral votes, and General Winfield Scott, his 
Whig opponent, only 42. The Democrats carried every state 
except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee. No 
president since James Monroe had received such a vote. 

Pierce was the youngest man who had as yet been elevated 
to the presidency. For his cabinet he chose William L. Marcy 



of New York, secretary of state; Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, 
secretary of war; James Guthrie (1792-1869) of Kentucky, 
secretary of the treasury; James C. Dobbin (1814-1857) of 
North Carolina, secretary of the navy; Robert McClelland 
(1807-1880) of Michigan, secretary of the interior; James 
Campbell (1813-1893) of Pennsylvania, postmaster-general; 
and Caleb Gushing of Massachusetts, attorney-general. This 
was an able body of men, and is the only cabinet in American 
history that has continued unbroken throughout an entire 
administration. Although Pierce during his term in the Senate 
had severely criticized the Whigs for their removals of Demo- 
crats from office, he himself now adopted the policy of replacing 
Whigs by Democrats, and the country acquiesced. Pierce had 
no scruples against slavery, and opposed anti-slavery agitation 
as tending to disrupt the Union. The conduct of foreign 
relations was on the whole the most creditable part of his adminis- 
tration. The Koszta Affair (1853) gave the government an 
opportunity vigorously to assert the protection it would afford 
those in the process of becoming its naturalized citizens. When 
the British government refused to prevent recruiting for the 
Crimean War by their representatives in America, their minister, 
John F. Crampton, received his passports, and the exequaturs 
of the British consuls at New York, Philadelphia and Cincinnati 
were revoked. A commercial treaty was negotiated with Japan 
in 1854 after Perry's expedition in the previous year. As an 
avowed expansionist, Pierce sympathized with the filibuster 
government set up in Nicaragua by William Walker, and finally 
accorded it recognition. It was during this term also that the 
Gadsden Purchase was consummated, by which 45,535 sq. m. of 
territory were acquired from Mexico, and that three routes were 
surveyed for railways from the Mississippi river to the Pacific 
coast. 

When the Democratic national convention met at Cincinnati 
in June 1856, Pierce was an avowed candidate for renomination, 
but as his attitude on the slavery question, and especially his 
subserviency to the South in supporting the pro-slavery party 
in the Territory of Kansas, had lost him the support of the 
Northern wing of his party, the nomination went to James 
Buchanan. After retiring from the presidency Pierce returned 
to Concord, and soon afterwards went abroad for a three years' 
tour in Europe. Many Southern leaders desired his renomina- 
tion by the Democratic party in 1860, but he received such 
suggestions with disfavour. After his return to America he 
remained in retirement at Concord until the day of his death, 
the 8th of October 1869. 

Pierce was not a great statesman, and his fame has been 
overshadowed by that of Benton, Calhoun, Clay and Webster. 
But he was an able lawyer, an orator of no mean reputation, 
and a brave soldier. He was a man of fine appearance and 
courtly manners, and he possessed personal magnetism and the 
ability to make friends, two qualities that contributed in great 
measure to his success. 

A portion of Pierce's correspondence has been published in the 
American Historical Review, x. 110-127, 350-370. D. W. Bartlett's 
Franklin Pierce (Auburn, New York, 1852), and Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne's Franklin Pierce (Boston, 1852), are two " campaign " 
biographies, and are very eulogistic. J. R. Irelan's History of the 
Life, Administration and Times of Franklin Pierce (Chicago, 1888), 
being vol. xiv. of his Republic, is a more critical work, but inaccu- 
rate as to details. J. E. Cooley's Review of the Administration of 
General Pierce (New York, 1854) and Anna E. Carroll's Review of 
Pierce's Administration (Boston, 1856) are hostile anti-administra- 
tion tracts. The best accounts of Pierce's administration are to 




Period (New York, 1900). 

PIERO DI COSIMO (1462-1521), the name by which the 
Florentine painter Pietro di Lorenzo is generally known. He was 
born in Florence about 1462, and worked in the bottega of 
Cosimo Rosselli (from whom he derived his popular name). 
Other influences that can be traced in his work are those of 
Filippino Lippi, Luca Signorelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, and, as 
has been recently suggested by Professor R. Muther, that of 
Hugo van der Goes, whose Portinari altar-piece (now at the 



PIERRE PIERREPONT 



59 1 



Spedale of S. Maria Novella in Florence) helped to lead the whole 
of Florentine painting into new channels. From him, most 
probably, he acquired the love of landscape and the intimate 
knowledge of the growth of flowers and of animal life. The 
influence of Hugo van der Goes is especially apparent in the 
" Adoration of the Shepherds," at the Berlin Museum. He had 
the gift of a fertile fantastic imagination, which, as a result of a 
journey to Rome in 1482 with his master, Rosselli, became 
directed towards the myths of classic antiquity. He proves 
himself a true child of the Renaissance in such pictures as the 
" Death of Procris," at the National Gallery, the " Mars and 
Venus," at the Berlin Gallery, the " Perseus and Andromeda " 
series, at the Uffizi in Florence, and the " Hylas and the 
Nymphs " belonging to Mr Benson. If, as we are told by 
Vasari, he spent the last years of his life in gloomy retire- 
ment, the change was probably due to Savonarola, under whose 
influence he turned his attention once more to religious art. 
The " Immaculate Conception," at the Uffizi, and the " Holy 
Family," at Dresden, best illustrate the religious fervour to 
which he was stimulated by the stern preacher. 

With the exception of the landscape background in Rosselli's 
fresco of the " Sermon on the Mount," in the Sistine Chapel, 
we have no record of any fresco work from his brush. On the 
other hand, he enjoyed a great reputation as a portrait painter, 
though the only known examples that can be definitely ascribed 
to him are the portrait of a warrior, at the National Gallery, 
(No. 895), the so-called " Bella Simonetta," at Chantilly, the 
portraits of Giuliano di San Gallo and his father, at the Hague, 
and a head of a youth, at Dulwich. Vasari relates that Piero 
excelled in designing pageants and triumphal processions for 
the pleasure-loving youths of Florence, and gives a vivid descrip- 
tion of one such procession at the end of the carnival of 1507, 
which illustrated the triumph of death. Piero di Cosimo 
exercised considerable influence upon his fellow pupils Alberti- 
nelli and Bartolommeo della Porta and was the master of Andrea 
del Sarto. Examples of his work are also to be found at the 
Louvre in Paris, the Harrach and Liechtenstein collections in 
Vienna, the Borghese Gallery in Rome, the Spedale degli 
Innocent! in Florence, and in the collections of Mr John Burke 
and Colonel Cornwallis West in London. A " Magdalen " from 
his brush was added to the National Gallery of Rome in 1907. 

See Piero di Cosimo, by F. Knapp (Halle, 1899); Piero di Cosimo, 
by H. Haberfeld (Breslau, 1901). 

PIERRE, the capital of South Dakota, U.S.A., and the 
county-seat of Hughes county, situated on the east bank of the 
Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Bad river, about 
185 m. N.W. of Yankton. Pop. (1905) 2794; (1910) 3656. 
Pierre is served by the Chicago & North- Western railway; the 
Missouri is navigable here, but river traffic has been practically 
abandoned. Among the principal buildings are the state 
capitol (1909) and the post office building. Pierre has a public 
library, and is the seat of the Pierre Industrial School (co-educa- 
tional, opened in 1890), a government boarding school (non- 
reservation) for Indian children. The city has a large trade in 
livestock, and is a centre for the mining districts of the Black 
Hills and for a grain-growing country. Natural gas is used for 
lighting, heating and power. A fur-trading post, Fort La 
Framboise, was built in 1817 by a French fur-trader (from 
whom it took its name) at the mouth of the Teton or Little 
Missouri river (now called the Bad River), on or near the site of 
the present village of Fort Pierre (pop. in 1910, 792). In 1822 
Fort Tecumseh was built about 2 m. up-stream by the Columbia 
Fur Company, which turned it over in 1827 to the American Fur 
Company. The washing away of the river bank caused the 
abandonment of this post and the erection about a mile farther 
up-stream, and a short distance west of the river, of Fort Pierre 
Chouteau (later called Fort Pierre), occupied in 1832, and named 
in honour of Pierre Chouteau, jun. (1789-1865). ' For twenty 

1 Pierre Chouteau in 1804 succeeded his father, one of the founders 
of St Louis, in the Missouri Fur Company; and about 1834 Pratt, 
Chouteau & Company, of which he was the leading member, bought 
the entire western department of the American Fur Company, and 
in 1838 reorganized under the name of Pierre Chouteau, jun., & 



years thereafter Fort Pierre was the chief fur-trading depot 
of the Upper Missouri country. In 1855 the United States 
government bought the post building and other property for 
$45,000, and laid out around them a military reservation of 
about 270 sq. m. The fort was the headquarters of General 
William S. Harney (1800-1889) in his expedition against the 
Sioux in 1856, and in March of that year an important council 
between General Harney and the chiefs of all the Sioux bands, 
except the Blackfeet, was held here. The fort was abandoned 
in 1857. Pierre was laid out in 1880, was incorporated as a 
village in 1883, and was chartered as a city in 1900. 

See Major Frederick T. Wilson, " Fort Pierre and Its Neighbors," 
in South Dakota Historical Collections, vol. i. (Aberdeen, S.D., 1902); 
and Hiram M. Chittenden, The American Fur Trade of the Far 
West (3 vols., New York, 1902). 

PIERRE DE CASTELNAU (d. 1208), French ecclesiastic, was 
born in the diocese of Montpellier. In 1199 he was archdeacon 
of Maguelonne, and was appointed by Pope Innocent III. as 
one of the legates for the suppression of heresy in Languedoc. 
In 1202, when a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, 
Narbonne, he was designated to similar work, first in Toulouse, 
and afterwards at Viviers and Montpellier. In 1207 he was in 
the Rhone valley and in Provence, where he became involved 
in the strife between the count of Baux and Raymond, count 
of Toulouse, by one of whose agents he was assassinated on the 
iSth of January 1208. He was beatified in the year of his death 
by Pope Innocent III. 

See De la Bouillerie, Le Bienheureux Pierre de Castelnau et les 
Albigeois au XIII. siecle (Paris, 1866). 

PIERREFONDS, a town of northern France, in the depart- 
ment of Oise, 9 m. S.E. of Compiegne by road. Pop. (1906), 
1482. It is celebrated for its feudal stronghold, a masterpiece 
of modern restoration. The building is rectangular in shape, 
with a tower at each corner and at the centre of each of the walls, 
which are strengthened by crenelation and machicolation. A 
lofty keep defends the principal entrances on the south-west. 
The interior buildings are chiefly modern, but the exterior 
reproduces faithfully that of the medieval fortress. Pierrefonds 
has a church dating from various periods from the nth to the 
1 6th century, and its mineral springs are in some rerjute. The 
chateau was begun in the last decade of the I4th century by 
Louis d'Orleans, to whom the domain was given by Charles VI., 
and finished early in the isth century. It was subsequently 
held by the Burgundians, the English and the adherents of the 
League, from whom it passed to Henry IV. It was dismantled 
in 1622. The ruins, bought by Napoleon I., were restored, by 
order of Napoleon III., from 1858 to 1895, under the direction, 
first of Viollet-le-Duc and afterwards of E. Boeswillwald. 

PIERREPONT, WILLIAM (c. 1607-1678), English politician, 
was the second son of Robert Pierrepont, ist earl of Kingston. 
Returned to the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Great 
Wenlock, he threw his influence on the side of peace and took 
part for the parliament in the negotiations with Charles I. at 
Oxford in 1643. Pierrepont was a member of the committee 
of both kingdoms, and represented the parliamentary party 
during the deliberations at Uxbridge in 1645; but from that 
time, according to Clarendon, he forsook his moderate attitude, 
and " contracted more bitterness and sourness than formerly." 
This statement, however, is perhaps somewhat exaggerated, 
as Pierrepont favoured the resumption of negotiations with the 
king in 1647, and in the following year his efforts on behalf of 
peace at Newport, where again he represented the parliament- 
arians, brought upon him some slight censure from Cromwell. 
For his services at Newport he was thanked by parliament; but 
he retired from active political life soon afterwards, as he 
disliked the " purging " of the House of Commons by Colonel 
Pride and the proceedings against the king. In spite of his 

Company. Chouteau built (in 1830-1831) the "Yellowstone," 
which went up the river to the present site of Pierre in 1831, and 
was the first steamboat to navigate the upper waters of the Mis- 
souri. Chouteau lived for some years in New York City, and while 
living in St Louis was a member of the convention (1820) which 
drafted the first constitution of Missouri. 



59 2 



PIERROT PIETERSBURG 



moderate views Pierrepont enjoyed the personal friendship of 
Cromwell; but, although elected, he would not sit in the parlia- 
ment of 1656, nor would he take the place offered to him in the 
Protector's House of Lords. When Richard Cromwell suc- 
ceeded his father, Pierrepont was an unobtrusive but powerful 
influence in directing the policy of the government, and after a 
short period of retirement on Richard's fall he was chosen, 
early in 1660, a member of the council of state. He represented 
Nottinghamshire in the Convention Parliament of 1660, and 
probably was instrumental in saving the lives of some of the 
parliamentary leaders. At the general election of 1661 he was 
defeated, and, spending the remainder of his life in retirement, 
he died in 1678. Pierrepont married Elizabeth, daughter of 
Sir Thomas Harris, Bart., of Tong Castle, Shropshire, by whom 
he had five sons and five daughters. His eldest son, Robert 
(d. 1666), was the father of Robert, 3rd earl, William, 4th earl, 
and Evelyn, ist duke of Kingston; and his third son, Gervase 
(1649-1715), was created in 1714 baron Pierrepont of Hanslope, 
a title which became extinct on his death. 

PIERROT (Ital. Pedrolino), the name given to the leading 
character in the French pantomime plays since the i8th century; 
transferred from the Italian stage, and revived especially in 
recent times. He is always in white, both face and costume, 
with a loose and daintily clownish garb, and is represented as of 
a freakish disposition. Modern pierrot plays have converted 
the pierrot into a romantic and even pathetic figure. 

PIERSON, HENRY HUGO [properly HENRY HUGH PEARSON], 
(i8rs-i873), English composer, was the son of the Rev. Dr 
Pearson of St John's College, Oxford, where he was born in 
1815; his father afterwards became dean of Salisbury. Pierson 
was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, and 
was at first intended for the career of medicine. His musical 
powers were too strong to be repressed, and after receiving 
instruction from Attwood and A. T. Corfe he went in 1839 to 
Germany to study under C. H. Rink, Tomaschek and Reissiger. 
He was elected Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh in 1844, 
but, owing to a disagreement with the authorities, he resigned 
in the following year, and definitely adopted Germany as his 
country about the same time, making the change in his names 
noted above. His two operas, Leila (Hamburg, 1848) and 
Conlarini (Hamburg, 1872), have not retained their hold upon 
the German public as his music to Faust has done, a work which 
until quite recently was frequently associated with Goethe's 
drama. He was never recognized in England as he was in 
Germany, for most of his career fell in the period of the Mendels- 
sohn fashion. His most important work was the oratorio 
Jerusalem, produced at the Norwich Festival of 1852, and 
subsequently given in London (Sacred Harmonic Society, 1853) 
and Wurzburg (1862). For the Norwich Festival (at one of 
the meetings a selection from his Faust music was given with 
success) he began an oratorio, Hezekiah, in 1869; it was not 
finished, but was given in a fragmentary condition at the festival 
of that year. These two large works and a number of Pierson's 
songs, as well as the three overtures played at the Crystal 
Palace, reveal undeniable originality and a wealth of melodic 
ideas. He was weak in contrapuntal skill, and his music was 
wanting in outline and coherence; but in more fortunate con- 
ditions his great gifts might have been turned to better account. 
He died at Leipzig on the 28th of January 1873, and was buried 
at Sonning, Berks., of which parish his brother, Canon Pearson, 
was rector. 

PIETAS, in Roman mythology, the personification of the sense 
of duty towards God and man and the fatherland. According 
to a well-known story, a young woman in humble circumstances, 
whose father (or mother) was lying in prison under sentence 
of death, without food, managed to gain admittance, and 
fed her parent with milk from her breast. To commemorate 
her filial affection a temple was dedicated (181 B.C.) by 
Manius Acilius Glabrio to Pietas in the Forum Holitorium 
at Rome, on the spot where the young woman had formerly 
lived. The temple was probably originally vowed by the 
elder Glabrio out of gratitude for the pietas shown during 



the engagement by his son, who may have saved his life, as the 
elder Africanus that of his father at the battle of Ticinus (Livy 
xxi. 46); the legend of the young woman (borrowed from the 
Greek story of Mycon and Pero, Val. Max. v. 4, ext. i) was then 
connected with the temple by the identification of its site with 
that of the prison. There was another temple of Pietas near the 
Circus Flaminius, which is connected by Amatucci (Rivista di 
storia antica, 1903) with the story of the pietas of C. Flaminius 
(Val. Max. v. 4, 5), and regarded by him as the real seat of the 
cult of the goddess, the Pietas of the sanctuary dedicated by 
Glabrio being a Greek goddess. Pietas is represented on coins 
as a matron throwing incense on an altar, her attribute being a 
stork. Typical examples of " piety " are Aeneas and Antoninus 
Pius, who founded games called Eusebeia at Puteoli in honour of 
Hadrian. 

See Val. Max. v. 4, 7; Pliny, Nat. hist. vii. 121; Livy xl. 34; 
Festus, s.v. ; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902); 
F. Kuntze, " Die Legende von der guten Tochter," in Jahrbucher 
fur das klassische Altertum (1904), xiii. 280. 

PIETERMARITZBURG, the capital of Natal, situated in 
29 46' S., 30 13' E., 45 m. in a direct line (71 by rail) W.N.W. 
of Durban. It lies, 2200 ft. above the sea, north of the river 
Umsunduzi, and is surrounded by wooded hills. Of these the 
Town Hill, flat-topped, rises 1600 ft. above the town. Pop. 
(1904), 31,119, of whom 15,087 were whites, 10,752 Kaffirs, and 
5280 Indians. The town is laid out on the usual Dutch South 
African plan in rectangular blocks with a central market square. 
The public buildings include the legislative council chambers 
and the legislative assembly buildings, government house, the 
government offices, college, post office and market buildings. 
The town-hall, a fine building in a modified Renaissance style 
(characteristic of the majority of the other public buildings), 
has a lofty tower. It was completed in 1901, and replaces a 
building destroyed by fire in 1898. St Saviour's is the cathedral 
church of the Anglican community. The headquarters of the 
Dutch Reformed Church are also in the town. There are 
monuments of Queen Victoria and Sir Theophilus Shepstone, 
and various war memorials one commemorating those who 
fell in Zululand in 1879, and another those who lost their lives 
in the Boer War 1899-1902. A large park and botanical gardens 
add to the attractions of the town. A favourite mode of con- 
veyance is by rickshaw. The climate is healthy and agreeable, 
the mean annual temperature being 65 F.' (55 in June, 71 in 
February). The rainfall is about 38 in. a year, chiefly in the 
summer months (Oct.-Mar.), when the heat is tempered by 
violent thunderstorms. 

Pietermaritzburg was founded early in 1839 by the newly- 
arrived Dutch settlers in Natal, and its name commemorates 
two of their leaders Piet Relief and Gerrit Maritz. From the 
time of its establishment it was the seat of the Volksraad of the 
Natal Boers, and on the submission of the Boers to the British 
in 1842 Maritzburg (as it is usually called) became the capital 
of the country. It was given a municipal board in 1848, and in 
1854 was incorporated as a borough. Railway connexion with 
Durban was made in 1880, and in 1895 the line was extended 
to Johannesburg. The borough covers 44 sq. m. and includes 
numerous attractive suburbs. The rateable value is about 
4,000,000. Various industries are carried on, including brick- 
making, tanning, brewing, and cart and wagon building. 

See J. F. Ingram, The Story of an African City (Maritzburg, 
1898). 

PIETERSBURG, a town of the Transvaal, capital of the 
Zoutpansberg district, and 177 m. N.N.E. of Pretoria by rail. 
Pop. (1904), 3276, of whom 1620 were whites. The town is 
pleasantly situated, at an elevation of 4200 ft., on a small tribu- 
tary of the Zand river affluent of the Limpopo, and is the place 
of most importance in the province north of Pretoria. From it 
roads run to Klein Lelaba and other gold-mining centres in the 
neighbourhood, and through it passes the old route to Mashona- 
land, which crosses the Limpopo at Rhodes Drift. The Zout- 
pansberg district contains a comparatively dense Kaffir popula- 
tion, and a native newspaper is published at Pietersburg. 



PIETISM 



593 



PIETISM, a movement in the Lutheran Church, which arose 
towards the end of the lyth and continued during the first half 
of the following century. The name of Pietists was given to 
the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a term of 
ridicule, like that of " Methodists " somewhat later in England. 
The Lutheran Church had, in continuing Melanchthon's attempt 
to construct the evangelical faith as a doctrinal system, by 
the lyth century become a creed-bound theological and sacra- 
mentarian institution, which orthodox theologians like Johann 
Gerhard of Jena (d. 1637) ruled with almost the absolutism of 
the papacy. Christian faith had been dismissed from its seat 
in the heart, where Luther had placed it, to the cold regions of 
the intellect. The dogmatic formularies of the Lutheran Church 
had usurped the position which Luther himself had assigned to 
the Bible alone, and as a consequence only they were studied 
and preached, while the Bible was neglected in the family, the 
study, the pulpit and the university. Instead of advocating 
the priesthood of all believers, the Lutheran pastors had made 
themselves a despotic hierarchy, while they neglected their 
practical pastoral work. In the Reformed Church, on the other 
hand, the influence of Calvin had made less for doctrine than the 
practical formation of Christian life. The presbyterian constitu- 
tion gave the people a share in church life which the Lutherans 
lacked, but it involved a dogmatic legalism which imperilled 
Christian freedom and fostered self-righteousness. 

As forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, not a few 
earnest and powerful voices had been heard bewailing the 
shortcomings of the Church and advocating a revival of practical 
and devout Christianity. Amongst them were Jakob Boehme 
(Behmen), the theosophic mystic; Johann Arndt, whose work 
on True Christianity became widely known and appreciated; 
Heinrich Miiller, who described the font, the pulpit, the con- 
fessional and the altar as the four dumb idols of the Lutheran 
Church; the theologian, Johann Valentin Andrea, the court 
chaplain of the landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to 
restore to the Bible its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus 
Grossgebauer (d. 1661) of Rostock, who from his pulpit and by 
his writings raised " the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion." 
The direct originator of the movement was Philip Jacob Spener, 
who combined the Lutheran emphasis on Biblical doctrine with 
the Reformed tendency to vigorous Christian life. Born at 
Rappoltsweiler, in Alsace on the I3th of, January 1635, trained 
by a devout godmother, who used books of devotion like Arndt's 
True Christianity, accustomed to hear the sermons of a pastor 
who preached the Bible more than the Lutheran creeds, Spener 
was early convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious 
reformation of the German Church. He studied theology, with 
a view to the Christian ministry, at Strassburg, where the 
professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were 
more inclined to practical Christianity than to theological 
disputation. He afterwards spent a year in Geneva, and was 
powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesias- 
tical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and 
the piety of the Waldensian professor, Antoine Leger, and the 
converted Jesuit preacher, Jean de Labadie. 1 During a stay in 
Tubingen he read Grossgebauer's Alarm Cry, and in 1666 he 
entered upon his first pastoral charge at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
profoundly impressed with a sense of the danger of the Christian 
life being sacrificed to zeal for rigid orthodoxy. Pietism, as a 
distinct movement in the German Church, was then originated 
by Spener by religious meetings at his house (collegia pietatis), 
at which he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the 
New Testament, and induced those present to join in conversa- 
tion on religious questions that arose. They gave rise to the 
name " Pietists." In 1675 Spener published his Pia desideria, 
or Earnest Desires for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church. 
In this publication he made six proposals as the best means of 
restoring the life of the Church: (i) the earnest and thorough 
study of the Bible in private meetings, ecclesiolae in ecclesia; 

1 Labadie had formed the ascetic and mystic sect of " The 
Regenerati " in the Church of Holland (c. 1660), and then in other 
parts of the Reformed Church. 



(2) the Christian priesthood being universal, the laity should 
share in the spiritual government of the Church; (3) a knowledge 
of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its 
indispensable sign and supplement; (4) instead of merely didactic, 
and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a 
sympathetic and kindly treatment of them; (5) a reorganization 
of the theological training of the universities, giving more 
prominence to the devotional life; and (6) a different style of 
preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implant- 
ing of Christianity in the inner or new man, the soul of which is 
faith, and its effects the fruits of life. This work produced a 
great impression throughout Germany, and although large 
numbers of the orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors 
were deeply offended by Spener's book, its complaints and its 
demands were both too well justified to admit of their being 
point-blank denied. A large number of pastors at once practi- 
cally adopted Spener's proposals. In Paul Gerhardt the move- 
ment found a singer whose hymns are genuine folk poetry. In 
1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy 
at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult 
sphere of labour. In Leipzig a society of young theologians 
was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout 
application of the Bible. Three magistri belonging to that 
society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke, subse- 
quently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695), 
commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a 
practical and devotional character, and in the German language, 
which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen. 
The lectures aroused, however, the ill-will of the other theo- 
logians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left 
the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasius and Spener 
founded the new university of Halle. The theological chairs 
in the new university were filled in complete conformity with 
Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new 
Pietistic school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the 
conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of 
heart and consequent holiness of life, while the orthodox 
Lutherans of the time made it to consist mainly in correctness 
of doctrine. 

Spener died in 1705; but the movement, guided by Francke, 
fertilized from Halle the whole of Middle and North Germany. 
Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic 
institutions founded at Halle, were the organization of the 
Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf, Spener's 
godson and a pupil in the Halle Orphanage, and the estab- 
lishment of the great Protestant missions, Ziegenbalg and 
others being tfye pioneers of an enterprise which until this time 
Protestantism had strangely neglected. 

Pietism, of course, had its weaknesses. The very earnestness 
with which Spener had insisted on the necessity of a new birth, 
and on a separation of Christians from the world, led to exaggera- 
tion and fanaticism among followers less distinguished than 
himself for wisdom and moderation. Many Pietists soon main- 
tained that the new birth must always be preceded by agonies 
of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could 
teach theology, while the whole school shunned all common 
worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public 
games. There thus arose a new form of justification by works. 
Its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning 
of church organization. Through these extravagances a reac- 
tionary movement arose at the beginning of the i8th century, 
one of the most distinguished leaders of which was Loescher, 
superintendent at Dresden. 

As a distinct movement Pietism had run its course before the 
middle of the i8th century; by its very individualism it had 
helped to prepare the way for another great movement, the 
Illumination (Aufklarung\ which was now to lead the world 
into new paths. Yet Pietism could claim to have contributed 
largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany, and to have 
made religion once more an affair of the heart and the life, and 
not merely of the intellect. It likewise vindicated afresh the 
rights of the Christian laity in regard to their own beliefs and 



594 



PIETRO DELLA VIGNA PIG 



the work of the Church, against the assumptions and despotism 
of an arrogant clergy. " It was," says Rudolf Sohm, " the last 
great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun 
by the Reformation; it was the completion and the final form 
of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came 
a time when another intellectual power took possession of the 
minds of men." 

Some writers on the history of Pietism e.g. Heppe and 
Ritschl have included under it nearly all religious tendencies 
amongst Protestants of the last three centuries in the direction 
of a more serious cultivation of personal piety than that preva- 
lent in the various established churches. Ritschl, too, treats 
Pietism as a retrograde movement of Christian life towards 
Catholicism. Some historians also speak of a later or modern 
Pietism, characterizing thereby a party in the German Church 
which was probably at first influenced by some remains of 
Spener's Pietism in Westphalia, on the Rhine, in Wurttemberg, 
and at Halle and Berlin. The party was chiefly distinguished 
by its opposition to an independent scientific study of theology, 
its principal theological leader being Hengstenberg, and its 
chief literary organ the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung. The party 
originated at the close of the wars with Napoleon I. 

Amongst older works on Pietism are J. G. Walch, Historische und 
theologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch- 
Lutherischen Kirche (1730); A. Tholuck, Geschichte des Pietismus 
und des ersten Stadiums der Aufklarung (1865); H. Schmid, Die 
Geschichte des Pietismus (1863) ; M. Goebel, Geschichte. des chrisllichen 
Lebens in der Rheinisch-Westfalischen Kirche (3 vols., 1849-1860); 
and the subject is dealt with at length in J. A. Dorner's and 
W. Gass's Histories of Protestant theology. More recent are 
Heppe's Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformirten 
Kirche (1879), which is sympathetic; A. Ritschl's Geschichte des 
Pietismus (3 vols., 1880-1886), which is hostile; and C. Sachsse, 
Ur sprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884). See also Fr. Nippold's 
article in Theol. Stud, und Kritiken (1882), pp. 347-392; H. von 
Schubert, Outlines of Church History, ch. xv. (Eng. trans., 1907); 
and Carl Mirbt's article, " Pietismus," in Herzcg-Hauck's Realen- 
cyklopadie fur prot. Theologie u. Kirche, end of vol. xv. 

PIETRO DELLA VIGNA, or PIER DELLE VIGNE [PETRTJS DE 
VINEAS or DE VINEIS] (c. 1190-1249), chancellor and secretary 
to the emperor Frederick II., was born at Capua in humble 
circumstances. He studied law at Padua, and through his 
classical education, his ability to speak Latin and his poetic 
gifts, he gained the favour of Frederick II., who made him 
his secretary, and afterwards judex magnae curiae, councillor, 
governor of Apulia, prothonotary and chancellor. The emperor, 
" of whose heart he held the keys," as Dante says, sent him to 
Rome in 1232 and 1237 to negotiate with the pope, to Padua 
in 1239 to induce the citizens to accept imperial protection, to 
England in 1234-1235 to arrange a marriage between Frederick 
and Isabella, sister of King Henry III. He proved a skilful 
and trustworthy diplomat, and he persistently defended the 
emperor against his traducers and against the pope's menaces. 
But at the Council of Lyons, which had been summoned by Pope 
Innocent IV., Pietro della Vigna entrusted the defence of his 
master to the celebrated jurist Taddeo of Suessa, who failed 
to prevent his condemnation. Frederick, whose suspicions had 
been awakened by the slanders of the envious, had him im- 
prisoned and blinded without giving him a chance to rebut his 
accusers. Unable to bear his disgrace, he committed suicide 
in his prison at Pisa in 1249. The exact date, place and manner 
of his death are, however, subject to controversy, and Flaminio 
del Borgo states that it occurred in the church of S. Andrea, at 
Pisa, in 1256. The tragic fate of this man gave rise to many 
legends. The Guelphic tradition accuses Pietro della Vigna, as 
well as the emperor and the court, of heresy; it was even stated, 
probably without any foundation, that they were the authors 
of the famous work, De tribus impostoribus, wherein Moses, 
Christ and Mahomet are blasphemed. 

Pietro della Vigna was a man of great culture; he encouraged 
science and the fine arts, and contributed much to the welfare 
of Italy by wise legislative reforms. He was the author of some 
delicate verse in the vernacular tongue, of which two canzoni 
and a sonnet are still extant. His letters, mostly written in 
the name of the emperor and published by Iselin (Epistolarum 



libri in., 2 vols., Basel, 1740), contain much valuable information 
on the history and culture of the I3th century. A collection 
of the laws of Sicily, a Tractatus de potestate imperiali, and 
another treatise, " On Consolation," in the style of Boethius, are 
also attributed to him. 

See Huillard-Bre'holles, Vie et correspondence de Pierre de la Vigne 
(Paris, 1864); Presta, Pier delle Vigne (Milan, 1880); Capasso and 
lanelli, Pier delle Vigne (Caserta, 1882) ; also FREDERICK II. 

PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. 
and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge), a common name 
given to the domesticated swine of agricultural use. (For the 
zoology, see SWINE.) 

British breeds of pigs are classified as black, white and red. 
In some places, notably Wales and Gloucester, a remnant of a 
spotted breed lingers; and a large proportion of common pigs, 
often parti-coloured, are mongrels. The white breeds are liable 
to sun-scald, and black pigs (like black men) are much better 
adapted than white to exposure in strong sunlight, conforming 
to the rule that animals in the tropics have black skins. 

The Large Whiles may have in the skin a few blue spots which 
grow white hair. The head is long, light in the jowl, and wide 
between the eyes, with long thin ears inclined slightly forward 
and fringed with long fine hair. The neck is long, but not 
coarse, the ribs are deep, the loin wide and level, the tail set 
high, and the legs straight and set well outside the carcase. The 
whole body, including the back of the neck, is covered with 
straight silky hair, which denotes quality end lean meat. Pigs 
of this breed are very prolific, and they may be grown to 
enormous weights over 1 1 cwt. alive. 

The Middle Whites are built on a smaller scale than the Large 
Whites. They are shorter in the heads and legs, and fuller at 
the jowl, thicker and more compact in the body. The sows are 
quite as prolific as those of the Large White breed, and, as their 
produce matures earlier, they are much in demand for breeding 
porkers. 

The Small White pigs are beautifully proportioned. The head 
and legs are very short, and the body short, thick and wide; 
the jowl is heavy, the ears pricked, and the thin skin laden with 
long silky, wavy, but not curly, hair, whilst the tail is very fine. 
A deficiency of lean meat is a common characteristic of the breed, 
which is almost extinct. 

The above three breeds were designated Yorkshire Whites, 
and are still so named at times. The Middle White, formed by 
crossing the large and the small breeds, is not so symmetrical 
as the parent stocks, and the type is not uniform. 

The Lincolnshire Curly Coated or Boston pig is a local breed 
of great size and capacity for producing pork. It is very hardy 
and prolific, but somewhat coarse in the bone. It has an 
abundance of long curly hair, a short face and a straight nose, 
and the ears, not too long and heavy, fall over the face. It 
crosses well with the Large White, the Large Black and the 
Berkshire. 

The Large Black breed, which vies with the Large White breed 
for size, and is probably its superior as a bacon pig, has only 
since 1900 received national show-yard recognition; but there is 
ample evidence that, with its characteristic whole black colour 
with a mealy hue, length, fine hair and lop ear, the Large Black 
existed in the south of England for generations. It has been 
continuously and carefully bred in Cornwall, Devon, Essex and 
Suffolk, and from these centres it has rapidly spread all over the 
country. Large Blacks are exceedingly docile, and the ears, 
hanging well forward over the eyes, contribute materially to a 
quietness of habit which renders them peculiarly adapted to 
field grazing. On account of their hardiness and disposition to 
early maturity they have proved valuable for crossing purposes. 
The Large Black Pig Society was incorporated in 1899. 

The Berkshire is a black pig with a pinkish skin, and a little 
white on the nose, forehead, pasterns, and tip to the tail. It has 
a moderately short head with heavy jowl, a deep, compact 
carcase, and wide, low and well-developed hind-quarters, with 
heavy hams. The skin carries an abundance of fine hair. The 
Berkshire is an early-maturity breed which has been somewhat 



PIG 



PLATE. 




BERKSHIRE BOAR. 




LARGE WHITE SOW. 





MIDDLE WHITE BOAR. 



SMALL WHITE BOAR. 





LARGE BLACK SOW. 



TAMWORTH BOAR. 



ENGLISH BREEDS OF PIG, from photographs of F. Babbage. The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by 
XXI. 594. the scale of reproduction of the photographs. 



PIGALLE PIGEON 



595 



inbred, and is not so hardy and prolific as most breeds. The 
boars cross well with common stock. It merits the most credit 
in raising the quality of Irish pigs. In America it is in the front 
rank for numbers and quality as a lard-hog. There it often 
grows to be a larger and finer animal than it is in England. 

The Small Black or Black Suffolk was produced from the old 
Essex pig by crossing with the Neapolitan. It resembles the 
Small White, except that the skin is coal-black in colour, and 
the coat of hair is not usually profuse. The Small Black, more- 
over, is rather longer, and stands somewhat higher, whilst it 
yields more lean meat than the Small White. It matures early 
and is quick to fatten. 

The Tarn-worth is one of the oldest breeds of pigs. It is hardy, 
active and prolific, and nearly related to the wild boar. The 
colour is red or chestnut, with at times darkish spots on the 
skin. The head, body and legs are long, and the ribs deep and 
flat. Originally a local breed in the districts around the Stafford- 
shire town from which it takes its name, it is now extensively 
bred, and highly valued as a bacon pig. (W. FR. ; R. W.) 

In America nearly all the breeds may be classified as lard- 
hogs. Bacon-pigs fed on Indian corn degenerate into lard- 
hogs, run down in size and become too small in the bone and 
less prolific by inbreeding. 

The Poland-China, the most popular breed in the United 
States, is thus degenerating. It is a black pig like the Berk- 
shire, but has short lop-ears, a more pointed, straight nose, a 
more compact body, and more white markings. It is a breed 
of mixed blood, and is believed to have originated from the 
" Big China " pig a large white hog with sandy spots, taken to 
Ohio in 1816, and blended with Irish graziers in 1839, and with a 
breed known as Bayfields, as well as with Berkshires. In Iowa 
the Berkshire is a combined lard and bacon pig in high favour. 
The Duroc Jersey or Duroc, of a red or cherry-red colour 
not sandy or dark is the most popular pig in Nebraska and 
equal to any other in Iowa. It is a large prolific lard-hog, easily 
making 300 Ib in eight months. It has gained rapidly in 
popularity since the beginning of this century, and is spreading 
to other centres. 

The Chester While, named from Chester county, Pennsyl- 
vania, is one of the four leading breeds of lard-hogs in 
America. It is of mixed origin and bears a strong family 
resemblance to the Lincolnshire curly-coated pig. The early 
English ancestors, the breed of which is not on record in 
America, were most probably of Lincoln origin. The sow is 
a prolific breeder and good mother, weighing, when mature but 
not fat, 450 Ib the boar averaging 600 Ib, and barrows at six 
to eight months 350 Ib. At Vermont Station, in a 127 days' 
test, Chester Whites made an average gain of 1-36 ft and 
dressed 84-5% carcase, and they can gain fully i ft of live 
weight for 3 Ib of grain consumed. 

Management. The brood sow should be lengthy and of a prolific 
strain, known to milk well. She is moderately fed and put to a 
boar of her own age when large enough, i.e. seven to eight months 
old. She remains in a state of oestrum for about three days, and 
if not pregnant comes in heat again in three weeks. Breeding 
swine, male and female, run most of their time at pasture and 
receive a liberal allowance of green food or raw roots. The period 
of gestation is sixteen weeks. Six to eight pigs are reared of the 
first litter, and ten to twelve afterwards. Many brood sows are 
fattened to greatest profit after the second or third litter. Two 
litters are produced in one year, as pigs are usually weaned at two 
months old, and the sow will take the boar at from three days to 
a week after the pigs are removed, according to condition. A 
convenient sty to hold five or six pigs has a southern aspect, and 
consists of a covered compartment and outer court, each 10 ft. 
square. When the animals are fed outside the inner court is kept 
clean and dry, and there the pigs lie. The labouring man s pig 
is his bank, and is fed on scraps, small potatoes and waste products. 
In connexion with cheese dairies pigs are largely fed on sour whey 
thickened with mixed meal produced from any or all of the grains 
or pulses, the choice depending upon the market price. Food 
may with advantage be cooked for very young pigs; but, with the 
exception of potatoes, which should never be given raw, roots and 
meals are best given uncooked. Meal mixed with pulped roots 
for a few hours improves in digestibility, and a sprinkling of salt 
is an improvement. Meal derived from leguminous seeds makes 
the flesh firm and improves the quality. Fattening pigs are fed 



three times a day and supplied with coal-ashes or a few handfuls 
of earth. Of the fatted live weight of a pig 83 % is butcher's 
carcase, and 91 % of the increase from 100 to 200 Ib is carcase. 
i-Yom 3 to 5 Ib of meal consumed results in an increase of I Ib of 
ive weight in a pig, which is the most economical meat producer on 
a farm. Concentrated and digestible foods give best results, a 
pig has a small stomach. Fjord's Danish experiments show that 
'or fattening pigs I Ib of rye- or barley-meal is equivalent to 6 Ib 
of skim-milk or 12 Ib of whey, and I tt> of meal equivalent to 8 Ib 
of mangolds or 4 Ib of potatoes. 

LITERATURE. J. Coleman, Pigs of Great Britain (1877); Sanders 
Spencer, Pigs: Breeds and Management (1905); G. M. Rommel, 
The Hog Industry (1904; Bull. No. 47, U.S.A. Bureau of Animal 
Industry); J. Long, The Book of the Pig (1906); F. D. Coburn, 
Swine Husbandry (1904); R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great 
Britain (4th ed., 1907); Douglas Encyclopaedia (1906); C. S. Plumb, 
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals (1906) the Herd Books of the 
Breed Societies, and Reports of the Agricultural Departments of 
Great Britain, Canada and the United States. (R. W.) 

PIGALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1714-1785), French sculptor, 
was born in Paris on the 26th of January 1714. He was the 
seventh child of a carpenter. Although he failed to obtain the 
grand prix, after a severe struggle he entered the Academy and 
became one of the most popular sculptors of his day. His 
earlier work, such as " Child with Cage " (model at Sevres) and 
Mercury Fastening his Sandals " (Berlin, and lead cast in 
Louvre), is less commonplace than that of his maturer years, 
but his nude statue of Voltaire, dated 1776 (Institut), and his 
tombs of Comte d'Harcourt (c. 1764) (Notre Dame) and of 
Marshal Saxe, completed in 1777 (Lutheran church, Strassburg), 
are good specimens of French sculpture in the i8th century. 
He died on the 28th of August 1785. 

See P. Tarbe, Vie el ceuv. de Pigalle (1859) ; Suard, floge de PigaUe; 
Melanges de litterature. 

PIGAULT-LEBRUN (PIGAULT DE L'EPINOY), CHARLES 
ANTOINE GUILLAUME (1753-1835), French novelist, was born 
at Calais (he is said to have traced his pedigree on the mother's 
side to Eustache de St Pierre) on the 8th of April 1753. His 
youth was stormy. He twice carried off young ladies of some 
position, and was in consequence twice imprisoned by leltre de 
cachet. The first, a Miss Crawford, the daughter of an English 
merchant whose office Pigault had entered, died almost 
immediately after her elopement; the second, Mile de Salens, 
he married. He became a soldier in the Queen's Guards, then 
a very unsuccessful actor, and a teacher of French. At the 
breaking out of the great war he re-enlisted and fought at 
Valmy. He wrote more than twenty plays, and a large number 
of novels, the first of which appeared in 1787. In his old age 
he took to graver work, and executed an abridgement of French 
history in eight volumes, besides some other work. His (Euvres 
completes were published in twenty volumes between 1822 and 
1824, but much of his work is subsequent to this collection. 
He died on the 24th of July 1835. The style of Pigault's novels 
is insignificant, and their morality very far from severe. As 
almost the father of a kind of literature which later developed 
enormously, Pigault-Lebrun deserves a certain place in literary 
history. Among the most celebrated of his novels may be 
mentioned L' Enfant du Carnaval (1792) and Ang&ique et Jeanne- 
ton de la place Maubert (1799). His Citateur (2 vols., 1803), a 
collection of quotations against Christianity, was forbidden 
and yet several times reprinted. 

PIGEON (Fr. pigeon, Ital. piccione and pipione, Lat. pipio, 
literally a nestling-bird that pipes or cries out, a " piper "- 
the very name now in use among some pigeon-fanciers, though 
" squeaker " in the more usual term). The name pigeon, 
doubtless of Norman introduction as a polite term, seems to 
bear much the same relation to dove, the word of Anglo-Saxon 
origin, that mutton has to sheep, beef to ox, veal to calf, and 
pork to bacon; no sharp zoological distinction can be drawn 
(see DOVE) between dove and pigeon, and the collective members 
of the group Columbae are by ornithologists ordinarily called 
pigeons. Perhaps the best-known species to which the latter 
name is exclusively given in common speech 1 is the wild pigeon 
1 It may be observed that the " rock-pigeons " of Anglo-Indians 
are Sand-grouse (q.v.), and the " Cape pigeon " of sailors is a petrel 



59 6 



PIGEON-FLYING 



or passenger pigeon of North America, Ectopistes migrarius, 
which is still found in many parts of Canada and the United 
States, though now almost extinct and never appearing in the 
countless numbers that it did of old, when a flock seen by A. 
Wilson was estimated to consist of more than 2230 millions. 
The often-quoted descriptions given by him and J. J. Audubon 
of pigeon-haunts in the then " backwoods " of Kentucky, Ohio 
and Indiana need not here be reproduced. That of the latter 
was declared by C. Waterton to be a gross exaggeration; but 
the critic would certainly have changed his tone had he known 
that, some hundred and fifty years earlier, passenger-pigeons so 
swarmed and ravaged the colonists' crops near Montreal that 
a bishop of his own church was constrained to exorcise them 
with holy water, as if they had been demons. 1 The passenger- 
pigeon is about the size of a common turtle-dove, but with a 
long, wedge-shaped tail. The male is of a dark slate-colour 
above, and purplish-bay beneath, the sides of the neck being 
enlivened by violet, green and gold. The female is drab- 
coloured above and dull white beneath, with only a slight trace 
of the brilliant neck-markings. 2 (See plate illustration under 
DOVE.) 

Among the multitudinous forms of pigeons very few can here 
be noticed. A species which might possibly repay the trouble 
of domestication is the wonga-wonga or white-fleshed pigeon 
of Australia, Leucosarcia picata, a bird larger than the ring-dove, 
of a slaty-blue colour above and white beneath, streaked on 
the flanks with black. It is known to breed, though not very 
freely, in captivity, and is said to be excellent for the table. 
As regards flavour, the fruit-pigeons of the genus Treron (or 
Vinago of some authors) and its allies surpass all birds. These 
inhabit tropical Africa, India, and especially the Malay Archi- 
pelago; but the probability of domesticating any of them is 
very remote. Hardly less esteemed are the pigeons of the genus 
Ptilopus and its kindred forms, which have their headquarters 
in the Pacific Islands, though some occur far to the westward and 
also in Australia. There may be mentioned the strange Nicobar 
pigeon, Caloenas (see plate illustration under DOVE), an inhabi- 
tant of the Indian Archipelago, not less remarkable for the long 
lustrous hackles with which its neck is clothed than for the 
structure of its gizzard, which has been described by Sir W. H. 
Flower (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860, p. 330), though this peculiarity 
is matched or even surpassed by that of the same organ in the 
Phaenorrhina goliath of New Caledonia (Rev. de zoologie, 1862, 
p. 138) and in the Carpophaga latrans of Fiji. In this last the 
surface of the epithelial lining is beset by horny conical processes, 
adapted, it is believed, for crushing the very hard fruits of 
Onocarpus vilie.nsis on which the bird feeds (Proc. Zool. Soc., 
1878, p. 102). The modern giants of the group, consisting of 
about half a dozen species of the genus Goura and known as 
crowned pigeons (see plate illustration under DOVE), belong to 
New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, and are conspicuous 
by their large size, beautiful filmy fan-shaped crest, and the 
reticulated instead of scutellated covering of their " tarsi." 

A very distinct type of pigeon is that represented by Didun- 
culus slrigirostris, the " Manu-mea " of Samoa, still believed by 
some to be the next of kin to the Dodo (q.v.}, but really presenting 
only a superficial resemblance in the shape of its bUl to that 
extinct form, from which it differs osteologically quite as 
much as do other pigeons (Phil. Trans., 1869, p. 349). It 
remains to be seen whether the Papuan genus Otidiphaps, of 
which several species are now known, may not belong rather 
to the Didunculidae than to the true Columbidae. 

Pigeons are now regarded as belonging to the Charadriiform 
or plover-like birds (see BIRDS) and are placed in the sub-order 

1 Voyages du Baron de la Hontan dans I'Amerique septentrionale, 
i- 93. 94 (2nd ed., Amsterdam, 1705). In the first edition, published 
at the Hague in 1703, the passage, less explicit in details but to 
the same effect, is at p. 80. The author's, letter, describing the cir- 
cumstance, is dated May 1687. 

'There are several records of the occurrence in Britain of this 
pigeon, but in most cases the birds noticed cannot be supposed to 
have found their own way hither. One, which was shot in Fife in 
1825, may, however, have crossed the Atlantic unassisted by man. 



Columbae, near the sand-grouse (?..). They are divided into 
three families, Dididae, which includes the Dodo (q.v.) and 
Solitaire, the Columbidae, which includes the doves and pigeons, 
and the Didunculidae, of which the curious tooth-billed pigeon, 
of Samoa is the only example. The body is always compact, 
and the bill has a soft skin or cere covering the nostrils. The 
pigeons are chiefly vegetable feeders and have a hard gizzard, 
and all drink much water; they perch, and have a note of the 
nature of a " coo." The nest is a rough platform or is in holes 
on the ground or in rocks. The eggs are two or three and 
white, and the young, which are helpless when hatched, are 
fed by a secretion from the crop of the parents. (A. N.) 

PIGEON-FLYING, the sport of racing homing-pigeons bred 
and trained for the purpose. It is of very recent date, although 
the use of birds as a means of carrying messages (see PIGEON 
POST) is of great antiquity. Belgium may be considered as 
par excellence the home of the sport, the first birds flown there 
probably coming from Holland. Long-distance flying began 
in 1818, with a match of 100 m., while in 1820 there was a 
race from Paris to Liege, and three years later the first race 
from London to Belgium. The sport is now a favourite one in 
Great Britain, the United States, France, and, to a less degree, 
in some other countries, although nowhere attaining the general 
popularity which it enjoys in Belgium, where nearly every 
village has its Societe colombophile, millions of pigeons being 
sent over the French border to be raced back. The annual 
Belgian concours national, a race of about 500 m. from Toulouse 
to Brussels, was inaugurated in 1881, in which year the first 
regular races in Great Britain, from Exeter, Plymouth and 
Penzance to London, took place. The velocity attained at 
that time was about 1250 yds. per minute, but this was soon 
surpassed in the races of the London Columbarian Society, one 
of the winners in which attained a speed of 1836 yds. per 
minute. 

The sport was introduced into the United States about the 
year 1875, although regular racing did not begin until 1878. 
Since then it has gained widespread popularity, the American 
record for old birds at 30x3 m. being 1848 yds. per minute 
and for young birds (yearlings) 1665 yds., while the distance 
record is 1004 m. The American " blue ribbon " champion- 
ships are held at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 m. The 
speed of homing-pigeons depends very greatly upon the state 
of the atmosphere. In the race from Montargis to Brussels in 
1876 in bright and clear weather, all the prize-winners made the 
distance of 270 m. within three and one-quarter hours, while 
in the same race in 1877, on a thick and stormy day, thirty hours 
passed before the first bird arrived. 

Training. The loft should be on a commanding site. It is best 
made in the shape of a large room, suitably subdivided, protected 
from vermin, and provided with drinking troughs, rock salt and 
crushed mortar for the birds' use. It should be fitted with a 
sufficient number of nests about 2 ft. long, 20 in. in breadth and 
height. Arrangements should be made for allowing the pigeons 
to fly out daily for exercise; and they should be trained to re-enter 
the loft through bolting wires, which open inwards only, into a 
small chamber, to which an electric arrangement may be fitted so 
as to sound a bell and warn the owner of the arrival of a bird. The 
food of birds in training consists of vetch, beans, maize, peas, broken 
rice and millet, in various proportions, according to the country, 
climate and season of the year, the daily allowance for each bird 
being about 40 grammes weight. Young birds may be fed on rice 
in the husk and bread. They are called " squealers " for a week or 
two after birth, and then " squeakers " until about three months 
old. Each brood consists of two eggs, on which both parents sit 
in turn, the cock only for a few hours in the middle of the day. 
When the young are being brought up, only one of the parent birds 
is taken out at a time. One meal per day, given before the birds 
are let out in the morning, is sufficient. Training should commence 
in warm weather, when the bird is about four months old, and it 
consists in taking it out in a closed wicker basket and liberating or 
" tossing " it at gradually increasing distances from its loft, with 
several days interval of rest between the flights. The usual pre- 
liminary distances are I, 2, 5, 10 and 15 or 20 m. These tosses 
should all be made on the same line between the loft and, say, 
some neighbouring city, in order that a bird may always have to 
fly in the same general direction during the season. About 100 m. 
may be expected of birds the first season; they reach their full 
distances only about the fifth year. It is considered better to 



PIGEON POST PIGMENTS 



597 



train the young homers atone, so that they may become independent 
of the older birds. When thoroughly trained they may be flown 
over long distances about once a week. The Belgian fanciers 
generally divide their birds into two classes, one for breeding and 
the other for racing, though the latter are allowed to breed within 
certain limits. Some fanciers always choose birds with chicks in 
the nest for long journeys, claiming that they return faster with 
this incentive. A seamless metal ring marked with the owner's 
name is slipped over the foot of the pigeon when only a few days 
old, and during its racing career the longer wing-feathers are stamped 
with the bird's records. At the start of a race the competing birds 
are tossed together by a starter who takes the time. Upon being 
released the homer ascends rapidly in spirals until, apparently des- 
crying some familiar landmark on the horizon, it will fly straight 
and swiftly towards it. As the birds enter their home-lofts the 
time is taken by the owner. A bird is not considered to have got 
" home " until it has actually passed through the door of its loft. 

PIGEON POST. The use of homing pigeons to carry messages 
is as old as Solomon, and the ancient Greeks, to whom the art 
of training the birds came probably from the Persians, conveyed 
the names of Olympic victors to their various cities by this 
means. Before the electric telegraph this method of communi- 
cation had a considerable vogue amongst stockbrokers and 
financiers. The Dutch government established a civil and 
military pigeon system in Java and Sumatra early in the igth 
century, the birds being obtained from Bagdad. Details of 
the employment of pigeons during the siege of Pans in 1870-71 
will be found in the article POST AND POSTAL SERVICE: France. 
This led to a revival in the training of pigeons for military 
purposes. Numerous private societies were established for 
keeping pigeons of this class in all important European countries; 
and, in time, various governments established systems of com- 
munication for military purposes by pigeon post. When the 
possibility of using the birds between military fortresses had 
been thoroughly tested attention was turned to their use for 
naval purposes, to send messages between coast stations and 
ships at sea. They are also found of great use by news agencies 
and private individuals. Governments have in several countries 
established lofts of their own. Laws have been passed making 
the destruction of such pigeons a serious offence; premiums to 
stimulate efficiency have been offered to private societies, and 
rewards given for destruction of birds of prey. Pigeons have 
been used by newspapers to report yacht races, and some yachts 
have actually been fitted with lofts. It has also been found of 
great importance to establish registration of all birds. In order 
to hinder the efficiency of the systems of foreign countries, 
difficulties have been placed in the way of the importation of 
their birds for training, and in a few cases falcons have been 
specially trained to interrupt the service in war-time, the 
Germans having set the example by employing hawks against 
the Paris pigeons in 1870-71. No satisfactory method of 
protecting the weaker birds seems to have been evolved, though 
the Chinese formerly provided their pigeons with whistles and 
bells to scare away birds of prey. 

In view of the development of wireless telegraphy the modern 
tendency is to consider fortress warfare as the only sphere in 
which homing pigeons can be expected to render really valuable 
services. Consequently, the British Admiralty has discontinued 
its pigeon service, which had attained a high standard of effici- 
ency, and other powers will no doubt follow the example. 
Nevertheless, large numbers of birds are, and will presumably 
continue to be, kept at the great inland fortresses of France, 
Germany and Russia. 

See L. du Puy de Podio, Die Brieftaube in der Kriegskunst (Leipzig, 
1872); Brinckmeier, Anzucht, Pflege, und Dressur der Brieftauben 
(Ilmenau, 1891). 

PIGEON-SHOOTING, a form of sport consisting of shooting 
at live pigeons released from traps. The number of traps, 
which are six-sided boxes, falling flat open at the release of a 
spring, is usually five; these are arranged 5 yds. apart on 
the arc of a circle of which the shooter forms the centre. The 
distance (maximum) is 31 yds., handicapping being deter- 
mined by shortening the distance. The five traps are each 
connected by wires with a case (" the puller "); a single string 
pulled by a man stationed at the side of the shooter works an 



arrangement of springs and cog-wheels in the " puller," and 
lets fall one of the traps; it is impossible to know beforehand 
which trap will be released. At a fixed distance from the centre 
of the traps is a boundary within which the birds hit must fall 
if they are to count to the shooter. This line varies in distance 
in the various clubs; the National Gun Club boundary being 
65 yds., that of the Monaco Club being only 20 yds. The 
charge of shot allowed must not exceed ij oz. The best type 
of pigeon is the blue rock. From the start of the Hurlingham 
Club at Fulham in 1867 pigeon-shooting was a favourite sport 
there; it was, however, stopped in 1906. The principal pigeon- 
shooting centre in England is now at the National Gun Club 
grounds at Hendon. The great international competitions and 
sweepstakes take place at Monaco. An artificial bird of clay, 
now more usually of a composition of pitch, is often substituted 
for the live pigeon. These clay birds are also sprung from 
traps. This sport originated in the United States, where, under 
the name of " trap-shooting," or inanimate bird shooting, it is 
extremely popular. At first the traps invented threw the birds 
with too great regularity of curve; now the traps throw the 
birds at different and unknown angles, and the skill required 
is great. In clay-bird shooting the traps usually number 
fifteen, and are out of sight of the shooter. The Inanimate 
Bird Shooting Association in England was started in 1893. 

PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmentum, from pingere, to paint). It is 
convenient to distinguish between pigments and paints, the 
latter being prepared from the former by the addition of a 
vehicle or medium. Nor are pigments and dyes identical, 
although there are cases in which the same colouring matter 
which yields a dye or stain may give rise to a pigment. A 
pigment is, in fact, a substance which is insoluble in the vehicle 
with which it is mixed to make a paint, while a dye is soluble. 
Pigments exhibit various degrees of transparency and opacity, 
and ought to possess such qualities as these: ease in working, 
chemical indifference to each other and, generally, to the vehicles 
employed, also stability under exposure to light and air. As a 
rule, it is desirable that pigments should not be seriously affected 
in hue by the vehicle; at all events, whatever change does occur 
ought to admit of calculation. In the case of oil colours it 
should be remembered that a thorough drying of the paint is 
preferable to the formation of a surface-skin, and that a few 
pigments, notably white lead, possess properties conducing 
to this desirable result. It is scarcely necessary to add to 
these general observations concerning pigments that their 
artistic value depends primarily upon the nature and amount 
of the optical sensation which they are competent to produce. 

Although the number of available pigments is great, the 
number of chemical elements which enter into their composition 
is not large. Very many richly-coloured compounds sources. 
cannot be employed because they lack the properties 
of insolubility, inertness and stability. Pigments are drawn 
from various sources. Some are natural, some artificial; some 
are inorganic, some organic, some are elements, some mixtures, 
some compounds. It is not unusual to arrange them into two 
groups, substantive and adjective. Amongst the members of 
the former group such a pigment as vermilion, where each 
particle is homogeneous, may be cited as an example. Amongst 
the adjective pigments rose-madder may be named, for each 
particle consists of a colourless base on which a colouring matter 
(alizarin) has been thrown. Most of the inorganic pigments, 
whether natural or artificial, belong to the substantive group; 
while there are many organic pigments, notably those of artificial 
origin, which are of adjective character. The following table 
presents a summary classification of pigments according to 
their source or origin: 

Mineral pigments . \ Natural ; as terre verte. 

I Artificial ; as aureolm. 

( Animal ; as carmine. 
Organic pigments . ) Vegetable; as madder-lake. 

( Artificial ; as alizarin-orange. 

A variety of processes are in use in order to fit natural coloured 
substances for employment as pigments. The first step is, 



PIGMENTS 



in many cases, to select, or " pick over," the raw material, 
rejecting whatever impurities may weaken or injure the char- 
acteristic hue of the product. It is occasionally 
/ton""""" necessary to treat the finely-ground substance with 
water by the method of elutriation or washing-over; 
the wash-waters will then deposit, on standing, various grades 
of the coloured body required. With rare exceptions native 
pigments need careful grinding, either by means of a muller on 
a slab or by edge rollers, or horizontal mill-stones, or special 
machines. The substance is usually ground in spirits of turpen- 
tine, or alcohol, or water; oil-paints are of course finally ground 
in a drying-oil, such as linseed oil or poppy oil; water-colours 
require gum-water, or gum-water and glycerin if they are to be 
" moist " paints. In the case of all pigments, whether mineral 
or organic, whether natural or artificial, it is of the highest 
importance to make sure that they are free from saline matters 
soluble in water. Such salts are removed by thorough washing 
with distilled water. A treatment of this kind is essential in 
the case of a large number of pigments formed by chemical 
reactions in the " wet way." Characteristic examples are 
furnished by Prussian blue, viridian and lakes. Sometimes 
it is necessary to remove dangerous impurities by solvents 
other than water, such as carbon bisulphide, which is used to 
extract free sulphur from cadmium yellow. Mention may here 
be made of another kind of preparative treatment which is 
adopted with some pigments: they are subjected to the action 
of heat moderate in some cases, strong in others. Thus, a few 
substances, such as ivory black and yellow ochre, which in 
ordinary circumstances contain much non-essential moisture, 
before they are ground in oil may with advantage be gently 
dried at a temperature not above that of boiling water. Again, 
there are pigments, such as Prussian brown, light red and burnt 
sienna, which owe their hues to a process of actual calcination, 
the first of these being thus made from Prussian blue, the second 
from yellow ochre, and the third from raw sienna. The pigments 
known as burnt carmine and burnt madder are prepared at a 
much lower temperature, and ought to be described as roasted 
rather than as burnt. 

The substitution of one pigment for another is rarely practised, 
but it is not so unusual to find that a costly substance has 
received an admixture of something cheaper, and 
tioa. " tnat an inferior grade of a genuine pigment has had 
its hue exalted or enhanced by some unlawful or 
dangerous addition. In fact, these two kinds of sophistication 
are often associated. Thus vermilion is adulterated with red 
lead, with red antimony sulphide, or with baryta white and lead 
sulphate, and then the hue of the mixture is restored to the 
proper pitch by the introduction of the powerful but fugitive 
colouring matter eosin. Amongst other adulterations which 
may be named here are the addition of chrome-yellow (lead 
chromate) to yellow ochre, of green ultramarine to terre verte, 
and of indigo to ivory black; this last mixture being a substitute 
for vine-black, the natural blue-black. The detection of the 
above-named sophistications is by no means difficult even in 
the hands of persons unacquainted with chemical manipulation, 
but it needs a trained analyst when quantitative results are 
required. If we are dealing with an oil-colour, the first step 
is to remove the oil by means of a solvent, such, for example, 
as ether. The residual pigment is then allowed to dry, and the 
dry powder submitted to the appropriate physical and chemical 
tests. Thus a suspected vermilion, having been freed from oil, 
is heated in a small hard glass bulb-tube: it should prove 
practically volatile, leaving a mere trace of residue. In this 
particular case the presence of a red hue in the ether-extract 
affords evidence of adulteration with an organic colouring 
matter, such as eosin. Then, again, we may detect the presence 
in yellow ochre of lead chromate by pourings little sulphuretted 
hydrogen water and dilute hydrochloric acid upon one portion 
of the dry pigment, and boiling another portion with dilute 
sulphuric acid and some alcohol: in the former experiment 
blackening will occur, in the latter the liquid part of the mixture 
will acquire a greenish tint. So also green ultramarine may be 



recognized in adulterated terre verte by the addition of dilute 
hydrochloric acid, which destroys the colour of the adulterant 
and causes an abundant evolution of the evil-smelling sulphur- 
etted hydrogen. Moreover, nothing is easier than the recogni- 
tion of indigo in vine or charcoal-black, for the dry powder, 
heated in a glass tube, gives off purple vapours of indigo, which 
condense in the cooler part of the tube into a blackish sublimate. 

A word must be said here as to the adulteration of white 
lead, and the examination of this most important pigment. 
The best variety of white lead or flake white contains two 
molecules of lead carbonate to one of lead hydrate, and is wholly 
soluble in dilute nitric acid, while barium sulphate, its most 
frequent adulterant, is wholly insoluble. China-clay and lead 
sulphate will also remain undissolved; but whitening or chalk 
cannot be detected in this way indeed, the thorough examina- 
tion of white lead, not only for sophistications but also for 
correspondence with the best type in composition, cannot be 
carried out save by a skilled chemist. 

Pigments may be classified on two systems: (i) based on 
the chemical composition; (2) based on the colour. On the 
first system pigments fall into nine groups, seven 
of which are fairly well defined, but the eighth and 
ninth have a somewhat miscellaneous character. 
The groups of elements, oxides, sulphides, hydrates, carbon- 
ates and silicates present this characteristic, namely, that each 
member of any one group is without action upon the other 
members of the group; any two or more may therefore be mixed 
together without fear of mutual injury. The same statement 
may be made with reference to the various inorganic salts of 
Group VIII. and to the organic compounds of Group IX., 
although in this large final group there are two pigments con- 
taining copper (verdigris and emerald green) which must be 
regarded with suspicion. The inertness of the members of 
the same group towards each other may be explained in the 
majority of cases by the following consideration. An oxide 
does not act upon an oxide, nor does a sulphide affect a sulphide, 
because all the pigment oxides have taken up their full comple- 
ment of oxygen, and can neither give nor lose this element to 
similar oxides; so also with sulphur in the sulphides. A few 
details regarding the several members of the nine groups are 
now offered: 

GROUP I. Elements. All the black pigments in ordinary use 
ivory black, lamp black, charcoal black, Indian ink, and graphite, 
less correctly termed black-lead and plumbago consist of or contain 
carbon, an element not liable to change. The metallic pigments, 
gold, silver, aluminium and platinum, belong here; of these, silver 
alone is easily susceptible of change, tarnishing by combination 
with sulphur. 

GROUP II. Oxides. The oxides have generally been' formed 
at a high temperature and are not easily amenable to physical or 
chemical change; they are, moreover, not liable to affect other 
pigments, being practically inert, red lead only being an exception. 
The oxides include zinc white, green chromium oxide, burnt umber 
(a mixture of iron and manganese oxide), cobalt green (CoO.nZnO), 
cobalt blue (CoO,Al 2 Oa), coeruleum (CoO.wSnOa), Venetian red, 
light red, Indian red and burnt sienna (all chiefly composed of ferric 
oxide), and red lead (PbsOi). 

GROUP III. Sulphides. Some of the members of this group are 
liable to contain free sulphur, and some may give up this element 
to the metallic bases of other pigments. Thus cadmium yellow 
blackens emerald green, producing copper sulphide. Another 
pigment of this group, vermilion, is prone to a molecular change 
whereby the red form passes into the black variety. This change, 
frequent in water-colour drawings, is scarcely observable in works 
painted in oil. The sulphides comprise cadmium yellow (CdS), 
king's yellow (As2Sj), realgar (AsjSa), antimony red (Sb 2 S 3 ) and 
vermilion (HgS). It is convenient to give places in the same group 
to the various kinds of ultramarine, blue, green, red, violet and 
native, for in all of them a part of the sulphur present occurs in the 
form of a sulphide. It may be stated that the sulphides of arsenic 
and antimony just named are dangerous and changeable pigments 
not suited for artistic painting. 

GROUP IV. Hydrates or Hydroxides. Several native earths 
belong here, notably yellow ochre, raw umber, raw sienna and 
Cappagh brown. These substances owe their colours mainly to 
hydrates and oxides of iron and of manganese, but the presence of 
a colourless body such as white clay or barium sulphate is usual 
with the paler pigments. A false yellow ochre from Cyprus is 
really a basic ferric sulphate, and does not properly belong to this 



PIGMENTS 



599 



group. Besides the yellow and brown pigments, there is a magnifi- 
cent deep green pigment in this group, known as emerald oxide of 
chromium or viridian. The blue copper preparation which goes 
under the name of bleu IwniZre and mountain blue, a very unstable 
pigment, is also essentially a hydrate, though by no means pure. 
It should be stated that all the earthy or native hydrates belonging 
to this group contain water in two states, namely, hygroscopic or 
loosely-attached and constitutional. Before grinding them in oil, 
the reduction in the amount of the hygroscopic moisture by means 
of a current of dry air or a gentle warmth often improves the hue 
and working quality of these pigments. 

GROUP V. Carbonates. There is but one really important 
member of this group, namely, the old and typical variety of white 
lead (2PbCOs, PbH 2 O 2 ). Like green verditer (2CuCO 3 . CuH 2 O 2 ), 
and blue verditer (CuCO 3 . CuH 2 O 2 ), it is a basic carbonate. Purified 
chalk or whitening (CaCOa) belongs here also. 

GROUP VI. Silicates. Terre verte, which is a natural green 
ochre containing a silicate of iron, potassium and magnesium, and 
one other silicate, smalt, an artificial glass containing a silicate of 
cobalt and potassium, constitute this small group. However, some 
of the ochreous earths contain silicates of iron, manganese and 
aluminium, as well as hydrates of the two former metals, and so 
have some claim to be ranked with the silicates. 

GROUP VII. Chromates. These salts are rich in oxygen. When 
in contact with some of the more alterable organic pigments belong- 
ing to Group IX. the chromates may lose oxygen, acquiring a 
somewhat greenish or greyish hue, owing to the formation of the 
lower or green oxide of chromium. The chromates cannot be 
trusted as pigments. The yellow chromates, those of barium, 
strontium, zinc and lead, are represented by the general formula 
M"CrO4; chrome red is basic, and is Pb 2 CrO 6 . 

GROUP VIII. Various Inorganic Salts. This group is intended 
to receive a number of pigments which are solitary, or almost 
solitary, examples of various classes of salts. There is one cobalti- 
nitrite, aureolin (K 3 Co(NO 2 )6, associated with one or more molecules 
of water), called sometimes cobalt yellow; one antimonate, that 
of lead, the true Naples yellow; one tungstate, that of chromium, 
known as tungsten green; a metaphosphate of manganese, which 
goes under the name of Niirnberg or manganese violet ; and several 
mixed cobalt compounds containing arsenates and phosphates of 
that metal, and represented by cobalt violet and Thenard's blue. 
Two sulphates also belong here, namely, baryta white (BaSO^ 
and lead sulphate (PbSO<) ; also Schweinf urt green, a basic copper 
arsenite. It is obvious that of the members of so miscellaneous 
a group of pigments no general characteristics can be predicated. 
But it may be stated that the two sulphates, the tungstate and the 
cobalt compounds are practically inert and unalterable, while the 
copper arsenite and the lead antimonate are sensitive to the action 
of sulphur and of sulphides. The cobaltinitrite, aureolin, cannot 
be safely mixed with some of the organic pigments belonging to 
the next and last group. 

GROUP IX. Organic Compounds. Most of the members of this 
large and unwieldy group of pigments possess this character in 
common, proneness to oxidation and consequent deterioration in 
the presence of light, moisture and air. Such oxidation is acceler- 
ated by the action of some highly oxidized pigments belonging to 
other groups, such as the chromates of Group VII. and aureolin 
of Group VIII., this action being particularly marked in the case 
of the yellow lakes, the cochineal lakes and indigo. There are two 
pigments consisting of copper salts in this group. They are verdigris 
both the blue-green and the green varieties being basic copper 
acetates and the pigment known in England as emerald-green, 
which is a basic cupric aceto-arsenite. These copper pigments 
present the usual sensitiveness to the attack of sulphur which dis- 
tinguishes compounds of this metal, and cannot therefore be safely 
mixed with the members of Group III., and more particularly with 
the cadmium colours. About nine members of Group IX. may be 
regarded as substantive pigments. These include Indian yellow 
(mainly magnesium and calcium euxanthates), gamboge, sap green, 
indigo, Prussian blue, bitumen or asphalt, bistre, sepia, and the 
bituminous variety of Vandyck brown. The adjective pigments 
include a great variety of lakes where different kinds of colouring 
matters of more or less acid character have been thrown upon a 
base, generally of colourless aluminium hydrate, aluminium phos- 
phate, stannous hydrate, stannic oxide, bartya or lime; sometimes 
coloured bases containing such metals as copper, chromium, 
manganese or iron are introduced in small quantities. The colour- 
ing matters used are both natural and artificial. Amongst the 
former may be named Indian lake, from the resinous exudation 
produced in certain trees by the attacks of Coccus lacca; carmine, 
crimson and purple lake, from the colouring matter obtained from 
the cochineal insect, Coccus cacti; rose-madder and the madder- 
lakes, from the alizarin and allied bodies derived from the root of 
the ordinary madder plant Rubia tinctorum ; and yellow lakes, from 
quercitron bark (Quercus tinctoria), and from Persian and Avignon 
berries (species of Rhamnus or Buckthorn). The lakes derived 
from alkanet root, archil, Brazil wood, and red sanders wood are 
of very small interest and value. The same judgment may be 
pronounced upon the large number of artificial lakes which owe 
their colours to coal-tar derivatives, with the single exception of 



the important class of pigments obtained from artificial alizarin, 
and from its congeners and derivatives. Of these, alizarin (q.v.) 
itself, in its purest state and associated with alumina and a little 
lime, yields those pigments which possess a pink or rosy hue. When 
purpurin and its isomers, anthrapurpurin and flavopurpurin, are 
present, the red hue is more pronounced, and may even tend 
towards a golden colour, or, when some copper or iron or manganese 
is introduced, may become decidedly brown. Many of the alizarin 
crimsons sold as paints are not made from alizarin itself, but from 
the sulphonic acids of alizarin. These lakes present a wide range 
of hues. Another derivative of alizarin, known as /S-nitro-alizarin, 
yields a rich orange lake, to which such names as pure orange, 
orange madder and marigold have been applied. 

Stability. Some notion of the relative stability of pigments 
will have been derived from the remarks already made under 
" Classification." But as permanence is of no less importance 
than chromatic quality in the case of pigments used in the fine 
art of painting, to which the present article is mainly devoted, 
further particulars concerning certain selected pigments may 
profitably be given here. Beginning with white pigments, these 
three may be named as useful: white lead, Freeman's white, zinc 
white. As an oil-colour, white lead of the old type is generally 
the best to use, but among water-colours its place must be 
taken by zinc white in the condensed form known as Chinese 
white. Zinc white, in spite of the qualities which recommend 
its use in oil, namely, the fact of its being not only unaffected 
by sulphur, but odourless and non-poisonous, lacks toughness 
as an oil-paint, and has a tendency to scale. Freeman's white, 
which consists essentially of lead sulphite, is the best substitute 
for white lead yet devised. The small percentages of zinc white 
and baryta white which it contains are not to be regarded as 
adulterations, for they greatly increase its body, and though of 
less specific gravity than lead sulphate, actually raise the weight 
per cubic foot of the dry pigment. Out of a dozen or more 
familiar yellow paints, a selection may be made of these six: 
yellow ochre, raw sienna, mars orange, cadmium yellow, aureolin 
and baryta yellow. Concerning two of these, cadmium yellow 
and aureolin, the following observations may be set down. 
Cadmium sulphide, CdS, exists in two forms, which in some 
measure correspond to the two modifications of mercuric and 
antimonious sulphides. One of these forms is yellow and the 
other reddish orange. When sulphuretted hydrogen is sent 
into a weak, cold, and neutral solution of cadmium salt, the 
sulphide which separates is pale and yellow the orange variety 
is obtained from a strong, hot, and acid solution. The pale 
variety is more prone to change than the darker one; but as oil 
colours both forms are sufficiently stable for use, provided they 
are pure. The value of aureolin as a pigment depends much 
upon its mode of preparation. A new variety of bright yellow 
hue was described by Adie and Wood in 1900, and is represented 
by the formula K.2NaCo(N02)e, H2O. Of red pigments, six claim 
special mention. These are vermilion, light red, Venetian red, 
Indian red, red ochre, and the red lakes derived from madder 
or alizarin. Vermilion is stable in oils, but as water-colour 
paint is prone to change, under exposure to strong light, into 
the black modification of mercuric sulphide. The iron-reds 
named above, whether natural or artificial, are quite permanent, 
but so much cannot be said of the various madder-paints. They 
are of far greater stability under exposure to light than any other 
red organic pigments, and are absolutely necessary to the artist. 
It must be noted that those madder and alizarin lakes which 
contain an element of yellow and brown are less stable than 
those of a crimson hue. Five green pigments may be recom- 
mended, namely, viridian, or the emerald oxide of chromium, 
the ordinary green oxide, cobalt green, green ultramarine, and 
terre verte. Except for minor decorative work, where perma- 
nence is of secondary moment, one is obliged to exclude from the 
palette emerald green, green verditer, verdigris, sap-green, and 
the numerous preparations which owe their colour to mixtures 
of Prussian blue and chrome yellow, and are sold under the names 
of green vermilion, chrome green, Brunswick green, and so on. 
All these pigments usually contain much barium sulphate. 
Similarly, amongst blue pigments, ultramarine, cobalt blue 
and coeruleum may be retained,, while smalt, indigo and all 



6oo 



PIGOT PIKE, Z. M. 



copper blues should be rejected. Prussian blue, or the mixture 
of this pigment with a white base which is usually called Antwerp 
blue, can scarcely be spared, but care should be taken to choose 
a sample containing no potassium compounds. Coeruleum, 
which may be described as cobalt stannate presents the peculiar- 
ity of appearing a greenish blue in artificial light, not a purplish 
blue like that of ordinary cobalt blue. Cobalt violet is a sound 
pigment, while manganese metaphosphate or Nurnberg violet 
is said not to be safe in oil. Mars violet, an artificially prepared 
ferric oxide, is dull in hue but permanent. Passing on to brown 
pigments, it is matter for regret that there are no permanent 
colours possessing the artistic capacities of asphalt, madder 
brown, and the old bituminous Vandyke brown. Cappagh 
brown, burnt sienna, and raw and burnt umber may be employed 
safely. Little need be said as to the selection of black pigments, 
for all are permanent. The soot from burning acetylene, 
which has recently been introduced, forms a black pigment of 
remarkable intensity. 

Uses. Hitherto pigments have been considered chiefly in 
relation to the requirements of the painter of pictures. In 
many merely decorative arts, such as the manufacture of wall- 
papers and the painting of woodwork and of iron, the pigments 
available are in one direction, that of cost, more restricted, but, 
on the other hand, many alterable or weak pigments are com- 
monly employed. In paints intended for the protection of 
iron-work, the nature of the pigment introduced is a matter of 
great moment, for red lead, zinc white and white lead are found 
to exert a strong protective influence, which is not observed in 
the case of the vast majority of pigments. There are a number 
of other uses besides those just named for which special pigments, 
or, more precisely, special paints, are employed. Amongst 
such preparations may.be named luminous paints, anti-fouling 
paints, metallic paints, damp-proof paints, and asbestos and 
other fire-proof paints. 

AUTHORITIES. J. Bersch, Manufacture of Pigments, translated 
from the 2nd German edition by A. C. Wright (London, 1900) 
Cennino Cennini, The Book of the Art, translated by Mrs 
Herringham (London, 1899); Sir A. H. Church, Chemistry of Paints 
and Painting (London, 1901); G. H. Hurst, Painters' Colours, Oils 
and Varnishes (London, 1901); S. Mierzinski, Handbuch der 
Farben-Fabrikation (Vienna, 1898); Riffault (and others), Fabricant 
de couleurs (Paris, 1884). (A. H. C.) 

PIGOT, GEORGE, BARON (1710-1777), English governor of 
Madras, was born on the 4th of March 1719 and entered the 
service of the East India Company in 1736; after nineteen years 
he became governor and commander-in-chief of Madras in 1755. 
Having defended this place against the French in 1758-59 and 
occupied Pondicherry on behalf of the company, he resigned his 
office in November 1763 and returned to England, being made a 
baronet in 1764. In the following year he obtained a seat in 
parliament, and this he retained until his death; in 1766 he was 
created an Irish peer as Baron Pigot. Returning to India in 
1775 to occupy his former position at Madras, Pigot was at once 
involved in a fierce quarrel with the majority of his council, 
which arose out of the proposed restoration of the rajah of 
Tanjore. The governor was arrested by order of his opponents, 
and was still a prisoner when he died on the nth qf May 1777. 
Meanwhile the conduct of Pigot was censured by the court of 
directors in England and the order for his restoration was 
followed immediately by another for his recall. This happened 
about a month after his death, but before the news had reached 
England. In 1779 the matter was discussed in parliament, 
and four of these who were responsible for his arrest were tried 
and were fined 1000 each. Pigot, who left several illegitimate 
children, was never married, and his barony became extinct. 

r,U he gov |: nor ,' s br thers were men of repute. SIR ROBERT 
(1720-1796), who succeeded to the baronetcy, commanded his 
w 3 \ h 2 at - the ^ tles f ^'n^n and Bunker Hill 
n P rl i 6 -r\ men< if " '"dependence- He became a lieutenant- 
general m 1782. The other brother, HUGH PIGOT (c. 1721-1702) 
was a sailor After some years of service he became an admiral 
and comrnander-in-chief m the West Indies in 1782. One of his 
- n 7 L* H ^ NRY PlG T . ('750-1840), and another was 
(1769-1797), a captain in the navy, who was murdered 



during a mutiny in September 1797 while in command of the 
" Hermione." 

PIG-STICKING, or HOG-HUNTING, the chase of the wild 
boar, as a sport, on horseback with the spear. The chase on 
foot was common among ancient peoples, and in central Europe 
has lasted to the present day, although, on account of the 
introduction of fire-arms, the spear has gradually become an 
auxiliary weapon, used to give the coup de grdce to a wounded 
animal. The modern sport is the direct descendant of bear- 
spearing which was popular in Bengal until the beginning of 
the i gth century, when the bears had become so scarce that 
wild pigs were substituted as the quarry. The weapon used 
by the Bengalese was a short, heavy, broad-bladed javelin. 
British officers introduced the spear or lance and this has become 
the recognized method of hunting wild pigs in India. The 
season for hunting in northern India, the present headquarters 
of the sport, is from February to July. The best horses should 
be quick and not too big. Two kinds of weapon are used. The 
long, or underhand, spear, weighing from two to three pounds, 
has a light, tough bamboo shaft, from seven to eight feet long^ 
armed with a small steel head of varying shape. This spear is 
held in the hand about two-thirds the distance from the point, 
with the knuckles turned down and the thumb along the shaft! 
The short, or jobbing, spear is from six to six and a half feet 
long, and somewhat heavier than the longer weapon. It is 
grasped near the butt, with the thumb up. Although easier 
to handle in the jungle, it permits the nearer approach of the 
boar and is therefore more dangerous to man and mount. 

Having arrived at the bush-grown or marshland haunt of 
the pigs, the quarry is " reared," i.e. chased out of its cover, 
by a long line of beaters, usually under the command of a 
mounted shikari. Sometimes dogs and guns loaded with small 
shot are used to induce an animal to break cover. The mounted 
sportsmen, placed on the edge of the cover, attack the pig as 
soon as it appears, the honour of " first spear," or " spear of 
honour," i.e. the thrust that first draws blood, being much 
coveted. As a startled or angry wild boar is a fast runner and 
a desperate fighter the pig-sticker must possess a good eye, a 
steady hand, a firm seat, a cool head and a courageous heart.- 
For these reasons the military authorities encourage the sport, 
which is for the most part carried on by the tent clubs of the 
larger Indian stations. 

The following technical terms are used. "Frank," a boar 
enclosure. I how," the tamarisk, a common cover for boars. 
Jink (of the boar), to turn sharply to one side. " Nullah " 
a dry water-course. " To pig," to hunt the boar. " Pug," the 
boar s footprint. ' Pugging," tracking the boar. " Ride to hog," 
to hunt the boar. " Rootings," marks of the pig's snout in the 
ground. Sanglier " (or " singular "), a boar that has separated 
trom the sounder. " Sounder," a family of wild swine. 
Squeaker, a pig under three years. " Tusker," a full-grown 
boar. 

See Pig-Sticking or Hog-Hunting, by R. S. S. Baden-Powell 
(London, 1889). 

PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813), American 
explorer and soldier, was born in Lamberton (now a part of 
Trenton), New Jersey, on the 5th of January 1779, son of 
Zebulon Pike (1751-1834), an officer in the American army. 
He entered his father's company as a cadet about 1794, and 
became an ensign (or second lieutenant) in 1799 and first lieu- 
tenant in the same year. On the 9th cf August 1805 he started 
with twenty men from St Louis to explore the head-waters of 
the Mississippi. At Prairie du Chien he met some Chippewa 
chiefs and induced them to expel the whisky-traders among 
them and to make peace with the Sioux; at the Falls of St 
Anthony (Sept. 23) he bought a tract 9 m. square at the mouth 
of the St Croix for a fort; and at Little Falls (in the middle of 
October) he built a stockade, where he left seven men. He 
reached Leech Lake (" Lake La Sang Sue "), which he called 
" the main source of the Mississippi," on the ist of February 
1806; went 30 m. farther to Cass Lake (" Red Cedar"); and, 
after working against British influences among the Indians, 
turned back, and went down the Mississippi from Dean Creek 
to St Louis, arriving on the 3oth of April. In 1806 he was 



PIKE 



601 



ordered to restore to their homes so Osages, redeemed by the 
United States government from Potawatami, and to explore 
the country. He started on the isth of July; and went north 
along the Missouri and the Osage into the present state of 
Kansas and probably to the Republican river in the south of 
the present Nebraska, where on the zgth of September he held a 
grand council of the Pawnees. Then (early in October), turning 
nearly south, he marched to the Arkansas river, which he reached 
on the i4th of October, and up which (after the 28th with only 
1 6 men) he went to the Royal Gorge (Dec. 7), having first 
seen the mountain called in his honour Pike's Peak on the 
23rd of November; and then went north-west, probably up Oil 
Creek from Canon City. In searching for the Red river he came 
to the South Platte, marched through South Park, left it by Trout 
Creek pass, struck over to the Arkansas, which he thought was 
the Red River for which he was searching, and, going south and 
south-west, came to the Rio Grande del Norte (about where 
Alamosa, Conejos county, Colorado, is now) on the 3Oth of 
January 1807. There on the 26th of February he and a small 
number of his men were taken prisoners by Spanish authorities, 
who sent him first to Santa Fe, then to Chihuahua to General 
Salcedo, and by a roundabout way to the American frontier, 
where he was released on the ist of July 1807. He was promoted 
captain (August 1806), major (May 1808), lieutenant-colonel 
(Dec. 1800) and colonel (July 1812). In 1808 he tried in vain to 
get an appropriation from Congress for himself and his men. He 
was military agent in New Orleans in 1809-1810, was deputy 
quartermaster-general in April-July 1812, and was in active 
service in the War of 1812 as adjutant and inspector-general in 
the campaign against York (now Toronto), Canada, and in the 
attack on York on the 27th of April 1813 was in immediate 
command of the troops in action and was killed by a piece of 
rock which fell on him when the British garrison in its retreat 
set fire to the magazine. 

His Account of an Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi and 
through the Western Parts of Louisiana . . . and a Tour through 
the Interior Parts of New Spain was published at Philadelphia 
in 1810; was reprinted and rearranged in London in 1811; and was 
published in a French version in Paris in 1812, and a Dutch version 
at Amsterdam in 1812-1813. The standard edition with memoir 
and notes by Elliott Coues was published in three volumes in New 
York in 1895. Some of Pike's papers taken from him in Mexico 
are now in the Mexican archives (Seccion de Asuntos Inter- 
nacionales caxa 1817-1824), and the more important were pub- 
lished by H. E. Bolton in the American Historical Review, 
(1907-1908), xiii. 798-827. See the sketch by Henry Whiting in 
vol. v., series 2, of Jared Sparks's Library of American Biography. 

PIKE, fresh-water fishes generally distributed over the river? 
and lakes of Europe, northern Asia, and North America, and 
forming a small family (Esocidae) of soft-rayed fishes. They are 
readily recognized by their el ngate compressed body covered 




European Pike (Esox lucius). 

with small scales, a long head, long and spatulate snout, and very 
large mouth armed with strong and long teeth in the jaws and 
broad bands of smaller teeth on the palate and tongue. The 
teeth point backwards or can be depressed so as to offer no 
obstruction to any object entering the gape, but prevent its 
withdrawal in the opposite direction. The dorsal and anal 
fins are placed far back on the tail, thus greatly increasing the 
propelling power of the fish, and, although pike are bad swim- 
mers and lead rather a sedentary than a roving life, they are 
excelled by no other fresh-water fish in rapidity of motion when, 



by a single stroke of the tail, they dash upon their prey or dart . 
out of reach of danger. In the Old World one species only is 
known (Esox lucius), which prefers lakes and sluggish reaches 
of rivers to strong currents or agitated waters. Its eastward 
range in northern Asia is not known; it extends into Lapland in 
the north and into central Italy and the vicinity of Constanti- 
nople in the south, but is absent in the Iberian Peninsula. The 
European species occurs also in North America, and is common 
in the eastern United States southwards to northern Ohio. But 
North America is tenanted by other species of pike besides, of 
which the largest is the muskelunge or maskinonge of the Great 
Lakes (Esoxnobilior); it commonly attains to the large size which 
is exceptionally recotded of Esox lucius. The other American 
pike are ot smaller size, and generally named " pickerel "; but 
opinions as to the distinction oi the species differ widely among 
American ichthyologists. The European pike, like its brethren, 
is the most voracious of fresh-water fishes; it probably exceeds 
the shark, to which it has been compared by many writers, in 
the relative quantity of food it consumes. Large specimens 
will seize rats or water-voles, and are said to attack even foxes 
and small dogs. Individuals of from 40 Ib to 50 Ib are 
not scarce, but captures of much larger ones are on record. 
Pike are wholesome food, and much esteemed in inland countries 
the smaller (of 20 to 24 in. in length) being preferred to 
the larger individuals. They are prolific, and not easily exter- 
minated in a water in which they have been once allowed to 
spawn. According to season and climate they spawn in April 
or May, and sometimes as early as February. 

PIKE, a word which, with its collateral forms " pick " and 
" peak," has as its basic meaning that of anything pointed or 
tapering to a point. The ultimate etymology is much disputed, 
and the interrelation of the collaterals is very confused. In 
Old English there are two forms (pic), one with a long and the 
other with a short vowel, which give " pike " and " pick " 
respectively. The first form gave in the isth century the 
variant " peak," first with reference to the peaked shoes then 
fashionable, pekyd schone. In Romanic languages are found 
Fr. pic., Span, pica, Ital. piccare, to pierce, &c. There are also 
similar words in Welsh, Cornish and Breton. The Scandinavian 
forms, e.g. Swed. and Nor. pik, are probably taken from English. 
While some authorities take the Celtic as the original, others 
look to Latin for the source. Here the woodpecker, plcus, is 
referred to, or more probably the root seen in spica, ear of corn, 
and spina, prickle (English spike, spine). The current differen- 
tiation in meanings attached to pike, pick and peak are more or 
less clearly marked, though in dialects they may vary, (i) Pike: 
Apart from the use as the name of the fish (see above), 
probably a shortened form of pike-fish, from its sharp, pointed 
beak, the common uses of the word are for a long hafted weapon 
with sharply pointed head of iron or steel, the common weapon 
of the foot-soldier till the introduction of the bayonet (see SPEAR 
and BAYONET), and for a hill with a pointed summit, appearing 
chiefly in the names of such hills in Cumberland, Westmorland 
and North West Lancashire. It may be noticed that the 
proverbial expression " plain as a pike-staff " appears originally 
as " plain as a pack-staff," the flat plain sided staff on which a 
pedlar carried and rested his pack. The use of " pike " for a 
highway, a toll-gate, &c., is merely short for " turnpike." (2) 
Pick: As a substantive this form is chiefly used of the common 
tool of the navvy and the miner, consisting of a curved double- 
ended head set at right angles to the handle, one end being 
squared with a chisel edge, the other pointed, and used for 
loosening and breaking hard masses of earth, coal, &c. (see 
TOOLS). The other name for this tool, " pickaxe," is a corrup- 
tion of the earlier pikoys, Fr. picois, M. Lat. picosium, formed 
from Fr. pic, the termination being adapted to the familiar 
English " axe." The sense-development of the verb " to pick " 
is not very clear, but the following meanings give the probable 
line: to dig into anything like a bird with its beak, in order to 
extract or remove something, to gather, pluck, hence to select, 
choose. (3) Peak: The chief uses are for the front of a cap 
or hat projecting sharply over the eyes, for the part of a ship's 



602 



PIKE-PERCHPILATE 



hold where it narrows towards the bows, the fore-peak, or 
towards the stern, the after-peak, for the top corner of a sail 
extended by a gaff, or for the projecting end of the gaff itself, 
and for a pointed or conical top of a hill or mountain. The 
name of the high table-land district in Derbyshire is not to be 
connected with this word, but probably retains the name of an 
old English demon, Peac (see PEAK, THE). 

PIKE-PERCH (Lucioperca), fresh- water fishes closely allied 
to the perch, but with strong canine teeth standing between 
the smaller teeth of the jaws and palate. They resemble the pike 
in their elongate body and head, and they are also most danger- 
ous enemies to other fresh-water fishes, though they compensate 
for their destructiveness by the excellent flavour of their flesh. 
In Europe two species occur, the more celebrated being the 
" Zander " of North Germany or " Schiel " of the Danube 
(Lucioperca sandra); strange to say, it is absent in the system 
of the Rhine. It prefers the quiet waters of large rivers 
and clear deep lakes, in which it reaches a weight of 25 Ib 
or 30 Ib. The second (Lucioperca wolgensis) is limited to rivers 
in southern Russia and Hungary. In North America several 
pike-perches have been described, but in the most recent works 
only two are distinguished, viz. Lucioperca americana, which 
grows to a weight of 20 Ib, and the much smaller Lucioperca 
canadensis; both are abundant in the Canadian lakes and 
upper Mississippi, and the latter also in the Ohio. 

PIKE'S PEAK, a famous peak of the Rampart range of the 
Rocky Mountains in El Paso county, Colorado, U.S.A., about 
6 m. W. of Colorado Springs. Though surpassed in altitude 
(14,108 ft.) by many summits in the state, no other is so well 
known. The commanding appearance of the peak is very 
fine. To the south are Cameron Cone (10,685 ft.), Mt Sachett, 
Mt Bald (13,974), Mt Rosa (11,427), and Mt Cheyenne (9407). 
From the summit the magnificent Sangre de Cristo range is in 
the foreground, while on a clear day not only its southernmost 
summit, Blanca Peak (14,390 ft.) is visible, but also the Spanish 
Peaks (12,708 and 13,623 ft.) too m. to the south, and Long's 
Peak too m. to the north, and between them Mt Lincoln, Gray's 
Peak and other giants. At the base of the mountain are 
Manitou and Colorado Springs, whence tourists can make the 
ascent of the peak (in summer safe and relatively simple) on 
horseback or by a cog-railway, 8-75 m. long (opened in 1891), 
which makes a total ascent of 8100 ft. (maximum gradient 
i in 4) to the summit. In 1905 a powerful searchlight was 
erected on the summit. 

Pike's Peak was discovered in November 1806 by Lieut. 
Zebulon M. Pike. He attempted to scale it, but took the wrong 
path and found himself at the summit of Cheyenne Mountain. 
He pronounced the mountain unclimbable. In 1819 it was 
successfully climbed by the exploring party of Major S. H. 
Long. 

PILASTER (Fr. pilastre, med. Lat. pilastrum, from pila, a 
pillar), in architecture, an engaged pier projecting slightly from 
the wall, and employed to divide up and decorate a wall surface 
or to serve as respond to a column. One of the earliest examples 
(c. TOO B.C.) exists in the propylaea at Priene in Asia Minor, 
where it tapers towards the top. Pilasters have bases 
and capitals and are frequently fluted like columns. The 
Romans would seem to have preferred semi-detached columns, 
but for their amphitheatres sometimes pilasters are employed, 
as in the upper story of the Colosseum. In the revival of 
Classic architecture, and especially in Italy, architects seem 
to have considered that no building was complete without a 
network of pilasters on every storey, and France and England 
followed their example; and not only externally but inside the 
great cathedrals and churches the pilaster is adopted as the 
simplest and best way of dividing the bays. 

PILATE, PONTIUS, the Roman governor of Judaea under 
whom Jesus Christ suffered crucifixion. Of equestrian rank, 
his name Pontius suggests a Samnite origin, and his cognomen 
in the gospels, pileatus (if derived from the ptteus or cap of 
liberty), descent from a freedman. In any case he came in 
A.D. 26 from the household of Tiberius, through the influence 



of Sejanus, to be procurator over part of the imperial province 
of Syria, viz. Judaea, Samaria and Idumea. He ruled ten years, 
quarrelled almost continuously with the Jews whom Sejanus, 
diverging from the Caesar tradition, is said to have disliked 
and in A.D. 36 was recalled. Before he arrived Tiberius died, and 
Pilate disappears from history. Eusebius relates (Hist. eccl. 
ii. 7) but three centuries later and on the authority of earlier 
writers unnamed that he was exiled to Gaul and committed 
suicide at Vienne. 

Pilate kept the Roman peace in Palestine but with little 
understanding of the people. Sometimes he had to yield; as 
when he had sent the standards, by night, into the Holy City, 
and was besieged for five days by suppliants who had rushed to 
Caesarea (Jos. Ant. 31; B. J. ii. ix. 2, 3); and again when 
he hung up inscribed shields in Jerusalem, and was ordered by 
Tiberius to remove them to the other city (Philo ad Gaium 38). 
Sometimes he struck more promptly; as when the mob protested 
against his using the temple treasure to build an aqueduct 
for Jerusalem, and he disguised his soldiers to disperse them 
with clubs (Jos. Ant. xviii. 3, 2); or when he "mingled the 
blood " of some unknown Galileans " with their sacrifices " 
(Luke xiii. i); or slew the Samaritans who came to Mt 
Gerizim to dig up sacred vessels hidden by Moses there (Jos. 
Ant. xviii. 4, i) an incident which led to his recall. Philo, 
who tells how any suggestion of appeal by the Jews to Tiberius 
enraged him, sums up their view of Pilate in Agrippa's words, 
as a man " inflexible, merciless, obstinate." 

A more discriminating light is thrown upon him by the New 
Testament narratives of the trial of Jesus. They illustrate 
the right of review or recognitio which the Romans retained, 
at least in capital causes; the charge brought in this case of 
acting adversus majestatcm populi romani; the claim made by 
Jesus to be a king; and the result that his judge became 
convinced that the claimant was opposed neither to the public 
peace nor to the civil supremacy of Rome. The result is 
explained only by the dialogue, recorded exclusively in John, 
which shows the accused and the Roman meeting on the highest 
levels of the thought and conscience of the time. " I am corrfe 
to bear witness unto the truth . . . Pilate answered, What 
is truth?" Estimates of Pilate's attitude at this point have 
varied infinitely, from Tertullian's, that he was " already in 
conviction a Christian "jam pro sua conscientia Christianus 
to Bacon's " jesting Pilate," who would not stay for a reply. 
We know only that to his persistent attempts thereafter to get 
his proposed verdict accepted by the people, came their fatal 
answer, " Thou art not Caesar's friend," and that at last he 
unwillingly ascended the bema (in this case a portable judgment- 
seat, brought for the day outside the Praetorium), and in such 
words as Ibis ad crucem " delivered Him to be crucified." 

Pilate's place in the Christian tragedy, and perhaps also in 
the Creed, stimulated legend about him in two directions, equally 
unhistorical. The Gospel of Nicodemus, written by a Christian 
(possibly as early, Tischendorf thought, as the middle of the 
2nd century), repeats the trial in a dull and diluted way; but 
adds not only alleged evidence of the Resurrection, but the 
splendid vision of the descensus ad inferos the whole professing 
to be recorded in the Ada Pilati or official records of the governor. 
The Epislola Pilati gives Pilate's supposed account to Tiberius 
of the Resurrection; and the Paradosis Pilati relates how 
Tiberius condemned him and his wife Procla or Procula, both 
Christian converts. All this culminates in Pilate being canon- 
ized in the Abyssinian Church (June 25), and his wife in the 
Greek (Oct. 27). On the other hand the Mors Pilati tells how 
when condemned by the emperor he committed suicide; and 
his body, thrown first into the Tiber and then the Rhone, 
disturbed both waters, and was driven north into " Losania," 
where it was plunged in the gulf near Lucerne and below Mt 
Pilatus (originally no doubt Pileatus or cloud-capped), from 
whence it is raised every Good Friday to sit and wash unavailing 
hands. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For legends see Tischendorfs Evangelia apoc- 
rypha (1863) and Apocryphal Gospels, Ante-Nicene Lib. (1880). 



PILATUS PILGRIM 



603 



The earlier Pilate literature, to the extent of no treatises, chiefly 
of the I7th and i8th centuries, is enumerated in G. A. Muller s 
Pontius Pilatus der funfte Procurator -non Judaa (Stuttgart, 1888). 
See in loco in the following English or translated histories of the 
life or time of Jesus, Theodor Keim, E. Schiirer, A. Edersheim, 
J. P. Lange, Bernhard Weiss and F. W. Farrar; Expositor (1884) 
p. 107 and (1900) p. 59; also H. Peter," Pontius Pilatus, der romische 
Landpfleger in Judiia," in Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl Altertum (1907). 
Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, in his Liberty, Equality and. Fraternity 
(1873). ,P- 87. starts the question, " Was Pilate right in crucifying 
Christ : ' his somewhat paradoxical answer is criticised in The Trial 
of Jesus Christ, a legal monograph, by A. Taylor Innes (1899). 

(A. T. I.) 

PILATUS, LEO, or LEONTIUS [LEONZIO PILATO] (d. 1366), 
one of the earliest promoters of Greek studies in western 
Europe, was a native of Thessalonica. According to Petrarch, he 
was a Calabrian, who posed as a Greek in Italy and as an Italian 
abroad. In 1360 he went to Florence at the invitation of 
Boccaccio, by whose influence he was appointed to a lectureship 
in Greek at the Studio, the first appointment of the kind in the 
west. After three years he accompanied Boccaccio to Venice 
on a visit to Petrarch, whom he had already met at Padua. 
Petrarch, disgusted with his manners and habits, despatched 
him to Constantinople to purchase MSS. of classical authors. 
Pilatus soon tired of his mission and, although Petrarch refused 
to receive him again, set sail for Venice. Just outside the 
Adriatic Gulf he was struck dead by lightning. His chief 
importance lies in his connexion with Petrarch and Boccaccio. 
He made a bald and almost word for word translation of Homer 
into Latin prose for Boccaccio, subsequently sent to Petrarch, 
who owed his introduction to the poet to Pilatus and was anxious 
to obtain a complete translation. Pilatus also furnished 
Boccaccio with the material for his genealogy of the gods, 
in which he made an ostentatious display of Greek learning. 

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 66; G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung 
des dassischen Alterthums (1893); H. Hody, De Graecis illustribus 
(1742); G. Tiraboschi, Storia della letteratura italiana, v. 691. 

PILAU, a favourite Eastern dish, consisting essentially of 
rice, boiled with mutton or other meat, fowl or fish, and flavoured 
with spices, raisins, &c. The word appears in Persian, Turkish 
and Urdu, and has been adopted in European languages. The 
form pilaff, showing the Turkish pronunciation, is also common. 

PILCHARD (in earlier i6th century forms pylcher, pilchar; 
of unknown origin; the Fr. pilseir is adapted from Eng.), Clupea 
pilchardus, a fish of the herring family (Clupeidae), abundant 
in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe, 
north to the English Channel. Sardine is another name for the 
same fish, which on the coast of Britanny and Normandy is also 
called celan or celeren. It is readily distinguished from the 
other European species of Clupea. The operculum is sculptured 
with ridges radiating and descending towards the suboperculum; 
the scales are large, about thirty along the lateral line, deciduous; 
the ventral fins are inserted below, or nearly below, the middle 
of the base of the dorsal fin; the dorsal fin has seventeen or 
eighteen, the anal from nineteen to twenty-one rays. A small 
blackish spot in the scapulary region is very constant, and 
sometimes succeeded by other similar marks. There are no 
teeth on the palate; pyloric appendages exist in great numbers; 
the vertebrae number fifty-three. The pilchard is one of the 
most important fishes of the English Channel. It spawns at 
a distance from the shore, and its eggs are buoyant, like those 
of many other marine fishes and unlike those of the herring, 
which are adhesive and demersal, i.e. develop under water. 
The egg of the pilchard is very easily distinguished from other 
pelagic eggs by the unusually large space separating the vitelline 
membrane from the contained ovum. Spawning takes place 
in summer, the season extending from June to October. When 
commencing their migrations towards the land the shoals 
consist of countless numbers, but they break up into smaller 
companies near the shore. Pilchards feed on minute crustaceans 
and other pelagic animals and require two or three years before 
they attain their full size, which is about 10 in. in length. 
The sardines of the west coast of France, which are tinned in oil 
for export, are immature fish of the same stock as those taken 



on the coasts of Cornwall; they are 5 to 7^ in. in length, and 
though such fish occur also on the Cornish coast it is only in 
small numbers and for brief periods. In the Mediterranean 
the sardine does not exceed 7^ in. in length when mature. 
On the Pacific coast of America, in New Zealand and in Japan 
a pilchard occurs (Clupea sagax) which in its characters and habits 
is so similar to the European pilchard that its general utilization 
is deserving of attention. Immense shoals are reported to visit 
the east coast of Otago every year in February and March. 
Clupea scombrina is the " oil sardine " of the east coast of India. 

0- T. C.) 

PILE, an homonymous word, of which the main branches 
are (i) a heap, through Fr. from pila, pillar; (2) a heavy beam 
used in making foundations, literally a pointed stake, an adapta- 
tion of Lat. pilum, javelin; (3) the nap on cloth, Lat. pilus, 
hair. In the first branch the Lat. pila (for pigla, from root of 
pangere, to fasten) meant also a pier or mole of stone, hence any 
mass of masonry, as in Fr. pile. In English usage the word 
chiefly means a " heap " or " mass " of objects laid one on the 
top of the other, euch as the heap of faggots or other combustible 
material on which a dead body is cremated, " funeral pile," 
or on which a living person is burnt as a punishment. It also is 
applied to a large and lofty building, and specifically, to a stand 
of arms, " piled " in military fashion, and to the series of plates, 
" galvanic " or " voltaic piles," in an electric battery. The 
modern " head and tail " of a coin was formerly " cross and pile," 
Fr. croix el pile, in modern Fr. face et pile. In the older apparatus 
for minting the die for the reverse was placed on a small upright 
pillar, pile, the other on a puncheon known as a " trussell " 
(Fr. trousseau). The common name of the disease of haemor- 
rhoids (q.v.) or " piles " is probably an extension of this word, 
in the sense of mass, swelling, but may be referred to the Lat. 
pila, bah 1 . The name of the pilum, or heavy javelin (lit. 
pounder, pestle, from pinsere, pisere, to beat), the chief weapon 
of the ancient Roman infantry, was adopted into many Teutonic 
languages in the sense of dart or arrow, cf . Germ. Pfeil; in English 
it was chiefly used of a heavy stake with one end sharpened, 
and driven into swampy ground or in the bed of a river to form 
the first foundations for a building; the primitive lake-dwellings 
built on " piles " are also known as " pile-dwellings." For the 
use of piles in building see FOUNDATIONS and BRIDGES. In 
heraldry a charge represented by two lines meeting in the form 
of an arrow head is known as a " pile," a direct adaptation pro- 
bably of the Lat. pilum. The division of this intricate word, 
followed here, is that adopted by the New English Dictionary- 
other etymologists (e.g. Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898) arrange the 
words and their Latin originals somewhat differently. 

PILGRIM, a wanderer, traveller, particularly to a holy place 
(see PILGRIMAGE). The earliest English forms are pilegrim or 
pelegrim, through Fr. pelerin (the original O. Fr. pelegrin is 
not found), from Lat. peregrinus, a stranger, foreigner, particu- 
larly a resident alien in Rome (see PRAETOR, and ROMAN LAW). 
The Lat. pereger, from which peregrinus is formed, meant " from 
abroad," " travelled through many lands " (per, through, 
and ager, country). 

It was customary for pilgrims to bring back as proof of their 
pilgrimage to a particular shrine or holy place a badge, usually 
made of lead or pewter, bearing some figure or device identifying 
it with the name or place. These " pilgrim signs " are frequently 
alluded to in literature notably in the Canterbury Tales and in 
Piers Plowman. The British Museum and the Musee Cluny in 
Paris have fine collections of them, mainly dredged from the 
Thames and the Seine. The badges were generally worn 
fastened to the pilgrim's hat or cape. Among the best known 
are those of the cockle or scallop shell of St. James of Compostella 
in Spain; the " vernicle," a representation of the miraculous 
head of Christ; the vera icon, true image, on St Veronica's 
handkerchief, at Rome, or of the Abgar portrait at Genoa, of 
" a vernicle hadde he sowed on his cappe " (Cant. Tales, " Prol." 
685); the Amiens badge of the head of John the Baptist on the 
charger, the cathedral claiming the custody of the relic from 
1206 (fig. i); and the palm branches or cross of palm leaf, the 



604 



PILGRIMAGE 



badge of the " Palmers " pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The 
most common of the English pilgrims' signs are those of the 
shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury, the greatest centre 
of pilgrimage in England. These take a variety of forms, 





(From Andrews' Church Treasury.) (From Andrews' Church Treasury.) 

FIG. I Pilgrim's Sign, from FlG. 2. Pilgrim's Sign, from 

the cathedral at Amiens. Canterbury. 

sometimes a simple T, sometimes a bell marked campana Thome, 
the Canterbury bell, most often a figure of the saint, sometimes 
seated, sometimes riding on a horse, and carrying his episcopal 
cross, and with hand uplifted in benediction (fig. 2). Some- 
times the badges took the shape of small ampullae, or vases, 
as in the case of the badges of the shrine of Our Lady of 
Walsingham, which were marked with a W and crown. 

See W. Andrews, Church Treasury (1898), article " Pilgrims' 
Signs," by Rev. G. S. Tyack; and Guide to Medieval Room, British 
Museum, p. 69. 

The English " Pilgrims' Way." From Winchester, in Hamp- 
shire, to Canterbury, in Kent, runs a road or way which can 
still be traced, now on the present made roads, now as a lane, 
bridle path, or cart track, now only by a line of ancient yews, 
hollies or oaks which once bordered it. To this old track the 
name of " pilgrims' way " has been given, for along it passed 
the stream of pilgrims coming through Winchester from the south 
and west of England and from the continent of Europe by way of 
Southampton to Canterbury Cathedral to view the place of the 
martyrdom of Thomas Becket, in the north transept, to the relics 
in the crypt where he was first buried after his murder, in 1170, 
and the shrine in the Trinity Chapel which rose above his tomb 
after the translation of the body in 1220. There were two 
festivals for the pilgrimage, on the zgth of December, the day 
of the martyrdom, and on the 7th of July, the day of the transla- 
tion. The summer pilgrimage naturally became the most 
popular. In 1538 the shrine was destroyed and the relics of 
the saint scattered, but the great days of the pilgrimage had 
then passed. Erasmus gives a vivid picture of the glories of 
the shrine and of all that was shown to the pilgrims on his visit 
with Colet to Canterbury in 1514. 

The principal villages, towns and places near or through which 
the way passed are as follow: Winchester, Alresvord, Ropley, 
Alton, Farnham (here the way follows the present main road), 
Scale, Puttenham, by the ruined chapel of St Catherine, outside 
Guildford, near where the road crosses the Wey above Shalford, 1 
and by the chapel of St Martha, properly of " the martyr," now 
restored and used as a church, Albury, Shere, Gomshall, Dorking 
(near here the Mole is crossed), along thesouthernslopeof Boxhill 
to Reigate, then through Gatton Park, Merstham, Otford, 
Wrotham, after which the Medway was crossed, Burham, past 
the megalithic monument Kit's Coty House, and the site of 
Boxley Abbey, the oldest after Waverley Abbey of Cistercian 
houses in England, and famous for its miraculous image of the 
infant saint Rumbold, and the still more famous winking rood 
or crucifix. The road passes next by Hollingbourne, Lenham 
and Charing. At Otford, Wrotham and Charing were manor- 
houses or rather palaces of the archbishops of Canterbury; at 
Hollingbourne was a manor of the priors of Christchurch. After 

1 Shalford Fair, the chapels on the two hills and the Surrey hills 
are probably the scene of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, see E. 
Renouard James, Notes on the Pilgrim's Way in West Surrey (1871). 



Hollingbourne come Westwell, Eastwell, Boughton Aluph, 
Godmersham, Chilham Castle, and then at Harbledown, where 
are the remains of the Hospice of St Nicholas, the road joins 
Watling Street, by which came the main stream of pilgrims 
from London, the North and the Midlands. 

This road, although its name of the Pilgrims' Way has for 
long confined it to the road by which the pilgrims came to 
Canterbury from Winchester, follows a. far older track. Right 
back into British and even older times the main direction which 
commerce and travellers followed across southern and western 
England to the Straits of Dover and the Continent lay from 
Canterbury along the southern chalk slope of the North Downs 
to near Guildford, then by the Hog's Back to Farnham. At 
this point the oldest track went across Salisbury Plain towards 
Stonehenge and so on to Cornwall. From Farnham westward 
the only portion of this the oldest track that can now be traced 
is a small portion that still bears the name of the Harrow (i.e. 
hoary, old) road. It was in early times abandoned for the 
road from Winchester to which the stream of travel and com- 
merce from the Continent and the south and south-west of 
England was diverted. 

The " pilgrims' way " has been traced fully in Mrs Ady's book 
The Pilgrims' Way (1893), and the older track in the fullest detail 
in Hilaire Belloc's The Old Road (1904). 

The American " Pilgrim Fathers." In American history the 
name " Pilgrims " is applied to the earliest settlers of the colony 
of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and more specifically to the first 
company of emigrants, who sailed in the " Mayflower " in 1620. 
They were from the beginning Separatists from the Church of 
England; they had established Independent (Congregational) 
churches at Scrooby and Gainsborough early in the 1 7th century, 
and some of them had fled to Amsterdam in 1608 to avoid 
persecution, and had removed to Leiden in the following year. 
They sailed from Delftshaven late in July 1620, from Southamp- 
ton on the $th of August, from Plymouth on the 6th of 
September, and late in December 1620 founded the colony of 
Plymouth, Massachusetts. See MASSACHUSETTS; PLYMOUTH, 
and MAYFLOWER. 

PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio), a journey 
undertaken, from religious motives, to some place reputed as 
sacred. These journeys play an important r61e in most pre- 
Christian and extra-Christian religions: in the Catholic Church 
their acceptance dates from the 3rd and 4th centuries. 

I. The Pilgrimage in pre-Christian and non-Christian Religions. 
To the Germanic religions the pilgrimage is unknown. On 
the other hand, it is an indigenous element, not only in the 
creeds of Asia, but in those of the ancient seats of civilization 
on the Mediterranean. The fundamental conception is always 
that the Deity resides or exercises a peculiarly powerful 
influence in some definite locality; and to this locality the 
devout repair, either in reverence of their god, or in quest of his 
assistance and bounty. Thus, as the cult of a particular divinity 
spreads farther and farther, so the circle expands from which are 
drawn those who visit his sanctuary. 

One of the oldest homes of the pilgrimage is India. There 
the army of devotees tends more especially to the Ganges 
the hallowed river of Hindu belief. On the Ganges lies Benares, 
the holy city of Brahminism: and to look on Benares, to visit 
its temples, and to be washed clean in the purifying river, is the 
yearning of every pious Indian. Even Buddhism originally 
destitute of ceremonial has adopted the pilgrimage; and the 
secondary tradition makes Buddha himself determine its goals: 
the place where he was born, where he first preached, where 
the highest insight dawned on him, and where he sank into 
Nirvana. The four ancient sacred resorts are Kapilavastu, 
Gaya, Benares and Kusinagara. 

In Syria, the temple of Atargatis in Hierapolis was an im- 
memorial resort of pilgrims. In Phoenicia, a similar significance 
was enjoyed by the shrine of Astarte, on the richly-watered 
source of the river Adonis, till, as late as the 4th century after 
Christ, it was destroyed by Constantine the Great. In Egypt, 
the great annual and monthly festivals of the indigenous gods 



PILGRIMAGE 



605 



gave rise to aH manner of religious expeditions. Even among 
the Israelites, the visitation of certain cult-centres prevailed 
from remote antiquity; but, when the restriction of Yahweh- 
worship to Jerusalem had doomed the old shrines, the Jewish 
pilgrimages were directed solely to the sanctuary on Mt Moria. 

Among the Greeks the habit was no less deeply rooted. Just 
as the inhabitants of each town honoured their tutelar deity 
by solemn processions to his temple, so, at the period 01 the 
Olympic games, the temple of Zeus at Olympia formed the 
goal of multitudes from every Hellenic country. No less power- 
ful was the attraction exercised by the shrines of the oracular 
divinities, though the influx of pilgrims was not limited to certain 
days, but, year in and year out, a stream of private persons, 
or embassies from the city-states, came flowing to the temple 
of Zeus in Dodona or the shrine of Apollo at Delphi. 

The unification of the peoples of antiquity in the Roman 
Empire, and the resultant amalgam of religions, gave a powerful 
impetus to the custom. For, as East and West still met at the 
old sanctuaries of Greece, so and yet more Greece and Rome 
repaired to the temples of the southern and eastern deities. In 
the shrine of Isis at Philae, Europeans set up votive inscriptions 
on behalf of their kindred far away at home, and it may be 
surmised that even among the festival crowds at Jerusalem a 
few Greeks found place (John xii. 20). 

The pilgrimage, however, attained its zenith under Islam. 
For Mahomet proclaimed it the duty of every Mussulman, once 
at least in his life, to visit Mecca; the result being that the birth- 
place of the Prophet is now the religious centre of the whole 
Mahommedan world (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION; CARAVAN; 
MECCA). 

II. The Pilgrimage under Christianity. The pilgrimages 
of Christianity presuppose the existence of those of paganism; 
Ortefa kut '*" wou ld be an error to maintain that the former 
were a direct development of the latter. For primitive 
Christianity was devoid of any point by which these journeys of 
devotion might naturally have been suggested. It was a religion 
without temples, without sanctuaries, and without ceremonial. 
The saying of the Johannine Gospel that God is to be adored 
neither in Jerusalem nor on Gerizim, but that His true worshipper 
must worship Him in spirit and in truth is in complete harmony 
with the old Christian piety. And, accordingly, in the ancient 
Christian literature, we find no trace of a conception that the 
believer should visit a definite place in order to pay homage to 
his Master. The evolution of the Christian pilgrimage moved 
on other lines. 

Cicero finely observes that, in Athens, the glorious architecture 
caused him less pleasure than did the thought of the great men 
whose work was done in its midst " how here one had lived, 
and there fallen asleep; how here another had disputed, and 
there lay buried " (De Legg. ii. 2). This feeling was not weakened 
by the advent of Christianity, in fact, we may say that it was 
appreciably strengthened. Cicero had already compared the 
sites consecrated by the memory of some illustrious name with 
those hallowed by recollections of a loved one. But with the 
Christian, when his Redeemer was in question, both motives 
coincided: for there the greatest was also the dearest. 

In this devotion to the memory of Jesus, we find the key 
to the origin of the Christian pilgrimage: the faithful repaired to 
those places which were invested with memories of their Lord's 
earthly life. And these journeys must certainly date from the 
2nd century. For Origen (d. 254) mentions that in Bethlehem 
the cave was shown where Christ was born, and in it the manger 
in which Mary made the bed of her child. The site must have 
been much visited long before this, since Origen remarks that 
it was common knowledge, even among the infidels, that there 
was the birthplace of that Jesus whom the Christians worshipped 
(Contr. Cels. i. 51). But those who visited Bethlehem must 
certainly have visited Jerusalem and the places there, so rich in 
memorials of their Master. And the sympathy of Christendom 
soon led them beyond this immediate circle. The anonymous 
author of the Cohortatio ad Graecos, a work of the 2nd century, 
visited the remnants of those cells, in which so legend related 



the seventy interpreters laboured on their version of the Old 
Testament: nor, when he came to Cumae in Campania, did he 
fail to have shown him the old shrine of the Sibyl (Coh. ad Gr. 
13 and 37). Soon we begin to hear the names of the pilgrims. 
In the course of the 3rd century, as Jerome relates, Firmilian, 
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, travelled to Palestine to 
view the sacred places (De Vir. ill. 54); while, according to 
Eusebius, a second bishop from Cappadocia, Alexander by name, 
visited Jerusalem in order to pray and acquaint himself with 
the holy sites, and was there invited by the community to 
remain with them and assume the episcopate of the aged 
Narcissus (Hist. eccl. vi. 'n). With regard to his own times 
the early years of the 4th century the same authority recounts 
that believers kept streaming to Palestine from all regions, 
there to offer their prayers at a cavern shown on the Mount 
of Olives (Demonstr. evang. vi. 18). 

This statement, that the Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries 
were in the habit of visiting Jerusalem for prayer, proves that 
the non-Christian conception of the religious pilgrimage had 
already entered the sphere of Christian thought. That men 
travelled for purposes of prayer implies acceptance of the heathen 
theory of sanctuaries which it is an act of piety to visit. We 
may regret the fact, for it sullied the purity of primitive 
Christian thought. Nevertheless, it is clear that the develop- 
ment was inevitable. As soon as the non-Christian ideas of 
priests, sacrifices, houses of the god, and so forth, were naturalized 
in the Christianity of the 3rd century, it was but a short step 
to the belief in holy places. 

III. The Pilgrimage in the Ancient Church. In the passages 
cited above, Bethlehem and the Mount of Olives figure as the 
main goal of the pilgrim: and on the Mount of fheEast, 
Olives the mind must naturally turn to the Garden 
of Gethsemane and the scene of the Ascension. It may seem 
surprising that there is no mention of Golgotha and the Sepulchre. 
But the visitation of these sites was rendered impossible to the 
Christians by the destruction of Jerusalem and the erection 
of the town of Aelia Capitolina. They had not forgotten them; 
but the grave was concealed under a mound of earth and stones 
a profanation probably dating from the siege of the city and 
Titus's attack on the second wall. On the summit of this 
mound there stood, in the days of Eusebius, a sanctuary of 
Venus (Eus. Vit. Const, iii. 26, 30). The Sepulchre and the 
Hill of the Crucifixion were lost to the Christian pilgrim; and, 
consequently, before the era of Constantine, the one holy site 
in the town of Jerusalem was the so-called Coenaculum, which 
received its name in later years. It lay south of the city, near the 
outer wall, and, if Epiphanius is to be believed, was already in 
existence when Hadrian (130-131) visited Jerusalem (De mens. 
14). It was regarded as the house, in which according to the 
Acts of the Apostles (xii. 12 sqq.) Mary, the mother of John 
Mark, lived; and the belief was that there the Lord held the 
Last Supper, and that there the eleven assembled after the 
Ascension. It was there, also, that the scene of the Pentecostal 
effusion of the Spirit was laid (cf. Cyrill. Hierus. Cat. xvi. 4). 

The pilgrimage to Palestine received a powerful impetus 
from the erection of the memorial churches on the holy sites, 
under Constantine the Great, as described by Eusebius in his 
biography of the emperor (iii. 25 sqq.). At the order of Con- 
stantine, the shrine of Venus above mentioned was destroyed, 
and the accumulated rubbish removed, till the ancient rock- 
foundation was reached. There the cave was discovered in 
which Joseph of Arimathea had laid the body of Jesus; and 
above this cave and the Hill of the Crucifixion the imposing 
church of the Holy Sepulchre was built (A.D. 326-336). The 
churches in Bethlehem and on the Mount of Olives were erected 
by Helena, the mother of Constantine, who herself undertook 
the pilgrimage to the Holy Land. These churches were then 
endowed with new sanctuaries of miraculous powers; and relics 
of Christ were found in the shape of the Cross and the nails. 
Eusebius, the contemporary of Constantine, is silent on this 
point. To his continuators, on the other hand, it is an established 
fact that Helena brought all three crosses to light, and ascertained 



6o6 



PILGRIMAGE 



the genuine Cross by the instrumentality of a miracle, 
in addition to discovering the nails of the Crucifixion (Rufin. 
i. 7; Socr. 1.17; Sozomen. ii. i; Theod. i. 17). It is impossible 
to fix the date at which the supposititious relics were introduced 
into the church of the Sepulchre: it is certain, however, that 
in the sth century the Cross was there preserved with scru- 
pulous reverence, and accounted the highest treasure of the 
sanctuary. 

After the 4th century, monks .and nuns begin to form no 
inconsiderable part of the pilgrimages a fact which is especially 
manifest from the numerous notices to be found in Jerome, 
and the narratives of Theodoret in the Historic, religiosa. In 
fact, many were inclined to regard a journey to Jerusalem as 
the bounden duty of every monk an exaggerated view which 
led to energetic protests, especially from Gregory of Nyssa, 
who composed a monograph on the pilgrimages (De Us qui 
adeunt Hierosol.). Jerome, like Gregory, insists on the point 
that residence in Jerusalem has in itself no religious value: 
it is not locality, but character, that avails, and the gates of 
Heaven are as open in Britain as in Jerusalem (Ep. 58, 3). 
These utterances, however, must not be misinterpreted. They 
are not directed against the pilgrimage in itself, nor even against 
the belief that prayer possesses special efficacy on sacred 
ground, but solely against the exaggerated developments of 
the system. 

The theologians of the 4th and sth centuries were at one 
with the masses in recognizing the religious uses of the pilgrim- 
ages. Jerome in particular considered it an act of faith for a 
man to offer his prayers where the feet of the Lord had stood, 
and the traces of the Birth, of the Cross, and of the Passion were 
still to be seen (Ep. 47, 2). 

We may gain some impression of the mood in which the 
pilgrims completed their journey, when we read how Paula, 
the friend of Jerome, expresses herself on her visit to the church 
of the Sepulchre: " As oft as we enter its precincts we see the 
Saviour laid in the shroud, and the angel seated at the feet of 
the dead!" (Hieron. Ep. 46, 2). She assured Jerome that, 
in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, she beheld, with 
the eye of faith, the Christ-child wrapped in swaddling clothes 
(Ep. 108, 10). But with these thoughts, others of an entirely 
different stamp were frequently blended. Pilgrimages were 
conceived as means to ensure an answer to particular prayers. 
So, for example, Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II., vowed 
to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, if she should see her 
daughter married. (Socr. Hist. eccl. vii. 47). And, closely 
as this approaches to pagan ideas, the distinction between 
paganism and Christianity is completely obliterated when we 
find the hermit Julian and his companions travelling to Sinai 
in order to worship the Deity there resident (Theod. Hist, 
rel. 2). 

With the number of the pilgrims the number of pilgrim-resorts 
also increased. Of Jerusalem alone Jerome relates that the 
places of prayer were so numerous that it was impossible to 
visit them all in one day (Ep. 46, 9). In the Holy Land the 
list was still longer: the natives were ready to show everything 
for which the foreigners inquired, and the pilgrim was eager to 
credit everything. In her expedition to the East, the Paula 
mentioned above visited, among other places, Sarepta and 
Caesarea. In the first-named place she was shown the tower 
of Elijah; in the second, the house of Cornelius, that of Philip, 
and finally the grave of the four virgins. At Bethlehem she 
saw, in addition to the church of the Nativity, the grave of 
Rachel; at Hebron the hut of Sarah, in which the swaddling 
clothes of Isaac and the remains of Abraham's oak were on 
view (Hieron. Ep. 108). A similar picture is given in the 
Travels of the so-called Silvia Aquitana, who seems, in reality, 
to have been a Spanish nun, named Etheria or Eucheria. She 
went as a pilgrim to Jerusalem (c. 380), and from there traversed 
the whole of Palestine, in order to visit every site which was 
consecrated by memories of the Lord's earthly life. Nor did 
she neglect the scenes of patriarchal history. Of greater 
antiquity is the concise account of his travels by an anonymous 



pilgrim, who, in A.D. 333, undertook the journey from Bordeaux 
to Palestine. The Itinerary of the African Theodosius who 
visited the East between A.D. 520 and A.D. 530 is of later date 
(P. Geyer, I tin. hierosol. saec. iv-viii.). 

While pilgrim-resorts were thus filling the East, their counter- 
parts began to emerge in the West. And here the starting- 
point is to be found in the veneration of martyrs. Ia t i, eWest 
Care for the tombs of martyrs was sanctioned by 
immemorial custom of the Church; but, in this case 
also, a later age failed to preserve the primitive conception in 
its purity; and Augustine himself was obliged to defend the 
usage of the Church from the imputation that it implied a 
transference of heathen ceremonial to the sphere of Christianity 
(Contr. Faust, xx. 21). The martyrs were the local heroes of 
particular communities; but there were men whose life and death 
were of significance for the whole of Christendom the apostles. 
Of these Peter and Paul had suffered martyrdom in Rome, 
and it was inevitable, from the nature of the ca~se, that their 
graves should soon become a resort, not only of Romans born, 
but of strangers also. True, the presbyter Caius (c. 200) who 
first mentions the situation of the apostolic tombs on the Vatican 
and the road to Ostia, and refers to the memorials there erected, 
has nothing to say of foreign Christians journeying to Rome 
in order to visit them. And though Origen travelled to Rome, 
it was not to view the graves of dead men, but to establish 
relations with the living flock (Euseb. Hist. eccl. ii. 25, 7; vi. 
14, 10); still, it is certain that the Roman cemeteries were 
visited by numerous pilgrims even in the 3rd century: for the 
earliest graffiti in the papal crypt of the Coemeterium Callisti 
must date from this period (De Rossi, Roma sottcr. i. 253 
sqq.; Kraus, Rom. Soil. 148 sqq.). And if the tombs of the popes 
were thus visited, so much more must this hold of the tombs 
of the apostles. After these, the most frequented resort at 
Rome in the 4th century was the grave of Hippolytus. The 
poet Prudentius describes how, on the day of the martyr's 
death, an innumerable multitude of pilgrims flocked round the 
site. Even on ordinary days arrivals and departures were 
almost incessant foreigners being everywhere seen mingled 
with the native Latins. They poured balsam on the sepulchre 
of the saint, washed it with their tears, and covered it with their 
kisses, in the belief that they were thus assuring themselves of 
his intercession or testifying their gratitude for his assistance. 
Prudentius says of himself, that whenever he was sick in soul 
or body, and prayed there, he found help and returned in 
cheerfulness: for God had vouchsafed His saint the power to 
answer all entreaties (Perist. xi. 175 sqq.). Paulinus of Nola 
(d. 431) concurs his custom being to visit Ostia each year, 
and Rome on the apostolic anniversaries (Ep. 20, 2; 45, i). 
Next to Rome the most popular religious resort was the tomb 
of Felix of Nola (August. Ep. 78, 3); while in Gaul the grave of 
St Martin at Tours drew pilgrims from all quarters (Paul. 
Nol. Ep. 17, 4). Africa possessed no sanctuary to compete 
with these; but we learn from Sulpicius Severus (c. 400) that 
the tomb of Cyprian seems to have been visited even by a Gaul 
(Dial. i. 3). 

The motive that drew the pilgrims to the graves of the saints 
is to be found in the conviction, expressed by Prudentius, that 
there divine succour was certain; and hence came the belief in 
a never-ending series of miracles there performed (cf., e.g. 
Ennod. Ticin. Lib. pro syn. p. 315). Doubt was unknown. 
St Augustine observes that, though Africa was full of martyrs' 
tombs, no miracle had been wrought at them so far as his 
knowledge extended. This, however, did not lead him to doubt 
the truth of those reported by others a fact that is somewhat 
surprising when we reflect that the phenomenon caused him 
much disquiet and perplexity. Who, he asks, can fathom the 
design of God in ordaining that this should happen at one place 
and not at another? And eventually he acquiesces in the 
conclusion that God, who gives every man his individual gift 
at pleasure, has not willed that the same powers should have 
efficacy at every sepulchre of the saints (Ep. 78, 3). 

IV. The Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. The medieval Church 



PILGRIMAGE 



607 



adopted the custom of the pilgrimage from the ancient Church. 
The young Germanic and Romance nations did precisely as the 
New Greek and Romans had done before them, and the 

Motives, motives of these devotional journeys now much 
more difficult of execution in the general decay of 
the great world-system of commerce remained much the 
same. They were undertaken to the honour of God (Pipp. 
Cap. 754-755, c. 4), for purposes of prayer (Ann. Hild. 992), 
or in quest of assistance, especially health (Vita Galli, 11.37; Vita 
Liudg. iii. 10). But the old causes were reinforced by others of 
at least equal potency. The medieval Church was even more 
profoundly convinced than its predecessor that the miraculous 
power of Deity attached to the bodies of saints and their relics. 
But the younger nations French, English and German 
were scantily endowed with saints; while, on the other hand, 
the belief obtained that the home-countries of Christianity, 
especially Rome and Jerusalem, possessed an inexhaustible 
supply of these sanctified bodies. Pilgrimages were consequently 
undertaken with the intention of securing relics. At first it 
was enough to acquire some object which had enjoyed at least 
a mediate connexion with the hallowed corpse. Gregory of 
Tours (d. 594) mentions one of his deacons who made a pilgrim- 
age into the East, in order to collect relics of the Oriental saints; 
and, on his return, visited the grave of the bishop Nicetius 
(St Nizier, d. 573) in Lyons, where he still further increased 
his store. His testimony showed how relics came to be distri- 
buted among the populace: one enthusiast took a little wax 
dropped from the taper; another, a portion of the dust which lay 
on the grave; a third, a thread from the cloth covering the sar- 
cophagus; and he himself plucked the flowers which visitors 
had planted above the tomb. Such were the memorials with 
which he returned; but the universal belief was that something 
of the miraculous virtue of the saint had passed into these 
objects (Vit. pair. 8, 6). Before long, however, these humble 
trophies failed to content the pilgrims, and they began to devote 
their efforts to acquiring the actual bodies, or portions of them 
- frequently by honest means, still oftener by trickery. One of 
the most attractive works of early medievalism Einhard's little 
book, Translatio Marcellini et Petri gives a vivid description 
of the methods by which the bodies of the two saints were 
acquired and transported from Rome to Seligenstadt on the 
Main. 

Far more important consequences, however, resulted from the 
fact that the medieval mind associated the pilgrimage with the 
forgiveness of sins. This conception of the pilgrimage, as a 
means of expiation or a source of pardon for wrong, was foreign 
to the ancient Church. It is quite in accordance with the 
keener consciousness of sin, which prevailed in the middle ages, 
that the expiatory pilgrimage took its place side by side with 
the pilgrimage to the glory of God. The pilgrimage became an 
act of obedience; and, in the books of penance (Poenitentialia) 
which date from the early middle ages, it is enjoined whether 
for a definite period (e.g. Poen. Valicell. i. c. 19; Theod. Cant. 
i. 2, 16) or for life (Poen. Cummeani, vii. 12, Casin. 24) as 
an expiation for many of the more serious sins, especially 
murder or the less venial forms of unchastity. The place to 
be visited was not specified; but the pilgrim, who was bound 
by an open letter of his bishop to disclose himself as a pentitent, 
lay under the obligation, wherever he went, to repair to the 
churches and more especially the tombs of the saints, and 
there offer his prayers. On occasion, a chain or ring was 
fastened about his body, that his condition might be obvious 
to all; and soon all manner of fables gained currency: how, 
here or there, the iron had sprung apart by a miracle, in token 
that the sinner was thereby absolved by God. For instance, 
the Vita Liudgeri recounts the history of a fratricide who was 
condemned to this form of pilgrimage by Jonas, bishop of 
Orleans (d. 843); he wore three iron rings round his body and 
arms, and travelled bare-footed, fasting, and devoid of linen, 
from church to church till he found pardon, the first ring breaking 
by the tomb of St Gertrude at Nivelles, the second in the crypt 
of St Peter, and the third by the grave of Liudger. The pilgrim- 



age with a predetermined goal was not recognized by the books 
of penance; but, in 1059, Peter Damiani imposed a pilgrimage 
to Rome or Tours on the clerics of Milan, whom he had absolved 
(Ada medial, patrol, lot. 145, p. 98). 

As the system of indulgences developed, a new motive came 
to the fore which rapidly overshadowed all others: pilgrimages 
were now undertaken to some sacred spot, simply in order to 
obtain the indulgence which was vested in the respective church 
or chapel. In the nth century the indulgence consisted in a 
remission of part of the penance imposed in the confessional, 
in return for the discharge of some obligation voluntarily 
assumed by the penitent. Among these obligations, a visit 
to a particular church, and the bestowal of pious gifts upon it, 
held a prominent place. The earliest instance of the indulgential 
privilege conferred on a church is that granted in ici6 by Pontius, 
archbishop of Aries, to the Benedictine abbey of Montmajour 
(Mons Major) in Provence (d'Achery, Spicil. iii. 383 seq.) . But 
these dispensations, which at first lay chiefly in the gift of the 
bishops, then almost exclusively in that of the popes, soon 
increased in an incessant stream, till at the close of the middle 
ages there were thousands of churches in every western country, 
by visiting which it was possible to obtain an almost indefinite 
number of indulgences. But, at the same time, the character 
of the indulgence was modified. From a remission of penance 
it was extended, in the I3th century, to a release from the 
temporal punishment exacted by God, whether in this life or 
in purgatory, from the repentant sinner. And, from an absolu- 
tion from the consequences of guilt, it became, in the I4th and 
1 5th centuries, a negation or the guilt itself; while simultaneously 
the opportunity was offered of acquiring an indulgence for the 
souls of those already in purgatory. Consequently, during 
the whole period of medievalism, the number of pilgrims was 
perpetually on the increase. 

So long as the number of pilgrims remained comparatively 
small, and the difficulties in their path proportionately great, 
they obtained open letters of recommendation from 
their bishops to the clergy and laity, which ensured 
them lodging in convents and charitable foundations, 
in addition to the protection of public officials. An instance 
is preserved in Markulf's formulary fii. 49). To receive the 
pilgrim and supply him with alms was always considered the 
duty of every Christian: Charlemagne, indeed, made it a legal 
obligation to withhold neither roof, hearth, nor fire from them 
(Admon. gent. 789, c. 75; Cap. Miss. 802, c. 27). 

The most important places of resort both for voluntary and 
involuntary pilgrimages, were still Palestine and Rome. On 
the analogy of the old Itineraria, the abbot Adamnan of lona 
(d. 704) now composed his monograph DC locis sanctis, which 
served as the basis of a similar book by the Venerable Bede 
(d. 735) both works being edited in the I tin. hierosol. His 
authority was a Prankish bishop named Arculf, who resided for 
nine months as a pilgrim in Jerusalem, and visited the remaining 
holy sites of Palestine in addition to Alexandria and Constanti- 
nople. Of the later itineraries the Descriptio terrae sanctae, 
by the Dominican Burchardus de Monte Sion, enjoyed the widest 
vogue. This was written between the years 1285 and 1295; 
but books of travel in the modern tongues had already begun to 
make their appearance. The initiative was taken by the French 
in the I2th and I3th centuries, and the Germans followed in the 
I4th and I5th ; while the Book of Wayes to Jerusalem of John de 
Maundeville (c. 1336) attained extreme popularity, and was 
translated into almost all the vernacular languages. Most 
pilgrims, probably, contented themselves with the brief guide- 
books which seem to have originated in the catalogues of indul- 
gences. In later periods, that of Romberch a Kyrspe, printed at 
Venice (1519), stood high in favour. 

A long list might be compiled of men of distinction who per- 
formed the pilgrimage to Palestine. In the 8th century one 
of the most famous is the Anglo-Saxon Willibald, who died 
in 781 as bishop of the Prankish diocese of Eichstatt. He 
left his home in the spring of 720, accompanied by his father and 
brother. The pilgrims traversed France and Italy, visiting 



6o8 



PILGRIMAGE 



every religious resort; in Lucca the father died, and the brother 
remained behind in Rome. Early in 722 Willibald began his 
expedition to the Holy Land alone, except for the presence of 
two companions. He travelled past Naples to Syracuse, then 
on shipboard by Cos and Samos to Ephesus, and thence through 
Asia Minor to Damascus and Jerusalem. On St Martin's 
day, in 724, he arrived in the Holy City. After a prolonged 
stay in the town and its environs, Willibald proceeded (727) 
to Constantinople, and in 729 returned to Italy. Such is the 
account given by the nun of Heidenheim in her biography of 
Willibald; and her version is probably based on notes by the 
pilgrim himself (Man. Germ. hist. scr. xv. 80 sqq.). In the 
9th century the French monk Bernard visited Palestine with 
two companions, and afterwards wrote a simple and trust- 
'worthy account of his journey (Patrol, lot. 121, 569 sqq.). In 
the loth century Conrad, bishop of Constance (934-976), per- 
formed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem three times ( Vila Chuonr. 7) ; 
and to the same period belong the first women-pilgrims to 
Jerusalem of whom we have any cognisance Hidda, mother 
of Gero, archbishop of Cologne (Thietm. Chron. ii. 16), and the 
countess Hademod of Ebersberg (Chron. ebersb.). The leaders, 
moreover, of the monkish reform movement in the loth and 
nth centuries, Richard of St Vanne in Verdun and Poppo, 
abbot of Stavelot (978-1048), had seen the Holy Land with 
their own eyes (Vita Rich. 17; Vila Popp. 3). In the year 1028 
Archbishop Poppo of Trier (d. 1047) undertook a pilgrimage 
which led him past Jerusalem to the banks of the Euphrates, 
his return taking place in 1030 (Gesta Trevir. Cont. i. 4 seq.). 
But the most celebrated devotional expedition before the Crusades 
was that of the four bishops Sigfrid of Mainz, Gunther of 
Bamberg, William of Utrecht, and Otto of Regensburg. They 
set out in 1064, with a company whose numbers exceeded 
seven thousand. The major portion, however, fell in battle 
against the Mahommedans, or succumbed to the privations of 
the journey, and only some two thousand saw their homes 
3.ga'm(Annal. Allah., Lamb., Disib., Marian. Scot. &c.). Among 
the followers of the bishops were two clerics of Bamberg, Ezzo 
and Wille, who composed on the way the beautiful song on the 
miracles of Christ one of the oldest hymns in the German 
language. The text was due to Ezzo, the tune to Wille (Miillen- 
hoff and Scherer, Denkmaler, i. p. 78, No. 31). A few years later 
Count Dietrich of Trier began a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with 
113 companions, in atonement for the murder of Archbishop 
Kuno. The ship, however, which conveyed them went down 
with all hands in a storm (Berth. Ann. 1073). 

As a result of this steady increase in the number of pilgrims, 
the old arrangements for their accommodation were found 
deficient. Consequently hospices arose which were designed 
exclusively for the pilgrim. Those on the Alpine passes are 
common knowledge. The oldest, that on the Septimer pass, 
dates from the Carolingian period, though it was restored in 
1 1 20 by the bishop Wido of Chur: that on the Great St Bernard 
was founded in the loth century, and reorganized in the I3th. 
To this century may also be assigned the hospice on the Simplon; 
to the I4th those on the St Gothard and the Lukmanier. 
Similarly, the Mediterranean towns, and Jerusalem in particular, 
had their pilgrim-refuges. Service in the hospices was regularly 
performed by the hospital-fraternities that is to say, by lay 
associations working under the authorization of the Church. 
The most important of these was the fraternity of the Hospitale 
hierosolymitanum, founded between 1065 and 1075; for hence 
arose the order of St John, the earliest of the orders of 
knighthood. In addition to the hospital of Jerusalem, numerous 
others were under its charge in Acre, . Cyprus, Rhodes, Malta, 
&c. Associations were formed to assist pilgrims bound for the 
East; one being the Confrerie des pelerins de Terre-Sainte in 
Paris, founded in 1325 by Louis de Bourbon, count of Clermont 
(afterwards first duke of Bourbon). Its church was in the rue 
des Cordeliers. Similar institutions existed also in Amsterdam, 
Utrecht, Antwerp and elsewhere in the Netherlands. 

But since, in the middle ages, the Holy Land was no longer 
held by a Christian Power, the protection of the pilgrims was 



no less necessary than their sustenance. This fact, after the 
close of the nth century, led to the Crusades (?..), which in 
many respects are to be regarded as armed pilgrimages. For the 
old dream of the pilgrim, to view the country where God had 
walked as man, lived on in the Crusades a fact which is demon- 
strated by the letters of Bernard of Clairvaux, with the songs of 
Walther von der Vogelweide and other Crusaders. And, since 
the strongest motive in the pilgrimage was the acquisition of 
indulgences, unnumbered thousands were moved to assume 
the Cross, when, in 1095, Urban II. promised them plenary 
indulgence (Cone. Claram. c. 2). The conquest of Jerusalem, 
and the erection of a Christian empire in Palestine, naturally 
welled the influx of pilgrims. And though in 1187 the Holy 
City again fell into the hands of the infidel, while in 1291 the 
loss of Acre eliminated the last Christian possession in Palestine, 
the pilgrimages still proceeded. True, after the fall of the city 
and the loss of Acre, they were forbidden by the Church ; but the 
veto was impracticable. In the I2th century these religious 
expeditions were still so common that, every Sunday, prayers 
were offered in church for the pilgrims (Honor. Aug. Spec. eccl. 
p. 828). In the I3th century the annual number of those who 
visited Palestine amounted to many thousands: in the I4th and 
1 5th it had hardly shrunk. In fact, between the years 1300 and 
1600, no fewer than 1400 men of distinction can be enumerated 
from Germany alone who travelled to the Holy Land 
(Rohricht and Meissner, Deutsche Pilgerreisen, pp. 465-546). 
It was not till the Reformation, the wars of the i6th century, 
and the loss of Rhodes, Candia and Cyprus to the Turks, that 
any appreciable alteration was effected. When Ignatius de 
Loyola (q.v.) set sail in 1523 from Venice to Palestine, only 
some thirteen souls could be mustered on the pilgrim-ship, while 
eight or nine others sailed with the Venetian state-vessel as far as 
Cyprus. A considerable number had abandoned their pilgrim- 
age and returned home on the news of the fall of Rhodes (Dec. 
25, 1522: see Acta sanct. Jul. vii. 642 seq.). 

For pilgrimage overseas, as it was styled, the permission of 
the Church was still requisite. The pilgrims made their journey 
in grey cowls fastened by a broad belt. On the cowl they wore 
a red cross; and a broad-brimmed hat, a staff, sack and gourd 
completed their equipment. During their travels the beard was 
allowed to grow, and they prepared for departure by confession 
and communion. Of their hymns many are yet extant (" Jeru- 
salem mirabilis," " In gottes namen faren wir," &c.). The 
embarcation took place either in France or Italy. In France, 
Marseilles was the main harbour for the pilgrims. From there 
ships belonging to the knights of St John and the knights 
templars conducted the commerce with Palestine, and carried 
annually some 6000 passengers. In the Italian ports the number 
of shipments was still greater especially in Venice, whence the 
regular passagium started twice a year. The Venetian pilgrim 
ships, moreover, carried as many as 1500 souls. The pilgrims 
formed themselves into unions, elected a " master " and con- 
cluded their agreements, as to the outward voyage and return, 
in common. After Venice, Genoa and Pisa occupied the most 
prominent position. The voyage lasted from six to eight weeks, 
the stay in Jerusalem averaging ten days. The visitation of the 
holy places was conducted in processions headed by the Fran- 
ciscans of the Convent of Zion. 

The expenses of the journey to Palestine were no light matter. 
In the 1 2th century they may be estimated at 100 marks of 
silver (200) for the ordinary pilgrim. This was the amount 
raised in 1147 by one Goswin von Randerath to defray the 
expenses of his pilgrimage (N iederrhein. Urk. Buck. i. No. 361). 
Later the cost was put at 280-300 ducats (i4o-i5o). In the 
i3th century a knight with two squires, one groom, and the requi- 
site horses, had to disburse 8j marks of silver for his passae^, 
while for a single pilgrim the rate was rather less than i mark. 
In the i6th century Ignatius de Loyola calculated the cost of 
the voyage from Venice to Jaffa at some 6 or 7 gold florins (3). 
The expenses of the princes and lords were, of course, much 
heavier. Duke William of Saxony, who was in Jerusalem in 
1461, spent no less than 10,000 on his journey (see Prutz. 



PILGRIMAGE 



609 



Ktdturgeschichte der Kreuzzuge, pp. 106 sqq.; Rohricht, Deutsche 
Pilgerreisen, p. 42). 

Great as was the number of pilgrims oversea, it was yet 
far exceeded by that of the visitants to the " threshold of 
the apostles," i.e. Rome. As was the case with Jerusalem, 
guide-books to the city of the apostles were now composed. 
The oldest is the Notitia ecclesiarum urbis Romae, which was 
probably compiled under Honorius I. (625-638). The mono- 
graph De locis s. martyrum is of somewhat later date. Both 
are to be found in De Rossi, Roma sotterranea, i. 138 sqq.). 
The Itinerarium einsidlense (ed. G. Hanel, Archiv. f. Philologie, 
v. nt)) belongs to the second half of the 8th century. Its 
composer would seem to have been a disciple of Walahfrid; for 
his interests are not confined to the churches, their reliquaries, 
and the ecclesiastical ceremonial of saint-days, but he takes 
a pleasure in transcribing ancient inscriptions. William of 
Malmesbury, again, when relating the crusade of Count Robert 
of Normandy (1096), transfers into his Gesta regum anglorum 
(iv. 351) an old description of Rome, originally intended for 
the use of pilgrims. This may have dated from the 7th century. 

The pilgrimages to Rome received their greatest impetus 
through the inauguration of the so-called Year of Jubilee (q.v.). 
On the 22nd of February 1300 the bull of Boniface VIII., 
Anliquorum habet fidem, promised plenary indulgence to every 
Roman who should visit the churches of the apostles Peter and 
Paul on thirty days during the year, and to every foreigner who 
should perform the same act on fifteen days. At the close of the 
Jubilee this dispensation was extended to all who had expired 
on the way to Rome. This placed the pilgrimage to Rome on 
a level with the crusades the only mode of obtaining a plenary 
indulgence. The success of the papal bull was indescribable. 
It is computed that, in the Year of Jubilee, on an average, 
200,000 strangers were present in the city during the day. 
The greatest number of the pilgrims came from southern France, 
England sending comparatively few on that occasion (see 
Gregorovius, Gesch. d. Stadt Rom. v. 546 sqq.). The Jubilee 
dispensation according to the edict of Boniface VIII. was to be 
repeated each century; but this period was greatly abridged by 
succeeding popes (see JUBILEE, YEAR OF), so that in the years 
135, 1390, !423i I 45, !47S> 1 5, the troops of pilgrims again 
came streaming into Rome to obtain the cherished dispensation. 

Of the other pilgrim-resorts, we shall only emphasize the most 
important. Priority of mention is due to St James of Compo- 
stella (Santiago, in the Spanish province of Galicia). Here the 
attraction for the pilgrim was the supposed possession of the 
body of James the son of Zebedee. The apostle was executed 
(A.D. 44) by command of Herod Agrippa (Acts xii. i); and at 
the beginning of the medieval period it was believed that his 
corpse was laid in Palestine ( Venant. Fortun. carm. v. 144, viii. 3) . 
The first connexion of the apostle with Spain is to be traced in 
the Poema de aris b. Mar. et xii. apost. dedic., which is ascribed to 
Aldhelm (d. 709) and contains a story of his preaching in that 
country. The earliest account of the transference of his relics to 
the Peninsula is found in Notker Balbulus (d. 912, Martyrol. in 
Jul. xxv.). But in Spain belief in this cherished possession was 
universal; and, step by step, the theory won credence through- 
out the West. In 1059, Archbishop Wido of Milan journeyed 
to St James (Damiani, Ada medial, p. 98); and a little later we 
hear of bands of pilgrims from Germany and France. In 
England, indeed, the shrine of St James of Compostella became 
practically the most favoured devotional resort; and in the I2th 
century its visitation had attained such popularity that a pil- 
grimage thither was ranked on a level with one to Rome or 
Jerusalem (Honor. August. Spec. eccl. p. 828). In Paris, after 
1419, there existed a special hospice for the " fraternity of St 
James," in which from 60 to 80 pilgrims were received each day, 
fed, and presented with a quarter of a denarius (Dulaure, Hist, 
de Paris ^842), i. 531)- Even in the period of the Reformation 
the " Song of St James " was sung in Germany (Wackernagel, 
Kirchenlied, ii. No. 1246); and in'i478 pilgrimages to that shrine 
were placed by Sixtus IV. on official equality with those to Rome 
and Jerusalem (Extrav. comm. c. 5; De poenit. v. 9). 

XXI. 20. 



In France St Martin remained the chief goal of the pilgrim; 
while Notre Dame de Sous-Terre in Chartres (with a portrait 
of the " black Virgin "), Le Puy-en-Velay (dep. Haute Loire), 
and others, also enjoyed considerable celebrity. In England 
pilgrimages were made to the tomb of the murdered archbishop, 
Thomas Becket, in Canterbury Cathedral. The setting of 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales gives a vivid idea of the motley 
company of pilgrims; but it seems probable that Germany also 
sent a contingent (Gervas. Cantuar. chr. ann. 1184; Ralph de 
Diceto, Ymag. hist. ann. 1184). In addition, Walsingham, 
Peterborough, St Davids, Holywell, and St Andrews in Scotland 
were much frequented. In lower Germany, Cologne and Aix-la- 
Chapelle, in Switzerland Einsiedeln, were the principal resorts. 

In Italy the church of the Archangel on Mt Gargano was one 
of the most ancient centresof the pilgrimage, being visited even by 
the monk Bernard (vide supra). Later the Portiuncula church 
at Assisi displaced all other religious resorts, with the exception 
of Rome; but in the i5th century it was overshadowed in turn 
by the " Holy House " at Loretto on the Adriatic. According 
to an extravagant legend, the house of Joseph and Mary in 
Nazareth was transported by angels, on the night of the gth-ioth 
of May 1291 to Dalmatia, then brought to the Italian coast 
opposite (Dec. 10, 1294), till, on the 7th of September 1295 it 
found rest on its present site. The pilgrimage thither must have 
attained great importance as early as the i5th century; for the 
popes of the Renaissance found themselves constrained to erect 
an imposing pilgrim church above the " Holy House." 

The significance of the pilgrimage for the religious life of later 
medievalism cannot be adequately estimated. The possession 
of an extraordinary relic, a bloody Host, or the like, was every- 
where considered a sufficient claim for the privileges of indul- 
gences; and wherever this privilege existed, there the pilgrims 
were gathered together. All these pilgrimages, great and small, 
were approved and encouraged by the Church. And yet, 
during the whole of the middle ages, the voice of suspicion in 
their regard was never entirely stilled. Earnest men could not 
disguise from themselves the moral dangers almost inevitably 
consequent upon them; they recognized, moreover, that many 
pilgrims were actuated by extremely dubious motives; and they 
distrusted the exaggerated value set on outward works. The 
Roman papacy had no more zealous adherent than Boniface; 
yet he absolutely rejected the idea that Englishwomen should 
make the journey to Rome, and would willingly have seen the 
princes and bishops veto these pilgrimages altogether (Ep. 78). 
The theologians who surrounded Charlemagne held similar 
views. When the abbess Ethelburga of Fladbury (Worcester- 
shire) found her projected pilgrimage impracticable, Alcuin wrote 
to her, saying that it was no great loss, and that God had better 
designs for her: " Expend the sum thou hast gathered for the 
journey on the support of the poor; and if thou givest as thou 
canst, thou shalt reap as thou wilt "(Ep. 300). Bishop Theodulf 
of Orleans (d. 821) made an energetic protest against the delu- 
sion that to go to Rome availed more than to live an upright life 
(Carm. 67). To the same effect, the synod of Chalon-sur-Saone 
(813) reprobated the superstition which was wedded to the 
pilgrimage (c. 13); and it would be easy to collect similar judg- 
ments, delivered in every centre of medievalism. But, funda- 
mentally, pilgrimages in themselves were rejected by a mere 
handful: the protest was not against the thing, but against its 
excrescences. Thus Fridank, for instance, in spite of his emphatic 
declaration that most pilgrims returned worse than they went, 
himself participated in the crusade of Frederick II. 

V. The Modern Pilgrimage. The Reformation eradicated the 
belief in the religious value of visits to a particular locality. 'It 
is only pious memory that draws the Protestant to the sites 
consecrated by ecclesiastical history. On the other hand, 
while in the Eastern Church things have undergone little change, 
the pilgrims, in addition to the Holy Land, visiting Mt 
Athos and Kiev the developments in the "Roman Church show 
important divergences. The Year of Jubilee, in 1525, was 
unprecedented in its scant attendance, but the jubilees of 1575 
and 1600 again saw great armies of pilgrims marching to Rome. 



6io 



PILIBHIT PILLORY 



Fresh pilgrim resorts now began to spring up, and medieval 
shrines, which had fallen on evil days, to emerge from their 
obscurity. In the i6th century we must mention the pilgrimages to 
the " Holy Mount " at Gb'rz on the Austrian coast, and to Mont- 
serrat in the Spanish province of Barcelona: in the I7th century, 
those to Luxemburg, Kevelaer (Gelderland), Notre Dame de 
Fourviere in Lyons, Heiligenberg in Bohemia, Roermond in 
the Netherlands, &c. The i8th century, which witnessed the 
religious Aufklarung, was not favourable to the pilgrimage. 
Enlightened bishops and princes prohibited it altogether: 
so, for instance, Joseph II. of Austria. Archbishop Clement 
Wenceslaus of Trier forbade, in 1777, the much-frequented, 
medieval " leaping-procession " of Echternach (duchy of Luxem- 
burg). The progressive theologians and clergy, moreover, 
assumed a hostile attitude, and, in 1800, even the Curia omitted 
the Year of Jubilee. The ipth century, on the other hand, led 
to an extraordinary revival of the pilgrimage. Not only did 
new resorts spring into existence e.g. La Salette in Dauphine 
(1846), and more particularly Lourdes (1858) in the department 
of Hautes Pyrenees but the numbers once more attained a 
height which enables them to compete with the medieval figures. 
It is computed that 60,000 pilgrims were present in La Salette on 
the 29th of September 1847, the first anniversary of the appear- 
ance of Mary which gave rise to the shrine. The dedication of 
the church of Lourdes, in 1876, took place in the presence of 30 
bishops, 3000 priests and 100,000 pilgrims. In 1877 the number 
rose to 250,000; and similar statistics are given of the German and 
Austrian devotional resorts. The sanctuaries of Aix-la-Chapelle 
are said to have been visited by 65,000 pilgrims on the isth of 
July 1860; and on the following Sunday by 52,000. From 
25,000 to 30,000 persons take part each year in the resuscitated 
" leaping-procession " at Echternach; and the annual visitants 
to the " Holy Mount " at Gorz are estimated at 50,000. No new 
motives for the pilgrimage emerged in the ipth century, unless 
the ever-increasing cultus of the Virgin Mary may be classed 
as such, all of the new devotional sites being dedicated to 
the Virgin. For the rest, the desire of acquiring indulgences 
maintains its influence: but doubting voices are no more heard 
within the pale of the Roman Catholic Church. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Itinera hierosolymitana saec. IV. -VIII., rec. 
P. Geyer (Vienna, 1898); I tin. hierosol. et descr. terrae sanctae, 
ed. T. Toller and A. Mplinier (Geneva, 1879^1885); H. Michelant 
and G. Raynaud, Itineraires a Jerusalem rediges en f ran fa-is au 
XI', XII', XIII' siecles (Geneva, 1882) ; R. Rohricht and H. Meisner, 
Deutsche Pilgerreisen nach dem heiligen Land (Berlin, 1882, new ed., 
Innsbruck, 1900); L. Conradi, Vier rheinische Paldstina-Pilger- 
schriftendesXIV.,XV.,XVI. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, i882);G. B. 
de Rossi, Roma sotterranea, i. 128 sqq. (Rome, 1864); J. Marx, 
Das Wallfahrten in der katholischen Kirche (Trier, 1842); W. E. 
Scudamore, Diet, of Christ. Antiquities, vol. ii. (London, 1880). 

(A. H.*) 

PILIBHIT, a town and district of British India, in the Bareilly 
division of the United Provinces. The town pop. (1901), 
33,490 contains the mosque of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, the 
Rohilla chieftain, built in the second half of the i8th century. 
Trade is mainly in agricultural produce, and in the products of 
the neighbouring Himalayan territory and Nepal. 

The DISTRICT or PILIBHIT has an area of 1350 sq. m.; pop. 
(1901), 470,339, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. 
Though so near the Himalayas it is entirely a plain. In its 
midst is the Mala swamp. The east is forest-clad, poor and 
unhealthy; on the other side of the Mala the land becomes more 
fertile. The chief river is the Sarda, and the Gumti rises in the 
east. The principal crops are rice, pulses, wheat and sugar-cane. 
Sugar-refining is carried on, and sugar, wheat, rice and hemp 
are exported. The Lucknow-Bareilly section of the Oudh & 
Rohilkhand railway runs through the district, a portion of which 
is watered by the Rohilkhand canals. 

PILLAR (6. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pita, 
column), an isolated upright structure, of narrow width in 
relation to its height, which is either employed as a support for a 
superincumbent load of some sort or is set up for commemorative 
or ornamental purposes. In the first sense the word has many 
common applications, as to columns supporting the girders of a 



warehouse floor or the deckbeams of a ship, to the single central 
support or pedestal of a table, machine-tool, &c., and to the masses 
of coal which the miner leaves in certain methods of working 
as supports to the roof (see COAL) ; it is also used figuratively of 
persons in such phrases as a " pillar of the state." In archi- 
tecture it has strictly the second sense. The column erected 
in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria is known as Pompey's 
pillar, and the so-called columns of Trajan and Antoninus are 
in reality pillars, performing no structural function beyond that 
of carrying a statue. In India the only example is the iron 
pillar at Delhi, which is an extraordinary specimen of the iron- 
worker's art considering the remote date at which it was made. 
Up to the middle of the igth century the term " pillar " was 
employed to designate the masses of masonry in a church, which 
carry the arcades, but now the term " pier" is invariably adopted 
in preference. 

PILLAU, a seaport and watering-place of Germany, in the 
Prussian province of East Prussia, on the spit of sand (Nehrung) 
which separates the Frische Haff from the Baltic, on the north 
of the entrance channel, and 29 m. by rail from Konigsberg. 
Pop. (1905), 7374. It is fortified and has a harbour, which serves 
as the outer port of Konigsberg, and to some extent also of Elbing 
and Braunsberg. A new navigable channel was in 1900-1901 
constructed across the Frische Haff from Pillau to Konigsberg. 
Pillau has a school of navigation, and is a well-known pilot 
station. Ship-building, sail-making, fishing and the working 
of amber are carried on. 

Pillau is memorable as the place where Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden landed in 1626. It did not obtain civic privileges until 
1725, but was fortified shortly after that date. In 1807 it offered 
a stout resistance to the French. By a treaty of the 24th of 
February 1812 it was ceded to Napoleon, but on the 6th of 
February in the following year it was restored to Prussia. 

PILLION, a light saddle without pommel or bow, especially 
a pad fastened to the back of an ordinary saddle, as a seat for 
another person, generally a woman. Pillions were also used to 
support baggage. They were in common use from the i6th to 
the 1 8th centuries. The word appears to have been adapted 
into English from the Irish pillin, cushion, formed from Lat. 
pellis, skin. In the sense of a hat worn by a priest or doctor of 
divinity, " pillon " or " pylion " occurs in the isth and i6th 
centuries. This is probably from Lat. pileus, a conical felt hat 
or cap, Gr. mXos. 

PILLNITZ, a village in the kingdom of Saxony, situated on 
the right bank of the Elbe, 5 m. above Dresden. Pop. (1905), 
770. The new palace of the king of Saxony was built in 1818 
on the site of a building which was destroyed by fire. The place 
became a residence of the electors of Saxony about 1 700, and the 
different parts of the palace were erected at various times during 
the i8th century. By the convention of Pillnitz in August 1791 
the emperor Leopold II. and Frederick William II., king of 
Prussia, agreed to take common action against any attack on the 
part of France; this compact may be regarded as the basis of 
the first coalition against that country. 

See A. von Minchwitz, Geschichte von Pillnitz (Dresden, 1893). 

PILLORY (O. Fr. pilori, Prov. espitlori, from Lat. specula- 
lorium, a place of observation or " peep-hole "), an instrument 
of punishment which consisted of a wooden post and frame fixed 
on a platform raised several feet from the ground, behind which 
the culprit stood, his head and his hands being thrust through 
holes in the frame (as are the feet in the stocks) so as to be held 
fast, exposed in front of it. This frame in the more complicated 
forms of the instrument consisted of a perforated iron circle, 
which secured the heads and hands of several persons at the same 
time, but it was commonly capable of holding only one. 

In the statutes of Edward I. it is enacted that every pillory or 
" stretch-neck " should be made of convenient strength so that 
execution might be done on offenders without peril of their 
bodies. It was customary to shave the heads wholly or partially, 
and the beards of men, and to cut off the hair and even in extreme 
cases to shave the heads of female culprits. Some of the offences 
punished in England by the pillory will be found enumerated in 



PILLOW PILOT 



611 



a statute of Henry III. (i 266). By this " Statute of the Pillory " 
it was ordered as the penalty for " forestallers and regrators, 
users of deceitful weights, perjurers and forgers." Stow, describ- 
ing Cornhill pillory, says: " On the top of the cage (a strong 
prison of timber) was placed a pillory for the punishment of 
bakers offending in the assize of bread, for millers stealing corn 
at the mill, for bawds, scolds and other offenders." Until 1637 
the pillory was reserved for such offenders. In that year an 
attack was made on the Press, and the pillory became the recog- 
nized punishment of those who published books without a 
licence or libelled the government. Alexander Leighton, John 
Lilburn, Prynne and Daniel Defoe were among those who 
suffered. These were popular favourites, and their exposures in 
the pillory were converted into public triumphs. Titus Gates, 
however, was put in the pillory- in 1685 and nearly killed. In 
1816 the pillory was abolished except for perjury and suborna- 
tion, and the perjurer Peter James Bossy was the last to stand 
in the pillory at the Old Bailey for one hour on the 22nd of June 
1830. It was finally abolished in 1837 at the end of William 
IV.'s reign. In France the pillory, called car can, was employed 
till 1832. In Germany it was known as pranger. The pillory 
was used in the American colonies, and provisions as to its 
infliction existed in the United States statute books until 1839; 
it survived in the state of Delaware until 1905. 

Finger-pillories were at one time in common use as instru- 
ments of domestic punishment. Two stout pieces of oak, the 
top being hinged to the bottom or fixed piece, formed when 
closed a number of holes sufficiently deep to admit the finger to 
the second joint, holding the hand imprisoned. A finger- 
pillory is preserved in the parish church of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 
Leicestershire, and there is one, still in its original situation 
against the wall, at Littlecote Hall, Wilts. 

PILLOW (O. Eng. pylu; Lat. pidwnus, a cushion), a support for 
the head during sleep or rest. The pillow of Western nations is 
a cushion of linen or other material, stuffed with feathers, down, 
hair or wool. In the East it is a framework made of bamboo 
or rattan with a depression in the top to receive the neck; similarly 
blocks of wood with a concave-shaped top are used by the natives 
of other countries. The word is found in various technical uses 
for a block or support, as for a brass bearing for the journal of a 
shaft, and the like. In architecture the term " pillowed," or 
" pulvinated," is given to the frieze of an order which bulges out 
in the centre and is convex in section. It is found in friezes of 
some of the later works of the Roman school and is common in 
Italian practice. 

PILOCARPINE, C,,H 16 N 2 O 2 , an alkaloid found, together with 
isopilocarpine and other related compounds, in the leaves of 
jaborandi (Pilocarpus pennatifolius) . It was first isolated by E. 
Hardy in 1875 (Ber.,8, p. 1594), and is a crystalline, very hygro- 
scopic solid. It is a strong poison. It has the properties of a 
monacid base and contains the methylamino group, -NCH 3 . 
When heated with hydrochloric acid it gives isopilocarpine. 
Isopilocarpine was isolated in 1900 by H. A. D. Jowett (Journ. 
Ghent. Soc. 77, p. 473), and is a colourless oil which boils at 261 
C. (10 mm.). It is a monacid base which is readily soluble 
in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Jowett is of the opinion 
that pilocarpine and isopilocarpine are stereo-isomers of the 
structure: xjCH-N-CH,C 2 H 6 -CH-CO\ 

NT I >0 

\CH: C CH 2 CH-CH2/ 

PILOfiA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 
between the right bank of the river Pilona, a left-hand tributary 
of the Sella, and the Sierra de Abes (3268 ft.). Pop. (1900), 
18,228. Though officially classed as a town, Pilona is rather a 
densely populated mining and agricultural district. It is served 
by the railway from Infiesto, on the river Pilona, to Oviedo and 
Gijon. 

PILOT, the name applied either to a particular officer serving 
on board a ship during the course of a voyage and having the 
charge of the helm and the ship's route, or to a person taken on 
board at a particular place for the purpose of conducting a ship 
through a river, road or channel, or from or into a port. The 



latter kind is the only one to which the term is now applied 
either in British or foreign countries. The word " pilot " is 
not the early name for the man who guides or steers a ship. 
In Old English the name is Iddntan, i.e. the man who leads the 
way. " Pilot " does not appear in English till the i6th century. 
The origin of the word has been much debated. Many etymolo- 
gists find it in the Dutch pijloot (Hexham's Dictionary, 1658). 
This has been identified with peittood, peil-loth, sounding lead, cf. 
German peilen, to sound; the last part of these words is the same 
as English "lead," the metal; thefirst part, peilen, is for pegelen, 
to mark with pegs or points for measuring, cf. pegel, gauge. The 
New English Dictionary, on the other hand, finds that the Dutch 
piloot, the earlier form, is taken from the French. The source is, 
therefore, to be looked for in Romance languages. Du Cange 
(Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lat.) gives Pedoltae, defined as quorum est 
scire inlrare et exire porlus, a gloss on pedotte e timonieri in F. 
Ubaldini's edition, 1640, of I documenti d'amore by Francesco 
da Barberino (1264-1348). It is therefore conjectured that the 
Italian pUota is a popular conception of pedotta, and a possible 
source may be found in the Greek Trfjdov, oar. 

In England, formerly, pilots were subject to the jurisdiction 
of the lord high admiral; and in the i6th century there are many 
instances of the admiralty court dealing with pilots disciplinarily 
as well as civilly, holding them liable in damages to owners of 
ships lost or damaged by their negligence. For some consider- 
able time throughout the United Kingdom the appointment 
and control of pilots have been in the hands of numerous societies 
or corporations established at the various ports by charter or 
act of Parliament, such as the Trinity Houses of Deptford 
Strond (London), Kingston-upon-Hull, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and 
Leith, and the Society of Cinque Ports Pilots and Court of 
Lodemanage (now extinct). These societies had jurisdiction 
over the pilots exercising their employment within Authorltles _ 
the limits of such ports, and in many cases made it 
compulsory for ships resorting thither to employ them. By 
degrees the London Trinity House acquired a leading position, 
which was confirmed and extended by the general Pilotage Acts 
passed in the i8th and igth centuries, with the object of intro- 
ducing a uniform system throughout the realm. At the present 
day the United Kingdom is divided into districts for the purpose 
of pilotage jurisdiction. The (London) Trinity House has 
jurisdiction over the London district, which extends from 
Orfordness to Dungeness, and comprises the Thames and Med- 
way up to London and Rochester bridges; the English Channel 
district, comprising the sea between Dungeness and the Isle of 
Wight; and the Trinity outport districts, which include any 
pilotage districts for the appointment of pilots within which no 
particular provision is made by act of Parliament or charter, 
and the number of which is 40, all English and Welsh. There are 
66 other districts, within which other pilotage authorities have 
jurisdiction. 

The present general pilotage law is contained in the Merchant 
Shipping Acts 1894 to 1906. Pilotage authorities are defined 
as bodies or persons authorized to appoint or license pilots, or 
to fix and alter rates of pilotage or to exercise any jurisdiction 
in respect of pilotage. They are subject to the control of the 
Board of Trade as the supreme mercantile marine authority. 
Those bodies, however, which existed at the time of the passing 
of the act retain their powers and jurisdiction, so far as is 
consistent with it. The board has power to appoint Law _ 
a new pilotage authority in any area where there is 
none, and to include a new area where there is none within 
an already existing one (but in either case pilotage cannot be 
made compulsory), or to transfer pilotage jurisdiction over 
a port other than that where the pilotage authority for 
that port resides, from that pilotage authority to the 
harbour or other local authority for that port, or to the 
Trinity House, or to a new authority; and the board has all 
powers necessary to effectuate such transfer and constitute 
the new authority. The board may also, by provisional order 
(which requires parliamentary confirmation), provide for the 
representation of pilots or shipowners on the pilotage authority 



612 



PILOT 



of any district, and the exemption of ships from compulsory 
pilotage in any district. Where pilotage is not compulsory, 
and the power of obtaining pilotage licences unrestricted, the 
board can in the same way give the pilotage authority powers 
with respect to licences, amount of pilotage rates, and the like. 
Pilotage authorities may, by by-laws under the act (which 
require confirmation by order in council), exempt wholly or 
partly any ships or classes of ships from compulsory pilotage, 
and regulate the means of obtaining licences, and the amount 
of pilotage rates, subject to a maximum limit. They must 
make yearly returns to the Board of Trade of their by-laws, the 
names, ages and services of their licensed pilots, the rates of 
pilotage, the amounts received for pilotage and their receipts 
and expenditure; and if they fail to do so, the board may 
suspend their authority, which is then exercised by the Trinity 
House. 

The statutes also provide generally for the qualifications of pilots. 
A " qualified " pilot is one duly licensed by a pilotage authority 
to conduct ships to which he does not belong. 
all flea- Q n n j s a pp i n t m ent he receives a licence, which is re- 
gistered with the chief officer of customs at the nearest 
place to the pilot's residence, and must be delivered up by the 
pilot whenever required by the licensing pilotage authority. On 
his death this licence must be returned to that authority. By an 
act of 1906 no pilotage certificate shall be granted to the master 
or mate of a British ship unless he is a British subject; this 
does not, however, refer to the renewal of a certificate granted 
before 1906 to one not a British subject. Pilotage dues are 
recoverable summarily from the owner, master, or consignees of 
the ship, after a written demand for them has been made. A 
pilot may not be taken beyond the limits of his district without his 
consent, and if so taken he is entitled to a fixed daily sum in 
addition to the dues; if he cannot board the ship, and leads her 
from his boat, he is entitled to the same dues as if he were on 
board; and he must be truly informed of the ship's draught of 
water. An unqualified pilot may in any pilotage district take 
charge of a ship without subjecting himself or his employer to any 
penalty, where no qualified pilot has offered himself, or where a 
ship is in distress, or in circumstances where the master must take 
the best assistance he can, or for the purpose of changing the 
moorings of any ship in port on docking or undocking her; but 
after a qualified pilot has offered himself any unqualified pilot 
continuing in charge, or any master continuing him in charge of 
the ship, is liable to a penalty. A qualified pilot may not be 
directly or indirectly interested in licensed premises or in the 
selling of dutiable goods, or in the unnecessary supply of gear 
or stores to a ship for his personal gain or for the gain of any other 
person. He can be punished for quitting a ship before the com- 
pletion of his duty without the consent of the master, refusing or 
delaying to perform his duty without reasonable cause when 
required by lawful authority, lending his licence, acting as pilot 
when suspended or when intoxicated, and any pilot who through 
wilful breach of or neglect of duty, or by reason of his drunken- 
ness, endangers ship, life or limb, is guilty of a misdemeanour 
and liable to suspension or dismissal; but the pilot has an appeal 
in cases of fines over 2, of suspension or dismissal, suspension or 
revocation of his licence, or the application of a pilotage fund to 
which he has contributed. This appeal lies in England to a 
county court judge having jurisdiction over the port where he is 
licensed, or a metropolitan police magistrate or stipendiary magis- 
trate with the like power; in Scotland, to a sheriff; in Ireland, 
to a county court judge, chairman of quarter sessions, recorder, 
or magistrate. Pilotage certificates may also be granted by 
pilotage authorities, available within their districts, to masters 
and mates of ships; and the holder of such a certificate may pilot 
any ship in respect of which it is available without incurring any 
penalty for not employing a qualified pilot. 

The statute further makes special regulation for Trinity House 
pilots. Every such pilot, on his appointment, must execute a 
bond for 100 conditioned for due observance of the Trinity 
House regulations and by-laws, and thereupon he is not liable 
for neglect or want of skill to anybody beyond the penalty of the 



bond and the amount payable to him for pilotage on the voyage 
on which he was engaged at the time of his so becoming liable. 
The licence may be revoked or suspended by the Trinity House 
when it thinks fit; it only continues in force for a year, and the 
Trinity House has absolute discretion whether it shall be renewed 
or not. 

A pilot boat is approved and licensed by the district pilotage 
authority who appoints or removes the master thereof. In order 
to be easily recognized, she has printed on her stern 
in legible white letters the name of her owner and 
her port, and on her bows the number of her licence; 
the remainder of the boat is usually black. The pilot flag is a red 
and white horizontal flag of a comparatively large size, and is 
flown from a conspicuous position. When the flag is flown from 
a merchant vessel, it indicates that a licensed pilot is on board 
or that the master or mate holds a certificate entitling him to 
pilot the ship. By order in council of 1900, on and after the ist 
day of January 1901 the signals for a pilot displayed together or 
separately are: In daytime, there is (i) hoisted at the fore the 
pilot jack (Union Jack having round it a white border, one-fifth 
of the breadth of the flag) ; (2) the international code pilotage 
signal indicated by P.T.; (3) the international code flag S. (white 
with small blue square centre), with or without the code pennant; 
(4) the distant signal consisting of a cone point upwards, having 
above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. By night, (i) the 
pyrotechnic light commonly known as a blue light, every fifteen 
seconds; (2) a bright white light, flashed or shown at short or 
frequent intervals just above the bulwarks, for about a minute 
at a time. 

Pilotage in British waters may be either compulsory or free 
for all or certain classes of ships. From parliamentary pilotage 
returns, it appears that it is compulsory in about 
64 districts of the United Kingdom (of which two- 
thirds are the Trinity House districts), free in 32, free 
and compulsory in 8, while in 3 cases (Berwick, Dingwall and 
Coleraine) no particulars are given. British war-ships in British 
waters are not compelled to employ apilot,the navigating officer 
becoming the pilot under the direction of the captain. If a 
pilot be employed, the captain and navigating officer are 
not relieved from responsibility. They supervise the pilot, 
and should, if necessary, remove him from the ship. In the 
majority of foreign ports British war-ships are exempted from 
employing pilots, but the Suez Canal and the ports of France 
are exceptions. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 continues the 
compulsory employment of pilots in all districts where it was 
already compulsory, and also the already existing exemptions; 
and there is no power in any pilotage authority or the Board of 
Trade to increase the area of compulsory pilotage, though there 
is to diminish it. Compulsion is enforced by a provision in the 
act, that within a district where compulsory pilotage exists, the 
master of an unexempted ship who pilots her himself without 
holding the necessary certificate, after a qualified pilot has offered 
or signalled to take charge of the ship, shall be liable for each 
offence to a fine of double the amount of the pilotage dues 
demandable for the conduct of the ship. The exemptions from 
compulsory pilotage still existing in British territorial waters 
are as follows: Ships or vessels with British registers trading 
to Norway or the Cattegat or the Baltic (except vessels on 
voyages between any port in Sweden or Norway and the port of 
London), 'or round the North Cape, or into the White Sea on 
their inward or outward voyages, whether coming up by North or 
South Channels; any constant British traders inwards from ports 
between Boulogne inclusive and the Baltic coming up by North 
Channel, and any British ships or vessels trading to ports 
between the same limits on their outward passages and when 
coming up by the South Channels; Irish traders using the navi- 
gation of the Thames and Medway; ships engaged in the regular 
coasting trade of the kingdom; ships or vessels wholly laden with 
stone produced in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man and brought 
thence; ships or vessels not exceeding 60 tons, whether British 
or belonging to a foreign country specified by order in council; 
ships within the limits of the port or place to which they belong, if 



PILOT 



613 



this is not a place particularly provided for by act of Parliament 
or charter as regards the appointment of pilots; ships passing 
through the limits of any pilotage district in their voyages from 
one port to another port, and not being bound to any port or 
place within such limits or anchoring therein, but not including 
ships loading or discharging at any place situate within the 
district, or at any place situate above the district on the same 
river or its tributaries. Ships whose masters or mates are owners 
or part-owners of them, and living at Dover, Deal, or the Isle of 
Thanet, may be piloted by them from any of these places up and 
down the Thames or Medway, or into or out of any place or port 
within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports. The following 
ships in the London district and Trinity outport districts are 
also exempt when not carrying passengers, namely: Ships 
employed in the coasting trade of the United Kingdom; ships of 
not more than 60 tons burden; ships trading to or from any port 
in Great Britain within the above districts to or from the port 
of Brest in France, and any port in Europe (which does not 
include the United Kingdom) north and east of Brest, or to the 
Channel Islands or Isle of Man; and ships navigating within the 
limits of the port to which they belong. The port to or from 
which the ship must be " trading " in this provision has been 
interpreted by the decisions to mean the port where the cargo 
is substantially discharged or loaded respectively; and the word 
" coaster'" similarly has been held to apply only to a vessel 
carrying to one port of the United Kingdom a cargo which has 
been taken in at another. Every ship carrying passengers 
between any place in the British Islands and any other place so 
situate must carry a compulsory pilot, unless her master or mate 
have a pilotage certificate. The effect in law of the ship (British 
or foreign) being in charge of a compulsory pilot under the act 
is that her owner and master are not answerable to any person 
whatever for any loss or damage occasioned by the fault or 
incapacity of any qualified pilot acting in charge of such ship 
within any district where the employment of such pilot is com- 
pulsory by law. In order to take advantage of this privilege, 
the shipowner must show (i) that a properly qualified pilot was 
acting in charge of the ship; there are, however, various kinds of 
qualified pilots the qualified pilot who is always capable of acting, 
and the qualified pilot who is liable to be superseded if a better 
can be obtained; (2) that that charge was compulsory; the pilot, 
however, need not be compulsorily employed at the place where 
the accident happened, so long as he is compulsorily employed 
within the district where it happens; (3) that it was solely the 
pilot's fault or incapacity which caused the damage. Similarly, 
under the Harbours, Piers and Docks Clauses Act, the owner of a 
vessel is not liable for damage done thereby to docks or piers 
when she is in charge of a duly licensed pilot. 

This statutory exemption of a ship in charge of a compulsory 
pilot from any liability for her negligent navigation by that 
pilot, is only declaratory of the common law of England, and is 
based on the principle that the pilot is a state official put in 
charge of a ship, and is not the servant of the shipowner so as to 
make him liable for his negligence; and a British court gives the 
same effect to any foreign or colonial (aw which makes it com- 
pulsory on shipowners to put a pilot in charge of their ship when 
within their jurisdiction. Most foreign codes, however, while 
agreeing with English law in making the presence of a pilot on 
board compulsory, differ from it in not putting him in charge of 
the ship; and in this case the defence of compulsory pilotage 
cannot be pleaded successfully in British courts. Judicial 
decisions have established that French, Suez Canal, Danube and 
Dutch pilots are not compulsory pilots in the British sense of the 
word, being only advisers of the master, or " living charts." 
But if the pilot is put in charge by the foreign or colonial law, 
although that law expressly provides that in spite of the owner 
surrendering the charge of the ship to him the owner shall still 
remain liable, a British court will hold the owner free from 
liability, on the ground that to make any person liable for a tort 
committed abroad, the act complained of must be wrongful not 
only according to the foreign law, but also by English law. 
This consequence which English law attaches to the employment 



of a compulsory pilot has been much criticized in recent times, 
and it would seem that the foreign view is much more satisfactory 
in regarding the pilot merely as the adviser and not the superior 
of the master. Moreover, the adoption of the foreign law on this 
point would restore the old general maritime law. The policy 
of the law was at one time inclined to extend this principle of 
compulsory pilotage, on the ground that it was for the benefit of 
commerce and the safety of seamen's lives, but it now restricts 
it within as narrow limits as possible, e.g. the presence of a 
compulsory pilot on board a tow who is directing the navigation 
of a tug does not protect the tug-owner from liability for negligent 
navigation. As already pointed out, pilotage authorities have 
no power to extend its scope. 

A pilot who is compulsorily in charge of a ship under English 
law has supreme control over her navigation, superseding the 
master for the time being; and if she is a tow he has also control of 
the navigation of her tug. The judicial decisions establish that 
it is within his province to decide whether the ship shall get under 
way, the proper time and place for her to anchor, the way of carrying 
her anchor, the proper orders for the helm, her rate of speed, and 
whether the statutory rules of navigation shall be complied with; 
and the master and crew must not interfere with his control, and 
only remain liable for the proper execution of the pilot's orders 
and the trim and general efficiency as to look-out, &c., of the ship. 
The master, however, is bound to supersede the pilot in case of 
his intoxication or manifest incapacity, and to interfere if there 
is a clear and plain prospect of danger to the ship in following the 
pilot's directions, e.g. getting under way in a thick fog. The 
pilot is entitled to receive from the master assistance in having his 
attention called to anything which a competent mariner would 
see that he ought to know. A pilot taken voluntarily, and not by 
compulsion of law, is considered as the servant of the shipowner, 
and as such renders him liable for his acts of negh'gence towards 
third parties. He does not, it seems, supersede the master in 
the control of the ship, but only advises him. The Admiralty 
and the Board of Trade and the Trinity House all take the view 
that the captain or master is bound to keep a vigilant eye on the 
navigation of the vessel by the pilot, and insist on all proper 
precautions being taken. For the purposes of a policy of marine 
insurance a ship is not seaworthy without a pilot in compulsory 
pilotage waters; and where there is no legal compulsion to have 
one, but the locality requires navigation by a person having local 
knowledge, it has been said that a ship must take a pilot, certainly 
when leaving a port, and probably on entering a port if a pilot is 
available. 

A pilot can sue for his pilotage fee at common law or in 
Admiralty (q.v.), in the latter case provided that the contract 
was made and the work done not within the body of a county; 
but he has a "summary remedy by statute which is of easier 
application. He cannot be sued in Admiralty for damage done 
by a collision caused] by his negligence) (e.g. on the Admiralty side 
of a county court having Admiralty jurisdiction) ; but he can be 
made liable at common law or in the Admiralty Division of the 
High Court, although in the case of a Trinity House pilot his 
liability is limited to the amount of his bond and pilotage fee 
then being earned' (see above) ; but the court has refused to join 
him as a defendant to an action in rem brought against the ship 
of which he had the charge. A pilotage authority cannot be 
made liable for the negligent navigation of a ship by a pilot which 
it has licensed, for he is not its servant, though it has been held 
liable for the negligence of a person not licensed by it as a pilot, 
but employed by it for wages to pilot ships into a harbour under 
its jurisdiction, itself taking the pilotage dues and applying them 
for harbour purposes. A pilot is not in common employment 
with the master and crew of a ship, and can recover for any 
injury done him by their negligence. He may be entitled to 
claim salvage from a ship of which he has charge, if the services 
he renders are beyond the scope of his pilotage contract, either 
from the outset or owing to supervening circumstances, but not 
otherwise, whether he is on board her or leading her from his 
boat. (See SALVAGE.) 

In the United States pilotage laws are regulated by the respective 



614 



PILOT-FISHPIMENTO 



states. If the waters are the boundary between two states a 
duly licensed pilot of either state may be employed, but no dis- 
crimination can be made in the rates of pilotage between vessels 
of different states. In the German Empire the pilotage laws 
are very complicated. In the majority of the maritime states 
each one has its own regulations and laws. In Prussia there are 
government pilots who enter the service as apprentices, and are 
placed under a department of state. In France the general organi- 
zation of pilots is regulated by the Statute on Pilots of the I2th 
of December 1806, and the pilotage regulations for each port are 
made by the minister of marine at the request of his local repre- 
sentative and the Chamber of Commerce. French pilots are 
exempt from military service. 

See Abbott, Shipping (London, 1901); Maude and Pollock, 
Shipping (London, 1881) ; Marsden, Collisions at Sea (London, 1910) ; 
Select Pleas of the Admiralty (Selden Society, London, 1892 and 
1897); Temperley, Merchant Shipping Acts (1907); Twiss, Black 
Book of Admiralty (London, 1871). (G. G. P.*; J. W. D.) 

PILOT-FISH (Naucrates ductor), a pelagic fish of the family 
of horse-mackerels or Carangidae, well known to sailors from its 
peculiar habit of keeping company with ships and large fishes, 
especially sharks. It occurs in all tropical and sub-tropical 
seas, and is common in the Mediterranean, but becomes scarcer 
in higher latitudes. In summer pilots will accompany ships 
as far north as the south coast of England into port. This 
habit was known to the ancients, who describe the Pomptius as 




Pilot-fish. 



a fish which points out the way to dubious or embarrassed 
sailors, and by its sudden disappearance indicates to them the 
vicinity of land; the ancient seamen of the Mediterranean re- 
garded it, therefore, as a sacred fish. That the pilot accompanies 
sharks is an observation which first appears in works of travel 
of the 1 7th century, the writers asserting that it is of great use 
to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to 
its food. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the pilot's 
connexion with a shark serves a more special purpose than its 
temporary attachment to a ship. It accompanies both on account 
of the supply of food which it derives from them. The pilot, 
therefore, stands to both in the relation of a so-called " com- 
mensal," like the Echeneis or sucking-fish. All observers, 
however, agree that neither the pilot nor the sucker is ever 
attacked by the shark. The pilot attains to a length of about 
12 in. In the shape of its body it resembles a mackerel, 
but is rather shorter, especially in the head, and covered with 
small scales. A sharp keel runs along the middle of each side of 
the tail. The first dorsal fin consists of a few short spines not 
connected by a membrane; the second dorsal and the anal are 
composed of numerous rays. The teeth, which occupy the jaws, 
vomer and palatine bones, are all small, in villiform bands. 
The coloration of the pilot renders.it conspicuous at a distance; 
on a bluish ground-colour from five to seven dark-blue or violet 
cross-bands traverse the body from the back to the belly. The 
pilot-fish spawns in the open sea, and its fry is constantly caught 
in the tow-net. But young pilot-fish differ considerably from 
the adult, having the spines of the first dorsal connected by a 
membrane, and some bones of the head armed with projecting 
spines. These little fishes were therefore long considered to be a 
distinct genus, Nauclerus. 

PILOTY, KARL VON (1826-1886), German painter, was born 
at Munich, on the ist of October 1826. His father, Ferdinand 
Piloty (d. 1844), enjoyed a great reputa .ion as a lithographer. 
In 1840 he was admitted as a student of the Munich Academy, 
under the artists Schorn and Schnorr. After a journey to 
Belgium, France and England, he commenced work as a painter 
of genre pictures, and in 1853 produced a work, Die Amme 
(" The Wet Nurse "), which, on account of its originality of style, 



caused a considerable sensation in Germany at the time. But 
he soon forsook this branch of painting in favour of historical 
subjects, and produced in 1854 for King Maximilian II. " The 
Adhesion of Maximilian I. to the Catholic League in 1609." 
It was succeeded by " Seni at the Dead Body of Wallenstein " 
(1855), which gained for the young painter the membership of 
the Munich Academy, where he succeeded Schorn (his brother-in- 
law) as professor. Among other well-known works by Piloty 
are the " Battle of the White Mountain near Prague," " Nero 
Dancing upon the Ruins of Rome " (1861), " Godfrey of Bouillon 
on a Pilgrimage to the Holy Land " (1861), " Galileo in Prison " 
(1864), and " The Death of Alexander the Great " (unfinished), 
his last great work. He also executed a number of mural paint- 
ings for the royal palace in Munich. For Baron von Schach he 
painted the justly celebrated " Discovery of America." In 1874 
he was appointed keeper of the Munich Academy, being after- 
wards ennobled by the king of Bavaria. Piloty was the fore- 
most representative of the realistic school in Germany. He was 
a most successful teacher, and among his more famous pupils 
may be mentioned Makart, Lenbach, Defregger, Max and 
Grutzner. He died at Munich on the zist of July 1886. 

PILSEN (Czech, PJzen), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 68 m. 
W.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 68,292, of which 94% 
are Czech. It is the second town of Bohemia, and lies at the 
confluence of the Radbusa and the Mies. It consists of the 
town proper, which is regularly built and surrounded with 
promenades on the site of the old ramparts, and of three suburbs. 
The most prominent buildings are the Gothic church of St 
Bartholomew, said to date from 1292, whose tower (325 ft.) is 
the highest in Bohemia, and the fine Renaissance town hall 
dating from the i6th century. The staple article of manufacture 
and commerce is beer, which is exported to all parts of the world. 
Other industrial products are machinery, enamelled tinware, 
leather, alum, paper, earthenware, stoves and spirits, while a 
tolerably brisk trade is carried on in wool, feathers, cattle and 
horses. In the neighbourhood are several coal-pits, iron-works 
and glass-works, as well as large deposits of kaolin. 

Pilsen first appears in history in 976, as the scene of a battle 
in the war between Prince Boleslaus and the emperor Otto II., 
and it became a town in 1272. During the Hussite wars it was 
the centre of Catholic resistance to the Hussites; it was three 
times unsuccessfully besieged by Prokop the Great, and it took 
part in the league v of the Romanist lords against King George of 
Podebrad. During the Thirty Years' War the town was taken 
by Mansfield in 1618 and not recaptured by the Imperialists till 
1621. Wallenstein made it his winter-quarters in 1633, and it 
was in the great hall of the Rathaus that his generals took the 
oath of fidelity to him (January 1634). The town was unsuccess- 
fully besieged by the Swedes in 1637 and 1648. The first 
Bohemian printing press was established here in 1468. 

PIMA, a tribe and stock of North American Indians. Their 
range was southern Arizona and northern Mexico. The ruined 
Pima village, known to the Spanish as Casa Grande on the south 
bank of the Gila, is an example of their early civilization and skill 
in building. Driven out of their homes by neighbouring tribes, 
they lived a more or less nomadic life. They were always good 
farmers, showing much skill in irrigation. At first submitting 
to the Spaniards, they revolted in 1751, destroying all the 
missions. The war lasted two years, but since then the Pima 
Indians have been friendly with the settlers. As a race they are 
brave, honest and hard working. They number some 5000 on 
two reservations in Arizona. The Piman stock includes such 
tribes as the Papago, Huichol, Opata, Tarumari, and numbers 
upwards of a hundred thousand. 

PIMENTO, also called ALLSPICE (from a supposed combination 
of various flavours) and JAMAICA PEPPER, the dried immature 
fruit of Eugenia pimento, or Pimenta officinalis, an evergreen tree 
about 30 ft. high, belonging to the natural order Myrtaceae. 
It is indigenous in the West India Islands, growing on limestone 
hills near the sea, and is especially grown in Jamaica. The spice 
derives its name from the Portuguese pimenta, Spanish pimienta, 
pepper, which was given to it from its resemblance to 



PIN PINA, RUY DE 



615 



pepper-corns. The berries are gathered in July and August , when 
of full size, but still unripe the small branches bearing fruit being 
broken off and dried in the sun and air for some days, when the 
stalks are removed and the berries are ready for packing. These 
owe their aromatic properties to an essential oil present to the 
extent of 3 to 43% and consisting largely of eugenol or allyl 
guaiacol, HCKCHsOJCeHs-CaHs. The chief use of pimento is as 
a spice. The oil, the action of which resembles that of cloves, 
is occasionally used in medicine, and is also employed in perfum- 
ing soaps. The " bay rum " used as a toilet article is a tincture 
scented with the oil of the leaves of an allied species, Pimenta 
acris, commonly known as the bayberry tree. 

PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, 
which is said to contain the same root as TUTUJ, pine tree, 
and properly to mean a sharp point or end), a small peg or bolt 
of metal or wood, not necessarily pointed, employed as a fasten- 
ing to connect together different parts of an article, as a stop to 
limit the motion of some moving piece in a machine, as a support 
on which a small wheel may turn, &c., but most commonly a 
small metal spike, used for fastening portions of fabrics together, 
having one end pointed and at the other a bulbed head, or some 
other arrangement for preventing the spike from passing entirely 
through the cloth or other material with which it is employed. 
In one form or another pins of this last kind are of the highest 
antiquity, the earliest form doubtless being a natural thorn. 
Pins of bronze, and bronze brooches in which the pin is'the essen- 
tial feature, are of common occurrence among the remains of the 
bronze age. The ordinary domestic pin had become in the isth 
century an article of sufficient importance in England to warrant 
legislative notice, as in 1483 the importation of pins was prohibited 
by statute. In 1540 Queen Catherine received pins from 
France, and again in 1543 an act was passed providing that " no 
person shall put to sale any pinnes but only such as shall be double 
headed, and have the heads soldered fast to the shank of the 
pinnes, well smoothed, the shank well shapen, the points well 
and round filed, canted and sharpened." At that time pins 
of good quality were made of brass; but a large proportion of 
those against which the legislative enactment was directed were 
made of iron wire blanched and passed as brass pins. To a large 
extent the supply of pins in England was received from France 
till about 1626, in which year the manufacture was introduced 
into Gloucestershire by John Tilsby. His business flourished so 
well that he soon gave employment to 1500 persons, and Stroud 
pins attained a high reputation. In 1636 the pinmakers of 
London formed a corporation, and the manufacture was subse- 
quently established at Bristol and Birmingham, the latter town 
ultimately becoming the principal centre of the industry. So 
early as 1775 the attention of the enterprising colonists in Caro- 
lina was drawn to the manufacture by the offer of prizes for the 
first native-made pins and needles. At a later date several 
pin-making machines were invented in the United States. 
During the war of 1812, when the price of pins rose enormously, 
the manufacture was actually started, but the industry was not 
fairly successful till about the year 1836 when the Howe Manu- 
facturing Company was formed at Birmingham, Connecticut. 
Previous to this an American, Lemuel W. Wright, had in 1824 
secured in England a patent for a machine to make solid-headed 
pins, which established the industry on its present basis. 

The old form of pin consisted of a shank with a separate head of 
fine wire twisted round and secured to it. Fine wire for heads was 
first wound on a lathe round a spit the exact circumference of the 
pin shanks to be headed. In this way a long elastic spiral was 
produced which had next to be cut into heads, each consisting 
of two complete turns of the spiral. These heads were softened 
by annealing and made into a heap for the heading boy, whose 
duty was to thrust a number of shanks into the heap and let as 
many as might be fit themselves with heads. Such shanks as came 
out thus headed were passed to the header, who with a falling block 
and die arrangement compressed together shank and head of such 
a number as his die-block was fitted for. All the other operations 
of straightening the wire, cutting, pointing, &c., were separately 
performed, and these numerous details connected with the pro- 
duction of a common pin were seized on by Adam Smith as one of 
the most remarkable illustrations of the advantages of the division 
of labour. 



The beautiful automatic machinery by which pins are now made 
of single pieces of wire is an invention of the igth century. In 
1817 a communication was made at the Patent Office by Seth Hunt, 
describing a machine for making pins with " head, shaft and point 
in one entire piece." By this machine a suitable length of wire 
was cut off and held in a die till a globular head was formed on one 
end by compression, and the other end was pointed by the revolu- 
tion around it of a roughened steel wheel. This machine does not 
appear to have come into use; but in 1824 Wright patented the 
pin-making apparatus above referred to as the parent form of the 
machinery now employed. A factory equipped with his machines 
was established in London, but the company which owned it was 
not successful. The plant passed into the hands of Daniel Foote- 
Tayler of Birmingham, who obtained an extension of Wright's 
patent for five years from 1838, and his firm was the first to carry 
on the production of machine-made solid-headed pins on a com- 
mercial basis. In a modern pin- making machine wire of suitable 
gauge running off a reel is drawn in and straightened by passing 
between straightening pins or studs set in a table. When a pin 
length has entered it is caught by lateral jaws, beyond which enough 
of the end projects to form a pin-head. Against this end a steel 
punch advances and compresses the metal by a die arrangement 
into the form of a head. The pin length is immediately cut off 
and the headed piece drops into a slit' sufficiently wide to pass the 
wire through but retain the head. The pins are consequently 
suspended by the head while their projecting extremities are held 
against a revolving cutter, by which they are pointed. They are 
next cleaned by being boiled in weak beer, and then arranged in 
a copper pan in layers alternating with layers of grained tin. The 
contents of the pan are covered with water over which a quantity 
of argol (bitartrate of potash) is sprinkled, and after boiling for 
several hours the brass pins are coated with a thin deposit of tin, 
which gives them their silvery appearance. They are then washed 
in clean water, and dried and polished by being revolved in a barrel, 
mixed with dry bran or fine sawdust, from which they are winnowed 
finished pins. A large proportion of the pins sold are stuck into 
paper by an automatic machine not less ingenious than the pin- 
making machine itself. Mourning pins are made of iron wire, 
finished by immersing in black japan and drying in a stove. A 
considerable variety of pins, including the ingeniously coiled, 
bent and twisted nursery safety pin, ladies' hairpins, &c., are also 
made by automatic machinery. The sizes of ordinary pins range 
from the 3J-in. stout blanket pin down to the finest slender gilt 
pin used by entomologists, 4500 of which weigh about an ounce. 

PINA, RUY DE (1440-1521), Portuguese chronicler, was a 
native of Guarda. He acted as secretary of the embassy sent 
by King John II. to Castile in the spring of 1482, and in the 
following September returned there as sole envoy. He was 
present at the execution of the duke of Braganza at Evora in 
1483, and in 1484 went to Rome as secretary of an embassy to 
Pope Innocent VII. On his return, the king charged him to 
write a history of his reign and gave him a pension for his 
support. Following the arrival of Columbus from his first 
voyage in 1493, Pina was one of the commissaries despatched to 
Barcelona by John II. to negotiate with the Catholic sovereigns 
respecting the limits of their] respective jurisdictions. In 
September 1495 he attested the will of John II. in his capacity as 
a notary public, and on the 25th of October of the same year he 
was present at his master's death at Alvor and opened and read 
his testament. King Manoel confirmed his pension and appointed 
him in 1497 chronicler of the kingdom, keeper of the archives 
and royal librarian, with a suitable salary. By 1504 Pina had 
completed his chronicles of Alphonso V. and John II. King 
John III. charged him with a history of his father, Manoel, and 
at his death Pina had carried it down to the capture of Azamor, as 
we know from Damiao de Goes, who used it in preparing his own 
chronicle of that monarch. 

It is probable that the chronicles of the early kings of Portugal 
from Sancho I. to Alphonso IV. which were published under 
Pina's name in the i8th century were written by Fernao Lopes 
and edited by Pina, while that of King Duarte seems to have 
been the joint production of Lopes and Azurara, with Pina again 
as the editor only. Pina was a favourite of fortune during his 
life, for, apart from royal benefactions, he received presents from 
public men who wished to figure well in his books, and after his 
death he obtained the credit for work that was not his. His 
authority as an historian is considerable, and his frankness is 
said to have provoked remark from contemporaries. 

Pina's chronicle of King Alphonso IV. was first published in 
Lisbon in 1853; those of King Duarte and King Alphonso V. in 
vol. i. of the Collecao de livros ineditos da historia portugueza 



6i6 



PINACOTHECA PINCKNEY, C. C. 



(Lisbon, 1790), and his chronicle of John II. in vol. ii. of the same 
collection (Lisbon, 1792)- The introduction to the chronicle of 
King Duarte contains the fullest account of Pina's life. (fc.. rR.; 

PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery (Gr. mvaxodriKri, from irLva.% , 
a tablet or picture). The name is especially given to the building 
containing pictures which formed the left wing of the Propylaea 
on the Acropolis at Athens. Though Pausanias (Bk. II., xxii. 6) 
speaks of the pictures " which time had not effaced," which 
seems to point to fresco painting, the fact that there is no trace 
of any preparation for stucco on the walls rather shows that the 
paintings were easel pictures (J. G. Frazer, Pausanias's Descrip- 
tion of Greece, 1898, ii. 252). The Romans adopted the term 
for the room in a private house containing pictures, statues, 
and other works of art. It is used for a public gallery on the 
continent of Europe, as at Bologna and Turin. At Munich there 
are two galleries known as the Old and New Pinakothek. 

PINAR DEL RIO, capital of Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, 
about 107 m. S.W. by railway from Havana. Pop. (190?), 
10,634. The city is in the fertile valley of the Guama. It is the 
centre of the tobacco industry of the Vuelta Abajo region. Its 
port is La Coloma, on the southern coast. The pueblo was 
created after 1773; but the history of the settlement goes back 
to 1571, and the parochial church dates from 1710. 

PINCKNEY, CHARLES (1757-1824), American statesman, 
was born on the 26th of October 1757 at Charleston, South 
Carolina; he was the son of Charles Pinckney (1731-1784), first 
president of the first South Carolina Provincial Congress (Jan. 
to June 1775), and a cousin of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and 
Thomas Pinckney. He was studying law at the outbreak of 
the War of Independence, served in the early campaigns in the 
South, and in 1779 was elected to the South Carolina House of 
Representatives. He was captured by the British at the fall 
of Charleston (1780), and remained a prisoner until the close 
of hostilities. He was elected a delegate to the Congress of the 
Confederation in 1784, 1785 and 1786, and in 1786 he moved 
the appointment of a committee " to take into consideration 
the affairs of the nation," advocating in this connexion an en- 
largement of the powers of Congress. The committee having 
been appointed, Pinckney was made chairman of a sub-commit- 
tee which prepared a plan for amending the articles of confedera- 
tion. In 1787 he was a delegate to the Federal constitutional 
convention, and on the same day (May 29) on which Edmund 
Randolph (g.v.) presented what is known as the Virginia plan, 
Pinckney presented a draft of a constitution which is known as 
the Pinckney plan. Although the Randolph resolutions were 
made the basis on which the new constitution was framed, 
Pinckney's plan seems to have been much drawn upon. 
Furthermore, Pinckney appears to have made valuable sugges- 
tions regarding phrasing and matters of detail. On the i8th of 
August he introduced a series of resolutions, and to him should 
probably be accredited the authorship of the substance of some 
thirty-one or thirty-two provisions of the constitution. 1 Pinck- 

1 The " Pinckney Plan " has been the subject of considerable 
discussion. When, in 1818, John Quincy Adams was preparing 
the journal of the convention for publication and discovered that 
the Pinckney plan was missing, he wrote to Pinckney for a copy, 
and Pinckney sent him what he asserted was either a copy of his 
original draft or a copy of a draft which differed from the original 
in no essentials. But as this was found to bear a close resemblance 
to the draft reported by the committee of detail, Madison and others, 
who had been members of the convention, as well as historians, 
treated it as spurious, and for years Pinckney received little credit 
for his work in the convention. Later historians, however, notably 
J. Franklin Jameson and Andrew C. McLaughlin, have accredited 
to him the suggestion of a number of provisions of the constitution 
as a result of their efforts to reconstruct his original plan chiefly 
from his speeches, or alleged speeches, and from certain papers 
of James Wilson, a member of the committee of detail, one of 
which papers is believed to be an outline of the Pinckney plan. 
See J. F. Jameson, " Studies in the History of the Federal Con- 
vention of 1787," in the Annual Report of the American Historical 
Association for 1902, vol. i.; A. C. McLaughlin, " Outline of Pinck- 
ney's Plan for a Constitution," in The Nation, April 28, 1904; an 
article entitled " Sketch of Pinckney's Plan for a Constitution," 
in the American Historical Review for July 1904; and C. C. Nott, 
The Mystery of the Pinckney Draught (New York, 1908), an attempt 
by a former chief-justice of the U.S. Court of Claims to prove that 



ney was president of the State Convention of 1790 that framed 
a new constitution for South Carolina, was governor of the 
statefrom 1789101792,3 member of the state House of Represen- 
tatives in 1792-1796, and again governor from 1796 to 1798. 
From 1799 to 1801 he was a member of the United States 
Senate. He entered public life as a Federalist, but later became 
the leader in organizing the Democratic-Republican party in 
his state, and contributed largely to the success of Thomas 
Jefferson in the presidential election of 1800. By Jefferson's 
appointment he was American minister to Spain from 1801 to 
1805. In general his mission was a distinct failure, his arrogance 
and indiscretions finally causing the Spanish government to 
request his recall. He was elected to the state House of Repre- 
sentatives in 1805, was again governor of South Carolina from 
1806 to 1808, in 1810-1814 was once more a member of the 
state House of Representatives, in which he defended President 
Madison's war policy, and from 1819 to 1821 was a member of 
the National House of Representatives, in which he opposed 
the Missouri Compromise in a brilliant speech. He died at 
Charleston, South Carolina, on the 29th of October 1824. 

His son, HENRY LAURENS PINCKNEY (1794-1863), was a mem- 
ber of the state House of Representatives in 1816-1832, founded 
in 1819 and edited for fifteen years the Charleston Mercury, 
the great exponent of state's rights principles, and was a member 
of the National House of Representatives in 1833-1837. 

PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTESWORTH (1746-1825), Ameri- 
can statesman, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 
25th of February 1746, the son of Charles Pinckney (d. 1758)," 
by his second wife, the celebrated girl planter, Eliza Lucas. 
When a child he was sent to England, like his brother Thomas 
after him, to be educated. Both of them were at Westminster 
and Oxford and were called to the bar, and for a time they 
studied in France at the Royal Military College at Caen. Return- 
ing to America in 1769, C. C. Pinckney began the practice of 
law at Charleston, and soon became deputy attorney-general of 
the province. He was a member of the first South Carolina 
provincial congress in 1775, served as colonel in the South 
Carolina militia in 1776-1777, was chosen president of the 
South Carolina Senate in 1779, took part in the Georgia expedi- 
tion and the attack on Savannah in the same year, was captured 
at the fall of Charleston in 1780 and was kept in close confine- 
ment until 1782, when he was exchanged. In 1783 he was 
commissioned a brevet brigadier-general in the continental 
army. He was an influential member of the constitutional 
convention of 1787, advocating the counting of all slaves as a 
basis of representation and opposing the abolition of the slave- 
trade. He opposed as " impracticable " the election of represen- 
tatives by popular vote, and also opposed the payment of 
senators, who, he thought, should be men of wealth. Subse- 
quently Pinckney bore a prominent part in securing the ratifica- 
tion of the Federal constitution in the South Carolina convention 
called for that purpose in 1788 and in framing the South Carolina 
State Constitution in the convention of 1790. After the 
organization of the Federal government, President Washington 
offered him at different times appointments as associate justice of 
the Supreme Court (1791), secretary of war (1795) and secretary 
the document sent by Pinckney to Adams in 1818 is a genuine 
copy of his original plan. 

2 Charles Pinckney, the father, was long prominent in colonial 
affairs; he was attorney-general of the province in 1733, speaker of 
the assembly in 1736-1738 and in 1740, chief justice of the province 
in 1752-1753, and agent for South Carolina in England in 1753- 
1758. He was the uncle of Charles Pinckney (1731-1784), and the 
great-uncle of Charles Pinckney (1757-1824). Eliza Lucas Pinckney 
(c. 1722-1793) was the. daughter of Lieut. -Colonel George Lucas 
of the British army, who about 1738 removed from Antigua to 
South Carolina, where he acquired several plantations. He was 
almost immediately recalled to Antigua, and his daughter under- 
took the management of the plantations with conspicuous success. 
She is said to have been the first to introduce into South Carolina 
(and into continental North America) the cultivation and manu- 
facture of indigo, and she also imported silkworms ;in 1753 she 
presented to the princess of Wales a dress made of silk from her 
plantations. She was married to Charles Pinckney in 1744. See 
Harriott H. Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney (New York, 1896), in the 
" Women of Colonial and Revolutionary Times " series. 



PINCKNEY, T. PINDAR 



617 



of state (1795), each of which he declined; but in 1796 he suc- 
ceeded James Monroe as minister to France. The Directory 
refused to receive him, and he retired to Holland, but in the next 
year, Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall having been appointed 
to act with him, he again repaired to Paris, where he is said to 
have made the famous reply to a veiled demand for a " loan " 
(in reality for a gift), " Millions for defence, but not one cent 
for tribute," another version is, " No, not a sixpence." The 
mission accomplished nothing, and Pinckney and Marshall left 
France in disgust, Gerry (q.v.) remaining. When the correspon- 
dence of the commissioners was sent to the United States 
Congress the letters " X," " Y " and " Z," were inserted in 
place of the names of the French agents with whom the com- 
mission treated hence the " X Y Z Correspondence," famous 
in American history. In 1800 he was the Federalist candidate 
for vice-president, and in 1804 and again in 1808 for president, 
receiving 14 electoral votes in the former and 47 in the latter 
year. From 1805 until his death, on the i6th of August 1825, 
he was president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati. 

PINCKNEY, THOMAS (1750-1828), American statesman and 
diplomat, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd 
of October 1750, a younger brother of Charles Cotesworth 
Pinckney (q.v.). Educated in England, he returned to Charles- 
ton in 1773, and was admitted to the bar in 1774. During the 
War of Independence his early training at the French military 
college at Caen enabled him to render effective service to General 
Benjamin Lincoln in 1778-1779, to Count d'Estaing (1779), to 
General Lincoln in the defence of Charleston and afterwards 
to General Horatio Gates. In the battle of Camden he was 
badly wounded and captured, remaining a prisoner for more 
than a year. Subsequently he was governor of South Carolina 
in 17871789; presided over the state convention which ratified 
the Federal constitution in 1788; was a member of the state 
legislature in 1791; and was United States minister to Great 
Britain in 1792-1796. During part of this time (1794-1795) he 
was also envoy extraordinary to Spain, and in this capacity nego- 
tiated (1795) the important Treaty of San Lorenzo el Real; by 
that treaty the boundary between the United States and East and 
West Florida and between the United States and " Louisiana " 
was settled (Spain relinquishing all claims east of the Mississippi 
above 31 N. lat.), and the United States secured the freedom 
of navigation of the Mississippi to its mouth with the right of 
deposit at New Orleans for three years, after which the United 
States was to have the same right either at New Orleans or at 
some other place on the Mississippi to be designated by Spain. 
In 1796 Pinckney was the Federalist candidate for vice-president, 
and in 1797-1801 he was a Federalist representative in Congress. 
During the War of 1812 he was a major-general. In 1825 he 
succeeded his brother as president-general of the Society of the 
Cincinnati. He died in Charleston on the 2nd of November 
1828. Pinckney, like many other South Carolina revolutionary 
leaders, was of aristocratic birth and politics, closely connected 
with England by ties of blood, education and business relations. 
This renders the more remarkable their attitude in the War 
of Independence, for which they made great sacrifices. Men 
of Pinckney's type were not in sympathy with the progressive 
democratic spirit of America, and they began to withdraw from 
politics after about 1800. 

See C. C. Pinckney, Life of General Thomas Pinckney (Boston, 
1895). 

PINDAR (Or. Ulvdapos, c. 522-443 B.C.), the great lyric 
poet of ancient Greece, was born at Cynoscephalae, in Boeotia, 
at the time of the Pythian games {Jr. 175, Bergk 4 , 193)^ which 
is taken by Bockh to be 522 B.C. He would thus be some 
thirty-four years younger than Simonides of Ceos. He was the 
son of Daiphantus and Cleodice (or Cleidice). The traditions 
of his family have left their impress on his poetry, and are not 
without importance for a correct estimate of his relation to his 
contemporaries. The clan of the Aegidae tracing their line 
from the hero Aegeus belonged to the " Cadmean " element 

1 The references are to the edition of Pindar by C. A. M. Fennell 
(1893-1899), and the fourth edition of Bergk's Poelae lyrici graeci. 



of Thebes, i.e. to the elder nobility whose supposed date went 
back to the days of the founder Cadmus. A branch of the 
Theban Aegidae had been settled in Achaean times at Amyclae 
in the valley of the Eurotas (Find. Isthm. vi. 14), and after 
the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus had apparently been 
adopted by the Spartans into one of the three Dorian tribes. 
The Spartan Aegidae helped to colonize the island of Thera 
(Pyth, v. 68-70). Another branch of the race was settled at 
Cyrene in Africa; and Pindar tells how his Aegid clansmen at 
Thebes " showed honour " to Cyrene as often as they kept the 
festival of the Carnea (Pyth. v. 75). Pindar is to be conceived, 
then, as standing within the circle of those families for whom the 
heroic myths were domestic records. He had a personal link 
with the memories which everywhere were most cherished by 
Dorians, no less than with those which appealed to men of 
" Cadmean " or of Achaean stock. And the wide ramifications 
of the Aegidae throughout Hellas rendered it peculiarly fitting 
that a member of that illustrious clan should celebrate the glories 
of many cities in verse which was truly Panhellenic. 

Pindar is said to have received lessons in flute-playing from 
one Scopelinus at Thebes, and afterwards to have studied at 
Athens under the musicians Apollodorus (or Agathocles) and 
Lasus of Hermione. In his youth, as the story went, he was 
defeated in a poetical contest by the Theban Corinna who, 
in reference to his profuse employment of Theban mythology,. 
is said to have advised him " to sow with the hand, not with the 
sack." There is an extant fragment in which Corinna reproves 
another Theban poetess, Myrtis, " for that she, a woman, 
contended with Pindar " (ort j3ava <oD<r' tfla Hiv5a.poio iror' tpu>) 
a sentiment which hardly fits the story of Corinna's own 
victory. The facts that stand out from these meagre traditions 
are that Pindar was precocious and laborious. Preparatory 
labour of a somewhat severe and complex kind was, indeed r 
indispensable for the Greek lyric poet of that age. Lyric com- 
position demanded studies not only in metre but in music, and! 
in the adaptation of both to the intricate movements of the 
choral dance (opxijort/o?). Several passages in Pindar's extant 
odes glance at the long technical development of Greek lyric 
poetry before his time, and at the various elements of art which 
the lyrist was required to temper into a harmonious whole 
(see, e.g. Ol. iii. 8, vi. 91, xiii. 18, xiv. 15; Pyth. xii. 23, &c.). 
The earliest ode which can be dated (Pyth. x.) belongs to the 
twentieth year of Pindar's age (502 B.C.) ; the latest (Olymp. v.) 
to the seventieth (452 B.C.). 2 He visited the court of Hiero at 
Syracuse; Theron, the despot of Acragas, also entertained him; 
and his travels perhaps included Cyrene. Tradition notices 
the special closeness of his relations with Delphi: "He was 
greatly honoured by all the Greeks, because he was so beloved 
of Apollo that he even received a share of the offerings; and at 
the sacrifices the priest would cry aloud that Pindar come in 
to the feast of the god." 3 His wife's name was Megacleia 
(another account says Timoxena, but this may have been a 
second wife), and he had a son named Daiphantus and two 
daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. He is said to have died 
at Argos, at the age of seventy-nine, in 443 B.C. 

Among the Greeks of his own and later times Pindar was. 
pre-eminently distinguished for his piety towards the gods. 
He tells us that, " near to the vestibule " of his house (Pyth. iii. 
78), choruses of maidens used to dance and sing by night in 
praise of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele) and Pan deities 
peculiarly associated with the Phrygian music of the flute, in 
which other members of Pindar's family besides the poet himself 
are said to have excelled. A statue and shrine of Cybele, which 
he dedicated at Thebes, were the work of the Theban artists, 
Aristomedes and Socrates. He also dedicated at Thebes a 
statue to Hermes Agoraios, and another, by Calamis, to Zeus 
Ammon. The latter god claimed his especial veneration because 
Cyrene, one of the homes of his Aegid ancestry, stood " where 
Zeus Ammon hath his seat," i.e. near the oasis and temple 

2 According to others, his latest poem is the eighth Pythian, 
ode, 450 or 446. 

3 HivS&pov y&os, in ed. Aid. 



6i8 



PINDAR 



(Pyth. iv. 16). The author of one of the Greek lives of Pindar 
says that, " when Pausanias the king of the Lacedaemonians 
was burning Thebes, some one wrote on Pindar's house, ' Burn 
not the house of Pindar the poet '; and thus it alone escaped 
destruction." This incident, of which the occasion is not further 
denned, has been regarded as a later invention. 1 Better 
attested, at least, is the similar clemency of Alexander the Great, 
when he sacked Thebes one hundred and eight years after the 
traditional date of Pindar's death (335 B.C.). He spared only 

(1) the Cadmeia, or citadel, of Thebes (thenceforth to be occupied 
by a Macedonian garrison); (2) the temples and holy places; and 
(3) Pindar's house. While the inhabitants were sold into 
slavery, exception was made only of (i) priests and priestesses; 

(2) persons who had been connected by private evia with 
Philip or Alexander, or by public evia with the Macedonians; 

(3) Pindar's descendants. It is probable enough, as Dio Chry- 
sostom suggests (ii. 33), that Alexander was partly moved by 
personal gratitude to a poet who had celebrated his ancestor 
Alexander I. of Macedon. But he must have been also, or 
chiefly, influenced by the sacredness which in the eyes of all 
Hellenes surrounded Pindar's memory, not only as that of a 
great national poet, but also as that of a man who had stood 
in a specially close relation to the gods, and, above all, to the 
Delphian Apollo. 2 Upwards of six hundred years after Pindar's 
death the traveller Pausanias saw an iron chair which was 
preserved among the most precious treasures of the temple in 
the sanctuary at Delphi. It was the chair, he was told, " in 
which Pindar used to sit, whenever he came to Delphi, and to 
chant those of his songs which pertain to Apollo " (x. 24, 5). 

During the second half of Pindar's life, Athens was rising 
to that supremacy in literature and art which was to prove more 
lasting than her political primacy. Pindar did not live to see 
the Parthenon, or to witness the mature triumphs of Sophocles; 
but he knew the sculpture of Calamis, and he may have known 
the masterpieces of Aeschylus. It is interesting to note the 
feeling of this great Theban poet, who stands midway between 
Homeric epos and Athenian drama, towards the Athens of which 
Thebes was so often the bitterest foe, but with which he himself 
had so large a measure of spiritual kinship. A few words remain 
from a dithyramb in which he paid a glowing tribute to those 
" sons of Athens " who " laid the shining foundations of free- 
dom " (ircuSes 'kOavaiuv kfiaiKovro 4>a.tvva.v Kprfjnd' tXeufleptaj, 
fr. 55, Bergk 4 , 77), while Athens itself is thus invoked: 
d> rat Xurapcu /ecu loareQavoi Kal aoiSifj.oi, 'EXXdSoj tptiana, KXeucu 
'A6avai, ba.Lfjavi.ov irTo\Ledpov (fr. 54, Bergk 4 , 76). Isocrates, 
writing in 353 B.C., states that the phrase 'EXXctSos tptiana, 
" stay of Hellas," so greatly gratified the Athenians that they 
conferred on Pindar the high distinction of irpofcvia (i.e. 
appointed him honorary consul, as it were for Athens at Thebes) , 
besides presenting him with a large sum of money (Antidosis, 
1 66). One of the letters of the pseudo-Aeschines (Ep. iv.) gives 
an improbable turn to the story by saying that the Thebans 
had fined Pindar for his praise of Athena, and that the Athenians 
repaid him twice the sum. 3 The notice preserved by Isocrates 
less than one hundred years after Pindar's death is good 
warrant for the belief that Pindar had received some exceptional 
honours from Athens. Pausanias saw a statue of Pindar at 
Athens, near the temple of Ares (i. 8, 4). Besides the fragment 
just mentioned, several passages in Pindar's extant odes bespeak 
his love for Athens. Its name is almost always joined by him 
with some epithet of praise or reverence. In alluding to the 
great battles of the Persian wars, while he gives the glory of 
Plataea to the Spartans, he assigns that of Salamis to the 
Athenians (Pyth. i. 76). In celebrating (Pyth. vii.) the Pythian 

1 A. Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit. iii. 1 19. 

1 It will be remarked that history requires us to modify the state- 
ment in Milton's famous lines: 

" The great Emathian conqueror bade spare 
The house of Pindarus, when temple and tower- 
Went to the ground." 

Indeed, the point of the incident depends much on the fact that the 
temples and Pindar's house were classed together for exemption. 

* Compare Jebb, Attic Orators, ii. 143. 



victory of the Athenian Megacles, he begins thus: " Fairest of 
preludes is the renown of Athens for the mighty race of the 
Alcmaeonidae. What home, or what house, could I call mine 
by a name that should sound more glorious for Hellas to hear ?" 
Referring to the fact that an Aeginetan victor in the games had 
been trained by an Athenian, he says (Nem. v. 49) " meet it is 
that a shaper of athletes should come from Athens"- and 
recollecting how often Pindar compares the poet's efforts to the 
athlete's, we may well believe that he was thinking of his own 
early training at Athens. 

Pindar's versatility as a lyric poet is one of the characteristics 
remarked by Horace (Odes, iv. 2), and is proved by the fragments, 
though the poems which have come down entire , 
represent only one class of compositions the 
Epinicia, or odes of victory, commemorating successes in the 
great games. The lyric types to which the fragments belong, 
though it cannot be assumed that the list is complete, are at 
least numerous and varied. 

(i) "TMWI, Hymns to deities as to Zeus Ammon, to Persephone, 
to Fortune. The fragmentary viu>os entitled Grj/Jauns seems to 
have celebrated the deities of Thebes. (2) naiows, p r , fmeat . 
paeans, expressing prayer or praise for the help of 
a protecting god, especially Apollo, Artemis or Zeus. (3) 
Ai0i>pOM/3oi, Dithyrambs, odes of a lofty and impassioned strain, 
sung by choruses in honour of Dionysus (cf. Pind. Ol. xiii. 18, 
roi Aion^xrou iroStv lc<t>avev avv /SoTjXciTp XdpiT biOvpa.ti.fiif where 
Pindar alludes to the choral form given to the dithyramb, 
c. 6po B.C., by Arion /SoTjXdrijs, " ox-driving," perhaps meaning 
" winning an ox as prize "). (4) Hpotro&ia, Processional Songs, 
choral chants for worshippers approaching a shrine. One was 
written by Pindar for the Delians, another for the Aeginetans. 
(5) QapBcvia, Choral Songs for Maidens.' The reference in Pyth. 
iii. 78 to maidens worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poet's 
house is illustrated by the fact that one of these Uap6fvia invoked 
" Pan, lord of Arcadia, attendant of the Great Mother, watcher of 
her awful shrine" (fr. 72, Bergk 4 , 95). (6) TiropxiiMoro, Choral 
Dance-Songs, adapted to a lively movement, used from an early 
date in the cult of Apollo, and afterwards in that of other gods, 
especially Dionysus. To this class belongs one of the finest frag- 
ments (84, Bergk 4 , 107), written for the Thebans in connexion with 
propitiatory rites after an eclipse of the sun, probably that of 
the 30th of April 463 B.C. (7) 'Etnuiua., Songs of Praise (for men, 
while vfivoi were for gods), to be sung by a KU>IKK or festal company. 
In strictness lyii&imov was the genus of which kiriv'uuov was a 
species; but the latter is more conveniently treated as a distinct 
kind. Pindar wrote encomia for Theron, despot of Acragas, and 
for Alexander I. (son of Amyntas), king of Macedon. (8) 2x6X10, 
Festal Songs. The usual sense of an6\u>v is a drinking-song, taken 
up by one guest after another at a banquet. But Pindar's <7it6Xio 
were choral and antistrophic. One was to be sung at Corinth by 
a chorus of the ZtpASouXoi attached to the temple of Aphrodite 
Ourania, when a certain Xenophon offered sacrifice before going to 
compete at Olympia. Another brilliant fragment, for Theoxenus 
of Tenedos, has an erotic character. (9) Opflroi, Dirges, to be sung 
with choral dance and the music of the flute, either at the burial 
of the dead or in commemorative rituals. Some of the most 
beautiful fragments belong to this class (106-110, Bergk 4 , 129-133). 
One of the smaller fragments (114, Bergk 4 , 137) in memory of an 
Athenian who had been initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries 
(l&wv Ktiva) has been conjecturally referred to the Q/nji>os which 
Pindar is. said to have written (schol. Pyth. vii. 18) for Hippocrates, 
the grandfather of Pericles. A number of small fragments, which 
cannot be certainly classified, are usually given as A.&ri\wv d&ui>, 
" of uncertain class." On comparing the above list with Horace, 
Odes, iv. 2, it will be seen that he alludes to No. 3 (dithyrambos) ; 
to Nos. I, 2, and 7 (seu deos regesve canit); and to No. 9 (flebili 
sponsae juvenemve raptum Ploraf) as well as to the extant Epinicia 
(sive quos Elea domum reducit Palma caelestes). 

The Epinicia. The iiriviKia (sc. jwXrj), or tmviKuii (sc. 
vnvoi), " Odes of Victory," form a collection of forty-four odes, 
traditionally divided into four books, answering to the four 
great festivals: (i) 'Q\v/i.wiov?Kcu (sc. fywoi): fourteen odes for 
winners of the wild olive-wreath in the Olympian games, held 
at Olympia in honour of Zeus once in four years; (2) Hvdu>viKai: 
twelve odes for winners of the laurel-wreath in the Pythian 
games held at Delphi in honour of Apollo, once in four years, 
the third of each Olympiad; (3) Ne//eoj>tK<u: eleven odes for 
winners of the pine-wreath in the Nemean games, held at Nemea, 
in honour of Zeus, once in two years, the second and fourth of 
each Olympiad; and (4) 'laBntavlKai: seven odes for winners 
of the parsley wreath in the Isthmian games, held at the Isthmus 






PINDAR 



619 



of Corinth, in honour of Poseidon, once in two years, the first 
and third of each Olympiad. The Greek way of citing an ode 
is by the nomin. plur. followed by the numeral, e.g. " the ninth 
Olympian " is 'OXv/mo>ucat 0' . The chronological range of 
the collection (so far as ascertainable) is from 502 B.C. (Pyth. x.) 
to 452 B.C. (Ol. v.). With respect to the native places of 
the victors, the geographical distribution is as follows: for the 
mainland of Greece proper, 13 odes; for Aegina, n; for Sicily, 
15; for the Epizephyrian Locrians (southern Italy), 2; for 
Cyrene (Africa), 3. 

The general characteristics of the odes may be briefly con- 
sidered under the following heads: (i) language; (2) treatment 
of theme; (3) sentiment religious, moral and political; (4) 
relation to contemporary art. 

1. The diction of Pindar is distinct in character from that of 
every other Greek poet, being almost everywhere marked by the 
greatest imaginative boldness. Thus (a) metaphor is used 
even for the expression of common ideas, or the translation of 
familiar phrases, as when a cloak is called (Ol. ix. 97) " a warm 
remedy for winds." (6) Images for the highest excellence are 
drawn from the farthest limits of travel or navigation, or from 
the fairest of natural objects; as when the superlative hospitality 
of a man who kept open house all the year round is described 
by saying, " far as to Phasis was his voyage in summer days, 
and in winter to the shores of Nile " (Islhm. ii. 41); or when 
Olympia, the " crown " or " flower " of festivals, is said to be 
excellent as water, bright as gold, brilliant as the noonday sun 
(01. i. ad init.). This trait might be called the Pindaric imagery 
of the superlative, (c) Poetical inversion of ordinary phrase is 
frequent; as, instead of, " he struck fear into the beasts," " he 
gave the beasts to fear " (Pyth. v. 56). (d) The efforts of the 
poet's genius are represented under an extraordinary number of 
similitudes, borrowed from javelin-throwing, chariot-driving, 
leaping, rowing, sailing, ploughing, building, shooting with the 
bow, sharpening a knife on a whetstone, mixing wine in a bowl, 
and many more, (e) Homely images, from common life, are 
not rare; as from account-keeping, usury, sending merchandise 
over sea, the encwaXrj or secret dispatch, &c. And we have 
such homely proverbs as, " he hath his foot in this shoe," i.e. 
stands in this case (OL vi. 8). (/) The natural order of words in 
a sentence is often boldly deranged, while, on the other hand, 
the syntax is seldom difficult, (g) Words not found except in 
Pindar are numerous, many of these being compounds which 
(like ivapiuPpoTos, KaTa,<t>v\\opofiv, &c.) suited the dactylic 
metres in their Pindaric combinations. Horace was right in 
speaking of Pindar's " nova verba," though they were not 
confined to the " audaces dithyrambi." 

2. The actual victory which gave occasion for the ode is 
seldom treated at length or in detail which, indeed, only 
exceptional incidents could justify. Pindar's method is to take 
some heroic myth, or group of myths, connected with the 
victor's city or family, and, after a brief prelude, to enter on 
this, returning at the close, as a rule, to the subject of the victor's 
merit or good fortune, and interspersing the whole with moral 
comment. Thus the fourth Pythian is for Arcesilaus, king of 
Cyrene, which was said to have been founded by men of Thera, 
descendants of one of Jason's comrades. Using this link, 
Pindar introduces his splendid narrative of the Argonauts. 
Many odes, again, contain shorter mythical episodes as the 
birth of lamus (Ol. vi.), or the vision of Bellerophon (Ol. xiii.) 
which form small pictures of masterly finish and beauty. 
Particular notice is due to the skill with which Pindar often 
manages the return from a mythical digression to his immediate 
theme. It is bold and swift, yet is not felt as harshly abrupt- 
justifying his own phrase at one such turn Kat TWO. OLIMV Itra/u 
Ppaxvv (Pyth. iv. 247). It has been thought that, in the 
parenthesis about the Amazons' shields (quibus Mas wide 
deduclus . . . quaerere distuli, Odss, iv. 4, 18), Horace was 
imitating a Pindaric transition; if so, he has illustrated his own 
observation as to the peril of imitating the Theban poet. 

3. a. The religious feeling of Pindar is strongly marked in 
the odes. " From the gods are all means of human excellence." 



He will not believe that the gods, when they dined with Tantalus, 
ate his son Pelops; rather Poseidon carried off the youth to 
Olympus. . That is, his reason for rejecting a scandalous story 
about the gods is purely religious, as distinct from moral; it 
shocks his conception of the divine dignity. With regard to 
oracles, he inculcates precisely such a view as would have been 
most acceptable to the Delphic priesthood, viz. that the gods 
do illumine their prophets, but that human wit can foresee 
nothing which the gods do not choose to reveal. A mystical 
doctrine of the soul's destiny after death appears in some 
passages (as 01. ii. 66 sq.). Pindar was familiar with the idea 
of metempsychosis (cf. ibid. 68), but the attempt to trace Pytha- 
goreanism in some phrases (Pyth. ii. 34, iii. 74) appears unsafe. 
The belief in a fully conscious existence for the soul in a future 
state, determined by the character of the earthly life, entered 
into the teaching of the Eleusinian and other mysteries. Com- 
paring the fragment of the Gpijcos (114, Bergk 4 , 737), we may 
probably regard the mystic or esoteric element in Pindar's 
theology as due to such a source. 

b. The moral sentiment pervading Pindar's odes rests on a 
constant recognition of the limits imposed by the divine will on 
human effort, combined with strenuous exhortation that each 
man should strive to reach the limit allowed in his own case. 
Native temperament (4>vri) is the grand source of all human 
excellence (apery), while such excellences as can be acquired by 
study (diSaKral aperal, 01. ix. 100) are of relatively small 
scope the sentiment, we may remark, of one whose thoughts 
were habitually conversant with the native qualities of a poet 
on the one hand and of an athlete on the other. The elements 
of vyias 6X/3os " sane happiness," such as has least reason to 
dread the jealousy of the gods are substance sufficing for daily 
wants and good repute (tv\oyla). He who has these should 
not " seek to be a god." " Wealth set with virtues " (irXoDros 
dperais 5edai8d\ij.evos) , as gold with precious gems, is the most 
fortunate lot, because it affords the amplest opportunities for 
honourable activity. Pindar does not rise above the ethical 
standard of an age which said, " love thy friend and hate thy 
foe " (cf. Pyth. ii. 83; Isthm. iii. 65). But in one sense he has 
a moral elevation which is distinctively his own; he is the 
glowing prophet of generous emulation and of reverent self- 
control. 

c. The political sentiments of the Theban poet are suggested 
by Pyth. xi. 52; "In polities I find the middle state crowned 
with more enduring good; therefore praise I not the despot's 
portion; those virtues move my zeal which serve the folk." 
If in Pyth. ii. 87, a democracy is described as 6 Xo/3pos 
orporos, " the raging crowd, " it is to be noted that the ode is 
for Hiero of Syracuse, and that the phrase clearly refers to the 
violence of those democratic revolutions which, in the early 
part of the 5th century B.C., more than once convulsed Sicilian 
cities. At Thebes, after the Persian wars, a " constitutional 
oligarchy " (oXryapx'a labvoiuK, Thuc. iii. 62) had replaced 
the narrower and less temperate oligarchy of former days 
(SvvaffTtia ov juerci VO/JMV); and in this we may probably 
recognize the phase of Greek political life most congenial to 
Pindar. He speaks of a king's lot as unique in its opportunities 
(Ol. i. 113); he sketches the character of an ideal king (Pyth. 
iii. 71); but nothing in his poetry implies liking for the rvpavvis 
as a form of government. Towards the Greek princes of Sicily 
and Cyrene his tone is ever one of manly independence; he 
speaks as a Greek citizen whose lineage places him on a level 
with the proudest of the Dorian race, and whose office invests 
him with an almost sacred dignity. In regard to the politics 
of Hellas at large, Pindar makes us feel the new sense of leisure 
for quiet pursuits and civilizing arts which came after the 
Persian wars. He honours " Tranquillity, the friend of cities " 
('Aervxta <iX<j7roXw, 01. iv. 16). The epic poet sang of wars; 
Pindar celebrates the " rivalries of peace." 

4. Pindar's genius was boldly original; at the same time he 
was an exquisite artist. " Mine be it to invent new strains, 
mine the skill to hold my course in the chariot of the Muses; 
and may courage go with me, and power of ample grasp " (Ol. 



620 



PINDARICS 



ix. 80). Here we see the exulting sense of inborn strength; 
in many other places we perceive the feeling of conscious art 
as in the phrase 5cu5<iXXc, so apt for his method of inlaying 
an ode with mythical subjects, or when he compares the opening 
of a song to the front of a stately building (Ol. vi. 3). Pindar's 
sympathy with external nature was deeper and keener than is 
often discernible in the poetry of his age. It appears, for 
example, in his welcome of the season when " the chamber of 
the hours is opened, and delicate plants perceive the fragrant 
spring" (Jr. 53, Bergk 4 , 75); in the passage where Jason invokes 
" the rushing strength of waves and winds, and the nights, and 
the paths of the deep" (Pyth. iv. 195); in the lines on the 
eclipse of the sun (Jr. 84, Bergk, 4 107); and in the picture of 
the eruption, when Etna, " pillar of the sky, nurse of keen snow 
all the year," sends forth " pure springs of fire unapproachable " 
(Pyth. i. 20). The poet's feeling for colour is often noticeable 
as in the beautiful story of the birth of lamus when Evadne 
lays aside her silver pitcher and her girdle of scarlet web; the 
babe is found, " its delicate body steeped in the golden and deep 
purple rays of pansies " (01. vi. 55). 

The spirit of art, in every form, is represented for Pindar 
by \apis " the source of all delights to mortals " (Ol. i. 30) 
or by the personified Charites (Graces). The Charites were 
often represented as young maidens, decking themselves with 
early flowers the rose, in particular, being sacred to them as 
well as to Aphrodite. In Pindar's mind, as in the old Greek 
conception from which the worship of the Charites sprang, the 
instinct of beautiful art was inseparable from the sense of natural 
Sculpture, b eautv - The period from 500 to 460 B.C., to which 
most of Pindar's extant odes belong, marked a stage 
in the development of Greek sculpture. The schools of Argos, 
Sicyon and Aegina were effecting a transition from archaic 
types to the art which was afterwards matured in the 
age of Pheidias. Olympia forms the central link between 
Pindar's poetry and Greek sculpture. From about 560 B.C. 
onwards sculpture had been applied to the commemoration of 
athletes, chiefly at Olympia. In a striking passage (Nem. v. 
ad. init.) Pindar recognizes sculpture and poetry as sister arts 
employed in the commemoration of the athlete, and contrasts 
the merely local effect of the statue with the wide diffusion of 
the poem. " No sculptor I, to fashion images that shall stand 
idly on one pedestal for aye; no, go thou forth from Aegina, 
sweet song of mine, on every freighted ship, on each light bark." 
Many particular subjects were common to Pindar and contem- 
porary sculpture. Thus (i) the sculptures on the east pediment 
of the temple at Aegina represented Heracles coming to seek 
the aid of Telamon against Troy a theme brilliantly treated 
by Pindar in the fifth Isthmian; (2) Hiero's victory in the 
chariot-race was commemorated at Olympia by the joint work 
of the sculptors Onatas and Calamis; (3) the Gigantomachia, 
(4) the wedding of Heracles and Hebe, (5) the war of the Centaurs 
with the Lapithae, and (6) a contest between Heracles and 
Apollo, are instances of mythical material treated alike by the 
poet and by sculptors of his day. The contemporary improve- 
ments in town architecture, introducing spacious and well- 
paved streets, such as the awpwii 656s at Cyrene (Pyth. v. 
87), suggests his frequent comparison of the paths of song to 
broad and stately causeways (TrXareToi 7rp6<ro5ot tKaro/jiirfSoi 
Ke\f9oi, Nem. vi. 47; Isthm. vi. 22). A song is likened to 
cunning work which blends gold, ivory and coral (Nem. vii. 78). 
Pindar's feeling that poetry, though essentially a divine gift, 
has a technical side (ao<t>ia), and that on this side it has had 
an historical development like that of other arts, is forcibly 
illustrated by his reference to the inventions (<ro<to>aTa) for 
which Corinth had early been famous. He instances (i) the 
development of the dithyramb, (2) certain improvements in 
the harnessing and driving of horses, and (3) the addition of 
the pediment to temples (01. xiii. 21). 

In the development of Greek lyric poetry two periods are 
broadly distinguished. During the first, from about 600 to 
500 B.C., lyric poetry is local or tribal as Alcaeus and Sappho 
write for Lesbians, Alcman and Stesichorus for Dorians. During 



the second period, which takes its rise in the sense of Hellenic 
unity created by the Persian wars, the lyric poet addresses all 
Greece. Pindar and Simonides are the great representatives 
of this second period, to which Bacchylides, the nephew of 
Simonides, also belongs. These, with a few minor poets, are 
classed by German writers as die universalen Meliker. The 
Greeks usually spoke, not of " lyric," but of " melic " poetry 
(i.e. meant to be sung, and not, like the epic, recited); and 
" universal melic " is lyric poetry addressed to all Greece. But 
Pindar is more than the chief extant lyrist. Epic, lyric and 
dramatic poetry succeeded each other in Greek literature by a 
natural development. Each of them was the spontaneous 
utterance of the age which brought it forth. In Pindar we can 
see that phase of the Greek mind which produced Homeric 
epos passing over into the phase which produced Athenian 
drama. His spirit is often thoroughly dramatic witness such 
scenes as the interview between Jason and Pelias (Pyth. iv.), 
the meeting of Apollo and Chiron (Pyth. ix.), the episode of 
Castor and Polydeuces (Nem. x.), the entertainment of Heracles 
by Telamon (Isthm. v.). Epic narrative alone was no longer 
enough for the men who had known that great trilogy of national 
life, the Persian invasions; they longed to see the heroes moving 
and to hear them speaking. The poet of Olympia, accustomed 
to see beautiful forms in vivid action or vivid art, was well 
fitted to be the lyric interpreter of the new dramatic impulse. 
Pindar has more of the Homeric spirit than any Greek lyric 
poet known to us. On the other side, he has a genuine, if less 
evident, kinship with Aeschylus and Sophocles. Pindar's work, 
like Olympia itself, illustrates the spiritual unity of Greek art. 

The fact that certain glosses and lacunae are common to all our 
MSS. of Pindar make it probable that these MSS. are derived from 
a common archetype. Now the older scholia on Pindar, which 
appear to have been compiled mainly from the commentaries of 
Didymus (c. 15 B.C.), sometimes presuppose a purer text than 
ours. But the compiler of these older scholia lived after Herodian 
(A.D. 160). The archetype of our MSS., then, cannot have been 
older than the end of the 2nd century. Our MSS. fall into two 
general classes: (i) the older, representing a text which, though 
often corrupt, is comparatively free from interpolations; (2) the 
later, which exhibit the traces of a Byzantine recension, in other 
words, of lawless conjecture, down to the I4th or I5th century. 
To the first class belong Parisinus 7, breaking off in Pyth. v. ; 
Ambrosianus I, which has only Ol. i.-xii. ; Mediceus 2; and 
Vaticanus 2 the two last-named being of the highest value. 
The editio princeps is the Aldine (Venice, 1513). A modern study of 
Pindar may be almost said to have begun with C. G. Heyne's 
edition (1773). Hermann did much to advance Pindaric criticism. 
But August Bockh (181 1-1821), who was assisted in his commentary 
by L. Dissen, is justly regarded as the founder of a scientific treat- 
ment of the poet. The edition of Theodor Bergk (Poetae lyrici 
graeci, new ed. by O. Schroder, 1900) is marked by considerable 
boldness of conjecture, as that of Tycho Mommsen (1864) by a 
sometimes excessive adherence to MSS. A recension by W. Christ 
has been published in Teubner's series (2nd ed., .1806), also with 
Prolegomena and commentary (1896); and by O. Schroder (1908). 
The complete edition of J. W. Donaldson (1841) has many merits; 
but that of C. A. M. Fennell (1879-1883; new ed., 1893-1899) 
is better adapted to the needs of English students. The Olympia 
and Pythia have been edited by B. L. Gildersleeve (1885), the 
Nemea and Isthmia by J. B. Bury (1890-1892); the Scholia by 
E. Abel (1890, unfinished) and A. B. Brachmann (1903). There 
is a special lexicon by J. Rumpel (1883). The translation into 
English prose by Ernest Myers (2nd ed., 1883) is excellent; verse 
translation by T. C. Baring (1875), and of the Olympian Odes by 
Cyril Mayne (1906). Pindar's metres have been analysed by 
J. H. H. Schmidt, in Die Kunstformen der griechischen Poeste 
(Leipzig, 1868-1872). On Pindar generally, see monographs by 
A. F. Villemain (1859), L. Schmidt (1862), G. Lubbert (1882), 
A. Croiset (1880), W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur 
(1898) ; and the little volume by F. D. Morice in Blackwood's Ancient 
Classics for English Readers. Exhaustive bibliographical information 
on the earlier literature will be found in Engelmann, Scriptores 
eraeci (1881); see also L. Bornemann, in Bursian's Jahresbericht, 
(cxvi. 1904), with special reference to chronological questions and 
Pythia, i., ii., iii. Some considerable fragments of the paeans 
were discovered in 1906 by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (see 
Oxyrhynchus papyri, pt. v. pp. 24-81); some critical notes will be 
Found in Classical Review, Feb. 1908 (A. E. Housman). 

CR.CJ.jX.) 

PINDARICS, the name by which was known a class of loose 
and irregular odes greatly in fashion in England during the close 



PINDARIS PINE 



621 



of the 1 7th and the beginning of the i8th century. The inven- 
tion is due to Abraham Cowley, who, probably in Paris " a 
place where he had no other books to direct him " and perhaps 
in 1650, found a text of Pindar and determined to imitate the 
Greek poetry in English, without having comprehended the 
system upon which Pindar's prosody was built up. Cowley 
published, however, in 1656, fifteen Pindarique Odes, which 
became the model on which countless imitators founded their 
pindarics. The erroneous form of these poems, which were 
absolutely without discipline of structure, was first exposed by 
Congreve, exactly half a century later, he very justly describing 
them as " bundles of rambling incoherent thoughts, expressed 
in a like parcel of irregular stanzas, which also consist of such 
another complication of disproportioned, uncertain and per- 
plexed verses and rhymes." This is harsh, but it describes a 
pindaric with absolute justice. Cowley had not been aware 
that " there is nothing more regular than the Odes of Pindar," 
and that his poems were constructed in harmony with rigid 
prosodical laws in strophe, antistrophe and epode; " the liberty 
which Pindar took in his numbers, which has been so much 
misunderstood and misapplied by his pretended imitators, was 
only in varying the stanzas in different odes; but in each par- 
ticular ode they are ever correspondent one to another in their 
turns, and according to the order of the ode." These excellent 
critical remarks were made by Congreve in his Discourse on the 
Pindarique Ode of 1706, and from that date forward the use of 
pindarics ceased to be so lax and frantic as it had been during 
the previous fifty years. The time had now passed in which 
such a critic as Sprat could praise " this loose and unconfined 
measure " as having " all the grace and harmony of the most 
confined." It began to be felt that the English pindaric was a 
blunder founded upon a misconception. If we examine Cowley's 
" Resurrection," which was considered in the I7th century to 
be a model of the style, and " truly pindarical," we find it to be 
a shapeless poem of 64 lines, arbitrarily divided, not into 
strophes, but into four stanzas of unequal volume and structure; 
the lines which form these stanzas are of lengths varying from 
three feet to seven feet, with rhymes repeated in wilful disorder, 
the whole forming a mere vague caricature of Pindar's brilliant 
odes. The very laxity of these pindarics attracted the poets 
of the unlyrical close of the I7th century, and they served the 
purpose not only of Dryden and Pope, but of a score of lesser 
poets, among whom Oldham, Mrs Behn, Otway, Sprat, Flatman 
and many others were prominent. The pindaric became the 
almost necessary form in which to indite a poem of compliment 
on a birth, a wedding or a funeral. Although the vogue of these 
forms hardly survived the age of Anne, something of the vicious 
tradition of them 'still remained, and even in the odes of 
Wordsworth, Shelley and Coleridge the broken versification of 
Cowley's pindarics occasionally survives. Tennyson's Ode on 
the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852) is the latest important 
specimen of a pindaric in English literature. (E. G.) 

PINDARIS, a word of uncertain origin, applied to the irregular 
horsemen who accompanied the Mahratta armies in India 
during the i8th century when the Mughal Empire was breaking 
up; loosely organized under self -chosen leaders, each band was 
usually attached to one or other of the great Mahratta chieftains. 
Their special characteristic was that they received no pay, 
but rather purchased the privilege of plundering on their own 
account. The majority of them seem to have been Mahom- 
medans: when the regular forces of the Mahrattas had been 
broken up in the campaigns conducted by Sir Arthur Wellesley 
and Lord Lake in 1802-04, the Pindaris made their headquarters 
in Malwa, under the tacit protection of Sindhia and Holkar. 
They were accustomed to assemble every year at the beginning 
of November, and sally forth into British territory in search 
of plunder. In one such raid upon the Masulipatam coast they 
plundered 339 villages, killing or wounding 682 persons, torturing 
3600 and carrying off property worth a quarter of a million. 
In 1808-09 they plundered Gujarat, and in 1812 Mirzapur. In 
1814 they were reckoned at 25,000 to 30,000 horsemen, half of 
them well armed. At last the evil became intolerable, and in 



1817 the marquess of Hastings obtained the consent of the East 
India Company to the organized campaign, known as the Pindari 
War. The Pindaris were surrounded on all sides by a great 
army, consisting of 1 20,000 men and 300 guns, which converged 
upon them from Bengal, the Deccan and Gujarat under the 
supreme command of Lord Hastings in person. Sindhia was 
overawed and forced to sign the treaty of Gwalior, consenting 
to aid in the extirpation of the Pindaris, whom he had hitherto 
protected. The Peshwa at Poona, the Bhonsla raja at Nagpur 
and the army of the infant Holkar each took up arms, but were 
separately defeated. The Pindaris themselves offered little 
opposition. Amir Khan, by far their most powerful leader, 
accepted the conditions offered to him; and his descendant is 
now Nawab of the state of Tonk in Rajputana. The rest 
surrendered or were hunted down, the fate of Chitu, one of the 
most notorious, being to perish in a tiger's den. These military 
operations were followed by the pacification of Central India 
under the administration of Sir John Malcolm. 

See J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1826); and Major 
Ross of Bladensburg, Marquess of Hastings (Rulers of India 
Series) (1893). 

FIND DADAN KHAN, a town of British India, in the Jhelum 
district of the Punjab, situated near the right bank of the river 
Jhelum, on the Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Western railway. 
Pop. (1901), 13,770. It is an important centre of trade, and 
its manufactures include boats, brass- ware, pottery, embroidered 
scarves and riding-whips. 

PINDUS, the ancient name of the rugged group of mountains 
which separates Thessaly from Epirus, and branches south in 
various directions. The geographical name is sometimes 
extended over all these branches, and so reaches from Aetolia 
to the Gulf of Lamia. The northern part of the ridge was known 
as Lacmon. There is no modern name covering the whole 
range, but its different parts have separate names. Several of 
them attain a height of 7000 ft. or more. 

PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. rrtrus), a name given by the ancients 
to some of the resinous cone-bearing trees to which it is now 
applied, and, as limited by modern botanists, the designation 
of a large genus of true conifers, differing from the firs in their 
hard woody cone-scales being thickened at the apex, and in 
their slender needle-shaped leaves growing from a membranous 
sheath, either in pairs or from three to five together each tuft 
representing an abortive branch, springing from the axil of a 
partially deciduous scale-leaf, the base of which remains closely 
adherent to the stem. The numerous male catkins are generally 
arranged in dense whorls around the bases of the young shoots; 
the anther-scales, surmounted by a crest-like appendage, shed 
their abundant pollen by longitudinal slits; the two ovules at 
the base of the inner side of each fertile cone-scale develop into 
a pair of winged seeds, which drop from the opening scales when 
mature as in the allied genera. 

The pines are widely distributed over the north temperate 
zone, in the southern portions chiefly confined to the mountains, 
along which, in Central America, a few are found within the 
tropic; in more northern regions they frequently form extensive 
forests, sometimes hardly mingled with other trees. Their 
soft, straight-grained, resinous and often durable wood gives 
to many kinds a high economic value, and some are among the 
most esteemed of timber trees. 

Of the two-leaved species, P. sylvestris, the pine of northern 
Europe, may be taken as a type. When growing in perfection 
it is one of the finest of the group, and perhaps the most pictur- 
esque of forest trees; attaining a height of from 70 to 120 ft., 
it is of conical growth when young, but in maturity acquires a 
spreading cedar or mushroom-like top, with a straight trunk 
of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter at the base, and gnarled twisted 
boughs, densely clothed at the extremities with glaucous green 
foliage, which contrasts strongly with the fiery red-brown bark. 
The leaves are rather short, curved, and often twisted; the male 
catkins, in dense cylindrical whorls, fill the air of the forest 
with their sulphur-like pollen in May or June, and fecundate 
the purple female flowers, which, at first sessile and erect, then 



622 



PINE 



become recurved on a lengthening stalk; the ovate cones, about 
the length of the leaves, do not reach maturity until the autumn 
of the following year, and the seeds are seldom scattered until 
the third spring; the cone-scales terminate in a pyramidal 




FIG. I. Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris). 

a, Male flower and young cones; b, male catkin; c, d, outer and 
inner side of anther-scale. 

recurved point, well marked in the green state and in some 
varieties in the mature cone, but in others scarcely projecting. 
P. sylvestris is found, in greater or less abundance, from the hills 
of Finmark and the plains of Bothnia to the mountains of Spain 
and even the higher forest-slopes of Etna, while in longitude its 
range extends from the shores of the North Sea to Kamchatka. 
Nowhere more abundant than in the Scandinavian peninsula, 
this tree is the true fir (Jur, fura) of the old Norsemen, and still 
retains the name among their descendants in Britain, though 
botankally now classed as a pine. It grows vigorously in Lap- 
land on the lower ground, and is found even at an elevation of 
700 ft., while in south Norway it occurs up to 3000 ft., though 
the great forests from which "Norway pine " timber is chiefly 
derived are on the comparatively lower slopes of the south- 
eastern dales: in the highest situations it dwindles to a mere 
bush. It furnishes the yellow deal of the Baltic and Norway. 
In Germany, both on the mountains and the sandy plains, 
woods of " kiefer " are frequent and widely spread, while vast 
forests in Russia and Poland are chiefly composed of this species; 
in many northern habitats it is associated with the spruce and 
birch. In Asia it abounds in Siberia and on the mountains of 
the Amur region; on the European Alps it occurs at a height of 
5600 ft., and on the Pyrenees it is found at still higher elevations; 
on the northern side of Etna it is said to grow at above 7000 ft. 
In Britain natural forests of Scotch fir of any extent are only now 
found in the Highlands, chiefly on the declivities of the Gram- 
pians. In former ages the tree covered a large portion of the 
more northern part of the island, as well as of Ireland; the 
numerous trunks found everywhere in the mosses and peat-bogs 



of the northern counties of England attest its abundance there 
in prehistoric times; and in the remoter post-Glacial epoch its 
range was probably vastly more extended. The tree is not at 
present indigenous in southern Britain, but when planted in 
suitable ground multiplies rapidly by the wind-sown seeds; on 
many of the sandy moors and commons natural pine woods of 
large extent have been thus formed during the last fifty years. 
The Scotch fir is a very variable tree, and certain varieties have 
acquired a higher reputation for the qualities of their timber 
than others; among those most prized by foresters is the one 
called the Braemar pine, the remaining fragments of the great 
wood in the Braemar district being chiefly composed of this kind; 
it is mainly distinguished by its shorter and more glaucous 
leaves and ovoid cones with blunt recurved spines, and especially 
by the early horizontal growth of its ultimately drooping 
boughs; of all varieties this is the most picturesque. On the 
European continent the Hagenau pine of Westphalia is esteemed 
for the straightness and good quality of its timber. The heart- 
wood of the finer kinds of Scotch fir is of a deep brownish-red 
colour, abounding in the resin to which its durability is probably 
due. For all indoor and most outdoor purposes it is as lasting 
as oak, and for ship planking is perhaps little inferior; from its 
lightness and elasticity it is well adapted for the construction 
of yachts and other small fast-sailing craft, and is said to be the 
best of all wood for masts and large spars; its weight varies from 
30 to 40 ft the cubic foot. The sap-wood is more perishable, 
but it is useful for fences, casks and a variety of other purposes; 
soaking in lime-water renders it more lasting; great numbers of 
young pines are annually cut for railway sleepers, mining timber 
and numerous agricultural applications; large quantities are 
consumed for wood-pavement. The quality of the timber 




FIG. 2. Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris). 

a, Fertile flower of mature cone; b, winged seed; c, fertile catkin 
(or cone) ; d, scale and bract ; e, inner side of scale. 

depends greatly on the soil and position in which the trees are 
grown: the dry slopes of granitic or gneissic mountains, or the 
deep well-drained sandy gravels of the lower country seem to 
answer equally well; but on clay or wet peat the tree rarely 



PINE 



PLATE I. 




SCOTCH FIR (Pinus sylvestris). 
A, Cone, seed and needles. 




CORSICAN PINE (Pinus Laricio). 
B, Cone, seed and needles. 




CLUSTER PINE (Pinus Pinaster). 
C, Cone, needle and seed. 




STONE PINE (Pinus Pinea). 
D, Cone and seed. 




D 




Photos by Henry Irving. 



XXI. 622. 



PLATE II. 



PINE 



OTHER 
CONIFERS 



WEYMOUTH PINE 

(Pinus Strobus). 
A, Cone, needles and seed. 



LARCH (Lanx europaea). 
B, Cone and foliage. 




CEDAR OF LEBANON (Cedrus Libani). 
C, Cone, foliage and seed. 



DEODAR (Cedrus Deodara). 

Photo by Henry Irving. 



PINE 



623 



nourishes, and the timber is always indifferent; it is usually 
said that the wood is best in the cold climate of its more northern 
habitats, but a trunk (4 ft. in diameter) grown on the sands of 
Surrey had heart-wcod quite equal to any produced in Glenmore 
or Rothiemurchus. The rapidity of growth is still more vari- 
able: in Britain full maturity is attained in from seventy to one 
hundred and twenty years, but in Norway the trunk increases 
much more slowly; Schiibeler states that a tree felled in ths 
Alten district (about 70 lat.), measuring 2 ft. 10 in. in diameter 
without the bark, showed four hundred circles of annual growth. 
In Norway the tree, growing in dense forests, is generally of but 
moderate girth, and probably this pine nowhere reaches a greater 
size than in the Scottish woods; a plank from Glenmore forest 
measured nearly 55 ft. across, and from 3 to 4! ft. is not an 
unusual diameter for a British pine tree. 

Vast numbers of Scotch firs are raised in nurseries for artificial 
planting; the seed is sown in the spring, being just covered with 
earth, and the seedlings transplanted in the second year into 
rows for further culture, or taken direct from the seed-bed for 
final planting; sometimes the seed is sown where the trees are 
intended to grow. A plantation of Scotch fir requires frequent 
and careful thinning as the young trees increase in size; but 
pruning should be avoided as much as possible, excepting for 
the removal of dead wood. Plantations in England are generally 
ready for final cutting in from sixty to seventy years, and many 
are cleared at a much earlier stage of growth. P. syhestris in 
Britain is liable to many insect depredations: the pine-chafer, 
Hylurgus piniperda, is destructive in some places, the larva of 
this beetle feeding on the young succulent shoots, especially 
in young plantations; Hylobius abielis, the fir-weevil, eats away 
the bark, and numerous lepidopterous larvae devour the leaves; 
the pine-sawfly is also injurious in some seasons; the removal of 
all dead branches from the trees and from the ground beneath 
them is recommended, as most of these insects lay their eggs 
among the decaying bark and dead leaves. In common with 
other pines, P. syhestris is subject to the attacks of various 
fungi. Trametes radiciperda attacks the roots and penetrates 
to the stem, causing rotting of the wood; the disease is difficult 
to eradicate, as the mycelium of the fungus travels from root to 
root in the soil. Rotting of the wood at the base of the trunk 
is also caused by Agaricus melleus, which spreads from root to 
root in the soil by means of its long purple-black, cord-like 
mycelial strands known as Rhizomorpha. Much damage is often 
caused by species of Peridermium, which often invade the cortex 
and cambium to such an extent as to " ring " the stem or branch, 
or to cause an abnormal formation of turpentine which soaks 
into the wood and stops the upward passage of water; this 
causes the parts above the diseased area to perish. In England 
the pine is largely employed as a " nurse " for oak trees, its 
conical growth when young admirably adapting it for this 
purpose; its dense foliage renders it valuable as a shelter tree 
for protecting land from the wind; it stands the sea gales better 
than most conifers, but will not flourish on the shore like some 
other species. 

The pine is an important tree in the economy of the northern 
nations of Europe. In Scandinavia and Russia houses are 
chiefly constructed of its timber; and log-huts are made of the 
smaller trunks and lined and roofed with the bark. The inner 
bark is twisted into ropes, and, like that of the spruce, is kiln 
dried, ground up, and mixed with meal in times of scarcity; in 
Kamchatka it is macerated in water, then pounded, and made 
into a kind of substitute for bread without any admixture of 
flour. In recent days the fibre of the leaves has been extracted 
in some quantity and applied to textile purposes under the name 
of waldwolle, both in Germany and Sweden. It is prepared by 
boiling the needles in a solution of soda to remove the resin, 
which process loosens the fibre and renders its separation easy 
it has some resemblance to coarse wool, and is spun and woven 
into blankets and garments that are said to be warm and durable; 
it is also used for stuffing cushions; an essential oil, obtained by 
a previous distillation of the leaves, has medicinal virtues 
attributed to it by some German practitioners. 



Large quantities of turpentine are extracted from this pine 
in Sweden and Russia by removing a strip of bark, terminating 
below in a deep notch cut in the wood, into which the turpentine 
runs, and from which it is scooped as it accumulates; but the 
product is not equal to that of the silver fir and other species. 
Tar is prepared largely from P. syhestris; it is chiefly obtained 
from the roots, which, mingled with a few logs, are arranged in a 
conical or funnel-shaped hollow made on the steep side of a hill 
or bank ; after filling up, the whole is covered with turf and fired 
at the top, when the tar exudes slowly and runs into an iron 
vessel placed below, from the spout of which it is conveyed 
into barrels. Most of the so-called Stockholm tar is thus 
prepared, chiefly in the province of Bothnia. 

Closely allied to the Scotch pine, and perhaps to be regarded as 
a mere alpine form of that species, is the dwarf P. montana (or 
P. Pumilio), the " krummholz " or " knieholz " of the Germans a 
recumbent bush, generally only a few feet high, but with long zigzag 
stems, that root occasionally at the knee-like bends where they 
rest upon the ground. The foliage much resembles that of the 
Scotch fir, but is shorter, denser and more rigid; the cones are 
smaller but similar in form. Abounding on the higher slopes of the 
Bavarian and Tirolese Alps, it is a favourite shelter for the chamois; 
the hunters call it the " latschen," from its recumbent straggling 
habit. Krummholz oil, valued in Germany as an outward applica- 
tion in rheumatism and for bruises and sprains, is distilled from 
the young branches, and a fragrant white resin that exudes in 
some quantity from the buds is used for similar purposes and as a 
perfume, under the name of Hungarian balsam it is sold in the 
towns of Germany, being probably obtained from the Carpathians. 

The red pine of Canada and New England (so called from the 
colour of its bark), P. resinosa, is a tree of considerable size, some- 
times attaining the dimensions of P. syhestris. The somewhat 
glaucous leaves form dense tufts at the ends of the branches, and 
are 4 or 5 in. long; the ovate blunt cones are about half that 
length. The tree is of quick growth and the wood strong and 
resinous, but it is less durable than Scotch fir, though much em- 
ployed in ship-building; according to Emerson, trunks exist in 
Maine 4 ft. in diameter. A sandy soil seems to suit it best, and 
the quality of the wood probably much depends on its place of 
growth. Red pines abound in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, 
and the tree is rather widely distributed over the northern parts of 
the continent; it rarely forms extensive woods, but grows chiefly 
in clumps among other trees, at least in its more southern habitats. 
Nearly allied is P. Bariksiana, the grey or Labrador pine, some- 
times called the scrub pine from its dwarfish habit; it is the most 
northerly representative of the genus in America, and is chiefly 
remarkable for its much recurved and twisted cones, about 2 in. 
long. The trunks are too small to be of great economic value, but 
the light wood is used by the natives for their canoes. 

P. Laricio, the Corsican pine, is one of the noblest trees of this 
group, growing to a height of 100 or even 150 ft., with a straight 
trunk and branches in regular whorls, forming in large trees a 
pyramidal head; the slender leaves, of a dark green tint, are from 
4 to 7 in. long; the cones, either in pairs or several together, project 
horizontally, and are of a light brown colour. This pine abounds 
in Corsica, and is found in more or less abundance in Spain, 
southern France, Greece, and many Mediterranean countries; it 
occurs on the higher mountains of Cyprus. The tree is of very 
rapid growth, but produces good timber, much used in southern 
dockyards, and very durable, though less strong than that of 
P. syhestris; the heart- wood is of a brownish-tint. In southern 
France it has been planted with success on the drift-sands of the 
Bay of Biscay, though it does not bear the full force of the sea- 
blast as well as the pinaster. In England it grows well in sheltered 
situations and well-drained soils. 

The black pine, P. austriaca, generally now regarded as a variety 
of P. Laricio, derives its name from the extreme depth of its foliage 
tints the sharp, rigid, rather long leaves of a dark green hue 
giving a sombre aspect to the tree. The light-coloured, glossy, 
horizontal cones are generally in pairs, but sometimes three or 
four together. The tree is conical when young, but when old 
forms a spreading head ; it often attains a large size. Southern 
Austria and the adjacent countries are the natural habitats of 
this pine; it seems to flourish best on rocky mountain sides, but 
in England grows well on sandy soils. The timber is valued in 
its native country, and is said to be durable and to stand exposure 
to the weather well; various resinous products are extracted from 
it. P. pyrenaica is a handsome species of pyramidal form, attaining 
a large size on the mountains of northern Spain, whence it extend? 
through the Mediterranean region to Asia Minor, northern Persia 
and Afghanistan. The leaves are long and of a light bright green ; 
the cones are solitary, oblong, conical and of a yellow tint. The 
timber is used in Spanish dockyards, but opinions vary as to its 
quality. In plantations its bright foliage, with the orange cones and 
young shoots, render it an ornamental tree, hardy in southern 
Britain. P. brutia, the Calabrian pine, is regarded as the same 



624 



PINE 



species. P. hakpensis, another Mediterranean form, is valued for 
its timber, which is white with a fine grain, and resinous products. 
P. pinaster, the cluster pine or pinaster, is an important species 
from its vigorous growth in the sand-drifts of the coast, for the 
purpose of binding which it has been grown more extensively and 
successfully than any other tree, especially on the dunes of the Bay 
of Biscay. Growing to a height of from 40 to 80 ft., the deeply- 
furrowed trunk occasionally reaches a diameter of 3 ft. or more 
at the base, where, like most sand trees, it usually curves upward 
gradually, a form that enables the long tap-roots to withstand 
better the strain of the sea gale; when once established, the tree 
is rarely overthrown even on the loosest sand. The branches 
curve upwards like the stem, with their thick covering of long dark 
green leaves, giving a massive rounded outline to the tree; the 
ovate cones are from 4 to 6 in. long, of a light shining brown hue, 
with thick scales terminating in a pyramidal apex; they are arranged 
around the branches in the radiating clusters that give name to 
the tree. The pinaster grows naturally on sandy soils around 
the Mediterranean from Spain to the Levant. On the drift-sands 
of France, especially in the Gironde, forests have been formed 
mainly of this pine; the seeds, sown a.t first under proper shelter 
and protected by a thick growth of broom sown simultaneously, 
vegetate rapidly in the sea-sand, and the trees thus raised have, 
by their wind-drifted seed, covered much of the former desert 
of the Landes with an evergreen wood. These forests of pinaster, 
apart from the production of timber in a once treeless district, 
have a great economic value as a source of turpentine, which is 
largely obtained from the trees by a process analogous to that 
employed in its collection from P. syhestris; the resin is yielded 
from May to the end of September, the cuts being renewed as the 
supply fails, until the tree is exhausted; the trunks are then felled 
and used in the manufacture of charcoal and lamp black; much 
tar and pitch is also obtained from these pinaster forests. _ In 
England the cluster-pine has been largely planted on sandy districts 
near the sea, and has become naturalized in Purbeck and other 
wild tracts in the southern counties, but the summer heat is too 
small to permit of its resinous products acquiring any value; the 
soft coarse wood, though perishable in the natural state, has been 
used for railway sleepers after saturation with creosote or pre- 
servative solutions. 

P. Pinea is the stone pine of Italy; its spreading rounded canopy 
of light green foliage, supported on a tall and often branchless 
trunk, forms a striking feature of the landscape in that country, 
as well as in some other Mediterranean lands. The beautiful 
reddish-brown shining cones, roundly ovate in shape, with pyrami- 
dal scale apices, have been prized from the ancient days of Rome 
for their edible nut-like seeds, which are still used as an article of 
food or dessert. They do not ripen until the fourth year, and are 
kept in the cone until required, as their abundant oil soon turns 
rancid. The tree has been naturalized in many warm countries, 
even in China; in England it seldom attains any large size, as the 
deficient summer heat prevents the wood from maturing; but trees 
occur occasionally in plantations 20 or 30 ft. in height; the wood, 
though soft and deficient in the resin that gives durability to the 
timber of some species, is valued by the southern carpenter and 
cabinetmaker for its lightness, its fineness of grain, and the ease 
with which it is worked. 

P. mitis, the yellow pine of the northern and middle states of 
America, is rather allied to the three-leaved section, but the leaves 
are mostly in pairs. It is a tree of large size, often attaining a 
height of 70 ft. and upwards, though rarely more than 2 ft. in 
diameter at the root; the lower branches spread horizontally, the 
upper, converging towards the trunk, give the tree somewhat the 
aspect of a spruce, hence it is called in some districts the " spruce- 
pine." The leaves are long, slender, and of a bluish-green hue; 
the pendant cones are about ij in. long, with a slender point to 
each scale. The yellow pine is one of the most important timber 
trees of the genus; the heart-wood being very durable is largely 
employed in ship-building and for house timber, being nearly equal 
to that of P. syhestris; large quantities are exported to Britain 
under the name of "New York yellow pine"; the sapwood is 
perishable. 

The three-leaved group includes several of the most valuable trees 
of America ; among them is P. rigida, the pitch pine of the northern 
states, a tree of from 40 to 50 ft. in height with rugged trunk, 
occasionally 3 ft. in diameter; the short dark-green leaves are in 
thick tufts, contrasting with the pale yellowish, usually clustered 
cones, the scales of which are furnished with small curved spines. 
The wood is very hard and abounds with resin, but on swampy 
land is of inferior quality and of little value except for fuel, for 
which the pitch-pine is highly prized; on drier ground the grain 
is fine from the numerous knots. Large quantities of tar and pitch 
are obtained from this species. The tree is one of the few that will 
flourish in salt-marshes. 

P. palustris (or P. australis) is the " Georgia pitch pine," or 
yellow pine of the southern states; it abounds on the sandy soils 
that cover so much of Georgia, the Carolinas, and Florida, and on 
those dry lands attains its highest perfection, though occasionally 
abundant on moist ground, whence its name. The most marked 
feature of the tree is its long tufted foliage the leaves, of a bright 



green tint, springing from long white sheaths, being often a foot in 
length. The tall columnar trunk furnishes the most valued pine 
timber of the states; close-grained and resinous, it is very durable 
and polishes well ; it is largely employed in American shipyards, and 
immense quantities are exported, especially to Britain and the West 
Indies. This tree yields an abundant supply of tar and turpentine 
of good quality, which products are collected and manufactured 
in the " pine-barrens " on a large scale. 

P. Taeda, the " loblolly pine " of the backwoodsman, a tall tree 
with straight trunk and spreading top, covers great tracts of the 
" pine-barrens " of the southern states, but also frequently spreads 
over deserted arable lands that have been impoverished by long and 
bad farming; hence the woodsmen call it the " old-field " pine, 
while, from the fragrance of its abundant resin, it is also known as 
the frankincense pine. It is a fine species 80 or 90 ft. high, having 
sometimes a girth of 6 or 8 ft., with a broad spreading head; the 
leaves are rather long and of a light green tint, the cones generally 
in pairs, the scales terminating in a sharp incurved prickle. The 
timber of this pine is indifferent, but the forests of it are of im- 
portance from the quantity of turpentine they yield ; the trees also 
furnish much firewood of good quality. 

P. ponderosa, the yellow pine of the Pacific coast of America, 
belongs to this section; it is a fine timber tree deserving of notice 
from the extreme density of its wood, which barely floats in water; 
it abounds in some parts of the western range of the Rocky 
Mountains, and is the most widely distributed pine tree of the 
mountain forests of western North America. The leaves are very 
long and twisted, the small oval cones armed with recurved prickles; 
the tree is said to be of rapid growth. In Oregon and California 
several large pines of this group are found. P. Coulteri or macro- 
carpa, is remarkable for its enormous cones (sometimes a foot long, 
6 in. in diameter, and weighing more than 4 lb); the scales end 
in long hooked points curving upwards; the leaves are long, rigid, 
and glaucous in hue. Nearly related to this is P. Sabiniana, the 
nut-pine of California, the cones of which are 7 to 9 in. long and 
5 to 6 in. in diameter, also with hooked scales; the large nut-like 
seeds are eaten by the Indians; the tree is one of the largest of the 
section, sometimes attaining a height of 120 ft. and upwards, 
while trunks have been found, it is said, 10 or 12 ft. in diameter. 
P. longifolia, a Himalayan species, is remarkable for the great length 
of its lax slender leaves, of a grass-green tint; the cones have the 
points of the scales_ recurved. It is known in India as the " cheer 
pine "; the wood is good, resinous, and moderately durable; the 
tree is common on the foot-hills of the Himalayas. P. Gerardiana, 
a north-west Himalayan species, is a medium-sized tree with a 
conical head, growing on the more elevated parts of the mountain 
range; it furnishes edible seeds. The leaves, short and glaucous, 
like those of the Scotch fir, have deciduous sheaths ; the cones have 
recurved scale-points like those of the cheer pine. P. canariensis, 
which forms forests on the mountains of Grand Canary and Teneriffe, 
growing at an elevation of 6000 ft., also belongs to this group. The 
leaves are long, lax, and of a bright green tint ; the cone-scales are 
without spines; the trunk attains a large size, and yields good and 
durable timber. The beautiful Monterey pine, P. insignis, dis- 
tinguished by the brilliant colour of its foliage, has the leaves in 
tufts of three or four; the lower cone-scales have recurved points. 
This fine pine has been planted in the south-west of England, but 
is scarcely hardy. 

The pines with five leaves in each tuft have generally deciduous 
sheaths. The most important economic species is the well-known 
white pine, P. Strobus, from its large growth and abundance, as 
well as the soft even grain of its white wood, one of the most valuable 
of North American timber trees. The tree abounds from Canada 
to Georgia, but in the eastern states has been so long sought for 
by the lumberer that most of the old trees have long disappeared, 
and large white pine timber is now only found in quantity in the 
Canadian Dominion. Formerly Maine and Vermont were celebrated 
for the size of their pines, but few of these great trees now exist 
in New England. On a deep rich soil P. Strobus attains a height 
of 150 ft., and trunks without a branch are sometimes found 80 
or 90 ft. long; in the earlier stages of growth it has a pyramidal 
form, in open glades the lower boughs often touching the ground, 
but in old age it acquires a wide almost cedar-like top. The light 
bluish-green foliage is somewhat lax, very dense in young trees; 
the cones are long and rather curved, with thin smooth scales a 
little thickened at the apex, and generally more or less covered 
with exuding white resin; they are about 5 or 6 in. in length and 
i^ to 2 in. broad; the male catkins are of a bluish tint; the cones 
ripen in the autumn of the second year. The wood of the white 

Eine is durable for indoor use, especially when protected by paint, 
ut when exposed to moist air it rapidly decays, and it is very liable 
to dry rot ; it is said to be best when grown on sandy soils. Immense 
quantities are still exported, especially from Canada, its smooth 
easily-worked grain rendering it a favourite wood for the house- 
carpenter and joiner; it weighs about 28 lb per cubic foot. In England 
where it is generally known as the " Weymouth pine," it succeeds 
well on deep light soils when well-drained; trees have attained 
occasionally a height of 100 ft. and upwards in British plantations; 
but it is apt to be infested with American blight (Eriosoma). In 
northern Germany it also grows well. The climate of Scotland 



PINE-APPLE PINERO 



625 



appears less suitable for it, probably from the want of summer 
heat, and it can hardly be recommended for British planting other- 
wise than for ornamental purposes. 

Nearly approaching this is P. excelsa, the Bhotan pine, which 
differs chiefly in its longer cones and drooping glaucous foliage. It 
is found in Kumaon and Bhotan and on some of the Nepal ranges, 
but does not grow in the moist climate of the Sikkim Himalayas; it 
is found at a height of 7000 to 12,000 ft., and attains large dimen- 
sions; the wood is highly resinous, and is said to be durable; great 
Quantities of a white clear turpentine exude from the branches when 
injured. The Bhotan pine is quite hardy in southern England, and 
has been largely planted of late as an ornamental tree. 

P. Lambertiana, the giant pine or sugar pine of California, is the 
largest of the genus, rising to the height of 200 ft., with a trunk 
20 to 30 ft. in girth, and, it is said, occasionally attaining much 
larger dimensions. The head is of a pyramidal form, the lower 
branches drooping like those of a Norway spruce; its foliage is of 
a light bright green colour. The pendent cones are very large, 
sometimes 1 8 in. long and 4 in. in diameter, with large nut-like 
seeds, which, pounded and baked, are eaten by the Indians. The 
tree abounds in some sandy districts, but more generally occurs 
singly or in small groups dispersed through the woods, attaining 
its greatest dimensions in light soils. The wood is soft and nearly 
white, but contains much resin, which when fire has run through 
the forest exudes, and, having in this half-burnt condition a sweetish 
taste, has given the common name to the tree; the wood seems 
to be formed slowly; from its smooth grain it is valued for indoor 
carpentry; the saccharine burnt resin is used as a laxative in 
California. 

P. Cembra is the stone pine of Siberia and central Europe. It 
abounds on the Alps, the Carpathians and the Siberian ranges, in 
Switzerland being found at an altitude of 4000 to 6000 ft. It is 
a straight-growing tree, with grey bark and whorls of horizontal 
branches giving a cylindro-conical outline; the leaves are short, 
rigid and glaucous; the cones, oblong and rather pointing upwards, 
grow only near the top of the tree, and ripen in the second autumn ; 
the seeds are oily like those of P. Pinea, and are eaten both on the 
Alps and by the inhabitants of Siberia; a fine oil is expressed from 
them which is used both for food and in lamps, but, like that of the 
Italian pine, it soon turns rancid. The growth of P. Cembra is 
slow, but the wood is of remarkably even grain, and is employed 
by the Swiss wood-carvers in preference to any other. The Cembra 
is the " zirbel " or " zirbel-kiefer " of the Germans, and is known 
locally in Switzerland as the " aroile," " aloies," and " arve." 

P. occidentalis, a five-leaved pine with pale-green foliage and 
small ovate cones, is found on the high mountains of Santo Domingo 
and Cuba. Many members of the group occur on the Mexican 
isthmus, one of which, P. cembroides, produces edible seeds; another, 
P. Montezumae, is a valuable timber tree. P. Ayacahuite, the 
common white pine of Mexico, spreads southwards on to the 
mountains of Guatemala, it is a large tree with glaucous foliage 
like P. Strobus, and yields a valuable resin. P. filifolia and P. 
macrophylla, likewise natives of Central America, are remarkable 
for the extreme length of their leaves; the former is said to attain 
a large size. (C. P. J.) 

PINE-APPLE. The pine-apple so called consists in reality 
of the inflorescence of the plant, the originally separate flowers of 
which, together with the bracts supporting them, become fleshy 
and consolidated into one mass. The swelling and fusion of 
the tissues take place after the process of fertilization, and it 
may be that the richly perfumed succulent mass is an aid in the 
distribution of seed by affording food to certain animals. In 
the highly developed cultivated pines, however, it frequently 
happens that the seeds do not ripen properly. The pine, 
Ananas sativus, is a member of the natural order Bromeliaceae, 
of tropical American origin, where it is widely spread; and it is 
now naturalized in the tropical regions of the Old World. 

Evelyn in his Diary mentions tasting a pine-apple from 
Barbados at the table of Charles II., and this is we believe 
the first mention of the fruit in English literature. A picture, 
of which a copy may be seen at the rooms of the Royal Horticul- 
tural Society of London, represents the royal gardener, Mr Rose, 
presenting on bended knee the first pine-apple grown in Britain, 
and it is surmised that this may have been grown from the 
"suckers" of the fruit above alluded to by Evelyn, though it is 
generally considered that the pine was not cultivated in England 
till 1712. For many years pine-apples were cultivated in large 
private gardens, but owing to the great developments in culture 
in the West Indies, the Azores, Canary Islands, &c., they are 
no longer cultivated in Britain or Europe. 

PINE BLUFF, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, 
Arkansas, U.S.A., situated at an altitude of about 200 ft. in the 
alluvial bottoms of the Arkansas river, about 107 m. from its 



mouth, and about 42 m. S. by E. of Little Rock. Pop. (1910), 
I5,ip2. It has an active river trade with St Louis, Memphis 
and New Orleans, and five railway outlets the Missouri Pacific 
and its branch, the Pine Bluff & Western, and the St Louis 
South-Western and its two branches, the Pine Bluff & Arkan- 
sas River and the Altheimer. The city has many schools, and a 
business college, the state normal school for negroes, and 
Merrill institute, endowed by Joseph Merrill of Pine Bluff with 
$100,000. Large quantities of cotton and lumber are shipped 
from the city. Among the manufactures are cotton-seed oil, 
lumber and staves, and furniture. Pine Bluff has shops of the 
St Louis South-Western railway. The city's factory products 
were valued at $2,989,242 in 1905, an increase of 94% over their 
value in 1900. Pine Bluff was laid out in 1832 and chartered 
as a city in 1885. 




Pine-apple (Ananas sativus) much reduced. 

PINEL, PHILIPPE (1745-1826), French physician, was born 
at the chateau of Rascas, Saint-Andre, in the department of 
Tarn, France, on the 2oth of April 1745- He studied at Lavaur 
and afterwards at the university of Toulouse, where he took his 
doctor's degree in 1773. From Montpellier he removed in 1778 
to Paris, engaging there chiefly in literary work connected with 
his profession. His first publication was a French translation 
of William Cullen's Nosology (1785); it was followed by an 
edition of the works of G. Baglivi (1788), and in 1791 he published 
a Trait6 medico-philosophique de I' alienation mentale. In 1792 
he became head physician of the Bicetre, and two years after- 
wards he received the corresponding appointment at the Salpfi- 
triere, where he began to deliver a course of clinical lectures; 
these formed the basis of his Nosographie phUosophique (1798; 
6th ed., 1818), which was further developed in La Mtdecine 
dinique (1802). Pinel was made a member of the Institute in 
1803, and soon afterwards was appointed professor of pathology 
in the Ecole de Medecine. His fame rests entirely upon the 
fact that he was among the first to introduce the humane treat- 
ment of the insane. He died at Paris on the 26th of October 
1826. 

PINERO, SIR ARTHUR WING (1855- ), English dramatist, 
was born in London on the 24th of May 1855, the son of John 
Daniel Pinero, a Jewish solicitor, whose family was of Portuguese 
origin, long established in London. A. W. Pinero was engaged 
in 1874 as an actor at the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, and came 
to London in 1876, to play at the Globe Theatre. Later in the 
year he joined the Lyceum company, of which he remained a 
member for five years. The first piece of his to see the footlights 



626 



PINEROLO PINK 



was 200 a year, played in October 1877 at the Globe Theatre 
for the benefit of Mr F. H. Macklin. The first play to make 
a hit was The Money Spinner (Theatre Royal, Manchester, 
Nov. 1880); but in The Squire (St James's Theatre, Dec. 1881) 
he attempted serious drama, and gave promise of the qualities 
of his later work. In 1883 and 1884 Pinero produced seven 
pieces, but the most important of his works at this period were 
the successful farces produced at the Court Theatre: The Magis- 
trate (March 1885), which ran for more than a year; The School- 
mistress (March 1886); Dandy Dick (Jan. i887),revivedinFebru- 
ary 1900; The Cabinet Minister (April 1890), and The Amazons 
(March 1893). Two comedies of sentiment, Sweet Lavender 
(Terry's, March 1888) and The Weaker Sex (Theatre Royal, Man- 
chester, Sept. 1888), met with success, and Sweet Lavender has 
enjoyed numerous revivals. With The Profligate (Garrick, 
April 1889) he returned to the serious drama which he had 
already touched on in The Squire. Out of deference to the 
wishes of John Hare the play was fitted with the conventional 
" happy ending," but the original denouement was restored, 
with great advantage to the unity of the play, in the printed 
version. The Second Mrs Tanqueray (St James's, May 27, 1893) 
dealt with the converse of the question propounded in The 
Profligate, but with more art and more courage. The piece 
aroused great discussion, and placed Pinero in the front rank 
of living dramatists (see DRAMA: Recent English). It was 
translated into French, German and Italian, and the part of 
Paula Tanqueray, created in the first place by Mrs Patrick 
Campbell, attracted many actresses, among others Eleonora 
Duse. His later plays were The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith 
(Garrick, March 13, 1895), The Benefit of the Doubt (Comedy, 
Oct. 1895), The Princess and the Butterfly (St James's, April 7, 
1897), Trelawney of the Wells (Court, Jan. 30, 1898), The Gay 
Lord Quex (Globe, April 8, 1899), Iris (Garrick, Sept. 21, 1901), 
Letty (Duke of York's, Oct. 8, 1903), A Wife Without a Smile 
(Wyndham's, Oct. 9, 1904), His House in Order (St James's, 
Feb. i, 1906), The Thunderbolt (St James's, May 9, 1908) and 
Mid-Channel (St James's, Sept. 2, 1909). Pinero was knighted 
in 1909. 

His Plays (u yols. 1891-1895) have prefaces by M. C. Salaman. 
See also H. Hamilton Fyfe, A. W. Pinero (1902). 

PINEROLO [PIGNEROL], a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, 
Italy, in the province of Turin. Pop. (1901), 12,608 (town); 
18,039 (commune). It is built on a hill-side just above the 
valleys of the Chisone and the Lemina, at a height of 1234 ft. 
above the sea, 24 m. by rail S.W. of Turin. The railway goes 
on to Torre Pellice; and steam tramways run from Pinerolo 
to Perosa, and to Cavour and Saluzzo. Till 1696 it was strongly' 
fortified with a citadel on Santa Brigida, a castle on S. Maurizio, 
and city walls constructed by Thomas I. of Savoy. It has a 
cathedral (St Donatus), the palace of the princes of Acaia and 
other buildings of some interest. Cotton, silk, wool and hemp 
are among the local manufactures. 

Pinerolo was bestowed on the bishops of Turin by Otto III. in 
996; but in 1078 the countess Adelaide made it over to the 
Benedictine abbey of Santa Maria, in whose possession it 
remained till 1159. Thomas I. of Savoy captured the castle 
in 1188, and in 1246 the commune formally recognized the 
supremacy of Savoy. Passing in 1295 into the hands of Philip, 
son of Thomas III., Pinerolo became his residence and capital, 
a distinction which it retained under Amadeus VIII. of Savoy. 
Francis I. of France obtained possession of the town in his 
descent into Italy, but Emmanuel Philibert received it back 
from Henry III. in 1574. A second occupation by the French 
occurred under Cardinal Richelieu; the French language was 
imposed on the people, great fortifications were constructed, and 
the fortress (Pignerol) was used as a state prison for such men as 
Fouquet, De Caumont and the Man with the Iron Mask (see 
IRON MASK). Victor Amadeus bombarded the place in 1693, 
and ultimately compelled Louis XIV. to relinquish his hold 
on it; but before the withdrawal of the French troops the 
defences were demolished. In 1748 the town was made a 
bishop's see. 



PIN-EYED, a botanical term for flowers which occur in two 
forms, one of which shows the stigma at the mouth of the corolla, 
as in the primrose; the term is contrasted with thrum-eyed. 

PING-PONG, or TABLE-TENNIS, a miniature variety of lawn- 
tennis played on a table, which may be of any size not less than 
5 \ ft. long by 3 ft. broad. Various attempts were made to adapt 
lawn-tennis to the house, but the real popularity of the game 
began when, near the close of the igth century, celluloid balls 
were introduced, and the game was called ping-pong from the 
sound of the balls as they were struck by the racket or rebounded 
from the table. In 190x3 the ball was improved and made 
heavier, and for the next two years ping-pong enjoyed a popular- 
ity never before attained by a game in so short a time, not only 
in Great Britain but in France, the British Colonies and America. 
Two leagues were formed, the " Table-Tennis Association " and 
the " Ping-Pong Association," whose laws were practically 
identical. The regular tournament table is 9 ft. long by 5 ft. 
broad, and the net is a little less than 7 in. high. The balls, 
which are of hollow celluloid, are about f in. in diameter. The 
racket has a blade, shaped like a lawn-tennis racket, about 6 in. 
long and a handle long enough to grasp comfortably, all in one 
piece. Rackets are made either wholly of wood covered with 
vellum, cork, sand-paper or rubber, or of light frames covered 
with vellum or some other material. The table was at first 
marked out in courts, but is now plain. It should be unpolished 
and stained. In serving, a player must stand directly behind 
his end of the table and use an underhand motion only. The 
ball must clear the net and strike the table anywhere on the 
other side. The game is then continued until the ball misses 
the table or fails to pass over the net. Only one service is 
allowed, except in case of a let. The scoring is the same as in 
lawn-tennis. 

See Ping-Pong, by Arnold Parker (London, 1902) ; Table Tennis, 
by A. Sinclair (London, 1902). 

PINK, in botany, the common name corresponding to a genus 
of Caryophyllacae, the Dianthus of botanists. It is characterized 
by the presence of simple leaves borne in pairs at the thickened 
nodes, flowers terminating the axis and having a tubular calyx 
surrounded by a number of overlapping bracts, a showy corolla 
of five free long-stalked petals, ten stamens proceeding, together 
with the petals, from a short stalk supporting the ovary, which 
latter has two styles and ripens into a cylindric or oblong pod- 
like one-chambered many-seeded capsule which opens at the 
apex by four cults or valves. The species are herbaceous 
perennials of low stature, often with very showy flowers. They 
are natives chiefly of southern Europe and the Mediterranean 
region, a few being found in temperate Asia and South Africa. 
Four species are wild in Britain. Of these, D. armeria, Deptford 
pink and D. delloides, maiden pink, are generally distributed, 
D. caesius, Cheddar pink, occurs only on the limestone rocks 
at Cheddar. Two others, D. plumarius and D. caryophyllus, 
are more or less naturalized, and are interesting as being the 
originals of the pinks and of the carnations and picotees of 
English gardens. Gard*en pinks are derivatives from Dianthus 
plumarius, a native of central Europe, with leaves rough at the 
edges, and with rose-coloured or purplish flowers. The use of 
pink " for a colour is taken from the name of the plant. 1 
The pink is a favourite garden flower of hardy constitution. 
It has been in cultivation in England since 1629, and is a great 
favourite with florists, those varieties being preferred which 

The etymology of "pink" is disputed; it may be connected 
with " to pink ' (apparently a naturalized form of " pick "), 
properly to prick or punch holes in material for the purpose of 
ornament, hence, later, to scallop or cut a pattern in the edge of 
the material. The flower has jagged edges to the petals, but the 




eyne " (Shakspeare Ant. and Cl. n. vii. 121); this word is seen in 
Dutch pinken, to blink, shut the eyes, and may be connected with 
" pinch." The French name for the flower, oeillet, little eye, may 
point to this derivation. The disease of horses, known as " pink- 
eye, a contagious influenza, is so-called from the colour of the 
inflamed conjunctiva, a symptom of the affection 



PINKERTON, A. PINKNEY 



627 



have the margin of the petals entire, and which are well marked 
in the centre with bright crimson or dark purple. Its grassy 
but glaucous foliage is much like that of the carnation, but the 
whole plant is smaller and more tufted. Pinks require a free 
loamy soil deeply trenched, and well enriched with cow-dung. 
They are readily increased by cuttings (pipings), by layers and 
by seed. Cuttings and layers should be taken as early in July 
as practicable. The former should be rooted in a cold frame or 
in a shady spot out of doors. When rooted, which will be about 
August, they should be planted 4 in. apart in a nursery bed, 
where they may remain till the latter part of September or the 
early part of October. The chief attention required during 
winter is to press them down firmly should they become lifted 
by frosts, and in spring the ground should be frequently stirred 
and kept free from weeds. The pink is raised from seeds, not 
only to obtain new varieties, but to keep up a race of vigorous- 
growing sorts. The seeds may be sown in March or April in 
pots in a warm frame, and the young plants may be pricked off 
into boxes and sheltered in a cold frame. They should be planted 
out in the early part of the summer in nursery beds, in which, 
if they have space, they may remain to flower, or the alternate 
ones may be transplanted to a blooming bed in September or 
the early part of October; in either case they will bloom the 
following summer. These will grow in any good garden soil, 
but the richer it is the better. 

The border varieties are useful for forcing during the early 
spring months. These are propagated from early pipings and 
grown in nursery beds, being taken up in October, potted in a 
rich loamy compost, and wintered in a cold pit till required for 
the forcing house. 

The following varieties are among the best. For borders and 
forcing: Ascot, Carnea, Delicata, Derby Day, Her Majesty, 
Hercules, Anne Boleyn, Lady Blanche, Mrs Sinkins, Mrs James 
Welsh, Pilrig Park, Rubens, Snowdon, Tom Welsh. Florists' 
show and laced varieties: Attraction, Beauty of Bath, Clara, 
Criterion, Ensign, Galopin, Harry Hooper, John Ball, Malcolm 
Dunn, Mrs D. Gray, Reliance, William Paul. 

The Carnation (q.v.) and Picotee are modifications of Dianthus 
Caryophyllus, the Clove Pink. This is a native of Europe, growing 
on rocks in the south, but in the north usually found on old walls. 
Its occurrence in England on some of the old Norman castles, 
as at Rochester, is supposed by Canon Ellacombe to indicate its 
introduction by the Normans; in any case the plant grows in 
similar situations in Normandy. The carnation includes those 
flowers which are streaked or striped lengthwise the picotees 
are those in which the petals have a narrow band of colour along the 
edge, the remainder of the petal being free from stripes or blotches. 
These by the old writers were called " gillyflowers." The Sweet 
William of gardens is a product from Dianthus barbatus. 

The Sea-Pink, or Thrift, Statice Armeria (Armeria vulgaris), is a 
member of the natural order Plumbagineae; it is a widely distributed 
plant found on rocky and stony sea-shores and on lofty moun- 
tains. There are many improved varieties of it now in cultivation, 
one with almost pure white flowers. 

PINKERTON, ALLAN (1810-1884), American detective, was 
born in Glasgow, Scotland, on the 25th of August 1819. His 
father, a sergeant of the Glasgow municipal police, died in 1828 
of injuries received from a prisoner in his custody. In 1842 
Allan emigrated to Chicago, Illinois. In 1843 he removed to 
Dundee, Kane county, Illinois, where he established a cooper- 
age business. Here he ran down a gang of counterfeiters, 
and he was appointed a deputy-sheriff of Kane county in 1846 
and immediately afterwards of Cook county, with headquarters 
in Chicago. There he organized a force of detectives to capture 
thieves who were stealing railway property, and this organization 
developed in 1852 into Pinkerton's National Detective Agency, 
of which he took sole charge in 1853. He was especially success- 
ful in capturing thieves who stole large amounts from express 
companies. In 1866 his agency captured the principals in the 
theft of $700,000 from Adams Express Company safes on a train 
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and recovered 
all but about $12,000 of the stolen money. In February 1861 
Pinkerton found evidence of a plot to assassinate President-elect 
Lincoln upon his arrival in Baltimore on his way to Washington; 
as a result, Lincoln passed through Baltimore at an early hour 
in the morning without stopping. In April 1861 Pinkerton, on 



the suggestion of General George B. McClellan, organized a 
system of obtaining military information in the Southern states. 
From this system he developed the Federal secret service, of 
which he was in charge throughout the war, under the assumed 
name of Major E. J. Allen. One of his detectives, James 
McParlan, in 1873-1876 lived among the Molly Maguires (q.v.) 
in Pennsylvania and secured evidence which led to the breaking 
up of the organization. In 1869 Pinkerton suffered a partial 
stroke of paralysis, and thereafter the management of the 
detective agency devolved chiefly upon his sons, William Allan 
(b. 1846) and Robert (1848-1907). He died in Chicago on the 
ist of July 1884. He published The Molly Maguires and the 
Detectives (1877), The Spy of the Rebellion (1883), in which he 
gave his version of President-elect Lincoln's journey to Washing- 
ton; and Thirty Years a Detective (1884). 

PINKERTON, JOHN (1758-1826), Scottish archaeologist, 
numismatist and author, was born at Edinburgh on the i7th 
of February 1758. He was articled as a law clerk in Edinburgh, 
and his Elegy on Craigmillar Castle (1776) was printed during 
his clerkship. In 1781 he removed to London to devote himself 
to literary work, publishing in the same year a volume of Rimes 
of no great merit, and Scottish Tragic Ballads. These were 
followed in 1782 by Two Dithyrambic Odes on Enthusiasm and 
Laughter, and by a series of Tales in Verse. Under the title of 
Select Scottish Ballads he reprinted in 1783 his tragic ballads, 
with a supplement comprising Ballads of the Comic Kind. 
Ritson pointed out in 1784 that the so-called ancient ballads 
were some of them of modern date, and Pinkerton confessed that 
he was the author of the second part of Hardy Kanute and part- 
author of some others. He published an Essay on Medals in 
1784, and in 1785, under the pseudonym of " Robert Heron," his 
bold but eccentric Letters of Literature depreciating the classical 
authors of Greece and Rome. In 1786 he edited Ancient Scottish 
Poems from the MS. collections of Sir Richard Maitland of Leth- 
ington a genuine reproduction. It was succeeded in 1787 by a 
compilation, under the new pseudonym of " H. Bennet," entitled 
The Treasury of Wit, and by his first important historical work, 
the Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or 
Goths, to which Gibbon acknowledged himself indebted. Pinkerton 
next collected and printed in 1789 certain Vitae sanctorum 
scotiae, and, a little later, published his Enquiry into the History 
of Scotland preceding the Reign of Malcolm III. His assertion 
that the Celtic race was incapable of assimilating the highest 
forms of civilization excited " violent disgust," but the Enquiry 
was twice reprinted, in 1794 and 1814, and is still of value for 
the documents embodied in it. His edition of Barbour's Bruce 
and a Medallic History of England to the Revolution appeared in 
1790; a collection of Scottish Poems reprinted from scarce 
Editions in 1792; and a series of biographical sketches, the 
Iconographia scotica, in the years 1795-1797. In 1797 he 
published a History of Scotland from the Accession of the 
House of Stuart to that of Mary, containing much valuable 
material. A new biographical collection, the Gallery of Eminent 
Persons of Scotland (1799), was succeeded after a short interval 
by a Modern Geography digested on a New Plan (1802; 
enlarged, 1807). About this time he left London for Paris, where 
he made his headquarters until his death on the loth of March 
1826. His remaining publications were the Recollections of Paris 
in the years 1802-3^-4-5 (1806); a very useful General Collection 
of Voyages and Travels (1808-1814); a New Modern Atlas (1808- 
1819); and his Petrology (1811). 

PINKNEY, WILLIAM (1764-1822), American lawyer and 
statesman, was born in Annapolis, Maryland, on the i7th of 
March 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and in 1788- 
1792 practised in Harford county. In 1788 he was a member 
of the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution 
for Maryland, in 1788-1792 and in 1 795 of the House of Delegates 
(where in 1788 and 1789 he defended the right of slave-owners 
to manumit their slaves), and in 1792-1795 of the state executive 
council. In 1796-1804 he was a commissioner under article 
7 of Jay's Treaty of 1794 to determine the claims of American 
merchants for damage through " irregular or illegal captures 



628 



PINNACE PINOCHLE 



or condemnations," and during this time adjusted on behalf of 
Maryland a claim of the state to stock in the Bank of England. 
In May 1806, with James Monroe, then minister at London, he 
was commissioned to treat with the British government con- 
cerning the capture of neutral ships in time of war; in 1807-1811, 
after Monroe's return to America, he was resident minister in 
London. He was elected to the Maryland senate in September 
1811, and from December 1811 to January 1814 was attorney- 
general of the United States. In August 1814 he was wounded 
at Bladensburg. He served in the National House of Repre- 
sentatives in January-April 1816, and in 1816-1818 was minister 
plenipotentiary to Russia and special minister to Naples, where 
he attempted to secure indemnity for the losses to American 
merchants by seizure and confiscation during the rule of Murat 
in 1809. From 1820 until his death, at Washington, on the 25th 
of February 1822, he was a member of the United States Senate. 
He was a member of the conference committee on the bill for 
the admission of Maine and Missouri, which in its final form 
embodied what is known as the Missouri Compromise. Pinkney 
was a remarkably able lawyer and an orator of the old school. 

See The Life of William Pinkney (New York, 1853) by his nephew, 
William Pinkney (1810-1883), who was Protestant Episcopal 
bishop of Virginia in 1879-1883; and Henry Wheaton, Some Account 
of the Life, Writings, and Speeches of William Pinkney (New York, 
1828). 

PINNACE, the name of two types of vessel or boat, one a light 
sailing vessel with two schooner-rigged masts, the other a heavy 
eight-oared man-of-war's boat. The word is usually referred 
to Lat. pinus, pine, but this derivation is at variance with the 
earlier form " spinace." 

PINNACLE (from Lat. pinnaculum, a little feather, pinna; 
the Gr. irrtpvyiov, diminutive of xrepuij, wing, is also used in 
this sense), an architectural ornament originally forming the 
cap or crown of a buttress or small turret, but afterwards used 
on parapets at the corners of towers and in many other situations. 
Some writers have stated that there were no pinnacles in the 
Romanesque styles, but conical caps to circular buttresses, with 
finial terminations, are not uncommon in France at very early 
periods. Viollet-le-Duc gives examples from St Germer and St 
Remi, and there is one of similar form at the west front of 
Rochester Cathedral. In the 12th-century Romanesque two ex- 
amples have been cited, one from Bredon in Worcestershire, and 
the other from Cleeve in Gloucestershire. In these the buttresses 
run up, forming a sort of square turret, and crowned with a 
pyramidal cap, very much like those of the next period, the 
Early English. In this and the following styles the pinnacle 
seems generally to have had its appropriate uses. It was a 
weight to counteract the thrust of the vaults, particularly where 
there were flying buttresses; it stopped the tendency to slip of 
the stone copings of the gables, and counterpoised the thrust 
of spires; it formed a pier to steady the elegant perforated 
parapets of later periods; and in France especially served to 
counterbalance the weight of overhanging corbel tables, huge 
gargoyles, &c. In the Early English period the small buttresses 
frequently finished with gablets, and the more important with 
pinnacles supported with clustered shafts. At this period the 
pinnacles were often supported on these shafts alone, and were 
open below; and in larger work in this and the subsequent 
periods they frequently form niches and contain statues. About 
the Transition and during the Decorated period, the different 
faces above the angle shafts often finish with gablets. Those 
of the last-named period are much richer, and are generally 
decorated with crockets and finials, and sometimes with ball- 
flowers. Very fine groups are found at Beverley Minster and 
at the rise of the spire of St Mary's, Oxford. Perpendicular 
pinnacles differ but little from Decorated, except that the 
crockets and finials are of later character. They are also 
often set angle-ways, particularly on parapets, and the shafts 
are panelled. In France pinnacles, like spires, seem to have 
been in use earlier than in England. There are small pin- 
nacles at the angles of the tower in the abbey of Saintes. At 
Roullet there are pinnacles in a similar position, each com- 
posed of four small shafts, with caps and bases surmounted with 



small pyramidal spires. In all these examples the towers have 
semicircular-headed windows. 

PINNOCK, WILLIAM (1782-1843), English publisher and 
educational writer, was born at Alton, Hampshire, on the 3rd 
of February 1782, and was at first a schoolmaster, then a book- 
seller. In 1817 he went to London and, in partnership with 
Samuel Mander, began to publish cheap educational works. 
The firm's first productions were a series of Catechisms, planned 
by Pinnock, consisting of short popular manuals, arranged in 
the form of question and answer, of the different departments 
of knowledge. They were followed by abridged editions of 
Goldsmith's histories of England, Greece and Rome, and a series 
of county histories which were no less profitable. Pinnock lost 
nearly all his money in outside speculation, and died in London 
on the 2ist of October 1843. His son, William Henry Pinnock 
(1813-1885), a clergyman, was the editor and author of several 
elementary textbooks and scriptural manuals, and of various 
works on ecclesiastical law and usage. 

PINOCHLE, or PENUCHLE (Ger. Pinochet or Binochd, of 
uncertain etymology), a game of cards probably invented by 
Germans in the United States about the middle of the igth 
century. It bears a general resemblance to Bezique (?..), 
and has almost entirely usurped the place of the older game in 
America. Pinochle may be played by two, three or four 
persons. Two packs, from which all cards below the nines have 
been deleted, are shuffled together, forming one pack of 48 
cards. The object of the game is to make 1000 points. The 
cards rank as follows: ace u, ten 10, king 4, queen 3, knave 2. 
The nine counts nothing unless it be turned for trumps, when it 
scores 10. The last trick scores 10. The term " to meld " 
(Ger. melden, to announce), as used in pinochle, means " to 
declare." " Melds " are combinations which are declared 
during the play of the hands. They are of three classes: (i) 
" marriages " and " sequences," (2) " pinochles," and (3) 
" fours." The " melds " of the first class score as follows: 
" marriage " (king and queen of any plain suit), 20; " royal 
marriage " (king and queen of trumps), 40; " sequence " (the 
five highest trumps), 150. In the second class the " melds " 
are " pinochle " (queen of spades and knave of diamonds), 40; 
" double pinochle " (both queens of spades and knaves of 
diamonds), 300; " grand pinochle " (king and queen of spades 
and knave of diamonds), 80; this " meld " is not often played 
in America. Of the third class the " melds " are: four aces of 
different suits, 100; four kings of different suits, 80; four queens 
of different suits, 60; four knaves of different suits, 40; eight 
aces, 1000; eight kings, 800; eight queens, 600; eight knaves, 
400. 

In single pinochle (two players) each player receives twelve 
cards, four at a time, the twenty-fifth being turned up beside the 
stock for trumps. The non-dealer leads a card, to which the dealer 
plays. There is no obligation either to take, follow suit or trump. 
The winner of the trick leads again, before which, however, he may 
" meld " any one combination he holds. After he has " melded, 
or refused to do so, he draws a card from the top of the stock and 
adds it to his hand without showing it, his adversary doing the 
same, so that each player continues to hold twelve cards. Playing, 
announcing, and drawing then go on until the stock is exhausted. 
All combinations " melded " must be laid face upward on the table 
but still belong to the player's hand, though they may not be taken 
up until the stock has given out. When this happens all announce- 
ments cease, and all cards exposed are replaced in the hands. The 
last twelve tricks are then played, but now both players must 
follow suit and must win the trick if possible, either with a superior 
card or a trump. A failure to do this is a " revoke " and is 
penalized by the loss of all points made by " cards," i.e. for the 
five highest cards in each suit, which after all the tricks have been 
played, are counted for the player holding them. Ace counts II 
points, ten 10, king 4, queen 3, and knave 2, whatever the suit, 
so that 240 points for ' cards " are divided between the two players. 
Though points are not counted during the play, a mental count is 
kept, and whenever a player sees that, by adding the value of his 
" melds " to what he thinks his cards will count, he has enough 
to win the game, namely 1000 points, he " calls out " or knocks on 
the table, and proceeds to expose his cards. If he fails to show 
enough to win, he loses the game. If neither player knocks, the 
game continues until one of them scores 1250; if still a tie, 1500. 
If a player fails to make good a " meld " he is set back that number 
of points. The game is scored by counters or on a cribbage-board 



PINSK PINTO 



In three-handed pinochle the " melds " are exposed before a 
card is played, and no player may "meld" after he has playec 
to the first trick. A ruie is sometimes made that an overlookec 
combination may be scored by the other players. Four-handec 
pinochle is played either with partners or each player for himself. 

PINSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Minsk, 
at the confluence of the Strumen and Pina rivers, 196 m. S.W. 
by rail of Minsk. Pop., 27,938, two-thirds being Jews. The 
town carries on considerable trade, due to the navigable river 
Pina, which connects it with the fertile regions in the basin of the 
Dnieper, and, by means of the Dnieper-and-Bug canal, with 
Poland and Prussia, while the Oginsky canal connects it with 
the basin of the Niemen. Pottery, leather, oil, soap and beer 
are the chief products of the local industries. The draining of 
the marshes around Pinsk was begun by the government in 
1872, and by 1897 8,000,000 acres had been drained at an average 
cost of 33. per acre. Pinsk (Pinesk) is first mentioned in 1097 as 
a town belonging to Sviatopolk, prince of Kiev. In 1132 it 
formed part of the Minsk principality. After the Mongol 
invasion of 1239-42 it became the chief town of a separate 
principality, and continued to be so until the end of the I3th 
century. In 1320 it was annexed to Lithuania; and in 1569, 
after the union of Lithuania with Poland, it was chief town of 
the province of Brest. During the rebellion of the Cossack 
chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki (1640), the Poles took it by assault, 
killing 14,000 persons and burning 5000 houses. Eight years 
later the town was burned by the Russians. Charles XII. took 
it in 1706, and burned the town with its suburbs. Pinsk was 
annexed to Russia in 1795. 

PINSUTI, CIRO (1829-1888), Anglo-Italian composer, was 
born at Siena, and was educated in music, for a career as a 
pianist, partly in London and partly at Bologna, where he was 
a pupil of Rossini. From 1848 he made his home in England, 
where he became a teacher of singing, and in 1856 he was made 
a professor at the Academy of Music in London. He became 
well known as a composer of numerous favourite songs and 
part-songs, as well as of three operas brought out in Italy, and 
it is by the former that he is still remembered. 

PINT (derived probably through Spanish, from Lat. pincta, 
picta, a painted or marked vessel), a liquid measure of capacity, 
equivalent to i of a gallon. The imperial British pint = -57 of 
a litre, 34-66 cub. in. The United States standard pint =-47 
of a litre, 28f cub. in. The word appears in French as pints 
for a liquid measure as early as the i3th century. 

PINTO, ANfBAL (1825-1884), Chilean president, was born at 
Santiago, Chile. After a diplomatic training in the legation at 
Rome he learned the practice of administration as intendente 
of Concepcion, and from 1871 to 1876 was minister of war and 
marine under Errazuriz. During his term of office as president 
(1876 to 1881) Pinto had to deal first with a severe financial 
crisis, and then to conduct the struggle with Peru and Bolivia, 
in which he displayed great coolness of judgment and devotion 
to duty. 

PINTO, FERNAO MENDES (1509-1583), Portuguese adven- 
turer, was born at Montem6r-o-Velho, of poor and humble 
parents, and entered the service of a noble lady in Lisbon, being 
afterwards for two years page to the duke of Aveiro in Setubal. 
Desiring to try his fortune in the East, he embarked for India 
in 1537 in a fleet commanded by the son of Vasco da Gama, and 
for twenty-one years travelled, fought and traded in China, 
Tartary, Pegu and the neighbouring countries, sailing in every 
sea, while in 1542-1543 he was one of the [first Europeans to 
visit Japan, where he introduced the musket. Though he was 
thirteen times a captive and seventeen times sold into slavery, 
his gay and dauntless spirit brought him through every mis- 
fortune. He was soldier and sailor, merchant and doctor, 
missionary and ambassador; moreover, as the friend and travel- 
ling companion of St Francis Xavier, he lent the apostle of the 
Indies the money with which to build the first Jesuit establish- 
ment in Japan. In January 1554 Mendes Pinto was in Goa, 
waiting for a ship to take him to Portugal, when he took a sudden 
resolution to enter the company of Jesus and devote a large part 
of the capital he had accumulated to the evangelization of Japan. 



629 



The viceroy appointed him ambassador to the king of Bungo 
in order to give the mission an official standing, and on the i8th 
of April he set sail with the provincial, Father Belchior Nunes. 
Owing to bad weather and contrary winds, however, the mis- 
sioners did not reach Japan until July 1556, but the success of 
the mission represented a notable service to the cause of Chris- 
tianity and civilization. On the i4th of November 1556 Father 
Belchior and Mendes Pinto began their return voyage and reached 
Goa on the I7th of February 1557. During his stay of a twelve- 
month there, the latter left the company, being dispensed from 
his vows for want of vocation at his own request, though a 
modern authority states that he was expelled because he was 
found to be a marrano, i.e. to possess Jewish blood. He finally 
returned to Portugal on the 22nd of September 1558, and settled 
at Pragal near Almada, where he married and wrote his famous 
book, the Peregrination; the MS., in fulfilment of his wishes, 
was presented by his daughter to the Casa Pia for penitent 
women in Lisbon, and it was published by the administrators 
in 1614. When Philip II. of Spain came to Portugal as its 
king, he listened with pleasure to the account of Mendes 
Pinto's travels, and by letter of the isth of January 1583 
gave him a pension for his services in the Indies. But 
the reward came too late, for the great traveller died on the 
8th of July. 

In the light of our present-day knowledge of the East, Pinto 
is regarded as having been on the whole a careful observer and 
truthful narrator, but this was not always the case. Some witty 
countryman of his own parodied his name into Fernao, menles? 
Mintol ("Ferdinand, do you lie? I do!"); and the English 
dramatist Congreve only expressed the general opinion of the 
unlearned when he wrote in Love for Love " Mendez Pinto was 
but a type of thee, thou liar of the first magnitude." It must 
be remembered that Pinto wrote the Peregrination long sub- 
sequent to the events he records, and this fact and a certain 
fertility of imagination sufficiently account for inexactitudes. 
Furthermore, as the book was only published posthumously, 
he never had the opportunity of correcting the proofs. Some of 
his most marvellous stories are expressly given on the authority 
of writers belonging to the countries he describes; others he 
tells from hearsay, and Oriental informants are prone to ex- 
aggeration. But if he somewhat adorned the truth, he did not 
wilfully misrepresent it. The book itself gives the impression 
of sincerity, and the editors of the first edition bear witness to 
the probity, good faith and truthfulness of Mendes Pinto as a 
man. Herrera Maldonado prefaced his Spanish translation of 
the Peregrination (1620) by a lengthy and erudite apology to 
demonstrate its authenticity, and Castilho has reinforced his 
arguments by modern testimonies. In the narrative portions 
of his work Pinto's style is simple, clear and natural, his diction 
rich, particularly in sea terms, and appropriate to his varying 
subjects. There is an entire absence of artifice about the book, 
which must always rank as a classic, and it might fairly be argued 
that Mendes Pinto did for the prose of Portugal what Camoens 
did for its poetry; this is the more remarkable, because it does 
not appear that he ever received any education in the ordinary 
sense. He wrote the book for his children to learn to read by, 
and modestly excused its literary defects by alleging his rudeness 
and lack of talent. Tradition has it that the MS. was entrusted 
to the chronicler Francisco de Andrade for the purpose of being 
polished in style and made ready for press, but that all he did 
was to divide it into chapters. 

The Peregrination has gone through many editions subsequent 
o that of 1614, and in 1865 Castilho published excerpts in his 
^tvraria classica portugueza with an interesting notice of Mendes 
^into's life and writings. Versions exist in German (3 editions), 
Drench (3 editions), Spanish (4 editions), and in English by Henry 
-ogan, London (1663, 1692 and abridged and illustrated, with 
ntroduction by Arminius Vambe'ry 1891). Cogan omits the 
chapters relating to Mendes Pinto's intercourse with, and the last 
days of, St Francis Xavier, presumably as a concession to anti- 
Catholic prejudice. 

See Christovao Ayres, Fernao Mendes Pinto (Lisbon, 1904). 
v ernao Mendes Pinto e o Japao (Lisbon, 1906) ; also Subsidies . . . 
para a biographia de Fernao Mendes Pinto by Jordao de Freitas 
Coimbra, 1905). (E. PR.) 



630 



PINTO PINTURICCHIO 



PINTO. The remarkable brown, black and blue spots of 
discoloration of the whole body met with endemically in Mexico, 
Panama, Colombia and Venezuela, and known under the 
name of " pinto" or " mal de los pintos," were first claimed by 
Gastambide (Presse med. Beige, 1881, Nos. 33-41) as due to 
the presence of a vegetable parasite, whose spores and even 
mycelial filaments may be detected among the deeper rows of 
cells of the rete mucosum. The disease appears to be one 
of the many forms of morbus miseriae; but it is contagious, and 
is sometimes seen in the well-to-do. In some villages of the 
western districts of Tabasco (Mexico) it has been estimated 
that 9% of the inhabitants suffer from the pinto; M'Clellan 
says that in 1826 in the City of Mexico he saw a whole regiment 
of " pintados." 

PINTURICCHIO (1454-1513), Italian painter, whose full name 
was BERNARDINO DI BETTI, the son of a citizen of Perugia, 
Benedetto or Betto di Biagio, was one of a very important group 
who inherited the artistic traditions and developed the style of 
the older Perugian painters, such as Bonfigli and Fiorenzo di 
Lorenzo. According to Vasari he was a pupil of Perugino; and 
so in one sense no doubt he was, but rather as a paid assistant 
than as an apprentice. The strong similarity both in design 
and methods of execution which runs through the works of this 
later Perugian school is very striking; paintings by Perugino, 
Pinturicchio, Lo Spagna and Raphael (in his first manner) may 
often be mistaken one for the other. In most cases, especially 
in the execution of large frescoes, pupils and assistants had a 
large share in the work, either in enlarging the master's sketch 
to the full-sized cartoon, in transferring the cartoon to the wall, 
or in painting backgrounds, drapery and other accessories. 
After assisting Perugino in the execution of his frescoes in the 
Sistine Chapel, Pinturicchio was employed by various members 
of the Delia Rovere family and others to decorate a whole series 
of chapels in the church of S. Maria del Popolo in Rome, where 
he appears to have worked from 1484, or earlier, to 1492 with 
little interruption. The earliest of these is an altarpiece of the 
" Adoration of the Shepherds," in the first chapel (from the west) 
on the south, built by Cardinal Domenico della Rovere; a portrait 
of the cardinal is introduced as the foremost of the kneeling 
shepherds. In the lunettes under the vault Pinturicchio painted 
small scenes from the life of St Jerome. The frescoes which he 
painted in the next chapel, that built by Cardinal Innocenzo Cibo, 
were destroyed in 1700, when the chapel was rebuilt by Cardinal 
Alderano Cibo. The third chapel on the south is that of Giov. 
della*Rovere, duke of Sora, nephew of Sixtus IV., and brother 
of Giuliano, who was afterwards Pope Julius II. This contains 
a fine altarpiece of the " Madonna enthroned between Four 
Saints," and on the east side a very nobly composed fresco of 
the " Assumption of the Virgin." The vault and its lunettes 
are richly decorated with small pictures of the life of the Virgin, 
surrounded by graceful arabesques; and the dado is covered 
with monochrome paintings of scenes from the lives of saints, 
medallions with prophets, and very graceful and powerfully 
drawn female figures in full length in which the influence 
of Signorelli may be traced. In the fourth chapel Pintu- 
ricchio painted the Four Latin Doctors in the lunettes of the 
vault. Most of these frescoes are considerably injured by 
damp, but happily have suffered little from restoration; the 
heads are painted with much minuteness of finish, and the whole 
of the pictures depend very largely for their effect on the final 
touchings a secco. The last paintings completed by Pinturicchio 
in this church were the frescoes on the vault over the retro-choir, 
a very rich and well-designed piece of decorative work, with 
main lines arranged to suit their surroundings in a very skilful 
way. In the centre is an octagonal panel of the coronation of 
the Virgin, and round it medallions of the Four Evangelists the 
spaces between them being filled up by reclining figures of the 
Four Sibyls. On each pendentive is a figure of one of the Four 
Doctors enthroned under a niched canopy. The bands which 
separate these pictures have elaborate arabesques on a gold 
ground, and the whole is painted with broad and effective 
touches, very telling when seen (as is necessarily the case) from 



a considerable distance below. No finer specimen of the decora- 
tion of a simple quadripartite vault can anywhere be seen. 

In 1492 Pinturicchio was summoned to Orvieto, where he 
painted two Prophets and two of the Doctors in the duomo. In 
the following year he returned to Rome, and was employed by 
Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia) to decorate a suite of six rooms 
in the Vatican, which Alexander had just built. These rooms, 
called after their founder the Apparlamenti Borgia, now form 
part of the Vatican library, and five of them still retain the fine 
series of frescoes with which they were so skilfully decorated 
by Pinturicchio. The upper part of the walls and vaults, not 
only covered with painting, but further enriched with delicate 
stucco work in relief, are a masterpiece of decorative design 
applied according to the truest principles of mural ornament a 
much better model for imitation in that respect than the more 
celebrated Stanze of Raphael immediately over the Borgia 
rooms. The main subjects are: (il the Annunciation, the 
Nativity, the Magi, and the Resurrection; (2) Scenes from the 
lives of St Catherine, St Antony and other saints; (3) allegorical 
figures of music, arithmetic and the like; (4) four figures in half 
length, with rich arabesques; (5) figures of the planets, the 
occupations of the various months, .and other subjects. The 
sixth room was repainted by Perino del Vaga. 1 

Though not without interruption, Pinturicchio, assisted by 
his pupils, worked in these rooms from 1492 till 1498, when they 
were completed. His other chief frescoes in Rome, still existing 
in a very genuine state, are those in the Cappella Bufalini at the 
south-west of S Maria in Ara Coeli, probably executed from 
1497 to 1500. These are well-designed compositions, noble in 
conception, and finished with much care and refinement. On 
the altar wall is a grand painting of St Bernardino of Siena 
between two other saints, crowned by angels; in the upper part 
is a figure of Christ in a vesica-glory, surrounded by angel 
musicians; on the left wall is a large fresco of the miracles done 
by the corpse of St Bernardino, very rich in colour, and full of 
very carefully painted heads, some being portraits of members 
of the Bufalini family, for whom these frescoes were executed. 
One group of three females, the central figure with a child at her 
breast, is of especial beauty, recalling the grace of Raphael's 
second manner. The composition of the main group round the 
saint's corpse appears to have been suggested by Giotto's paint- 
ing of St Francis on his bier in S. Croce at Florence. On the 
vault are four noble figures of the Evangelists, usually attributed 
to Luca Signorelli, but certainly, like the rest of the frescoes in 
this chapel, by the hand of Pinturicchio. On the vault of the 
sacristy of S. Cecilia in Trastevere, Pinturicchio painted the 
Almighty surrounded by the Evangelists. During a visit to 
Orvieto in 1496 Pinturicchio painted two more figures of the 
Latin Doctors in the choir of the duomo now, like the rest of 
his work at Orvieto, almost destroyed. For these he received 
fifty gold ducats. 

Among his panel pictures the following are the most important. 
An altarpiece for S Maria de' Fossi at Perugia, painted in 
1496-1498, now moved to the picture gallery, is a Madonna 
enthroned among Saints, graceful and sweet in expression, and 
very minutely painted; the wings of the retable have standing 
figures of St Augustine and St Jerome; and the predella has 
paintings in miniature of the Annunciation and the Evangelists. 
Another fine altarpiece, similar in delicacy of detail, and probably 
painted about the same time, is that in the cathedral of San 
Severino the Madonna enthroned looks down towards the 
kneeling donor. The angels at the sides in beauty of face and 
expression recall the manner of Lorenzo di Credi or Da Vinci. 
The Vatican picture gallery has the largest of Pinturicchio's 
panels the Coronation of the Virgin, with the apostles and 
other saints below. Several well-executed portraits occur among 
the kneeling saints. The Virgin, who kneels at Christ's feet to 
receive her crown, is a figure of great tenderness and beauty, and 
the lower group is composed with great skill and grace in arrange- 
ment. Other important panel paintings by Pinturicchio exist 

"See Guattani, Quadri nell' appart. Borgia (Rome, 1820). 



PINWELL PINZON 



631 



in the cathedral of Spello, in the Siena gallery, at Florence, at 
Perugia, and in other collections. 

In 1501 Pinturicchio painted several fine frescoes in S. Maria 
Maggiore at Spello all very decorative and full of elaborate 
architectural accessories. One of them, the Annunciation, is 
signed " Bernardinvs Pintvrichivs Pervsinvs." The most striking 
of all Pinturicchio's frescoes, both for brilliance of colour and 
their wonderful state of preservation, are those in the cathedral 
library at Siena, a large room built in 1495 by Cardinal 
Francesco Piccolomini, afterwards Pius III. In 1502 the 
cardinal contracted with Pinturicchio to decorate the whole 
room with arabesques on the vault, and on the walls ten 
scenes from the life of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Pius II., the 
uncle of Cardinal Francesco. 

The contract specially provided that the cartoons, their trans- 
ference on to the walls, and all the heads, were to be by Pinturic- 
chio's own hand, thus contradicting Vasari's assertion that the 
cartoons were the work of Raphael. The document provides for the 
price of these frescoes, namely one thousand gold ducats, to be 
paid in various instalments. The work was begun early in 1503, 
but was interrupted for a while by the death of Pius III. His 
will, however, provided for the completion of the work by his 
executors, and the whole series were finished in 1507. The subjects 
are (l) the journey of the young Sylvius Piccolomini to the Council 
of Basel, in the suite of Cardinal Capranica; (2) his reception by 
James I. of Scotland as envoy from the Council of Basel ; (3) his being 
crowned with the poet's laurel by Frederick III.; (4) his reception 
by Pope Eugenius IV. as ambassador from Frederick III. ; (5) outside 
the wall of Siena he presents to Frederick III. his bride Leonora, 
infanta of Portugal; (6) he receives the cardinal's hat from Pope 
Calixtus III. ; (7) he is borne in procession after his election as Pope 
Pius II.; (8) he presides at a council at Mantua; (9) he canonizes 
St Catherine of Siena; (10) he arrives in Ancona to promote the 
crusade against the Turks. In addition to these there is, outside 
the library, over the door, the coronation of Pius III. In the 
lower part of the scene of St Catherine's canonization he has intro- 
duced his own portrait, and standing by him is a youth who bears 
some resemblance to Raphael. 

In 1508 Pinturicchio painted another panel of the Madonna 
enthroned among saints for the church of the Minori Conventual! 
at Spello. It is now over the altar in the sacristy. On his 
return to Siena he painted a whole series of frescoes on the walls 
of the Palazzo Petrucci, now all destroyed except one scene of 
the return of Ulysses to Penelope (or possibly Collatinus and 
Lucretia), which is now in the National Gallery of London, 
transferred to canvas. One of his last works, painted in 1513, 
the year of his death, is a very beautiful and highly finished 
panel with Christ bearing His Cross, now in the Palazzo Bor- 
romeo in Milan. Pinturicchio married Crania di Niccolo, and 
had by her two sons and four daughters; there is probably no 
truth in the story of his being starved by his wife during his last 

illness. 

Pinturicchio's worth as a painter has been for the most part 
undervalued, partly owing to the very strong prejudice and dislike 
which tinges Vasari's biography of him. Even Crowe and Caval- 
caselle hardly did him justice. A fairer estimate of his position 
in the history of art is given by Vermiglioli, Memorie di Pinturic- 
chio (Perugia, 1837); and in the valuable notes and appendix of 
Milanesi's edition of Vasari, iii. 493-531 (Florence, 1878). See also 
Schmarsow, Raphael und Pinturicchio in Siena (Stuttgart, 1880), and 
Pinturicchio in Rom (Stuttgart, 1882), both well illustrated by 
photo-lithography. (J- H. M.) 

PINWELL, GEORGE JOHN (1842-1875), British water-colour 
painter, was born at Wycombe, and educated at Heatherley's 
Academy. He is one of the most interesting personalities in 
the little group of water-colour painters which included Frederick 
Walker and A. B. Houghton, a group whose style was directly 
derived from the practice of drawing upon wood for book 
illustration. He was one of the most delightful book illustrators 
of his day, poetic in imagination, with considerable inventive 
power and an admirable sense of colour. As he died young his 
works are few, but their promise was so great that had he lived 
he would probably have attained a very high position. His 
early life was one of considerable privation. In 1862 he entered 
at Heatherley's studio and there obtained his art education. 
His earliest drawings appeared in Lilliput Levee. He did a little 
work for Fun and executed several designs for the silversmiths, 
Elkingtons. In 1863 his first drawing appeared in Once a Week, 



and from that time his work was in constant demand. There 
are many of his compositions in Good Words, The Sunday 
Magazine, The Quiver and London Society, but his most important 
productions made for the Dalziel brothers were illustrations of 
Goldsmith, of Jean Ingelow's poems, Robert Buchanan's Ballads 
of the Affections, and the Arabian Nights. 

Of Pinwell's pictures in colour, which are distinguished by a 
remarkable, jewel-like quality and marked by his strong love 
of pure, bright colour and opalescent effect, the chief are the 
two scenes from the Pied Piper of Hamelin, Gilbert a Becket's 
Troth, Out of Tune or The Old Cross, A Seat in St James's Park, 
and The Elixir of Life. 

In 1874 Pinwell fell seriously ill and went to Africa for the 
winter. He painted several remarkable pictures at Tangier, 
but his strength gradually broke down and he returned to die in 
his wife's arms on the 8th of September 1875. Pinwell was an 
exhibitor at the Dudley gallery, and in 1869 was elected associate 
of the Royal Water-Colour Society and full member in 1870; 
to this gallery he contributed fifty-nine works. A posthumous 
exhibition of his works was held in 1876 in Bond Street. 

See Life of George J. Pinwell, by George C. Williamson, quarto, 
1900. (G. C. W.) 

PINZON, a family of wealthy Spanish navigators, of Palos 
in Andalusia, three members of which Martin Alonzo, Francisco 
and Vicente Yahez, brothers were associated with Columbus 
in the discovery of America. 

MARTIN ALONZO PINZON, born about the middle of the isth 
century, gave material assistance to Columbus in carrying out 
his project. " If Colon was the head, Pinzon was the right arm " 
(Asensio). In the expedition of 1492 he commanded the " Pinta," 
on which his brother Francisco was pilot; another brother, 
Vicente Yafiez, commanded the " Nina." On the 6th of 
October Martin Alonzo suggested to Columbus (when already 
in the longitude of the Bermudas) to change the course of the 
expedition from due west to south-west; on the 7th of October 
this suggestion strengthened by the observation of a flight 
of birds to the south-west was adopted, bringing the fleet, four 
days later, to the landfall at Guanahani (San Salvador, Watling 
Island) in the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492). On the 2ist of Novem- 
ber 1492, near the east end of the north coast of Cuba, Martin 
Alonzo left Columbus, making eastward in search of the 
gold-land of which they had heard the natives speak. On the 
6th of January 1493 he rejoined the admiral, who accepted his 
excuses. But on the return journey he again left his leader, 
and when Columbus arrived at Palos on the i5th of March 1493 
he learned that Alonzo had already landed at Bayona in Galicia. 
If his object was to forestall Columbus and pose as discoverer of 
the New World, he was foiled; audience was refused him by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella; and soon after he died, perhaps of chagrin. 

VICENTE YANEZ PINZON, who commanded the " Nina" in 
1492-1493, also gave Columbus material help, and remained 
loyal to his leader throughout. In after years he made important 
discoveries on his own account. Late in December 1499 he 
sailed with four caravels across the Atlantic to the south-west, 
and on the 7th of February 1500 he struck the South American 
continent at Cape S. Agostinho, near its most easterly projection 
(called by him Cape Santa Maria de la Consolacion) almost three 
months before the Portuguese navigator Cabral reached Brazil, 
the discovery of which is generally attributed to him. Proceed- 
ing southwards a short distance, he then turned north, followed 
the coast to the north-west, discovered the Amazon estuary, 
and went at least as far as what is now Costa Rica. After touch- 
ing at Haiti, and losing two of his vessels among the Bahamas, 
Vicente returned to Palos in the end of September 1500. 
Although concessions were made to him, and he was created 
governor of the newly discovered lands by Ferdinand and 
Isabella, he does not seem to have ever taken possession. In 
1 507 we find Vicente sailing with Juan Diaz de Solis along the 
east coast of Central America. In 1509, again with De Solis, 
he coasted the Atlantic side of South America as far as the La 
Plata estuary, hoping to find an opening westwards leading to 
the Spice Islands. According to Herrera,he even reached 40 S., 



632 



PIO DI SAVOIA PIOZZI 



passing the La Plata without recognizing it, and turning back 
about the mouth of the Rio Negro, but this is probably an 
exaggeration. After 1523 all traces of Vicente are lost. 

See Navarrcte, Coleccion de viajes; Washington Irving's Columbus, 
Bk. XIV., ch. ii. ; bibliography in Joaquim Caetano da Silva's 
LOyapoc et I'Amazone (Paris, 1861); Herrera, Indias Occid., Dec. I., 
lib. vi. cap. 17: lib. vii., caps. I and 9 (Madrid, 1730); Oviedo, 
Hist, general dt las Indias, lib. xxiii. cap. I (Madrid, 1852); O. 
Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, pp. 230, 233, 249 (Munich, 1865); 
Zeilalter der Entdeckungen, pp. 305, &c., 426; Jose Maria Asensio, 
Cristoval Colon, su vida, sus viajes, sus descobrimientos (Barcelona, 
1891) ; Cesareo Fernandez Duro, Colon e Pinzon. 

PIO DI SAVOIA, an ancient noble Italian family, first men- 
tioned by good authorities in the I4th century. From the house 
of Este (q.v.) they received the lordship of Carpi, and later they 
acquired the fiefs of Meldola, Sassuolo, &c. Many members of 
the family were distinguished as condottieri, diplomats and 
ecclesiastics. Alberto Pio obtained from the house of Savoy 
in 1450 the privilege of adding " di Savoia" to his name as a 
reward for his military services. Another Alberto Pio (1475- 
1531), who was French ambassador in Rome, won fame as a man 
of learning, and Cardinal Rodolfo Pio (1516-1564) was a trusted 
adviser to Pius III. and helped to establish the Inquisition at 
Milan. Ascanio Pio (d. 1649) was a dramatic poet of some merit. 
Spain conferred the title of prince on the family, and one branch 
of it is to this day established in Spain. 

See P. Litta, Le Famiglie celebri italiane (Milan); G. Campori 
Memorie storiche di Marco Pio di Savoia (Modena, 1876) ; A. Ceriani 
and G. Porro, " II Rotolo epistografo dei principi Pio di Savoia," in 
the Archivio storico lombardo, ser. II. an. XI. fasc. I, ser. III. an. 
VIII. 96, and ser. III. an. XIX. 453. 

PIOMBINO, a seaport of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of 
Pisa, 8 m. by rail W.S.W. of Campiglia Marittima (which is 53 m. 
S.S.E. of Pisa), 62 ft. above sea-level, at the southern extremity 
of the peninsula of the Monte Massoncello. Pop. (1901), 5979 
(town); 7703 (commune). It is surrounded by old walls, and 
contains some interesting Renaissance works by a master of 
about 1458 under the influence of Alberti. It is the port of 
embarcation for Elba, the nearest point of which is about 6 m. 
to the south-west, and originally belonged to Pisa. It gives 
the title of prince to the Buoncompagni Ludovisi family, who, 
however, no longer own it. 

PIONEER, properly a foot-soldier (Med. Lat. pedo, pedonis, 
through 0. Fr. peonnier, pionnier, cf. " pawn ") who with spade, 
axe and other implements, precedes an army or smaller military 
body, and clears or makes a road, digs intrenchments, prepares 
a camping ground, &c. The word is thus applied to all who, 
actually or figuratively, are first in exploring or working an 
undiscovered or undeveloped country or field of inquiry. 

PIOTRKOW (Ger. Petrikau), a government of Russian Poland, 
bounded by the government of Warsaw on the N., Radom and 
Kielce on the E., Kalisz on the W. and Prussian Silesia on the S. 
Area, 4729 sq. m.; pop. (1906, estimate), 1,675,200. Geologically 
it represents a continuation of Upper Silesia, and is built up of 
Upper Carboniferous deposits, containing near Bendzin a bed 
of coal 265 sq. m. in extent. Permian and Jurassic deposits, 
containing zinc ores, as also lignite and limonite iron ores, overlie 
the Carboniferous. The surface consists of a series of heights, 
1000 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, intersected by ravines, and 
stretching from south-west to north-east. The government is 
drained by the Warta and the Pilica, and was formerly covered 
with thick forests. It was colonized by Mazurs and Poles 
(Veliko-Polyans and Malo-Polyans). The government, which 
is the most densely peopled in the Russian Empire, is divided 
into eight districts, of which the chief towns are Piotrkow, 
Bendzin, Brzeziny, Czenstochowa, Lask, Lodz, Nowo-Radom and 
Rawa. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are extensively carried on; 
and coal and iron are mined. Textile industries developed with 
extraordinary rapidity during the closing years of the igth and 
the opening years of the 2oth centuries, the towns of Lodz, 
Pabianice, Zgerz and Bendzin all being important centres. 
Other branches of productive industry are distilleries, breweries, 
flour-mills, brickyards, sugar, cement, glass and candle factories. 
Granica and Sosnowice, in this government, are two of the most 



important custom-houses in Russia, and the annual trade is 
estimated at 12,000,000. 

PIOTRKOW, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the govern- 
ment of the same name, and formerly the seat of the high court 
of Poland, on the railway from Warsaw to Vienna, 90 m. south 
west of the former and 5 Hi. west of the river Pilica. Pop. (1900), 
32,173. It is a well-kept town, with numerous gardens, and has 
flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, agricultural machinery works, 
and breweries. One of the oldest towns in Poland, Piotrkow 
was in the isth and i6th centuries the place of meeting of the 
diets, and here the kings were elected. In the i4th century 
Casimir the Great built here a castle (now a military church) 
and surrounded the town with walls. Here in 1 769 the Russians 
defeated the (Polish) forces of the Bar Confederation. 

PIOZZI, HESTER LYNCH (1741-1821), English writer, well 
known as the friend (Mrs Thrale) of Samuel Johnson (q.v.), was 
born on the i6th of January 1741, her father being John Salus- 
bury of Bobbel, Carnarvonshire. Her maternal uncle, Sir 
Robert Salusbury Cotton, contemplated providing for his niece, 
but he died without having carried out his intention. She and 
her mother lived in London, and amongst her childish recollec- 
tions were meetings with James Quin and David Garrick. She 
received a solid education, for she was acquainted with Latin 
as well as with French, Italian and Spanish. In 1763 she was 
married to Henry Thrale, a rich Southwark brewer, whose house 
was at Streatham on the south-east corner of Tooting Bee 
Common. There was very little sympathy between the lively 
girl and Thrale, who was thirteen years her senior, but gradually 
she drew round her a distinguished circle of friends. She was 
introduced to Samuel Johnson in 1765 by Arthur Murphy, who 
was an old friend of her husband's. In 1766 Johnson paid a long 
visit to Streatham, and from that time was more or less domesti- 
cated with the Thrales. In time it became his custom to spend 
the middle of the week at Streatham, devoting the remaining 
days to his own heterogeneous " family." He was genuinely 
attached to his hostess, and thoroughly appreciated the luxury 
in which the Thrales lived. They were able to soften some of 
his eccentricities, and they certainly made him happy. He 
travelled with them in Wales in 1774, and in France in 1775. 
Dr Burney gave lessons to one of the Miss Thrales, and in 1778 
he brought his daughter Fanny to Streatham. She became a 
warm friend of Mrs Thrale, and has left an account of the 
Streatham household in her diary. This friendship was by no 
means always unclouded. Fanny Burney was very sensitive, 
and sometimes thought that Mrs Thrale gave herself airs of 
patronage. Meanwhile, in 1772, Thrale's business was seriously 
injured, and he was threatened with bankruptcy. The situation 
was saved by his wife's efforts, and in the next year Thrale 
travelled, leaving her in charge of his affairs. He was twice 
returned for the borough of Southwark, chiefly through her 
efforts. In 1781 Mr Thrale died, and Dr Johnson helped the 
widow with her business arrangements, advising her to keep on 
the brewery, until she " cured his honest heart of its incipient 
passion for trade, by letting him into some, and only some, of 
its mysteries." The brewery was finally sold for 135,000. 
Mrs Thrale had met Gabriele Piozzi, an Italian musician, in 1780. 
Johnson was now in failing health, and soon began to feel himself 
slighted. His suspicions were definitely aroused when she laid 
aside her mourning for Thrale in 1782, and the Streatham house 
was sold. In 1783 her engagement to Piozzi was announced. 
The objections of her daughters and her friends induced her 
to break it off for a time, but it was soon resumed, and in 1784 
they were married. Johnson told Miss Burney that he drove 
the memory of Mrs Thrale from his mind, burning every letter 
of hers on which he could lay his hand. The Piozzis presently 
left England to travel in Italy. At Florence they fell in with 
Robert Merry and the other " Delia Cruscan" writers ridiculed 
by William Gifford in his Maeviad and Baviad, and she con- 
tributed some verses to their Florence Miscellany in 1785. In 
1786 she published Anecdotes of the late Samuel Johnson, during 
the last twenty years of his life, which was severely criticized by 
BoswelL She was ridiculed by " Peter Pindar " in Bozzy and 



PIPE 



633 



Piozzi; or Hie British Biographers, A Town Eclogue (1786). 
But though Miss Burney and some others held aloof, the Piozzis 
found plenty of friends when they returned to London in 1787. 
Piozzi died at Brynbella, a villa he had built on his wife's 
Carnarvonshire estate in 1809, and Mrs Piozzi gave up her 
Welsh property to her husband's son, and spent most of the rest 
of her life at Bath and Clifton. When long past seventy she took 
a fancy to William Augustus Conway, the actor. She retained 
her vivacity to the last, celebrating her 8oth birthday by a ball 
to six or seven hundred people at Bath. She died at Clifton 
on the 2nd of May 1821. 

From 1776 to 1809 she kept a note-book which she called 
" Thraliana." Her well-known poem of the "Three Warnings" 
is to be found in many popular collections. Letters to and from the 
late Samuel Johnson appeared in 1788; Observations and Reflections 
made in the course of a Journey, through France, Italy and Germany, 
in 1789; and in 1 80 1 she published Retrospection; or a review of the 
most striking and important events, characters, and situations "... 
which the last eighteen hundred years have presented to the view of 
mankind (1801). 

See Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs Piozzi (Thrale), edited 
with notes and an Introductory Account of her Life and Writings 
by A. Hayward (1861); Piozziana; or Recollections of the late Mrs 
Piozzi by a Friend (1833), the anonymous friend being Edward 
Mangin (1772-1852); L. B. Seeley, Mrs Thrale, afterwards Mrs 
Piozzi . . . (1891), and G. Birkbeck Hill, Johnsonian Miscellanies 
(1897). Also works noted in bibliography to JOHNSON, SAMUEL 

PIPE, a term used of a musical wind-instrument of tubular 
form, and hence of any cylindrical hollow tube. The original 
application of the term is to the musical instrument (see PIPE 
AND TABOR below), and the source is to be found in Lat. pipare, 
to chirp, of a bird. The general meaning of " pipe," in the sense 
of a tube for such purposes as carrying water, gas, sewage, &c., is 
treated under TUBE. Among specific uses of the word are those 
for the hollow stem of clay, wood or other material with a bowl at 
one end in which tobacco is smoked (see below) ; for the metal or 
wooden sound tubes in an organ (q.v.) ; and for various forms of 
cylindrical veins, hollows, channels, &c., in mining and geology. 
The Great Roll of the Exchequer was known as the "Pipe 
Roll "; this contained the various " pipes" or enrolled accounts 
of the sheriffs, &c., which were so called either from being sent 
in a cylindrical case or as resembling a pipe in shape when 
rolled (see RECORDS). 

Tobacco Pipe. The smoking of tobacco in pipes is a custom 
which prevailed in America for a period of unknown duration 
previous to the discovery of that continent by Columbus. The 
most ancient pipes of which remains exist have been found in 
mounds or tumuli called pipe mounds, principally in Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. These mound pipes, which are 
carved in porphyry and other hard stones, are very uniform in 
type. The pipe, cut out of a single piece of stone, consists of a 
slightly convex platform or base, generally from 3 to 4 in. in 
length, and about an inch broad, with the bowl on the centre. A 

fine hole is pierced from one 
end of the platform to the 
bottom of the bowl, the 
opposite end being obviously 
for holding in the hand while 
the pipe is being smoked. 
In the commonest forms the 
bowl is a simple cylinder or 
urn (fig. i), but in many cases remarkable artistic skill has 
been displayed in carving the bowls into miniature figures of 
birds,mammals,reptiles and 
human heads, often gro- 
tesque and fantastic, but 
always vigorously expressed 
(fig. 2). These mound or 
platform pipes with carved 
humanandanimal formsare 
objects of the highest ethno- 
graphic interest and im- 




FlG. i. " Monitor " Pipe. 




portance, being among the 



FIG. 2. Heron Pipe. 



most characteristic remains of the ancient inhabitants of the 
Mississippi valley. The wide area over which they, as well as 



remains of baked clay pipes, are found throughout the American 
continent testifies to the universal prevalence of smoking in the 
pre-Columbian era. Many of the ancient clay pipes found in 
Mexico, &c., are elaborately moulded and ornamented, while 
others show considerable similarity to the early clay pipes of 
Europe. Among the North-American Indian tribes the tobacco 
pipe occupies a position of peculiar symbolic significance in 
connexion with the superstitious rites and usages of the race. 
The calumet, peace pipe or medicine pipe, is an object of the 
most profound veneration, entrusted to the care of a highly 
honoured official, and produced and smoked with much ceremony 
only on occasions of great importance and solemnity. It is 
remarkable that, whilst the most ancient American pipes had 
no separate stem, it is the stem only of the medicine pipe which 
is the object of veneration among the Indians, the bowl used 
being a matter of indifference. The favourite material for 
Indian pipe bowls is the famous red pipe stone (catlinite), a 
fine-grained easily-worked stone of a rich red colour of the 
Coteau des Prairies, west of the Big Stone Lake in S. Dakota. 
The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring 
Indian tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the 
locality and its product. 

It is disputed whether pipes for smoking were at all known 
in Europe previous to the discovery of America. That tobacco- 
smoking was unknown is certain; but pipes of iron, bronze and 
clay have been so frequently found associated with Roman 
remains and other antiquities as to lead many authorities to 
maintain that such pipes must have been anciently used for 
burning incense or for smoking aromatic herbs or hemp. Through- 
out Great Britain and Ireland small clay pipes are frequently 
dug up, in some instances associated with Roman relics. These 
are known amongst the people as elfin, fairy or Celtic pipes, and 
in some districts supernatural agencies have been called in to 
account for their existence. The elfin pipes have commonly 
flat broad heels in place of the sharp spur now found on clay 
pipes, and on that flat space the mark or initials of the maker 
is occasionally found. There is no reason to believe that these 
pipes are older than the i7th century. The introduction of the 
tobacco pipe into Europe is generally ascribed to Ralph Lane, 
first governor of Virginia, who in 1586 brought an Indian pipe 
to Sir Walter Raleigh, and taught that courtier how to use the 
implement. The pipe-makers of London became an incorporated 
body in 1619, and from England the other nations of Europe 
learned the art of making clay pipes. 

The habit of smoking with pipes spread with incredible 
rapidity; and among the various peoples the pipe assumed special 
characteristics, and its modifications became the medium of 
conveying social, political and personal allusions, in many cases 
with no little artistic skill and humour. The pipe also became 
the object of much inventive ingenuity, and it varied as greatly 
in material as in form wood, hern, bone, ivory, stone, precious 
and other metals, amber, glass, porcelain and, above all, clay 
being the materials employed in various forms. By degrees 
pipes of special form and material came to be associated with 
particular people, e.g. the elongated painted porcelain bowls 
and pendulous stem of the German peasantry, the red clay bowl 
and long cherry wood stem of the Turk, and the very small 
metallic bowl and cane stem of the Japanese, &c. Among other 
kinds of pipe which have been popular at various times are the 
" corn-cob," where the bowl is made of the cob of maize or 
Indian corn, and the " calabash " with the bowl of a small gourd. 
The " churchwarden " is a clay pipe with a slender stem, some 
16 or 20 in. long. The most luxurious and elaborate form of 
pipe is the Persian kalytin, hookah or water tobacco pipe. This 
consists of three pieces, the head or bowl, the water bottle or 
base, and the snake or long flexible tube ending in the mouthpiece. 
The tobacco, which must be previously prepared by steeping 
in water, is placed in the head and lighted with live charcoal, a 
wooden stem passes from its bottom down into the water which 
fills the base, and the tube is fitted to a stem which ends in the 
bottle above the water. Thus the smoke is cooled and washed 
before it reaches the smoker by passing through the water in 



634 



PIPE AND TABOR PIPER 



the bottle, and by being drawn through the coil of tube fre- 
quently some yards in length. The bottles are in many cases 
made of carved and otherwise ornamented coco-nut shells, 
whence the apparatus is called ndrglla, from nargU, a coco- 
nut. Silver, gold, damascened steel and precious stones are 
freely used in the making and decoration of these pipes for 
wealthy smokers. 

Pipe Manufacture. The regular pipe-making industries divide 
into many branches, of which the more important are the clay pipe, 
meerschaum (real and artificial), and wooden bowl trades. Clay 
pipes are made in prodigious numbers by hand labour with an iron 
mould and a steel wire for forming the tube of the stem. Pipe- 
moulding is a very simple operation in pottery, and the work is 
performed with astonishing celerity. A number of machines have 
been devised for automatic pipe-moulding; but the manual opera- 
tions are so rapid and inexpensive that there is little margin for 
saving by the substitution of machinery. The pipes are very 
slightly fired so as to keep them soft and porous; and so cheaply 
made are they that the commoner kinds can be retailed at a profit 
for a farthing each. The principal early centres of the clay-pipe 
industry were at Broseley in Staffordshire, where the trade has been 
established since the early part of the I7th century, and at Amesbury 
in Wiltshire. The manufacture is still carried on at Broseley. 
Meerschaum pipes (see MEERSCHAUM) are the luxury of the European 
smoker. The favourite wooden pipe generally known as a briar- 
wood or briar-root pipe is really made from the roots of the tree 
heath, Erica arborea (Fr. bruyere), principally obtained on the 
hills of the Maremma and taken thence to Leghorn. There the 
roots are shaped into blocks each suitable for a pipe, the cutting 
of the wood so as to avoid waste requiring considerable skill. These 
blocks are simmered in a vat for twelve hours, which gives them 
the much-appreciated yellowish-brown hue of a good " briar-root." 
So prepared the blocks are exported for boring and finishing. Many 
devices have been invented for the purpose of preventing the 
nicotine liquor from reaching the smoker's mouth or collecting in 
and fouling the pipe. 

PIPE AND TABOR (Fr. galoubet; Ger. Schwegel or Stamen- 
tienpfeiff), a popular medieval combination of a small pipe or 
flageolet, and a small drum. The pipe consists of a cylindrical 
tube of narrow bore, pierced with three holes, two in front and 
one at the back, all very near the end of the pipe; and of a 
mouthpiece of the kind known as whistle, fipple or beak common 
to the flutes d, lee or recorder family. The compass of this 
instrument, with no more than three holes, exceeds two octaves 
in the hands of a good player, and is chromatic throughout. 
The fundamental notes of the open pipe and of the three holes 
cannot be produced; the scale consists, therefore, entirely of 
harmonics, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th of the series being easily 
obtained, and, by half stopping the holes, also the semitones 
which are required to complete the chromatic scale. The 
tabor being fastened to the performer's left elbow, the hands 
remained free, the right beating the little drum with a stick to 
mark the rhythm, while the left held and fingered the pipe with 
thumb and first two fingers. 

Mersenne mentions a wonderful virtuoso, John Price, who could 
rise to the twenty-second on the galoubet. Praetorius mentions 
and figures three sizes of the Stamentienpfeiff, the treble 20 in. 
long, the tenor 26 in. and the bass 30, the last being played by 
means of a crook about 23 in. long. A specimen of the bass 
in the museum of the Brussels Conservatoire has for its lowest 
note middle C. _ The pipe and tabor are said to be of Provencal 
origin ; it is certain that they were most popular in France, England 
and the Netherlands, and they figure largely among the musical and 
social scenes in the illuminated MSS. of those countries. (K. S.) 

PIPE-FISHES (Syngnathina), small fishes, which with the Sea- 
horses form a distinct family, Syngnathidae, of Lophobranchiate 




FIG. I. Syngnathus acus, Male, with sub-caudal pouch. 
Thoracostei. The name is derived from the peculiar form of their 
snout, which is produced into a more or less long tube, ending in a 




narrow and small mouth which opens upwards and is toothless. 
The body and tail are long and thin, snake-like, encased in hard 
integuments which are divided into regularly arranged segments. 
This dermal skeleton shows several longitudinal ridges, so that 
a vertical section through the body represents an angular figure, 
not round or oval as in the majority of other fishes. A dorsal 
fin is always present, and is the principal 
(in some species, the only) organ of 
locomotion. The ventral fins are as 
constantly absent, and the other fins 
may or may not be developed. The 
gill-openings are extremely small and 
placed near the upper posterior angle 
of the gill-cover. Most of the pipe- 
fishes are marine, only a few being 
fluviatile. Pipe-fishes are abundant on 
sucK coasts of the tropical and temperate 
zones as offer by their vegetation shelter 
to these defenceless creatures. They 
are very bad swimmers, slowly moving 
through the water by means of the rapid 
undulatory movement of the dorsal fin. 
Their tail, even when provided with a 
caudal fin, is of no use in swimming, 
and not prehensile as in sea-horses. Speci- 
mens, therefore, are not rarely found at 
a great distance from land, having been 
resistlessly carried by currents into the 
open ocean; one species, Syngnathus 
pelagicus, has an extraordinarily wide 
range over the tropical seas, and is one 
of the common fishes inhabiting the 
vegetation of the Sargasso Sea. The 
colour of these fishes often changes with 
the sea-weeds among which they may be 
found, passing from brown to green or 
even brick-red. In pipe-fishes the male 
is provided with a pouch in some species 
on the abdomen, in others on the lower 

side of the tail in which the ova are lodged during their 
development. This marsupial pouch is formed by a fold of 
the skin developed from each side of the trunk or tail, the free 
margins of the fold being firmly united in the median line 
throughout the period during which the eggs are being hatched. 
When the young are hatched the folds separate, leaving a wide 
slit, by which the young gradually escape when quite able to 
take care of themselves. Nearly a hundred different species of 
pipe-fishes are known, of which Siphonostoma typhle, Syngnathus 
acus (the Great Pipe-fish up to 18 in. in length), Nerophis 
aequoreus (Ocean Pipe-fish), Nerophis ophidian (Straightnosed 
Pipe-fish), and Nerophis lumbricijormis (Little Pipe-fish) are 
British species. The last three are destitute of a caudal fin. 

A review of the extensive literature on the breeding habits of the 
Syngnathidae is given by E. W. Gudger, " The Breeding habits and 
the Segmentation of the Egg of the Pipefish," Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
(1905), xxix. 447. 

PIPER, CARL, COUNT (1647-1716), Swedish statesman, was 
born at Stockholm on the 2gth of July 1647. He entered the 
foreign office after completing his academical course at Upsala, 
accompanied Benedict Oxenstjerna on his embassage to Russia 
in 1673, and attracted the attention of Charles XI. during the 
Scanian War by his extraordinary energy and ability. In 1679 he 
was appointed secretary to the board of trade and ennobled. In 
1689 he was made one of the secretaries of state, and Charles XI. 
recommended him on his deathbed to his son and successor, 
Charles XII. Piper became the most confidential of the new 
sovereign's ministers. In 1697 he was made a senator and set 
over domestic affairs while still retaining his state-secretaryship. 
In 1698 he was created a count, in 1702 appointed chancellor 
of Upsala University, and during the first half of the Great 
Northern War, as the chief of Charles's perambulating chancel- 
lery, he was practically prime minister. It was his misfortune, 
however, to be obliged to support a system which was not his 



FIG. 2. Sub-caudal 
pouch of Syngnathus 
acus, with the young 
ready to leave the 
pouch. One side of 
the membrane of the 
pouch is pushed aside 
to admit of a view 
of its interior. (Nat. 



PIPERAZIN PIPPIN 



635 



own. He belonged to the school of Benedict Oxenstjerna and 
was therefore an avowed advocate of a pacific policy. He 
protested in vain against nearly all the military ventures of 
Charles XII., e.g. the War of Deposition against Augustus of 
Saxony and Poland, the invasion of Saxony, the raid into the 
Ukraine. Again arid again he insisted that the pacific overtures 
of Peter the Great should at least be fairly considered, but his 
master was always immovable. Piper's career came to an end 
at Poltava (1709), where he was among the prisoners. The last 
years of his life were spent in exile in Russia. He died at 
Schliisselburg on the 2pth of May 1716. 

See W. L. Svedelius, Count Carl Piper (Stockholm, 1869). 

(R. N. B.) 

PIPERAZIN, a substance formed by the action of sodium 
glycol on ethylene-diamine hydrochloride, consisting of small 
alkaline deliquescent crystals with a saline taste and soluble 
in water. It was originally introduced into medicine as a 
solvent for uric acid. When taken into the body the drug is 
partly oxidized and partly eliminated unchanged. Outside 
the body piperazin has a remarkable power of dissolving uric 
acid and producing a soluble urate, but in clinical experience 
it has not proved equally successful. Lycetol, lysidine and 
sidonal are bodies having similar action. 

PIPERINE, Ci 7 Hi 9 NO 3 , an alkaloid found in the fruits of 
Piper nigrum and P. longum. It forms white prisms, which 
melt at i28-2ig. It is almost insoluble in water, but readily 
soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a very weak base, salts being 
only formed with mineral acids, and these are dissociated by 
water. Alcoholic potash decomposes it into piperidine, CsHnN, 
and piperic acid, CizHioO^ The constitution of piperic acid 
was elucidated by R. Fittig and his pupils (Ann., vols. 152, 159, 
168, 216, 227) and shown to be (i). Piperine consequently 
is (2). 

'\ 



CH ; 




H:CH-CH:CH-COOH 



(i) 



CH:CH-CO-N(CH 2 ) 5 



(2)- 



<X3l 

\O I J CH:CH- 

Oxidation with potassium permanganate converts piperic acid 
into piperonal, CsHeOs, and piperonylic acid, CsHeO^. The latter 
when heated with hydrochloric acid to 170, or water to 200, 
separates carbon with the formation of protocatechuic acid, 
l-2-dioxy-3-benzoic acid, C 6 Hs(OH) 2 COOH. Conversely, by 
heating protocatechuic acid with potash and methylene iodide, 
piperonylic acid was regained. These results show that pipero- 
nylic acid is the methylene ether of protocatechuic acid. 
Piperonal (q.v.) is the corresponding aldehyde. Piperic acid differs 
from piperonylic acid by the group C 4 H 4 , and it was apparent that 
these carbon atoms must be attached to the carbon atom which 
appears in the carboxyl group of piperonylic acid, for if they were 
directly attached to the benzene ring polycarboxylic acids would 
result in oxidation. The above formula for piperic acid was con- 
firmed by its synthesis by A. Ladenburg and M. Scholtz (Ber., 1894, 
27, p. 2958) from piperonyl acrolein (the condensation product of 
piperonal and acetaldehyde) and acetic acid. The synthesis of 
piperine follows from the interaction of piperyl chloride (formed 
from piperic acid and phosphorus pentachlonde) and piperidine 
(L. Rugheimer, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 1390.) 

PIPERNO (anc. Privernum), a. town of the province of Rome, 
Italy, 61 m. S.E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901), 6736. The 
medieval town was founded in the icth century (?) on a hill 
490 ft. above sea-level, by refugees from the Roman town of 
Privernum, lower down (118 ft. above sea-level) on the highroad, 
ij m. to the north, at the mouth of a low pass leading through 
the Volscian mountains to the valley of the Sacco. Here are 
remains of an arch crossing the road and other ruins (mostly 
buried) of the Roman period; but the remains above ground 
are largely medieval. It is improbable, however, that the 
ancient Volscian town should have occupied so easily accessible 
a site; it is not unlikely that it stood on the site occupied by 
the medieval and modern town, but there is no proof of this. 
Privernum was a Volscian town, and took up arms against 
Rome after the foundation of a Latin colony at Setia in 382 B.C. 
It was finally captured in 329 B.C., and eleven years later the 



tribus Oufentina was founded, taking its name from the river 
Oufens (mod. Uffente) in the territory of Privernum. Little 
is known of it subsequently. The medieval town has a pic- 
turesque piazza, with a Gothic cathedral (1283), which pre- 
serves a fine porch, though the interior was modernized 
in 1782; a Gothic palazzo pubblico; and other Gothic 
churches exist in the town. Polygonal terrace walls of the 
Roman or pre-Roman period exist at various places in the 
vicinity (G. B. Giovenale and L. Mariani in Notizie degli Scan, 
1899,88). (T.As.) 

PIPERONAL (heliotropine, protocatechuic aldehyde methylene 
ether), C 8 H 6 O3, an aromatic aldehyde. It is prepared by 
oxidizing piperic acid with potassium permanganate (R. Fittig, 
Ann., 1869, 152, p. 35); by condensing methylene iodide with 
protocatechuic aldehyde (R. Wegscheider, Monats., 1893, 14, 
p. 388) ; or by oxidizing isosafrol with chromic acid. It forms long 
colourless crystals which melt at 37 C. and boil at 263 C. It 
has an agreeable smell, resembling that of heliotrope, and is 
much used in perfumery. It is only slightly soluble in cold 
water, but is readily soluble in alcohol and in ether. When 
heated with dilute hydrochloric acid to 200 C. it yields proto- 
catechuic aldehyde, C 7 H 6 O3, and carbon. It readily combines 
with sodium bisulphite and with various bases (ammonia, 
aniline, methylamine, &c.). 

PIPIT (cognate with the Lat. Pipio; see PIGEON), the name 
applied by ornithologists to a group of birds having a great 
resemblance both in habits and appearance to the larks (q.v.). 
They differ however from larks in several important characters, 
and, having been first separated to form the genus Anthus, 
which has since been much broken up, are now generally asso- 
ciated with the wagtails (q.v.) in the Passerine family Motacillidae. 
Pipits, of which over fifty species have been described, occur in 
almost all parts of the world, but in North America are repre- 
sented by only two species Neocorys spraguii, the prairie-lark 
of the north-western plains, and Anthus ludovicianus, the 
American titlark, which last is very nearly allied to the so-called 
water-pipit of Europe, A. spipoletta. To most English readers 
the best known species of pipit is the titlark or meadow-pipit, 
A . pratensis, a bird too common to need description, and abundant 
on pastures, moors, and uncultivated districts generally; but 
in some localities the tree-pipit, A. trivialis, or A. arboreus of 
some authors, takes its place, and where it does so it usually 
attracts attention by its loud song, which is not unlike that 
of a canary, but delivered (as appears to be the habit of all the 
pipits) on the wing and during a short circuitous flight. Another 
species, the rock-lark, A. obscurus, scarcely ever leaves the sea- 
coast and is found almost all round the British Islands. The 
South-African genus Macronyx, remarkable for the extreme 
length of its hind claw, is generally placed among the pipits, 
but differs from all the rest in its brighter coloration, which 
has a curious resemblance to the American genus Sturnella 
(see ICTERUS) , though the bird is certainly not allied thereto. 

(A. N.) 

PIPPIN, or PEPIN, the name of three members of the Caro- 
lingian family. 

PIPPIN I. (d. 640), incorrectly called Pippin of Landen, was 
mayor of the palace to the youthful Dagobert I., whom 
Clotaire II. had placed over the kingdom of Austrasia. He was 
disgraced when Dagobert became sole king in 629, and had to 
seek refuge in Aquitaine. Returning at Dagobert's death (639), 
he governed Austrasia in Sigebert's name, but died in the 
following year. 

PIPPIN II. (d. 714), incorrectly called Pippin of Herstal, 
was son of Adalgiselus (son of Arnulf, bishop of Metz) by a 
daughter of Pippin I., called in later documents Begga. Towards 
678 he placed him=elf at the head of the great nobles in Austrasia 
to combat Ebroln, the mayor of the palace, and Neustria. After 
some reverses he gained a great victory after Ebrom's death 
at the battle of Tertry, not far from St Quentin. This victory 
made Pippin almost entire master of Gaul. He appointed 
one of his sons mayor of the palace of Neustria, reserving for 
another of his sons the mayoralty of Austrasia. He made war 



6 3 6 



PIPRAWA 



on the Frisians and defeated their duke Radbod; and part of 
this people became converts to Christianity. He also defeated 
Willari, the duke of the Alamanni, and subdued his country. 
The Bavarians, too, recognized the Prankish suzerainty. The 
plans he had formed for reforming the church and convoking 
councils were interrupted by his death, which took place on 
the i6th of December 714. 

PIPPIN III. (d. 768), the Short, 1 was son of Charles Martel. 
Before his death in 741 Charles Martel had divided the Prankish 
kingdom between his two sons, Carloman and Pippin, giving 
Carloman the eastern part and Pippin the western. Since 737 
there had been no king in the Prankish realm; in the diplomas 
the two brothers bear the title of majores palatii, while the 
chroniclers call them simply principes. In 743, however, the 
mayors decided to appoint a king in the person of Childeric III., 
who was apparently connected with the Merovingian family. 
But Childeric was a mere figure-head, and had no power. 
The two brothers presided over the tribunals, convoked 
the councils at which the Prankish Church was reformed, 
assembled the host and made war, jointly defeating and subdu- 
ing Duke Hunald of Aquitaine. In 747 Carloman unexpectedly 
abdicated, became a monk, and retired to a monastery near 
Rome, subsequently founding on Mt Soracte the monastery 
of St Silvester. From the time of the abdication Pippin 
was sole master; and in 751, after consulting Pope Zacharias, 
he took the title of king and removed the feeble Childeric 
to a monastery. He then got himself crowned by St Boniface, 
a ceremony which was new to France and which gave the 
sovereign immense prestige; henceforth the king of the Franks 
called himself Gratia Dei rex Francnrum. Pippin's reign is 
marked by many important events. He received in France a 
personal visit from Pope Stephen II., who conferred on him the 
title of Patrician of the Romans and recrowned him. In return 
for these honours Pippin, at the appeal of the pope, made two 
expeditions into Italy, in 754 and 756; and he became the 
veritable creator of the papal state by conferring on the pope 
the exarchate of Ravenna, which he had wrested from Aistulf, 
the king of the Lombards. Pippin took Septimania from the 
Arabs, and after a stubborn war of nearly eight years' duration 
(760-68) succeeded in taking Aquitaine from its duke, Waifer. 
He also intervened in Germany, where he forced the duke of 
Bavaria, Tassilo, to become his vassal. In 763, however, 
Tassilo abandoned Pippin during an expedition against Aqui- 
taine. Pippin made several expeditions against the Saxons, 
but failed to subdue them. He entered into relations with the 
Eastern Empire, exchanging ambassadors with the emperor 
Constantine Copronymus. During Pippin's reign Prankish 
institutions underwent some modification. The Prankish 
assemblies, previously held in the month of March (champs de 
mars), but under Pippin deferred to May (champs de mat), 
came to be more numerous, and served the king of the Franks 
as a means of receiving the gifts of his subjects and of promul- 
gating his capitularies. At the head of the administration was 
placed the archchaplain, and an ecclesiastical chancellor was 
substituted for the ancient referendarius. Ecclesiastical reform 
was continued under Pippin, Bishop Chrodegans of Metz 
uniting the clergy of Metz in a common life and creating 
canons (see CANON). Pippin died on the 24th of September 
768 at St Denis, leaving two sons, Charles (Charlemagne) and 
Carloman. 

See H. Bonnell, Die Anfange des karolingischen Hauses (Berlin, 
1866); H. Hahn, Jahrbiicher des frankischen Reiches 741-752 (Berlin, 
1863); L. Oelsner, Jahrlriicher des frankischen Reiches unter Konig 
Pippin (Leipzig, 1871); J. F. Bohmer and E. Muhlbacher, Regeslen 
des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (2nd ed., 1899); and E. 
Muhlbacher, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern (Stuttgart, 
1896)- (C. PF.) 

PIPRiWA, a village on the Birdpur estate in the Basti district, 
United Provinces, India. It lies on the Uska-Nepal road at 
mile 10-75; and about half a mile south of the boundary pillar 
numbered 44 on the frontier line between British and Nepalese 

'A surname given to Pippin III. on the strength of a legendary 
anecdote related by the monk of St Gall. 



territory. The village is celebrated as the site of the following 
discovery: 

In 1896 interest having been aroused by the discovery, only 
twelve miles away, of the Buddha's birthplace (see LUMBINI), 
William Peppe, then resident manager of the Birdpur estate, 
opened a ruined tope or burial mound situate at Piprawa, but 
nothing of importance was found. In January 1897 he carried 
the work of excavation farther. A well, 10 ft. sq., was dug 
down the centre of the mound. After digging through 18 ft. 
of solid brickwork set in clay a massive stone coffer was found 
lying due magnetic north and south. Its dimensions were, 
4 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 8| in. and 2 ft. 2j [in. high. The stone lid 
of the coffer was split into four pieces; but the coffer remained 
perfectly closed, so accurately was the lid fitted into flanges 
on the sides of the box. The pieces were thus firmly held in 
their place, and the contents of the coffer were found intact. 
These consisted of five vessels, two vases, a bowl and a casket 
being made of steatite, and the fifth, also a bowl, of crystal. 
All these vessels are beautifully worked, the crystal bowl 
especially, with its fish-shaped cover handle, being as a work of 
art of high merit. 2 The coffer is of fine hard sandstone of 
superior quality, and has been hollowed out, at the cost of vast 
labour and expense, from a solid block of rock. Peppe cal- 
culates its weight, lid included, at 1537 ft. It is only the great 
solidity of this coffer which has preserved the contents. A 
cover of one of the vases was found dislodged and lying on the 
bottom of the stone coffer. As this cover fits very well it must 
have required a quite violent shock to remove it. This was 
almost certainly the shock of an earthquake, and the same shock 
probably caused the split in the stone lid of the coffer itself. 

The vessels contained a dark dust, apparently disintegrated 
ashes, small pieces of bone, and a number of small pieces of 
jewelry in gold, silver, white and red cornelian, amethyst, topaz, 
garnet, coral and crystal. Most of these are perforated for 
mounting on threads or wires, and had been, no doubt, originally 
connected together to form one or more of the elaborate girdles, 
necklaces and breast ornaments then worn by the women. 3 
On the bottom of the stone box there was similar dust, pieces 
of bone and jewelry, and also remains of what had been vessels 
of wood. The knob forming the handle of one of these wooden 
receptacles was still distinguishable. The total quantity of 
scraps of bone may have amounted to a wineglassful. 

An inscription ran round one of the steatite vases just below 
the lid. 4 The words mean: This shrine for ashes of the Buddha, 
the Exalted One, is the pious work oj the Sakiyas, his brethren, 
associated -with their sisters, and their children, and their wives. 
The thirteen words, in a local dialect of Pali, are written in very 
ancient characters, and are the oldest inscription as yet dis- 
covered in India. Twelve out of the thirteen are well-known 
words, the interpretation of which is not open to doubt. One 
word, rendered above by " pious work," has not been found else- 
where, and its derivation is open to discussion. The explanation 
here adopted as most probable was put forward by Professor 
Pischel of Berlin.* The phrase " pious work " probably had a 
precise technical connotation like the English " benefaction." 

The monument must have been of imposing appearance. The 
diameter (on the ground level) of the dome is 116 ft. For 8 ft. 
from the summit of the ruin it was not possible to trace the 
outline. At that point the outer wall, if one may so call it, 
of the solid dome could be traced, and had a diameter of 68 ft. 
The dome, therefore, sloped inwards i ft. for every 3 ft. in height, 
in other words, it was, like all the most ancient of these artificial 
burial domes in India, a shallow dome, and cannot have been 
more than about 35 ft. high exclusive of the ornament or "tee" 
on the summit. We have in bas-reliefs of the 3rd century 
representations of what these ornaments were like small 

1 An illustration from a photograph is given in Rhys Davids' 
Buddhist India, p. 131. 

3 For figures of the jewelry found see the plate in Mr Peppers 
article, reproduced in Rhys Davids' Buddhist India, p. 89. For 
the jewelry of the time, ibid., pp. 90, 91. 

4 See illustration ibid., p. 129. 

6 Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen GeseU.fchaft. Ivi. 157. 



PIQUA PIQUET 



637 



square erections, like a shrine or small temple, surmounted 
by a canopy called from its shape a T. They were then more 
than a third of the height of the dome itself. The total height 
of this Sakiya tope will therefore have been approximately 
a little under 50 ft. It was probably surrounded by a carved 
wooden railing, but this has long since disappeared. 

All such monuments hitherto discovered in India were put 
up in honour of some religious teacher, not in memory of royal 
persons, generous benefactors, politicans, or soldiers or private 
persons, however distinguished. And we need have no hesita- 
tion in accepting this as a monument put up over a portion of 
the ashes from the funeral pyre of Gotama the Buddha. The 
account of the death and cremation of the Buddha, preserved 
in the Buddhist canon, states that one-eighth portion of the 
ashes was presented to the Sakiya clan, and that they built a 
Ihupa, or memorial mound, over it. 1 

Mr Peppe presented the coffer and vases with specimens of 
the jewelry to the museum at Calcutta where they still are. 
He also gave specimens of the trinkets to the Asiatic Society in 
.London. 

Peppers original article is in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society for 1898, pp. 573 sqq. Comments upon it, one or two of 
them sceptical, are in the same journal 1898, pp. 579, 588, 387, 
868; 1899, p. 425; 1901, p. 398; 1905, p. 679; 1906, pp. 149 sqq. 
See also A. Earth, Comptes rendues de I'academie des inscriptions 
(1898), xxvi., 147, 233; Sylvain Levy, Journal des savants (1905) 
pp. 540 sqq.; and R. Pischel and Rhys Davids as quoted above. 

(T. W. R. D.) 

PIQUA, a city of Miami county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami 
River and the Miami & Erie Canal, 73 m. W. by N. of Columbus. 
Pop. (1890), 9090; (1900), 12,172, of whom 901 were foreign-born 
and 487 were negroes; (1910 census), 13,388. It is served 
by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the 
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton railways, and by inter-urban 
electric lines to Lima, Dayton and Covington. It has a park, 
a public library and a public hospital. There are quarries of 
blue limestone in the vicinity. The city has various' manu- 
factures, the factory products being valued in 1905 at $4,035,706. 
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. On or 
near the site of Piqua was one of the principal villages of the 
Chillicothe division of the Shawnee tribe; the village also was 
called Chillicothe. It was destroyed by George Rogers Clark 
in 1782. A town was laid out here in 1809 under the name of 
Washington, and the present name, that of another division 
of the Shawnee tribe, was substituted in 1823. Piqua was 
chartered as a city in 1846. During the French and Indian 
War, in 1763, a battle was fought in this vicinity chiefly between 
the Miamis, Wyandots, Ottawas and other Indian allies of the 
French, and the Delawares, Shawnees, Cherokees, Catawbas 
and other Indian allies of the English, the English allies making 
an unsuccessful attempt to drive the French allies from their 
fortified position. Fort Piqua. 

See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891). 

PIQUET, a game at cards, probably a development of ronfa, 
a game mentioned by Berni in 1526; la ronfle (included in 
Rabelais's list, c. 1530) may be regarded as the same game. 
The point at piquet was anciently called ronfle. The Spanish 
name of the game was cienlos (centum, a hundred). Piquet 
was played in England under the name of cent, or sant, probably 
as early as 1550 (contemporaneously with the marriage of 
Mary to Philip of Spain). About the middle of the I7th century 
(shortly after the marriage of Charles I. to Henrietta Maria of 
France) the name cent was dropped in England, and the French 
equivalent, piquet, adopted. It is played by two persons, 
with a pack of thirty-two cards the sixes, fives, fours, threes 
and twos being thrown out from a complete pack. At one time 
the partie was the best of five games of a hundred up (a player 
not obtaining fifty losing a double game). But now the parlie 
is generally determined in six hands, the player making the 
largest aggregate score being the winner. The number of points 
won is the difference between the two scores, with a hundred 

'Translated in Rhys Davids' Buddhist Suttas (Oxford, 1881). 



added for the game. If, however, the loser fails to make a 
hundred in six hands, the number of points won is the sum of 
the two scores, with a hundred for the game. Piquet played 
in this way is called Rubicon Piquet. 

The dealer deals twelve cards to his adversary and twelve to 
himself, two at a time, or three at a time. He then places the 
eight undealt cards, called the " stock," face downwards on the 
table, the top five being for the elder hand (non-dealer) to take 
from first in exchange for his own. The players now look at their 
hands, and carte blanche (see later) having been declared, if there 
is one, put out (without showing them) such cards as they deem 
advisable in order to improve their hands, and take in an equiva- 
lent number from the stock. Each player must discard at least 
one card. If the elder hand discards less than the five he is entitled 
to, he must state how many he leaves. He is entitled to look at 
the card? he leaves, replacing them face downwards on the top of 
the stock. The younger hand then makes the exchange from the 
remainder of the stock. If the elder hand leaves any of the top 
five, the younger may exchange as many as remain in the stock, 
discarding an equal number. If the younger hand leaves any 
cards, he announces the number left. He may look at the cards 
he leaves. If he looks at them he must show them to the elder hand, 
after the elder has named the suit he will lead first, or has led a 
card. 

If the younger hand elects not to look at the cards left the elder 
cannot see them. The younger hand must make his election before 
he plays to the card first led, or, if so required, after the dealer has 
named the suit he will first lead. Each player may examine his 
own discard at any time during the hand; but he must keep it 
separate from his other cards. 

The elder hand next makes a declaration of what he has in his 
hand. 

The " point " must be called first or the right to call it is lost. 
It is scored by the player who announces the suit of greatest strength, 
valued thus: ace II ; court cards, 10 each; other cards, the number 
of pips on each. Thus if the elder hand's best suit is ace, king, 
knave, nine, eight, he calls " five cards." If the younger hand 
has no suit of five cards, he says " good." The elder hand then 
says " in spades," or whatever the suit may be, or shows his point 
face upwards. If the younger hand has a suit of more than five 
cards, he says " not good." If the younger hand has also five 
cards, he says "equal" or "what do they make f " when the elder 
calls " forty-eight " (or " making eight," short for forty-eight). 
The younger must not inquire what the point makes unless he has 
an equal number of cards. If the younger hand's five cards make 
less than forty-eight he says "good"; if exactly forty-eight, he 
says " equal "; if more than forty-eight he says " not good. The 
player whose point is good reckons one for each card of it; if the 
points are equal neither player scores for point. 

" Sequences " are usually called next, the elder hand stating 
what his best sequence is, and the younger saying, " good," " equal," 
or " not good," as in the case of the point. Any three or more 
consecutive cards of the same suit held in hand constitute a sequence. 
The order of the cards is as follows: ace (highest), king, queen, 
knave, ten, nine, eight, seven (lowest). A sequence of three cards 
is called a " tierce "; of four, a " quart "; of five, a " quint "; of 
six, a " sixiSme "; of seven, a " septi&me "; of eight, a " nuitifime." 
A tierce of ace, king, queen is called a " tierce major "; a tierce of 
king, queen, knave is called a " tierce to a king " (and so on for 
other intermediate sequences according to the card which heads 
them); a tierce of nine, eight, seven is called a "tierce minor." 
Sequences of four or more cards follow the same nomenclature; 
e.g. ace, king, queen, knave is a quart major; knave, ten, nine, 
eight, is a quart to a knave; and so on. A sequence of a greater 
number of cards is good against a sequence of a smaller number; 
thus, a quart minor is good against a tierce major. As between 
sequences containing the same number of cards, the one headed 
by the highest card is good ; thus, a quart to a queen is good against 
a quart to a knave. Only identical sequences can be equal. The 
player whose sequence is good reckons one for each card of it, 
and ten in addition for quints or higher sequences. Thus a tierce 
counts three; a quart, four;aquint, fifteen; a sixi^me, sixteen; and so 
on. If the elder hand's sequence is good, he names the suit, or shows 
it face upwards. If the highest sequence (or the sequence first 
called) is good, all lower sequences can be reckoned, notwithstanding 
that the adversary has a sequence of intermediate value. For 
example, A has a quart to a queen (good,) and a tierce minor. He 
calls and reckons seven, notwithstanding that B has a quart to a 
knave. B's quart counts nothing. If the highest sequence is 
equal, neither player scores anything for sequence, even though 
one player may hold a second sequence of equal or inferior value. 
I " Quatorzes " and " trios " are the next calls. " Quatorzes" are 
composed of four aces, four kings, four queens, four knaves, or 
four tens, in order of value; " trios " of three of any of these. A 
quatorze, if good, reckons fourteen; a trio, if good, reckons three; 
one that is good establishes any smaller quatorzes or trios in his 
hand. 

When the elder hand has done calling he leads a card. Before 



6 3 8 



PIRAM PIRATE AND PIRACY 



playing to this card, the younger hand reckons all that he has 
good, stating of what cards his claims are composed, or showing 
the cards claimed for. The elder hand leads any card he pleases; 
the younger plays to it. The younger hand must follow suit if 
able; otherwise he may play any card he thinks fit. It is not 
compulsory to win the trick. The leader counts one for each card 
led, whether it wins the trick or not. If the second player wins 
the trick he also counts one. The winner of the last trick counts 
an additional one for the last card. The tricks are left face upwards 
in front of the player who wins them. They may be examined 
by either player. 

If each player wins six tricks the cards are " divided," and there 
is no further score. If one player wins more than six tricks he wins 
" the cards," and adds ten to his score. If one player wins every 
trick, he wins a capot, and scores forty for the cards, instead of 
ten. 

During the play of the hand, a player is entitled to be informed 
as to any cards his adversary holds which he has reckoned as good, 
or has declared to be equal. A player may require his adversary 
to exhibit any such cards. But if a player, having played three 
cards of a sixieme, declared as a quint, is asked how many he has 
left, he need only reply " Two." 

During the progress of the hand each player repeats aloud the 
amount of his score for the time being. At the end of the hand 
the points scored are recorded by each player. If there is any 
difference in the written scores, a player's score of his own hand is 
deemed to be the correct one. 

Example. A (elder hand) has dealt him ace, king, knave of 
spades; ace, queen, knave, eight of hearts; knave, eight, seven of 
clubs; and nine, eight of diamonds. He discards king of spades; 
eight, seven of clubs; and nine, eight of diamonds. He takes in 
nine, eight of spades; king of hearts; nine of clubs; and king of 
diamonds. 

B (younger hand) has ten, seven of spades; ten, nine, seven of 
hearts; king, queen, ten of clubs; and ace, cjueen, knave, ten of 
diamonds. He discards seven of spades; and nine, seven of hearts. 
He takes in queen of spades; ace of clubs; and seven of diamonds. 

The hand then proceeds thus. A (calling his point) " five cards." 
B says " equal," or " what do they make? 

A " forty-nine," or " making nine." B " good." 

A (counting his point) " five " and, counting his sequence, which 
is good) " a quart major, nine. Three knaves?" B " not good." 

A (leads ace of hearts and says) " ten." B " four tens, fourteen, 
and three queens, seventeen " (plays the ten of hearts). 

A (leads the remaining hearts and says) " eleven, twelve, thirteen, 
fourteen." B (plays seven, ten, knave, queen of diamonds, and 
repeating his score says) " seventeen." 

A has now five tricks, and in order to win the cards should lead any 
card but a high spade. He leads king of diamonds, and says 
" fifteen." B (wins with ace and says) " eighteen" (and then leads 
the winning clubs, saying) " nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty- 
two." 

A (keeps ace, knave of clubs, and repeating his score says) 
" fifteen.' B (leads queen of spades and says) " twenty-three." 

A (wins with ace and says) sixteen " (and leads knave, saying) 
" eighteen " (and adding ten for the cards) " twenty-eight." 

A then writes on his scoring card 28; 23. B writes on his 23; 
28. The pack is collected, and the next hand commences. 
Three scores (omitted in order to simplify the description of the 
game) have yet to be mentioned. 

Carte Blanche. If either player has no king, queen or knave in 
the hand dealt him, he holds carte blanche, for which he scores ten. 
As soon as a player discovers he has a carte blanche, he must tell 
his adversary; this he usually does by saying " discard for carte 
blanche." The adverse discard is then made (as explained under 
discarding), after which the carte blanche is shown by dealing the 
cards, face upwards on the table; they are then taken back into 
the hand. 

Pique. If the elder hand scores, in hand and play, thirty or 
more, before the younger hand counts anything in that deal, he 
gains a pique, for which he scores thirty. 

Repique. If a player scores in hand alone thirty or more before 
his adversary reckons anything, he gains a repique, for which he 
adds sixty to his score. Equalities do not prevent piques or repiques. 
A player who has an equal point or sequence scores nothing for it. 
Therefore if, notwithstanding the equality, a player makes thirty, 
in hand and play, or in hand, by scores which reckon in order 
before anything his adversary can count, he gains a pique or a 
repique. 

The order in which the scores accrue is of importance. For the 
sake of convenience, the elder hand finishes his reckoning before 
the younger begins. The scores, however, whether made by the 
elder or younger hand are recordable in the following order: (i) 
carte blanche.; (2) point; (3) sequences; (4) quatorzes and trios; 
(5) points made in play; (6) the cards. This will often affect a 
pique or repique. Thus, a pique can only be made by the elder 
hand, as the one he reckons in play when he leads his first card 
counts before points subsequently made in play by the younger 
hand. The younger, therefore, cannot make thirty in hand and 
play before the elder scores one. But the one reckoned by the 



elder hand when he leads his first card does not prevent his being 
repiqued, because scores made in hand have precedence of points 
made in play. The elder leads his first card and counts for it 
before the younger reckons, simply as a convenient way of stating 
that he has nothing in hand which is good. Again, say A has a 
quint (good), a tierce, and a quatorze (good). He scores thirty-two 
in hand alone; but, if his point is not good, he does not gain a 
repique, because the younger hand's point is recordable in order 
before the sequences and quatorze. Carte blanche, taking pre- 
cedence of all other scores, saves piques and repiques. It also 
counts towards piques and repiques. A capot does not count 
towards a pique, as the capot is not made in play. It is added 
after the play of the hand is over. A player who reckons nothing 
that hand as a penalty is not piqued or repiqued if he holds any 
cards which, but for the penalty, would have reckoned before his 
adversary reached thirty. 

See " Cavendish," The Laws of Piquet and of Rubicon Piquet, 
adopted by the Portland Club, with a Treatise on the Game (1882)- 
" Cavendish," Guide to Piquet (1898). 

PIRAM, or PERIM, an island in the Gulf of Cambay, forming 
part of Ahmadabad district, Bombay. Formerly notorious 
as the stronghold of a pirate chieftain, it has attained fame 
among palaeontologists for the large quantity of fossil remains 
discovered here in 1836, similar to the better-known Siwalik 
fauna. 

PIRANESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian engraver of ancient 
architectural subjects, was born in the earlier half of the i8th 
century, and studied his art at Rome. The great remains of 
that city kindled his enthusiasm and demanded portrayal. 
His hand faithfully imitated the actual remains of. a fabric; 
his invention, catching the design of the original architect, 
supplied the parts that were wanting; his skill introduced groups 
of vases, altars, tombs; and his broad and scientific distribution 
of light and shade completed the picture, and threw a striking 
effect over the whole. One engraving after another was executed 
with much brilliancy; and, as the work went on, the zeal of 
the artist only waxed stronger. In course of time it was found 
necessary to call in the aid of all his children and of several 
pupils. . He did not, in fact, slacken in his exertions till his 
death in 1778. 

The plates of Piranesi, in which the severity of burin work is 
largely supplemented by the freer lines of the etching-needle, were 
collected and preserved by his son and coadjutor Francesco. They 
were published, to the number of about 2000, in 29 vols. fol. (Paris, 
1835-1837)- 

PIRANO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 22 m. S.W. of Trieste 
by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,339, mostly Italians. In addition to 
viticulture and the cultivation of the olive, its principal resources 
are ship-building and fishing. In the neighbourhood are the 
most extensive works in Istria for the extraction of salt from the 
sea-water, which produce about 50,000 tons of salt annually. 
Pirano is celebrated for the victory of the Venetians over the 
fleet of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1177. It passed 
under the domination of Venice in 1283 and became definitely 
incorporated with Austria, together with the other possessions of 
Venice in the Istrian Peninsula, in 1813. 

PIRATE AND PIRACY. Sir Edward Coke (Instil, iii. 113) 
describes a pirate (Lat. pirata, from Gr. irepanfr, irtipav, to 
attempt or attack), as hostis humani generis, and as a robber 
upon the sea. Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen in his Digest of Criminal 
Law defined piracy as follows: " Taking a ship on the High Seas 
or within the jurisdiction of the Lord High Admiral from the 
possession or control of those who are lawfully entitled to it 
and carrying away the ship itself or any of its goods, tackle, 
apparel or furniture under circumstances which would have 
amounted to robbery if the act had been done within the body 
of an English county " (cf. A. G. for Hong-Kong v. Kwok-a-Sing, 
1873, L.R. 5 P.C. 179). Piracy, being a crime not against 
any particular state but against all mankind, may be punished 
in the competent court of any country where the offender may 
be found or into which he may be carried. But, whilst the 
practice of nations gives to every one the right to pursue and 
exterminate pirates without any previous declaration of war 
(pirates holding no commission or delegated authority from any 
sovereign or state), it is not allowed to kill them without trial 
except in battle. Those who surrender or are taken prisoners 



PIRATE AND PIRACY 



639 



must be brought before the proper tribunal and dealt with 
according to law. 

Piracy has been dealt with in a large number of English 
statutes, from 1536 down to the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction 
Act 1878 (41 & 42 Viet. c. 73), which provided for the mainten- 
ance of the existing jurisdiction for the trial of " any act of 
piracy as defined by the law of nations." 

During the Spanish-American War the Spanish government 
issued(i898)a decree declaring that "captains, masters and officers 
of vessels, which, as well as two-thirds of their crew, are not 
American, captured while committing acts of war against Spain, 
even if they are provided with letters of marque issued by the 
United States" would be regarded and judged as pirates. This was 
not in accordance with the international practice on the subject. 
A public ship or one which is entitled to fly the flag of a belligerent 
and navigates under the cover of state papers, by the very sense 
of the term, is not a pirate. Again, during the Russo-Japanese 
War, the word " piracy " was freely applied in British news- 
papers to the seizure of the " Malacca " and other vessels held 
up by the " Peterburg " and " Smolensk," two cruisers belonging 
to the Russian Black Sea volunteer fleet, which in July 1904 
passed as merchantmen through the Bosporus and Dardanelles 
and were transformed to their real character on the open sea. 
The application of the term in this case was equally inaccurate. 

The conversion of merchant into war ships was one of the 
subjects dealt with by the second Hague Conference (1907), 
but it was agreed that "the question of the place where such 
conversion is effected remains outside the scope " of the 
agreement." 

Piracy is essentially a crime under international law, and 
although any state may apply its penalties to its own subjects 
by analogy, as was done by Great Britain and the United States 
in connexion with the repression of the slave trade, they cannot 
be lawfully applied to subjects of other states. (T. BA.) 

Historical Sketch. It has at all times been more difficult to 
enforce good order on the sea than on the land; or perhaps we 
ought to say that the establishment of law and order on the sea 
has in all ages of the world's history followed, but has not 
accompanied, and has still less preceded, the creation of a good 
police on the land/ The sea robber, or pirate, cannot make a 
profit from any part of his booty except the food which he 
consumes, or the vessels which he may use, unless he can find 
a market. But so long as he is sure that he will somewhere meet 
a purchaser for the goods he has taken by violence, he has every 
encouragement to pursue his trade. Therefore from the times 
described in the Odyssey, down to the days when Sir Henry 
Keppel sailed in H.M.S. " Dido " to suppress the pirates of 
Borneo, and when Rajah Brooke of Sarawak co-operated with 
him on land, we find that the prevalence of piracy and the 
suppression of it have been closely dependent on the efforts 
made to rout it out from its lurking-places on the coast, and the 
degree of success achieved. 

Very different types of men have been named pirates. They 
have in fact been so unlike that to class them all together would 
be in the last degree unjust. The Greek in the youth of the 
world, and the Malay of Borneo in the igth century, knew of 
no rule of morals which should restrain them from treating all 
who lay outside the limits of their city or their tribe as enemies, 
to be traded with when strong and plundered when weak. They 
might be patriotic, and law-abiding men towards the only 
authority they recognized. Their piracy was a form of war, 
not without close moral analogies to the seizure of Silesia by 
Frederick the Great, the attempted seizure of Spain by 
Napoleon. Indeed the story of this latter venture, with its 
deceitful preliminary success and its final disaster, may fairly 
be compared with the fall of Ulysses and his companions on the 
Cicones, as told in the ninth book of the Odyssey. Yet it would 
be highly uncritical to class Ulysses or Napoleon with Captain 
Avery, or Captain Kidd, or Bartholomew Roberts. We are not 
here concerned with the legal aspects of piracy, but with the 
true character of the persons to whom the name pirate has been 
applied at various times. The term was applied by the Romans 



.o the adventurers against whom Pompey was commissioned to 
act by the Gabinian Law, by the English of the 9th and loth 
centuries to the Vikings, and by the Spaniards to the English, 
French and Dutch who were found sailing beyond the line. 
Sufferers by naval commerce-destroyers call it " a piratical 
'orm of warfare." But the pirates of the Roman Republic 
were no mere " gang of robbers." They were the victims 
of a time of conquest and " general overture " " the ruined 
men of all nations, the hunted refugees of all vanquished parties, 
veryone that was wretched and daring and where was there 
not misery and violence in this unhappy age? It was no longer 
a gang of robbers who had flocked together, but a compact 
soldier state, in which the freemasonry of exile and of crime took 
the place of nationality, and within which crime redeemed 
tself, as it so often does in its own eyes, by displaying the most 
generous public spirit." Such men are akin to the fuorusciti 
of Italian history or the Dutch Beggars of the Sea, the victims 
of party strife in the cities, who took to the sword because they 
iad no other resource. Mutatis mutandis we may say as much 
:or the intruders beyond the line, whom history calls the "Buc- 
caneers " (q.v.). The " Vikings " (q.v.) were a portion of the 
Barbarian invasions. The " Barbary Pirates " (q.v.) stand 
apart. As for the piratical character of the commerce-destroyer, 
01 privateer why are we to brand Captain Fortunatus Wright, 
the Englishman who captures a French merchant ship, or 
Captain Robert Surcouf, the Frenchman who captures a British 
East Indiaman, as piratical, and not make the same reproach 
against Admiral Lord Howe, or Admiral Don Luis de Cordoba, 
who with a fleet captures whole convoys? 

The pirate pure and simple is that member of an orderly 
community who elects to live on the sea, by violence and robbery, 
making no distinction between his own city or tribe and any 
other. The old adage, that "war makes thieves and peace 
hangs them " has ever been peculiarly true of the sea. War 
has always been conducted there by the capture of an enemy's 
property, and by division of the spoil. A portion of the naval 
forces of all nations has been composed of privateers, letters of 
marque or corsairs, who plundered with a licence. They 
have ever found a difficulty in drawing the line between enemy 
and neutral; when peace returned some of them found it hard 
to be content with honest wages earned by dujl industry. Nelson 
declared that all privateers were no better than pirates. He 
was borne out by the experience of Great Britain, which at the 
beginning of the Seven Years' War had to take strong measures 
to repress the excesses of its privateers, and to hang a good few 
of them as mere pirates. The pirates suppressed by Pompey did 
not all submit to remain in the settlements he made. Some 
continued to rob at sea. If we can trust the Pastoral of Longus, 
and the other Greek romances, the pirate was a known type 
even under the Roman peace, but it is highly probable that he 
was more of a stock literary figure than a reality. Before the 
Roman peace, and during long centuries after it had been 
shattered, piracy was common. It grew out of a state of war. 
In modern times even down to 1815 a recrudescence of piracy 
has followed regular hostilities. But there are other conditions 
which have a material influence, such as the need for a lurking- 
place and for a receiver of the plundered goods. An archipelago 
provides the best lurking-places, and next to it a coast of many 
inlets. Therefore the Greek Islands, the British Isles, the 
Antilles, the Indian Ocean, the coast of Cilicia in Asia Minor, 
of Dalmatia, of Malabar and of Norway, have all at one time 
or other, and some of them for centuries, been haunts of pirates. 
The convenience of the place had to be completed by the con- 
venience of the market. In the ancient world, and the middle 
ages, the market never failed. One city or tribe had little care 
for the sufferings of another. The men of the Cinque Ports 
who plundered the men of Yarmouth knew that their own 
townsmen would never call them to account, and therefore they 
had a safe refuge. Even when the medieval anarchy had come 
to an end on land, the sea was lawless. When peace was made 
with Spain after the death of Queen Elizabeth there were many 
who could not settle down to a life of industry. Some took the 



640 



PIRATE AND PIRACY 



plain course of betaking themselves to Algiers or Salee. But 
there were many who prowled nearer home. Sir William 
Monson, in his Naval Tracts, tells how he was sent in 1605 to hunt 
pirates out of the Shetlands and the Hebrides. He found none 
at sea near Scotland, but some unemployed, whom he shipped 
and used as guides and informers, on the coast of Ireland. At 
Broad Haven he discovered an Irish gentleman of the name of 
Cormat (presumably Cormac) living in some dignity. His 
house was " the well-head of all pirates," and their captains 
were the lovers of his daughters. Monson found agents of 
merchants of London and of Galway, who came to buy the goods 
which the pirates had to sell at a bargain. He put that inter- 
esting family under the gallows, and frightened them into 
turning king's evidence. It was his boast that he had cleared 
the Irish coast of pirates, but we know that they were common 
late in the reign of Charles I., and that under the name of " sea 
Tories " they abounded during the Civil War both in Ireland 
and in the Stilly Isles. Their existence was prolonged by the 
weakness of the government, which when piracy became very 
rampant took the disastrous course of offering pardon to all 
who would come in by a certain date. As a matter of course 
many did, and when their booty was spent returned to their 
piratical trade. Monson says that the pirates he caused to be 
executed had already tasted of the king's mercy. While there 
were friendly harbours to anchor in, purchasers to be met and a 
very fair prospect of a free pardon, piracy was not likely to 
cease. 

As the 1 7th century drew on the law and the police became 
too strong for such persons as Mr Cormat at Broad Haven, 
and his pirate friends. But the pirate class did not cease. 
It was only driven to a wider field of operations to a field 
which in fact stretched from the Red Sea to New England. 
On this wide portion of the earth's surface everything combined 
to favour the pirate. In the West Indies there was a " well- 
head " of immense capacity. Spain was forced late and reluc- 
tantly to recognize the legitimacy of any foreign settlement. 
She would rather put up with the lawless adventurers known 
as the " Brothers of the Coast " and the " Buccaneers " than 
co-operate with foreign governments to suppress them. Even 
when she renounced her full pretensions, several of the islands 
remained unoccupied except by the lingering remnants of the 
native races. Swine and cattle had been let loose on many of 
them, and had multiplied. The turtle was abundant and 
succulent. There was no want of food. A population with 
predatory instincts had been formed in the early days of hostile 
settlement and buccaneering. Jamaica was full of the so-called 
" private men-of-war " whose doings are prominent in the 
correspondence of the early governors, who were not uncom- 
monly their associates. Add to this that the commercial 
policy of Spain denied to her colonists the right of trading 
with foreigners, and yet that she could not supply their needs 
herself. Hence arose a smuggling trade which had affinities with 
piracy. The lawless trader was not liable to be asked awkward 
questions, as to the origin of his cargo, by the Spanish American 
who purchased it on the sly for money or by barter. Nor were 
any questions asked him when he brought his cargo to Jamaica, 
San Domingo, the Carolinas, New England or even Europe. 
In the decay of Spain her navy was not to be feared. But it 
was not the commercial policy of Spain alone which helped the 
pirate. Great Britain, and France also, insisted that their 
colonists should trade exclusively with or through them. The 
colonists were always ready to buy " good cheap " from the 
smuggler, and never ask him whether the East Indian produce 
tea, silk, spices and so forth he offered for sale were pur- 
chased or plundered in the Red Sea or on the coast of Malabar 
or of Coromandel. Add to all this that the police and patrol 
work of regular navies was but superficially done even in peace, 
and hardly at all in war, and that in the British colonies there 
was no judicial machinery for trying pirates till the nth and 
i2th years of William III. (1700, 1701), and it will be seen 
that all the conditions favoured the pirate. In the East the 
decadence of the Mogul Empire was plunging India into anarchy, 



and it had no navy. Yet a large native trade existed, conducted 
by " Moors," as they were called, and Madagascar, a great 
" no-man's-land," afforded ample anchorage and food. To 
get possession of a ship, to sail to the East, to plunder the 
" Moors," to sell the booty in New England or the Carolinas, 
to spend the produce in riotous living, and go to sea on the same 
errand again, was the round of life of the large class of known 
pirates, who formed a recognized element of the population of 
Massachusetts and New York at the end of the i7th century. 
These are the men we know best, for they were encouraged by 
the tolerance shown them to come into the light. Others are 
buried in, or only dimly visible in, obscurity. Some trace of 
these latter may be found in the Letter Books of the Old 
Providence Company, a puritan society formed in the reign of 
Charles I., of which Pym and the earl of Warwick, afterwards 
the Parliamentary admiral of the Civil War, were governors. It 
was founded to colonize Old Providence on the coast of Honduras, 
a place not to be confused with another pirate haunt. New 
Providence in the Bahamas. It took to plain piracy and was 
suppressed by the Spaniards in 1638. Warwick made a regular 
business and large profits by fitting out " privateers," which 
were in fact pirates on the " Spanish main," not the seas of 
America, as some have thought, but the coast of the mainland. 

The lives of the later and better known pirates may be illus- 
trated by the career of Captain Avery, or Every (alias Bridg- 
man), whose renown was great at the end of the I7th century, 
and who has the credit of having inspired Defoe's Life, Adven- 
tures and Piracies of Captain Singleton. Avery was mate 
of a Bristol ship hired by the Spaniards in 1694 to serve as a 
coastguard vessel in South America. She was called the 
" Charles II.," commanded by one Captain Gibson, and mounted 
40 guns. While the " Charles II. " was lying at Corunna, in 
company with another vessel also hired by the Spaniards, 
waiting for the payment of wages which was delayed, Avery 
persuaded part of the two crews to seize her and sail with her 
on a piratical voyage to the East. The enterprise was carried 
out without bloodshed or, apparently, coercion of those who were 
unwilling to go. Avery and his crew sailed to Madagascar, 
a regular haunt of the pirates. Many of them ended by remain- 
ing for life among the natives. The adventurers in the " Charles 
II.," who had already made some small prizes, English and 
Danish, were joined at the island by others of the same character 
who had come from the West Indies. From Madagascar they 
went to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, to lie in wait for the 
trade from India. Several prizes were taken, and finally a large 
and valuable ship, belonging " to the Great Mogul and his 
subjects." was captured about ten miles from Surat. Avery 
and his crew now hastened to New England to sell their booty. 
The " Charles II." was disposed of as a privateer at Providence, 
and the pirates bought a sloop in which they sailed along the 
coast of the English colonies, selling their spoil, with the consent 
of the colonists and the connivance of the officials, who were 
bribed. In an evil hour for themselves they decided to come 
to England. The Indian governments, exasperated by the 
piracy practised at the expense of their subjects, were threatening 
reprisals on the East India Company. The Company made 
complaints to the government at home, and energetic measures 
of repression were taken. Avery himself escaped capture, 
but several of his men were brought to trial, condemned and 
executed. It is to be noted that when first tried, on the ipth 
of October 1696, they were acquitted. They were, however, 
re-tried on other counts, on the 3ist of October. The charge 
of Lord Chief Justice Holt to the jury, and the address of Sir 
Charles Hedges, the admiralty judge, shows that they felt 
both the importance and the uncertainty of securing a verdict. 

The cruise of Avery is not only a typical example of a piratical 
venture, but it is an important date in the history of the policing 
of the sea. The English government was roused to a sense of 
the necessity for strong measures to repiess piracy. All the 
steps taken were not according to knowledge. The extra- 
ordinary private venture of Lord Bellamont and his associates 
who sent out Captain Kidd (</..), a man of piratical antecedents, 



PIRKE ABOTH 



641 



to suppress pirates in the Eastern seas, brought deserved discredit 
upon them. The decision taken on the advice of Burchett, 
the secretary of the admiralty, to offer a pardon to all who would 
surrender by a given date for all piracies committed before the 
30th of April to the east of the Cape of Good Hope, and the 3oth 
of June 1699 to the west was an error. It induced many to 
come in, but it also gave all pirates the hope that they would 
in the future be provided with similar means of escape. The 
establishment of admiralty courts in the East Indies and America 
and the despatch of warships were more effectual methods. 
Yet it was long before piracy was thoroughly checked; indeed the 
signing of the Peace of Utrecht was followed by a recrudescence 
of this form of crime. The privateers who swarmed in the West 
Indies and, as long as the war lasted, used, in the phrase of the 
time, to join the squadrons of war-ships " on the plundering 
account," could not settle down to dull industry. They leagued 
themselves into a species of pirate republic, with its capital at 
Providence in the Bahamas. In 1718 a special force had to be 
sent against them under Woodes Rogers, who is best remem- 
bered now for having taken Alexander Selkirk from the island 
of Juan Fernandez, in the course of a privateering voyage into 
the Pacific with the " duke " and " duchess " of Bristol. Rogers 
broke up the Providence settlement, and did a similar piece 
of service on the coast of Madagascar. Piracy did not, however, 
die. The Asiento (q.v.) Treaty having given Great Britain a 
monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish America, the monopol- 
ists, i.e. the South Sea Company and Royal African Company, 
were of course subject to the competition of interlopers. The 
interlopers were the natural friends of the pirates, who divided 
their activity between the Antilles and the west coast of Africa, 
plundering in the second, selling and re-fitting, not without 
further plunder, in the first. The most notorious of these free- 
booters was Bartholomew Roberts, who was introduced to 
piracy by Howel Davis. Roberts was the nearest known 
approach to the pirate of romance, ostentatious, brave, not 
without touches of generosity. He was killed in action with 
Captain Chaloner Ogle, of H.M.S. " Swallov," on the coast of 
Africa, in 1722. 

As the American colonies grew more settled piracy became 
intolerable to them. Yet it lingered on the coast of North 
Carolina, where the pirates could either terrorize the scattered 
inhabitants, or were encouraged by dishonest officials. Here 
flourished the grotesque brute known as Blackbeard, Edward 
Teach, till he was run down and slain by Lieut. Milvain 
in 1718. It was noted that several of those who helped to 
suppress him afterwards " went a-pirating " themselves. So 
strong was the piratical tradition of the New World that even 
men of some standing fell into it. " Major " or Captain Stede 
Bonnet, who was condemned and executed at Charleston, 
South Carolina, as a pirate, in 1718, was a gentleman of some 
property in Barbadoes, who first ventured to sea in a ship 
of his own. Stede Bonnet had taken advantage of an act 
of grace, had come in on a proclamation, and had returned 
to a pirate's life. The last great explosion of piracy in the 
West Indies followed the peace of 1815. Here again we 
find the old conditions privateers and other unsettled men, 
the safe lurking-place and the receiver. The refuge and the 
market were supplied by the Spanish colonies, which were 
plunged into anarchy by their revolt against Spain. The 
pirates were able to masquerade as " patriot " navies. The 
sloth and corruption of Spanish captains-general of Cuba were 
no less favourable to the pirates. The south coast of the 
island became a haunt of these villains till the British and 
American governments were driven to combine for their sup- 
pression. When they had been followed into their hiding-places 
and their vessels sunk, they took to brigandage on land, and 
were garrotted by the Spanish authorities in self-defence. The 
piracy of the Greek islands went on to later years, and the 
Malays were not tamed till nearly 1850. On the coast and the 
rivers of China piracy was and is endemic, but the sailing junk 
has no chance with the modern steamer. When cases of piracy 
have occurred in the Straits of Malacca or in the China seas, 

XXI. 21 



by which Europeans have been the sufferers, the crime has 
generally been perpetrated by men who shipped as passengers 
or as crew, and who surprised the vessel. The pirate has been 
as useful to the author of modern tales and poems as to the 
writers of the Greek romances. When he is seen in authentic 
evidence he is found to have been for the most part a pitiful 
rogue. His gains were but small. A share of 200 was wealth 
to a mere sailor, and one of 1000 wealth beyond the dreams of 
avarice. He rarely fought a warship if he could help it, and 
indeed nothing is more surprising than his readiness to surrender 
when the fate before him was the gallows. 

AUTHORITIES. The pirates of the ancient world are admirably 
dealt with in Mommsen's History of Rome. For the modern pirate, 
see Monson's " Naval Tracts " in Churchill's Voyages, v. 5 (London, 
1744-1746), and in the edition of the Navy Record Society (1902). 
But the best accounts are to be found in the State Trials, vols. xiii., 
xiv., xv. (London, 1812). Captain Charles Johnson's General 
History of the Pyrates (London, 1724) must be used with caution. 
He no doubt learnt much from pirates who, having come in on a 
proclamation, were free to talk, but he cannot always be reconciled 
with authentic records. The Documents relative to the Colonial 
History of the State of New York (Albany, 1856-1858) contain many 
curious details. For the eastern seas, the Compendious History 
of the Indian Wars; with an account of the Rise, Progress, Strength 
and Forces of Angria, the Pyrate, &c., by Clement Downing (London, 
1737) is useful. (D. H.) 

PIRKE ABOTH. The penultimate tract of the fourth part 
of the Mishnah is the booklet of proverbs in five chapters called 
Massecheth Abolh (tractatus patrum), better known with a 
sixth chapter as Pirke Aboth (capitula patrum). For Pirke 
Abolh in English see The Authorized, Dally Prayer Book of the 
united Hebrew congregations of the British Empire, with a new 
translation by the Rev. S. Singer. The six chapters are there 
appointed to be read one on each Sabbath afternoon between 
Passover and New Year. Formerly they were read, in places 
at least, on the six Sabbaths between Passover and Pentecost 
only. The subsections of the chapters are hereinafter numbered 
as in the Authorized Prayer Book. 

Chapters i., ii. The Mosaic succession has first to be established. 
Moses (i., 1-3) having received the Torah from Sinai, it was handed 
down to Joshua, the Elders (Josh. xxiv. 31), the Prophets and the 
men of the Great Synagogue, from one of the last of whom, Simon 
Justus, it was received by Antigonus of Socho. Next are named 
(i. 4-15), without any title, as links in the chain of tradition, five 
pairs of teachers, the last Hillel and Shammai, elsewhere in the 
Mishnah called mundi patres (Surenh. iv. 324). Rabban Jochanan 
ben Zacchai (ii. o) " received from Hillel and Shammai." Sayings 
of Jochanan and his five disciples follow, and chap. ii. _ends with 
words of their somewhat younger contemporary, Rabbi Tarphon 
(Tpu</>j-), to the effect Ars longa vita brevis. These sections (i. 1-15, 
ii. 9-21) contain the " Kern der Sammlung " (Strack). After the 
sayings of Shammai (i. 15) come interpolated sayings (i. l6-ii. 8) 
of Rabban Gamaliel I., Rabban Simeon, " Rabbi," i.e. R. Jehudah 
ha-Nasi (cent. A.D. 1-2), the traditional redactor of the Mishnah, 
Rabban Gamaliel II. and Hillel, which break the sequence. 

Chapters Hi., iv. Maxims of numerous authorities, mostly 
Mishnah teachers and called Rabbis (Matt. xxii. 7 seq. ; /. F. p. 27), 
not in exact chronological order. 

Chapters v., vi. Chap. v. which is sui generis, is presumably of 
later date than what precedes.' Naming no teacher until the end, 
it combines historical, legendary and didactic elements. It touches 
upon the miraculous and its place in nature (v. 9). In form it is 
a series of numbered groups of things, from the ten creative Sayings 
to the triads of qualities which differentiate the disciples of Balaam 
and Abraham. R. Jacob ben Shimshon's commentary makes 
Aboth end with the saying of Jehudah ben Tema (v. 23), " Be 
bold as a leopard, and swift as an eagle, and fleet as a hart, and 
strong as a lion, to do the will of thy Father who is in heaven." 
Chapter vi., on acquisitio legis, is thought to have been added for 
use on the last of the six sabbaths above-mentioned (Strack, /. F. 
Ap. p. 61). In some manuscripts there are seven, chapters. 

Pirke Aboth serves as a primer to the student of rabbinic 
Judaism. For the most part in simple Hebrew, it has a few 
sayings in Aramaic (i. i3~ii., 7, v. 25, 26) and some adopted Greek 
words, as paraclete (iv. 13; Philo). He who would be pious should 
fulfil the dicta of Aboth (Baba Kam. 3oa). It gives favourite 
aphorisms of leading Jewish teachers who flourished in or 
before the earliest Christian centuries, and supplies material for 
some interesting illustrations of the New Testament. Too 
heterogeneous to be represented by a few extracts, the collection 



642 



PIRMASENS PIROT 



must be read through to be appreciated. Among the sayings 
of Hillel we miss the best known one, What is hateful to thee 
do not, &c. (/. F. p. 142), with which we may now compare 
Ecclus. xxxi. 15 Heb., " Know (?) thy neighbour is as thyself, 
and consider what thou hatest." Of the precept, " Make a 
fence to the Torah " (i.i; cf. iii. 17) it may be said that " every- 
thing is therein." As a doctrine of development and as an 
ethical principle it is reflected in Clement of Alexandria's view 
of philosophy as a <f>payiJtbs of the vineyard (Strom, i. 20), and 
Polycarp's saying. " He that has love is far from all sin." The 
use of Aboth in the synagogue stamps it as authoritative, and, 
with its intrinsic excellence, has led to its being " the most 
popular of all rabbinical writings." For midrashic comments 
upon it see the Aboth of Rabbi Nathan (ed. S. Schechter, 
Vienna, 1887), or the rendering of it (new ed., New York, 1900) 
in M. L. Rodkinson's translation of the Babylonian Talmud 
into English. (See also APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, Old 

Testament, II. d.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Aboth is included in editions of the Mishnah 
and the Talmud Babli, and in many prayer-books. For separate 
editions from about 1484-1485, see Montz Steinschneider's Bodleian 
Catalogus, col. 228-239, 2785, and other works cited in Herm. 
L. Strack's very useful npx 'pis, Die Spriiche der Viiter (ed. 3, 
1901). See also C. Taylor's Sayings of the Jewish Fathers (ed. 2, 
1897, referred to above as J. F.) a separate Appendix (1900) describes 
or enumerates manuscripts of Aboth and Jewish Encyclopedia, 
art. "Abot." (C.T.*) 

PIRMASENS, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, 
40 m. W. by S. of Spires, on the railway from Biebermuhle. 
Pop. (1905), 34,002. The only noteworthy buildings are the 
town-hall and the principal Evangelical church, which contains a 
fine monument to Louis IX. (d. 1790), landgrave of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, who made the town his residence. The staple 
industry is the production of boots and shoes; but musical 
instruments, leather and machines are also manufactured. 
Pirmasens owes its name to a St Pirmin, who is said to have 
preached Christianity here in the 8th century. It originally 
belonged to the count of Hanau-Lichtenberg, but passed to 
Hesse- Darmstadt in 1736. In September 1793 the Prussians 
gained a victory here over a body of French troops. 

See T. Weiss, Pirmasens in der Franzosenzeil (Pirmasens, 1905). 

PIRMEZ, OCTAVE (1832-1883), Belgian author, was born at 
Chatelineau in 1832. He belonged to a well-known Belgian 
family, and his cousin, Edouard Pirmez, was distinguished for 
his works on literary and political subjects. He lived an un- 
eventful life at his. chateau of Acoz, in Hainaut, where he died in 
May 1883. Pirmez was an ardent admirer of the French 
romanticists. His works include LesFeuillees: pensees et maximes 
(1862); Victor Hugo (1863); Jours de solitude (1869); Remo; 
Souvenirs d'unfrere (1880); Heures de philosophic (1881); and the 
posthumous Lettres d Jose (1884). These books form a history 
of his emotional life, and reveal an extreme melancholy. 

See Vie et correspondance d' Octave Pirmez (1888), by Adolphe 
Siret and Josd de Coppin. 

PIRNA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of 
the Elbe, 1 1 m. above Dresden, and on the railway to Bodenbach 
and Prague. Pop. (1905), 19,220. The town is regularly built, 
with promenades covering the site of the old fortifications; 
the most notable edifices are the fine Gothic parish church, built 
in the i6th century and restored in 1890, and the old town-hall. 
Excellent sandstone is found on both banks of the Elbe. There 
are manufactures of glass, machinery, cigars, pottery and enam- 
elled goods; and there is a trade in grain, fruit and timber, mainly 
carried on by river, and a little shipbuilding. Pirna, originally 
a Slavonic settlement, was for many years in the alternate 
possession of Bohemia and Meissen, but it became permanently 
united with the latter, and thus with Saxony, in 1405. The 
Sonnenstein, a fortress on a commanding eminence above the 
town, was erected in the i6th century on the site of an older 
castle by the elector of Saxony, Augustus I. It was once con- 
sidered the most important fortress on the Elbe, and successfully 
withstood the Swedes in 1639, but it was captured and dis- 
mantled by the Prussians in 1758, and in 1813 was occupied by 
the French. 



'See R. Hofmann, Zur Geschichte der Stadt Pirna (Pirna, 1891); 
E. Ktingel, Fuhrer durch Pirna (Pirna, 1889); the Urkundenbuch 
der Stadte Dresden und Pirna, edited by C. F. von Posern-Klett 
(Leipzig, 1875); and the publications of the Verein fur Geschichte 
der Stadt Pirna (Pirna, 1897 seq.). 

PIROGUE, or PIRAGUA (the French and Spanish forms respec- 
tively of a Caribbean word for this type of vessel ; it has at various 
times taken many corrupt forms, e.g. periagua, pettiaugua, pelly- 
oagar), originally the native name of a vessel made by hollowing 
out the trunk of a tree, a " dug-out "; hence applied to many 
different developments of this type of vessel used in the West 
Indies and along the American coast. An early improvement 
was to split the " dug-out " into two sections and insert a flat 
bottom of planking to widen it; another form had a leeboard, was 
decked in at either end, and had two masts. 

PIRON, ALEXIS (1689-1773), French epigrammatist and 
dramatist, was born at Dijon on the 9th of July 1689. His 
father, Aime Piron, was an apothecary, who wrote verse in the 
Burgundian patois. Alexis began life as clerk and secretary to 
a banker, and then studied law. In 1719, when nearly thirty 
years old, he went to seek his fortune at Paris. An accident 
brought him money and notoriety. The jealousy of the regular 
actors produced an edict restricting the Theatre de la Foire, or 
licensed booths at fair times, to a single character on the stage. 
None of the ordinary writers for this theatre would attempt a 
monologue-drama for the purpose, and Piron made a great 
success with a piece called Arlequin Deucalion, representing 
Deucalion immediately after the Deluge, amusing himself with 
recreating in succession the different types of man. In 1728 he 
produced Les Fils ingrals (known later as L' Stole des peres) at 
the Comedie Franfaise. He attempted tragedy in Callislliene 
(1730), Gustave Vasa (1733) and Fernand Cortes (1744), but none 
of these succeeded, and Piron returned to comedy with La Metro- 
manie (1738), in which the hero, Damis, suffers from the verse 
mania. His most intimate associates at this time were Mile 
Quinault, the actress, and her friend Marie Therese Quen- 
audon, known as Mile de Bar. This lady was slightly older than 
Piron and not beautiful, but after twenty years' acquaintance 
he married her in 1741. He died on the 2ist of January 1773, 
in his eighty-fourth year. He was elected in 1753 to the Academy, 
but his enemies raked up a certain Ode a Priape, dating from his 
early days, and induced Louis XV. to interpose his veto. Piron 
however was pensioned, and during the last half-century of his 
life was never in any want. His best title to remembrance lies 
in his epigrams. The burlesque epitaph on himself, in which he 
ridicules the Academy 

" Ci-git Piron, qui ne fut rien, 
Pas mfime acaddmicien " 

is well-known, while many others are as brilliant. Grimm called 
him a "machine a saillies." 

Piron published his own theatrical works in 1758, and after his 
death his friend and literary executor, Rigoley de Juvigny, pub- 
lished his CEuvres completes. M. Bonhomme produced a critical 
edition in 1859, completed by Poesies choisies et pieces inedites in 
1879. 

PIROT (Turkish Shehr-Kcey), a Servian town, i2^m. from the 
Bulgarian frontier at Tsaribrod, on the railway line between 
Nish and Sofia. Pop. (1900), 10,428. Pirot is the seat of the 
prefecture for the department of the same name, with a tribunal, 
several schools and a custom-house. It is the only proper 
industrial town in Servia, having numerous small factories for 
the manufacture of thin cloth (shayak), woollen braid (gaylan), 
and especially carpets. Its carpets have a great reputation in 
the Balkan Peninsula for their quaint designs, durability and 
freshness of colour. Pirot has a medieval fortress, believed to 
have been built on the site of the Roman fortress Quimedava, on 
the military road leading from Old Naissus to Phiiippopolis. 
The town is of great strategical importance, for which reason 
the Russian plenipotentiaries at the Berlin congress (1878) 
stubbornly tried to include it within the Bulgarian frontier, 
while Austria and some other Powers insisted that it should be 
given to Servia. In the war between Servia and Bulgaria in 
1885 the Bulgarians occupied and held it until the conclusion of 
peace. 



PISA 



643 



PISA, a town, archiepiscopal see and capital of a province of 
the same name, Tuscany, Italy, on the Arno, 7 m. from the sea 1 
and 49 m. west of Florence by rail. Pop. (1881), 42,779; (1900), 
61,279. It still retains its ancient walls, 6|m. in circuit, and is 
defended by a citadel on the south-west. The principal streets 
run alongside the river, and are lined with fine buildings. Besides 
the cathedral, the baptistery and the famous leaning tower, the 
city possesses several notable churches, as the Renaissance 
church of the Tuscan order of St Stephen, built in 1562 from 
plans by Vasari; San Niccolo, with a four-storeyed tower (1230), 
built by Niccola Pisano, and the tomb of John of Swabia, the 
parricide; Santa Caterina (1262); Santa Maria della Spina, in 
the Italo-Gothic style, built in 1230 and restored in 1872; San 
Sepolchro, erected in 1150 by Diotisalvi; San Francesco, with 
frescoes byTaddeo Gaddi; and the basilica of San Michele (1018) . 
Amongst the secular buildings may be mentioned the royal 
palace; the archiepiscopal palace; the palace of the order of St 
Stephen, built by Niccola Pisano and reconstructed by Vasari; 
the Upezzinghi (formerly Lanfreducci) palace, built of Carrara 
marble in 1590; the Lanfranchi, Agostini and other palaces; 
the university (1472); a large hospital (1258); and fine market 
halls. There are statues to Cosimo I. (by Francavilla), Arch- 
duke Leopold, and Ferdinand I. The city possesses also an 
academy of the fine arts, with a gallery of paintings; and the 
university a library of 120,000 volumes, a natural history 
museum, botanical garden and agricultural schools. The univer- 
sity, founded in 1338, has faculties of law, medicine, mathematics 
and philosophy and literature, and is to this day one of the most 
famous in Italy. 

The architects of the cathedral were Boschctto and Rinaldo, 
both Italians, probably Pisans. It is in plan a Latin cross, with 
an internal length of 31 1 ft. and a breadth of 252 ft. The nave, 
109 ft. high, has double vaulted aisles and the transepts single 
aisles ; and at the intersection of nave 3 nd transepts there is a cupola. 
The basilica is still the predominent type, but the influence of 
the domed churches of Constantinople and the mosques of Palermo 
is also apparent. The pillars which support the nave are of marble 
from Elba and Giglio ; those of the side aisles are the spoils of ancient 
Greek and Roman buildings brought by the Pisan galleys. Extern- 
ally the finest part of the building is the west front, in which the 
note struck by the range of arches running round the base is repeated 
by four open arcades. Of the four doors three are by John of 
Bologna, who was greatly helped by Francavilla, Tacca and others; 
that of the south side, of much older date, is generally supposed 
to be the work of Bonanno. Of the interior decorations it is enough 
to mention the altars of the nave, said to be after designs by Michel- 
angelo, and the mosaics in the dome and the apse, which were among 
the latest designs of Cimabue. The baptistery was completed 
only in 1278, and marred in the I4th century by the introduction 
of Gothic details. The building is a circle 100 ft. in diameter, 
and is covered with a cone-surmounted dome 190 ft. high on which 
stands a statue of St Raniero. The lowest range of semicircular 
arches consists of twenty columns and the second of sixty; and 
above this is a row of eighteen windows in the same style separated 
by as many pilasters. In the interior, which is supported by four 
pilasters and eight columns, the most striking features are the 
octagonal font and the hexagonal pulpic, erected in 1260 by Niccola 
Pisano. The campanile or " leaning tower of Pisa " is a round 
tower, the noblest, according to Freeman, of the southern Roman- 
esque. Though the walls at the base are 13 ft. thick, and at the 
top about half as much, they are constructed throughout of marble. 
The basement is surrounded by a range of semicircular arches sup- 
ported by fifteen columns, and above this rise six arcades with thirty 
columns each. The eighth storey, which contains the bells, is of much 
smaller diameter than the rest of the tower, and has only twelve 
columns. The height of the tower is 179 ft., but the ascent is 
easy by a stair in the wall, and the visitor hardly perceives the 
inclination till he reaches the top and from the lower edge of the 
gallery looks " down " along the shaft receding to its base. The 
tower leans or deviates from the perpendicular, to a striking extent, 
which has gradually increased : it was 15 J ft. out of the perpendicular 
when measured in 1829, and 165 ft. in 1910. There is no reason 
to suppose that the architects, Bonanno and William of Innsbruck, 
intended that the campanile should be built in an oblique position ; 
it would appear to have assumed it while the work was still in 
progress. The foundations are not more than 10 ft. deep, and their 
circumference only that of the tower. The Campo Santo, lying 
to the north of the cathedral, owes its origin to Archbishop Ubaldo 

1 In Strabo's time it was only 2 m. away, but the increase of 
the delta at the mouth of the river has since then pushed forward 
the coast-line. 



(1188-1200), who made the spot peculiarly sacred by bringing 
fifty-three shiploads of earth from Mount Calvary. The building, 
erected in the Italian Gothic style between 1278 and 1283, by Gio- 
vanni Pisano, is of special interest chiefly for its famous frescoes. 

There are numerous industries, the most important being the 
manufacture of cottons. In the vicinity are the royal stud-farm 
(horses and dromedaries) of Cascine di San Rossore, and the 
mineral baths of San Giuliano, alkaline-ferruginous, with tempera- 
ture 91-4 to 105-8 Fahr. At the mouth of the Arno, joined 
to the city by a steam tramway, is the seaside resort of Marina di 
Pisa, also known as Bocca d'Arno. a well-known centre for land- 
scape painters. 

The old town occupied the site of the ancient Pisae on the 
right bank of the Arno. The foundation of Pisae is by tradition 
ascribed to a very remote period, and it was often (possibly only 
owing to the similarity of name) believed to have been founded 
from Pisae in Elis. It is first mentioned in history as the place 
at which a Roman army from Sardinia landed in 225 B.C., its 
harbour being at the mouth of the south branch of the Arno, 
north of Livorno. Being situated on the coast road (Via 
Aemilia) it was important as a frontier fortress against Liguria, 
to which, and not to Etruria, it really belonged, perhaps, up to 
the time of Sulla, the actual boundary lying between it and Vada 
Volaterrana (mod. Vada). It became a colony in 180 B.C., and 
was important for the fertility of its territory, for its quarries, 
and for the timber it yielded for ship-building. Augustus gave 
it the name of Colonia Julia Pisana; his grandsons Gaius and 
Lucius were patrons of the colony, and after their death monu- 
ments were erected in their honour, as is recorded in two long 
inscriptions still extant. Greek vases have been found within 
the city itself, seeming to point to the presence of Etruscan 
tombs (G. Ghirardini in Notizie degli Scam, 1892, 147); but no 
remains now exist except of the Roman period some scanty 
ruins of baths and of a temple, while the Piazza dei Cavalieri 
follows the outline of the ancient theatre. 

See E. Bormann, Corp. inscr. lal. xi. 272 (1888). 

Little is known of the history of Pisa during the barbarian 
invasions, but it is an ascertained fact that it was one of the first 
towns to regain its independence. Under the Byzantine 
dominion Pisa, like many other of the maritime cities of Italy, 
profited by the weakness of the government at Constantinople 
to reassert its strength. And even during the first years of the 
harsh Lombard rule the need recognized by these oppressors of 
defending the Italian coast from the attacks of the Byzantines 
was favourable to the development of the Pisan navy. Few 
particulars are extant concerning the real condition of the town; 
but we occasionally find Pisa mentioned, almost as though it 
were an independent city, at moments when Italy was over- 
whelmed by the greatest calamities. According to Amari's 
happy expression, " it was already independent by sea, while 
still enslaved on land." Its prosperity notably declined after 
the establishment of the Lombard rule and under the Franks. 
It again"began to flourish under the marquises of Tuscany, who 
governed it in the name of the emperor. 

In 1003 we find records of a war between Pisa and Lucca, 
which, according to Muratori, was the first waged between 
Italian cities in the middle ages. But the military development 
and real importance of Pisa in the nth century must be attri- 
buted to the continuous and desperate struggle it maintained 
against the tide of Saracenic invasion from Sicily. And, although 
the numerous legends and fables of the old chroniclers disguise 
the true history of this struggle, they serve to attest the im- 
portance of Pisa in those days. In 1004 the Saracens forced the 
gates and sacked a quarter of the town; and in ion they re- 
newed the attack. But the Pisans repulsed them and assumed 
the offensive in Calabria, Sicily, and even in Africa. Still more 
memorable was the expedition afterwards undertaken by the 
united forces of Pisa and Genoa against Mogahid, better known 
in the Italian chronicles as Mugeto. This Moslem chief had 
made himself master of Sardinia, and was driven thence by the 
allied fleets in 1015. Again invading the island, he was again 
attacked and defeated by the same adversaries, leaving a 



644 



PISA 



brother and son, or, as some authorities aver, a wife and son, 
prisoners in their hands. Sardinia continued to be governed 
by native " judges " who were like petty sovereigns, but were 
now subject to the sway of Pisa. This was the primary cause 
of the jealousy of the Genoese, and of the wars afterwards 
made by them upon Pisa and carried on until its power 
was crushed. Meanwhile the Pisans flourished more and 
more, and continued hostilities against the Saracens. In 1062 
their ships returned from Palermo laden with spoil. Thus 
it is not surprising that Pisa should already have had its own 
code of laws (Consuetudini di mare), which in 1075 were 
approved by Gregory VII., and in 1081 confirmed by a patent 
from the emperor Henry IV., a document which mentions for 
the first time the existence of a magistrate analogous to the 
consuls of the republic, although the latter, according to some- 
writers, already existed in Pisa as early as the year 1080; the 
point, however, is doubtful, and other writers place the first 
authentic mention of the consuls in the year 1094.' The oldest 
of Pisan statutes still extant is the Breve dei consoli di mare of 
1162. 

In 1099 the Pisans joined in the second crusade, proved their 
valour at the capture of Jerusalem, and derived many commercial 
advantages from it; for within a short time they had banks, 
consuls, warehouses and privileges of all kinds in every Eastern 
port. Thus, while the commune of Pisa was still under the rule 
of the marquises of Tuscany, all negotiations with it were 
carried on as with an independent state officially represented 
by the archbishop and consuls. The aristocrats were the 
dominant party, and filled the highest offices of the republic, 
which, in the 1 2th century, rose to great power, both on sea and 
land, by its wars with the Lucchese, Genoese and Moslems. In 
1 1 10 Pisa made peace with Lucca after six years of continuous 
hostilities. And in the years 1113 and 1115 it achieved a still 
greater enterprise. The Pisan fleet of three hundred sail, com- 
manded by the archbishop Pietro Moriconi, attacked the 
Balearic Isles, where as many as 20,000 Christians were said to 
be held captive by the Moslems, and returned loaded with spoil 
and with a multitude of Christian and Moslem prisoners. The 
former were set at liberty or ransomed, and among the latter 
was the last descendant of the reigning dynasty. The chief 
eunuch who had governed Majorca perished in the siege. Im- 
mediately afterwards the fourteen years' war with Genoa broke 
out. The two republics contested the dominion of the sea, and 
both claimed supreme power over the islands of Corsica and 
Sardinia. A papal edict awarding the supremacy of Corsica 
to the Pisan church proved sufficient cause for the war, which 
went on from 1118 to 1132. Then Innocent II. transferred the 
supremacy over part of Corsica to the Genoese church, and 
compensated Pisa by grants in Sardinia and elsewhere. Accord- 
ingly, to gratify the pope and the emperor Lothair II., the Pisans 
entered the Neapolitan territory to combat the Normans. They 
aided in the vigorous defence of the city of Naples, and twice 
attacked and pillaged Amain, in 1135 and 1137, with such effect 
that the town never regained its prosperity. It has been said 
that the copy of the Pandects then taken by the Pisans from 
Amalfi was the first known to them, but in fact they were already 
acquainted with those laws. The war with Genoa never came 
to a real end. Even after the retaking of Jerusalem by the 
Moslems (1187) the Pisans and Genoese again met in conflict 
in the East, and performed many deeds of valour. They were 
always ready to come to blows, and gave still more signal proofs 
of their enmity during the Sicilian War in behalf of the emperor 
Henry VI. From that moment it was plain that there could 
be no lasting peace between these rival powers until the one or 
the other should be crushed. The greatness and wealth of the 
Pisans at this period of their history is proved by the erection of 
the noble buildings by which their city is adorned. The founda- 

1 It must be remembered that the Pisans and Florentines dated 
the beginning of the year ab incarnatione, i.e. from the 25th of March. 
But the Florentines dated it from the 25th following and the Pisans 
from the 25th of March preceding the commencement of the common 
year. The new or common style was adopted throughout Tuscany 
in the year 1750. 



tions of the cathedral were laid in 1063, and its consecration 
took place in 1118; the baptistery was begun in 1152, and the 
campanile (the famous leaning tower) in 1174. And all three 
magnificent structures were mainly the work of Pisan artists, 
who gave new life to Italian architecture, as they afterwards 
renewed the art of sculpture. 

It is asserted by some writers, especially by Tronci, that in the 
1 2th century Pisa adopted a more democratic form of govern- 
ment. But in fact the chief authority was still vested in the 
nobles, who, both in Pisa and in Sardinia, exercised almost 
sovereign power. They formed the real strength of the republic, 
and kept it faithful to the empire and the Ghibelline party. 
The Guelph and popular element which constituted the force 
and prosperity of Florence was hostile to Pisa, and led to its 
downfall. The' independence of the former city was of much 
later origin, only dating from the death of Countess Matilda 
(1115), but it rapidly rose to an ever-increasing power, and to 
inevitable rivalry with Pisa. Owing to the political and com- 
mercial interests binding Florence to the Roman court, the Guelph 
element naturally prevailed there, while the growth of its trade 
and commerce necessarily compelled that state to encroach on 
waters subject to Pisan rule. And, although Pisa had hitherto 
been able to oppose a glorious resistance to Genoa and Lucca, it 
was not so easy to continue the struggle when its enemies were 
backed by the arms and political wisdom of the Florentines, who 
were skilled in obtaining powerful allies. The chroniclers 
ascribe the first war with Florence, which broke out in 1222, 
to a most ridiculous motive. The ambassadors of the rival states 
in Rome are said to have quarrelled about a lapdog. This 
merely shows that there were already so many general and 
permanent reasons for war that no special cause was needed to 
provoke it. In 1228 the Pisans met and defeated the united 
forces of Florence and Lucca near Barga in the Garfagnana, and 
at the same time they despatched fifty-two galleys to assist 
Frederick II. in his expedition to the East. Shortly after this 
they renewed hostilities with the Genoese on account of Sardinia. 
The judges who governed the island were always at strife, and, 
as some of them applied to Pisa and some to Genoa for assistance 
against one another, the Italian seas were once more stained with 
blood, and the war burst out again and again, down to 1259, 
when it terminated in the decisive victory of the Pisans and the 
consolidation of their supremacy in Sardinia. But meanwhile 
Florence had made alliance with Genoa, Lucca and all the 
Guelph cities of Tuscany against its Ghibelline rival. The pope 
had excommunicated Frederick II. and all his adherents. And, 
as a crowning disaster, the death of Frederick in 1250 proved a 
mortal blow to the Italian Ghibelline cause. Nevertheless, the 
Pisans were undaunted. Summoning Siena, Pistoia and the 
Florentine exiles to their aid, they boldly faced their foe, but 
were defeated in 1254. Soon after this date we find the old 
aristocratic government of Pisa replaced by a more popular 
form. Instead of the consuls there were now twelve elders 
(anziani); besides thepodesta, there was a captain of the people; 
and there was a general council as well as a senate of forty 
members. The rout of the Tuscan Guelphs on the field of Monta- 
perto (1260) restored the fortunes of Pisa. But the battle of 
Benevento (1266), where Manfred fell, and the rout of Taglia- 
cozzo (1268), sealing the ruin of the house of Hohenstaufen in 
Italy and the triumph of that of Anjou, were fatal to Pisa. For 
the republic had always sided with the empire and favoured 
Conradin, whose cruel end struck terror into the Ghibelline 
faction. The pope hurled an edict against the Pisans and 
tried to deprive them of Sardinia, while their merchants were 
driven from Sicily by the Angevins. The internal condition of 
the city was affected by these events. Owing to the increasing 
influence of the Guelph and popular side, to which the more 
ambitious nobles began to adhere for the furtherance of personal 
aims, the aristocratic Ghibelline party was rapidly losing ground. 
The first man to step to the front at this moment was Count 
Ugolino della Gherardesca of the powerful house of that name. 
He had become the virtual head of the republic, and, in order 
to preserve its independence and his own sway, inclined to the 



PISA 



645 



Guelphs and the popular party, in spite of the Ghibelline tradi- 
tions of his race. He was supported by his kinsman Giovanni 
Visconti, judge of Gallura; but almost all the other great families 
vowed eternal hatred against him, and proclaimed him a 
traitor to his party, his country and his kin. So in 1274 he and 
Visconti were driven into exile. Both then joined the Florentines, 
took part in the war against their native city, and laid waste its 
surrounding territories. In 1276 the Pisans were compelled to 
agree to very grievous terms to exempt Florentine merchandise 
from all harbour dues, to yield certain strongholds to Lucca, and 
to permit the return of Count Ugolino, whose houses they had 
burnt, and whose lands they had confiscated. Thus the count 
again became a powerful leader in Pisa. Visconti, however, was 
dead. 

This was the moment chosen by Genoa for a desperate and 
decisive struggle with her perpetual rival. For some years the 
hostile fleets continued to harass each other and engage in petty 
skirmishes, as if to measure their strength and prepare for a final 
effort. On the 6th of August 1284 the great battle of Meloria 
took place. Here seventy-two Pisan galleys engaged eighty- 
eight Genoese, and half the Pisan fleet was destroyed. The 
chroniclers speak of 5000 killed and 11,000 prisoners; and, 
although these figures must be exaggerated, so great was the 
number of captives taken by the Genoese as to give rise to the 
saying " To see Pisa, you must now go to Genoa." This 
defeat crushed the power of Pisa. She had lost her dominion 
over the sea, and the Tuscan Guelphs again joined in attacking 
her by land. Count Ugolino had taken part in the battle of 
Meloria and was accused of treachery. At the height of his 
country's disasters he sought to confirm his own power by making 
terms with the Florentines, by yielding certain castles to Lucca, 
and by neglecting to conclude negotiations with the Genoese for 
the release of the prisoners, lest these should all prove more or 
less hostile to himself. This excited a storm of opposition against 
him. The archbishop Ruggieri, having put himself at the head 
of the nobles, was elected podesta. by the Lanfranchi, Sismondi 
and Gualandi, and a section of the popular party. The city was 
plunged into civil war. The great bell of the commune called 
together the adherents of the archbishop; the bell of the people 
summoned the partisans of the count, After a day's fighting 
(July i, 1288) the count, his two sons and his two grandsons 
were captured in the palazzo del popolo (or town hall), and cast 
into a tower belonging to the Gualandi and known as the 
" Tower of the Seven Streets." Here they were all left to die of 
hunger. Their tragic end was afterwards immortalized in the 
Divina commedia. The sympathies of Dante Alighieri, the 
Florentine patriot and foe of Rome, were naturally in favour of 
the victims of an aristocratic prelate, opposed to all reconciliation 
with Florence. 

The Florentines were now allied with Lucca and Genoa, and 
a few of their vessels succeeded in forcing an entry into the Pisan 
port, blocked it with sunken boats, and seized its towers. Their 
own internal dissensions of 1293 put a stop to the campaign, 
but not before they had concluded an advantageous peace. 
They and all the members of the Guelph league were freed from 
all imposts in Pisa and its port. In addition to these privileges 
the Genoese also held Corsica and part of Sardinia; and through- 
out the island of Elba they were exempted from every tax. 
They likewise received a ransom of 160,000 lire for their Pisan 
prisoners. These were no longer numerous, many having suc- 
cumbed to the hardships and sufferings of all kinds to which 
they had been exposed. 

In 1312 the arrival of the emperor Henry VII. gladdened the 
hearts of the Pisans, but his sudden death in 1313 again over- 
threw their hopes. He was interred at Pisa, and Uguccione della 
Faggiuola remained as imperial lieutenant, was elected podesta 
and captain of the people, and thus became virtual lord of the 
city. As a Ghibelline chief of valour and renown he was able 
to restore the military prestige of the Pisans, who under his com- 
mand captured Lucca and defeated the Florentines at Montecatini 
on the zpth of August 1315- So tyrannical, however, 'was his 
rule that in 1316 he was expelled by the popular fury. But 



Pisa's freedom was for ever lost. He was succeeded by other 
.ords or tyrants, of whom the most renowned was Castruccio 
Castracane, a political and military adventurer of much the same 
stamp as Uguccione himself. With the help of Louis the Bavar- 
ian, Castruccio became lord of Lucca and Pisa, and was victorious 
over the Florentines; but his premature death in 1328 again left 
the city a prey to the conflicts of opposing factions. New lords, 
or petty tyrants, rose to power in turn during this period of civil 
discord, but the military valour of the Pisans was not yet 
extinguished By sea they were almost impotent Corsica and 
Sardinia were lost to them for ever; but they were still formidable 
by land. In 1341 they besieged Lucca in order to prevent the 
ntry of the Florentines, to whom the city had been sold for 
250,000 florins by the powerful Mastino della Scala. Aided by 
their Milanese, Mantuan and Paduan allies, they gave battle to 
their rivals, put them to rout at Altopascio (Oct. 2), and 
then again excluded them from their port. Thereupon the 
Florentines obtained Porto Talamone from Siena and established 
a navy of their own. By this means they were enabled to capture 
the island of Giglio, and, attacking the Pisan harbour, carried off 
its chains, bore them in triumph to Florence, and suspended them 
in front of the baptistery, where they remained until 1848. 
Then, in pledge of the brotherhood of all Italian cities, they were 
given back to Pisa, and placed in the Campo Santo. 

The war was now carried on by the free companies with varying 
fortune, but always more or less to the hurt of the Pisans. In 
1369 Lucca was taken from them by the emperor Charles IV.; 
and afterwards Giovan Galeazzo Visconti, known as the count of 
Virtu, determined to forward his ambitious designs upon the 
whole of Italy by wresting Pisa from the Gambacorti. For at 
this time the conflicts of the Raspanti faction, headed by the 
Gherardesca, with the Bergolini led by the Gambacorti, had left 
the latter family masters of the city. At Visconti's instigation 
Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the moment, was treacherously 
assassinated by Jacopo d'Appiano, who succeeded him as tyrant 
of Pisa, and bequeathed the state to his son Gherardo. The latter, 
a man of inferior ability and daring, sold Pisa to the count of 
Virtu, receiving in exchange 200,000 florins, Piombino, and the 
islands of Elba, Pianosa and Monte Cristo. Thus in 1399 
Visconti took possession of Pisa, and left it to his natural son 
Gabriele Maria Visconti, who was afterwards expelled from its 
gates. But even during this century of disaster the Pisans 
continued to cherish not only commerce, but also the fine arts. 
In the year 1278 they had entrusted the erection of their fine 
Campo Santo to Niccola and Giovanni Pisano, by whom the 
architectural part of it was completed towards the end of the 
century. In the following year the first artists of Italy were 
engaged in its decoration, and the celebrated frescoes attributed 
to Orcagna (q.v.} were painted on its walls. Others were after- 
wards supplied by Benozzo Gozzoli and men of lesser note, and 
the labour of ornamentation was only discontinued in 1464. 

Meanwhile, in 1406, the Florentines made another attack upon 
Pisa, besieging it simultaneously by sea and land. Owing to 
the starving condition of its defenders, and aided by the treachery 
of Giovanni Gambacorti, they entered the city in triumph on 
the 9th of October, and sought to " crush every germ of rebellion 
and drive out its citizens by measures of the utmost harshness 
and cruelty." Such were the orders sent by the Ten of War to 
the representatives of the Florentine government in Pisa, and 
such was then the established policy of every Italian state. 
Consequently for a long time there was a continual stream of 
emigration from Pisa. The Medici pursued a humaner course. 
In 1472 Lorenzo the Magnificent tried to restore the ancient 
renown of the Pisan university. To that end he filled it with 
celebrated scholars, and, leaving only a few chairs of letters and 
philosophy in Florence, compelled the Florentines to resort to 
Pisa for the prosecution of their studies. But nothing could 
now allay the inextinguishable hatred of the conquered people. 
When Charles VIII. made his descent into Italy in 1494, and came 
to Sarzana on his way to Tuscany, he was welcomed by the Pisans 
with the greatest demonstrations of joy. And, although that 
monarch was ostensibly the friend of Florence, they did not 



PISA, COUNCIL OF PISACA LANGUAGES 



hesitate, even in his presence, to assert their own independence, 
and, casting the Florentine ensign, the Marzocco, into the 
Arno, made instant preparations for war. Between 1499 
and 1505 they heroically withstood three sieges and repulsed 
three attacking armies. But their adversaries always returned 
to the assault, and, what was worse, yearly laid waste their 
territories and destroyed all their crops. Soderini, who was 
perpetual gonfalonier of Florence, and Machiavelli, the secretary 
of the Ten, urged on the war. In 1509 Florence encamped her 
forces on three sides of the distressed city, which at last, reduced 
to extremity by famine, was compelled to surrender on the 
8th of June 1509. Thenceforth the Florentines remained lords 
of Pisa. But now, mainly owing to the efforts of Soderini and 
Machiavelli, the conquerors showed great magnanimity. They 
brought with them large stores of provisions, which were freely 
distributed to all; they tried to succour the suffering populace in 
every way, and gave other assistance to the wealthier classes. 
Nevertheless, emigration continued even on a larger scale than 
in 1406, and the real history of Pisa may be said to have ended. 
In Naples, in Palermo, in all parts of Italy, Switzerland and the 
south of France, we still find the names of Pisan families who 
quitted their beloved home at that time. The Florentines 
immediately built a new citadel, and this was a great bitterness 
to the Pisans. The Medici, however, remained well disposed 
towards the city. Leo X. was an active patron of the university, 
but it again declined after his death. The grand duke Cosmo I., 
a genuine statesman, not only restored the university, but 
instituted the " uffizio dei fossi," or drainage office for the 
reclamation of marsh lands, and founded the knighthood of 
St Stephen. This order played a noble part in the protection of 
Tuscan commerce, by fighting the Barbary pirates and establish- 
ing the prestige of the grand-ducal navy (see MEDICI). Under 
the succeeding Medici, Pisa's fortunes steadily declined. 
Ferdinand I. initiated a few public works there, and above all 
restored the cathedral, which had been partly destroyed by fire 
in 1595. These dreary times, however, are brightened by one 
glorious name that of Galileo Galilei. 

The population of Pisa within the walls had been reduced 
in 1551 to 8574 souls, and by 1745 it had only risen to the 
number of 1 2,406. Under the house of Lorraine, or more correctly 
during the reign of that enlightened reformer the grand duke 
Peter Leopold (1765-1790), Pisa shared in the general prosperity 
of Tuscany, and its population constantly increased. By 1840 
it contained 21,670 souls, exclusive of the suburbs and outlying 
districts. 

AUTHORITIES. Paolo Tronci, Annali di Pisa, edited by E. V. 
Montazio (2 vols., Lucca, 1842-1843), which comes down to 1840; 
Ranieri Grassi, Pisa e le sue adiacenze (Pisa, 1851), which is a 
useful historical guide; Roncioni, " Istorie Pisane," in the Archivio 
slorico ilaliano, vol. vi., pt. i ; " Cronache Pisane," in the eame 
Archivio, vol. vi., pt. 2; for the early constitution of the city, see 
G. Volpe's Studii sulle islituzioni, comunali di Pisa (Pisa, 1902), 
and for the laws, F. Bonaini's Statuti inediti delta citla di Pisa 
(3 vols., Florence, 1851, &c.). The maritime and commercial 
history of the republic is dealt with in A. Schaube's Das Konsulat 
des Metres in Pisa (Leipzig, 1888) and in Pawinski's Zur Entstehungs- 
geschickte des Konsulats in den Cemmunen Nord- und Mitlel-ltaliens 
(Berlin, 1867); for the monuments and inscriptions see A. Da 
Morrona, Pisa illustrata (Leghorn, 1812) and G. R. de Fleury's 
Les Monuments de Pise au moyen Age (Paris, 1866); also Repetti's 
Dizionario geografico delta Toscana, s.v. " Pisa." For Dante's 
connexion with Pisa, see Dante e i Pisani, by Giovanni Sforza 
(Pisa, 1873). Among the more recent historical guides to Pisa 
of a popular character is The Story of Pisa and Lucca, by Janet 
Ross and Nellie Erichsen, in Dent's " Medieval Towns " (London, 
1907), and T. B. Supino's Pisa, in the " Italia artistica Series." 

(P. V.) 

PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409). The great schism of the west 
had already lasted thirty years, and the efforts which had been 
made to restore unity within the Church by the simultaneous 
resignation of the two rival pontiffs had been in vain, when in the 
spring of 1408, the state of affairs being desperate, the idea arose 
of assembling a council to effect a union without the co-operation 
of the popes. The initiative came from those cardinals who had 
one after the other seceded either from Gregory XII. or 
Benedict XIII. They were forestalled by the popes, who each 



summoned a council, the former to Cividale (in Friuli), the 
latter to Perpignan, so the dissident cardinals sent out antedated 
letters inviting Christendom to assemble at Pisa on the 25th 
of March 1409. Their appeal met with a response in a great 
part of Italy, France, Navarre, Portugal and England, and in 
Germany in the states subject to Wenceslas king of the Romans, 
the electors of Cologne and Mainz, the margrave of Branden- 
burg, &c. For a time the number of the fathers exceeded five 
hundred. 

The day after the opening of the council, proceedings were 
started against the two popes, who, it was agreed, were to be 
eliminated. An act of accusation, containing in 37 articles the 
chief complaints against them, was read out to the people; not 
only their policy, but their orthodoxy was attacked, and there 
was even an insinuation of sorcery. The reason is, that in order 
to depose them with some show of legality, it was necessary, as a 
preliminary, to convict them of heresy, and it began to be seen 
that their tenacity of power, and the ruses by which they evaded 
the necessity of abdicating, however harmful might be their 
consequences, did not in themselves constitute a clearly-defined 
heresy. On the 5th of June 1409 was read the definitive sentence: 
that as heretics, and therefore separated from the Church, Pedro 
de Luna (Benedict XIII.) and Angelo Corrario (Gregory XII.) 
were ipso facto deposed from any office; they must not be 
obeyed, nor assisted, nor harboured. In the course of the 
rejoicings which followed this sentence among the populace of 
Pisa, occurred the somewhat scandalous event of the burning 
of two images crowned with parchment mitres, representing 
Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. It was in vain that the 
ambassadors of Benedict XIII. presented themselves at Pisa. 
The crowd greeted their arrival with mockery and derision, and 
being treated as the envoys of heretics they escaped without 
having obtained a hearing. 

In order to complete their task the cardinals present at Pisa, 
authorized by delegation of the council, shut themselves up in 
conclave, and elected one of their number, Peter Philarges, 
cardinal of Milan, as the new pope, who assumed the name of 
Alexander V. They had hoped to save the Church, but unfortun- 
ately the result of their efforts, generous as they were, was that 
the schism increased in bitterness, and that instead of the unity 
for which the Church craved, three popes continued to flourish. 
Both the deposed pontiffs protested against the legality of the 
council of Pisa; each had numerous partisans, and the thesis, 
constructed rather to meet the exigencies of the case, which 
attributed to a synod assembled by the cardinals the right of 
constituting itself judge of a sovereign pontiff, was far from being 
established. 

Originally the council of Pisa was to have occupied itself not 
only with effecting the union, but also with the reform of the 
Church. As a matter of fact, it confined itself to expressing 
certain desiderata in a " libellus supplicatorius " which it sub- 
mitted to the new pope. Alexander V. only partially acceded 
to these demands, many of which constituted serious encroach- 
ments on the prerogative of the Holy See; he then declared the 
work of reform suspended, and dissolved the council (August 7, 
1409). 

See Jacques Lenfant, Histoire du concile de Pise (Utrecht, 1731); 
Mansi, Condi,, xxvii.; F. Stuhr, Die Organisation und Geschiifts- 
ordnung des Pisaner und Konstanzer Konzils (Schwerin, 1891); N. 
Valois, La France el le grand schisme d' accident, iv. 3-107, 175 seq. 
(Paris, 1902). (N. V.) 

PISACA LANGUAGES, the name which has been given to a 
family of languages spoken immediately to the south of the 
Hindu Kush, and north of the frontier of British India. The 
family includes" the group of Kafir languages spoken in Kafiristan, 
Khowar, spoken in the Chitral country, and the group of Shina 
languages, which includes the Shina of Gilgit, K6hista.nl, spoken 
in the Kohistans of the Indus and Swat rivers, and Kashmiri. 
Of all these Kashmiri is the only one which has received any 
literary cultivation, and of which the number of speakers is 
known. The Pisaca languages are Aryan by origin, but are 
neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. (See INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES 
and KASHMIRI.) (G. A. GR.) 



PISACANE PISANO, A. 



647 



PISACANE, CARLO, duke of San Giovanni (1818-1857), 
Italian revolutionary, was born at Naples, and entered the 
Neapolitan army in 1839; but having become imbued with 
Mazzinian ideas he emigrated in 1847, and after a short stay 
in England and France served in the French army in Algeria. 
The revolution of 1848 recalled him to Italy; he played a part 
in the brief but glorious history of the Roman Republic, and was 
the life and soul of the war commission in the defence of the city. 
After its capture by the French he again went into exile, first to 
London and then to Genoa, maintaining himself by teaching. 
He regarded the rule of the house of Savoy as no better than that 
of Austria. When Mazzini, undeterred by the failure of the 
abortive Milan rising on the 6th of February 1853, determined to 
organize an expedition to provoke a rising in the Neapolitan 
kingdom, Pisacane offered himself for the task, and sailed from 
Genoa with a few followers (including Giovanni Nicotera) on 
board the " Cagliari " on the zsth of June 1857. They landed 
on the island of Ponza, where the guards were overpowered 
and some hundreds of prisoners liberated, and on the a8th 
arrived at Sapri in Calabria and attempted to reach the Cilento. 
But hardly any assistance from the inhabitants was forthcoming, 
and the invaders were quickly overpowered, Pisacane himself 
being killed. 

See P. M. Bilotti, La Spedizione di Sapri (Salerno, 1907). 

PISAN, CHRISTINE DE (1364-6. 1430), French poet, of 
Italian birth, was born at Venice in 1364. When she was four 
years old she was brought to her father, a councillor of the 
Venetian Republic, in Paris, where he held office as astrologer 
to Charles V. At fifteen Christine married Etienne du Castel, 
who became Charles's notary and secretary. After the king's 
death in 1380 her father lost his appointment, and died soon after; 
and when Christine's husband died in 1389 she found herself 
without a protector, and with three children depending on her. 
This determined her to have recourse to letters as a means of 
livelihood. Her first ballads were written to the memory of her 
husband, and as love poems were the fashion she continued to 
write others lais, virelais, rondeaux and jeux d iiendre though 
she took the precaution to assure her readers (Cent balades, No. 
50) that they were merely exercises. In 1399 she began to study 
the Latin poets, and between that time and 1405, as she herself 
declares, she composed some fifteen important works, chiefly 
in prose, besides minor pieces. The earl of Salisbury, who was in 
Paris on the occasion of the marriage of Richard II. with Isabella 
of France (1396), took her elder son, Jean du Castel (b. 1384), 
and reared him as his own; the boy, after Salisbury's death 
(1400), being received by Philip of Burgundy, at whose desire 
Christine wrote Le Livre des fails et bonnes mtsurs du sayge roy 
Charles 1 (1405), valuable as a first-hand picture of Charles V. 
and his court. Her Mutation de fortune, in which she finds 
room for a great deal of history and philosophy, was presented to 
the same patron on New Year's Day, 1404. It possesses an 
introduction of great autobiographical interest. In La Vision 
(1405) she tells her own history, by way of defence against those 
who objected to her pretensions as a moralist. Henry IV. of 
England desired her to make his court her home, and she received 
a like invitation from Galeazzo Visconti, tyrant of Milan. She 
preferred, however, to remain in France, where she enjoyed the 
favour of Charles VI., the dukes of Berry and Burgundy, the 
duchess of Bourbon and others. 

Christine was a champion of her own sex. In her Dit de la 
rose (1402) she describes an order of the rose, the members of 
which bind themselves by vow to defend the honour of women. 
Her Epttre au dieu d' amour (1399) is a defence of women against 
the satire of Jean de Meun, and initiated a prolonged dispute with 
two great scholars of her time, Jean de Montreuil (d. 1415) and 
Gonthier Col, who undertook the defence of the Roman de la 
rose. Christine wrote about 1407 two books for women, La 
Cite des dames and Le Livre des trois vertus, or Le Tresor de la 
cite des dames. She was devoted to her adopted country. 
During the civil wars she wrote a Lamentation (1410) and a Livre 

1 See C. B. Petitot, Collection complete des memoires relatifs a 
I'histoire de France (ist series, vols. v. and vi., 1819, &c.). 



de la paix (1412-1413), but after the disasters of the campaign 
of Agincourt she retired to a convent. We have no more of her 
work until 1429, when she broke her silence to write a song 
in honour of Joan of Arc. Of the circumstances of her death 
nothing is known but it probably took place about this time. 
Her Cite des dames contains many interesting contemporary 
portraits, and her Livre des trois vertus contains details of 
domestic life in the France of the early isth century not 
supplied by more formal historians. 

Her poems were edited by Maurice Roy for the Societe des antiens 
Textes francais (1886, &c.), and her Livre du chemin du long estude, 
by Puschel (Berlin, 1887). There are monographs by Raimond 
Thomassy (Paris, 1838); E. M. D. Robineau (Saint-Omer, 1882); 
and Friedrich Koch (Goslar, 1885). It is possible that Jean Castel, 
who was chronicler of France under Louis XL, was Christine's 
grandson. Hoccleve imitated her Epttre au dieu d'amour, in his 
' Letter of Cupid " (Chaucerian and other Pieces, ed. W. W. Skeat, 
1897). A translation of her Epttre d'Olhea was made (c. 1440) 
by Stephen Scrope for his stepfather, Sir John Fastolf, and is pre- 
served in a MS. at Longleat. This was edited (1904) for the Rox- 
burghe Club by W. G. F. Warner as The Epistle of Othea to Hector, 
or the Bake of Knyghthode. The Moral Proverbs of Christyne de 
Pise, translated by Earl Rivers, was printed in 1478 by Caxton, 
who himself translated, by order ot Henry VII., her Livre des faitz 
d'armes, et de chevalerie, a treatise on the art of war, based chiefly 
on Vegetius. Her Cite des dames was translated by Brian Anslay 
(London, 1521). 

PISANI, VETTOR (d. 1380), Venetian admiral, was in command 
of the Venetian fleet in 1378 during the war against the Genoese, 
whom he defeated off Capo d'Anzio; subsequently he recaptured 
Cattaro, Sebenico and Arbe, which had been seized by the 
Hungarians, the allies of the Genoese. But the Genoese fleet 
completely defeated Pisani at Pola in May 1379, and on his return 
to Venice he was thrown into prison. The enemy now pressed 
home their victory, and besieged and captured Chioggia, whereby 
Venice itself was in danger. The people thereupon demanded 
the liberation of Pisani, in whose skill they had the fullest con- 
fidence. The government gave way and appointed the aged 
commander admiral of the fleet once more. Through his able 
strategy and daring he recaptured Chioggia, defeated the Genoese 
and threatened Genoa itself until hat republic agreed to peace 
terms. Pisani died in 1380 while on his way to Manfredonia 
with a squadron to ship provisions. 

See Vittorio Lazzarini, " La morte e il monumento di Vettor 
Pisani," in the Nuovo archivio veneto, vol. xi., pt. ii. (1896). 

PISANO, ANDREA, also known as ANDREA DA PONTADERA 
(c. 1270-1348), Italian sculptor, was born about 1270, and first 
learned the trade of a goldsmith. He became a pupil of Giovanni 




Part of the first Bronze Door of the Baptistery at Florence, 
by Andrea Pisano. 

Pisano about 1300, and worked with him on the sculpture for 
S. Maria della Spina at Pisa and elsewhere. But it is at Florence 



6 4 8 



PISANO, G. PISANO, N. 



that his chief works were executed, and the formation of his mature 
style was due rather to Giotto than to his earlier master. Of the 
three world-famed bronze doors of the Florentine baptistery, 
the earliest one that on the south side was the work of Andrea; 
he spent many years on it; and it was finally set up in I336. 1 It 
consists of a number of small quatrefoil panels the lower eight 
containing single figures of the Virtues, and the rest scenes from 
the life of the Baptist. Andrea Pisano, while living in Florence, 
also produced many important works of marble sculpture, all 
of which show strongly Giotto's influence. In some cases 
probably they were actually designed by that artist, as, for in- 
stance, the double band of beautiful panel-reliefs which Andrea 
executed for the great campanile. The subjects of these are the 
Four Great Prophets, the Seven Virtues, the Seven Sacraments, 
the Seven Works of Mercy and the Seven Planets. The duomo 
contains the chief of Andrea's other Florentine works in marble. 
In 1347 he was appointed architect to the duomo of Orvieto, 
which had already been designed and begun by Lorenzo Maitani. 
The exact date of his death is not known, but it must have been 
shortly before the year 1349. 

Andrea Pisano had two sons, Nino and Tommaso both, especi- 
ally the former, sculptors of considerable ability. Nino was very 
successful in his statues of the Madonna and Child, which are full 
of human feeling and soft loveliness a perfect embodiment of 
the Catholic ideal of the Divine Mother. Andrea's chief pupil was 
Andrea di Cione, better known as Orcagna (q.v.). Balduccio di 
Pisa, another, and in one branch (that of sculpture) equally gifted 
pupil, executed the wonderful shrine of S. Eustorgio at Milan 
a most magnificent mass of sculptured figures and reliefs. 

PISANO, GIOVANNI (c. 1250-1330), Italian architect and 
sculptor, was the son of Niccola Pisano. Together with Arnolfo 
del Cambio and other pupils, he developed and extended into 
other parts of Italy the renaissance of sculpture which in the 
main was due to his father's talent. After he had spent the 
first part of his life at home as a pupil and fellow worker of 




Part of the Tomb of Benedict XI., by Giovanni Pisano. 



Niccola, the younger Pisano was summoned between 1270 and 
1274 to Naples, where he worked for Charles of Anjou on the 
Castel Nuovo. One of his earliest independent performances was 
the Campo Santo at Pisa, finished about 1 283 ; along with this he 
executed various pieces of sculpture over the main door and inside 
the cloister. The richest in design of all his works (finished 
about 1 286) is in the cathedral of Arezzo a magnificent marble 
high altar and reredos, adorned both in front and at the back 
with countless figures and reliefs mostly illustrative of the lives 
of St Gregory and St Donato, whose bones are enshrined there. 
The actual execution of this was probably wholly the work of his 
pupils. In 1290 Giovanni was appointed architect or " capo 
maestro " of the new cathedral at Siena, in which office he suc- 
ceeded Lorenzo Maitani, who went to Orvieto to build the less 
ambitious but equally magnificent duomo which had just been 
founded there. The design of the gorgeous fagade of that duomo 
has been attributed to him, but it is more probable that he only 
carried out Maitani's design. At Perugia, Giovanni built the 

1 The date on the door, 1330, refers to the original wax model. 



church of S. Domenico in 1304, but little of the original structure 
remains. The north transept, however, still contains his beauti- 
ful tomb of Benedict XI., with a sleeping figure of the pope, 
guarded by angels who draw aside the curtain. One of Giovanni's 
most beautiful architectural works was the little chapel of 
S. Maria della Spina (now rebuilt, " restored "), on the banks of 
the Arno in Pisa; the actual execution of this chapel, and the 
sculpture with which it is adorned, was mostly the work of his 
pupils. 2 The influence of his father Niccola is seen strongly in 
all Giovanni's works, but especially in the pulpit of S. Andrea at 
Pistoia, executed about 1300. Another pulpit, designed on the 
same lines, was made by him for the nave of Pisa Cathedral 
between 1310 and 1311. The last part of Giovanni's life was 
spent at Prato, near Florence, where with many pupils he worked 
at the cathedral till his death about 1330. 

See M. Sauerlandt, ffber die Bildwerke des Giovanni Pisano, &c. 
(1904); A. Brach, Nicola und Giovanni Pisano und die Plastik des 
XIV. Jahrhunderts in Siena (1904). 

PISANO, NICCOLA (c. 1206-1278), Italian sculptor and archi- 
tect. Though he called himself Pisanus, from Pisa, where most 
of his life was spent, he was not a Pisan by birth. There are two 
distinct accounts of his parentage, both derived mainly from 
existing documents. According to one of these he is said to 
have been the son of " Petrus, a notary of Siena;" but this 
statement is very doubtful, especially as the word " Siena " or 
" de Senis " appears to be a conjectural addition. Another 
document among the archives of the Sienese Cathedral calls 
him son of " Petrus de Apulia." Most modern writers accept 
the latter statement, and believe that he not only was a native 
of the province of Apulia in southern Italy, but also that he 
gained there his early instruction in the arts of sculpture and 
architecture. Those, on the other hand, who, with most of the 
older writers, prefer to accept the theory of Niccola's origin 
being Tuscan, suppose that he was a native of a small town 
called Apulia near Lucca. 

Except through his works, but little is known of the history 
of Niccola's life. As early as 1221 he is said to have been sum- 
moned to Naples by Frederick II., to do work in the new Castel 
del 1'Uovo. This fact supports the theory of his southern origin, 
though not perhaps very strongly, as, some years before, the 
Pisan Bonannus had been chosen by the Norman king as the 
sculptor to cast one of the bronze doors for Monreale Cathedral, 
where it still exists. The earliest existing piece of sculpture 
which can be attributed to Niccola is a beautiful relief of the 
Deposition from the Cross in the tympanum of the arch of a side 
door at San Martino at Lucca; it is remarkable for its graceful 
composition and delicate finish of execution. The date is about 
1237. In 1260, as an incised inscription records, he finished the 
marble pulpit for the Pisan baptistery; this is on the whole the 
finest of his works. 

It is a high octagon, on semicircular arches, with trefoil cusps, 
supported by nine marble columns, three of which rest on white 
marble lions. In design it presents that curious combination of 
Gothic forms with classical details which is one of the character- 
istics of the medieval architecture of northern Italy; though much 
enriched with sculpture both in relief and in the round, the general 
lines of the design are not sacrificed to this, but the sculpture is 
kept subordinate to the whole. In this respect it is superior to 
the more magnificent pulpit at Siena, one of Niccola's later works, 
which suffers greatly from want of repose and purity of outline, 
owing to its being overloaded with reliefs and statuettes. Five 
of the sides of the main octagon have panels with subjects the 
Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, 
the Crucifixion and the Doom. These are all, especially the first 
three, works of the highest beauty, and a wonderful advance on 
anything of the sort that had been produced by Niccola's prede- 
cessors. The drapery is gracefully arranged in broad simple folds; 
the heads are full of the most noble dignity; and the sweet yet 
stately beauty of the Madonna could hardly be surpassed. The 
panel with the Adoration of the Magi is perhaps the one in which 
Niccola's study of the antique is most apparent (see figure). The 
veiled and diademed figure of the Virgin Mother, seated on a 
throne, recalls the Roman Juno;' the head of Joseph behind her 
might be that of Vulcan; while the youthful beauty of an Apollo 
and the mature dignity of a Jupiter are suggested by the standing 



2 See Schultz, Denkmaler der Kunst in Unter-Italien. vii. 5. 



PISANO, V. PISCICULTURE 



649 



and kneeling figures of the Magi. Certain figures in others of the 
panels are no less deeply imbued with classical feeling. 

The next important work of Niccola in date is the Area di San 
Domenico, in the church at Bologna consecrated to that saint, 
who died in 1221. Only the main part, the actual sarcophagus 
covered with sculptured reliefs of St Dominic's life, is the work 
of Niccola and his pupils. The sculptured base and curved roof 
with its fanciful ornaments are later additions. This " Area " 




The Adoration of the Magi, one of the panels in the pulpit of the 
Pisan Baptistery, by Niccola Pisano. 

was made when St Dominic was canonized, and his bones trans- 
lated; it was finished in 1267, not by Niccola himself, but by his 
pupils. The most magnificent, though not the most beautiful, 
of Niccola's works is the great pulpit in Siena cathedral (1268). 
It is much larger than that at Pisa, though somewhat similar in 
general design, being an octagon on cusped arches and columns. 
Its stairs, and a large landing at the top, with carved balusters 
and panels, rich with semi-classical foliage, are an addition of 
about 1 500. The pulpit itself is much overloaded with sculpture, 
and each relief is far too crowded with figures. An attempt to 
gain magnificence of effect has destroyed the dignified simplicity 
for which the earlier pulpit is so remarkable. 

Niccola's last great work of sculpture was the fountain in the 
piazza opposite the west end of the cathedral at Perugia. This 
is a series of basins rising one above another, each with sculptured 
bas-reliefs; it was begun in 1274, and completed, except the 
topmost basin, which is of bronze, by Niccola's son and pupil 
Giovanni. 

Niccola Pisano was not only pre-eminent as a sculptor, but 
was also the greatest Italian architect of his century ; he designed 
a number of very important buildings, though not all which 
are attributed to him by Vasari. Among those now existing 
the chief are the main part of the cathedral at Pistoia, the church 
and convent of Sta Margherita at Cortona, and Sta Trinita at 
Florence. The church of Sant' Antonio at Padua has also been 
attributed to him, but without reason. Unfortunately his archi- 
tectural works have in most cases been much altered and modern- 
ized. Niccola was also a skilled engineer, and was compelled 
by the Florentines to destroy the great tower, called the Guarda- 
morto, which overshadowed the baptistery at Florence, and had 
for long been the scene of violent conflicts between the Guelphs 
and Ghibellines. He managed skilfully so that it should fall 
without injuring the baptistery. Niccola Pisano died at Pisa 
in the year 1278, leaving his son Giovanni a worthy successor to 
his great talents both as an architect and sculptor. 

Though his importance as a reviver of the old traditions of 
beauty in art has been to some extent exaggerated by Vasari, yet 
it is probable that Niccola, more than any other one man, was the 
means of starting that " new birth " of the plastic arts which, in 
the years following his death, was so fertile in countless works of 
the most unrivalled beauty. Both Niccola and his son had many 
pupils of great artistic power, and these carried the influence of the 
Pisani throughout Tuscany and northern Italy, so that the whole 
art of the succeeding generations may be said to have owed the 
greater part of its rapid development to this one family. 

See SCULPTURE, and general histories of Italian art; Symonds, 



Renaissance in Italy; A. Brach, Nicola und Giovanni Pisano und 
die Plastik des XIV. Jahrhunderts in Siena (Strassburg, 1904). 

PISANO, VITTORE (c. 1380-1456), commonly called PISA- 
NELLO, Italian medallist, was a native of San Vigilio sul Lago in 
the territory of Verona. Specimens of his work as a painter are 
still extant in Rome, Venice, Verona and Pistoia, and entitle 
him to a place of some distinction in the history of that art. 
The National Gallery in London possesses a very fine specimen 
of Pisanello's work a panel painted with miniature-like delicacy. 
During the latter portion of his life he lived in Rome, where he 
enjoyed great repute. 

PISAURUM (mod. Pesaro, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria on 
the Via Flaminia, 26 m. from Ariminum and 8 from Fanum 
Fortunae. A Roman colony was founded here in the territory 
of the Galli Senones in 184 B.C., at the mouth of the river Pisaurus 
(mod. Foglia; the sea has since then receded about half a mile). 
Whether it took the place of an earlier town or not, is not known: 
an important Gaulish cemetery has been discovered near the 
village of Novilara between Pisaurum and Fanum, but to which of 
these centres (if either) it belonged is uncertain (E. Brizio in 
MonumentideiLincei[i&Q5], v. Sssqq.). In 1748.0. we hear that 
the censors built a temple of Jupiter here and paved a road. 
T. Accius, the counsel who opposed Cicero in the case when he 
defended Cluentius in a still extant speech, was a native of Pisau- 
rum. Catullus refers to the town as decadent or unhealthy, but 
this may be merely malicious, and does not seem to be borne out 
by facts: for it is not infrequently mentioned by classical authors. 
It was occupied by Caesar in 49 B.C., and was made a colony 
under the second triumvirate. Hence it bears the name Colonia 
Julia Felix. We hear little of it under the empire. It was 
destroyed by the Goths in 539, and restored by Belisarius in 545. 
From the inscriptions, nearly 200 in number, an idea of the im- 
portance of the town may be gained. Among them are a group 
of cippi found on the site of a sacred grove of the matrons of 
Pisaurum, bearing dedications to various deities, and belonging 
probably to the date of the foundation of the colony. There are 
some remains of the town walls, and an ancient bridge over the 
Foglia. It was, like Ariminum, a considerable place for the 
manufacture of bricks and pottery, though the factories cannot 
always be precisely localized. 

PISCES (the fishes), in astronomy, the twelfth sign of the 
zodiac (q.v.), represented by two fishes tied together by their 
tails and denoted by the symbol X- It is a ls a constellation, 
mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.c.)and Aratus (3rd century 
B.C.); and catalogued by Ptolemy (38 stars), Tycho Brahe (36) 
and Hevelius (39). In Greek legend Aphrodite and Eros, while 
on the banks of the Euphrates, were surprised by Typhon, and 
sought safety by jumping into the water, where they were 
changed into two fishes. This fable, however, as in many other 
similar cases, is probably nothing more than an adaptation of an 
older Egyptian tale, o Piscium, is a fine double star of magnitude 
3 and 4; 35 Piscium, is another double star, the components 
being a white star of the 6th magnitude and a purplish star of 
the 8th magnitude. 

Piscis australis, the southern fish, is a constellation of the 
southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus and Aratus, and cata- 
logued by Ptolemy, who described 18 stars. The most important 
star is a Piscis australis or Fomalhaut, a star of the first magnitude. 

Piscis volans, the flying fish, is a new constellation introduced 
by John Bayer in 1603. 

PISCICULTURE (from Lat. piscis, fish). The species of 
fish which can be kept successfully in captivity throughout their 
lives from egg to adult is exceedingly limited in number. The 
various breeds of goldfish are familiar examples, but the carp 
is almost the only food-fish capable of similar domestication. 
Various other food-fishes, both marine. and fresh- water, can be 
kept in ponds for longer or shorter periods, but refuse to breed, 
while in other cases the fry obtained from captive breeders will 
not develop. Consequently there are two main types of pisci- 
culture to be distinguished: (i) the rearing in confinement 
of young fishes to an edible stage, and (2) the stocking of 
natural waters with eggs or fry from captured breeders. 



650 



PISCICULTURE 



Fish-rearing. Of the first type of pisciculture there are few 
examples of commercial importance. The pond-culture of 
carp is an important industry in China and Germany, and has 
been introduced with some success in the United States, but 
in England it has long fallen out of use, and is not likely to be 
revived so long as fresh fish can be obtained and distributed so 
readily as is now the case. Other examples are to be found in 
the cultivation of the lagoons of the Adriatic, and of the salt- 
marshes of various parts of France. Here, as in ancient Greece 
and Rome, it is the practice to admit young fish from the sea 
by sluices, into artificial enclosures or " viviers," and to keep 
them there until they are large enough to be used. An in- 
teresting modification of this method of cultivation has been 
introduced into Denmark. The entrances to the inner lagoons 
of the Limfjord are naturally blocked against the immigration 
of flatfish by dense growths of sea-grass (Zoster a), although 
the outer lagoons are annually invaded by large numbers of 
small plaice from the North Sea. The fishermen of the dis- 
trict consequently combined to defray the expenses of trans- 
planting large numbers of small plaice from the outer waters 
to the inner lagoons, where they were found to thrive far better 
than in their natural habitat. The explanation has been shown 
by Dr Petersen to be due to the abundance of food, coupled 
with the lack of overcrowding of the small fish. This trans- 
plantation of plaice in Denmark has been annually repeated 
for several years with the most successful results, and a suitable 
subvention to the cost is now an annual charge upon the govern- 
ment funds. 

As a result of the international North Sea fishery investigations, 
it has been proposed to extend the same principle for the develop- 
ment of the deep sea fishery in the neighbourhood of the Dogger 
Bank. Experiments with labelled plaice, carried out in 1904 by 
the Marine Biological Association, showed that small plaice trans- 
planted to the Dogger Bank in spring grew three times as rapidly 
as those on the inshore grounds, and the same result, with in- 
significant variations, has been obtained by similar experiments 
in each succeeding year. In this case the deep water round the 
Dogger Bank acts as a barrier to the emigration of the small plaice 
from the shores. It has consequently been proposed that the small 
plaice should be transplanted in millions to the Bank by well vessels 
every spring. It is claimed, as a further result of the experiments, 
that from May to October the young fish would be practically free 
on the shallow part of the Bank from the risk of premature capture 
by trawlers, and that the increased value of the fish, consequent 
upon their phenomenal growth-rate, would greatly exceed the cost 
of transplantation. 

The methods of oyster- and mussel-culture are similar in principle 
to those just described. A breeding stock is maintained to supply 
the ground, or the " collectors," with spat, and the latter, when 
sufficiently grown, is then transplanted to the most favourable 
feeding-grounds, care being taken to avoid the local over-crowding 
which is so commonly observed among shell-fish under natural 
conditions. 

Fish-hatching. The second, and more familiar, type of 
pisciculture is that known as fish-hatching, with which must 
be associated the various methods of artificial propagation. 

The fertilization of the spawn is very easily effected. The 
eggs are collected either by " stripping " them from the mature 
adult immediately after capture, or by keeping the adults 
alive until they are ready to spawn, and then stripping them 
or by keeping them in reservoirs of sea-water and allowing 
them to spawn of their own accord. In the two former cases 
a little milt is allowed to fall from a male fish into a vessel con- 
taining a small quantity of water fresh or salt as required 
and the eggs are pressed from the female fish into the same 
vessel. In fresh-water culture the eggs thus fertilized may be 
at once distributed to the waters to be stocked, or they may be 
kept in special receptacles provided with a suitable stream of 
water until the fry are hatched, and then distributed, or again 
they may be reared in the hatchery for several months until 
the fry are active and hardy. 

The hatching of eggs, whether of fresh-water or salt-water 
fishes, presents no serious difficulties, if suitable apparatus is 
employed; but the rearing of fry to an advanced stage, without 
serious losses, is less easy, and in the case of sea-fishes with 
pelagic eggs, the larvae of which are exceedingly small and 



tender, is still an unsolved problem, although recent work, 
carried out at the Plymouth laboratory of the Marine Bio- 
logical Association, is at least promising. It has been found 
possible to grow pure cultures of various diatoms, and by feeding 
these to delicate larvae kept in sterilized sea-water, great suc- 
cesses have been attained. In fresh-water culture little advan- 
tage, if any, has been found to result from artificial hatching, 
unless this is followed by a successful period of rearing. Thus 
the Howietown Fishery Company recommend their customers 
to stock their streams either with unhatched ova or with three- 
month-old fry. Their experience is " that there is no half-way 
house between ova sown in redds and three-month-old fry. 
Younger fry may do, but only where ova would do as well, and 
at half the cost." In marine hatcheries, on the other hand, 
it is the invariable practice to hatch the eggs, although the 
fry have to be put into the sea at the most critical period of 
their lives. If it is a risky matter to plant out the robust 
young fry of trout under an age of three months, it would seem 
to be an infinitely more speculative proceeding to plant out 
the delicate week-old larvae of sea-fishes in an environment 
which teems with predaceous enemies. 

Objects and Utility of Fish-hatcheries. The earlier advocates 
of artificial propagation and fish-hatching seem to have been 
under the impression that the thousands of fry resulting from 
a single act of artificial propagation meant a corresponding 
increase in the numbers of edible fish when once they had been 
deposited in suitable waters; and also that artificial fertilization 
ensured a greater proportion of fertilized eggs than the natural 
process. For the second of these propositions there is no evi- 
dence, while the first proposition is now everywhere discredited. 
It is recognized that the great fertility of fishes is nature's 
provision to meet a high mortality greater in sea-fishes with 
minute pelagic eggs than in fresh-water fishes with larger-yolked 
eggs, partly because of the greater risks of marine pelagic life, 
and partly because of the greater delicacy of marine larvae 
at the time of hatching. Artificially propagated eggs and fry 
after planting must submit to the same mortality as the other 
eggs and fry around them. Consequently it is useless to plant 
out eggs or fry unless in numbers sufficiently great to appre- 
ciably increase the stock of eggs and fry already existing. 

It is this, combined always with the suitability of the ex- 
ternal conditions, which accounts for the success of the best 
known experiments of American pisciculturists. The artifi- 
cially propagated eggs of the shad from the eastern rivers of 
the United States were planted in those of California and the 
Mississippi, where the species did not naturally occur. The 
conditions were suitable, and the species became at once accli- 
matized. Similarly reservoirs and streams can be stocked 
with various kinds of fish not previously present. But in the 
case of indigenous species the breeding stock must be very 
seriously reduced before the addition of the eggs or fry of a 
few score or hundreds of fish can appreciably increase the local 
stock. 

In the case of sea-fishes it is becoming increasingly recog- 
nized that the millions of cod fry which are annually turned out 
of the American, Newfoundland and Norwegian hatcheries 
are but an insignificant fraction of the billions of fry which are 
naturally produced. A single female cod liberates, according 
to its size, from one to five million eggs in a single season. Yet 
the annual output of fry from each of these hatcheries rarely 
exceeds 200 millions, i.e. the natural product of a few hundred 
cod at most. In Britain marine hatcheries have b.een estab- 
lished by the Fishery Board for Scotland in the bay of Nigg, 
near Aberdeen, by the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee at 
Peel, and by the government of the Isle of Man at Port Erin. 
These establishments have been principally devoted to the 
hatching of the eggs of plaice. But again the maximum out- 
put of fry from any one of these establishments has not exceeded 
40 millions in any single year. As a single female plaice 
produces about 200,000 eggs per annum, this output does not 
exceed the natural produce of a few hundred fish. Under these 
circumstances the probable utility of the operations could be 



PISCINA PISIDIA 



651 



admitted only if the fry were sedentary and could be planted 
in suitable localities where young fish were naturally scarce. 
But the fry drift with the currents as helplessly as the eggs, 
and the a priori objections to the utility of the operations have 
in no case been met by evidence of tangible results. The 
plaice fry hatched in the Scottish establishment have been dis- 
tributed for many years in the waters of Loch Fyne. Yet in 
this area, according to the investigations of Mr Williamson 
(Report of the Scottish Fishery Board for 1898), nearly 500 
millions of plaice eggs are naturally produced in one spawning 
season. Evidence is still lacking as to whether the 20 to 30 
million fry annually added from the hatchery have appre- 
ciably increased the quantities of young plaice on the surround- 
ing shores. Supposing this could be established, the question 
would still remain whether the same result could not be obtained 
at far less expense by dispensing with the hatching operations 
and distributing the eggs directly after fertilization. 

In the United States the utility of the cod-hatching opera- 
tions has been constantly asserted by representatives of the 
Bureau of Fisheries, but practically the only evidence adduced 
is the occasional appearance of unusual numbers of cod in the 
neighbourhood. It has not been established that the fluctua- 
tions in the local cod fisheries bear any fixed relation to the ex- 
tent of the hatching operations, while the earlier reports of the 
Commissioners of Fisheries contain evidence that similar fluctu- 
ations occurred before the hatching of " fish commission 
cod " had begun. 

The situation may be summed up in the words of Mr Fryer, 
H.M. Superintending Inspector of Fisheries, who critically 
examined the evidence bearing upon the operations of the 
Newfoundland Hatchery at Dildo (Reports x.-xii. of the 
Inspectors of Sea Fisheries, E. & W.): "Where the estab- 
lishment of a hatchery, even on the smallest scale, is followed 
by an increased take of fish, there is a tendency to connect 
the two as cause and effect on insufficient evidence, and 
without any regard to the many conditions which have always 
led to fluctuations in the case of any particular kind of fish." 

The most exact investigations bearing upon this problem are 
those which have been recently undertaken in Norway in con- 
nexion with the cod-hatching operations at Arendal under 
Captain Dannevig. Four fjords were selected in the south 
coast of Norway in proximity to the hatchery, and the usual 
number of fry (10-30 millions) were planted in the spring in 
alternate fjords, leaving the intermediate fjords unsupplied. 
The relative number of young cod in the various fjords was 
then carefully investigated throughout the succeeding summer 
and autumn months. It was found that there was no relation 
between the abundance of young fish and the presence or ab- 
sence of " artificial " fry. In 1904, 33 million fry were planted 
in Sondelefjord and young fish were exceptionally abundant 
in the following autumn (three times as abundant as in 1903 
when no fry were planted). But their abundance was equally 
striking in other fjords in which no fry had been planted, 
while in 1905 all the fjords were deficient in young cod whether 
they had been planted with fry from the hatchery or not. 

For a summary of these investigations see papers on " Artificial 
Fish-hatching in Norway," by Captain Dannevig and Mr Dahl, 
in the Report of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory for 1906 
(Liverpool, 1907). 

It would thus seem clear that the attempts hitherto made to 
increase the supply of sea-fish by artificial hatching have been 
unsuccessful. The experience gained has doubtless not been 
wasted, but the direction to be taken by future work is plain. 
The energy and money devoted to hatching operations should 
be diverted to the serious attempt to discover a means of rearing 
on a large scale the just-hatched fry of the more sedentary 
species to a sturdy adolescence. When that has been done (it 
has been achieved by the present writer in the case of the sea 
fish Coitus with demersal eggs,) it would be possible to deposit 
the young fish in suitable localities on a large scale, with a 
reasonable prospect of influencing the local abundance of the 
species of fish in question. 



For further details, see J. T. Cunningham, Natural History of 
the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands (London, 1896); 
A Manual of Fish-Culture (Washington, 1897); Roche 1 , La Culture 
des mers (Paris, 1898); W. Garstang, Experiments on the Trans- 
plantation of Marked Plaice (First Report of the North Sea Fisheries 
Investigation Committee, 1905). (W. GA.) 

PISCINA, a Latin word first applied to a fish-pond, and later 
used for any pool of water for bathing, &c., either natural or 
artificial, and also for a tank or reservoir. In ecclesiastical 
usage the term was given to a shallow stone basin (the French 
cuvette) placed near the altar in a church, with drains to take 
away the water used in the ablutions at the mass. " Piscinae " 
seem at first to have been mere cups or small basins, supported 
on perforated stems, placed close to the wall, and afterwards to 
have been recessed therein and covered with niche heads, which 
often contained shelves to serve as aumbries. They are rare 
in England till the i3th century, after which there is scarcely an 
altar without one. They frequently take the form of a double 
niche, with a shaft between the arched heads, which are often 
filled with elaborate tracing. 

PISEK, a town of Bohemia, 55 m. S. of Prague by rail. Pop. 
(1900), 13,608, mostly Czech. It lies on the right bank of the 
Wottawa, which is here crossed by an interesting stone bridge 
of great antiquity. The most prominent buildings are the 
church of the Nativity, the town-hall, and a castle dating from 
the i sth_century. The industries are iron and brass founding, 
brewing, and the manufacture of shoes, paper, cement and 
Turkish fezes. Feldspar, quartz and granite are quarried in 
the environs. The name of Pisek, which is the Czech for sand, is 
said to be derived from the gold-washing formerly carried on 
in the bed of the Wottawa (1571-1621). 

In 1619 it was captured by the imperialist general, Karl 
Bonaventura de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy, and suffered so 
severely that the citizens opened their gates to his opponent, 
Ernst von Mansfeld. This was punished in October of the 
following year, when Duke Maximilian of Bavaria sacked the 
town and put nearly all the inhabitants to the sword. Pisek 
was one of the chief centres of the Hussites. It was occupied 
by the French in 1741. 

PISIDIA, in ancient geography, the name given to a country 
in the south of Asia Minor, immediately north of Pamphylia 
by which it was separated from the Mediterranean, while it 
was bounded on the N. by Phrygia, on the E. by Lycaonia, 
Isauria and Cilicia, and on the W. and S.W. by Lycia 
and a part of Phrygia. It was a rugged and mountainous dis- 
trict, comprising some of the loftiest portions of the great range 
of Mt Taurus, together with the offshoots of the same chain 
towards the central table-land of Phrygia. Such a region was 
naturally occupied from a very early period by wild and lawless 
races of mountaineers, who were very imperfectly reduced to 
subjection by the powers that successively established their 
dominion in Asia Minor. The Pisidians are not mentioned by 
Herodotus, either among the nations that were subdued by 
Croesus, or among those that furnished contingents to the army 
of Xerxes, and the first mention of them in history occurs in 
the Anabasis of Xenophon, when they furnished a pretext to the 
younger Cyrus for levying the army with which he designed to 
subvert his brother's throne, while he pretended only to put 
down the Pisidians who were continually harassing the neigh- 
bouring nations by their lawless forays (Anab. i. i, u; ii. i, 4, 
&c.). They are afterwards mentioned frequently by later 
writers among the inland nations of Asia Minor, and assume a 
more prominent part in the history of Alexander the Great, to 
whose march through their country they opposed a deter- 
mined resistance. In Strabo's time they had passed under 
the Roman dominion, though still governed by their own petty 
chiefs and retaining to a considerable extent their predatory 
habits (giving rise to such wars as that carried on by Quirinius, 
about 8-6 B.C.). 

The boundaries of Pisidia, like those of most of the 
inland provinces or regions of Asia Minor, were not clearly 
defined, and appear to have fluctuated at different times. This 
was especially the case on the side of Lycia, where the upland 



652 



PISO PISSARRO 



district of Milyas was sometimes included in Pisidia, at other 
times assigned to Lycia. Some writers, indeed, considered the 
Pisidians as the same people with the Milyans, while others 
regarded them as descendants of the Solymi, but Strabo speaks 
of the language of the Pisidians as distinct from that of the 
Solymi, as well as from that of the Lydians. The whole of 
Pisidia is an elevated region of table-lands or upland valleys in 
the midst of the ranges of Mt Taurus which descends abruptly 
on the side of Pamphylia. It contains several small lakes, and 
two of large size, Bey-Sheher Lake, the ancient Karalis, and 
the double lake now called the Egerdir Geul, of which the ancient 
came was Limnai. The latter is a fresh-water lake of about 
30 m. in length, situated in the north of Pisidia on the frontier 
of Phrygia, at an elevation of 3007 ft. Karalis is a larger 
body, also of fresh water, and at a distinctly higher level above 
the sea. The only rivers of importance are the Cestrus and 
the Eurymedon, both of which take their rise in the highest 
ranges of Mt Taurus, and flow down through deep and narrow 
valleys to the plain of Pamphylia, which they traverse on their 
way to the sea. 

Notwithstanding its rugged and mountainous character, 
Pisidia contained in ancient times several considerable towns, 
the ruins of which have been brought to light by the re- 
searches of recent travellers (Arundell, Hamilton, Daniell, G. 
Hirschfeld, Radet, Sterrett, Lanckoronski, Ramsay, &c.), and 
show them to have attained under the Roman Empire to a degree 
of opulence and prosperity far beyond what we should have 
looked for in a country of predatory mountaineers. The most 
important of them are Termessus, near the frontier of Lycia, a 
strong fortress in a position of great natural strength and 
commanding one of the principal passes into Pamphylia; 
Cremna, another mountain fortress, north of the preceding, 
impending over the valley of the Cestrus; Sagalassus, a little 
farther north, a large town in a strong position, the ruins of 
which are among the most remarkable in Asia Minor; Selge, on 
the right bank of the Eurymedon, surrounded by rugged moun- 
tains, notwithstanding which it was in Strabo's time a large and 
opulent city; and Antioch, known for distinction's sake as 
Antioch of Pisidia, and celebrated for the visit of St Paul. This 
was situated in the extreme north-east of the district imme- 
diately on the frontier of Phrygia, between Lake Egerdir and 
the range of the Sultan Dagh and was reckoned in the Greek 
and earlier Roman period, e.g. by Strabo, as a city of Phrygia. 

Besides these there were situated in the rugged mountain 
tract west of the Cestrus Cretopolis, Olbasa, Pogla, Isinda, 
Etenna and Comama. Pednelissus was in the upper valley 
of the Eurymedon above Selge. The only place in the district 
at the present day deserving to be called a town is Isbarta, the 
residence of a pasha; it stands at the northern foot of the 
main mass of Mt Taurus, looking over a wide and fertile plain 
which extends up to the northern chain of Taurus. North of 
this and immediately on the borders of Phrygia stood Apollonia, 
called also Mordiaeum. Large estates in Pisidia and the 
adjoining parts of Phrygia belonged to the Roman emperors; 
and their administration has been investigated by Ramsay and 
others. 

We have no clue to the ethnic character and relations of 
the Pisidians, except that we learn from Strabo that they were 
distinct from the neighbouring Solymi, who were probably a 
Semitic race, but we find mention at an early period in these 
mountain districts of various other tribes, as the Cabali, Milyans, 
&c., of all which, as well as the neighbouring Isaurians and 
Lycaonians, the origin is wholly unknown, and the absence of 
monuments of their languages must remain so. A few short 
Pisidian inscriptions have been published by Ramsay in Revue 
des eludes anciennes (1895, pp. 353-362). No inscriptions in these 
other languages are known. (W. M. RA.) 

PISO, the name of a distinguished Roman plebeian family 
of the Calpurnian gens which continued in existence till the end 
of the 2nd century A.D. Nearly fifty of its members were 
prominent in Roman history, but the following deserve particular 
mention. 



1. Lucius CALPURNIUS PISO CAESONINUS, Roman statesman, 
was the father-in-law of Julius Caesar. In 588.0., when consul, he 
and his colleague Aulus Gabinius entered into a compact with 
P. Clodius, with the object of getting Cicero out of the way. 
Psio's reward was the province of Macedonia, which he adminis- 
tered from 57 to the beginning of 55, when he was recalled, 
perhaps in consequence of the violent attack made upon him 
by Cicero in the senate in his speech De prorinciis considaribus. 
On his return Piso addressed the senate in his defence, and 
Cicero replied with the coarse and exaggerated invective known 
as In Pisonem. Piso issued a pamphlet by way of rejoinder, 
and there the matter dropped, Cicero being afraid to bring the 
father-in-law of Caesar to trial. At the outbreak of the civil 
war Piso offered his services as mediator, but when Caesar 
marched upon Rome he left the city by way of protest. He did 
not, however, definitely declare for Pompey, but remained 
neutral, without forfeiting the respect of Caesar. After the 
murder of the dictator he insisted on the provisions of his will 
being strictly carried out, and for a time opposed Antony. 
Subsequently, however, he became one of his supporters, and 
is mentioned as taking part in an embassy to Antony's camp at 
Mutina with the object of bringing about a reconciliation. 

2. Lucius CALPURNIUS Piso, surnamed Frugi (the worthy), 
Roman statesman and historian, was tribune in 149 B.C. 
He is known chiefly for his lex Calpurnia repelundarum, 
which brought about the system of quaesliones perpeluae and a 
new phase of criminal procedure. As praetor (136) and consul 
(133) Piso fought against the slaves in Sicily. He energetically 
opposed Gaius Gracchus, especially in connexion with his corn law. 

See ANNALISTS; C. Cichorius in Pauly-Wissowa's Real encyclo- 
pddie (1897), vol. in., pt. I ; H. Peter, Hisloricorum romanorum 
reliquiae (1870), vol. i.; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. (Eng. 
trans.), 132, 4. On the lex Calpurnia, Corpus inscr, latinarum, i., 
No. 198, with Mommsen's commentary; A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, 
of Rome, 133-104 B.C. (1904). 

3. GNAEUS CALPURNIUS Piso, Roman statesman, was consul 
in 7 B.C., and subsequently governor of Spain and proconsul of 
Africa. In A.D. 17 Tiberius appointed him governor of Syria, 
with secret instructions to thwart Germanicus, to whom the 
eastern provinces had been assigned. The indignation of the 
people at the death of Germanicus, and the suspicion that Piso 
had poisoned him, forced Tiberius to order an investigation. 
Piso committed suicide, though it was rumoured that Tiberius, 
fearing incriminating disclosures, had put him to death. 

See H. Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit (1883), vol. i. 

4. GAIUS CALPURNIUS Piso, Roman statesman, orator and 
patron of literature in the ist century A.D., is known chiefly for 
his share in the conspiracy of A.D. 65 against Nero (q.v.). He was 
one of the most popular men in Rome, partly for his skill in 
poetry and music, partly for his love of luxury and generosity. 

It is probably the last-named who is referred to by Calpurnius 
Siculus under the name of Meliboeus, and he is the subject of the 
panegyric De laude Pisonis. 

PISSARRO, CAM1LLE (1831-1903), French painter, was 
born at St Thomas in the Danish Antilles, of Jewish parents 
of Spanish extraction. He went to Paris at the age of twenty, 
and, as a pupil of Corot, came into close touch with the Barbizon 
masters. Though at first he devoted himself to subjects of 
the kind which will ever be associated with the name of Millet, 
his interest was entirely absorbed by the landscape, and not by 
the figures. He subsequently fell under the spell of the rising 
impressionist movement and threw in his lot with Monet and 
his friends, who were at that time the butt of public ridicule. 
Like Monet, he made sunlight, and the effect of sunlight on the 
objects of nature, the chief subjects of his paintings, whether in 
the country or on the Paris boulevards. About 1885 he took 
up the laboriously scientific method of the pointillists, but after 
a few years of these experiments he returned to a broader and 
more attractive manner. Indeed, in the closing years of his 
life he produced some of his finest paintings, in which he set 
down with admirable truth the peculiar atmosphere and colour 
and teeming life of the boulevards, streets and bridges of Paris 
and Rouen. He died in Paris in 1903. 



PISTACHIO NUT PISTOIA, SYNOD OF 



653 



Pissarro is represented in the Caillebotte room at the Luxem- 
bourg, and in almost every collection of impressionist paintings. 
A number of his finest works are in the collection of M. Durand- 
Ruel in Paris. 

PISTACHIO NUT, the fruit of Pistacia vera (natural order 
Anacardiaceae), a small tree which is a native of Syria and 
generally cultivated in the Mediterranean region. Although a 
delicious nut and much prized by the Greeks and, other Eastern 
nations, it is not well known in Britain. It is not so large as a 
hazel nut, but is rather longer and much thinner, and the shell 
is covered with a somewhat wrinkled skin. The pistachio 
nut is the species named in Gen. xliii. n (Heb. t?i>, Ar. botm) as 
forming part of the present which Joseph's brethren took with 
them from Canaan, and in Egypt it is still often placed along 
with sweetmeats and the like in presents of courtesy. The 
small nut of Pistacia Lentiscus, not larger than a cherry stone, 
also comes from Smyrna, Constantinople and Greece. P. 
Lentiscus is the mastic tree, a native of the Mediterranean 
region, forming a shrub or small tree with evergreen pinnately- 
compound leaves with a winged stalk. " Mastic " (from 
masticare, to chew) is an aromatic resinous exudation obtained 
by making incisions in the bark. It is chiefly produced in Asia 
Minor and is used by the Turks as a chewing gum. It is also 
used as a varnish for pictures. P. Terebinthus, the Cyprus 
turpentine tree, a native of southern Europe, Asia Minor and 
North Africa, yields turpentine from incisions in the trunk. A 
gall is produced on this tree, which is used in dyeing and tanning. 

PISTIL, a term in botany for the female or seed-bearing 
organ of a flower (q.v.). The Lat. pistillum (diminutive from 
pinsere, pislum, to pound), a pestle, a club-headed instrument 
used for crushing or braying substances in a mortar (q.v.), was 
taken as the name for this organ from its similarity in shape, 
and thence adapted in Fr. pistil about the middle of the i8th 
century. In its complete form a pistil consists of three parts 
ovary, at the base, containing the bodies which become seeds, 
style (Gr. orDXos, pillar), and stigma (Gr. (nryjua, mark, oTiftw, 
to brand), the part which in impregnation receives the pollen. 

PISTOIA, or PISTOJA (anc. Pistoriae), a town and episcopal 
see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it 
is 21 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1906), 27,127 (town); 68,131 
(commune). It is situated on a slight eminence (210 ft.) near 
the Ombrone, one of the tributaries of the Arno. It is on the 
site of the Roman Pistoriae, which is hardly mentioned in ancient 
times, except for the destruction of Catiline's forces and the 
slaughter of their leader near it in 62 B.C., and as a station on 
the road between Florentia and Luca; and earlier still by 
Plautus, but only with jesting allusion to the similarity of the 
name to the word pistor (baker). Hardly any inscriptions of 
the ancient town have been found; but excavations in 1902 (see 
G. Pellegrini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1904, p. 241) in the Piazzo del 
Duomo led to the discovery of a large private house, which 
belonged to the end of the ist century B.C. Some mosaic 
pavements were found, belonging perhaps to the 3rd century 
A.D., while the house appears to have fallen into ruin at the 
beginning of the 5th. Remains of four subsequent periods 
were discovered above it. It was found that the tradition that 
the cathedral occupied the site of a temple of Mars was ground- 
less; for the house appears to have extended under it. Ammi- 
anus Marcellinus (sth century) mentions Pistoriae as a city of 
Tuscia Annonaria. During the middle ages Pistoia was at 
times a dangerous enemy to Florence, and the scene of constant 
conflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibellines; it was there 
that the great party struggle took place which resulted in the 
creation of the Bianchi and Neri factions (see Dante, Inferno, 
xxiv. 121 to end). In 1302-06 it was besieged and eventually 
taken by the armies of Florence and Lucca, and in 1325 it 
became subject to Castruccio of Lucca. In 1351 it was obliged 
to surrender to Florence, and thenceforth shared its fate. 

The city is still surrounded by walls, dating from shortly after 
the siege of 1302-06; while two inner lines of streets represent 
two earlier and inner lines of wall. In the early development 
of architecture and sculpture Pistoia played a very important 



part; these arts, as they existed in Tuscany before the time of 
NiccolajPisano, can perhaps be better studied in Pistoia than 
anywhere else; nor is the city less rich in the later works produced 
by the school of sculptors founded by Niccola. In the i4th 
century Pistoia possessed a number of the most skilful artists 
in silver-work, a wonderful specimen of whose powers exists now 
in the cathedral the great silver altar and frontal of St James, 
originally made for the high altar, but now placed in a chapel 
on the south side. The cathedral is partly of the I2th century, 
with a porch and facade with small arcades in black and white 
marble, as is the case with several other churches of Pistoia 
but was remodelled in the I3th century, and modernized inside 
in the worst taste. Besides the silver altar it contains many 
fine works of sculpture; the chief are the monument of Cino da 
Pistoia, lawyer and poet, Dante's contemporary (1337), by 
Cellino di Nese, surrounded by his scholars, and Verrocchio's 
finest work in marble, the monument to Cardinal Forteguerra 
(1474), with a large figure of Christ, surrounded by angels, in 
high relief. The clay model for it is in the South Kensington 
Museum. The monument has unfortunately been altered. 
The octagonal baptistery is by Cellino di Nese (1339). Among 
the earlier churches the principal is Sant' Andrea, enriched with 
sculpture, and probably designed by Gruamons and his brother 
Adeodatus in 1136; in the nave is Giovanni Pisano's magnificent 
pulpit, imitated from his father's pulpit at Pisa. Other churches 
of almost equal interest are S. Giovanni Fuorcivitus (so called 
because it was outside the line of the earliest, pentagonal, 
enceinte of the middle ages), with one of the long sides elabor- 
ately adorned with small arcades in the Pisan style, in black and 
white marble, also with sculpture by Gruamons (1162) on the 
facade. Within is a beautiful group of the Visitation by Luca 
della Robbia. There is also a fine pulpit by Fra Guglielmo 
dell' Agnello of Pisa (1270). S. Bartolomeo in Pantano is an 
interesting basilica of 1167. San Francesco al Prato is a fine 
church of the end of the i3th century with interesting frescoes 
of the school of Giotto. San Domenico, a noble church, begun 
in 1294, contains the beautiful tomb of Filippo Lazari by 
Bernardo and Antonio Rossellino (1462-1468). In addition to its 
fine churches, Pistoia contains many noble palaces and public 
buildings. The Palazzo del Commune and the Palazzo Pretorio, 
once the residence of the podesta, are both fine specimens of 
14th-century domestic architecture, in good preservation. The 
quadrangle of the latter contains many well-painted armorial 
bearings of the podestas. The Ospedale del Ceppo, built 
originally in the I3th century, but remodelled in the isth, is 
remarkable for the reliefs in enamelled and coloured terra-cotta 
with which its exterior is richly decorated. Besides various 
medallions, there is a frieze of figures in high relief extending 
along the whole front, over its open arcade. The reliefs consist 
of a series of groups representing the Seven Works of Mercy and 
other figures; these were executed by Giovanni Della Robbia 
between 1514 and 1525, and, though not equal to the best work 
of Luca and Andrea, are yet very fine in conception and model- 
ling, and extremely rich in their general decorative effect. The 
last on the right was added in 1585 by Paladini. 

The industries of Pistoia include iron and steel works, especi- 
ally manufactures of glass, silk, macaroni, woollens, olive oil, 
ropes, paper, vehicles and fire-arms. The word "pistol" is 
derived (apparently through pistolese, a dagger dagger and 
pistol being both small arms) from Pistoia, where that weapon 
was largely manufactured in the middle ages. 

PISTOIA, SYNOD OF, a diocesan synod held in 1786 under 
the presidency of Scipione de' Ricci (1741-1810), bishop of 
Pistoia, and the patronage of Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
with a view to preparing the ground for a national council and 
a reform of the Tuscan Church. On the 26th of January the 
grand-duke issued a circular letter to the Tuscan bishops 
suggesting certain reforms, especially in the matter of the 
restoration of the authority of diocesan synods, the purging of 
the missals and breviaries of legends, the assertion of episcopal 
as against papal authority, the curtailing of the privileges of 
the monastic orders, and the better education of the clergy. 



654 



PISTOL 



In spite of the hostile attitude of the great majority of the 
bishops, Bishop de' Ricci issued on the 3151 of July a summons 
to a diocesan synod, which was solemnly opened on the i8th of 
September. It was attended by 233 beneficed secular and 13 
regular priests, and decided with practical unanimity on a 
series of decrees which, had it been possible to carry them into 
effect, would have involved a drastic reform of the Church on 
the lines advocated by " Febronius " (see FEBRONIANISM). 

The first decree (Decretum de fide et ecclesia) declared that the 
Catholic Church has no right to introduce new dogmas, but only 
to preserve in its original purity the faith once delivered by Christ 
to His apostles, and is infallible only so iar as it conforms to Holy 
Scripture and true tradition; the Church, moreover is a purely 
spiritual body and has no authority in things secular. Other 
decrees denounced the abuse of indulgences, of festivals of saints, 
and of processions and suggested reforms ; others again enjoined 
the closing of shops on Sunday during divine service, the issue of 
service-books with parallel translations in the vernacular, and 
recommended the abolition of all monastic orders except that of 
St Benedict, the rules of which were to be brought into harmony 
with modern ideas; nuns were to be forbidden to take the vows 
before the age of 40. The last decree proposed the convocation 
of a national council. 

These decrees were issued together with a pastoral letter of 
Bishop de' Ricci, and were warmly approved by the grand-duke, 
at whose instance a national synod of the Tuscan bishops met 
at Florence on the 23rd of April 1787. The temper of this 
assembly was, however, wholly different. The bishops refused 
to allow a voice to any not of their own order, and in the end the 
decrees of Pistoia were supported by a minority of only three. 
They were finally condemned at Rome by the bull Auctorem 
fidei of the 28th of August 1794. De' Ricci, deprived of the 
personal support of the grand-duke (now the emperor Leopold I.), 
exposed to pressure from Rome, and threatened with mob 
violence as a suspected destroyer of holy relics,. resigned his see 
in 1791, and lived in Florence as a private gentleman until his 
death in 1810. In May 1805, on the return of Pope Pius VII. 
from Paris, he had signed an act of submission to the papal 
decision of 1794. 

De' Ricci's own memoirs, Memorie di Scipione de' Ricci, vescavo 
di Praia e Pistoia, edited by Antonio Galli, were published at Florence 
in 2 vols. in 1865. Besides this his letters to Antonio Marini were 
published by Cesare Guasti at Prato in 1857; these were promptly 
put on the Index. See also De Potter, Vie de Scipion de' Ricci 
(3 vols^ Brussels, 1825), based on a MS. life and a MS. account of 
the synod placed on the Index in 1823. There are many documents 
in Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana, vols. ii. and iii. (Florence, 1856). 
The acts of the synod of Pistoia were published in Italian and Latin 
at Pavia in 1788. 

PISTOL, a small fire-arm designed for quick work and personal 
protection at close quarters, and for use in one hand. It was 
originally made as a single and also double-barrelled smooth 
bore muzzle-loader, involving no departure in principle from the 



History. Pistols are understood to have been made for the 
first time at Pistoia in Italy, whence they receive their name. 
Caminelleo Vitelli, who flourished in 1540, is the accredited 
inventor. The first pistols, in the i6th century, had short single 
barrels and heavy butts, nearly at right angles to the barrel. 
Shortly afterwards the pattern changed, the butts being length- 
ened out almost in a line with the barrels. These early 
pistols 1 were usually fitted with the wheel-lock (see GUN). 
Short, heavy pistols, called " daggs," were in common use 
about the middle of the i7th century, with butts of ivory, bone, 
hard wood or metal. A chiselled Italian dagg of 1650, for 
example, had a slightly bell-nosed barrel of about 8 in. in length 
and 14 bore. The German wheel-lock military pistols used 
by the Reiters, and those made for nobles and gentlemen, were 
profusely and beautifully ornamented. Pistols with metal 
hafts were common in the i6th and i7th centuries, many 
beautiful specimens of which, silver-mounted, were made in 
Edinburgh and used by Highlanders. Duelling, when in vogue, 
caused the production of specially accurate and well-made 
single-barrelled pistols, reliable at twenty paces. The pattern 
of this pistol seldom varied, its accuracy at short range equalling 
that of more modern ones, the principle of a heavy bullet and 
light charge of powder being employed. The first double- 
barrelled pistols were very bulky weapons made with the 
barrels laid alongside one another, necessitating two locks and 
two hammers. There was also the "over and under" pistol, 
one barrel being laid over the other. This was a more portable 
weapon, only requiring one lock and hammer, the second barrel 
being turned round by hand, after the first had been fired, or, 
as an alternative, the flash-hole being adjusted to the second 
barrel by a key. These pistols were first made with flint and 
steel locks and subsequently for percussion caps. Double 
" over and under " pistols were also made with a trigger 
mechanism that served to discharge both barrels in turn. 

Revolvers. A revolver is a single-barrelled pistol with a 
revolving breech containing several chambers for the cartridges, 
thus enabling successive shots to be rapidly fired from the same 
weapon without reloading. The ordinary pistol is now, and has 
been for many years past, superseded by the revolver. The 
first revolver, fired with the percussion cap, was made with the 
whole of the barrels, six, seven or eight, revolving in one piece, 
and was known as the " pepper-box." It was " single action," 
i.e. the hammer was raised and the barrels revolved by the pull 
of the trigger. This weapon was cumbrous and no accurate 
aim could be taken with it owing chiefly to the strength and 
resistance of the main-spring and the consequent strong pull 
required on the trigger. The principle of a revolving breech to 
one barrel, which superseded the " pepper-box," is an old one 
in the history of fire-arms, dating from the i6th century. At 




to INS. 



FIG. I. Dagg (Royal United Service Institution). 



ordinary fire-arms of the day. With the introduction of revol- 
vers and breech-loading pistols and the application of " rifling " 
to musket barrels, came also, in the early half of the igth century, 
the rifling of pistol-barrels. 



first the breech cylinder was revolved by hand, as in the revolving 
arquebus or matchlock, a specimen of which is now in the 

1 For the use of long heavy pistols by cavalry in the ifith and 
1 7th centuries, see ARMY: History; and CAVALRY. 



PISTOL 



655 



Tower of London, but this was subsequently improved by 
introducing geared mechanism, by which the pull of the trigger 
or the cocking of the hammer, or both, do the work. There 
exists a pistol of the time of Charles I. which is rotated auto- 
matically as the hammer is raised. 



rapidly fired, if necessary, by the trigger action alone. Many 
revolvers on the Colt principle were in use during the Crimean 
War and the Indian Mutiny, and proved of valuable service to 
British officers. 

As rim-fire, pin-fire and central-fire cartridges were succes- 




FIG. 2. Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution). 



In 1814 a self-acting revolver mechanism of a crude pattern 
was produced in England. Four years later Collier used a 
separate spring to rotate the chamber. In 1835, an American, 
Samuel Colt, produced and patented the first practical revolving 
pistol, the idea of which was obtained by him, it is stated, from 
an ancient " revolving " weapon in the Tower of London. The 
chambers of the first Colt revolver were loaded with powder and 
bullets from the muzzle end, and each chamber had a nipple 
that required to be capped. It was the invention of the copper 
cap that made the Colt revolver possible. Under the old 



sively introduced, breech-loading revolvers were constructed 
to use them. Messrs Smith & Wesson, of Springfield. U.S.A., 
produced the first metal cartridges for revolvers. Pin-fire 
cartridges, paper and metallic, were used on the continent of 
Europe for Lefaucheux and other revolvers, and these and rim- 
fire cartridges are still used for revolvers of small calibre. But 
since the central-fire cartridge has proved its superiority for 
guns, its principle has been generally applied to pistol cartridges, 
at first to the larger bores. 

The alteration of the muzzle-loading to the breech-loading 




10 INCHES 



FIG. 3. Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution). 



priming system with, exposed powder in a pan the difficulty 
of separate and effective ignition with the revolving cylinder 
was almost insuperable. 

The first American revolver makers caused the cocking of 
the hammer to revolve the cylinder, while the English makers 
effected this by the pull of the trigger. In 1855, Adams of 
London, and also Tranter of Birmingham, brought out the 
double-action revolver, in which the revolution of the cylinder 
could be effected by both these methods. When the revolver 
is cocked and fired by pressing the trigger, greater rapidity of 



chamber in the revolver involved no decided change of type. 
The original Colt, as a breech-loader, remained practically 
the same weapon as before, with a changed chamber. A 
hinged flap uncovered the breech-chamber on the right, and as 
each chamber reached that point the empty cartridge case was 
ejected by means of an ejecting-rod carried in a tube attached 
to the under side of the barrel and kept in place by a spiral 
spring, and the chamber reloaded. The next improvement 
was greater ease and rapidity of extraction, obtained first by 
Thomas's invention of making the barrel and chamber slide 




FIG. 4. Flint-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution). 



10 INS 



fire is obtained than when the hammer is cocked with the thumb, 
but accuracy is impaired, as the trigger requires a long pull and 
considerable force in order to compress the mainspring and 
revolve the cylinder. The double action revolver was, there- 
fore, a great advance on the single action, enabling the first and 
also following shots, if desired, to be accurately fired by a 
moderate pressure of the trigger after the hammer had been 
cocked by the thumb; or, alternatively, the revolver could be 



forward on the frame of the pistol. The extractor, being fast to 
the pivot, retained the cartridges until the chamber was pushed 
clear of them. Then the chamber was made to swing on one 
side, as in the Colt pistol illustrated, enabling all the cartridges 
to be simultaneously extracted. Finally, self-extracting revol- 
vers with jointed frames were introduced, in which the dropping 
of the barrel forces out the extractor as in an ordinary double 
gun, the extractor acting simultaneously in all the chambers of 



656 



PISTOL 



the pistol. A spring returns the extractor to its place when the 
empty, cartridge cases have been ejected, and brings the barrel 
to an angle of about 45, for convenience in loading. The 
soundness and rigidity of the weapon depend upon the efficiency 
of the connexion between the barrels and the standing breech, 
and a top snap bolt has proved the strongest and handiest with 
the pistol, as with the shot-gun. 

This type of revolver originated with Messrs Smith & 
Wesson, but they and other gunmakers have greatly improved 
upon the original model. Between the American pattern and 
the English, as made by Messrs F. Webley & Son, the chief 
difference is that in. the Smith & Wesson the holding-down 
bolt or catch is upon the barrel, and it engages with the top of 



hammer and trigger when the latch is pushed to the rear for open- 
ing the cylinder, and does not unlock them until the cylinder is 
positively closed and is locked by the latch. The cylinder revolves 
and is supported on a central arbour of the crane (E). The crane 
fits in a recess in the frame below the barrel and turns on its pivot 
arm (A). The ejector rod with its spring passes through the centre 
of the cylinder arbour and is terminated in rear by the ejector 
with a ratchet (y). Pushing against the front end of the ejector 
rod will empty the chambers, the cylinder being swung out for 
loading. The thumb-piece of the latch (j) slides to the rear in the 
left side of the frame, unlocking the cylinder for opening, but upon 
closing the cylinder, the body of the latch firmly enters a recess in 
the ejector, locking the cylinder in position for firing. 

One great disadvantage of revolvers is the escape of gas at 
the opening between the breech of the barrel and the cylinder. 





}IH3 



FIG. 6. Pepper-box revolver. 



D 



FIG. 5. Percussion-lock pistol (Royal United Service 
Institution). 



the standing breech; whereas in the Webley the bolt is upon the 
standing breech and grips the extremity of the hinged barrel. 
Neither mechanism is as strong as could be wished if heavy 
charges of smokeless nitro-compounds are to be used. This 
hinged type of revolver is most convenient for use on horseback, 
as the pistol can be opened, the cartridges extracted and the 
weapon reloaded with one hand. 

The Coil's Double-action Revolver, calibre -38, model 1896, used in 
the United States army, consists (figs. 7 and 8) of the barrel (B), the 
cylinder (C) with six chambers, the frame (F), and the firing mechan- 
ism, all of steel. The muzzle velocity, with a charge of 16 grains 
of black powder and a bullet of 150 grains of lead, is about 708 ft. 
per second, giving at 25 yards a penetration of about jj in. in pine. 

The lock mechanism consists of the hammer (h), with its stirrup 
(r), stirrup pin (p), strut (s), strut pin (i), strut spring (g); the 
trigger (/); the rebound lever (/); the hand (a), with the spring (z); 
the cylinder bolt (6), with its spring (x); the locking lever (t>) ; 
the main spring (m), and rebound lever spring (n). The hammer 
(h), trigger (/), and rebound lever (/) are pivoted on their respective 
pins, which are fastened in the left side of the frame. The lower 
end of the rebound lever spring (n) is secured to the frame and the 
free end bears under the rear end of the rebound lever so that the 
latter, when the trigger is released, cams the hammer back to its 
safety position, and forces the trigger forward. Pressure upon 
the trigger causes its upper edge to engage the strut, and thereby 
raises the hammer until nearly in the full-cock position, when the 
strut will escape from the trigger, and the hammer, under the action 
of the main-spring, will fall and strike the cartridge. A projection 
on the upper part of the trigger, working in a slot in the frame, 
prevents the cylinder from making more than one-sixth of a revolu- 
tion at a time by entering one of the grooves nearest the rear end 
of the surface of the cylinder. When the cylinder is swung out 
of the frame, the parts are arranged to prevent the cocking of the 
hammer. The cylinder bolt is pivoted on the trigger pin, and its 
spring, bearing on the rebound lever arm, causes the nose of the 
bolt to project through a slot in the frame ready to enter one of 
the rectangular cuts in the cylinder surface. During the first 
movement of the trigger in cocking the revolver, the nose of the 
bolt is withdrawn, allowing free rotation of the cylinder. The 
object of the bolt is to prevent rotation of the cylinder in trans- 
portation. The hand is attached by its pivot to the trigger, and, 
as the latter swings on its pin when the hammer is being cocked, 
the hand is raised and revolves the cylinder, and also serves to lock 
the cylinder in position at the time of firing. An abutment on the 
side plate supports the hand spring in rear. The spring ensures 
the engagement of the hand with the ratchet (y). The revolver is 
cocked by hand by withdrawing the hammer by the pressure of 



corner 
hammer, 



the thumb until its full-cock notch engages in the rear sharp 

of the trigger. Pulling the trigger then releases the ha _, 

allowing its firing pin (/) to move forward and strike the cartridge. 

_ The locking lever is pivoted by its screw in a recess in the left 

side of the frame, and so connected with the latch that it locks the 



This escape corrodes the surrounding parts and 
also materially diminishes the pressure in the 
barrel and the consequent velocity of the bullet. 
In the Nagant revolver, adopted by Russia, 
this disadvantage has been overcome by em- 
ploying a long cartridge case which extends beyond the nose 
of the bullet and bridges the gap between barrel and cylinder 
as the cylinder is moved forward. A " mitrailleuse " pistol has 
also been constructed by the Braendlin Armoury Co., Ltd., on 
the " pepper-box " principle, with fixed barrels, either four or 
six, arranged in pairs, and a special striking mechanism, in which 
there is no revolving chamber and no escape of gas at the breech. 
It gives stronger shooting than a revolver, but is more cum- 
brous, and has the serious defect that the shock of the dis- 
charge of one barrel sometimes prematurely fires a second barrel. 
In 1865, Sharp, an American, patented an invention to 
remedy the escape of gas, in which the four barrels of the pistol 




FIGS. 7 and 8. Colt double-action revolver. 

were drilled the full length out of one block of metal. The 
barrels were slid forward by an under lever to load, and the 
firing was effected by a revolving head to the hammer, set by the 
action of cocking the pistol. 

About 1878 Messrs Lancaster introduced both two- and four- 
barrelled hammerless pistols, in which an internal hammer was 
worked by the pull of the trigger. In all the three weapons 



PISTOL 



657 



above mentioned, extraction and reloading were slow processes, 
which made them unsuited for use on horseback. 

Hammerless Revolver. The Smith & Wesso.i pocket pistol 
is one of the safest weapons of the size made. There is no 



and fires a charge of if drams of powder without unpleasant 
recoil. The duelling pistol, as made by Gartinne Renette of 
Paris, is capable of wonderfully accurate shooting, firing a 9 
millimetre spherical bullet and about 12 grs. of powder. This 



Maker's Name. 


Description of Revolver. 


No. of 
Shots. 


Calibre. 


Length 
of 
Barrel. 


Length 
over all. 


Weight. 


Cartridge. 


Powder 
Weight. 


Bullet 
Weight. 










In. 


In. 


Ib 


OZ. 


gr . 


gr- 






6 


45 


5 i 


xoj 


2 


8 


40 






New Army 


6 


T^J 
38 


1 
41 


9! 


2 


o 


fV 

21 


158 


Colt J 


New Police 


6 


32 


4 


8 i 


I 


2 


13 


98 


1 


New Pocket or Pocket Positive 


6 






6J 


I 


O 


12 


82 


I 


Police Positive. 


6 


38 


4 


8J 


I 


5i 


14 


150 




Double Action .... 


5 


32 


3 


75 


O 


12} 


10 


88 




Safety Hammerless .' . 


5 


32 




7l 


O 


I4 i 


10 


88 




Single Action Target . 
Single Action Bisley model 


6 
6 


45 


8 




I 

2 


9 


20 
13 


146 
226 




Military and Police 


6 


38 


6j 


12 


I 






158 




Hand Ejector .... 


7 


22 


3 


6: 


O 


91 


5 


40 




British Govt. Mark IV . 


6 


455 


4 


9 


2 




1 8 


265 




" W.G." Army model . 


6 


455 


6 


Ili 


2 


8 


18 


265 




" W.G." Target . . . 
Mark III ... . . . 


6 
6 


455 
380 


7i 

3 


li 


2 
I 


10 

4 


18 
3 Cor 


265 
145 




" W.P." Pocket model . . 


6 


320 


3 t 


7i 


I 


i 


6 


80 




R.I.C. No. i .... 


6 


45/-455 




9j 


I 


H 


18 


265 



hammer or equivalent protuberance to catch as the pistol is 
drawn from the pocket ; or to entangle if the weapon falls. An 
automatic safety bolt, whose length lies half across the palm 
of the hand, and ensures certainty of freedom at the time of 
shooting, blocks the action until the pistol is firmly gripped 
for use. 

Breech-loading Pistols. Although the revolver has for many 
years practically superseded the pistol, some breech-loading 



328 




FiG. 9. Mauser pistol (Text-book of Small 
Arms, by permission of the Controller of 
H. M. Stationery Office). 




varieties of pistols are still made the small pocket pistol, for 
example, and occasionally the heavy double-barrelled horse 
pistol. At one time these latter were much used, of -577 bore, 
as well as the well-known short, large-bore pistol known as the 
Derringer, usually of -41 calibre. The double horse pistol is 
now usually made for a 2O-bore cartridge and spherical bullet, 
and weighs about 35 Ib. It is a clumsy, but effective weapon, 



weapon is far superior in accuracy to a revolver. Single-barrelled 
pistols, chambered for the -22 or 297/230 calibre cartridges, 
with a barrel of from 6 to 10 in. in length, are also made, and 
when fitted with a detachable metal stock form excellent little 
weapons for target practice. 

Automatic Revolver. The Webley-Fosbery automatic revolver 
is a weapon of a distinctly new design, in which for the first time 
the principle of utilizing the recoil of each shot to operate the 
mechanism is applied to the revolver. In appearance the weapon 
is very similar to the Webley service model. The simple pressure 
of the forefinger on the trigger, the pressure being released 
between each shot, is all that is required to fire the six successive 
shots of the revolver. It is supplied with a safety bolt worked 
by a thumb-piece, and Messrs Webley have introduced a clip 
loader which enables the six chambers to be reloaded at the same 
time. This weapon has met with considerable success, and is 
made in two calibres, the -455, 6 shot, 2 Ib 55 oz. in weight; 
and the -38 model, 8 shot, 2 Ib 3 oz. in weight. 

Automatic Pistols. These weapons are the latest and most 
advanced type of pistol, and it is anticipated by experts that 
they will ultimately supersede the revolver. They are made 
with one barrel and a magazine, on the principle of the repeating 
rifle, thus doing away with the escape of gas that takes place in 
revolvers between the chamber and the barrel. 

Automatic pistols are so constructed that the force of the recoil 
is utilized to open the breech, extract the empty case, cock the 
pistol, reload the chamber with the top cartridge from the 
magazine, and close the breech, leaving the pistol ready to fire on 
again pressing the trigger. 

The Mauser " self-loading " pistol (fig. 9) is one of the earliest 
of the successful automatic weapons. It is usually -300 calibre, 
10 shot, with a metal clip loader from which the cartridges are 
" stripped " into the magazine, weight 2j Ib, length of barrel 
5 \ in.; bullet 85 grains, initial velocity about 1394 f.s. 

The barrel (i) and bod- (2) are in one piece; the latter contains 
the bolt (3). The barrel and body slide on the frame (4) ; the lo-shot 
magazine (5) and the stock are in one piece with the frame, and the 
lock frame (6) and lock-work are contained in the rear part of it. 
The bolt (3), which is square, slides in the body, and is kept pressed 
up to the chamber by the bolt spring (8) ; the rear end of this bolt 
spring bears against the block (9). The striker and extractor are 
contained in the bolt. The bolt is locked by the bolt-lock (10). 
This is slotted through the centre and fits on to the projection 
(n) under the body; it is supported at the moment of firing by 
a projection on the lock frame (12); the top of the bolt-lock has 
two teeth (13), which in the loaded and cocked position fit into 
two recesses in the bolt, and the bottom of its front end [in front of 
the body attachment (n)] has another tooth (14) which Bears on the 
rocker (15). This rocker is pivoted at its bottom corner. The 
main-spring (16) bears in front against the rocker, and in rear 
against the hammer mechanism. The action of the mechanism is 



6 5 8 



PISTOL 



as follows: on pressing the trigger, the trigger nose lifts the lever 
(18) which is attached to the scar (19), the lifting of the sear allows 
the main-spring to act backwards on the hammer, which impinges 
on the striker and fires the cartridge. At this moment the bolt 
is locked by the two upper teeth (13) of the bolt-lock, which is 
itself held up by the lock frame projection (13). But, the barrel 
body and bolt recoiling together ft of an in., the rear end of the 
bolt-lock (10) is no longer supported, the rocker (15) acting on the 
forward tooth (14) pulls down the bolt-lock and its upper teeth, 
the nose of the bolt-lock falling into the recess just behind the 
projection (12). Thus the barrel and body come to a standstill 
and the remaining recoil energy is used in driving back the bolt 
(now free) and extracting the cartridge case. When this energy 
is used up the bolt spring (8) reasserts itself, drives the bolt forward 
and pushes another cartridge into the chamber as in the magazine 
rifle, and the main-spring, acting on the rocker, pulls up the bolt- 
lock again and engages the teeth (13) in the bolt, locking it for 




FIG. 10. Colt automatic- 
pistol. 



the next shot. The releasing of the trigger brings the sear .(19) 
to its former position, cocking the pistol. 

This pistol is usually supplied with a wooden holster which 
can also be attached to the grip of the pistol and so form a 
shoulder-stock for long-range shooting. It is sighted from 50 to 
1000 yards. 

The Colt Automatic Pistol, calibre -38 (fig. 10) consists of four 
main parts, namely the frame (F), the barrel (B), the slide (S), and 
the magazine (M). The frame forms, at its rear and lower part, 
the handle (A), which is hollow, and contains the seat for the maga- 
zine. After being charged with seven cartridges, the magazine is 
seated from below and held in place by the magazine catch (n) 
which slightly projects from the bottom of the handle. This pro- 
jection serves to release the magazine from the catch, when it 
can be readily drawn from the handle for re-charging. In front 
of the handle is the trigger guard (g), in which the trigger (0 is 
found, and in the rear and above the grip the firing mechanism is 
placed in the part of the frame called the receiver (R). The firing 
mechanism consists of the hammer (h), the sear (w), the trigger (/), 
safety device (a), the main-spring (z) and sear spring (e), the lower 
part of the latter serving to operate the magazine catch. The top 
of the receiver extends forward from the handle, and to it the barrel 
is attached by two short links, one (/) near the front end of the barrel, 
and the other (o) at its rear end; these links are pivoted to the 
receiver and also to the barrel, and allow the barrel to swing rear- 
wards thereon. As both links are of the same length, the rearward 
movement of the barrel in swinging on these links carries the 
barrel slightly downwards, but keeps its longitudinal axis in parallel 
positions during all its movements. Below the barrel the receiver 
forms a tubular seat for the retractor spring (r), which in front is 
closed by a plug (K) fastened in the receiver by the lower pivot-pin 
(f) of the front barrel-link. The upper surface of the receiver and 
two longitudinal grooves on its sides form the seat for the slide, 
which is guided thereon in its rearward and forward movements. 
The rear part of the slide forms the bolt or breech block (K), and 
the front part forms a partly tubular cover (s) which encloses the 
barrel. In the forward part of the receiver is a transverse mortice 
extending through the retractor spring seat, and transverse re- 
cesses in the forward part of the slide serve to admit a key (m) 
which, passing througn the sides of the slide and through the 
mortice, serves to lock the slide to the frame. The retractor 
spring (r), in its seat in the frame, consists of a spiral spring, the 
rear end of which rests against the receiver, and the front end of 
which carries a piston (p). The rear face of the key (m) has a slight 
recess, and when the key is in its place the front end of the retractor 
spring rests in this recess, thereby confining the key laterally. 
The tension of the retractor spring is exerted to force the key and 
the slide to their forward position. Upon the barrel are provided 
three transverse ribs (6), and in the interior of the slide are three 
corresponding recesses. These serve to lock the barrel and the 
slide firmly together when in their forward position. Between the 
locking recesses and the bolt, the slide has an opening on its right 
side for the ejection of the cartridge cases (J), and the bolt is pro- 
vided with an extractor, a firing pin (/), a firing pin retraction 



spring (q), and a firing pin lock (y). This latter is pivoted at the 
rear end in the top of the slide, and when depressed, locks the firing 
pin in its retracted position, thus preventing its point from coming 
m contact with the cartridge primer. When raised, the firing pin 
lock releases the firing pin, and in this position also serves as the 
rear sight, being provided on the top with a sighting notch. 

The operation of the pistol is as follows: When a charged maga- 
zine (M) is inserted, the slide (S) is drawn once to the rear by 
hand, thereby cocking the hammer (h). In this position of the 
slide, the carrier (c) and carrier spring in the magazine raise the 
topmost cartridge so as to bring it into the path of the bolt (K). 
On releasing the slide, it, with the bolt, is carried forward by the 
retractor spring (r), and during this movement the bolt forces the 
topmost cartridge into the barrel (B). As the slide approaches its 
forward position the front of the bolt encounters the rear end of the 
barrel and forces the latter to its forward position. During this 
forward movement the barrel swings forward and upward on the 
jinks (/, o), and thus the locking ribs (6) on the barrel are carried 
into the corresponding locking recesses in the slide. The barrel 
and slide are thereby interlocked, and the pistol ready for firing. 

A slight pull on the trigger (t) now serves to move the sear (w) 
so as to release the hammer (h) and fire a shot. The force of the 
powder gases driving the bullet from the barrel is exerted rear- 
wardly against the bolt, and, overcoming the inertia of the slide 
and the tension of the retractor spring, causes the slide and the 
barrel to recoil together. After moving rearwards together, for a 
distance, enough to ensure the bullet having passed from the barrel, 
the downward swinging movement of the barrel releases the latter 
from the slide and stops the barrel in its rearmost position. The 
momentum of the slide causes the latter to continue its rearward 
movement, thereby again cocking the hammer and compressing 
the retractor spring, until, as the slide arrives at its rearmost posi- 
tion, the empty shell is ejected from the side of the pistol and 
another cartridge raised in front of the bolt. During the return or 
forward movement of the slide, caused by the retractor spring, 
the cartridge is driven into the barrel, and the slide and barrel are 
interlocked, thus making the pistol ready for another shst. These 
operations may be continued so long as there are cartridges in the 
magazine, each discharge requiring only the slight pull on the 
trigger. The pistol is provided with a safety device (a) which 
makes it impossible to release the hammer unless the slide and 
barrel are in their first forward position and interlocked. 

In the Borchardt-Leuger pistol (fig. 1 1 ) the bolt is solidly supported 



IA 



FIG. u. Borchardt-Leuger (Text-book of 
Small Arms, by permission of the Con- 
troller of H. M. Stationery Office). 





at the moment of firing by a toggle joint. The barrel (i A) and 
body (l B) slide in the frame (l C), the bolt (2) slides in the body 
and is held up to the breech by the toggle joint 3 and 4 and the pins 
5 and 7, which secure the links of the toggle to the body. The centre 
of pin (6) is below those of the other pins so that the joint cannot 
bend at the moment of firing. On the rear link (4) there is a swivel 
(9) which is connected to the recoil spring (10) in the grip. This 
pistol is fired by a spring striker, like a rifle, instead of by a hammer. 
The striker is within the bolt ; it is cocked in the recoil position by 
a claw on the end of the front link (3 A) and held thus when ready 
to fire by the nose of the trigger sear, these engaging with a pro- 
jection (8 A) on the side of the striker. The magazine (8 shot) is 
in the grip. The action is as follows: the first cartridge is loaded 
from the magazine by pulling back the toggle joint. As soon as 
the toggle joint is released the recoil spring acts and forces the 
bolt home, with the cartridge in front of it. On pressing the trigger 
the barrel and body recoil a little. Then the toggle joint comes 



PISTOLE PITCAIRN 



659 



against curved ramps on the sides of the non-recoiling frame and 
is forced up, so that thereafter the bolt alone recoils (the ejector is 
similar in principle to that of a rifle). The recoil spring then acts' 
as before on reloading. 

Other varieties of the automatic pistol are the " Mannlicher," 
the " Mars," the " Bergmann " and the " Webley." The last, 
being simple in construction, small and light, weight 18 oz. and 
length over all only 6J in., may be classed as a pocket pistol. 

Qualities of Automatic Pistols. In reference to the general 
qualities of automatic pistols, while these weapons have the 
advantage over revolvers of longer range and greater rapidity 
of fire and recharging, on the other hand they are necessarily 
more complicated in their mechanism, which has to do the work 
of extraction, reloading and cocking that in the revolver is done 
by hand. A stoppage may occur through a cartridge missing 
fire, or continuous uncontrolled fire may take place through 
the trigger spring breaking until the magazine is exhausted. 
Their action is also to some extent uncertain, as it depends on 
the recoil of the discharge, which may be affected by variables 
in the cartridge; also the effective automatic working of the 
moving parts depends upon their cleanliness and lubrication. As 
automatic pistols, like revolvers, are intended for personal 
defence at short range and for sudden use in emergencies, 
simplicity of mechanism and certainty of action are in their case 
of paramount importance. There is usually no time to rectify 
a stoppage or jam, however slight. From a military point of 
view, therefore, before the revolver is altogether superseded by 
the automatic pistol, it is most desirable that the latter should be 
as certain in its action under service conditions as the former. 
Some automatic pistols, as already stated, are sighted up to 
1000 yards, and provided with attachable butts. The practical 
value of these improvements is open to question, as the sighting 
of a pistol differs materially when used with and without a butt, 
and under no circumstances can the accuracy of shooting of a 
pistol, even with a butt, equal that of a carbine. 

The tendency in automatic pistols has been to reduce the bore to 
3 in., and increase the muzzle velocity, on the lines of modern 
small-bore rifles. These, again, would appear to be advantages 
of minor importance in a weapon intended for use at short range 
in the field, where a heavy bullet of fairly large diameter, with a 
moderate muzzle velocity, has a more immediate and paralysing 
effect, and is therefore, from this point of view, and particularly 
in savage warfare, preferable to a small projectile of high muzzle 
velocity. (H. S.-K.) 

PISTOLE, the French name given to a Spanish gold coin in 
use from 1537; it was a ddtble escudo, the gold unit, and was 
worth i6s. njd. sterling. The name was also given to the 
louis d'or of Louis XIII. of France, and to other European gold 
coins of about the value of the Spanish coin. 

PISTON (through Fr. from Ital. pistone or pestone, a great 
pestle, from Late Lat. pistare, to pound, a frequentative form of 
classical Lat. pinsere), in the steam engine, a disk or partition 
placed inside the cylinder, from end to end of which it moves 
alternately under the pressure of the steam. By means of the 
" piston-rod " attached to it this forward and backward 
motion is communicated to the machinery which the engine 
is employed to drive, and is in most cases converted into rotary 
motion by a " connecting-rod," one end of which is jointed to 
the " cross-head " carried at the end of the piston-rod, while 
the other turns the crank on the crank-shaft. The piston in 
gas, oil and air engines has a similar function, but in a pump, 
instead of imparting motion, it has motion imparted to it by 
some prime-mover. In every case the piston must fit the 
cylinder so accurately that as little as possible of the working 
fluid, whether it be steam, gas or water, can escape past it, 
packing of various forms being commonly placed round its 
periphery in order to secure this fit. In music, the valves which 
in certain wind instruments, such as the cornet, enable the 
player to increase the length of the air-column and thus lower 
the note produced, are known as pistons. (See VALVES.) 

PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfiitze, &c., all 
ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root 
pu-, to cleanse, whence purus, clean, pure), a term of wide 
application for a hole, cavity or excavation in the earth or other 



surface; thus it is applied to the excavations made in the ground 
for the purpose of extracting minerals, e.g. chalk, gravel or sand, 
or for carrying on some industry, e.g. tan-pit, saw-pit, or to the 
group of shafts which form a coal-mine. Roots and other 
vegetables can be stored in the winter in a pit, and the term is 
thus transformed to a heap of such vegetables covered with 
earth or straw. The word is also used of any hollow or depression 
in a surface, as in the body, the arm-pit, the pit of the stomach, 
or on the skin, as the scars left by small-pox or chicken-pox. 
As applied to a portion of a building or construction, the word 
first appears for an enclosure, often sunk in the ground, in which 
cock-fighting was carried on, a " cock-pit." It would seem a 
transference of this usage that gave the common name to that 
part of the auditorium of a theatre which is on the floor, the 
French parterre. In the United States a special usage is that 
of its application to that part of the floor space in an exchange 
where a particular branch of business is transacted; thus in 
the Chicago Board of Trade, transactions in the grain trade are 
carried on in what is known as the " Wheat Pit." 

In Scottish legal history there was a baronial privilege which 
in Latin is termed furca el fossa, " fork (i.e. gallows) and pit "; 
here the term has usually been taken to refer to the drowning-pit, 
in which women criminals were put to death ; others take it to refer 
to an ordeal pit. There is a parallel phrase in M. Dutch, putte 
ends galghen ; here putte is the pit in which women were buried alive 
as a penalty. 

PITCAIRN, an island in the mid-eastern Pacific Ocean, in 
25 3' S., 130 6' W., belonging to Great Britain. It lies south 
of the Paumotu archipelago, 100 m. from the nearest member of 
this group. Unlike the majority of the islands in this region, it 
is without coral reefs, but rises abruptly with steep and rugged 
cliffs of dark basaltic lava. The extreme elevation is over 
2000 ft., and the area 2 sq. m. The soil in the valleys is volcanic 
and fertile, but the gradual utilization of natural timber increases 
the liability to drought, as there are no streams. The climate 
is variable and rainy. Stone axes, remains of carved stone 
pillars similar to those of Easter Island, and skeletons with a 
pearl-mussel beneath the head have been found in the island, 
though it was uninhabited when discovered by Philip Carteret 
in 1767. Pitcairn was the name of the midshipman who first 
observed it. 

The island was destined to become the scene of a curious 
social experiment. On the 28th of April 1789 a mutiny broke 
out on board the " Bounty," then employed by the British 
government in conveying young bread-fruit trees from Tahiti 
to the West Indies. The commander, Lieutenant William 
Bligh, was set adrift in the launch with part of the crew, but 
managed to make his way to Timor in the Malay Archipelago. 
The twenty-five mutineers at first all returned to Tahiti. Some 
remained, and six of these were ultimately court-martialled in 
England, three being executed in 1792. Meanwhile in 1790 
a party consisting of Fletcher Christian, the leader of the 
mutiny, eight Englishmen, six Polynesian men and twelve 
Polynesian women had taken possession of Pitcairn Island and 
burned the " Bounty." Treachery and debauchery filled the 
first years of the annals of the beautiful island. By 1800 all 
the men were dead except Alexander Smith, afterwards known 
as John Adams, who rose to a sense of his responsibility and 
successfully trained up the youthful generation left in his charge. 
An American vessel, the " Topaze," discovered the strange 
colony in 1808; again, by accident, it was visited by the 
" Briton," Captain Sir F. Staines, and the " Tagus," Captain 
Pipon, in 1817; and by the exploring ship " Blossom " in 1825. 
On the death of John Adams on the 2gth of March 1829 George 
Hunn Nobbs, who had settled at Pitcairn in 1828, was appointed 
pastor and chief magistrate. Through fear of drought the 
islanders removed to Tahiti in 1830, but disapproved of both the 
climate and the morals of this island, and returned to Pitcairn 
in 1831. Shortly after this an adventurer named Joshua Hill 
appeared, and, claiming government authority, tyrannized 
over the islanders till his removal by a British man-of-war in 
1838. In 1856 the whole of the islanders 60 married persons 
and 134 young men, women and children were landed on 



66o 



PITCAIRNE, A. PITCH, MUSICAL 



Norfolk Island, but in 1858 two families chose to return, and 
their example was afterwards followed by a few others. Visited 
in 1873 and 1878 the colony was found in excellent order, but 
by the end of the century it was stated that intermarriage was 
bringing a deterioration of intellect, morals and energy, and 
that the islanders would probably drift into imbecility. Later 
accounts made it appear that this was an exaggeration, although 
the standard of morality was unquestionably low on the 
whole. 

In religion the islanders are Seventh Day Adventists. " They 
have adopted an extraordinary patois, derived from the language 
of the Tahitian women who accompanied the mutineers of the 
" Bounty " to Pitcairn Island, although most of the adults 
can speak the English language fairly well " (R. T. Simons, 
Report, 1905). The island is a British colony by settlement, 
and is within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the 
Western Pacific (since 1898). There is a governing body chosen 
from among the islanders, the constitution of which has been 
altered more than once owing to internal jealousies, &c. The 
island produces sweet potatoes, yams, melons, bananas and other 
fruits, arrowroot and coffee. Goats and chickens run wild. 
Some trade is carried on with Mangareva in a vessel owned by 
the islanders. The population is about 170. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Shillibeer, The " Briton's " Voyage to Pit- 
cairn's Island (London, 1818); F. W. Beechcy, Voyage to the Pacific 
(London, 1831) ; Sir J. Barrow, History of the Mutiny of the " Bounty " 
(London, 1831); W. Brodie, Pilcairris Island ... in 1850 
(London, 1851); C. E. Meinicke, Die Insel Pitcairn (Prenzlau, 
1858); T. B. Murray, Pitcairn (London, 1860), revised to date by 
C. C. Elcum (1885); Lady Belcher, The Mutineers of the " Bounty 
(London, 1870); J. A. Brown, "Stone Implements from Pitcairn 
Island," in Journ. Anthropol. Instil. (1900), xxx. ; R. A. Hermann, 
" Die Bevolkerung der Insel Pitcairn," in Petermanns Mitteilungen 
(1901), xlvii. ; Parliamentary Papers C. 9148, and Cd. 754 (London, 
1899, 1901); Cd. 2397 (ibid., 1905; Mr R. T. Simon's report). 

PITCAIRNE, ARCHIBALD (1652-1713), Scottish physician, 
was born at Edinburgh on the 25th of December 1652. After 
obtaining some classical education at the school of Dalkeith, 
Pitcairne entered Edinburgh University in 1668, and took his 
degree of M.A. in 1671. Having been sent to France for the 
benefit of his health, he was induced at Paris to begin the study 
of medicine, and after courses at Edinburgh and Paris he 
obtained in 1680 the degree of M.D. at Rheims. He began 
practice at Edinburgh, and in a short time acquired so great a 
reputation that in 1692 he was appointed professor of medicine 
at Leiden. Among his pupils were Richard Mead and H. 
Boerhaave, and both of them attributed much of their skill 
to what they had learned from Pitcairne. In 1693 Pitcairne 
returned to Scotland to marry a daughter of Sir Archibald 
Stevenson, an eminent physician in Edinburgh. The family 
objected to her going abroad, so he did not return to Leiden, 
but settled once more in Edinburgh. He rose to be the first 
physician in Scotland, and was frequently called into consulta- 
tion both in England and Holland. Soon after his return to Edin- 
burgh, feeling the great want of the means of anatomical study, 
he importuned the town council to permit himself and certain 
of his medical friends to treat without fee the sick paupers in 
" Paul's Work," on condition of being allowed to dissect such 
of the bodies as were unclaimed by their relatives, and therefore 
had to be buried at the town's expense. Strangely enough 
this proposal was strongly opposed by the chief surgeons of the 
place, but ultimately the town council had the good sense to 
comply with Pitcairne's request, and in this way he may be said 
to have the credit of laying the foundation of the great Edinburgh 
school of medicine. 

Pitcairne's medical opinions are chiefly contained in a volume 
of Dissertationes medicae which he published in 1701 (and ed. 
1713). In these he discusses the application of geometry to 
physic, the circulation of the blood in the smaller vessels, the 
difference in the quantity of the blood contained in the lungs 
of animals in the womb and of the same animals after birth, 
the motions by which food becomes fit to supply the blood, the 
question as to inventors in medicine (in which he repels the idea 
of certain medical discoveries of modern times having been 



known to the ancients, especially vindicating for Harvey the 
discovery of the circulation of the blood, and refuting the view 
that it was known to Hippocrates), the cure of fevers by evacua- 
ting medicines, and the effects of acids and alkalis in medicine. 
Pitcairne was a good classical scholar, and wrote Latin verses, 
occasionally with something more than mere imitative cleverness 
and skill. He was supposed to be the author of a comedy, 
The Assembly, or Scotch Reformation, and of a satirical poem 
Babel, containing witty sketches of prominent Presbyterian 
divines of the time, whom, as a loudly avowed Jacobite, he 
strongly disliked. He was prone to irreverent and ribald jests, 
and thus gained the reputation of being an unbeliever and an 
atheist, though he was a professed deist. The stories about his 
over-indulgence in drink are probably exaggerated. He was 
repeatedly involved in violent quarrels with his medical brethren 
and others, and once or twice got into scrapes with the govern- 
ment on account of his indiscreet political utterances. Among 
his friends, however, he was evidently well liked, and he is known 
to have acted with great kindness and generosity to deserving 
men who needed his help. Thomas Ruddiman, the Scottish 
scholar, for example, was rescued from a life of obscurity by 
his encouragement and assistance, and by no one was his 
memory more gratefully cherished. Mead, too, appears never 
to have forgotten what he owed to his old teacher at Leiden. 
A son of Pitcairne's had gone out in the rebellion of 1715, and, 
having been condemned to death, was saved by the earnest 
interposition of Mead with Sir Robert Walpole. He pleaded, 
very artfully, that if Walpole's health had been bettered by his 
skill, or if members of the royal family were preserved by his 
care, it was owing to the instruction he had received from Dr 
Pitcairne. Pitcairne died in Edinburgh on the 2oth of October 
1713. He had been a great collector of books, and his library, 
which is said to have been of considerable value, was, through 
the influence of Ruddiman, disposed of to Peter the Great of 
Russia. 

PITCH, (i) (O. Eng. pic, an adaptation of Lat. pix, picis, 
Gr. idaaa., -irirra, allied with Gr. mrus, pine-tree, Lat. pinus), 
the name of various substances of dark colour and of extremely 
viscid and tenacious consistency when subjected to heat. 
Strictly the term is applied to the resinous substance obtained 
as a solid residuum by the distillation of wood-tar (see TAR), 
or the non-resinous substance similarly produced from Coal-tar 
(q.v.). The name is also applied to the natural mineral sub- 
stances, i.e. asphalt or bitumen (qq.v.). (2) A noun of various 
meanings which are somewhat difficult to connect with the 
verb from which they apparently must be derived. " To 
pitch " means primarily to thrust in or fix a stake or other 
pointed object into the ground, hence to place in a fixed 
position, set in order, cast or throw, hence to incline or slope. 
The etymology is obscure, but it appears in Northern dialects 
as " pick," of which it may be a variant; there is some difficulty 
in connecting this form with " pick," variant of " pike " (q.v.). 

PITCH, MUSICAL. The pitch of a musical sound is aurally 
defined by its absolute position in the scale and by its relative 
position with regard to other musical sounds. It is precisely 
defined by a vibration number recording the frequency of the 
pulsations of a tense string, a column of air, or other vibrator, 
in a second of time. In Great Britain and America the complete 
vibration to and fro (swing both ways of a pendulum) is taken as 
the unit; elsewhere the vibration in one direction only (swing 
one way of the pendulum). The only official standard is the 
French, dating from 1859, preserved by a tuning-fork vibrating 
870-9 (double vib. 435-45) at a temperature of 15 Centigrade 
(59 Fahr.) in a second. The vibration number stated in the 
edict establishing the Diapason Normal is 870 (435), which for 
comparison will be here adhered to. The natural basis for a 
standard musical pitch is the voice, paiticularly the male 
voice, which has been of greater importance historically. There 
is no reason to suppose the human voice has varied, during the 
period of which we have evidence, more than other physical 
attributes. The only difference to be reckoned with may be 
in recent tendencies of solo vocalists to sing for effect, and so to 



PITCH, MUSICAL 



661 



extend the compass of the voice upwards. Otherwise we may 
assume no disturbing alteration has taken place for more than 
2000 years in its position and extent. Vibrations increase in 
rapidity as a note rises and decrease as it falls. Any note may 
be a pitch note; for orchestras custom has settled upon a 1 in 
the treble clef, for organs and pianos in Great Britain c 2 , and for 
modern brass instruments b flat 1 . 

We are not without a clue to the pitch usual in the classic 
Greek and Alexandrian ages: the vocal octave to which the lyre 
was adapted was noted as from e to e 1 . As in choruses baritone 
and low tenor singers always prevail, d-d 1 , at French or at 
medium pitch, would really be the Greek singing octave; we 
may therefore regard it as a tone lower than that to which we 
are accustomed. But to sing the lower Greek modes in or near 
the vocal octave it was necessary to transpose Quera/SoXi?) a 
fourth upwards, which is effected in modern notation by a flat 
placed upon the b line of the staff; thus modulating from our 
major key of C to that of F. This transposition has had, as we 
shall see, much to do with the history of our subject, ultimately 
influencing the ecclesiastical chant and lasting until the I7th 
century of our era. It does not appear from any evidence that 
the keyboards when there were more than one of the early 
organs were arranged for transposition, but it is certain that the 
Flemish harpsichords to 1650 were made with double keyboards 
to accommodate it (see Hipkins' History of lite Pianoforte, 1897). 
But a positive identity of pitch cannot be claimed for any period 
of time, and certainly not for the early organs; the foot-rule of 
the organ-builder, which had to do with the lengths of the 
pipes, and which varied in every country and province, could 
easily cause a difference of a semitone. Scale and wind-pressure 
are also important factors. But with all these often opposed 
conditions, we find less variation than might be expected, the 
main and really important divergence being due to the necessity 
of transposition, which added a very high pitch to the primarily 
convenient low one. 

The first to attempt to define pitch would seem to have been 
Arnold Schlick (Musica ausgeteuischt und ausgezogen, Heidelberg, 
1511), who gives a measure, a line of 45 Rhenish inches, which, 
he says, multiplied sixteen times, should be the lowest F of a 
small organ. He gives no diameter or wind-pressure. Dr A. J. 
Ellis used this indication to have an organ pipe made which 
with one-sixteenth diameter and a wind-pressure of 31 in., at 
one-fourth Schlick 's length, gave/ 1 301-6, from which he derived 
. a just major third of a 1 377, which would compare very well with 
an old Greek a 1 . Schlick goes on to say the organ is to be suited 
to the choir and properly tuned for singing, that the singer 
may not be forced to sing too high or too low and the organist 
have to play chromatics, which is not handy for every one. 
Further, he says pitch cannot be exactly defined, because 
voices vary; he nevertheless gives the measure above men- 
tioned for the low F, but if a larger organ is built to include the 
still lower C, then this C must be of the same measurement, the 
reason being that a greater part of church music ends in " gram- 
bus," a word understood by Schlick's editor to mean the trans- 
position of a fourth. The larger high-pitch organ will therefore 
be at a 1 502-6. The Halberstadt organ, about which so much 
has been written, was, according to Praetorius (Syntagma 
musicum, Wolffenbiittel, 1618), built in 1361, and repaired or 
rebuilt 1495. He gives the longest pipe of this organ, B natural, 
as 31 Brunswick feet, and the circumference 3^ ft. He further 
tells us this pitch was a tone, nearly a tone and a half, higher 
than a suitable church pitch (Chorton), for which he gives a 
diagram. Dr Ellis had pipes (now preserved in the Royal 
Institution, London) made to reproduce both these pitches at 
3i in. wind-pressure. The Halberstadt pitch was found to be 
a 1 505-8; the Chorton, 424-2. Ellis used mean-tone tempera- 
ment in calculating this lower pitch ; but as he used just intona- 
tion for the Halberstadt, it seems preferable to substitute it for 
the Chorton, thus reducing it to a 1 422-8. Praetoaus's Cammer- 
ton, or chamber pitch, formulated in his diagrams for voices 
and instruments, is, he says, a whole tone higher; equivalent, 
therefore, to a 1 475-65. Nearly all the German organs in his 



time were tuned to this higher pitch. Ellis offered the suggestion 
of a much higher pitch for this Cammerton in his lecture " On 
the History of Musical Pitch," read before the Society of Arts, 
London (Journ. Soc. Arts, March 5, 1880), but the present writer 
is unable to accept it. The lower vibration number is justified 
by due consideration of the three divisions of the male voice, 
bass, tenor and alto, as given by Praetorius, whose Cammerton 
very closely corresponds with Bernhardt Schmidt's Durham 
organ, 1663-1668, the original pitch of which has been proved by 
Professor Armes to have been a 1 474-1. The Halberstadt pitch 
,is nearly a semitone higher, which again agrees with the state- 
ment of Praetorius, and also Schlick's high C organ. Yet it 
would seem there had been a still higher pitch used in the old 
ecclesiastical music. Upon this interesting question Praetorius 
is confused and difficult to understand, but he never wavers 
about the transposition of a fourth. In one passage he distinctly 
says the old organ high pitch had been a whole tone above his 
Cammerton, with which we shall find his tertia minore combines 
to make the required interval. The term lerlia minore, or 
inferiore, is used by Praetorius to describe a low pitch, often 
preferred in England and the Netherlands, in Italy and in some 
parts of Germany. An organist, instead of transposing a whole 
tono down from the Cammerton, would for the tertia minore 
have to transpose a minor third. A corroboration of this pitch 
is found in A. Silbermann's great organ in Strasburg minster 
(1713-1716), the pitch of which, taken in 1880 and reduced to 
59 Fahr. (as are all pitches in this article), is a 1 393-2. An old 
organ at Versailles (1789) was very near this example, o 1 395-8. 
Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley (vide Ellis's lecture) regarded the 
French ton de chapelle as being about a minor third below the 
Diapason Normal, a 1 435, and said that most of the untouched 
organs in the French cathedrals were at this low pitch. Stras- 
burg was French territory in 1713, but Silbermann's organ is 
not quite a whole tone below. Ellis quotes an organ at Lille, 
a 1 374-2, but no other instance of the very low Schlick pitch is 
recorded, although trial of the French cathedral organs might 
perhaps result in the finding of examples. Ellis gives Dom 
Bedos (IJ Art du facture d' argues, Paris, 1766) as authority for a 
mean tone a 1 376-6. To return to the tertia minore. Dr R. 
Smith, of Cambridge, in 1759, had the organ of Trinity College, 
built by Bernhardt Schmidt, lowered a whole tone, to reduce it 
to certain Roman pitch pipes made about 1720. His deter- 
minations of pitch by a weighted wire are not trustworthy; 
Ellis thinks they are not safe within four or five vibrations per 
second, but gives a mean pitch for this organ, when altered, of 
fll 39S' 2 - St Michael's church at Hamburg, built as late as 
1762 and unaltered in 1880, had a 17th-century pitch, a 1 407-9. 
This is about a semitone below the Diapason Normal, and a 
just minor third lower than the St Jacobi organ in the same 
city (1688), measured by Herr Schmahl, a 1 489-2. What was 
remarkable in this organ was that it had one stop which was an 
equal minor third lower, fl 1 41 1-4*. The difference of a minor 
third, or, as we shall see later, a whole tone, had replaced the 
earlier fourth. Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley's comparison of the 
church and chamber pitches of Orlando Gibbons (vide Ellis's 
lecture) clearly shows the minor third in Great Britain in the first 
half of the 1 7th century. But the narrowing continued. Bern- 
hardt Schmidt, better known in England as Father Smith, was 
invited about 1660 to build the organ for the Chapel Royal, 
Whitehall; two years later he built the organ in Durham 
Cathedral a 1 474-1, difference a whole tone, and practically agree- 
ing with the Cammerton of Praetorius. The Hampton Court 
organ of 1690 shows that Schmidt had further lowered his pitch 
a semitone, to a 1 441-7. What happened at Durham was that 
at some subsequent date the pipes were shifted up a semitone 
to bring the organ into conformity with this lower pitch, with 
which it is probable Schmidt's organs in St Paul's and the 
Temple, and also Trinity College, Cambridge, agreed. This 
lowering tendency towards the low church pitch, and the final 
adoption of the latter as a general mean pitch throughout the 
1 8th century, was no doubt influenced by the introduction of 
the violin, which would not bear the high tension to which the 



662 



PITCH, MUSICAL 



lutes and viols had been strained. Harpsichords had long been 
preferred at the tertia tninore. The Chorton of Praetorius, 
a 1 422-8, is practically the same pitch as that of the fork the 
possession of which has been attributed to Handel, a 1 422-5. 
It is a very fair mean between G. Silbermann's iSth-century 
Dresden pitch, a 1 415, and the organs of Renatus Harris, a 1 
428-7. Stein tuned Mozart's piano to a fork a 1 421-6, and the 
Broadwood pianos used at the London Philharmonic Society 
in its first concerts (1813) were tuned to a fork c 2 506-8, which 
gives a mean tone a 1 423-7. 

According to Schindler (Niederrheinische Musik-Zeitung, 
1855, Nos. 8 and 9) and the report of the French Commission, 
1859, the rise in pitch began at the Congress of Vienna in 1816, 
the military bands being the cause. With the improvements 
in wind instruments this continued, as a more brilliant effect 
was gained. In 1823 Weber's Euryanlhe is recorded as having 
been played in Vienna at a 1 437-5, and in 1834 Kreutzer's 
Nachtlager at a 1 440. The measurements are doubtful, but the 
upward tendency is clear. Scheibler, by his simple and accurate 
tonometer, has recorded pitches in Vienna about 1834 from a 1 
433-9 to 440-2. About that time, or it may be a few years 
earlier, Sir George Smart established a fork for the Philharmonic 
Society, a 1 433-2. Forks intended for this vibration number, 
stamped "Philharmonic," were sold as late as 1846. But about 
that year the performing pitch of the Society had reached 
452-5. Sir Michael Costa was the conductor 1846-1854, and from 
his acceptance of that high pitch the fork became known as 
Costa's, and its inception was attributed to him, though on 
insufficient grounds. In 1874 a further rise in the fork to a 1 454 
was instigated by Sir Charles Halle. The British army is bound 
by His Majesty's Rules and Regulations to play at the Philhar- 
monic pitch, and a fork tuned to a 1 452-5 in 1890 is preserved 
as the standard for the Military Training School at Kneller Hall. 
But the Philharmonic Society adopted the Diapason Normal in 
1896, and the military bands have not gone with it. In point 
of fact, they are gradually going higher, and the brass bands, 
which are so important in the North of England and in Wales, 
are not behind them. 

It was the irrepressible upward tendency that caused the 
French government in 1859, acting with the advice of Halevy, 
Meyerbeer,. Auber, Ambroise Thomas and Rossini, to establish 
by law the Diapason Normal. Other countries have gradually 
followed, and, with few exceptions, the low pitch derived from 
the Diapason Normal may be said to prevail throughout the 
musical world. Great Britain has been the last to fall in, but 
the predominance of the low pitch, introduced at Covent Garden 
Opera since 1880, is assured. The proprietors of Queen's Hall, 
London, did much for it when they undertook the alteration, at 
great expense, of their large concert organ, which had only just 
been erected. In 1896 the Philharmonic Society decided upon a 
performing pitch, ostensibly at 68 Fahr., of a 1 439; and in 1899 
Messrs Broadwood made a successful effort to get this vibration 
number accepted by their competitors in Great Britain. The 
high pitch remains only where there are large concert organs 
not yet lowered, and with the military and brass bands. 

The consideration of temperature as affecting the use of a 
standard pitch was not attended to when the French government 
issued its ordonnance. The 15 Centigrade attached to the 
description of the standard fork in Paris was intended for the 
definition and verification of the fork only. The alteration of 
the fork due to heat is scarcely perceptible, but wind instruments, 
and particularly the organ, rise almost proportionately to the 
increase in temperature of the surrounding air, because sound 
travels at an enhanced rate as the temperature rises. The 
coefficient of this rise is equivalent to half a vibration (0-5) 
per degree Fahr. per second. D. J. Blaikley (Essay on Musical 
Pitch, Catalogue of the Royal Military Exhibition, Chelsea, 
1890), and Victor Mahillon (Catalogue descriptif et analytique du 
Musie, Bruxelles, troisieme volume, appendice, 1900) have 
recorded their experience of wind instruments under changes 
of temperature. The French Commission, in establishing the 
Diapason Normal, should have chosen a temperature of 20 C. 



There would then have been less disturbance owing to the breath 
of the players and heat of the theatres or concert-rooms. It 
would be a great advantage to get this higher grade generally 
adopted. It was proposed in the Stimm-Conferenz at Vienna 
in 1885, but not carried. Table in., showing orchestral pitches 
obtained in 1899, for the measurements of which the writer is 
responsible, prove how chimerical it is to hope for greater 
accuracy than is found between 435 and 440 vibrations a second 
for a 1 , inasmuch as temperature must always be reckoned with. 

Table I. 



1495 to 1690. Pitch descending. 


Authority. 


V.at 59 F. 


Halbcrstadt organ . . . 1495 


Ellis . 


a> 505-8 


Arnold Schlick, Heidelberg . 1511 


Ellis .... 


502-6 


St Jacobi, Hamburg . 1688-1693 


Schmahl 


489-2 


St Catharinen, Hamburg . 1543 


Dcgenhardt . . 


480-8 


Praetorius. Cammerton . . 1618 


Hipkins . . 


475-65 


Durham organ .... 1683 


Armes and Ellis 


474-1 


Great Franciscan organ, 






Vienna c. 1640 


Ullmann . . 


457-6 


Hampton Court organ . . 1690 


Ellis .... 


441-7 


Table 


//. 




1511 to 1900. Pitch ascending. 


Authority. 


V.at59F. 


Arnold Schlick, Heidelberg . 1511 


Ellis .... 


a> 377-0 


Strasburg Minster. A. Sil- 






bermann . . . 1713-1716 


Stockhausen 


393 -2 


Trinity College, Cambridge. 1759 


Smith and Ellis 


395-2 


Versailles organ .... 1789 


M'Leodand Ellis 


395-8 


Praetorius " Tertia minore " 1618 


Hipkins . . 


396-4 


St Michael's, Hamburg . . 1762 


Schmahl . . 


407-9 


Pascal Taskin's tuning-fork, 






Paris 1783 


Lissajous . . 


409-0 


St Jacobi, Hamburg, " Tertia 






minore " stop . . 1688-1693 


Schmahl 


411-4 


Hofcapelle, Dresden . . . 1754 


Nake .... 


415-0 


St Sophie, Dresden, G. 






Silbermann 1722 


Niike . . . 


415-5 


Freiberg. G. Silbermann . . 1714 


Nake . . . . 


419-5 


Seville Cathedral . . 1785-1790 


Ellis . . 


419-6 


Old English tuning-fork c. 1715 


Ellis .... 


419-9 


Imperial Russian Court 






Church Band .... 1860 


Niike and Ellis. 


421-2 


Stein's tuning-fork, Vienna 1780 
Handel's tuning-fork . . . 1751 


Nake and Ellis. 
Ellis .... 


421-6 
422-5 


Praetorius. Chorton . . .1618 


Ellis andHipkins 


422-8 


Peppercorn's tuning-fork 






(Broadwood) .... 1813 


Ellis .... 


4 2 3-5 


Renatus Harris, St Andrew's, 






Undershaft 1696 


Ellis .... 


4 2 7-7 


Renatus Harris, Newcastle- 






on-Tyne 1670 


Ions and Ellis . 


428-7 


C.Meerens.proposed standard 






derived from c 2 512, and 






favoured by Boi'to and 






other Italian musicians . 1876 


Mecrens . . 


432-o 


Sir George Smart, Philhar- 






monic .... 1826-1834 


Ellis .... 


433-2 


Scheibler No. I., Vienna 






orchestra 1834 


Scheibler 


433-9 


Montal's tuning-fork, Paris 






opera 1829 


CagnarddelaTour 


434-0 


Scheibler No. II., Paris 






opera. ... . . 1834 


Scheibler 


434-0 


Reissiger's tuning-fork, Dres- 






den 1826 


Nake 


4,-je.n 


Paris Diapason Normal . 




TOO w 


Ordonnance 1859 


Fr. Comm. . . 


435-O 


Scheibler No. III., Paris 






Conservatoire .... 1834 


Scheibler 


435'2 


Paris Diapason Normal. 






Standard fork .... 1859 


Koenig . 


435-45 


Paris opera 1836 
Scheibler, Stuttgart, proposed 


Cagnard de la Tour 


437-0 


standard (440 at 69 F.) . 1834 


Scheibler 


440-2 


Scheibler No. IV., Vienna 






opera 1834 


Scheibler 


44"3 


Hullah's tuning-fork . . . 1842 


Ellis .... 


44!'3 


Naples opera. San Carlo . 1857 


Lissajous . 


444.9 


Society of Arts intended for 






444. (Since 1886 the 






Society of Arts has advo- 






cated the Diapason Normal) 1 860 


Ellis .... 


445-7 



PITCHBLENDE PITCHER PLANTS 



663 



1511 fo 1900. Pitch ascending. 


Authority. 


V.at59F. 


Broadwood's medium . . 1850 


Ellis .... 


445-9 


Paris grand opera . . . 1858 


Lissajous 


448-0 


Lazarus's clarinet. . . . 1843 


Ellis and Hipkins 


448-0 


Gewandhaus, Leipzig . . . 1869 


Ellis .... 


448-2 . 


Berlin opera 1857 


Lissajous 


448-4 


Milan opera, La Scala . . 1856 


Lissajous 


450-3 


Philharmonic, London 1846-18154 


Ellis and Hipkins 


452-5 


Kneller Hall 1890 


Hipkins ... 


452-5 


Philharmonic, London . . 1874 


Hipkins . 


454-0 


Streicher's tuning - fork, 






Vienna 1859 


Ellis .... 


456-1 


Strauss's Band, Imperial 






Institute, London, open 






air 1897 


Hipkins . 


457-5 


Table III. 


Orchestral Pitch. 1899. 


Authority. 


V.at68F. 


Leipzig 


Bluthner . . 


a'435-o 


Berlin 


Bechstein 


438-0 


New York 
Boston 


Steinway 
Chickenng . 


438-6 
438-8 


London 


Broadwood . 


439-0 


St Petersburg 


Becker . 


439-4 


Meiningen (and Bayreuth) 


Miihlfeld'sclarinet 


439-5 


Stuttgart 


A. Schiedmayer 


440-0 


Vienna 


Bosendorfer. 


440-0 


London. Covent Garden opera 


Hipkins . 


440-0 


Paris 


Erard 


44 2 -4 



Verified by A. J. Hipkins. But for Leipzig a comparison with 
the Gewandhaus Band may be sought. (A. J. H.) 

PITCHBLENDE, or URANINTTE, a mineral species consisting 
essentially of uranium oxide, of importance as a source of 
uranium and radium. It is a very heavy (specific gravity 9-0- 
9-7), compact mineral with a conchoidal to uneven fracture, and 
a brownish to velvet-black colour and pitchy lustre. Crystals 
are rare; they have the form of regular octahedra or less 
often of cubes. The hardness is 5^, and the streak is brown 
with a greenish tinge. The mineral has been known to occur 
at Joachimsthal in Bohemia since 1727, and it was early called 
pitchblende, because of its appearance; but its true nature 
was not recognized until 1789, when M. H. Klaproth's analysis 
of it resulted in the discovery of the element uranium. Analyses 
of material from different localities exhibit wide variations in 
chemical composition. In addition to uranium oxides, there 
are thorium, cerium (and lanthanum), yttrium and lead oxides, 
each varying in amount from a trace up to 10%. Calcium, iron, 
magnesium, manganese, silica, water, &c., are also present in 
small amounts. The amounts of uranous and uranic oxides 
(UO 2 , 21-72; UO 3 , 13-59%) also vary considerably. The 
mineral is often described as a uranate of uranyl, lead, thorium 
and cerium; but in the least altered material from Branchville 
in Connecticut the uranous oxide predominates, whilst in altered 
specimens uranic oxide is in excess. In the closely allied 
mineral, thorianite, thorium predominates (ThO 2 , 76; UO 2 , 
12%). Since the dioxides of uranium, thorium and cerium may 
be obtained artificially as cubic crystals, it seems probable 
that pitchblende consists of isomorphous mixtures of these 
dioxides, the uranic oxide being due to oxidation. 

The radio-active properties of pitchblende are of special 
interest. The fact that this mineral is more strongly radio-active 
than metallic uranium led to the discovery in it of the elements 
radium, polonium and actinium. When pitchblende is ignited 
or dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, a gas is evolved which 
consists largely of helium and argon: terrestrial helium was first 
recognized in this mineral. 

The mineral occurs either as a primary constituent of granitic 
rocks or as one of secondary origin in metalliferous veins. Octa- 
hedral crystals (" cleveite "and" broggerite ") occur in the pegmatite 
veins of southern Norway, being occasionally found in the felspar 
quarries at Moss, Arendal and other places. Crystals are found 
under similar conditions at Middletown and Branchville in Connecti- 
cut, Llano county in Texas (" nivenite "), Mitchell county in North 
Carolina, Villenveuve in Quebec, and other American localities. 
Thorianite, found as water-worn cubes in the gem-gravels near 



Balangoda in Sabaragamuwa province, Ceylon, has also no doubt 
jeen derived from crystalline rocks. On the other hand, the minera/ 
: ound in metalliferous veins, and to which the name pitchblende is 
more properly restricted, never occurs as crystals, but as compact 
masses rendered more or less impure by admixture of other minerals, 
the specific gravity being sometimes as low as 6-5 ; thorium, cerium, 
&c., are absent, and radium and helium are present in smaller 
amounts. This variety occurs with ores of silver, lead, copper, 
nickel, cobalt, bismuth, &c., at Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienberg and 
Schneeberg in Saxony, Joachimsthal and Przibram_ in Bohemia, 
Rezbanya in Bihar Mountains in Hungary, Gilpin county in 
Colorado, St Just, in Penwith, Redruth, Grampound Road and 
elsewhere in Cornwall. 

Often associated with pitchblende, and resulting from its altera- 
tion, is an orange-yellow, amorphous, gum-like mineral called 
gummite, which is a hydrous uranic oxide with small amounts of 
lead, calcium, iron, &c. (L. J. S.) 

PITCHER, (i) A large vessel for holding liquids, derived 
through Fr. from Med. Lat. picarium; the Lat. variant bicarium, 
Gr. jStKos, has given the Ger Becker, Eng. beaker (q.v.). (2) One 
who " pitches," i.e. throws, casts, fixes; the name of the player 
in the game of base-ball who pitches or delivers the ball to the 
striker. 

PITCHER PLANTS, in botany, the name given to plants in 
which the leaves bear pitcher-like structures or are pitcher-like 
in form. The plant generally understood by this name is 
Nepenthes, a genus containing nearly sixty species, natives of 
tropical Asia, north Australia and (one only) of Madagascar. 
North Borneo is especially rich in species. They are shrubby 
plants climbing over surrounding vegetation by means of tendril- 
like prolongations of the midrib of the leaf beyond the leaf-tip. 




FIG. I. Pitcher of Nepenthes dislillatoria. 

A, Honey-gland from attractive C, Transverse section of the 
surface of lid. same. 

B, Digestive gland from interior A, B, and C magnified about 
of pitcher, in pocket-like de- 100 diameters. 

pression of epidermis, opening 

downwards. 

The pitcher is a development at the end of the tendril. It is 
generally tubular in form, but in some species two forms are 
produced on the same plant, lower or terrestrial goblet-shaped 
pitchers and upper suspended pitchers retaining the more 
primitive more or less tubular form; in a few species a third 
form funnel- or cornucopia-shaped pitchers occurs in the 
upper part. In the terrestrial type a pair of well-developed 
wings traverse the length of the pitcher; in the tubular or funnel- 
shaped form the wings are narrow or ridge-like. The mouth of 
the pitcher has a corrugated rim (peristome) formed by in- 
curving of the margin, the convex surface of which is firm and 
shining. It is traversed by more or less prominent parallel 



PITCHER PLANTS 



ridges, which are usually prolonged as teeth beyond the in- 
folded margin. Above the mouth is the lid (operculum), which 
varies in size from a small narrow process to a large heart- 
shaped expansion. A study of the development of the pitcher, 
especially in the young pitchers of seedling plants, shows that 
the inflated portion is a development of the midrib of the leaf, 
while the wings, which are especially well represented in the 
terrestrial type of pitcher, represent the upper portion of 
the leaf-blade which has become separated from the lower 
portion by the tendril; the lid is regarded as representing 
two leaflets which have become fused. The short straight or 
curved process from the back of the pitcher behind the lid 
represents the organic apex of the leaf (A in fig. i). 

The size of the pitcher varies widely in the different species, 
from an inch to a foot or more in depth. The colour also varies 
considerably, even in different pitchers of the same individual, 




FIG. 2. Leaves of Sarracenia purpurec. 

A, Attractive surface of lid; B, conducting; C, glandular; and D, 
detentive surface ; magnified. A and D are taken from S. flava. 

according to age, light exposure or soil conditions. It is uni- 
formly green or more or less spotted, blotched or suffused with 
red or crimson, or sometimes, as in N. sanguined or N. Edwards- 
iana, largely or wholly of a rich scarlet or crimson colour. In- 
sects are attracted to the mouth of the pitcher by a series of 
glands, yielding a sweet excretion, which occurs on the stem and 
also on the leaf from the base of the leaf-stalk to the lid and 
peristome. Embedded in the incurved margin of the rim 
which affords a very insecure foothold to insects, are a number 
of large glands excreting a sweet juice. The cavity of the 
pitcher is in some species lined throughout with a. smooth 
glistening surface over which glands are uniformly distributed; 
these glands secrete a liquid which is found in the pitcher even 
in the young state while it is still hermetically closed by the lid. 
In other species the glands are confined to the lower portion of 
the cavity surface, while the upper part bear a smooth waxy 
secretion on which it is impossible, or at any rate extremely 
difficult, for insects to secure a foothold. This area is termed 
the " conducting " area, as distinguished from the lower or 
" detentive " gland-bearing area. It has been proved that 
the secretion contains a digestive ferment capable of rendering 
proteid matter soluble. Insects, especially running insects, 
which have followed the track of honey glands upwards from 
the stem along the leaf, reach the mouth of the pitcher, and in 
their efforts to sip the attractive marginal glands fall over into 



the liquid. The smooth walls above the liquid afford no foot- 
hold, and they are drowned; their bodies are digested and the 
products of digestion are ultimately absorbed by the glands in 
the pitcher-wall. Thus Nepenthes secures a supply of nitro- 
genous food from the animal world in a manner somewhat 
similar to that adopted by the British sundew, butterwort, 
and other insectivorous plants. 

The side-saddle plant, Sarracenia, native of the eastern United 
States, is also known as a pitcher-plant. There are about seven 
species, herbs with clusters of radical leaves some or all of which 
are more or less trumpet- or pitcher-shaped. The leaf has a 
broadly sheathing base succeeded by a short stalk bearing the 
pitcher, which represents a much enlarged midrib with a wing- 
like lamina. Above the rim of the pitcher is a broad flattened 
lid, which is also a laminar development. The surface of the 
leaf, especially the laminar wing, bears glands which in spring 
exude large glistening drc^s of nectar. The lid and mouth of the 
pitcher are brighter coloured than the rest of the leaf, which 




FIG. 3. Cephalotus follicularis , showing ordinary leaves and pitchers, 
the right hand one cut open to show internal structure. 

varies from yellow-green to deep crimson in different species 
and in individuals according to exposure to sunlight and other 
conditions. This forms the attractive area, and the inner sur- 
face of the lid also bears numerous glands, as well as downward- 
pointing hairs, each with a delicately striated surface (fig. 2, A). 
Below it is the conducting surface (B) of glassy epidermal cells, 
with short downward-directed points, which facilitate the 
descent, but impede the ascent of an insect. Then come the 
glandular surface (C), which is formed of smooth polished 
epidermis with numerous glands that secrete the fluid contents 
of the pitcher, and finally the detentive surface (D), of which 
the cells are produced into long and strong bristles which point 
A 




FIG. 4. Morphology of Pitchers. 

A, Ordinary leaf of Cephalotus. 

B, Monstrous leaf with spoon-shaped depression. 

C and D, Other abnormal forms more deeply pouched, 

showing formation of pitcher. 
E, Ordinary pitcher of Cephalotus. 
a, Apex of leaf. 

downwards and meet in the centre of the diminishing cavity so 
as to render escape impossible. The secretion wets an insect 
very rapidly, but, so far as is known, seems to be completely 
destitute of digestive power indeed, rather to accelerate 
decomposition. The pitchers accumulate vast quantities of 
insects in the course of a season, and must thus abundantly 
manure the surrounding soil when they die. Moreover, the 



PITCHSTONE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS 



665 



feast is largely shared by unbidden guests. Not to speak of 
insects which feed upon the pitcher itself, some drop their eggs 
into the putrescent mass, where their larvae find abundant 
nourishment, while birds often slit open the pitchers with their 
beaks and devour the maggots in their turn. 

Cephalotus follicularis, a native of south-west Australia, 
a small herbaceous plant, bears 
ordinary leaves close to the 
ground as well as pitchers. 
The latter somewhat resem- 
ble in general form those of 
Nepenthes. The lid is especially 
attractive to insects from its bright colour and honey secretion; 
three wings lead up to the mouth of the pitcher, on the 
inside of which a row of sharp spines points downwards, 
and below this a circular ridge (r, fig. 3) armed with papillae 
serves as a conducting area. A number of glands on the in- 
terior of the pitcher secrete a plentiful fluid which has digestive 
properties. Comparison with monstrous forms shows that the 
pitcher of Cephalotus arises by a cakeolate pouching from the 
upper surface of the ordinary spathulate leaves, the lid here 
arising from the proximal side of the pitcher-orifice. 

PITCHSTONE (German Pechstein, from its resemblance to 
pitch), in petrology, a glassy igneous rock having a resinous 
lustre and breaking with a hollow or conchoidal fracture. It 
differs from obsidian principally in its rather dull lustre, for 
obsidian is bright and vitreous in appearance; all pitchstones 
also contain a considerable quantity of water in combination 
amounting to from 5 to 10% of their weight or 10 to 
20% of their volume. The majority of the rocks of this 
class occur as intrusive dikes or veins; they are glassy forms 
of quartz porphyry and other dike recks. Their dull lustre 
may be connected with the great abundance of minute crystal- 
lites and microlites they nearly always contain. These are 
visible only in microscopic sections, and their varied shapes make 
pitchstones very interesting to the microscopist. Although 
pitchstones are known which are of Devonian age (e.g. the 
glassy dacite of the Tay Bridge in Fife, Scotland, and the 
andesite-pitchstones of the Cheviot Hills), most of them are 
Tertiary or recent, as like all natural glasses they tend to crys- 
tallize or become devitrified in course of time. In some of the 
older pitchstones the greater part of the mass is changed to 
a dull felsitic substance, while only nodules or kernels of 
unaltered glass remain. 

Some pitchstones are very acid rocks, containing 70 to 75 % of silica, 
and have close chemical affinities to granites and rhyolites. Others 
contain more alkalis and less silica, being apparently vitreous types 
of trachyte or keratophyre; others have the composition of dacite 
and andesite, but the black basaltic glasses are not usually classified 
among the pitchstones. Very well known rocks of this group 
occur at Chemnitz and Meissen in Saxony. They are brown or dark 
green, very often perlitic (see PETROLOGY, Plate I., fig. 5), and show 
progressive devitrification starting from cracks and joints and spread- 
ing inwards through the mass. For a long time the pitchstone dikes 
of Arran in Scotland have been famous among geologists for the 
great beauty and variety of skeleton crystals they contain. These 
pitchstones are dull green in hand specimens. Some of them con- 
tain phenocrysts of felspar, augite, &c. ; others do not, but in all there 
is great abundance of branching feathery crystalline growths in the 
ground mass : they resemble the branches of fir trees or the fronds 
or ferns, minute crystalline rods being built together in aggregates 
which often recall the frost patterns on a window-pane. It is sup- 
posed that the mineral they consist of is hornblende. In addition 
to these larger growths there are many small microlites scattered 
through the glass, also hair-like trichites, and fine rounded globulites. 
When phenocrysts are present the small crystals are planted on their 
surfaces like grass growing from a turf-covered wall. These pitch- 
stones are believed to proceed from the great eruptive centres which 
were active in western Scotland in early Tertiary times. Another 
pitchstone of the same period forms a great craggy ridge or scuir 
in the island of Eigg (Scotland). At one time regarded as a lava 
flow occupying an old stream channel it has recently been described 
as an intrusive sheet. It is from 200 to 300 ft. thick. _The rock is 
a dark, nearly black, pitchstone-porphyry, with glancing idiomor- 
phic crystals of felspar in a vitreous base. It contains no quartz; 
the felspars are anorthoclase, and with them there are numerous- 
crystals of green augite. The ground mass contains small crystallites 
of felspar, and is of a rich brown colour in thin section with well 
developed perlitic structure (see PETROLOGY, Plate II., fig. i). In 



chemical composition this rock resembles the trachytes rather than 
the rhyolites. In Eigg and Skye there are many dikes of pitchstone, 
mostly of intermediate rather than of acid character, all connected 
with the great eruptive activity which characterized that region in 
early Tertiary times. 

The following analyses give the chemical composition of a few 
well-known pitchstones: 





SiOj 


A1 2 O, 


Fe 2 O 8 


MgO 


CaO 


Na 2 O 


K 2 O 


H 2 O 


I. Meissen, Saxony . 
II. Corriegills, Arran 
III. Scuir of Eigg, Scotland . 


72-42 
72-07 
65-81 


11-26 
11-26 
14-01 


o-75 
3-24 
4'43 


0-28 
tr. 
0-89 


1-35 
1-53 

2-01 


2-86 
0-61 

4-15 


3-8o 
5-61 
6-08 


7-64 
5-45 
2-70 



The first two of these contain much water for rocks the ingredients 
of which are but little decomposed. They are of acid or rhyplitic 
:haracter, while the third is richer in alkalis and contains less silica; 
t belongs more naturally to the intermediate rocks (or trachytes.) 

(J. S. F.) 

PITESCI (Pitesli), also written PITESTI and PITEST, the 
capital of the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated among 
the outlying hills of the Carpathians, on the river Argesh, which 
is here joined by several smaller streams. Pop. (1900), 15,570. 
The surrounding uplands produce good wine, fruit and grain, 
besides being rich in petroleum and salt; and, as the main 
Walachian railway is met at Pitesci by lines from Campulung 
and Hermannstadt in Transylvania, the town has a consider- 
able trade. It has manufactures of lacquer and varnish. 

PITH (O.E. pitha, cognate with Du. pit, kernel of a nut), 
properly the medulla, the central column of spongy cellular 
tissue, in the stems of dicotyledonous plants (see PLANTS: 
Anatomy). The word is thence applied to the spinal cord or 
marrow in animals, to the medullary end of a hair, and to 
that which forms the central part or core of any object or 
substance; hence, figuratively, vigour, energy, concentrated 
force. Very light hats or helmets are made of the dried pith 
of the Indian spongewood or hat plant (Asschynomene aspera, 
the native name being Solah). These pith hats are worn by 
Europeans in India and the East. The Chinese Ricepaper-tree 
(Aralia or Fatsia papyri/era), from the pith of which the deli- 
cate white film known as " rice-paper " is made, is also known 
as the pith-plant. 

PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS (Erect Ape-Man), the 
name given by Dr Eugene Dubois, of the Dutch army medical 
service, to the imaginary creature which he constructed from 
fossilized remains found by him in Java. These fragments 
consisted of a thigh-bone, two teeth, and the upper part of a 
skull, and were unearthed in 1891-1892 on the left bank of the 
Bengawan River near Trinil. The skull appears to have been 
low and depressed with strong supraciliary ridges; the teeth 
are very large, and the femur is quite human. The teeth and 
skull were found together, the femur a few yards away a year 
afterwards. The discoverer, however, stated it as his belief 
that the fragments were portions of the same skeleton and 
belonged to a creature half-way between man and the higher 
apes and of the Pleistocene age. Much discussion followed the 
" find," and many authorities have given an opinion adverse to 
Dr Dubois's theory. The prevailing opinion is that the bones 
are human. They are not held to represent what has been 
called " the missing link," bridging over the gulf between man 
and the apes; but almost all authorities are agreed that they 
constitute a further link in the chain, bringing man nearer 
his Simian prototype. L. Manouvrier concludes that Homo 
javanensis walked erect, was of about medium height, and was 
a true precursor, possibly a direct ancestor, of man. He calls 
attention to the fact that the cranial capacity decreases in 
proportion to the antiquity of the human skulls found, and 
that the pithecanthropus skull has a capacity of from 900 to 
looo cc. that is, " stands at the level of the smallest which have 
been occasionally found amongst the reputedly lowest savage 
peoples." 

See Dubois, Pithecanthropus erectus (Batavia, 1894); a later paper 
read by Dr Dubois before the Berlin Anthropological Society was 
translated in the Smithsonian Repast for 1898. Also a paper read 
by Dr D. J. Cunningham before the Royal Dublin Society, January 
23, 1895 (reported in Nature, February 28, 1895); O. C. Marsh, 



666 



PITHIVIERS PITMAN 



American Journ. of Science (June 1896); " Le Pithecanthropus et 
1'origine de 1'homme," in Bull, de la soc. d'anthrop. de Paris (1896), 
pp. 460-67; L. Manouvrier, " Discussion du pithecanthropus erectus 
comme precurseur de rhomme," in Bull. soc. d'anthrop. de Paris 
(1895), pp. 13-47 and 216-220: L. Manouvrier, Bull. soc. d'anthrop. 
(1896), p. 419 sqq. ; " The Trim! Femur contrasted with the Femora 
of various savage and civilized races," in Journal of Anat. and 
Physiol. (1896), xxxi. I seq.; Virchow, " Uber den Pithecanthropus 
erectus Dubois " in Zeitschrift f. Ethnologic (1895), pp. 336, 435, 648. 

PITHIVIERS, a town of north central France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Loiret, 28 m. N.N.E. of 
Orleans, on the railway to Malesherbes. Pop. (1906), 5676. 
The church of St Solomon, chiefly in the Renaissance style, 
and remains of the ancient ramparts are of interest. Statues 
have been erected of the mathematician Denis Poisson (d. 
1840), and of the physician and agriculturist Duhamel de Mon- 
ceau (d. 1782), natives of Pithiviers. The town is an agri- 
cultural market, and an important centre for the saffron of the 
region of Gatinaris the cultivation of which, originally intro- 
duced by the Jews of Avignon in the i2th century was fostered 
by Louis XIV. The shrine of St Solomon in the pth century 
and that of St Gregory, an Armenian bishop, in the loth, 
formed the nuclei of the town; and the donjon built at the end 
of the loth century for Heloise, lady of Pithiviers, was one of 
the finest of the period. 

PITHOM, one of the " treasure cities " stated to have been 
built for Pharaoh by the Hebrews in Goshen during the Oppres- 
sion (Exod. i. n). We have here the Hebraized form of the 
Egyptian Petom " House of (the sun-god) Etom," in Greek, 
Patumos, capital of the 8th nome of Lower Egypt and situated 
in the Wadi Tumilat on the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea. 
Succoth (Egyptian Thuket) was identical with it or was in its 
immediate neighbourhood. The site, now Tell el Maskhuta, 
has yielded several important monuments, including the best 
preserved of the trilingual stelae of Darius which commemorated 
his work on the canal. The earliest name yet found is that of 
Rameses II. of the XlXth Dynasty, but in one case he has 
usurped earlier work, apparently of the XHth Dynasty (a 
sphinx), and the city was evidently very ancient. Several of 
the monuments from Pithom have been removed to Ismailia 
on the Suez Canal. 

See Ed. Naville, The Store City of Pithom and the route of the 
Exodus (London, 1885); W. M. F. Petrie, Tanis, pt. i. (London, 
1885); W. Gol6nischeff, "Stele de Darius" in Recueil de travaux 
relatifs d la philologie et I' archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes, xiii. 
99, and the article RAMESES. (F. LL. G.) 

PITHOU, PIERRE (1530-1596), French lawyer and scholar, 
was born at Troyes on the ist of November 1539. His taste for 
literature was early seen, and his father Pierre (1496-1556) 
cultivated it to the utmost. He was called to the Paris 
bar in 1560. On the outbreak of the second war of religion 
in 1567, Pithou, who was a Calvinist, withdrew to Sedan 
and afterwards to Basel, whence be returned to France 
on the publication of the edict of pacification. Soon after- 
wards he accompanied the due de Montmorency on bis 
embassy to England, returning shortly before the massacre of 
St Bartholomew, in which he narrowly escaped with his life. 
Next year he followed the example of Henry of Navarre by 
abjuring the Protestant faith. Henry, shortly after his own 
accession to the throne of France, recognized Pithou's talents 
and services by bestowing upcn him various legal appointments. 
The most important work of his life was his co-operation in the 
production of the Satire Menippce (1593), which did so much 
to damage the cause of the League; the harangue of the Sieur 
d'Aubray is usually attributed to his pen. He died at Nogent- 
sur-Seine on the ist of November 1596. His valuable library, 
specially rich in MSS., was for the most part transferred to 
what is now the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. 

Pithou wrote a great number of legal and historical books, besides 
preparing editions of several ancient authors. His earliest publica- 
tion was Adversariorum subsecivorum lib. II. (1565). Perhaps his 
edition of the Leges Visigotkorum (1579) was his most valuable con- 
tribution to historical science ; in the same line he edited the Capitula 
of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, and Charles the Bald in 1588, and 
he also assisted his brother Francois in preparing an edition of the 



Corpus juris canonici (1687). His Libertts de I'eglise gallicane 
(1594) ' s reprinted in his Opera sacra juridica his orica miscellanea 
collecta (1609). In classical literature he was the first who made the 
world acquainted with the Fables of Phaedrus (1596); he also edited 
the Pervigilium Veneris (1587), and Juvenal and Persius (1585). 

Three of Pithou's brothers acquired distinction as jurists: JEAN 
(1524-1602), authorof Traite de police et du gouvernement des repub- 
liques, and, in collaboration with his twin brother NICOLAS (1524- 
1598), of Institution du mortage chretien; and FRANCOIS (1543-1621), 
author of Glossarium ad libros capitularium (1588), Traite de I'ex- 
communication et de I'interdit, &c. (1587). 

PITIGLIANO, a town in Italy, province of Grosseto. Pop. 
(1901), 4416. It is the cathedral city of the bishopric named 
after the neighbouring town of Sovana, and possesses a 16th- 
century cathedral and a church of the nth-i5th centuries, 
Pitigliano was originally a fief of the count ship of Sovana, 
which in 1 293 came by marriage into the possession of the 
Orsini. In 1410 Sovana was taken by the Siencese, but by the 
terms of a peace concluded in 1417 the Orsini retained Pitigliano, 
Gentile Orsini (assassinated 1434) assuming the title of count of 
Pitigliano. The most famous of the line of counts was Niccolo 
III. (1442-1510), a celebrated condottiere. Under his successors 
Pitigliano became the scene of ceaseless family feuds culmin- 
ating in assassinations. In 1562 the Medici of Florence seized 
part of their territories, and acquired the rest by exchange in 
1 580. The Orsini stronghold still stands in the town. 

PITLOCHRY, a village of Perthshire, Scotland, 28^ m. N.W. 
of Perth by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901), 1541. It lies 
on the left bank of the Tummel, a little below the confluence 
of that river and the Garry, 350 ft. above the sea. It is a 
favourite health resort and tourist centre. Among the im- 
mediate attractions are the pass of Killiecrankie, the falls of 
Tummel, the exquisite prospect called " Queen's View " (named 
after Queen Victoria) and Loch Tummel, 8 m. to the west. 
One m. S.E. of the village is the Black Spout, a waterfall of 
80 ft. formed by the Edradour. 

PITMAN. SIR ISAAC (1813-1897), English phonographer, 
was born at Trowbridge, Wiltshire, on the 4th of January 1813, 
and was educated at the local grammar school. He started in 
life as a clerk in a cloth factory, but in 1831 he was sent to the 
Normal College of the British and Foreign School Society in 
London. Between 1832 and 1839 he held masterships at 
Barton-on-Humber and Wotton-under-Edge, but he was dis- 
missed by the authorities when he became a Swedenborgian, 
and from 1839 to 1843 he conducted a private school of his own 
at Bath. In 1829 he took up Samuel Taylor's system of short- 
hand, and from that time he became an enthusiast in developing 
the art of phonography. In 1837 he drew up a manual of 
Taylor's system and offered it to Samuel Bagster (1771-1852). 
The publisher did not accept the work, but suggested that 
Pitman should invent a new system (see SHORTHAND) of his 
own. The result was his Stenographic Soundhand (1837). 
Bagster's friendship and active help had been secured by Pit- 
man's undertaking to verify the half-million references in the 
Comprehensive Bible, and he published the inventor's books 
at a cheap rate, thus helping to bring the system within the 
reach of all. Pitman devoted himself to perfecting phono- 
graphy and propagating its use, and established at Bath a 
Phonetic Institute and a Phonetic Journal for this purpose; 
he printed in shorthand a number of standard works, and his 
book with the title Phonography (1840) went through many 
editions. He was an enthusiastic spelling reformer, and adopted 
a phonetic system which he tried to bring into general use. 
Pitman was twice married, his first wife dying in 1857, and his 
second, whom he married in 1861, surviving him. In 1894 he 
was knighted, and on the 22nd of January 1897 he died at Bath. 
Sir Isaac Pitman popularized shorthand at a time when the 
advance of the newspaper press and modern business methods 
were making it a matter of great commercial importance. His 
system adapted itself readily to the needs of journalism, and 
its use revolutionized the work of reporting. He was a non- 
smoker, a vegetarian, and advocated temperance principles. 

His Life was written by Alfred Baker (1908) and (1902) by his 
brother, Benn Pitman (1822-791 1). 



PITONI PITT, WILLIAM 



667 



PITONI, GIUSEPPE OTTAVIO (1657-1743), Italian musical 
composer, was born at Rieti on the i8th of March 1657. He 
came to Rome as a boy and sang in the choir of SS Apostoli. 
Foggia gave him instructions in counterpoint, and he became 
maestro di Cappella, first at Terra di Rotondo and later (1673) 
at Assisi. In 1676 he went to Rieti, and in 1677 to Rome, 
where he held various appointments, dying on the ist of Feb- 
ruary 1743 as maestro di Cappella at St Marco, where he was 
buried. Pitoni appears to have devoted himself exclusively 
to church music, and although he did not disdain the modern 
style with instrumental accompaniment, he is best known by 
his Masses and other works in the manner of Palestrina. 

Several volumes of his autograph composition are in the Santini 
Library at Miinster. 

PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726), British East India merchant and 
politician, usually called " Diamond Pitt," was born at Bland- 
ford, Dorset, on the sth of July 1653. In early life he went 
to India, and from his headquarters at Balasore he made trading 
journeys into Persia and soon became prominent among those 
who were carrying on business in opposition to the East India 
Company. Twice he was arrested by order of the company, 
the second time being when he reached London in 1683, but 
after litigation had detained him for some years in England he 
returned to India and to his former career. Unable to check 
him the East India Company took him into its service in 1695, 
and in 1697 he became president of Fort St George, or Madras. 
Pitt was now very zealous in defending the interests of his em- 
ployers against the new East India Company, and in protecting 
their settlements from the attacks of the natives; in directing 
the commercial undertakings of the company he also appears 
to have been very successful. Soon, however, he had a serious 
quarrel with William Fraser, a member of his council, and con- 
sequently he was relieved of his office in 1709, although he was 
afterwards consulted by the company on matters of impor- 
tance. During his residence in India Pitt bought for about 
20,000 the fine diamond which was named after him; in 171 7 
he sold this to the regent of France, Philip duke of Orleans, 
for 80,000 or, according to another account, for 135,000. 
It is now the property of the French government. During 
his former stay in England Pitt had bought a good deal of 
property, including the manor of Old Sarum, and for a short 
time he had represented this borough in parliament. After his 
final return from India in 1710 he added to his properties and 
again became member of parliament for Old Sarum. He died at 
Swallowfield near Reading on the 28th of April 1726. His 
eldest son, Robert, was the father of William Pitt, earl of 
Chatham (q.v.); and of Thomas Pitt (d.i76i), whose son became 
the first Lord Camelford; his second son, Thomas Pitt (c. 1688- 
1729), having married Frances (d. 1772), daughter of Robert 
Ridgeway, 4th earl of Londonderry (d. 1714), was himself 
created earl of Londonderry in 1726. 

PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806), English statesman, the 
second son of William Pitt, earl of Chatham, and of Lady 
Hester Grenville, daughter of Hester, Countess Temple, 
was born at Hayes, near Bromley, Kent, on the 28th of 
May 1759. The child inherited a name which, at the time 
of his birth, was the most illustrious in the civilized world, 
and was pronounced by every Englishman with pride, and 
by every enemy of England with mingled admiration and 
terror. During the first year of his life every month had 
its illuminations and bonfires, and every wind brought some 
messenger charged with joyful tidings and hostile standards. 
In Westphalia the English infantry won a great battle which 
arrested the armies of Louis XV. in the midst of a career of 
conquest; Boscawen defeated one French fleet on the coast of 
Portugal; Hawke put to flight another in the Bay of Biscay; 
Johnson took Niagara; Amherst took Ticonderoga; Wolfe died 
by the most enviable of deaths under the waHs of Quebec; 
Clive destroyed a Dutch armament in the Hugli, and established 
the English supremacy in Bengal; Coote routed Lally at Wande- 
wash, and established the English supremacy in the Carnatic. 
The nation, while loudly applauding the successful warriors, 



considered them all, on sea and on land, in Europe, in America, 
and in Asia, merely as instruments which received their direc- 
tion from one superior mind. It was the great William Pitt 
who had vanquished the French marshals in Germany and 
French admirals on the Atlantic who had conquered for his 
country one great empire on the frozen shores of Ontario 
and another under the tropical sun near the mouths of the 
Ganges. It was not in the nature of things that popularity 
such as he at this time enjoyed should be permanent. That 
popularity had lost its gloss before his children were old enough 
to understand that the earl of Chatham was a great man. The 
energy and decision which had eminently fitted him for the 
direction of war were not needed in time of peace. The lofty 
and spirit-stirring eloquence which had made h'im supreme in 
the House of Commons often fell dead on the House of Lords. 
Chatham was only the ruin of Pitt, but an awful and majestic 
ruin, not to be contemplated by any man of sense and feeling 
without emotions resembling those which are excited by the 
remains of the Parthenon and of the Colosseum. In one re- 
spect the old statesman was eminently happy. Whatever 
might be the vicissitudes of his public life, he never failed 
to find peace and love by his own hearth. He loved all his 
children, and was loved by them; and of all his children the 
one of whom he was fondest and proudest was his second son. 

The child's genius and ambition displayed themselves with a 
rare and almost unnatural precocity. At seven the interest 
which he took in grave subjects, the ardour with . , ... 
which he pursued his studies, and the sense and 
vivacity of his remarks on books and on events amazed 
his parents and instructors. One of his sayings of this 
date was reported to his mother by his tutor. In August 
1766, when the world was agitated by the news that 
Mr Pitt had become eafi of Chatham, little William ex- 
claimed, " I am glad that I am not the eldest son. I want 
to speak in the House of Commons like papa." At fourteen 
the lad was in intellect a man. Hayley, who met him 
at Lyme in the summer of 1773, was astonished, delighted, 
and somewhat overawed, by hearing wit and wisdom from so 
young a mouth. The boy himself had already written a tragedy, 
bad, of course, but not worse than the tragedies of his friend. 
This piece (still preserved) is in some respects highly curious. 
There is no love. The whole plot is political; and it is remark- 
able that the interest, such as it is, turns on a contest about a 
regency. On one side is a faithful servant of the Crown, on 
the other an ambitious and unprincipled conspirator. At 
length the king, who had been missing, reappears, resumes his 
power, and rewards the fathful defender of his rights. A reader 
who should judge only by internal evidence would have no 
hesitation in pronouncing that the play was written by some 
Pittite poetaster at the time of the rejoicings for the recovery 
of George III. in 1789. 

The pleasure with which William's parents observed the 
rapid development of his intellectual powers was alloyed by 
apprehensions about his health. He shot up alarmingly fast; 
he was often ill, and always weak; and it was feared that it 
would be impossible to rear a stripling so tall, so slender, and 
so feeble. Port wine was prescribed by his medical advisers; 
and it is said that he was, at fourteen, accustomed to 
take this agreeable physic in quantities which would, in our 
more abstemious age, be thought much more than sufficient 
for any full-grown man. It was probably on account of the 
delicacy of his frame that he was not educated like other boys 
of the same rank. Almost all the eminent English statesmen 
and orators to whom he was afterwards opposed or allied 
North, Fox, Shelburne, Windham, Grey, Wellesley, Grenville, 
Sheridan, Canning went through the training of great public 
schools. Lord Chatham had himself been a distinguished 
Etonian; and it is seldom that a distinguished Etonian forgets 
his obligations to Eton. But William's infirmities required 
a vigilance and tenderness such as could be found only at home. 
He was therefore bred under the paternal roof. His studies 
were superintended by a clergyman named Wilson; and those 



668 



PITT, WILLIAM 



studies, though often interrupted by illness, were prosecuted 
with extraordinary success. He was sent, towards the close 
of the year 1773, to Pembroke Hall, in the university of Cam- 
bridge. The governor to whom the direction of William's 
academical life was confided was a bachelor of arts named 
Pretyman, 1 who had been senior wrangler in the preceding 
year, and, who though not a man of prepossessing appearance 
or brilliant parts, was eminently acute and laborious, a sound 
scholar, and an excellent geometrician. A close and lasting 
friendship sprang up between the pair. The disciple was able, 
before he completed his twenty-eighth year, to make his pre- 
ceptor bishop of Lincoln and dean of St Paul's; and the preceptor 
showed his gratitude by writing a life of the disciple, which 
enjoys the distinction of being the worst biographical work of 
its size in the world. Pitt, till he graduated, had scarcely one 
acquaintance, attended chapel regularly morning and evening, 
dined every day in hall, and never went to a single evening 
party. At seventeen he was admitted, after the fashion of those 
times, by right of birth, without any examination, to the degree 
of master of arts. But he continued during some years to 
reside at college, and to apply himself vigorously, under 
Pretyman's direction, to the studies of the place, while mixing 
freely in the best academic society. 

The stock of learning which Pitt laid in during this part of 
his life was certainly very extraordinary. The work in which 
he took the greatest delight was Newton's Principia. His 
liking for mathematics, indeed, amounted to a passion, which, 
in the opinion of his instructors, themselves distinguished mathe- 
maticians, required to be checked rather than encouraged. 
Nor was the youth's proficiency in classical learning less remark- 
able. In one respect, indeed, he appeared to disadvantage 
when compared with even second-rate and third-rate men from 
public schools. He had never, while under Wilson's care, been 
in the habit of composing in the ancient languages; and he 
therefore never acquired the knack of versification. It would 
have been utterly out of his power to produce such charming 
elegiac lines as those in which Wellesley bade farewell to Eton, 
or such Virgilian hexameters as those in which Canning described 
the pilgrimage to Mecca. But it may be doubted whether any 
scholar has ever, at twenty, had a more solid and profound 
knowledge of the two great tongues of the old civilized world. 
He had set his heart on being intimately acquainted with all the 
extant poetry of Greece, and was not satisfied till he had 
mastered Lycophron's Cassandra. 

To modern literature Pitt paid comparatively little attention. 
He knew no living language except French; and French he 
knew very imperfectly. With a few of the best English writers 
he was intimate, particularly with Shakespeare and Milton. 
The debate in Pandemonium was, as it well deserved to be, one 
of his favourite passages; and his early friends used to talk, long 
after his death, of the just emphasis and the melodious cadence 
with which they had heard him recite the incomparable speech 
ofJSelial, He had indeed been carefully trained from infancy in 
the art of managing his voice, a voice naturally clear and deep- 
toned. At a later period the wits of Brookes's, irritated by 
observing, night after night, how powerfully Pitt's sonorous 
elocution fascinated the rows of country gentlemen, reproached 
him with having been " taught by his dad on a stool ". 

His education, indeed, was well adapted to form a great 
parliamentary speaker. The classical studies of Pitt had the 
effect of enriching his English vocabulary, and of making him 
wonderfully expert in the art of constructing correct English 
sentences. His practice was to look over a page or two of a 
Greek or Latin author, to make himself master of the meaning, 
and then to read the passage straight forward into his own 
language. This practice, begun under his first teacher Wilson, 

P George Pretyman (1750-1827) was senior wrangler in 1772. In 
1803, on Falling heir to a large estate, he assumed the name of Tom- 
line. From Lincoln, -to which see he had, been elevated in 1787, 
he was translated to Winchester in 182*0. Tomline, to whom 
Pitt when dying had bequeathed his papers, published his Memoirs 
of the Life of William Pitt (down to the close of 1792) in 1821 (3 vols. 
8vo).] 



was continued under Pretyman. Of all the remains of antiquity, 
the orations were those on which he bestowed the most minute 
examination. His favourite employment was to compare 
harangues on opposite sides of the same question, to analyse 
them, and to observe which of che arguments of the first speaker 
were refuted by the second, which were evaded, and which were 
left untouched. Nor was it only in books that he at this time 
studied the art of parliamentary fencing. When he was at 
home he had frequent opportunities of hearing important 
debates at Westminster; and he heard them, not only with 
interest and enjoyment, but with close scientific attention. 
On one of these occasions Pitt, a youth whose abilities were 
as yet known only to his own family and to a small knot of 
college friends, was introduced on the steps of the throne in the 
House of Lords to Fox, his senior by eleven years, who was 
already the greatest debater, and one of the greatest orators, that 
had appeared in England. Fox used afterwards to relate that, 
as the discussion proceeded, Pitt repeatedly turned to him, and 
said, " But surely, Mr Fox, that might be met thus," or " Yes; 
but he lays himself open to this retort." What the particular 
criticisms were Fox had forgotten; but he said that he was much 
struck at the time by the precocity of a lad who, through the 
whole sitting, seemed to be thinking only how all the speeches on 
both sides could be answered. 

He had not quite completed his nineteenth year when, on 
the 7th of April 1778, he attended his father to Westminster. 
A great debate was expected. It was known that France had 
recognized the independence of the United States. The duke 
of Richmond was about to declare his opinion that all thought 
of subjugating those states ought to be relinquished. Chatham 
had always maintained that the resistance of the colonies to the 
mother country was justifiable. But he conceived, very errone- 
ously, that on the day on which their independence should be 
acknowledged the greatness of England would be at an end. 
Though sinking under the weight of years and infirmities, he 
determined, in spite of the entreaties of his family, to be in his 
place. His son supported him to a seat. The excitement 
and exertion were too much for the old man. In the very act 
of addressing the peers, he fell back in convulsions. A few 
weeks later his corpse was borne, with gloomy pomp, from the 
Painted Chamber to the Abbey. The favourite child and name- 
sake of the deceased statesman followed the coffin as chief 
mourner, and saw it deposited in the transept where his own 
was destined to lie. His elder brother, now earl of Chatham, 
had means sufficient, and barely sufficient, to support the 
dignity of the peerage. The other members of the family were 
poorly provided for. William had little more than 300 a year. 
It was necessary for him to follow a profession. He had 
already begun to " eat his terms." In the spring of 1780 he came 
of age. He then quitted Cambridge, was called to the bar, 
took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and joined the western circuit. 
In the autumn of that year a general election took place; 
and he offered himself as a candidate for the university; but he 
was at the bottom of the poll. He was, however, at the request of 
an hereditary friend, the duke of Rutland, brought into parliament 
by Sir James Lowther for the borough of Appleby. 

The dangers of the country were at that time such as might 
well have disturbed even a constant mind. Army after army 
had been sent in vain against the rebellious colonists 
of North America. Meanwhile the house of Bourbon, 
humbled to the dust a few years before by the genius 
and vigour of Chatham, had seized the opportunity of revenge. 
France and Spain had united against England, and had recently 
been joined by Holland. The command of the Mediterranean 
had been for a time lost. The British flag had been scarcely 
able to maintain itself in the British Channel. The northern 
powers professed neutrality; but their neutrality had a menacing 
aspect. In the East, Hyder Ali had descended on the Carnatic, 
had destroyed the little army of Baillie, and had spread terror 
even to the ramparts of Fort St George. The discontents of 
Ireland threatened nothing less than civil war. In England 
the authority of Lord North'r government had sunk to the 






PITT, WILLIAM 



669 



lowest point. The king and the House of Commons were 
alike unpopular. The cry for parliamentary reform was scarcely 
less loud and vehement than afterwards in 1830. 

The Opposition consisted of two parties which had once been 
hostile to each other, but at this conjuncture seemed to act 
together with cordiality. The larger of these parties consisted 
of the great body of the Whig aristocracy, headed by Charles, 
marquess of Rockingham. In the House of Commons the adhe- 
rents of Rockingham were led by Fox, whose dissipated habits 
and ruined fortunes were the talk of the whole town, but whose 
commanding genius, and whose sweet, generous and affectionate 
disposition, extorted the admiration and love of those who 
most lamented the errors of his private life. Burke, superior 
to Fox in largeness of comprehension, in extent of knowledge, 
and in splendour of imagination, but less skilled in that kind of 
logic and in that kind of rhetoric which convince and persuade 
great assemblies, was willing to be the lieutenant of a young chief 
who might have been his son. A smaller section of the Opposi- 
tion was composed of the old followers of Chatham. At their 
head was William, earl of Shelburne, distinguished both as a 
statesman and as a lover of science and letters. With him were 
leagued Lord Camden, who had formerly held the Great Seal, and 
whose integrity, ability and constitutional knowledge com- 
manded the public respect; Barre, an eloquent and acrimonious 
declaimer; and Dunning, who had long held the first place at 
the English bar. It was to this party that Pitt was naturally 
attracted. 

On the z6th of February 1781 he made his first speech in 
favour of Burke's plan of economical reform. Fox stood up 
at the same moment, but instantly gave way. The lofty yet 
animated deportment of {he young member, his perfect self- 
possession, the readiness with which he replied to the orators 
who had preceded him, the silver tones of his voice, the perfect 
structure of his unpremeditated sentences, astonished and 
delighted his hearers. Burke, moved even to tears, exclaimed, 
" It is not a chip of the old block; it is the old block itself." 
" Pitt will be one of the first men in parliament," said a member 
of the Opposition to Fox. " He is so already," answered Fox, 
in whose nature envy had no place. Soon after this debate 
Pitt's name was put up by Fox at Brookes's Club. On two 
subsequent occasions during that session Pitt addressed the 
house, and on both fully sustained the reputation which he 
had acquired on his first appearance. In the summer, after the 
prorogation, he again went the western circuit, held several 
briefs, and acquitted himself in such a manner that he was highly 
complimented by Buller from the bench, and by Dunning at 
the bar. 

On the ayth of November the parliament reassembled. Only 
forty-eight hours before had arrived tidings of the surrender of 
Cornwallis and his army. In the debate on the report of the 
address Pitt spoke with even more energy and brilliancy than 
on any former occasion. He was warmly applauded by his allies; 
but it was remarked that no person on his own side of the 
house was so loud in eulogy as Henry Dundas, the lord advocate 
of Scotland, who spoke from the ministerial ranks. From that 
night dates his connexion with Pitt, a connexion which soon 
became a close intimacy, and which lasted till it was dissolved 
by death. About a fortnight later Pitt spoke in the committee 
of supply on the army estimates. Symptoms of dissension had 
begun to appear on the treasury bench. Lord George Germaine, 
the secretary of state who was especially charged with the direc- 
tion of the war in America, had held language not easily to be 
reconciled with declarations made by the first lord of the treasury. 
Pitt noticed the discrepancy with much force and keenness. 
Lord George and Lord North began to whisper together; and 
Welbore Ellis, an ancient placeman who had been drawing 
salary almost every quarter since the days of Henry Pelham, 
bent down between them to put in a word. Such interruptions 
sometimes discompose veteran speakers. Pitt stopped, and, 
looking at the group, said with admirable readiness, " I shall 
wait till Nestor has composed the dispute between Agamemnon 
and Achilles." After several defeats, or victories hardly to be 



distinguished from defeats, the ministry resigned. The king, 
reluctantly and ungraciously, consented to accept Rockingham 
as first minister. Fox and Shelburne became secretaries of 
state. Lord John Cavendisji, cne of the most upright and 
honourable of men, was made chancellor of the exchequer. 
Thurlow, 'whose abilities and force of character had made him 
the dictator of the House of Lords, continued to hold the Great 
Seal. To Pitt was offered, through Shelburne, the vice-treasurer- 
ship of Ireland, one of the easiest and most highly paid places 
in the gift of the Crown; but the offer was without hesitation 
declined. The young statesman had resolved to accept no post 
which did not entitle him to a seat in the cabinet; and a few 
days later (March 1782) he announced that resolution in the 
House of Commons. 

Pitt gave a general support to the administration of Rocking- 
ham, but omitted, in the meantime, no opportunity of courting 
that ultra-Whig party which the persecution of Wilkes and the 
Middlesex election had called into existence, and which the 
disastrous events of the war, and the triumph of republican 
principles in America, had made formidable both in numbers 
and in temper. He supported a motion for shortening the 
duration of parliaments. He made a motion for a committee 
to examine into the state of the representation, and, in the speech 
(May 7, 1782) by which that motion was introduced, avowed 
himself the enemy of the close boroughs, the strongholds of 
that corruption to which he attributed all the calamities of 
the nation, and which, as he phrased it in one of those exact and 
sonorous sentences of which he had a boundless command, had 
grown with the growth of England and strengthened with her 
strength, but had not diminished with her diminution or decayed 
with her decay. On this occasion he was supported by Fox. 
The motion was lost by only twenty votes in a house of more 
than three hundred members. The Reformers never again had 
so good a divison till the year 1831. 

The new administration was strong in abilities, and was more 
popular than any administration which had held office since 
the first year of George III., but was hated by the 
king, hesitatingly supported by the parliament, 
and torn by internal dissensions. It was all that 
Rockingham could do to keep the peace in his cabinet; and 
before the cabinet had existed three months Rockingham 
died. In an instant all was confusion. The adherents of 
the deceased statesman looked on the duke of Portland as 
their chief. The king placed Shelburne at the head of the 
treasury. Fox, Lord John Cavendish, and Burke immediately 
resigned their offices; and the new prime minister was left to 
constitute a government out of very defective materials. It 
was necessary to find some member of the House of Com- 
mons who could confront the great orators of the Opposition; 
and Pitt alone had the eloquence and the courage which were 
required. He was offered the great place of chancellor of the 
exchequer and he accepted it (July 1782). He had scarcely 
completed his twenty-third year. 

The parliament was speedily prorogued. During the recess 
a negotiation for peace which had been commenced under 
Rockingham was brought to a successful termination. England 
acknowledged the independence of her revolted colonies; and 
she ceded to her European enemies some places in the Mediter- 
ranean and in the Gulf of Mexico. But the terms which she 
obtained were quite as advantageous and honourable as the 
events of the war entitled her to expect, or as she was likely 
to obtain by persevering in a contest against immense odds. 
There is not the slightest reason to believe that Fox, if he had 
remained in office, would have hesitated one moment about 
concluding a treaty on such conditions. Unhappily Fox was, 
at this crisis, hurried by his passions into an error which made 
his genius and his virtues, during a long course of years, almost 
useless to his country. He saw that the great body of the House 
of Commons was divided into three parties his own, that of 
North, and that of Shelburne; that none of those three parties 
was large enough to stand alone; that, therefore, unless two of 
them united there must be a miserably feeble administration, 



PITT, WILLIAM 



or, more probably, a rapid succession of miserably feeble 
administrations, and this at a time when a strong government 
was essential to the prosperity and respectability of the nation. 
It was then necessary and right that there should be a coalition. 
To every possible coalition there were objections. But of all 
possible coalitions that to which there were the fewest objections 
was undoubtedly a coalition between Shelburne and Fox. It 
would have been generally applauded by the followers of both. 
It might have been made without any sacrifice of public principle 
on the part of either. Unhappily, recent bickerings had left 
in the mind of Fox a profound dislike and distrust of Shelburne. 
Pitt attempted to mediate, and was authorized to invite Fox 
to return to the service of the Crown. " Is Lord Shelburne," 
said Fox, " to remain prime minister ? " Pitt answered in 
the affirmative. " It is impossible that I can act under him," 
said Fox. "Then negotiation is at an end," said Pitt; "for 
I cannot betray him." Thus the two statesmen parted. They 
were never again in a private room together. As Fox and his 
friends would not treat with Shelburne, nothing remained to 
them but to treat with North. That fatal coalition which is 
emphatically called " The Coalition" was formed. Not three- 
quarters of a year had elapsed since Fox and Burke had threat- 
ened North with impeachment, and had described him night 
after night as the most arbitrary, the most corrupt, and the most 
incapable of ministers. They now allied themselves with him 
for the purpose of driving from office a statesman with whom 
they cannot be said to have differed as to any important question. 
Nor had they even the prudence and the patience to wait for 
some occasion on which they might, without inconsistency, 
have combined with their old enemies in opposition to the 
government. That nothing might be wanting to the scandal, 
the great orators who had, during seven years, thundered against 
the war determined to join with the authors of that war in 
passing a vote of censure on the peace. 

The parliament met before Christmas 1782. But it was not 
till January 1783 that the preliminary treaties were signed. 
On the 1 7th of February they were taken into consideration by 
the House of Commons. There had been, during some days, 
floating rumours that Fox and North had coalesced; and the 
debate indicated but too clearly that those rumours were not 
unfounded. Pitt was suffering from indisposition he did not 
rise till his own strength and that of his hearers were exhausted; 
and he was consequently less successful than on any former 
occasion. His admirers owned that his speech was feeble and 
petulant. He so far forgot himself as to advise Sheridan to 
confine himself to amusing theatrical audiences. This ignoble 
sarcasm gave Sheridan an opportunity of retorting with great 
felicity. " After what I have seen and heard to-night," he 
said, " I really feel strongly tempted to venture on a competition 
with so great an artist as Ben Jonson, and to bring on the stage 
a second Angry Boy. " On a division, the address proposed 
by the supporters of the government was rejected by a majority 
of sixteen. But Pitt was not a man to be disheartened by a 
single failure, or to be put down by the most lively repartee. 
When, a few days later, the Opposition proposed a resolution 
directly censuring the treaties, he spoke with an eloquence, 
energy and dignity which raised his fame and popularity higher 
than ever. To the coalition of Fox and North he alluded in 
language which drew forth tumultuous applause from his 
followers. " If," he said, " this ill-omened and unnatural 
marriage be not yet consummated, I know of a just and lawful 
impediment; and, in the name of the public weal, I forbid the 
banns." The ministers were again left in a minority, and 
Shelburne consequently tendered his resignation (March 31, 
1783). It was accepted; but the king struggled long and hard 
before he submitted to the terms dictated by Fox, whose faults 
he detested, and whose high spirit and powerful intellect he 
detested still more. The first place at the board of treasury 
was repeatedly offered to Pitt; but the offer, though tempting, 
was steadfastly declined. The king, bitterly complaining of 
Pitt's faintheartedness, tried to break the coalition. Every 
art of seduction was practised on North, but in vain. During 



several weeks the country remained without a government. 
It was not till all devices had failed, and till the aspect of the 
House of Commons became threatening, that the king gave 
way. The duke of Portland was declared first lord of the 
treasury. Thurlow was dismissed. Fox and North became 
secretaries of state, with power ostensibly equal. But Fox 
was the real prime minister. The year was far advanced before 
the new arrangements were completed; and nothing very 
important was done during the remainder of the session. Pitt, 
now seated on the Opposition Bench, brought the question of 
parliamentary reform a second time (May 7, 1783) under the 
consideration of the Commons. He proposed to add to the 
house at once a hundred county members and several members 
for metropolitan districts, and to enact that every borough of 
which an election committee should report that the majority 
of voters appeared to be corrupt should lose the franchise. The 
motion was rejected by 293 votes to 149. 

After the prorogation Pitt visited the Continent for the first 
and last time. His travelling companion was one of his most 
intimate, friends, William Wilberforce. That was the time of 
Anglomania in France; and at Paris the son of the great Chatham 
was absolutely hunted by men of letters and women of fashion, 
and forced, much against his will, into political disputation. 
One remarkable saying which dropped from him during this 
tour has been preserved. A French gentleman expressed some 
surprise at the immense influence which Fox, a man of pleasure, 
ruined by the dice-box and the turf, exercised over the English 
nation. " You have not," said Pitt, " been under the wand of 
the magician." 

In November 1783 the parliament met again. The govern- 
ment had irresistible strength in the House of Commons, and 
seemed to be scarcely less strong in the House of Lords, but 
was, in truth, surrounded on every side by dangers. The king 
was impatiently waiting for the moment at which he could 
emancipate himself from a yoke which galled him so severely 
that he had more than once seriously thought of retiring to 
Hanover; and the king was scarcely more eager for a change 
than the nation. Fox and North had committed a fatal error. 
They ought to have known that coalitions between parties 
which have long been hostile can succeed only when the wish 
for coalition pervades the lower ranks of both. At the beginning 
of 1783 North had been the recognized head of the old Tory 
party, which, though for a moment prostrated by the disastrous 
issue of the American war, was still a great power in the state. 
Fox had, on the other hand, been the idol of the Whigs, and of 
the whole body of Protestant dissenters. The coalition at once 
alienated the most zealous Tories from North and the most 
zealous Whigs from Fox. Two great multitudes were at once 
left without any head, and both at once turned their eyes on Pitt. 
One party saw in him the only man who could rescue the king; 
the other saw in him the only man who could purify the parlia- 
ment. He was supported on one side by Archbishop Markham, 
the preacher of divine right, and by Jenkinson, the captain of 
the praetorian band of the king's friends; on the other side by 
Jebb and Priestley, Sawbridge and Cartwright, Jack Wilkes and 
Home Tooke. On the benches of the House of Commons, 
however, the ranks of the ministerial majority were unbroken; 
and that any statesman would venture to brave such a majority 
'was thought impossible. No prince of the Hanoverian line 
had ever, under any provocation, ventured to appeal from the 
representative body to the constituent body. The ministers, 
therefore, notwithstanding the sullen looks and muttered words 
of displeasure with which their suggestions were received in 
the closet, notwithstanding the roar of obloquy which was 
rising louder and louder every day from every corner of the island, 
thought themselves secure. Such was their confidence in their 
strength that, as soon as the parliament had met, they brought 
forward a singularly bold and original plan for the government 
of the British territories in India. What was proposed in Fox's 
India bill was that the whole authority which till that time had 
been exercised over those territories by the East India Company 
should be transferred lo seven commissioners, who were to be 



PITT, WILLIAM 



671 



named by parliament, and were not to be removable at the 
pleasure of the Crown. Earl Fitzwilliam, the most intimate 
personal friend of Fox, was to be chairman of this board, and the 
eldest son of North was to be one of the members. 

As soon as the outlines of the scheme were known all the 
hatred which the coalition had excited burst forth with an 
Fex , sladla astounding explosion. Burke, who, whether right 
B/// _ or wrong in the conclusions to which he came, had 

at least the merit of looking at the subject in the 
right point of view, vainly reminded his hearers of that 
mighty population whose daily rice might depend on a 
vote of the British parliament. He spoke with even more 
than his wonted power of thought and language, about the 
desolation of Rohilcund, about the spoliation of Benares, about 
the evil policy which had suffered the tanks of the Carnatic to go 
to ruin ; but he could scarcely obtain a hearing. The contending 
parties, to their shame it must be said, would listen to none but 
English topics. Out of doors the cry against the ministry was 
almost universal. Town and country were united. Corpora- 
tions exclaimed against the violation of the charter of the 
greatest corporation in the realm. Tories and democrats 
joined in pronouncing the proposed board an unconstitutional 
body. It was to consist of Fox's nominees. The effect of his 
bill was to give, not to the Crown, but to him personally,. whether 
in office or in opposition, an enormous power, a patronage 
sufficient to counterbalance the patronage of the treasury and 
of the admiralty, and to decide the elections for fifty boroughs. 
He knew, it was said, that he was hateful alike to king and 
people; and he had devised a plan which would make him 
independent of both. Some nicknamed him Cromwell, and 
some Carlo Khan. Wilberforce, with his usual felicity of 
expression, and with very unusual bitterness of feeling, described 
the scheme as the genuine offspring of the coalition, as marked 
with the features of both its parents, the corruption of one and 
the violence of the other. In spite of all opposition, however, 
the bill was supported in every stage by great majorities, was 
rapidly passed, and was sent up to the Lords. To the general 
astonishment, when the second reading was moved in the 
upper house, the Opposition proposed an adjournment, and 
carried it by eighty-seven votes to seventy-nine. The cause of 
this strange turn of fortune was soon known. Pitt's cousin 
Earl Temple, had been in the royal closet, and had there been 
authorized to let it be known that his majesty would consider 
all who voted for the bill as his enemies. The ignominious 
commission was performed, and instantly a troop of lords of 
the bedchamber, of bishops who wished to be translated, and 
Prime of Scotch peers who wished to be re-elected, made 
Minister haste to change sides. On a later day the Lords 
rejected the bill. Fox and North were immediately 
directed to send their seals to the palace by their under-secre- 
taries; and Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer (December 1783). 

The general opinion was that there would be an immediate 
dissolution. But Pitt wisely determined to give the public 
feeling time to gather strength. On this point he differed from 
his kinsman Temple. The consequence was that Temple, who 
had been appointed one of the secretaries of state, resigned his 
office forty-eight hours after he had accepted it, and thus relieved 
the new government from a great load of unpopularity; for all 
men of sense and honour, however strong might be their dislike 
of the India Bill, disapproved of the manner in which that bill 
had been thrown out. The fame of the young prime minister 
preserved its whiteness. He could declare with perfect truth 
that, if unconstitutional machinations had been employed, he 
had been no party to them. 

He was, however, surrounded by difficulties and dangers. 
In the House of Lords, indeed, he had a majority; nor could any 
orator of the Opposition in that assembly be considered as a 
match for Thurlow,who was now again chancellor, or for Camden, 
who cordially supported the son of his old friend Chatham. 
But in the other house there was not a single eminent speaker 
among the official men who sat round Pitt. His most useful 



assistant was Dundas, who, though he had not eloquence, had 
sense, knowledge, readiness and boldness. On the opposite 
benches was a powerful majority, led by Fox, who was supported 
by Burke, North and Sheridan. The heart of the young minis- 
ter, stout as it was, almost died within him. But, whatever 
his internal emotions might be, his language and deportment 
indicated nothing but unconquerable firmness and haughty 
confidence in his own powers. His contest against the House 
of Commons lasted from the i7th of December 1783 to the 8th 
of March 1784. In sixteen divisions the Opposition triumphed. 
Again and again the king was requested to dismiss his ministers; 
but he was determined to go to Germany rather than yield. 
Pitt's resolution never wavered. The cry of the nation in his 
favour became vehement and almost furious. Addresses 
assuring him of public support came up daily from every part of 
the kingdom. The freedom of the city of London was presented 
to him in a gold box. He was sumptuously feasted in Grocers' 
Hall; and the shopkeepers of the Strand and Fleet Street 
illuminated their houses in his honour. These things could not 
but produce an effect within the walls of parliament. The 
ranks of the majority began to waver; a few passed over to the 
enemy; some skulked away; many were for capitulating while 
it was still possible to capitulate with the honours of war. 
Negotiations were opened with the view of forming an adminis- 
tration on a wide basis, but they had scarcely been opened when 
they were closed. The Opposition demanded, as a preliminary 
article of the treaty, that Pitt should resign the treasury; and 
with this demand Pitt steadfastly refused to comply. While 
the contest was raging, the clerkship of the Pells, a sinecure place 
for life, worth three thousand a year, and tenable with a seat 
in the House of Commons, became vacant. The appointment 
was with the chancellor of the exchequer; nobody doubted that 
he would appoint himself, and nobody could have blamed him 
if he had done so; for such sinecure offices had always been 
defended on the ground that they enabled a few men of eminent 
abilities and small incomes to live without any profession, and 
to devote themselves to the service of the state. Pitt, in spite 
of the remonstrances of his friends, gave the Pells to his father's 
old adherent, Colonel Barre, a man distinguished by talent and 
eloquence, but poor and afflicted with blindness. By this 
arrangement a pension which the Rockingham administration 
had granted to Barre was saved to the public. Pitt had his 
reward. No minister was ever more rancorously libelled; but 
even when he was known to be overwhelmed with debt, when 
millions were passing through his hands, when the wealthiest 
magnates of the realm were soliciting him for marquisates and 
garters, his bitterest enemies did not dare to accuse him of 
touching unlawful gain. 

At length the hard-fought fight ended. A final remon- 
strance, drawn up by Burke with admirable skill, was carried 
on the 8th of March by a single vote in a full house. The 
supplies had been voted; the Mutiny Bill had been passed; 
and the parliament was dissolved. The popular constituent 
bodies all over the country were in general enthusiastic on the 
side of the new government. A hundred and sixty of the 
supporters of the coalition lost their seats. The first lord of the 
treasury himself came in at the head of the poll for the university 
of Cambridge. Wilberforce was elected knight of the great 
shire of York, in opposition to the whole influence of the Fitz- 
williams, Cavendishes, Dundases and Saviles. In the midst 
of such triumphs Pitt completed his twenty-fifth year. He 
was now the greatest subject that England had seen during 
many generations. He domineered absolutely over the cabinet, 
and was the favourite at once of the sovereign, of the parliament 
and of the nation. His father had never been so powerful, nor 
Walpole, nor Marlborough. 

Pitt's first administration (1784-1801) lasted seventeen years. 
That long period is divided by a strongly marked line into 
two almost exactly equal parts. The first part put's First 
ended and the second began in the autumn of 1792. Admiois- 
Throughout both parts Pitt displayed in the highest tratloa - 
degree the talents of a parliamentary leader. During the first 



672 



PITT, WILLIAM 



part he was fortunate and in many respects a skilful adminis- 
trator. With the difficulties which he had to encounter during 
the second part he was altogether incapable of contending; 
but his eloquence and his perfect mastery of the tactics of the 
House of Commons concealed his incapacity from the multitude. 

The eight years which followed the general election of 1784 
were as tranquil and prosperous as any eight years in the whole 
history of England. Her trade increased. Her manufactures 
flourished. Her exchequer was full to overflowing. Very idle 
apprehensions were generally entertained that the public debt, 
though much less than a third of the debt which we now bear 
with ease, would be found too heavy for the strength of the 
nation. But Pitt succeeded in persuading first himself and then 
the whole nation, his opponents included, that a new sinking 
fund, which, so far as it differed from former sinking funds, 
differed for the worse, would, by virtue of some mysterious 
power of propagation belonging to money, put into the pocket 
of the public creditor great sums not taken out of the pocket 
of the tax-payer. The minister was almost universally extolled 
as the greatest of financiers. Meanwhile both the branches 
of the house of Bourbon found that England was as formidable 
an antagonist as she had ever been. France had formed a plan 
for reducing Holland to vassalage. But England interposed, 
and France receded. Spain interrupted by violence the trade 
of the English merchants with the regions near the Oregon. 
But England armed, and Spain receded. Within the island 
there was profound tranquillity. The king was, for the first 
time, popular. From the day on which Pitt was placed at the 
head of affairs there was an end of secret influence. Any 
attempt to undermine him at court, any mutinous movement 
among his followers in the House of Commons, was certain to 
be at once put down. He had only to tender his resignation 
and he could dictate his own terms. For he, and he alone, 
stood between the king and the coalition. The nation loudly 
applauded the king for having the wisdom to repose entire 
confidence in so excellent a minister. His people heartily 
prayed that he might long reign over them; and they prayed 
the more heartily because his virtues were set off to the best 
advantage by the vices and follies of the prince of Wales, who 
lived in close intimacy with the chiefs of the Opposition. 

How strong this feeling was in the public mind appeared 
signally on one great occasion. In the autumn of 1788 the king 
The became insane. The Opposition, eager for office, 

Regency, committed the great indiscretion of asserting that 
1788. th e h e i r apparent had, by the fundamental laws of 

England, a right to be regent with the full powers of royalty. 
Pitt, on the other hand, maintained it to be the constitutional 
doctrine that when a sovereign is, by reason of infancy, disease 
or absence, incapable of exercising the regal funcions, it belongs 
to the estates of the realm to determine who shall be the vice- 
gerent, and with what portion of the executive authority such 
vicegerent shall be entrusted. A long and violent contest 
followed, in which Pitt was supported by the great body of the 
people with as much enthusiasm as during the first months 
of his administration. Tories with one voice applauded him 
for defending the sick-bed of a virtuous and unhappy sovereign 
against a disloyal faction and an undutiful son. Not a few 
Whigs applauded him for asserting the authority of parliaments 
and the principles of the Revolution, in opposition to a doctrine 
which seemed to have too much affinity with the servile theory 
of indefeasible hereditary right. The middle class, always 
zealous on the side of decency and the domestic virtues, looked 
forward with dismay to a reign resembling that of Charles II. 
That the prince of Wales must be regent nobody ventured to 
deny. But he and his friends were so unpopular that Pitt could, 
with general approbation, propose to limit the powers of the 
regent by restrictions to which it would have been impossible 
to subject a prince beloved and trusted by the country. Some 
interested men, fully expecting a change of administration, 
went over to the Opposition. But the majority, purified by 
these desertions, closed its ranks, and presented a more firm 
array than ever to the enemy. In every division Pitt was 



victorious. When at length, after a stormy interregnum of 
three months, it was announced, on the very eve of the inaugura- 
tion of the regent, that the king was himself again, the nation 
was wild with delight. Pitt with difficulty escaped from the 
tumultuous kindness of an innumerable multitude which insisted 
on drawing his coach from St Paul's Churchyard to Downing 
Street. This was the moment at which his fame and fortune 
may be said to have reached the zenith. His influence in the 
closet was as great as that of Carr or Villiers had been. His 
dominion over the parliament was more absolute than that of 
Walpole or Pelham had been. He was at the same time as 
high in the favour of the populace as ever Wilkes or Sacheverell 
had been. But now the tide was on the turn. Only ten days 
after the triumphant procession to St Paul's, the states- 
general of France, after an interval of a hundred and seventy- 
four years, met at Versailles. 

The nature of the great Revolution which followed was long 
very imperfectly understood in England. Burke saw much 
further than any of his contemporaries; but what- 
ever his sagacity descried was refracted and dis- 
coloured by his passions and his imagination. More 
than three years elapsed before the principles of the English 
administration underwent any material change. Nothing 
could as yet be milder or more strictly constitutional than the 
minister's domestic policy. Not a single act indicating an 
arbitrary temper or a jealousy of the people could be imputed to 
him. In office, Pitt had redeemed the pledges which he had, 
at his entrance into public life, given to the supporters of parlia- 
mentary reform. He had, in 1785, brought forward a judicious 
plan for the representative system, and had prevailed on the 
king, not only to refrain from talking against that plan, but to 
recommend it to the houses in a speech from the throne. 1 This 
attempt failed; but there can be little doubt that, if the French 
Revolution had not produced a violent reaction of public feeling, 
Pitt would have performed, with little difficulty and no danger, 
that great work which, at a later period, Lord Grey could accom- 
plish only by means which for a time loosened the very founda- 
tions of the commonwealth. When the atrocities of the slave 
trade were first brought under the consideration of parliament 
no abolitionist was more zealous than Pitt. A humane bill, 
which mitigated the horrors of the middle passage, was, in 1788, 
carried by the eloquence and determined spirit of Pitt, in spite 
of the opposition of some of his own colleagues. In 1791 he 
cordially concurred with Fox in maintaining the sound constitu- 
tional doctrine that an impeachment is not terminated by a 
dissolution. In the course of the same year the two great 
rivals contended side by side in a far more important cause. 
They are fairly entitled to divide the high honour of having 
added to the statute-book the inestimable law which places 
the liberty of the press under the protection of juries. On one 
occasion, and one alone, Pitt, during the first half of his long 
administration, acted in a manner unworthy of an enlightened 
Whig. In the debate on the Test Act he stooped to gratify 
the master whom he served, the university which he represented, 
and the great body of clergymen and country gentlemen on 
whose support he rested, by talking, with little heartiness 
indeed, and with no asperity, the language of a Tory. With 
this single exception, his conduct from the end of 1783 to the 
middle of 1792 was that of an honest friend of civil and religious 
liberty. 

Nor did anything, during that period, indicate that he loved 
war, or harboured any malevolent feeling against any neighbour- 
ing nation. Those French writers who have represented him 
as a Hannibal sworn in childhood by his father to bear eternal 
hatred to France, as having, by mysterious intrigues and lavish 
bribes, instigated the leading Jacobins to commit those excesses 
which dishonoured the Revolution, as having been the real 

l The speech with which the king opened the session of 1785 
concluded with an assurance that his majesty would heartily con- 
cur in every measure which could tend to secure the true principles 
of the constitution. These words were at the time understood to 
refer to Pitt's Reform Bill. 



PITT, WILLIAM 



673 



author of the first coalition, know nothing of his character or 
of his history. So far was he from being a deadly enemy to France 
that his laudable attempts to bring about a closer connexion 
with that country by means of a wise and liberal treaty of 
commerce brought on him the severe censure of the Opposition. 
He was told in the House of Commons that he was a degenerate 
son, and that his partiality for the hereditary foes of our island 
was enough to make his great father's bones stir under the 
pavement of the Abbey. 

And this man, whose name, if he had been, so fortunate as to 
die in 1792, would have been associated with peace, with free- 
dom, with philanthropy, with temperate reform, with mild and 
constitutional administration, lived to associate his name with 
arbitrary government, with harsh laws harshly executed, with 
alien bills, with gagging bills, with suspensions of the Habeas 
Corpus Act, with cruel punishments inflicted on some political 
agitators, with unjustifiable prosecutions instigated against 
others and with the most costly and most sanguinary wars of 
modern times. He lived to be held up to obloquy as the stern 
oppressor of England and the indefatigable disturber of Europe. 
Poets, contrasting his earlier with his later years, likened him 
sometimes to the apostle who kissed in order to betray, and 
sometimes to the evil angels who kept not their first estate. 
By the French press and the French tribune every crime that 
disgraced and every calamity that afflicted France was ascribed 
to the monster Pitt and his guineas. While the Jacobins were 
dominant it was he who had corrupted the Gironde, who had 
raised Lyons and Bordeaux against the Convention, who had 
suborned Paris to assassinate Lepelletier, and Cecilia Regnault 
to assassinate Robespierre. When the Thermidorian reaction 
came, all the atrocities of the Reign of Terror were imputed to 
him. Collot D'Herbois and Fouquier Tinville had been his 
pensioners. It was he who had hired the murderers of September, 
who had dictated the pamphlets of Marat and the carmagnoles 
of Barere, who had paid Lebon to deluge Arras with blood and 
Carrier to choke the Loire with corpses. The truth is that he 
liked neither war nor arbitrary government. He was a lover 
of peace and freedom, driven, by a stress against which it was 
hardly possible for any will or any intellect to struggle, out of 
the course to which his inclinations pointed, and for which his 
abilities and acquirements fitted him, and forced into a policy 
repugnant to his feelings and unsuited to his talents. 

Between the spring of 1789 and the close of 1792 the public 
mind of England underwent a great change. If the change of 
Pitt's sentiments attracted peculiar notice, it was not because 
he changed more than his neighbours, for in fact he changed 
less than most of them, but because his position was far more 
conspicuous than theirs, because he was, till Bonaparte appeared, 
the individual who filled the greatest space in the eyes of the 
inhabitants of the civilized world. During a short time the 
nation, and Pitt as one of the nation, looked with interest and 
approbation on the French Revolution. But soon vast confisca- 
tions, the violent sweeping away of ancient institutions, the 
domination of clubs, the barbarities of mobs maddened by 
famine and hatred, produced a reaction. The court, the nobility, 
the gentry, the clergy, the manufacturers, the merchants, in 
short nineteen-twentieths of those who had good roofs over their 
heads and good coats on their backs, became eager intolerant 
Antijacobins. This feeling was at least as strong among the 
minister's adversaries as among his supporters. Fox in vain 
attempted to restrain his followers. All his genius, all his vast 
personal influence, could not prevent them from rising up against 
him in general mutiny. Burke set the example of revolt; 
and Burke was in no long time joined by Portland, Spencer, 
Fitzwilliam, Loughborough, Carlisle, Malmesbury, Windham, 
Elliot. In the House of Commons the followers of the great 
Whig statesman and orator diminished from about a hundred 
and sixty to fifty. In the House of Lords he had but ten or 
twelve adherents left. There can be no doubt that there would 
have been a similar mutiny on the ministerial benches if Pitt, 
had obstinately resisted the general wish. Pressed at once by 
his master and by his colleagues, by old friends and by old 

XXI. 22 



opponents, he abandoned, slowly and reluctantly, the policy 
which was dear to his heart. He laboured hard to avert the 
European war. When the European war broke out he still 
flattered himself that it would not be necessary for this country 
to take either side. In the spring of 1792 he congratulated 
the parliament on the prospect of long and profound peace, and 
proved his sincerity by proposing large remissions of taxation. 
Down to the end of that year he continued to cherish the hope 
that England might be able to preserve neutrality. But the 
passions which raged on both sides of the Channel were not to 
be restrained. The republicans who ruled France were inflamed 
by a fanaticism resembling that of the Mussulmans, who, with 
the Koran in one hand and the sword in the other, went forth 
conquering and converting, eastward to the Bay of Bengal, and 
westward to the Pillars of Hercules. The higher and middle 
classes of England were animated by zeal not less fiery than that 
of the crusaders who raised the cry of Deus -null at Clermont. 
The impulse which drove the two nations to a collision was not 
to be arrested by the abilities or by the authority of any single 
man. As Pitt was in front of his fellows, and towered high 
above them, he seemed to lead them. But in fact he was 
violently pushed on by them, and, had he held back but a 
little more than he did, would have been thrust out of their 
way or trampled under their feet. 

He yielded to the current; and from that day his misfortunes 
began. The truth is that there were only two consistent courses 
before him. Since he did not choose to oppose 
himself, side by side with Fox, to the public feeling, 
he should have taken the advice of Burke, and should 
have availed himself of that feeling to the full extent. If it 
was impossible to preserve peace, he should have adopted the 
only policy which should lead to victory. He should have 
proclaimed a holy war for religion, morality, property, order, 
public law, and should have thus opposed to the Jacobins an 
energy equal to their own. , Unhappily he tried to find a middle 
path; and he found one which united all that was worst in both 
extremes. He went to war; but he could not understand the 
peculiar character of that war. He was obstinately blind to the 
plain fact that he was contending against a state which was also 
a sect, and that a new quarrel between England and France 
was of quite a different kind from the old quarrels about colonies 
in America and fortresses in the Netherlands. It was pitiable 
to hear him, year after year, proving to an admiring audience 
that the wicked republic was exhausted, that she could not hold 
out, that her credit was gone, that her assignats were not worth 
more than the paper of which they were made as if credit was 
necessary to a government of which the principle was rapine, 
as if Alboin could not turn Italy into a desert till he had 
negotiated a loan at 5%, as if the exchequer bills of Attila 
had been at par. It was impossible that a man who so com- 
pletely mistook the nature of a contest could carry on that 
contest successfully. Great as Pitt's abilities were, his military 
administration was that of a driveller. In such an emergency, 
and with such means, such a statesman as Richelieu, as Louvois, 
as Chatham, as Wellesley, would have created in a few months 
one of the finest armies in the world, and would soon have 
discovered and brought forward generals worthy to command 
such an army. Germany might have been saved by another 
Blenheim; Flanders recovered by another Ramillies; another 
Poitiers might have delivered the Royalist and Catholic pro- 
vinces of France from a yoke which they abhorred, and might 
have spread terror even to the barriers of Paris. But the fact 
is that, after eight years of war, after a vast destruction of life, 
after an expenditure of wealth far exceeding the expenditure 
of the American War, of the Seven Years' War, of the War of 
the Austrian Succession and of the War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion united, the English army under Pitt was the laughing-stock 
of all Europe. It could not boast of one single brilliant exploit. 
It had never shown itself on the Continent but to be beaten, 
chased, forced to re-embark or forced to capitulate. To take 
some sugar island in the West Indies, to scatter some mob of 
half-naked Irish peasants such were the most splendid victories 



674 



PITT, WILLIAM 



won by the British troops under Pitt's auspices. The English 
navy no mismanagement could ruin. But during a long period 
whatever mismanagement could do was done. The earl of 
Chatham, without a single qualification for high public trust, 
was made, by fraternal partiality, first lord of the admiralty, 
and was kept in that great post during two years of a war in 
which the very existence of the state depended on the efficiency 
of the fleet. Fortunately he was succeeded by George, Earl 
Spencer, one of those chiefs of the Whig party who, in the great 
schism caused by the French Revolution, had followed Burke. 
Lord Spencer, though inferior to many of his colleagues as an 
orator, was decidedly the best administrator among them. 
To him it was owing that a long and gloomy succession of 
days of fasting, and most emphatically of humiliation, was inter- 
rupted, twice in the short space of eleven months, by days of 
thanksgiving for great victories. 

It may seem paradoxical to say that the incapacity which Pitt 
showed in all that related to the conduct of the war is, in some 
sense, the most decisive proof that he was a man of very extra- 
ordinary abilities. Yet this is the simple truth. While his 
schemes were confounded, while his predictions were falsified, 
while the coalitions which he had laboured to form were falling 
to pieces, while the expeditions which he had sent forth at 
enormous cost were ending in rout and disgrace, while the enemy 
against whom he was feebly contending was subjugating 
Flanders and Brabant, the electorate of Mainz and the 
electorate of Treves, Holland, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy, 
his authority over the House of Commons was constantly 
becoming more and more absolute. There was his empire. 
There were his victories his Lodi and his Arcola, his Rivoli 
and his Marengo. Of the great party which had contended 
against him during the first eight years of his administration 
more than one-half now marched under his standard, with his 
old competitor the duke of Portland at their head; and the 
rest had, after many vain struggles, quitted the field in despair. 
Session followed session with scarcely a single division. In the 
eventful year 1799 the largest minority that could be mustered 
against the government was twenty-five. 

In Pitt's domestic policy there was at this time assuredly no 
want of vigour. While he offered to French Jacobinism a 
resistance so feeble that it only encouraged the 
Policy.' ev ^ which he wished to suppress, he put down English 
Jacobinism with a strong hand. The Habeas 
Corpus Act was repeatedly suspended. Public meetings were 
placed under severe restraints. The government obtained 
from parliament power to send out of the country aliens who 
were suspected of evil designs; and that power was not suffered 
to be idle. Writers who propounded doctrines adverse to 
monarchy and aristocracy were proscribed and punished with- 
out mercy. The old laws of Scotland against sedition, laws 
which were considered by Englishmen as barbarous, and which 
a succession of governments had suffered to rust, were now 
furbished up and sharpened anew. Men of cultivated minds 
and polished manners were, for offences which at Westminster 
would have been treated as mere misdemeanours, sent to herd 
with felons at Botany Bay. Some reformers, whose opinions 
were extravagant, and whose language was intemperate, but 
who had never dreamed of subverting the government by 
physical force, were indicted for high treason, and were saved 
from the gallows only by the righteous verdicts of juries. 

One part only of Pitt's conduct during the last eight years of 
the 1 8th century deserves high praise. He was the first English 
Irish minister who formed great designs for the benefit of 

Policy. Ireland. Had he been able to do all that he wished, 
it is probable that a wise and liberal policy would 
have averted the rebellion of 1798. But the difficulties which 
he encountered were great, perhaps insurmountable; and the 
Roman Catholics were, rather by his misfortune than by his 
fault, thrown into the hands of Jacobins. There was a third 
great rising of the Irishry against the Englishry, a rising not less 
formidable than the risings of 1641 and 1689. The Englishry 
remained victorious; and it was necessary for Pitt, as it had been 



necessary for Oliver Cromwell and William of Orange before him, 
to consider how the victory should be used. He determined to 
make Ireland one kingdom with England, and, at the same time, 
to relieve the Roman Catholic laity from civil disabilities, and 
to grant a public maintenance to the Roman Catholic clergy. 
Had he been able to carry these noble designs into effect the 
union would have been a union indeed. But Pitt could execute 
only one-half of what he had projected. He succeeded in obtain- 
ing the consent of the parliaments of both kingdoms to the 
union; but that reconciliation of races and sects without which 
the union could exist only in name was not accomplished. 
The king imagined that his coronation oath bound him to 
refuse his assent to any bill for relieving Roman Catholics from 
civil disabilities. Dundas tried to explain the matter, but was 
told to keep his Scotch metaphysics to himself. Pitt and Pitt's 
ablest colleagues resigned their offices (March 14, 1801). 

It was necessary that the king should make a new arrangement. 
But by this time his anger and distress had brought back the 
malady which had, many years before, incapacitated him for 
the discharge of his functions. He actually assembled his 
family, read the coronation oath to them, and told them that, 
if he broke it, the crown would immediately pass to the house 
of Savoy. It was not until after an interregnum of several 
weeks that he regained the full use of his small faculties, and that 
a ministry after his own heart was at length formed. In an 
age pre-eminently fruitful of parliamentary talents, a cabinet 
was formed containing hardly a single man who in parliamentary 
talents could be considered as even of the second rate. Henry 
Addington was at the head of the treasury. He had been an 
early, indeed an hereditary friend of Pitt, and had Addingtoa 
by Pitt's influence been placed, while still a young Ministry, 
man, in the chair of the House of Commons. He I8 i-i804. 
was universally admitted to have been the best Speaker 
that had sat in that chair since the retirement of Onslow. 
But nature had not bestowed on him very vigorous faculties; 
and the highly respectable situation which he long occupied 
with honour had rather unfitted than fitted him for the dis- 
charge of his new duties. Nevertheless, during many months, 
his power seemed to stand firm. The nation was put into 
high good humour by a peace with France. The enthusiasm 
with which the upper and middle classes had rushed into the 
war had spent itself. Jacobinism was no longer formidable. 
Everywhere there was a strong reaction against what was 
called the atheistical and anarchical philosophy of the i8th 
century. Bonaparte, now first consul, was busied in construct- 
ing out of the ruins of old institutions a new ecclesiastical 
establishment and a new order of knighthood. The treaty of 
Amiens was therefore hailed by the great body of the English 
people with extravagant joy. The popularity of the minister 
was for the moment immense. His want of parliamentary 
ability was, as yet, of little consequence; for he had scarcely 
any adversary to encounter. The old Opposition, delighted by 
the peace, regarded him with favour. A new Opposition had 
indeed been formed by some of the late ministers, and was 
led by Grenville in the House of Lords and by Windham in the 
House of Commons. But the new Opposition could scarcely 
muster ten votes, and was regarded with no favour by the 
country. 

On Pitt the ministers relied as on their firmest support. 
He had not, like some of his colleagues, retired in anger. He 
had expressed the greatest respect for the conscientious scruple 
which had taken possession of the royal mind; and he had 
promised his successors all the help in his power. But it was 
hardly possible that this union should be durable. Pitt, 
conscious of superior powers, imagined that the place which he 
had quitted was now occupied by a mere puppet which he had 
set up, which he was to govern while he suffered it to remain, 
and which he was to fling aside as soon as he wished to resume 
his old position. Nor was it long before he began to pine for 
the power which he had relinquished. Addington, on the 
other hand, was by no means inclined to descend from his high 
position. He took his elevation quite seriously, attributed it 



PITT, WILLIAM 



675 



to his own merit, and considered himself as one of the great 
triumvirate of English statesmen, as worthy to make a third 
with Pitt and Fox. Meanwhile Pitt's .most intimate friends 
exerted themselves to effect a change of ministry. His favourite 
disciple, George Canning, was indefatigable. He spoke; he 
wrote; be intrigued; he tried to induce a large number of the 
supporters of the government to sign a round robin desiring a 
change; he made game of Addington and of Addington's rela- 
tions in a succession of lively pasquinades. The minister's 
partisans retorted with equal acrimony, if not with equal vivacity. 
Pitt could keep out of the affray only by keeping out of politics 
altogether; and this it soon became impossible for him to do. 
The treaty of Amiens had scarcely been sigred when the restless 
ambition and the insupportable insolence of the First Consul 
convinced the great body of the English people that the peace 
so eagerly welcomed was only a precarious armistice. As it 
became clearer and clearer that a war for the dignity, the inde- 
pendence, the very existence of the nation was at hand, men 
looked with increasing uneasiness on the weak and languid 
cabinet which would have to contend against an enemy who 
united more than the power of Louis the Great to more than 
the genius of Frederick the Great. They imagined that Pitt was 
the only statesman who could cope with Bonaparte. This 
feeling was nowhere stronger than among Addington's own 
colleagues. The pressure put on him was so strong that he 
could not help yielding to it. His first proposition was that 
some insignificant nobleman should be first lord of the treasury 
and nominal head of the administration, and that the real power 
should be divided between Pitt and himself, who were to be 
secretaries of state. Pitt, as might have been expected, refused 
even to discuss such a scheme, and talked of it with bitter mirth. 
" Which secretaryship was offered to you?" his friend Wilber- 
force asked. " Really," said Pitt, " I had not the curiosity 
to inquire." Addington was frightened into bidding higher. 
He offered to resign the treasury to Pitt on condition that there 
should be no extensive change in the government. But Pitt 
would listen to no such terms. Then came a dispute such as 
often arises after negotiations orally conducted, even when the 
negotiators are men of strict honour. Pitt gave one account 
of what had passed; Addington gave another; and, though 
the discrepancies were not such as necessarily implied any 
intentional violation of truth on either side, both were greatly 
exasperated. 

Meanwhile the quarrel with the First Consul had to come to 
a crisis. On the i6th of May 1803 the king sent a message 
calling on the House of Commons to support him in withstanding 
the ambitious and encroaching 'policy of France; and on the 
22nd the house took the message into consideration. 

Pitt had now been living many months in retirement. There 
had been a general election since he had spoken in parliament, 
and there were two hundred members who had never heard him. 
It was known that on this occasion he would be in his place, and 
curiosity was wound up to the highest point. Unfortunately, 
the shorthand writers were, in consequence of some mistake, 
shut out on that day from the gallery, so that the newspapers 
contained only a very meagre report of the proceedings. But 
several accounts of what passed are extant ; and of those accounts 
the most interesting is contained in an unpublished letter 
written by a very young member, John William Ward, after- 
wards earl of Dudley. When Pitt rose he was received with 
loud cheering. At every pause in his speech there was a burst 
of applause. The peroration is said to have been one of the 
most animated and magnificent ever heard in parliament. 
" Pitt's speech," Fox wrote a few days later, " was admired 
very much, and very justly. I think it was the best he 
ever made in that style." The debate was adjourned; and 
on the second night Fox replied to it in an oration which, 
as the most zealous Pittites were forced to acknowledge, 
left the palm of eloquence doubtful. Addington made a 
pitiable appearance between the two great rivals; and it 
was observed that Pitt, while exhorting the Commons to stand 
resolutely by the executive government against France, said 



not a word indicating esteem or friendship for the prime 
minister. 

War was speedily declared. The First Consul threatened to 
invade England at the head of the conquerors of Belgium and 
Italy, and formed a great camp near the Straits of Dover. On 
the other side of those straits the whole British population 
was ready to rise up as one man in defence of the soil. In the 
spring of 1804 it became evident that the weakest of ministries 
would have to defend itself against the strongest of Oppositions, 
an Opposition made up of three Oppositions, each of which would, 
separately, have been formidable from ability, and which, 
when united, were also formidable from number. It was 
necessary to give way; the ministry was dissolved, and the 
task of performing a government was entrusted (May 1804)' 
to Pitt. Pitt was of opinion that there was now an opportunity, 
such as had never before offered itself, and such as might never 
offer itself again, of uniting in the public service, on honourable 
terms, all the eminent talents of the kingdom, Ha , g 
The treasury he reserved for himself; and to Fox Second 
he proposed to assign a share of power little inferior Admlal*tra- 
to his own. The plan was excellent; but the king a "' 
would not hear of it. Dull, obstinate, unforgiving, and at that 
time half mad, he positively refused to admit Fox into his 
service. In an evil hour Pitt yielded. All that was left was 
to construct a government out of the wreck of Addington's 
feeble administration. The small circle of Pitt's personal 
retainers furnished him with a very few useful assistants, 
particularly Dundas (who had been created Viscount Melville), 
Lord Harrowby and Canning. 

Such was the inauspicious manner in which Pitt entered on 
his second administration (May 12, 1804). The whole history 
of that administration was of a piece with the commencement. 
Almost every month brought some new disaster or disgrace. 
To the war with France was soon added a war with Spain. 
The opponents of the ministry were numerous, able and active. 
His most useful coadjutors he soon lost. Sickness deprived 
him of the help of Lord Harrowby. It was discovered that 
Lord Melville had been guilty of highly culpable laxity in trans- 
actions relating to public money. He was censured by the 
House of Commons, driven from office, ejected from the privy 
council and impeached of high crimes and misdemeanours. 
The blow fell heavy on Pitt. His difficulties compelled him 
to resort to various expedients. At one time Addington was 
persuaded to accept office with a peerage; but he brought no 
additional strength to the government. While he remained 
in place he was jealous and punctilious; and he soon retired 
again. At another time Pitt renewed his efforts to overcome 
his master's aversion to. Fox; and it was rumoured that the 
king's obstinacy was gradually giving way. But, meanwhile, 
it was impossible for the minister to conceal -from the public 
eye the decay of his health and the constant anxiety which 
gnawed at his heart. All who passed him in the park, all 
who had interviews with him in Downing Street, saw misery 
written in his face. The peculiar look which he wore during 
the last months of his life was often pathetically described by 
Wilberforce, who used to call it the Austerlitz look. 

Still the vigour of Pitt's intellectual faculties and the intrepid 
haughtiness of his spirit remained unaltered. He had staked 
everything on a great venture. He had succeeded in forming 
another mighty coalition against the French ascendancy. The 
united forces of Austria, Russia and England might, he hoped, 
oppose an insurmountable barrier to the ambition of the common 
enemy. But the genius and energy of Napoleon prevailed. 
While the English troops were preparing to embark for Germany, 
while the Russian troops were slowly coming up from Poland, 
he, with rapidity unprecedented in modern war, moved a hundred 
thousand men from the shores of the ocean to the Black Forest, 
and compelled a great Austrian army to surrender at Ulm. To 
the first faint rumours of this calamity Pitt would give no 
credit. He was irritated by the alarms of those around him. 
" Do not believe a word of it" he said; " it is all a fiction." 
The next day he received a Dutch newspaper containing the 



6 7 6 



PITT, WILLIAM 



capitulation. He knew no Dutch. It was Sunday, and the 
public offices were shut. He carried the paper to Lord Malmes- 
bury, who had been minister in Holland; and Lord Malmesbury 
translated it. Pitt tried to bear up, but the shock was too 
great; and he went away with death in his face. 

The news of the battle of Trafalgar arrived four days later, 
and seemed for a moment to revive him. Forty-eight hours 
after that most glorious and most mournful of victories had 
been announced to the country came the Lord Mayor's Day; 
and Pitt dined at Guildhall. His popularity had declined. 
But on this occasion the multitude, greatly excited by the 
recent tidings, welcomed him enthusiastically, took off his 
horses in Cheapside, and drew his carriage up King Street. 
When his health was drunk, he returned thanks in two or three 
of those stately sentences of which he had a boundless command. 
Several of those who heard him laid up his words in their hearts; 
for they were the last words that he ever uttered in public: 
" Let us hope that England, having saved herself by her energy, 
may save Europe by her example." 

This was but a momentary rally. Austerlitz soon completed 
what Ulm had begun. Early in December Pitt had retired to 
Bath, in the hope that he might there gather strength for the 
approaching session. While he was languishing there on his 
sofa arrived the news that a decisive battle had been fought 
and lost in Moravia, that the coalition was dissolved, that the 
Continent was at the feet of France. He sank down under the 
blow. Ten days later he was so emaciated that his most 
intimate friends hardly knew him. He came up from Bath by 
slow journeys, and on the nth of January 1806 reached his 
villa at Putney. Parliament was to meet on the 2ist. On 
the 2oth was to be the parliamentary dinner at the house of the 
first lord of the treasury in Downing Street; and the cards were 
already issued. But the days of the great minister were num- 
bered. On the day on which he was carried into his bedroom 
at Putney, the Marquess Wellesley, whom he had long loved, 
whom he had sent to govern India, and whose administration 
had been eminently able, energetic and successful, arrived in 
London after an absence of eight years. The friends saw each 
other once more. There was an affectionate meeting and a 
last parting. That it was a last parting Pitt did not seem to 
be aware. He fancied himself to be recovering, talked on various 
subjects cheerfully and with an unclouded mind, and pronounced 
a warm and discerning eulogium on the marquis's brother 
Arthur. " I never," he said, " met with any military man 
with whom it was so satisfactory to converse." The excitement 
and exertion of this interview were too much for the sick man. 
He fainted away; and Lord Wellesley left the house convinced 
that the close was fast approaching. 

And now members of parliament were fast coming up to 
London. The chiefs of the Opposition met for the purpose of 
considering the course to be taken on the first day of the session. 
It was easy to guess what would be the language of the king's 
speech, and of the address which would be moved in answer to 
that speech. An amendment condemning the policy of the 
government had been prepared, and was to have been proposed 
in the House of Commons by Lord Henry Petty (afterwards 
3rd marquess of Lansdowne). He was unwilling, however, 
to come forward as the accuser of one who was incapable of 
defending himself. Lord Grenville, who had been informed 
th of Pitt's state by Lord Wellesley, and had been 
deeply affected by it, earnestly recommended 
forbearance; and Fox, with characteristic generosity and good 
nature, gave his voice against attacking his now helpless rival. 
" Sunt lacrymae rerum," he said, " et mentem mortalia tang- 
gunt." On the first day, therefore, there was no debate. It was 
rumoured that evening that Pitt was better. But on the follow- 
ing morning his physicians pronounced that there were no hopes. 
It was asserted in many after-dinner speeches, Grub Street 
elegies and academic prize poems and prize declamations that 
the great minister died exclaiming, " Oh my country! " This 
is a fable, but it is true that the last words which he uttered, 
while he knew what he said, were broken exclamations about 



Character. 



the alarming state of public affairs. He ceased 'to breathe on 
the morning of the 23rd of January 1806, the twenty-fifth 
anniversary of the day on which he first took his seat in 
parliament. 

It was moved in the House of Commons that Pitt should be 
honoured with a public funeral and a monument. The motion 
was opposed by Fox in a speech which deserves to be studied 
as a model of good taste and good feeling. The task was 
the most invidious that ever an orator undertook; but it was 
performed with a humanity and delicacy which were warmly 
acknowledged by the mourning friends of him who was gone. 
The motion was carried by 288 votes to 89. The 22nd of Feb- 
ruary was fixed for the funeral. The corpse, having lain in 
state during two days in the Painted Chamber, was borne with 
great pomp to the northern transept of the Abbey. A splendid 
train of princes, nobles, bishops and privy councillors followed. 
The grave of Pitt had been made near to the spot where his great 
father lay, near also to the spot where his great rival was soon 
to lie. Wilberforce, who carried the banner before the hearse, 
described the awful ceremony with deep feeling. As the coffin 
descended into the earth, he said, the eagle face of Chatham 
from above seemed to look down with consternation into the 
dark house which was receiving all that remained of so much 
power and glory. 

Pitt was emphatically the man of parliamentary government, 
the type of his class, the minion, the child, the spoiled child, 
of the House of Commons. He was a distinguished 
member of the House of Commons at twenty-one. 
The ability which he had displayed in the House of Commons 
made him the most powerful subject in Europe before he was 
twenty-five. It was when the House of Commons was to be 
convinced and persuaded that he put forth all his powers. 
Of those powers we must form our estimate chiefly from 
tradition; for, of all the eminent speakers of that age, Pitt has 
suffered most from the reporters. Even while he was still living, 
critics remarked that his eloquence could not be preserved, that 
he must be heard to be appreciated. They more than once 
applied to him the sentence in which Tacitus describes the fate 
of a senator whose rhetoric was admired in the Augustan age: 
" Haterii canorum illud et profluens cum ipso simul exstinctum 
est." There is, however, abundant evidence that nature had 
bestowed on Pitt the talents of a great orator; and those talents 
had been developed in a very peculiar manner, first by his educa- 
tion, and secondly by the high official position to which he rose 
early, and in which he passed the greater part of his public 
life. 

At his first appearance in parliament he showed himself 
superior to all his contemporaries in command of language. 
He could pour forth a long succession of round and stately 
periods, without premeditation, without ever pausing for a word, 
without ever repeating a word, in a voice of silver clearness, 
and with a pronunciation so articulate that not a letter was 
slurred over. He had less amplitude of mind and less richness 
of imagination than Burke, less ingenuity than Windham, less wit 
than Sheridan, less perfect mastery of dialectical fence and less 
of that highest sort of eloquence which consists of reason and 
passion fused together than Fox. Yet the almost unanimous 
judgment of those who were in the habit of listening to that 
remarkable race of men placed Pitt, as a speaker, above Burke, 
above Windham, above Sheridan and not below Fox. His 
declamation was copious, polished and splendid. In power 
of sarcasm he was probably not surpassed by any speaker, 
ancient or modern; and of this formidable weapon he made 
merciless use. In two parts of the oratorical art which are of 
the highest value to a minister of state he was singularly expert. 
No man knew better how to be luminous or how to be obscure. 
When he wished to be understood, he never failed to make 
himself understood. Nothing was out of place; nothing was 
forgotten; minute details, dates, sums of money, were all faith- 
fully preserved in his memory. On the other hand, when he 
did not wish to be explicit and no man who is at the head of 
affairs always wishes to be explicit he had a marvellous power 



PITTA 



677 



of saying nothing in language which left on his audience the 
impression that he had said a great deal. 

The effect of oratory will always to a great extent depend 
on the character of the orator. There perhaps never were two 
speakers whose eloquence had more of what may be called the 
race, more of the flavour imparted by moral qualities, than Fox 
and Pitt. The speeches of Fox owe a great part of their charm 
to that warmth and softness of heart, that sympathy with 
human suffering, that admiration for everything great and 
beautiful, and that hatred of cruelty and injustice, which interest 
and delight us even in the most defective reports. No person, 
on the other hand, could hear Pitt without perceiving him to be 
a man of high, intrepid and commanding spirit, proudly con- 
scious of his own rectitude and of his own intellectual superiority, 
incapable of the low vices of fear and envy, but too. prone to 
feel and to show disdain. Pride, indeed, pervaded the whole 
man, was written in the harsh, rigid lines of his face, was marked 
by the way in which he walked, in which he sat, in which he 
stood, and above all, in which he bowed. Such pride, of course, 
inflicted many wounds. But his pride, though it made him 
bitterly disliked by individuals, inspired the great body of his 
followers in parliament and throughout the country with respect 
and confidence. It was that of the magnanimous man so finely 
described by Aristotle in the Ethics, of the man who thinks 
himself worthy of great things, being in truth worthy. It was 
closely connected, too, with an ambition which had no mixture 
of low cupidity. There was something noble in the cynical 
disdain with which the mighty minister scattered riches and 
titles to right and left among those who valued them, while he 
spurned them out of his way. Poor himself, he was surrounded 
by friends on whom he had bestowed three thousand, six 
thousand, ten thousand a year. Plain Mister himself, he had 
made more lords than any three ministers that had preceded 
him. The garter, for which the first dukes in the kingdom were 
contending, was repeatedly offered to him, and offered in vain. 

The correctness of his private life added much to the dignity 
of his public character. In the relations of son, brother, uncle, 
master, friend, his conduct was exemplary. In the small 
circle of his intimate associates he was amiable, affectionate, 
even playful. He indulged, indeed, somewhat too freely in 
wine, which he had early been directed to take as a medicine, 
and which use had made a necessary of life to him. But it was 
very seldom that any indication of undue excess could be 
detected in his tones or gestures; and, in truth, two bottles of 
port were little more to him than two dishes of tea. He had, 
when he was first introduced into the clubs of St James's Street, 
shown a strong sense for play, but he had the prudence and the 
resolution to stop before this taste had acquired the strength 
of habit. From the passion which generally exercises the most 
tyrannical dominion over the young he possessed an immunity, 
which is probably to be ascribed partly to his temperament and 
partly to his situation. His constitution was feeble; he was 
very shy; and he was very busy. The strictness of his morals 
furnished such buffoons as Peter Pindar and Captain Morris 
with an inexhaustible theme for merriment of no very delicate 
kind. But the great body of the middle class of Englishmen 
could not see the joke. They warmly praised the young 
statesman for commanding his passions, and for covering his 
frailties, if he had frailties, with decorous obscurity. 

The memory of Pitt has been assailed, times innumerable, 
often justly, often unjustly; but it has suffered much less from 
his assailants than from his eulogists. For, during 

manv y ears > m ' s name was tne rallying cr y of a class 
of men with whom, at one of those terrible con- 
junctures which confound all ordinary distinctions, he was 
accidentally and temporally connected, but to whom, on almost 
all great questions of principle, he was diametrically opposed. 
The haters of parliamentary reform called themselves Pittites, 
not choosing to remember that Pitt made three motions for 
parliamentary reform, and that, though he thought that such 
a reform could not safely be made while the passions excited 
by the French Revolution were raging, he never uttered a word 



indicating that he should not be prepared at a more convenient 
season to bring the question forward a fourth time. The toast 
of Protestant ascendancy was drunk on Pitt's birthday by a set 
of Pittites who could not but be aware that Pitt had resigned his 
office because he could not carry Catholic emancipation. The 
defenders of the Test Act called themselves Pittites, though they 
could not be ignorant that Pitt had laid before George III. 
unanswerable reasons for abolishing the Test Act. The enemies 
of free trade called themselves Pittites, though Pitt was far 
more deeply imbued with the doctrines of Adam Smith than 
either Fox or Grey. The very negro-drivers invoked the name 
of Pitt, whose eloquence was never more conspicuously dis- 
played than when he spoke of the wrongs of the negro. This 
mythical Pitt, who resembles the genuine Pitt as little as the 
Charlemagne of Ariosto resembles the Charlemagne of Eginhard, 
has had his day. History will vindicate the real man from 
calumny disguised under the semblance of adulation, and will 
exhibit him as what he was a minister of great talents, honest 
intentions and liberal opinions, pre-eminently qualified, 
intellectually and morally, for the part of a parliamentary 
leader, and capable of administering with prudence and modera- 
tion the government of a prosperous and tranquil country, but 
unequal to surprising and terrible emergencies, and liable in 
such emergencies to err grievously, both on the side of weakness 
and on the side of violence. (M.) 

AUTHORITIES. Lord Macaulay's article, a classic on its subject, 
written in 1859 for this Encyclopaedia and included in the gth edition 
unaltered, is preserved above in its essentials, but has been shortened 
and readjusted. Among standard biographies are the 5th Earl 
Stanhope s important Life (4 vols., 2nd ed., 1862), and Lord Rose- 
bery's masterly study in the " Twelve English Statesmen Series " 
(1891). See also the bibliographical note to the Rev. William Hunt's 
article on Pitt in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and also the same historian's 
app. i., pp. 461-462, to his vol. x. (for the years 1760-1801) of 
The Political History of England (1905), dealing with the authorities 
for the period. 

PITTA, in ornithology, from the Telugu pitta, meaning a small 
bird, latinized by Vieillot in 1816 (Analyse, p. 42) as the name 
of a genus, and since adopted by English ornithologists as the 
general name for a group of birds, called by the French Br&nes, 
and remarkable for their great beauty. 1 For a long while the 




Pitta elegans, male and female. 

pittas were commonly supposed to be allied to the Turdidae, 
and some English writers applied to them the name of " water- 
thrushes " and " ant-thrushes," though there was no evidence 
of their having aquatic habits or predilections, or of their preying 
especially upon ants; but the fact that they formed a separate 
1 In ornithology the word is first found as part of the native 
name, " Ponnunky pitta," of a bird, given in 1713 by Petiver, in 
the " mantissa " to Ray's Synopsis (p. 195), on the authority of 
Buckley (see ORNITHOLOGY). This bird is the Pitta bengalensis of 
modern ornithologists, and is said by Jerdon (Birds of India, i. 503) 
now to bear the Telugu name of Pona-inki. 



6 7 8 



PITTACUS PITTSBURG 



family was gradually admitted. Their position was partly 
determined by A. H. Garrod, who, having obtained examples 
for dissection, in a communication to the Zoological Society of 
London, printed in its Proceedings for 1876, proved (pp. 512, 513) 
that the Pittidae belonged to that section of Passerine birds 
which he named Mesomyodi. since their syrinx, like that of the 
Tyrannidae (see KING-BIRD), has its muscles attached to the 
middle of its half-rings, instead of to their extremities as in the 
higher Passerines or Acromyodi. They are now placed as a 
separate family Pittidae of the Clamatores division of the 
Anisomyodine Passeres. There are about fifty species, divided 
into a number of genera, confined to the Old World, and ranging 
from India and North China to Australia, New Guinea and New 
Britain, with one species in West Africa, the greatest number 
being found in Borneo and Sumatra. Few birds can vie with 
the pittas in brightly-contrasted coloration. Deep velvety 
black, pure white and intensely vivid scarlet, turquoise-blue 
and beryl-green mostly occupying a considerable extent of 
surface are found in a great many of the species to say 
nothing of other composite or intermediate hues; and, though in 
some a modification of these tints is observable, there is scarcely 
a trace of any blending of shade, each patch of colour standing 
out distinctly. This is perhaps the more remarkable as the 
feathers have hardly any lustre to heighten the effect produced, 
and in some species the brightest colours are exhibited by the 
plumage of the lower parts of the body. Pittas vary in size 
from that of a jay to that of a lark, and generally have a strong 
bill, a thick-set form, which is mounted on rather high legs with 
scutellated " tarsi," and a very short tail. In many of the forms 
there is little or no external difference between the sexes. 

Placed originally among the Pittidae, but now created to form an 
allied family Philepittidae, is the genus Philepitta, consisting of two 
species peculiar to Madagascar. The two species which compose it 
have little outward' resemblance to the pittas, not having the same 
style of coloration and being apparently of more arboreal habits. 
The sexes differ greatly in plumage, and the males have the skin 
round the eyes bare of feathers and carunculated. (A. N.) 

PITTACUS, of Mytilene in Lesbos (c. 650-570 B.C.), one of the 
Seven Sages of Greece. About 611, with the assistance of the 
brothers of the poet Alcaeus, he overthrew Melanchrus, tyrant 
of Lesbos. In a war (606) between the Mytilenaeans and 
Athenians for the possession of Sigeum on the Hellespont he 
slew the Athenian commander Phrynon in single combat. In 
589 his fellow citizens entrusted Pittacus with despotic power 
(with the title of Aesymnetes) for the purpose of protecting them 
against the exiled nobles, at the head of whom were Alcaeus and 
his brother Antimenides. He resigned the government after 
holding it for ten years, and died ten years later. According to 
Diogenes Laertius, who credits him with an undoubtedly spurious 
letter to Croesus (with whom his connexion was probably 
legendary), Pittacus was a writer of elegiac poems, from which 
he quotes five lines. His favourite sayings were: " It is hard 
to be good," and " Know when to act." 

See Herodotus v. 27, 94; Diog. Laert. j. 4; Lucian, MacroMi, 18; 
Strabo xiii. 600, 617-618; Aristotle, Politics, ii. 12, iii. 14; T. Bergk, 
Poetae lyrici graeci. 

PITTANCE (through O. Fr. pitance, from Lat. pietas, loving- 
kindness), properly a gift to the members of a religious house for 
masses, consisting usually of an extra allowance of food or wine 
on occasions such as the anniversary of the donor's death, 
festivals and the like. The word was early transferred to a 
charitable donation and to any small gift of food or money. 

PITT-RIVERS, AUGUSTUS HENRY LANE-FOX (1827-1900), 
English soldier and archaeologist, son of W. A. Lane-Fox, was 
born on the i4th of April 1827. It was not till 1880 that he 
assumed the name of Pitt-Rivers, on inheriting the Dorsetshire 
and Wiltshire estates of his great-uncle, the second Lord Rivers. 
Educated at Sandhurst, he received a commission in the 
Grenadier Guards in 1845, being captain 1850, lieutenant- 
colonel 1857, colonel 1867, major-general 1877 and lieutenant- 
general 1882. He served in the Crimean War, and was at 
the Alma and the siege of Sebastopol. His talent for 
experimental research was utilized in investigation into 



improvements of the army rifle, and he was largely responsible 
for starting the Hythe School of Musketry. It is not, how- 
ever, for his military career, but for his work as an anthro- 
pologist and archaeologist, that General Pitt-Rivers will 
be remembered. His interest in the evolution of the rifle 
early extended itself to other weapons and instruments in the 
history of man, and he became a collector of articles illustrating 
the development of human invention. His collection became 
famous, and, after being exhibited in 1874-1875 at the Bethnal 
Green Museum, was presented in 1883 to the university of 
Oxford. When, in 1880, General Pitt-Rivers obtained possession 
of his great-uncle's estates practically untouched by the 
excavator since they had been the battleground of the West 
Saxons, the Romans and the Britons he devoted himself to 
exploring them. His excavations round Rushrnore resulted in 
valuable " finds "; he founded a local museum and published 
several illustrated volumes. As a scientific archaeologist he 
attained high rank. Oxford gave him the D.C.L. in 1886; he 
was president of the Anthropological Institute, and F.R.S. He 
married, in 1853, Alice Margaret, daughter of the second Lord 
Stanley of Alderley, and had a numerous family; his second 
daughter became in 1884 the wife of Sir John Lubbock (Lord 
Avebury). General Pitt-Rivers died at Rushmore on the 4th 
of May 1900. 

PITTSBURG, a city of Crawford county, Kansas, U.S.A., 
about 130 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1880), 624; (1890), 
6697; (1900) 10,112, of whom 860 were foreign-born; (1910 
census), 14,755. It is situated at the intersection of four great 
railway systems the Atchison Topeka & Santa Fe, the St 
Louis & San Francisco, the Kansas City Southern (which main- 
tains shops here), and the Missouri Pacific, and is" served by 
inter-urban electric railways. The city is the seat of the State 
Manual Training Normal School (1903) and of the Pittsburg 
Business College. Pittsburg is situated near the lead and zinc 
region of south-east Kansas and south-west Missouri, is in the 
midst of a large and rich bituminous coalfield, and lies near 
natural gas and oil fields. Among the manufactures are zinc 
spelter there are large smelters here clay products (chiefly 
vitrified brick, sewer pipe and tile; the clay being obtained from 
a great underlying bed of shale), blasting powder, packing- 
house products and planing-miU products. The total value of 
the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,824,929. Pittsburg 
was settled about 1879, was chartered as a city in 1880, and 
became a city of the first class in 1908. 

PITTSBURG, or PITTSBURGH, 1 the second largest city of 
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Allegheny county, 
on the Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio rivers, 440 m. by rail 
W. by S. of New York City, 360 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia, 
368 m. N.W. of Washington and 468 m. E. by S. of Chicago. 
Pop. (1890), 238,617 ; 2 (1900), 321,616, of whom 84,878 were 
foreign-born, 17,040 were negroes and 154 were Chinese; (1910 
census, after the annexation of Allegheny), 533,905. Of the 
84,878 foreign-born in 1900, 21,222 were natives of Germany, 
18,620 of Ireland, 8902 of England, 6243 of Russian Poland, 
5709 of Italy, 4107 of Russia, 3553 of Austria, 3515 of German 
Poland, 2539 of Wales, 2264 of Scotland, 2124 of Hungary, 
1072 of Sweden and 1023 of Austrian Poland. Area (including 
Allegheny, annexed in 1906), 40-67 sq. m. Pittsburg is served 
by the Pennsylvania (several divisions), the Baltimore & Ohio, 
the Pittsburg & Lake Erie (controlled by the New York Central 
System), the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (controlled 
by the Pennsylvania Company), the Pittsburg, Chartiers & 
Youghiogheny (controlled jointly by the two preceding railways; 
21 m. of track), the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg, and the 
Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal (60 m. to Pittsburg Junction, 
Ohio; controlled by the Wabash railway), and the Pittsburg 
Terminal (also controlled by the Wabash and operating the 

'"Pittsburgh" is the official spelling of the charter and seal; 
but " Pittsburg " is the spelling adopted by the U.S. Geographic 
Board and is in more general use. 

2 In previous census years the population was as follows: (1800), 
1565; (1820), 7248 1(1840), 21, 1 15; (1860), 49,221; (i 880) ,156, 389. 



PITTSBURG 



679 



West Side Belt, from Pittsburg to Clairton, 21 m.) railways, and 
by river boats on the Ohio, Monongahela and Allegheny. 

Picturesque rolling plateaus, the three rivers and narrow 
valleys, from which rise high hills or precipitous bluffs, are the 
principal natural features of the district over which the city 
extends. Retail houses, wholesale houses, banks, tall office 
buildings, hotels, theatres and railway terminals are crowded 
into the angle, or "The Point," formed at the confluence of the 
Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, with Fifth Avenue as the 
principal thoroughfare, especially for the retail houses, and 
Fourth Avenue as the great banking thoroughfare. Factories 
extend for miles along the banks of all three rivers into the 
tributary valleys, and are the cause of Pittsburg's nickname, 
" The Smoky City." The more attractive residential districts 
are on the plateau in the eastern portion of the district between 
the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers and on the hills over- 
looking the Allegheny river from the north. Overlooking the 
Monongahela river is Schenley Park (about 422 acres), the first 
city park, of which about 400 acres were given to the city in 1890 
by Mrs. Mary E. Schenley. About 2 m. to the north, overlooking 
the Allegheny river, is Highland Park (about 366 acres), which 
contains the city reservoirs and a picturesque lake. Adjacent 
to Schenley Park are Homewood and Calvary cemeteries; and 
adjacent to Highland Park is Allegheny cemetery. Across the 
Allegheny river, in the Allegheny district, are the beautiful 
Riverview Park (240 acres), in which is the Allegheny Observa- 
tory, and West Park (about 100 acres). A number of bridges 
span the rivers. 

The city has some fine public buildings, office buildings and 
churches. The Allegheny county court-house (1884-1888) is 
one of H. H. Richardson's masterpieces. The Nixon theatre 
is also notable architecturally. The high Frick Office building 
has exterior walls of white granite; in its main hall is a stained- 
glass window by John La Farge representing Fortune and her 
wheel. A large government building of polished granite con- 
tains the post office and the customs offices. St Paul's Cathedral 
(Roman Catholic, 1903-1906) is largely of Indiana limestone. 
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant Episco- 
pal bishop. In Schenley Park is the Carnegie Institute (estab- 
lished by a gift of $10,000,000 from Andrew Carnegie, who made 
further contributions of $9,000,000 for its maintenance), with 
a main building containing a library, a department of fine arts, 
a museum (see MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE) and a music hall, and 
several separate buildings for the technical schools, which had 
2102 students in 1909. The main building, dedicated in April 
1907, is 660 ft. long and 400 ft. wide; in its great entrance hall 
is a series of mural decorations by John White Alexander, a 
native of the city. The library, in which the institution had 
its beginning in 1895, contains about 306,000 volumes. The 
Phipps Conservatory was presented to the city in 1893 by Henry 
Phipps (b. 1839), a steel manufacturer associated with Andrew 
Carnegie. It is the largest in America, and, with its Hall of 
Botany, which is utilized in instructing school children in botany, 
is situated in Schenley Park. The conservatory is maintained 
by municipal appropriations. There is a zoological garden in 
Highland Park. In December 1907 it was decided that the 
several departments of the Western University of Pennsylvania, 
then in different parts of the city, should be brought together 
on a new campus of 43 acres near the Carnegie Institute. In 
July 1908 the name was changed to " The University of Pitts- 
burgh." The university embraces a college and engineering 
school, the Western Pennsylvania School of Mines and Mining 
Engineering, a graduate department, an evening school of 
economics, accounts and finances, a summer school, evening 
classes, Saturday clasess, and departments of astronomy (the 
Allegheny Observatory, in the Allegheny district), law (the Pitts- 
burg Law School) , medicine (the Western Pennsylvania Medical 
College), pharmacy (the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy) and 
dentistry (the Pittsburgh Dental College). The institution had 
its beginning in the Pittsburgh Academy, which was opened about 
1770 and was incorporated in 1787. It was incorporated 
as the Western University of Pennsylvania in 1819, 



but was only a college from that date until 1802, when 
the Western Pennsylvania -Medical College became its depart- 
ment of medicine. In 1895 the department of law was added, 
the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy was united to the university, 
and women were for the first time admitted. In 1896 the 
department of dentistry was established. In 1909 the university 
had 151 instructors and 1243 students. In the east end is 
the Pennsylvania College for Women (Presbyterian; chartered 
in 1869), with preparatory, collegiate and musical depart- 
ments. In the Allegheny district are the Allegheny Theological 
Seminary (United Presbyterian, 1825), the Western Theological 
Seminary (Presbyterian, opened 1827), and the Reformed 
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1856). Although Alle- 
gheny is now a part of Pittsburg, the two public school systems 
remain independent. The Pittsburg High School (five buildings 
in 1910) has a normal course; and there are various private 
schools and academies. 

The Pittsburg Gazette-Times is probably the oldest news- 
paper west of the Alleghany Mountains; the Gazette was founded 
in 1786 and in 1906 was consolidated with the Times (1879). 
Other prominent newspapers of the city are the Dispatch 
(1846), the Chronicle Telegraph (1841), the Post (1792; daily, 
1842), which is one of the few influential Democratic newspapers 
in Pennsylvania, the Leader (Sunday, 1864; daily, 1870) and 
the Press (1883). Two German dailies, one Slavonic daily, one 
Slavonic weekly, two Italian weeklies, and iron, building, coal 
and glass trade journals are published in the city. In Pittsburg 
is the publishing house of the United Presbyterian Church, and 
The Christian Advocate (weekly, Methodist Episcopal, 1834) is 
published here under the auspices of the general conference. 

The oldest hospital is the Reineman (private; 1803) for 
maternity cases; the municipal hospital (1878) is for contagious 
diseases; the Sisters of Charity, the Sisters of Mercy, the Institu- 
tion of Protestant Deaconesses, the Presbyterian Church and 
the United Presbyterian Woman's Association each have charge 
of a hospital; and there is also an eye, ear and throat hospital 
(1895). The Western Pennsylvania Institution for the instruc- 
tion of the deaf and dumb (1876), in Edgewood Park, is in part 
maintained by the state. And the state assists the Home for 
Aged and Infirm Colored Women (1882), and the Home for 
Colored Children (1881). Among other charitable institutions 
are the Curtis Home (1894) for destitute women and girls, the 
Bethesda Home (1890) for homeless girls and their children, 
the Florence Crittenton Home (1893) for homeless and unfor- 
tunate women, the Roselia Foundling Asylum and Maternity 
Hospital (1891), the Protestant Home for Incurables (1883), the 
Pittsburg Newsboys' Home (1894), the Children's Aid Society 
of Western Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg Association for the 
Improvement of the Poor and the Western Pennsylvania 
Humane Society. 

Pittsburg is in the midst of the most productive coalfields 
in the country; the region is also rich in petroleum and natural 
gas. The city is on one of the main lines cf communication 
between the east and the west, is the centre of a vast railway 
system, and has freight yards with a total capacity for more 
than 60,000 cars. Its harbour has a total length on the three 
rivers of 27-2 m., and an average width of about 1000 ft., and 
has been deepened by the construction (in 1877-1885) of the 
Davis Island dam, by dredging, under a federal project of 
1899. Slack water navigation has been secured on the Alle- 
gheny by locks and dams (1890 and 1896 sqq.) at an expense 
up to July 1909 of $1,658,804; and up to that time $263,625 
had been spent for open-channel work. The Monongahela 
from Pittsburg to the West Virginia state line (91-5 m.) was 
improved in 1836 sqq. by a private company which built seven 
locks and dams; this property was condemned and bought 
for $3,761,615 by the United States government in 1897, and, 
under the project of 1899 for rebuilding three of the locks and 
enlarging another, and that of 1907 for a new lock and dam 
and for other improvements, $2,675,692 was spent up to July 
1909. Coal is brought to the city from the coalfields by boats 
on the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers as well as by rail, and 



68o 



PITTSBURG 



great fleets of barges carry coal and other heavy freight, such 
as steel rails, cotton ties, sheet iron, wire and nails, down the 
Ohio in the winter and spring. A ship canal to provide water 
communication between Pittsburg and Lake Erie has been 
projected. The railways have a heavy tonnage of coal, coke and 
iron and steel products, and a large portion of the iron ore that 
is produced in the Lake Superior region is brought to Pittsburg. 
In 1908 the river traffic amounted to 9,090,146 tons, most of 
which was carried on barges down the Ohio. Pittsburg is also 
a port of entry; in 1907 the value of its imports amounted to 
$2,416,367, and in 1909 to $2,062,162. 

The value of the factory products in 1905 was $165,428,881, 
and to this may be added $45,830,272 for those of the city of 
Allegheny, making a total of $211,259*153. In the manufacture 
of iron and steel products Pittsburg ranks first among the cities 
of the United States, the value of these products amounting 
in 1905 to $88,250,805 or 53-3 % of the total for all manufactures; 
if the manufactures of Allegheny be added they amounted to 
$92,939,860 or 43-7%. Several neighbouring cities and towns 
are also extensively engaged in the same industry, and in 1902 
Allegheny county produced about 24% of the pig-iron, nearly 
34% of the Bessemer steel, more than 44% of the open-hearth 
.steel, more than 53 % of the crucible steel, more then 24% of the 
steel rails, and more than 59% of the structural shapes that were 
made in that year in the .United States. In 1905 the value of 
Pittsburg's foundry and machine shop-products was $9,631,514; 
of the product of steam railway repair shops, $3,726,990 
(being 424-8% more than in 1900); of malt liquors, $3,166,829; 
of slaughtering and meat-packing products, $2,732,027; 
of cigars and cigarettes, $2,297,228; of glass, $2,130,540; 
and of tin and terne plate, $1,645,570. Electrical machinery, 
apparatus and supplies were manufactured largely in the city 
(value in 1905, $1,796,557), and there was another large plant 
for their manufacture immediately outside of the city limits. 
Coke, cut cork, rolled brass and copper were other important 
products in 1905. In 1900, and for a long period preceding, 
Pittsburg ranked first among American cities in the manufacture 
, of glass, but in 1905 it was outranked in this industry by Muncie, 
Indiana, Millville, New Jersey, and Washington, Pennsylvania; 
but in the district outside of the city limits of Pittsburg much 
glass is manufactured, so that the Pittsburg glass district is the 
greatest in the country, and there are large glass factories 
at Washington (18 m. south-west), Charleroi (20 m. south) and 
Tarentum (15 m. north-east). In Pittsburg or the immediate 
vicinity are the more important plants of the United States Steel 
Corporation, including that of the Carnegie Company. Here, 
too, are the plants of the Westinghouse Company for the 
manufacture of electrical apparatus, of air brakes invented by 
George Westinghouse (born 1846), and of devices for railway 
signals which he also invented. In the Allegheny district the 
H. J. Heinz Company has its main pickle plant, the largest 
establishment of vhe kind in the country. 

The Pittsburg charter of 1816 vested the more important 
powers of the city government in a common council of 15 
members and a select council of 9 members, and until 1834 the 
mayor was appointed annually by these city councils from their 
own number. By the Wallace Act of the state legislature in 
1874 a form of government was provided for cities of three 
classes, and Pittsburg became a city of the second class (popula- 
tion between 100,000 and 300,000); under the act of 1895 a new 
classification was made, under which Pittsburg remains in the 
second class. An act of 1887 had amended the provisions of 
the Wallace Act in regard to second class cities by changing the 
terms of select councilmen from two to four years and of common 
councilmen from one to two years. In 1901 a new act was 
passed for the government of cities of the second class. It 
provided that the executive be a " city recorder "; this provision 
was repealed in 1903, when the title of mayor again came into 
use. The mayor holds office for three years, has the powers 
and jurisdiction of a justice of the peace, appoints the heads of 
departments (public safety, public works, collector of delinquent 
taxes, assessors, city treasurer, law, charities and correction, 



and sinking fund commission), and may remove any of the 
officers he has appointed, by a written order, showing cause, 
to the select council. The city controller is elected by popular 
vote. The legislative bodies are the select and common council, 
elected under the law of 1887 ; by a three-fifths vote it may pass 
resolutions or ordinances over the mayor's veto. The depart- 
ment of public safety controls the bureaus of police, detectives, 
fire, health, electricity and building inspection; the department 
of public works controls bureaus of surveys, construction, 
highways and sewers, city property, water, assessment of water 
rents, parks, deed registry, bridges and light. In 1909 the 
taxable valuation was $100,771,321, and the tax rate was 13-8 
mills for city property, 9-2 mills on rural property and 
6-9 mills on agricultural property. The tax rate for separate 
indebtedness varied from 6 mills in Allegheny to 16-2 mills 
in the 43rd ward. The water-supply of Pittsburg is taken 
from the Allegheny river and pumped into reservoirs, the 
highest of which, in Highland Park, is 367 ft. above the river; 
and there is a slow sand filtration plant for the filtration of the 
entire supply. 

Pittsburg owed its origin to the strategic value of its site in 
the struggle between the English and the French for the posses- 
sion of the North American continent. A few Frenchmen 
attempted to establish a settlement here in 1731, but were soon 
driven away by the Indians. In 1753, after the French had 
laid formal claim to this region and the Ohio Land Company 
had been formed with a view to establishing a settlement within 
it, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of Virginia and a shareholder 
in the Ohio Company, sent George Washington with a letter 
to " the commandant of the French forces on the Ohio " (then 
stationed at Fort Le Bceuf , near the present Waterford, about 
115 m. north of the head- waters of that river) asking him to 
account for his invasion of territory claimed by the English. 
This was Washington's first important public service. He 
reached the present site of Pittsburg on the 24th of November 
1753, and subsequently reported 1 that what is now called 
" The Point," i.e. the tongue of land formed by the confluence 
of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, was a much more 
favourable situation for a fort and trading post than the one 
about two miles up the Monongahela (near the present site of 
McKees Rocks) which had been tentatively selected by the 
Ohio Company. Accordingly, on the I7th of February 1754, 
a detachment of about 40 soldiers, under the command of 
Captain William Trent, 2 reached " The Point," and began to 
build a fortification (under the auspices of the Ohio Company), 
which it seems to have been the intention to call Fort Trent, 
and which was the beginning of the permanent settlement here 
by whites. On the i7th of the following April, however, Ensign 
Edward Ward, commanding the soldiers, in the absence of 
Captain Trent, was forced to evacuate the unfinished fortification 
by a party of about 1000 French and Indians, under Captain 
Contrecoeur, who immediately occupied the works, which he 
enlarged and completed, and named Fort Duquesne, in honour 
of Duquesne de Menneville, governor of New France in 1752- 
1755. In the following summer Washington attempted to 
recover this fort, in a campaign which included the skirmish 

1 His Journal, published in 1754, gives a concise and lucid account 
of this expedition. 

1 William Trent (c. 1715-1778) was a'native of Lancaster county, 
Pennsylvania, became a captain in the state militia in 1746 and 
served against the French and Indians, was for many years, after 
1749, a justice of the court of common pleas and general sessions of 
the peace for Cumberland county, Pennsylvania, and in 1750-1756 
was the partner of George Crogan in an extensive trade with the 
Indians. According to one account, he visited the site of Pittsburg, 
and examined its availability for fortification, in August 1753 
before the arrival of Washington. In 1755 he became a member 
of the council of Lieut.-Governor Robert H. Morris, and in 
1758 he accompanied General Forbes's expedition against Fort 
Duquesne. He acted many times as Indian agent; his lucrative 
trade with the Indians, conducted from a trading house near Fort 
Pitt, was ruined during Pontiac's conspiracy. At the beginning 
of the War of Independence he was given a major's commission to 
raise troops in Western Pennsylvania. See Journal of Captain 
William Trent (Cincinnati, Ohio, i87i),edited by Alfred T. Goodman. 



PITTSBURG 



681 



(commonly considered the beginning of the French and Indian 
Seven Years' War) on the 28th of May 1754, at Great Meadows 
(in what is now Wharton township, Fayette county, Pennsyl- 
vania, about 50 m. south-east of Pittsburg), between a detach- 
ment under his command and a scouting party under N. Coulon 
de Jumonville, in which Jumonville and several of his men were 
killed; the building, at Great Meadows, by Washington, of Fort 
Necessity, and its capitulation (July 3); and the retreat of 
Washington to Virginia. Another expedition, led by Major- 
General Edward Braddock, resulted in the engagement known 
as " Braddock's Defeat " (July 9, 1755), fought within the 
present borough of Braddock (about 8 m. east of Fort Duquesne), 
in which Braddock's force was practically annihilated, and 
Braddock was mortally wounded, dying four days later. The 
fort was finally recaptured by the English in 1758, as the result 
of an elaborate expedition (involving about 7000 troops) 
planned by Brigadier-General John Forbes (1710-1759), and 
prosecuted, with the assistance of Colonel George Washington 
and Colonel Henry Bouquet, in the face of great difficulties. 
General Forbes himself was so ill that he had to be carried in a 
litter throughout the campaign. The troops having rendez- 
voused during the summer (of 1758) at Ray's Town (now Bedford, 
Pennsylvania), and at Loyalhanna creek (now in Westmoreland 
county), about 50 m. to the north-west (where Fort Ligonier 
was built), Colonel Bouquet, commanding the division at the 
latter place, despatched Major James Grant (1720-1806) at the 
head of about 850 men to reconnoitre the fort. Grant advanced 
to a hill (still known by his name, and upon the crest of which 
the court-house now stands) within about a quarter of a mile 
of the fort. Here he rashly divided his force, and in a sortie 
of French and Indians, on the morning of the I4th of September, 
one of his divisions was surrounded, and a general rout ensued 
in which about 270 of Grant's men were killed, about 40 were 
wounded, and others (including Grant) were taken prisoners. 
Forbes's army advanced to within about 15 m. of the fort on 
the 24th of November, whereupon the French blew up part of 
the works, set fire to the buildings and retreated down the Ohio 
in boats. The English occupied the place on the next day and 
General Forbes ordered the immediate erection of a stockade 
fort near the site of the old one. In reporting to Lieut. -Governor 
William Denny (Nov. 26) the success of the expedition he dated 
his letter from Fort Duquesne "or now Pitts-Bourgh," and this 
name, with its subsequent modification " Pittsburgh," was 
thereafter more commonly used than that of Fort Pitt, which, 
as designating the fortification proper appears to have been 
first applied by General John Stanwix to the enlarged fort built 
(at a cost, it was estimated, of 60,000) chiefly under his direction 
during 1750-1760. 

The first considerable settlement around the fort sprang up 
in 1760; it was composed of two groups of houses and cabins, 
the " lower town," near the fort's ramparts; and the " upper 
town," built chiefly along the banks of the Monongahela, and 
extending as far as the present Market Street. In April 1761, 
according to a census of the settlement, outside of the fort, taken 
for Colonel Bouquet, there were 332 inhabitants and 104 houses. 

Fort Pitt was one of the important objective points of Pontiac's 
conspiracy (1763), and as soon as the intentions of the Indians 
became evident, Captain Simeon Ecuyer, the Swiss officer in 
command of the garrison (which then numbered about 330), 
had the houses outside the ramparts levelled and prepared for 
a siege. The Indians attacked the fort on the 22nd of June 
(1763), and kept up a continuous, though ineffective, fire upon 
it from the 27th of July until the ist of August, when they drew 
off and advanced to meet the relieving party under Colonel 
Bouquet. They were defeated at Bushy Run, and Colonel 
Bouquet relieved the fort on the loth of August (see PONTIAC). 
In 1764 Colonel Bouquet added to the fort a redoubt, the " Block 
House," which still stands, the sole remaining trace of Fort Pitt, 
and is owned and cared for by the Daughters of the American 
Revolution. 

A second town, laid out in 1 764, by Colonel John Campbell (with 
the permission of the commandant at Fort Pitt), is bounded in 



the present city by Water Street, Market Street, Second Avenue 
and Ferry Street, and comprises four blocks. In November 
1768, at a general council of the Six Nations with Sir William 
Johnson and representatives of Pennsylvania and Virginia, 
held at Fort Stanwix, on the site of the present Rome, New York 
(?..), at which was signed a treaty establishing the boundary 
line between the English possessions and the territory claimed 
by the Six Nations, the Indians sold for f 10,000 to Thomas 
Penn (1702-1775) and Richard Penn (1706-1771), respectively, 
the second and third sons of William Penn the founder of 
Pennsylvania by his second wife, the remaining land in the 
province of Pennsylvania to which they claimed title, namely 
the tract lying south of the west branch of the Susquehanna 
river and of a straight line from the north-west corner of what 
is now Cambria county to the present Kittanning (in Armstrong 
county), and all of the territory east of the Allegheny river below 
Kittanning and south of the Ohio river. To this transaction 
the commissioner from Virginia seems to have made no objection, 
though the tract included the Fort Pitt region and other territory 
then claimed by Virginia. In January-March 1769 the Penns 
caused to be surveyed the " Manor of Pittsburgh," a tract of 
about 5700 acres, including much of the original city, intending 
to reserve it for their private use; but in the following April they 
offered at public sale the lands in the remainder of their purchase 
of the preceding year. 1 At this time the settlement about Fort 
Pitt consisted of about twenty houses, occupied chiefly by Indian 
traders. By order of General Thomas Gage the fort was 
abandoned as a military post in October 1772, and was partly 
dismantled. In January 1774 it was occupied by an armed force 
under Dr John Connolly, a partisan of Lord Dunmore, governor 
of Virginia, and by him was named Fort Dunmore (which name, 
however, was never formally recognized), this being one of 
Dunmore's overt acts ostensibly in support of his contention 
that the Fort Pitt region was included in Augusta county, 
Virginia. In the following April Connolly took forcible posses- 
sion of the court-house at Hanna's Town (near the present 
Greensburg), the county-seat of Westmoreland county (which 
then included the Fort Pitt region), a few days afterwards arrested 
the three justices who lived in Pittsburg, and for the remainder 
of the year terrorized the settlement. Lord Dunmore himself 
issued a proclamation dated " Fort Dunmore," i?th September 
(1774), in which he called upon the inhabitants to ignore the 
authority of Pennsylvania, and to recognize only that of Virginia. 
A year afterwards Fort Pitt was occupied by a company of 
Virginia soldiers by order of the Virginia Provincial Convention 
(assembled at Williamsburg in August 1775), but this move 
apparently was more for the defence of the frontier in the coming 
war than an expression on the Pennsylvania-Virginia boundary 
dispute; and, in November, Connolly was arrested at Fredericks- 
burg, Maryland, on the charge of furthering Dunmore's plans 
for invading the western frontier. The boundary itself was in 
controversy until 1780, and the marking of the boundary lines 
was not completed until 1785. During the War of Independence 
the fort was maintained as a frontier Indian post, and as a pro- 
tection against the British at Detroit. Soon after the close of 
the war it was neglected, and by 1791 it was in bad repair; there- 
fore at the time of the Indian hostilities of 1792 another stockade 
fort was built near the bank of the Allegheny river and about 
a quarter of a mile above the site of Fort Pitt, this new fort being 
named Fort Lafayette, or, as it was more commonly called, Fort 
Fayette. After General Anthony Wayne's defeat of the Indians, 
at Fallen Timbers, Ohio (Aug. 20, 1794), Pittsburg lost its 
importance as a frontier post. 

In January 1784 the sale of the land included in the " Manor 
of Pittsburgh " was begun by the grandsons of William Penn, 
John Penn (1720-1795), the second son of Richard Penn and 
lieutenant-governor of Pennsylvania in 1763-1771 and in 1773- 
1776; and John Penn (1760-1834), the fourth son of Thomas 
Penn; and in the following June a new series of town lots was 
laid out in which was incorporated Colonel Campbell's survey. 
Thereafter, settlers, chiefly Scotch and Irish, came rapidly. 
1 This tract was confiscated by Pennsylvania in 1779. 



682 



PITTSFIELD PITTSTON 



Pittsburg and its vicinity witnessed much of the disorder, and 
some of the violence against person and property, incident to 
the Whisky Insurrection of 1791-94. Delegates from Alle- 
gheny, Westmoreland, Washington and Fayette counties met 
here on the 7th of September 1791, and passed resolutions 
severely denouncing the excise tax; and a similarly constituted 
gathering, on the 24th of August 1792, voted to proscribe all 
persons who assisted in the enforcement of laws taxing the 
manufacture of liquor. Thereafter various persons who had 
paid the excise tax, or had assisted in collecting it, were tarred 
and feathered or had their houses or barns burned. General 
John Neville (1731-1803), having accepted the office of chief 
excise inspector for Western Pennsylvania, his fine country 
residence, about 7 m. south-west of Pittsburg, was attacked by 
a mob of about 500 men on the i6th and I7th of. July 1794- 
The defenders of the property (who included a squad of soldiers 
from the garrison at Pittsburg) killed two and wounded several 
of the attacking party, but they were finally forced to surrender, 
and General Neville's mansion and other buildings were burned 
to the ground. A mass meeting of about SOCXD citizens of the 
above-mentioned counties (many of them armed militiamen), 
at Braddock's Field, on the ist and 2nd of August 1794, threat- 
ened to take possession of Fort Lafayette and to burn Pittsburg, 
but cooler counsel prevailed, and after voting to proscribe several 
persons, and marching in a body through the streets of the town, 
the crowd dispersed without doing any damage. Upon the 
arrival in the following November of the troops sent by President 
Washington, a military court of inquiry, held at Pittsburg, 
caused the arrest of several persons, who were sent to Phila- 
delphia for trial, where some of them were found guilty and 
sentenced to terms of imprisonment, but the sentences were 
not enforced. 

The town was made the county-seat in 1791 , it was incorporated 
as a borough in 1794, the charter was revived in 1804, and the 
borough was chartered as a city in 1816. As early as the year 
of its incorporation as a borough Philadelphia and Baltimore 
merchants had established an important trade with it. Their 
goods were carried in Conestoga wagons to Shippensburg and 
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and Hagerstown, Maryland, taken 
from there to Pittsburg on pack horses, and exchanged for 
Pittsburg products; these products were carried by boat to New 
Orleans, where they were exchanged for sugar, molasses, &c., 
and these were carried through the gulf and along the coast 
to Baltimore and Philadelphia. Boat-building was begun in 
Pittsburg in 1797 or earlier; the galley " President Adams," 
built by the government, was launched here in 1798, and the 
" Senator Ross," completed in the same year, was launched in 
1799. In 1797 glassworks which were the first to use coal as 
a fuel in making glass were built here; later Pittsburg profited 
greatly by the use of its great store of natural gas in the manu- 
facture of glass. In 1806 the manufacture of iron was well begun, 
and by 1825 this had become the leading industry. On the loth 
of April 1845 a considerable portion of the city was swept by 
fire, and in July 1877, during the great railway strike of that 
year, a large amount of property was destroyed by a mob. The 
commercial importance of the city was increased by the canal 
from Pittsburg to Philadelphia, built by the state in 1834 at a 
cost of $10,000,000. The first petroleum pipe line reached 
Pittsburg in 1875. A movement to consolidate the cities of 
Pittsburg and Allegheny, together with some adjacent boroughs, 
.was begun in 1853-1854. It failed entirely in that year but 
in 1867 Lawrenceville, Peebles, Collins, Liberty, Pitt and Oak- 
land, all lying between the two rivers, were annexed to Pittsburg; 
in 1872 there was a further annexation of a district embracing 
27 sq. m. south of the Monongahela river; in 1906 Allegheny 
(q.v.) , although a large majority of those voting on the question 
in that city were opposed to it, was annexed, and in November 
1907 the Supreme Court of the United States declared valid 
the act of the state legislature under which the vote was taken. 

See N. B. Craig, The History of Pittsburgh (Pittsburg, 1851); 
Early History of Western Pennsylvania and the West, by a gentleman 
of the bar J. D. Rupp (Pittsburg, 1848); William H. Egle, 



Illustrated History of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 
Pa., 1876) ; Sarah H. Killikelly, The History of Pittsburgh, Its Rise and 
Progress (Pittsburg, 1906) ; S. H. Church, " Pittsburgh the Industrial 
City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle States (New 
York, 1899) ; G. H. Thurston, Pittsburgh and Allegheny in the Cen- 
tennial Year (Pittsburg, 1876); for a history of the various forts as 
such, Report of the Commission to Locate the Frontier Forts of Penn- 
sylvania, vol. li. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1896) ; and for a thorough study 
of economic and social conditions in Pittsburg, P. U. Kellogg (cd.), 
The Pittsburg Survey (6 vols., New York, 1910 sqq.), prepared under 
the direction of the Sage Foundation. 

PITTSFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Berkshire county, 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the western part of the state among 
the Berkshire Hills, and about 150 m. W. of Boston. Pop. 
(1890), 17,281; (1900), 21,766, of whom 4344 were foreign-born; 
(1910 census), 32,121. Area, about 41 sq m. It is served 
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the Boston & 
Albany (New York Central & Hudson River) railways, and by 
two inter-urban electric lines. Pittsfield is a popular summer 
resort; it lies in a plain about 1000 ft. above sea-level, is sur- 
rounded by the picturesque Berkshire Hills, and is situated in 
a region of numerous lakes, one of the largest Lake Pontoosuc 
being a summer pleasure resort. On either side of the city 
flow the east and west branches of the Housatonic river. Stand- 
ing in the public green, in the centre of the city, is the original 
statue (by Launt Thompson) of the " Massachusetts Color 
Bearer," which has been reproduced on the battlefield of 
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The principal institutions are the 
House of Mercy Hospital, with which is connected the Henry 
W. Bishop Memorial Training School for nurses, the Berkshire 
Home for aged women, the Berkshire Athenaeum, containing 
the public library, the Crane Art Museum and a Young Men's 
Christian Association. Prominent buildings are St Joseph's 
Cathedral and the buildings of the Berkshire Life Insurance 
Company, the Agricultural National Bank and the Berkshire 
County Savings Bank. In the south-western part of Pittsfield, 
on the boundary between it and Hancock, is Shaker Village, 
settled about 1790 by Shakers. Pittsfield has water-power and 
important manufacturing industries. In 1905 its factory 
products were valued at $8,577,358, or 49-1% more than in 
1900. Fully half of the manufactures consist of textile goods. 

The first settlement in what is now Pittsfield was made in 
1743, but was soon abandoned on account of Indian troubles. 
In 1749 the settlement was revived, but the settlers did not 
bring their families to the frontier until 1752. The settlement 
was first called " Boston Plantation," or " Poontoosuck," but 
in 1761, when it was incorporated as a township, the name was 
changed to Pittsfield, in honour of the elder William Pitt. In 
1891 Pittsfield was chartered as a city. It was here, in the 
Appleton (or Plunkett) House, known as " Elm Knoll," and 
built by Thomas Gold, father-in-law of Nathan Appleton, that 
in 1845 Henry W. Longfellow (who married Nathan Appleton's 
daughter) wrote his poem " The Old Clock on the Stairs." For 
thirty years (1842-1872) Pittsfield was the home of the Rev. 
John Todd (1800-1873), the author of numerous books, of which 
Lectures to Children (1834; 2nd series, 1858) and The Student's 
Manual (1835) were once widely read. From 1807 to 1816 
Elkanah Watson (1758-1842), a prominent farmer and merchant, 
lived at what is now the Country Club, and while there intro- 
duced the merino sheep into Berkshire county and organized 
the Berkshire Agricultural Society; he is remembered for his 
advocacy of the building of a canal connecting the Great Lakes 
with the Atlantic Ocean, and as the author of Memoirs : Men 
and Times of the Revolution (1855), edited by his son, W. C. 
Watson. 

PITTSTON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 
on the Susquehanna river just below the mouth of the Lacka- 
wanna, about n m. S.W. of Scranton and about 9 m. N.E. of 
Wilkes-Barr6. Pop. (1890), 10,302; (1900), 12,556, of whom 
3394 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 16,267. It is served 
by the Erie, the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western, the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware & 
Hudson, and the Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley railways; 
there is an electric railway from Pittston to Scranton, and a 



PITYRIASIS PIUS (POPES) 



683 



belt-line electric railway connects Pittston with Avoca, Nanti- 
coke, Plymouth and Wilkes-Barre. Two bridges connect the. 
city with the borough of West Pittston (pop., 1910, 6848). 
Pittston is in the midst of the richest anthracite coal region of 
the state, and fire-clay also abounds in the vicinity. In 1905 
the value of the factory products was $1,474,928 (47-8% more 
than in 1900). Pittston, named in honour of William Pitt, 
earl of Chatham, was one of the five original towns founded in 
the Wyoming Valley by the Susquehanna Company of Con- 
necticut; it was first settled about 1770 and was incorporated 
as a borough in 1803. It was chartered as a city in 1894. 

PITYRIASIS VERSICOLOR (Gr. iriTVpiaais, scurf, from 
virvpov, bran), a skin disease, consisting of patches of brownish 
discolorations of various sizes and shapes, mostly on the front 
of the body, and often attended with itching, especially after 
heating exercise. The pigmentation seems to radiate from the 
orifices of hair-follicles. The epidermis is in a scaly condition 
over the patch, and among the debris of the epidermic cell there 
may be seen minute oval spores due to a vegetable parasite, 
the Microsporon furfur. The disease is mostly one of adult age, 
found all over the world, and not associated in any special way 
with poor general health. The treatment consists of rubbing 
in an ointment of potassium sulphide or one of the mercurial 
ointments, or using sulphur-soap habitually. 

PIURA, the northernmost maritime department of Peru, 
bounded north by the Gulf of Guayaquil, N.E. by Ecuador, S. 
by the departments of Cajarnarca and Lambayeque, and W. by 
the Pacific. Area, 14,849 sq. m.; pop. (1906, estimate), 154,080 
both totals exclusive of the province of Tumbes, or Tumbez 
(area, about 1980 sq. m.; pop., in 1906, about 8000), which 
has been administratively separated from the department for 
military reasons. The department belongs partly to the arid 
coastal plain that extends from the Gulf of Guayaquil southward 
nearly to Valparaiso, and partly to a broken mountainous region 
belonging to the Western Cordilleras. The coastal zone is 
traversed by the Tumbes, Chira and Piura rivers, which have 
their sources in the melting snows of the higher Andes and flow 
westward across the desert to the coast. The valleys of the 
Chira and Piura are irrigated and maintain large populations. 
Rough cotton, called " vegetable wool," and tobacco are the 
principal products, and are also produced in the valley of the 
Tumbes and in some of the elevated mountain districts. On 
the upland pastures cattle have long been raised, and goat- 
breeding has been added in modern times. Mules also are reared. 
Petroleum is an important product, and there are wells at a 
number of places along the coast, from Tumbes to Sechura, the 
most productive being those of Talara and Zorritos. There are 
sulphur deposits in the Sechura desert, and salt is manufactured 
at some places on the southern coast. The making of Panama 
hats from the fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a household 
industry. The capital is Piura (est. pop. 9100 in 1906), on the 
Piura river, about 35 m. (direct) E.S.E. of Paita, and 164 ft. 
above sea-level. It was founded by Pizarro in 1531 under the 
name of San Miguel, at a place called Tangarara, nearer Paita, 
but the present site was afterwards adopted. A railway (60 m. 
long) by way of Sullana connects with the port of Paita, and 
an extension of 6 m. runs S.S.E. to Catacaos. Other towns of 
the department, with their estimated populations in 1906, are: 
Tumbes, or Tumbez (2300), the most northern port of Peru, on 
the Gulf of Guayaquil, celebrated as the place where Pizarro 
landed in 1531; Paita; Sechura (6450), on Sechura Bay in the 
southern part of the department, with exports of salt and sulphur; 
Sullana (5300), an inland town with railway connexions in the 
fertile Chira valley; Morropon (3800) on the upper Piura; Huan- 
cabamba, the centre of a tobacco district in the mountains; 
and Tambo Grande (6100) and Chulucanas (4600), both in the 
fertile Piura valley above the capital. 

PIUS, the name of ten popes. 

Pius I., pope from about 141 to 154. 'He was the brother of 
Hernias, author of the Shepherd. 

Pius II. (Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, known in literature as 
Aeneas Silvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, was born on the i8th 



of October 1405, at Corsignano (afterward called Pienza after 
lim), near Siena. His family, though poor, was noble, and 
claimed to trace descent from Romulus. The eldest of eighteen 
children, he had to work on the farm with his father, until a 
priest taught him the rudiments of letters, which enabled him, 
at the age of eighteen, to go as a poor student to Siena, dividing 
bis time between severe humanistic studies and a life of sensual 
pleasure. He was attracted to Florence by the teaching of 
Filelfo. His father urged him to become a lawyer, but he 
accepted the position of secretary to Domenico Capranica, 
bishop of Fermo, and went with him to the council of Basel, 
where he stayed several years (1431-1435), changing masters 
whenever he could improve his position. As secretary of the 
bishop of Novara he became engaged in a conspiracy against 
Pope Eugenius IV.; his roaster was caught and imprisoned, and 
Aeneas only saved himself by a hasty flight. He was next 
(1435) employed as secretary of Cardinal Nicholas Albergati 
(d. 1443) at the congress of Arras, where peace was made between 
France and Burgundy. From here he took a long journey to 
Scotland and England, on a secret diplomatic mission; he had 
numerous adventures, in one of which he nearly lost his life. 
In 1436 he was back at Basel, and, although a layman, obtained 
a seat in the council and exercised considerable influence. In 
order to control it better Eugenius tried to get the council to 
move to Florence; a minority agreed and seceded; the majority, 
however, stayed where they were and took vigorous measures 
against the pope, culminating in his deposition on the 25th of 
June 1438. Aeneas took an active part in the council; and 
though he still declined to take orders, he was given a position 
on the conciliar conclave which elected Amadeus of Savoy as 
pope under the title of Felix V. In return for his services Felix 
made Aeneas papal secretary. 

A new period of his career opened in 1442, when he was sent 
by the council to take part in the diet of Frankfort-on-Main. 
Here he met Frederick III. of Germany, who made him poet 
laureate and his private secretary. He ingratiated himself 
with the chancellor, Kaspar Schlick, at Vienna, one of whose 
adventures he celebrated in Lucretia and Eurialus, a novel in 
the style of Boccaccio. At this period he also wrote his witty 
but immoral play, Chrisis. In 1446 he took orders as subdeacon, 
and wrote that he meant to reform, " forsaking Venus for 
Bacchus," chiefly on the ground of satiety, and also, as he 
frankly wrote, because the clerical profession offered him more 
advantages than he could secure outside it. 

Aeneas was useful to Frederick as a diplomatist, and managed 
to give all parties the impression that he was the devoted 
advocate of each. During the struggle between pope and 
council he induced Frederick to be neutral for a while. He tcok 
an important part in the diet of Nuremberg (1444), and being 
sent on an embassy to Eugenius in the following year he made 
his peace with the pope. At the diet of Frankfort (Sept. 1446) 
Aeneas was instrumental in changing the majority of the electors 
from their hostile position towards pope and emperor into a 
friendly one. He brought the good news to Eugenius shortly 
before his death (Feb. 7, 1447), and made friends with the new 
pope, Nicholas V., by whom he was made bishop of Siena. He 
was an agent of Frederick in making the celebrated concordat 
of Vienna (also called concordat of Aschaffenburg) in February 
1448. His services to pope and emperor brought him the titles 
of prince of the empire and cardinal, positions which he used 
rather unscrupulously to get as many lucrative benefices into 
his hands as possible. Those in Germany brought him two 
thousand ducats a year. 

The death of Calixtus III. (who succeeded Nicholas V.) 
occurred on the sth of August 1458. After a hot fight in the 
conclave, in which it seemed that the wealthy French cardinal, 
Guillaume d'Estouteville, archbishop of Rouen and bishop of 
Ostia, would be elected, the intrigues of Aeneas and of his friend 
Rodrigo Borgia (later the notorious Alexander VI.) gave the 
victory to the cardinal of Siena, who took the title Pius II., with 
a reminiscence of Virgil's " pius Aeneas." The humanists 
hailed his election with joy, and flocked around to secure a share 



PIUS (POPES) 



of the good things, but they were bitterly disappointed, as Pius 
did not prove himself the liberal and undiscriminating patron 
they hoped. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 had made a 
deep impression upon Pius, and' he never ceased to preach the 
crusade against the Turk. In September 1459 he opened a 
congress at Mantua for the purpose of considering what could 
be done in this direction. His proposals for the raising of troops 
and money met with general opposition. The French were angry 
because Pius had crowned the Spanish claimant, Ferdinand, 
king of Naples, and thus disposed of the pretensions of Rene 
of Anjou. The Germans also objected to Pius's plans, but finally 
agreed to furnish some troops and money, promises which they did 
not carry out. Pius felt how much the position of the papacy had 
fallen in importance since the days of Urban and Innocent III., 
and, believing that the change was due to the general councils 
which had asserted power over the popes, he changed his 
position, which before his election to the papal throne had 
been that of a warm advocate of the conciliar claims, and issued 
(Jan. 1460) the bull Execrabilis et in pristinis temporibus in- 
auditus, in which he condemned as heretical the doctrine that 
the councils were superior to the popes, and proclaimed the 
anathema against any one who should dare to appeal to one. 
He issued another bull at the same time, promising forgiveness 
of sins to those who would take part in the crusade, and then 
dissolved the congress. 

While Pius was at Mantua war broke out between the French 
and Spanish in southern Italy, and a rising of the barons devas- 
tated the Campagna. Hurrying back to Rome Pius succeeded 
in quelling the disorders, and sent his nephew Antonio Todes- 
chini to the aid of Ferdinand, who made him duke of Amalfi 
and gave him his natural daughter Maria in marriage. This 
measure still further alienated the pope from the French, with 
whom he was at that time negotiating for the abrogation of the 
Pragmatic Sanction. When Louis XI. came to the throne 
(Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he had abolished the 
Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get the kingdom of 
Naples for his countryman Rene of Anjou. When Pius refused 
to do anything to the prejudice of Ferdinand, Louis changed 
his attitude, and allowed the protests of the university of Paris 
and the parlements to persuade him to restore the ancient 
liberties of the Gallican Church. At the same time a serious 
quarrel with the Germans prevented anything being done 
towards a crusade. George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, was 
plotting to depose the emperor Frederick III., who was sup- 
ported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of Mainz, took the side 
of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius's measures by appealing to a 
general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, but 
kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize him 
again. The quarrel with Podiebrad, who was accused of 
supporting the Utraquist heresy, continued with increasing 
bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of 
Pius. In the meantime the pope did what he could to further 
the cause of the crusade. The discovery of alum mines at Tolfa 
gave him an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate 
the zeal of Christendom, Pius took the cross on the i8th of June 
1464. He set out for Venice, where he intended to sail for the 
East, but he was attacked with a fever, and on the I4th of 
August 1464 he died. 

Pius II. was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novel 
and a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were con- 
sidered models of eloquence in their day. His most valuable 
work, however, is his Commentaries, a history of his own life 
and times, told in an interesting and rational manner. He is 
very frank about himself, and most of the adverse judgments 
which have been pronounced on his character have been based 
on his own confessions. He was an opportunist, sailing along 
with any favourable breeze, and not quite enough in earnest 
about anything to pursue the same tack steadily for long. We 
must give him the credit, however, of advocating a statesman- 
like policy in the interests of the whole of Europe in trying 
to get the powers to unite against the Turks, who threatened to 
overwhelm them all. 



See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (1904), vol. xv., where a full 
bibliography will be found; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy 
during the Reformation, vol. ii. (London, 1882); L. Pastor, History of 
the Popes from the dose of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1896, vol. ii.) ; 
Voigt, Pius II. (1856-1863). The Commentaries of Pius were pub- 
lished in 1584, under the name of Gobelinus Persona. His other 
works are found in Aeneae Silvii opera omnia (Basel, 1551). See 
also W. Boulting, Aeneas Silvius (1909). (P. SM.) 

Pius III. (Francesco Nanni-Todeschini-Piccolomini), pope 
from the 22nd of September to the i8th of October 1503, was 
born at Siena on the pth of May 1439. After studying law a* 
Perugia, he was made archbishop of Siena and cardinal-deacon 
of St Eustachio, when only twenty-two years of age, by his 
uncle Pius II., who permitted him to assume the name and arms 
of the Piccolomini. He was employed by subsequent popes in 
several important legations, as by Paul II. at the diet of 
Regensburg, and by Sixtus IV. to secure the restoration of 
ecclesiastical authority in Umbria. He bravely opposed the 
policy of Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the dis- 
turbances consequent upon the death of the latter, through 
the interested influence of Cardinal della Rovere, afterwards 
Julius II., and was crowned on the 8th of October 1503. He 
permitted Cesare Borgia to 'return to Rome, but promptly 
took in hand the reform of the curia: Pius was a man of 
blameless life, and would doubtless have accomplished much 
had he lived. His successor was Julius II. 

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans, by F. I. Antrobus 
(London, 1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. (Lon- 
don, 1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii., 
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); Piccolomini, 
"II Pontificate di Pio III.," m^Archivio star, ital., vol. ( v.(Firenze, 1903). 

Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medici, or " Medighino "), pope 
from 1559 to 1565, was born at Milan on the 3:st of March 1499, 
of an obscure family, not related to the Medici of Florence (a 
claim to such relationship was advanced after Giovanni Angelo 
had attained to prominence). The fortune of the family was 
established by an elder brother, Gian Giacomo. who fought his 
way to the marquisate of Marignano and distinguished him- 
self in the service of the emperor. Giovanni Angelo studied 
in Bologna and Pavia, and for some time followed the law. 
Entering the service of the Church, he found favour with Paul III., 
who entrusted him with the governorship of several important 
towns, and in 1549 made him a cardinal. Julius III. sent him 
upon missions to Germany and Hungary. With Paul IV. he 
was out of favour, because not in sympathy with his policy, and 
accordingly retired to Milan. In the protracted and momentous 
conclave that followed the death of Paul the election of Pius 
(Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a compromise between the Spanish 
and French factions. 

In temperament and habit Pius was the antithesis of his 
predecessor: affable, vivacious, convivial. He was, moreover, 
astute, diplomatic and experienced in affairs. He allowed the 
reform movement free course, but tried to repair certain in- 
justices of Paul IV. (for example, releasing and reinstating 
Morone, who had been imprisoned on a charge of heresy), and 
mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nephews of 
Paul he showed no mercy: they were charged with various crimes, 
condemned, upon testimony of suspicious validity, and executed 
on the 5th of March 1561. The Colonnesi, who had been active 
in the prosecution, recovered Paliano. But under Pius V. 
judgment was reversed, the memory of the Caraffa rehabilitated, 
and restitution made to the family. Pius IV. himself was not 
guiltless of nepotism; but the bestowment of the cardinalate 
and the archbishopric of Milan upon his nephew, the pure and 
upright Carlo Borromeo, redounded to the honour of his pontifi- 
cate and the welfare of the church. 

With England lost to the papacy, Germany overwhelmingly 
Protestant, and France on the verge of civil war, Pius realized 
how fatuous was the anti-Spanish policy of his predecessor. 
He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and conciliated 
Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. But sub- 
sequently, antagonized by Philip's arrogance, he inclined to- 
wards France, and gave troops and money for the war against 
the Huguenots. 



PIUS (POPES) 



685 



After a suspension of ten years the council of Trent reconvened 
on the i8th of January 1562. Among the demands presented 
by the various nations were, the recognition of the equality of 
the episcopate, communion in both kinds, clerical marriage, and 
the use of the vernacular in Church services. It required all the 
pope's diplomacy to avoid compliance on the one hand, and a 
breach with the powers on the other. Thanks to Morone and 
Borromeo, however, he achieved his end. The council was 
dissolved on the 4th of December 1563, and its decrees and 
definitions confirmed by the pope (Jan. 26, 1564), who reserved 
to himself the sole right of interpretation. The decrees were 
immediately accepted by most of the Catholic states; only 
tardily, however, and with reservation by France and Spain. 
Various measures were taken for carrying the decrees into effect : 
residence was strictly enjoined; plurality of benefices prohibited; 
the Inquisition resumed, under the presidency of Ghislieri 
(afterwards Pius V.); a new edition of the Index published 
(1564); and the " Tridentine creed" promulgated (Nov. 13, 

1564)- 

After the termination of the council Pius indulged his desire 
for ease and pleasure, to the great offence of the rigorists. A 
certain fanatic, Benedetto Accolti, brooding over the pope's 
unworthiness, felt inspired to remove him, but his plot was 
discovered and punished (1565). Pius fortified Rome, and con- 
tributed much to the embellishment of the city among other 
works, the church of Sta Maria degli Angeli in the Baths of 
Diocletian; the Porta Pia; the Villa Pia in the Vatican Gardens; 
and the Palace of the Conservatori. He died on the gth of 
December, and was succeeded by Pius V. 

See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom. (a 
contemporary of Pius) ; Ciaconius, Vitae el res gestae summorum 
pontiff, rom. (Rome 1601-1602; also contemporary); T. Muller, 
Das Konklave Pius IV. (Gotha, 1889; more comprehensive than the 
title suggests); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 323 seq., 358 
seq. ; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, 534 seq., 730 seq. 

(T. F. C.) 

Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri), pope from 1566 to 1572, was born 
on the 1 7th of January 1504, in the Milanese. At the age of 
fourteen he became a Dominican monk. His austere life, his 
vehemence in attacking heresy and his rigorous discipline as 
prior of several monasteries proved his fitness for the work of 
reform, and he was appointed inquisitor in Como, where his 
zeal provoked such opposition as to compel his recall (1550). 
The chief inquisitor, Caraffa, convinced of his value, straightway 
sent him upon a mission to Lombardy, and in 1551 appointed 
him commissary-general of the Holy Office. When Caraffa 
became pope, Ghislieri was made bishop of Nepi and Sutri, 
cardinal (1557), and finally grand inquisitor, which office he 
discharged in a manner to make the name of " Fra Michele dell' 
Inquisizione " a terror. In this office he was continued by 
Pius IV., whom, however, he repelled by his excessive severity, 
and antagonized by his censoriousness and obstinacy. But the 
movement with which he was so fully identified was irresistible; 
and, after the death of Pius IV., the rigorists, led by Borromeo, 
had no difficulty in making him pope (Jan. 7, 1566). 

Though pope, Pius did not cease to be a monk: his ascetic 
mode of life and his devotions suffered no interruption. With- 
out delay he applied himself to the work of reform. Decrees 
and ordinances were issued with astonishing rapidity: the papal 
court was rid of everything unseemly, and became a model of 
sobriety; prostitutes were driven from the city, or confined to a 
certain quarter; severe penalties were attached to Sunday dese- 
cration, profanity and animal baiting; clerical residence was 
enforced; conventuals were compelled to live in strict seclusion 
according to their vows; catechetical instruction was enjoined. 
A new catechism appeared in 1566, followed by an improved 
breviary (1568), and an improved missal (1570). The use of 
indulgences and dispensations was restricted, and the penitential 
system reformed. 

Pius was the avowed enemy of nepotism. One nephew, it 
is true, he made cardinal, but allowed him no influence: the rest 
of his relatives he kept at a distance. By the constitution 
Admonet nos (March 29, 1567), he forbade the reinvestiture 



of fiefs that should revert to the Holy See, and bound the 
cardinals by oath to observe it. In March 1569 Pius ordered 
the expulsion of the Jews from the states of the Church. For 
commercial reasons they were allowed to remain in Rome and 
Ancona, but only upon humiliating conditions. In February 
1571, the Umih'ati, a degenerate monastic order of Milan, was 
suppressed on account of its complicity in an attempt upon the 
life of the archbishop, Carlo Borromeo. 

The election of Pius to the papacy was the enthronement of 
the Inquisition: the utter extinction of heresy was his darling 
ambition, and the possession of power only intensified his passion. 
The rules governing the Holy Office were sharpened; old charges, 
long suspended, were revived; rank offered no protection, but 
rather exposed its possessor to fiercer attack; none were pursued 
more relentlessly than the cultured, among whom many of the 
Protestant doctrines had found acceptance; princes and states 
withdrew their protection, and courted the favour of the Holy 
See by surrendering distinguished offenders. Cosmo de' Medici 
handed over Pietro Carnesecchi (and two years later received in 
reward the title of grand duke, Sept. 1369); Venice delivered 
Guido Zanetti; Philip II., Bartolome de Carranza, the arch- 
bishop of Toledo. In March 1571 the Congregation of the 
Index was established and greater thoroughness introduced into 
the pursuit of heretical literature. The result was the flight of 
hundreds of printers to Switzerland and Germany. Thus heresy 
was hunted out of Italy: the only regret of Pius was that he 
had sometimes been too lenient. In 1567 Pius condemned the 
doctrines of Michael Baius, a professor of Louvain, who taught 
justification by faith, asserted the sufficiency of the Scriptures, 
and disparaged outward forms. Baius submitted; but his 
doctrines were afterwards taken up by the Jansenists. 

The political activities of Pius were controlled by one principle, 
war upon the heretic and infidel. He spurred Philip II. on in the 
Netherlands, and approved the bloody work of Alva. He 
denounced all temporizing with the Huguenots, and commanded 
their utter extermination (ad internedonem -usque). While it 
cannot be proven that he was privy to the massacre of St 
Bartholomew, still his violent counsels could not fail to stir up 
the most savage passions. He exclaimed loudly against the 
emperor's toleration of Protestantism, and all but wished his 
defeat at the hands of the Turks. He urged a general coalition 
of the Catholic states against the Protestants; and yet published, 
in sharper form, the bull In coena domini (1568), which was 
regarded by these very states as an attack upon their sovereignty. 
One of his cherished schemes was the invasion of England and 
the dethronement of Elizabeth, whom he excommunicated and 
declared a usurper (Feb. 25, 1570); but he was obliged to content 
himself with abetting plots and fomenting rebellions. He did, 
however, effect an alliance with Spain and Venice against the 
Turks, and contributed to the victory of Lepanto (Oct. 6, 



Thus lived and wrought Pius, presenting " a strange union 
of singleness of purpose, magnanimity, austerity and profound 
religious feeling with sour bigotry, relentless hatred and bloody 
persecution " (Ranke). He died on the ist of May 1572; and 
was canonized by Clement XI. in 1712. 

See Ciaconius, Vitae el res gestae summorum pontiff, rom. (Rome, 
1601-1602; a contemporary of Pius); Acta sanctorum, maij, torn. i. 
pp. 616 seq., containing the life by Gabuzio (1605), based upon an 
earlier one by Catena (1586); Falloux, Hist, de St Pie V. (3rd ed., 
Paris, 1858), eulogistic; Mendham, Life and Pontificate of St Pius V. 
(London, 1832), a bitter polemic. The life of Pius has also been 
written by Fuenmayor (Madrid, 1595), Paolo Alessandro Maffei 
(Rome, 1712), and by T. M. Granello (Bologna, 1877). His letters 
have been edited by Catena (vide supra) , Goubau (Antwerp, 1 640) , and 
a select number in a French translation, by de Potter (Paris, 1826). 
See also Hilliger, Die Wahl Pius V. zum Papste (Leipzig, 1891); 
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 361 seq., 384 seq.; and von 
Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, 557 seq. (T. F. C.) 

Pitrs VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi), pope from 1775 to 1799, 
was born at Cesena, on the 27th of December 1717. After taking 
the degree of doctor of laws he went to Ferrara and became 
the private secretary of Cardinal Ruffo, in whose bishopric of 
Ostia and Velletri he held the post of uditore until 1753. His 



686 



PIUS (POPES) 



skill in the conduct of a mission to the court of Naples won him 
the esteem of Benedict XIV., who appointed him one of his 
secretaries and canon of St Peter's. In 1758 he was raised to the 
prelature, and in 1766 to the treasurership of the apostolic 
chamber by Clement XIII. Those who chafed under his 
conscientious economies cunningly induced Clement XIV. to 
create him cardinal-priest of San Onofrio on the 26th of April 
!773> a promotion which rendered him for the time innocuous. 
In the four months' conclave which followed the death of 
Clement XIV., Spain, France and Portugal at length dropped their 
objection to Braschi, who was after all one of the more moderate 
opponents of the anti-Jesuit policy of the previous pope, and he 
was elected to the vacant see on the isth of February 1775. ' 

His earlier acts gave fair promise of liberal rule and reform in 
the defective administration of the papal states. He showed 
discrimination in his benevolences, reprimanded Potenziani, the 
governor of Rome, for unsuppressed disorders, appointed a 
council of cardinals to remedy the state of the finances and 
relieve the pressure of imposts, called to account Nicolo Bischi 
for the expenditure of moneys intended for the purchase of grain, 
reduced the annual disbursements by the suppression of several 
pensions, and adopted a system of bounties for the encourage- 
ment of agriculture. The circumstances of his election, however, 
involved him in difficulties from the outset of his pontificate. 
He had received the support of the ministers of the Crowns and 
the anti-Jesuit party upon a tacit understanding that he would 
continue the action of Clement, by whose brief Dominus ac 
redemptor (1773) the dissolution of the Society of Jesus had been 
pronounced. On the other hand the zclanli, who believed him 
secretly inclined towards Jesuitism, expected from him some 
reparation for the alleged wrongs of the previous reign. As a 
result of these complications Pius was led into a series of half 
measures which gave little satisfaction to either party: although 
it is perhaps largely due to him that the order was able to escape 
shipwreck in White Russia and Silesia; at but one juncture did 
he even seriously consider its universal re-establishment, namely 
in 1792, as a bulwark against revolutionary ideas. Besides 
facing dissatisfaction with this temporizing policy, Pius met with 
practical protests tending to the limitation of papal authority. 
To be sure " Febronius," the chief German literary exponent of 
the old Gallican ideas, was himself led (not without scandal) to 
retract; but his positions were adopted in Austria. Here the 
social and ecclesiastical reforms undertaken by Joseph II. and 
his minister Kaunitz touched the supremacy of Rome so nearly 
that in the hope of staying them Pius adopted the excep- 
tional course of visiting Vienna in person. He left Rome on 
the 27th of February 1782, and, though magnificently received 
by the emperor, his mission proved a fiasco; he was, however, 
able a few years later to curb those German archbishops 
who, in 1786 at the Congress at Ems, had shown a tendency 
towards independence. In Naples difficulties necessitating 
certain concessions in respect of feudal homage were raised by 
the minister Tannucci, and more serious disagreements arose 
with Leopold I. and Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia and 
Prato, upon the questions of reform in Tuscany; but Pius did 
not think fit to condemn the offensive decrees of the synod of 
Pistoia (1786) till nearly eight years had elapsed. At the out- 
break of the French Revolution Pius was compelled to see the 
old Gallican Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecclesiastical 
possessions in France confiscated and an effigy of himself burnt by 
the populace at the Palais Royal. The murder of the republican 
agent, Hugo Basseville, in the streets of Rome (January 1793) 
gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with 
complicity by the French Convention; and Pius threw in his 
lot with the league against France. In 1796 Napoleon invaded 
Italy, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and 
Loreto. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino 
on the igth of February 1797; but on the 28th of December of 
that year, in a riot created by some Italian and French revolu- 
tionists, General Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a 
new pretext furnished for invasion. General Berthier marched 
to Rome, entered it unopposed on the I3th of February 1798, 



and, proclaiming a republic, demanded of the pope the renuncia- 
tion of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal he was taken 
prisoner, and on the 2oth of February was escorted from the 
Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. The 
French declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removal 
by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the citadel 
of Valence, where he died six weeks later, on the 2pth of August 
1799. Pius VII. succeeded him. 

The name of Pius VI. is associated with many and often 
unpopular attempts to revive the splendour of Leo X. in the 
promotion of art and public works the words " Munificentia 
Pii VI. P. M." graven in all parts of the city, giving rise amongst 
his impoverished subjects to such satire as the insertion of a 
minute loaf in the hands of Pasquin with that inscription 
beneath it. He is best remembered in connexion with the estab- 
lishment of the museum of the Vatican, begun at his suggestion 
by his predecessor, and with an unpractical and expensive 
attempt to drain the Pontine marshes. 

AUTHORITIES. Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VI.," in Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyklopddie, 3rd ed., vol. xv. pp. 441-451 (Leipzig, 1904, 
with elaborate bibliography); F. Nielsen, History of the Papacy 
in the icjth Century, vol. i. chap. vii. (London, 1906); J. Gendry, Pie 
VI. sa vie, son pontifical, d'apres les archives vaticanes et de nombreux 
documents inedits (2 vols., Paris, 1907). (W. W. R.*) 

Pius VII. (Luigi Barnaba Chiaramcnti), pope from 1800 to 
1823, the son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti and the deeply 
religious Countess Ghini, was born at Cesena on the i4th of 
August 1740 (not 1742). After studying at Ravenna, at the age 
of sixteen he entered the Benedictine monastery of St Mary in 
his native town: here he was known as Gregorio. Almost 
immediately he was sent by his superiors to Padua and to Rome 
for a further course of studies in theology. He then held various 
teaching appointments in the colleges of his order at Parma and 
at Rome. He was created an abbot of his order by his relative 
Pius VI., who also appointed him bishop of Tivoli on the i6th 
of December 1782, and on the I4th of February 1785, because 
of excellent conduct of office, raised him to the cardinalate and 
the see of Imcla. At the death of Pius VI. the conclave met at 
Venice on the 3oth of November 1799, with the result that 
Chiaramonti, the candidate of the French cardinal-archbishop 
Maury, who was most skilfully supported by the secretary of 
the conclave Ercole Consalvi, was elected pope on the I4th of 
March 1800. He was crowned on the 2ist of that month; 
in the following July he entered Rome, on the nth of August 
appointed Consalvi cardinal-deacon and secretary of state, and 
busied himself with administrative reforms. 

His attention was at once directed to the ecclesiastical anarchy 
of France, where, apart from the broad schism on the question 
of submission to the civil constitution of the clergy, discipline 
had been so far neglected that a large proportion of the churches 
were closed, dioceses existed without bishops or with more than 
one, Jansenism and clerical marriage were on the increase, and 
indifference or hostility widely prevailed amongst the people. 
Encouraged by Napoleon's desire for the re-establishment of the 
Roman Catholic religion in France, Pius negotiated the celebrated 
concordat, which was signed at Paris on the isth of July and 
ratified by Pius on the I4th of August 1801 (see CONCORDAT). 
The importance of this agreement was, however, considerably 
lessened by the "articles organiques " appended to it by the 
French government on the 8th of April 1802. In 1804 Napoleon 
opened negotiations to secure at the pope's hands his formal 
consecration as emperor. After some hesitation Pius was induced 
to perform the ceremony at Notre Dame and to extend his visit 
to Paris for four months; but in return for these favours he was 
able to obtain from Napoleon merely one or two minor conces- 
sions. Pius, who arrived in Rome on the i6th of May 1805, gave 
to the college of cardinals a rose-coloured report of his experiences; 
but disillusionment was rapid. Napoleon soon began I o disregard 
the Italian concordat of 1803, and himself decreed the dissolution 
of the marriage of his brother Jerome with Miss Patterson of 
Baltimore. The irritation between France and the Vatican 
increased so rapidly that on the 2nd of February 1808 Rome was 



PIUS (POPES) 



687 



occupied by General Miollis; a month later the provinces of 
Ancona, Macerata, Fermo and Urbino were united to the kingdom 
of Italy, and diplomatic relations between Napoleon and Rome 
were broken off; finally, by a decree issued from Schonbrunn 
on the I7thof May 1809, the emperor united the papal states to 
France. Pius retaliated by a bull excommunicating the invaders ; 
and, to prevent, insurrection, Miollis either on his own responsi- 
bility, as Napoleon afterwards asserted, or by order of the 
latter employed General Radet to take possession of the pope's 
person. The palace on the Quirinal was broken open during 
the night of July 5th, and, on the persistent refusal of Pius to 
rescind the bull of excommunication and to renounce his temporal 
authority, he was carried off, first to Grenoble, thence after an 
interval to Savona on the Gulf of Genoa. Here he steadfastly 
refused canonical institution to the bishops nominated by 
Napoleon; and, when it was discovered that he was maintaining 
a secret correspondence, he was deprived of all books, even of 
pcii and ink. At length, his nerves shattered by insomnia and 
fever, he was willing to give satisfactory oral assurances as to 
the institution of the French bishops. 

In May 1812 Napoleon, on the pretext that the English might 
liberate the pope if he were left at Savona, caused the aged and 
sick pontiff to be transported to Fontainebleau; the journey was 
so hard that on Mount Cenis Pius received the viaticum. Arriv- 
ing safely, however, at Fontainebleau, he was lodged in a suite 
of regal magnificence to await the return of the emperor from 
Moscow. When Napoleon arrived, he entered into personal 
negotiations with the pope, who on the 25th of January 1813 
assented to a concordat so degrading that his conscience found 
r.o relief till the 24th of March, when, on the advice of the cardinal 
Pacca and Consalvi, he abrogated it; and on the gth of May he 
proceeded to defy the emperor by declaring invalid all the official 
acts of the new French bishops. In consequence of the battle 
of Leipzig and the entry of the allied forces into France, Napoleon 
ordered in January 1814 that the pope be returned to Savona for 
safe keeping; but soon the course of events forced him to liberate 
liic pope and give back the States of the Church. On the igth 
oi March Pius left Savona, and was received with rejoicing at 
Rome on the 24th of May. While Consalvi at the Congress of 
Vienna was securing the restitution of nearly all the papal 
territory, reaction had full swing at Rome; the Jesuits were 
restored; the French legislation, much of which was of great 
social value, was repealed; the Index and the Inquisition were 
revived. On his return Consalvi conducted a more enlightened 
and highly centralized administration, based largely on the 
hmous Motu proprio of 1816; nevertheless the finances were in a 
lispcrate condition. Discontent centred perhaps in the 
Carbonari, a Liberal secret society condemned by the pope in 
iS;i. The chief triumphs of Consalvi were the negotiation of a 
Krics of valuable concordats with all the Roman- Catholic powers 
uvc Austria. In the latter years of Pius's life royalty often 
amc to Rome; the pope was very gracious to exiled kings and 
showed notable magnanimity toward the family of Napobon. 
lie also attracted many artists to the city, including the greatest 
tculptors of the time, one of whom, the Protestant Thorwaldsen, 
pcpared the tomb in which repose the remains of the gentle and 
rcuragcous pontiff, who passed into rest on the 2oth of August 
ii.'o- His successor was Leo XII. 

AUTHORITIES. Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VII.," in Herzog- 
v.uck, Realencyklopadie, xv. 451-458 (Leipzig, 1904), (long list of 
' vr literature) ; Ilario Rinien, La Diplomazia pontificia net secolo 
''IX. (Rome, 1902), two volumes treating the years 1800-1805, 

od largely on Vatican sources; I. Rinieri, Napoleone Pio VII. 

'i-lSif), relazioni storiche su documents inediti dell' archivio 
'.'io (Turin, 1906); H. Chotard, Le Pape Pie VII. a Savone 

ris, 1887); Mary H. Allies, Pius Die Seventh (London, 1897), a 
ilir Roman Catholic biography; Leo Konig, S.J. Pius VII. Die 

f-Jarisation und das Reichskonkordat (Innsbruck, 1904), based 
fly on Vienna material; H. Welschinger, Le Pape el Vempereur, 
i-l8i$ (Paris, 1905); Louis Madelin, La Rome de Napotton: la 

-iationjtanc.aise d Rome de 1809 a 1814 (Paris, 1906), an elaborate 



'W). Both these last have good bibliographies. 'W. W. R.*) 



Pius VIII. (Francesco Xaviero Castiglioni) , pope from 1829 
to 1830, who came of a notable family at Cingoli near Ancona, 
was born on the 2oth of November 1761. He- studied canon law 
at Rome, became vicar-general at Anagni and later at Fano, and 
in 1800 was appointed bishop of Montalto. Because he refused 
the oath of allegiance to the Napoleonic king of Italy he was 
carried captive to France; but in 1816 his steadfastness was 
rewarded by his being created cardinal-priest of Sta Maria in 
Trastevere; and this same year he was translated from the see 
of Montalto to that of Cesena. In 1821 he was made cardinal- 
bishop of Frascati, also grand penitentiary; and later he became 
prefect of the Congregation of the Index. In the conclave 
which followed the death of Leo XII., Castiglioni, the candidate 
of France,- was elected pope on the 3ist of March 1829. He 
avoided nepotism, abandoned the system cf espionage employed 
by his predecessor, and published an encyclical condemning 
Bible societies and secret associations. He rejoiced over 
Catholic emancipation in England, recognized Louis Philippe" as 
king of the French, and exhibited a pacific spirit in dealing with 
the problem of mixed marriages in Germany. Worn out with 
work, he died on the morning of the ist of December 1830. His 
successor was Gregory XVI. 

AUTHORITIES. Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VIII.," in Herzog- 
Hauck, Realencyklopadie, xv. 458 seq. (Leipzig, 1904, with biblio- 
graphy); F. Nielsen, A History of the Papacy in the lylh Century, 
ii- 3 l ~5 <3 (London, 1906); P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesiae 
catholicae (Regensburg, 1873). (W. W. R.*) 

Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), pope from 1846 
to 1878, was born on the I3th of May 1792 at Sinigaglia, the 
fourth son of Count Jerome and Countess Catherine Vollazi; the 
family of Mastai was of ancient descent, and the title of count 
came to it in the I7th century, while later the elder branch, 
allied by marriage with the Ferret ti family, took that name in 
addition. He spent some time at the College of Piarists in 
Volaterra, and then proceeded to Rome with the intention of 
entering the pontifical guard as an officer. In spite of his 
good connexions, he was disappointed in this aim as it became 
known that he suffered from epilepsy. The malady, however, 
was surmounted; and in 1819 he was ordained priest. After 
ministering for some time in his native town, he accompanied 
Cardinal Muzzi to Chile (1823). On his return he was entrusted 
by Leo XII. with the direction of the Roman hospital of San 
Michele: in 1830 he received the archbishopric of Spoleto, in 
1832 the bishopric of Imola, and in 1840 Gregory XVI. created 
him a cardinal, with the title Santi Pietro e Marecellino. 

On the death of Gregory XVI. (June i, 1846) the College 
of Cardinals met in conclave on the I4th of June. But their 
deliberations were destined to last but a short while; for, on the 
i6thof June, Cardinal Mastai Ferretti had already obtained the 
requisite two-thirds majority, and ascended the papal chair 
under the title of Pius IX. In his various capacities he had 
gained much popularity: he had shown himself to be of a kindly 
disposition and a zealous churchman, and his reputation for 
piety and tact stood high; he possessed, too, a winning personality 
and a handsome presence. 

The reign of Pius IX. began at an extremely critical time. The 
problem of the government of the Papal States, transmitted to 
him by his predecessor, stood in urgent need of solution, for 
the actual conditions were altogether intolerable. The irritation 
of the populace had risen to such a pitch that it found vent in 
revolts which could only be quelled by the intervention of foreign 
powers; and the ferment in the dominions of the Church was 
accentuated by the fact that the revolutionary spirit was in the 
ascendant in all the states of Europe. The proclamation of a 
general amnesty for all political offenders made an excellent 
impression on the people; and Pius at once instituted preparations 
for a reform of the administration, the judicature and the financial 
system. The regulations affecting the censorship were mitigated, 
and a breath of political liberalism vitalized the whole govern- 
ment. Pius at once acquired the reputation of a reforming 
pope. But the prestige so gained was not sufficient to calm the 
people permanently, and two demands were urged with ever 
increasing energy a share in the government and a national, 



688 



PIUS (POPES) 



Italian policy. The problem of giving the people a due share 
in the government was one of peculiar difficulty in the papal 
states. It was not simply a question of adjusting the claims 
of monarch and subject: it was necessary, at the same time, to 
oust the clergy who, till then, had held all the more important 
offices in their own hands from their dominant position, or at 
least to limit their privileges. That the clerical character of the 
administration could not be indefinitely retained was plain 
enough, it would seem, to any clear-thinking statesman: for, 
since the restoration of the papal state in 1814, the pernicious 
effects of this confusion of the spiritual and the secular power 
could no longer be denied. But Pius IX. lacked the courage 
and perspicacity to draw the inevitable conclusions from these 
premises; and the higher clergy at Rome were naturally opposed 
to a policy which, by laicizing the administration, would have de- 
prived them of the power and privileges they had so long enjoyed. 
In these circumstances it is not surprising that the pope, while 
making concessions to his people, did so with reservations which, 
so far from restoring peace, served only to aggravate the turmoil. 
By a motu proprio of the 2nd of October 1847 the government 
of the city of Rome was reorganized and vested in a council of 
100 members, not more than four of whom were to be clerics. 
But the pope reserved to himself the right of nominating the 
first members, and the new senate was only later to have the right 
of filling up vacancies by co-optation. The institution of a 
state council (consulla) was announced on the igth of April 1847; 
and on the I4th of October it was called into existence by a 
motu proprio. It consisted of 24 councillors, who were to be 
selected by the pope from a list of candidates to be submitted 
by the provincial assemblies. A cardinal and one other prelate 
were to be at its head. The consulta was to be divided into 
four sections, dealing with (i) legislation, (2) finance, (3) internal 
administration, (4) the army and public works. Matters of 
importance were, however, to be submitted to the College of 
Cardinals, after being debated in the consulta. A motu proprio of 
the 2gth of December altered the constitution of the ministerial 
council. Nine mutually independent ministries were formed, 
and the principle of the responsibility of the -ministers- was 
established: but all the positions were filled by clerics. 

The agitation for constitutional government was urgent in the 
demand for further concessions; but they came too late. On the 
1 2th of February a proclamation of the pope transferred three 
portfolios to the laity; but the impression produced by the news 
of the revolution in Paris nullified the effect. At the formation of 
the Antonelli ministry (March n), only the three departments 
of foreign affairs, finance and education, were reserved by the 
clergy; while the remaining six were entrusted to laymen. On 
the i4th of March 1848 Pius took the last step, and published a 
constitution (Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of 
the States of the Church). Two chambers were to be formed. 
The first (alto consiglio) consisted of members nominated for 
life by the pope; the second, of a hundred elected deputies. 
The laws adopted by these two chambers had first to undergo 
the scrutiny of the College of Cardinals, before being submitted 
to the pope for his assent or rejection. Ecclesiastical, or 
ecclesiastico-political, affairs were exempted from the jurisdiction 
of the parliament; which was further required to abstain from the 
enactment of laws conflicting with the discipline of the Church, 
and from criticism of the diplomatic and religious relations of 
the Holy See with foreign powers. 

The utility of this constitution was never tested; for the demand 
for an extension of popular rights was now eclipsed by a still 
more passionate aspiration towards the national unity of Italy. 
This nationalist movement at once took head against Austria. 
On the 1 8th of March the revolution broke out in Milan, and King 
Albert of Sardinia undertook the conduct of the war against the 
emperor. When news of the events at Milan reached Rome 
the populace was swept away in a whirlwind of enthusiasm: 
the Austrian embassy was mobbed; the imperial arms, surmount- 
ing the main gate of the palace, were torn down; and great troops 
of volunteers clamoured to be led against Austria. Pius was 
carried away at first on the flood-tide of excitement, and seemed, 



after his proclamation of the 3oth of March, on the point of 
conferring his blessing upon the war against Austria. But the 
course of political events during the next few weeks damped his 
ardour. When, on the 2gth of April, in his allocation to the 
cardinals, he proclaimed the papal neutrality, the Romans 
received his vacillation as a sign of treachery; and the storm 
precluded from discharging its fury on Austria, broke over his 
head. When the ministry in power resigned office on the istol 
May, the Mamiani administration was formed, only one cleric 
being included. Mamiani himself, whose writings were on the 
Index, had little sympathy with the pope, and did all that was 
possible to complete the secularization of government in the 
States of the Church. He received his dismissal on the ist of 
August, and was followed by Count Fabbri, then by Count de 
Rossi, who made the last attempt to restore order by a moderate 
liberal policy. On the isth of November, as he was about to 
open the Chambers, he was assassinated on the staircase leading 
to the hall of session. A state of anarchy ensued. Armed 
bands gathered before the Quirinal, and attempted to storm it. 
To avoid further bloodshed the pope was compelled to assent to 
the formation of a radically democratic ministry under Galetti. 
The Swiss; who composed the papal guard, were disbanded; and 
the protection of the pontiff was transferred to the civil militia; 
in other words, Pius IX. was a prisoner. On the evening of the 
24th of November he contrived by the aid of the French and 
Bavarian ambassadors the due d'Harcourt and Count Spaur 
to leave the palace unobserved, in the dress of a common priest, 
and to reach Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. From this refuge 
he issued a breve on the 27th of November, protesting against 
the sacrilege practised on himself, declaring all actions forced 
upon him null and void, and appointing a commission to carry 
on the government in his absence. Since the Chamber declined 
to recognize this step, and the pope was equally resolute in 
refusing to hold any intercourse with the deputation which it 
despatched to him, a supreme Giunta was provisionally created 
by the Chamber on the nth of December to discharge all the 
functions assigned to the executive power by the constitution. 
On the I7th of the same month Pius made a public protest; 
and, as soon as the elections for a national assembly were an- 
nounced, he forbade any participation in them, menacing the 
disobedient with the penalties of the Church (Jan. i, 1849). 
The elections, however, were held; and on the pth of February the 
constituent assembly decreed, by 142 votes to 23,* the erection 
of a Ro.man republic. Pius answered by a protest dated the i4th 
of February. All the ecclesiastical property of the Roman state 
was now declared to be vested in the republic; con vents and 
religious edifices were requisitioned for secular purposes; bene- 
volent institutions were withdrawn from clerical influence; and 
church establishments were deprived of the right to realize their 
possessions. In the beginning of December Pius had already ap- 
pealed to the European powers for assistance; and on the ?th of 
February 1849 it was resolved in the Consistory to approach 
officially France, Austria, Spain and Naples, with a view to 
their armed intervention. The French republic, under the 
presidency of Louis Napoleon, was the first state to throw troops 
into Italy. On the 24th of April General Oudinot appeared 
before Civita Vecchia; only to be defeated at first by Garibaldi. 
But, after receiving reinforcements, he prosecuted the war 
successfully, and made his entry into Rome on the 3rd of July; 
while, in the early part of May an Austrian army advanced into 
the north of the papal states. On the i4th of July Oudinot 
proclaimed the restoration of the pontifical dominion; and, 
three days later, Pius IX. issued a manifesto entrusting the 
government to a commission appointed by himself. 

On the 1 2th of April 1850 Pius returned to Rome, supported 
by foreign arms, embittered, and hostile henceforward to every 
form of political liberalism or national sentiment. In Gaeta he 
had mentally cut himself loose from all ideas of progress, and had 
thrown himself into the arms of the Jesuits. His subsequent 
policy was stamped by reaction. Whether it might have been 
possible to avoid the catastrophe of 1870 is a difficult question. 
But there can be no question whatever that the policy which 



PIUS (POPES) 



689 



pius now inaugurated, of restoring the old pre-revolutionary 
conditions, sealed the fate of the temporal dominion of the 
'apacy. He made no attempt to regain the estranged affections 
' i'lhc populace, and took no measures to liberate himself and his 
Objects from the incubus of the last few years. He even sought 
io exact vengeance for the events of that period: the state 
o:!icials, who had compromised themselves, lost their offices; 
ind all grants in aid were forfeited if the recipients were dis- 
covered by the secret commissions (consigli di censura) to have 
tikcn part in the revolutionary movement. The tribunals 
{itorted declarations on the part of witnesses by flogging, 
deprivation of food, and like methods of torture. In many cases 
the death sentence was executed at their instance, though the 
guilt of the accused was never established. The system of 
precautionary 'arrest, as it was termed, rendered it possible for 
ny man to be thrown into prison, without trial and without 
verdict, simply on the ground that he lay under suspicion of 
plotting against the government. The priests, who usurped 
the judicial function, displayed such cruelty on several occasions 
that officers of the Austrian army were compelled to record a 
protest. The consequence of these methods was that every 
victim innocent or guilty ranked as a martyr in the estimation 
of his fellow-citizens. A subsidiary result was the revival of 
brigandage, which found a suspicious degree of support among 
the people. Corruption was rampant among the officials; the 
police were accused of illicit bargaining with criminals; and 
aothing but contempt was entertained for the papal army, which 
-is recruited from the dregs of humanity. To this was added a 
disastrous financial administration, under which the efficiency 
ir.d credit of the country sank to appalling depths. The system 
of taxation was calculated with a view to relieving the Church 
iad the clergy, and imposing the main burden upon the laity. 
la this department the family of Cardinal Antonelli seems to have 
phyed a fatal part. The secretary of state was born in humble 
circumstances: when he died he left a fortune of more than 
100,000,000 lire, to which a daughter succeeded in establishing 
her claim. His brother Felippo was president of the Roman 
Bank, and his brother Luigi the head of the Annona an office 
created to regulate the import of grain. The pope himself had 
neither the will nor the power to institute searching financial 
reforms; possibly, also, he was ignorant of the facts. 

The mismanagement which obtained in the papal dominions 
could not escape the observation of the other powers. As early 
is the Congress of Paris in 1856 the English ambassador, Lord 
Clarendon, had directed an annihilating criticism against the 
government of the pontiff; and a convincing proof of the justice 
o( his verdict was given by Pius himself, in his treatment of the 
hmous Mortara case. A Jewish boy of this name had been torn 
from his parents in Rome and the rite of baptism performed 
on him without their knowledge or consent. The pope flatly 
refused to restore the " Christian " to his Jewish parents, and 
turned a deaf ear both to the protest of public opinion and the 
'.iplomatic representations of France and England. The sequel 
to this mode of government was that the growing embitterment 
of the subjects of the Church came to be sympathized with outside 
the bounds of Italy, and the question whether the secular 
luthority of the papacy could be allowed to continue became a 
much-debated problem. Even the expression of the doubt was 
symptomatic. In 1859 appeared an anonymous brochure, Le 
AJ/IC ct le congrts, composed by Laguerronniere, the friend of 
Napoleon III., in which it was proposed to ensure the pope 
" un revenu considerable " and the city of Rome, but to relieve 
him of a political task to which he was not competent. In 1861 
ir.othcr anonymous pamphlet, Pro causa italica ad episcopos 
''holicos, was published in Florence, advocating the ecclesiastico- 
^litical programme of Cavour; and the pope was horrified when 
^discovered that it came from the pen of Passaglia, the professor 
of dogmatic theology. In spite of all, the national idea gained 
'length in Italy, and the movement towards unity found power- 
ful champions in King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia and his 
Feat statesman Cavour. Free scope was given when the under- 
Uinding between the two powers protecting the papal state 



France and Austria broke down. So soon as Napoleon and 
Cavour had come to an agreement war ensued, France and 
Sardinia being ranged against Austria (1859). The result was 
that Austria lost the greater part of her Italian possessions, while 
the pope also forfeited two-thirds of his dominions. By the war of 
1866, in which Italy fought on the Prussian side, Victor Emmanuel 
gained Venice in addition; so that the States of the Church now 
formed the last remaining obstacle to complete national unity. 
In September 1864, France who had been the protectress of 
these states since 1849 had concluded a treaty with Victor 
Emmanuel, undertaking to withdraw her garrison from Rome in 
two years time; while, on his part, the king agreed to abstain 
from any attack on the papal dominions, and to guarantee the 
safety of the pope and the patrimonium Pelri. The emperor 
Napoleon had, in point of fact, recalled his troops in 1866; but 
in 1867, when Garibaldi crossed the frontiers of the papal state 
at the head of his volunteers, he declared the treaty violated and 
again threw his regiments into Rome. Three years later the 
time came when he could employ his arms more advantageously 
elsewhere, and after the outbreak of the war with Germany Rome 
was evacuated. The news that the French Empire had fallen 
produced an electrical effect in Italy: the Italian parliament 
called on the king to occupy Rome; on the 8th of September 
Victor Emmanuel crossed the borders; and on the 2oth of 
September the green-white-and-rcd of the tricolour floated over 
the Capitol. The protests of' Pius IX. remained unheeded, and 
his attempts to secure another foreign intervention met with 
no success. On the 2nd of October Victor Emmanuel instituted 
a plebiscite in Rome and the possessions of the Church to decide 
the question of annexation. The result of the suffrage was 
that 153,681 votes were given in favour of union with Italy, 
and 1507 against the proposed incorporation: that is to say 
only the direct dependants of the Vatican were opposed to the 
change. The papal state was now merged in the kingdom of 
Italy, which proceeded to define its diplomatic relations with 
the Holy See by the law of the i3th of May 1871 (see ITALY: 
History). 

In his capacity as head of the Church, Pius IX. adhered to 
the principles of the Ultramontanist party, and contributed 
materially to the victory of that cause. The political reaction 
which followed the revolutionary era in most quarters of Europe 
offered a favourite soil for his efforts; and in several countries 
he found it possible to regulate the relations between Church 
and state from the standpoint of the curia. In 1851 he con- 
cluded a concordat with Queen Isabella II. of Spain, proclaiming 
Roman Catholicism the sole religion of the Spanish people, to 
the exclusion of every other creed (art. i); and we find the 
same provision in another concordat with the South American 
republic of Ecuador (1862). A third concordat, negotiated 
with the emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria (1855), entrusted 
the supervision of schools and the censorship of literature to 
the clergy, recognized the canon law, and repealed all secular 
legislation conflicting with it. France came into line with the 
wishes of the pope in every respect, as Napoleon needed clerical 
support in his political designs. Even in Germany he found no 
resistance; on the contrary, he was able to secure advantageous 
compacts from individual states (Hesse, 1854; Wiirttemberg, 
1857). In fact, the growing tendency to romanize Catholicism 
to bring it, that is to say, into close connexion with Rome, and 
to a state of dependency on the guidance and instructions of the 
curia made special progress in Germany. 

Among the most important acts of Pius IX. must be counted 
his proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception 
of the Virgin Mary, by the bull Ineffabilis Deus, on the 8th of 
December 1 854. In this bull the preservation of Mary from every 
stain of hereditary sin, in the first moment of her conception, 
was declared to be a divinely revealed truth, which consequently 
demanded universal acceptance (see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION). 
By this means a view, which till then had been no more than a 
pious belief, was elevated into a dogma to be held defide; though 
grave doubts on the subject had always been entertained, even 
in the midst of the Church itself. For the inner life of that 



690 



PIVOT PIZARRO 



Church this solution of the controversy was of great significance, 
and created a desire for further dogmatic decisions on the Virgin 
Mary her resurrection and ascension. But the procedure of 
Pius IX. proved of far-reaching importance from another point 
of view. True, he had taken the opinion of the bishops on the 
subject, and had received the assent of a large majority; none 
the less, the verdict was pronounced by himself alone, not by an 
ecumenical council. Thus, by arrogating the function formerly 
exercised by the ecumenical council, he virtually laid claim to the 
infallibility which had always been regarded as inherent only 
in the doctrinal pronouncements of such a council: in other 
words, he availed himself of a privilege not accorded to him till 
the 1 8th of July 1870. 

Though the Marian dogma of 1854 received, with very few 
exceptions, an enthusiastic welcome in Roman Catholic circles, 
another measure of the pope, ten years later, excited a painful 
sensation even among the orthodox members of the Church. As 
reigning sovereign of the papal states Pius IX. had passed 
through a " liberal period ": as head of the Church, he had never 
been liable to attacks of liberalism. Nevertheless, his return from 
exile left its mark on his spiritual administration. For from this 
period onwards he deliberately and stubbornly set his face against 
the influence of modernism on ecclesiastical life; showed his 
displeasure at and distrust of the scientific theology and philo- 
sophy which marked a moderate advance (Gunther, Frohs- 
chammer and Dollinger); and, entrenched in the stronghold of 
medieval ideals, combated the transformations of the new order 
of society, and the changes in the relationship between Church 
and state, which obtained in most countries of Europe since 
the French Revolution. After long and careful consultation, the 
adverse criticisms which he had expressed on various occasions 
were published on the 8th of December 1864, together with the 
encyclical Quanta cura, under the title Syllabus compleclcns 
praecipuos noslrae aetatis err ores (see SYLLABUS). In this Pius 
claimed for the Church the control of all culture and all science, 
and of the whole educational system. He rejected the liberty 
of faith, conscience and worship enjoyed by other creeds; and 
bade an easy farewell to the idea of tolerance. He claimed the 
complete independence of the Church from state control; upheld 
the necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of the 
Roman See; and finally, in the last clause, declared that " the 
pontiff neither can be nor ought to be reconciled with progress, 
liberalism and modern civilization." The publication of this 
syllabus created a profound impression: for it declared war on 
modern society, and committed the papacy to the principles of 
Ultramontanism (q.v.). But, as any attempt to translate its 
precepts into practice would entail a disastrous conflict with the 
existing regime as established by law, Roman Catholic circles 
have frequently shown a tendency to belittle the significance of 
the manifesto and to deny that its rules are absolutely binding. 
But these well-meant explanations, however comprehensible, 
are refuted by the unequivocal pronouncements of Pius IX., 
Leo XIII., and many recognized ecclesiastical authorities e.g. 
Cardinal Manning, archbishop of Westminster, who described the 
syllabus as an emanation from the highest doctrinal authority 
in the Church. 

The zenith of Pius's pontificate was attained on the i8th of 
July 1 870 when the Vatican council proclaimed the infallibility of 
the pope and the universality of his episcopate, thus elevating him 
to a pinnacle which none of his predecessors had reached and at 
the same time fulfilling his dearest wish. That, personally, he 
laid great stress on the acceptance of the dogma, was a fact which 
he did not attempt to conceal during the long preliminary deliber- 
ations of the council; and his attitude was a not inconsiderable 
factor in determining its final resolutions. But the loss of the 
papal states, immediately afterwards, was a blow from which he 
never recovered. Whenever he brought himself to speak of the 
subject and it was not rarely he repeated his protest in the 
bitterest terms, and, to the end of his days, refused to be recon- 
ciled with the " sacrilegious " king of Italy. When, in Germany, 
the situation created by the Vatican council led to the outbreak 
of the Kulturkampf, Pius IX. failed to display the tact peculiar 



to his successor. For, in the encyclical Quod numqtiam 
(Feb. 5, 1875), he took the rash step of declaring invalid the 
Prussian laws regulating the relationship between Church and 
state the only result being that the feud was still further 
embittered. 

In these later years the dark days of his " captivity " were 
amply compensated by the proofs of reverence displayed by Roman 
Catholic Christianity, which accorded him magnificent ovations 
as his period of jubilee began to fall due. The twenty-fifth 
anniversary of his pontificate was celebrated with great splendour 
on the i6th of June 1871; for he was the first pope who had thus 
reached the traditional " years of Peter." In 1872 his 8oth 
birthday gave occasion for new demonstrations; and 1875 was a 
so-called " year of jubilee." Finally, in 1877, the fifty years of 
his priesthood were completed: an event which brought him 
innumerable expressions of loyalty and led to a great manifesta- 
tion of devotion to the Holy See from all the Roman Catholic 
world. On the 7th of February 1878 Pius IX. died. His 
successor was Leo XIII. 

BIOGRAPHIES. Hiilskamp, Papst Pius IX. in seinem Lebcn und 
Wirken (2nd ed., Munster, 1870); Legge, Pius IX. (London, 2 vols., 
1872) ; Gillet, Pie IX., sa vie el les acles de son pontifical (Paiis, 1877) ; 
Shea, Life and Pontificate of Pius IX. (New York, 1877); Trollopc, 
Life of Pius IX. (London, 2 vols., 1877) ; F. v. Dollinger " Pius IX." 
in his Kleine Schriften, ed. Reusch (Stuttgart, 1890), p. 558 sqq.); 
Stepischnegg, Papst Pius IX. und seine Zeit (2 vols., Vienna, 1879); 
Wappmansperger, Leben und Wirken des Papsles Pius IX. (Rcgcns- 
burg, 1879) ; Pougeois, Histoire de Pie IX., son pontifical et son stick 
(6 vols., Paris, 1877-1886); Fr. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in 
the ipth Century, translated under the direction of A. F. Mason, 
vol. ii. (London, 1906). For his work as sovereign of the papal 
states, see F. v. Dollinger, Kirche und Kirchen, Papsttum und 
Kirchenstaat (Munich, 1861); M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchcn- 
slaates, vol. ii. (Gotha, 1882); A. F. Nurnbcrger, Papstlum und 
Kirchenstaat (3 vols., Mainz, 1897-1900); C. Mirbt " Die Geschicht- 
schreibung des vatikanischen Konzils," in the Historische Ztitschrift, 
101. Bd. (3. Folge, 5 Bd.) 1908, p. 529-600. 

SOURCES. Acta Pii IX. (4 vols., Rome, 1854 sqq.); Acta sanclae 
sedis (Rome, 1865 sqq.). A selection of the documents for the his- 
tory of Pius IX. will be found in C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte 
des Papsttums und des romischen Kalholicismus (2nd ed., Tubingen, 
1.901), 422-442, pp. 361-390. (C. M.) 

Pius X. (GIUSEPPE SARTO), elected pope in 1903, was born on 
the 2nd of June 1835, of humble parents, at the little town of 
Riete in the province of Treviso, Italy. He studied theology at 
the episcopal seminaries of Treviso and Padua, and was ordained 
priest in 1858. For seventeen years he acted as parish priest at 
various small places in Venetia, until in 1875 he was appointed 
canon of the cathedral and superior of the seminary at Treviso. 
In 1880 he refused the bishopric of Treviso, but in 1884, on the 
express command of Leo XIII., he accepted that of Mantua. On 
the 1 2th of June 1893 he was created a cardinal, and three days 
later was nominated patriarch of Venice. In Venice he made 
himself very popular owing to his piety, his simplicity and geni- 
ality, and by his readiness to act in harmony with the Italian 
government. He succeeded Leo XIII. in his election to the 
papal chair on the 4th of August 1903. (See PAPACY, ad fin.} 

PIVOT (Fr. pivot; probably connected with Ital. pivolo, peg, pin, 
diminutive of piva, pipa, pipe), that on which something turns, 
specifically a metal pointed pin or short shaft in machinery, such 
as the end of an axle or spindle. The term occurs frequently in 
combination with other words, chiefly in technical usage, e.g. 
" pivot-gearing," for a system of gearing in machinery which 
admits of the shifting of the axis of a driving wheel, so that the 
power may be communicated in various directions. 

PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541), discoverer 
and conqueror of Peru, was born at Trujillo in Estremadura, 
Spain, about 1471 (or 1475). He was an illegitimate son of 
Gonzalo Pizarro, who as colonel of infantry afterwards served in 
Italy under Gonsalvo de Cordova, and in Navarre, with some 
distinction. Of Pizarro 's early years hardly anything is known; 
but he appears to have been poorly cared for, and his education 
was neglected. Shortly after the news of the discovery of the 
New World had reached Spain he was in Seville, and thence found 
his way across the Atlantic. There he is heard of in 1510 as 
having taken part in an expedition from Hispaniola to Urabi 



PIZZICATO PLACENTA 



691 



accounts for the occurrence of parts of a town being known as 
Place, e.g. Ely Place in London, formerly the site of the town 
residence of the bishops of Ely. A " place of arms " (Fr. place 
d'armes), in fortification, means the wide spaces (suitable for 
the assembly of troops for a sortie) made by the salients and 
re-entrants of the covered way. The phrase is also used in 
a strategic sense to express an entrenched camp or fortress in 
which a large army can be collected under cover previous to 
taking the field. 

PLACENTA (Lat. for a cake), in anatomy, the organ by which 
the embryo is nourished within the womb of its mother. When 
the young one is born the placenta and membranes come away 
as the " afterbirth." In human anatomy the organ is a circular 
disk about seven or eight inches in diameter and one and a 
quarter inches in thickness at its centre, while at its margin it 
is very thin and is continuous with the foetal membranes. It 
weighs about a pound. 

In order to explain the formation of the placenta it is necessary 
to encroach to some extent on the domain of physiology. Before 
each menstrual period, during the child-bearing age of a woman, 
the mucous membrane of the uterus hypertrophies, and, at the 
period, is cast off and renewed, but if a fertilized ovum reaches the 
uterus the casting off is postponed until the birth of the child. From 
the fact that the thickened mucous membrane lining the interior 
of the uterus is cast off sooner or later, it is spoken of as the " decidua." 
The fertilized ovum, on reaching the uterus, sinks into and embeds 
itself in the already prepared decidua, and, as it enlarges, there is 
one part of the decidua lying between it and the uterine wall . 
(" decidua serrotina " or " basalis "), one part stretched over_the 
surface of the enlarging ovum (" decidua renexa " or " capsularis ") 
and one part lining the rest of the uterus (" decidua vera ") (seefigl.). 



Dtcidua basalis. 



Dilated part. 
1 Unchanged 



under Alonzo de Ojeda, by whom he was entrusted with the 
charge of the unfortunate settlement at San Sebastian. He 
accompanied Balboa (whom he afterwards helped to bring to 
the block) in the discovery of the Pacific; and under Pedrarias 
d'Avila he received a repartimenlo, and became a cattle-farmer at 
Panama. Here in 1522 he entered into a partnership with a 
priest named Hernando de Luque, and a soldier named Diego de 
Almagro, for purposes of exploration and conquest towards the 
south. Pizarro, Almagro and Luque afterwards renewed their 
compact in a more solemn and explicit manner, agreeing to 
conquer and divide equally among themselves the opulent 
empire they hoped to reach. Explorations were then undertaken 
down the west coast of South America, in which Pizarro, though 
left for months with but thirteen followers on a small island 
without ship or stores, persisted till he had coasted as far as 
about 9 S. and obtained distinct accounts of the Peruvian 
Empire. The governor of Panama showing little disposition to 
encourage the adventurers, Pizarro resolved to apply to the sove- 
reign in person for help, and with this object sailed from Panama 
for Spain in the spring of 1528, reaching Seville in early summer. 
Charles V. was won over, and on the 26th of July 1529 was 
executed at Toledo the famous capitulation, by which Pizarro 
was upon certain conditions made governor and captain-general 
of the province of New Castile for the distance of 200 leagues 
along the newly discovered coast, and invested with all the 
authority and prerogatives of a viceroy, his associates being left 
in wholly secondary positions. One of the conditions of the grant 
was that within six months Pizarro should raise a sufficiently 
equipped force of two hundred and fifty men, of whom one 
hundred might be drawn from the colonies; as 
he could not make up his due complement he 
sailed clandestinely from San Lucar in January Gland.-! 
1530. He was afterwards joined by his brother 
Hernando with the remaining vessels, and when 
the expedition left Panama in January of the 
following year it numbered three ships, one 
hundred and eighty men, and twenty-seven 
horses. The subsequent movements of Pizarro 
belong to the history of Peru '(?) After the 
final effort of the Incas to recover Cuzco in 
j 536-3 7 had been defeated by Diego de 
Almagro, a dispute occurred between him and 
Pizarro respecting the limits of their jurisdic- 
. tion. This led to battle; Almagro was defeated 
(1538) and executed; but his supporters 
conspired, and assassinated Pizarro on the 
z6th of June 1541. 

PIZZICATO (from Ital. pizzicare, to pluck or 

twitch), a term in music for a direction L to the From A R Yomg and A Robi ^ n> in Cuaningham , s 

players of stringed instruments, that the passage ^ x _ D - ram represe nting a very young human ovum almost immediately 
so marked is to be played by plucking the strings after ;ts entrance ; nto t j, e decidua, and whilst the place of its entrance is still covered 
with the fingers instead of using the bow. w ; t h a plug of fibrin. The ectoderm has already proliferated and embraced spaces 

PIZZO, a seaport of Calabria, Italy in the which contain maternal blood and are continuous with the maternal blood-vessels. 

province of Catanzaro, 72 m. by rail N.E. of 

! i--i_.- <.!, n,,u ~f Qont^, j t ; s tne decidua basalis which is specially interesting in considering 

the formation of the placenta. That part which is nearest the ovum 
is called the " stratum compactum," but farther away the uterine 
glands dilate and give a spongy appearance to the mucous membrane 
which earns this particular layer the name of " stratum spongiosum. 
Processes grow out from the surface of the ovum which penetrate the 
stratum compactum of the decidua basalis and capsularis and push 
their way into the enlarged maternal blood sinuses; these are the 
" chorionic villi." Later, the " allantoic " or " abdominal stalk 
grows from the mesoderm of the hind end of the embryo into the 
chorionic villi which enter the decidua basalis, and in this blood- 
vessels pass which push their way into the maternal blood sinuses. 
Eventually the original walls of these sinuses, together with the 
false amnion, disappear, and nothing now separates the maternal trom 
the foetal blood except the delicate walls of the foetal vessels covered 
by some nucleated noncellular tissue, known as syncyitum, derived 
from the chorionic epithelium, so that the embryo is able to take it 
supply of oxygen and materials for growth from the blood of its 
mother and to give up carbonic acid and excretory matters. It is 
the gradual enlargement of the chorionic villi in the decidua basali: 
together with the intervillous maternal blood sinuses that forms tti 
placenta ; the decidua capsularis and vera eventually become prea 



Cavity whic 
becomes coelo; 




Unchanged layer. 

Stratum spongiosum. \Uterine 

Stratum compactum. J mucosa. 



Ectodennal villus enclosing 
space containing maternal 
blood. 



Inner mass (Entoderm). 
Decidua vera. 



Reggio, situated on a steep cliff overlooking the Gulf of Santa 
Eufemia, 351 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 9172- It nas an 
old castle, in which Joachim Murat, ex-king of Naples, was shot on 
the i 3 th of October 1815. The people engage in tunny- and coral- 
fishing. In 1783 the town was almost destroyed by an earth- 
quake, and it suffered some damage from the same cause in 1905. 

PLACARD (isth cent. Fr. plackart, from plaquier; mod. plaquer, 
to plaster), a bill or poster pasted or affixed to a wall or in 
any prominent position for the purpose of giving notice to the 
public of a proclamation, police or other regulations, or < 
forthcoming events or the like. _ 

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. irXarw, wide), 
a definite position in space, whether of limited or unlimited 
extent, situation or locality; also position in a series or rank; 
or an office, or employment, particularly one in the service of a 
government. Special applications are to an open space in a 
town, a group of buildings, row of houses, or as the name of a 
residence or manor-house. In certain cases this latter use 



692 



PLAGIARISM PLAGIOCLASE 



together as the embryo enlarges, and then, as pressure continues, 
atrophy. The allantoic stalk elongates enormously, and in its later 
stages contains two arteries (umbilical) and only one vein (owing 
to the obliteration of the right one) embedded in some loose connec- 
tive tissue known as " Wharton's jelly." At first the stalk of the 
yolk-sac is quite distinct from this, but later the two structures 
become bound up'together (see fig. 2), after which they are known as 
the " umbilical cord." A distinction must be made between the 
allantoic stallc and the allantois; the latter is an entodermal out- 
growth from the hind end of the mesodaeum or primitive alimentary 
canal, which in the human subject only reaches a little way toward 
the placenta. The allantoic stalk is the mass of mesoderm contain- 
ing blood-vessels which is pushed in front of the allantois and, as has 
been shown, reaches and blends with the decidua basalis to form the 
placenta. 

For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908); 
and, for literature, O. Hertwig's Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre 
(Jena). 

Comparative Anatomy. If the placenta is to be regarded as a 
close union between the vascular system of the parent and embryo, 
the condition may be found casually scattered throughout the 
phylum of the Chordata. In such a very lowly member of the 

Placenta. 



Unchanged layer. 
Stratum 




From A. H. Young and A. Robinson, in Cunningham's Ten-Book of Anatomy. 

FIG 2. Diagram. Later stage in the development of the placenta, 
showing the relations of the foetal villi to the placental sinuses, the 
fusion of the amnion with the inner surface of the chorion, and the 
thinning of the fused deciduae (capsularis and vera). 
phylum as Salpa, a placenta is formed, and the embryo is nourished 
within the body of its parent. In some of the viviparous sharks, 
e.g. the blue shark (Carcharias), the yolk-sac has ridges which fit 
into grooves in the wall of the oviduct and allow an interchange of 
materials between the maternal and foetal blood. This is an example 
of an " umbilical placenta." In the viviparous blennies (Zoarces 
viviparus), among the teleostean fishes, two or three hundred young 
are nourished in the hollow ovary, which develops villi secreting 
nutritive material. Among the Amphibia the alpine salamander 
(Salamandra atra) nourishes its young in its oviducts until the gilled 
stage of development is past, while in the Reptilia the young of a 
viviparous lizard (Seps chalcides) establish a communication between 
the yolk-sac anteriorly and the allantois posteriorly, on the one 
hand, and the walls of the oviduct on the other. In this way both 
an umbilical and an allantoic placenta are formed. 

The mammals are divided into Placentalia and Aplacentalia; 
in the latter group, to which the monotremes and most marsupials 



belong, the ova have a great deal of yolk, and the young, born in a 
very immature condition, finish their development in their mother's 
pouch; but although these mammals have no allantoic placenta 
there is an intimate connexion between the walls of the yolk-sac and 
the uterine mucous membrane, and so an umbilical or omphalic 
placenta exists. The name Aplacentalia therefore only means that 
they have no allantoic placenta. Among the Placentalia the 
umbilical and allantoic placentae sometimes coexist for some time, 
as in the case of the hedgehog, the bandicoot and the mouse. In 
most of the lower placental mammals the allantois is much more 
developed than in man, and the most primitive type of placenta is 
that in which villi are formed over the whole surface of the chorion 
projecting into the decidua of the tubular cornu of the uterus. This 
is known as a " diffuse placenta," and is met with in the pangolin, 
pig, hippopotamus, camel, chevrotain, horse, rhinoceros, tapir and 
whale. When the villi are collected into a number of round tufts or 
cotyledons, as in most ruminants, the type is spoken of as a " cotyle- 
donous placenta," and an intermediate stage between this and the 
last is found in the giraffe. 

In the Carnivora, elephant, procavia (Hyrax) and aard yark 
(Orycteropus), there is a " zonary -placenta " which forms a girdle 
round the embryo. In sloths and lemurs the placenta is dome- 
shaped, while in rodents, insectivores and bats, it is a ventral 
disk or closely applied pair of disks, thus differing from the 
dorsal disk of the ant-eater, armadillo and higher Primates, 
which is known as a " metadiscoidal placenta." It will thus 
be seen that the form of the placenta is not an altogether 
trustworthy indication of the systemic position of its owner. 
In the diffuse and cotyledonous placentae the villi do not 
penetrate very deeply into the decidua, and at birth are simply 
withdrawn, the decidua being left behind in the uterus, so that 
these placentae are spoken of as non-deciduate while other 
kinds are deciduate. 

For further details see S. W. W. Turner, Lectures on the Com- 
parative Anatomy of the Placenta (Edinburgh, 1876) ; A.Robinson, 
" Mammalian Ova and the Formation of the Placenta," Journ. 
Anal, and Phys. (1904) xxxviii., 186, 325. For literature up 
to 1906, R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, 
translated and adapted by W. N. Parker (London, 1907). 

(F. G. P.) 

PLAGIARISM, an appropriation or copying from the 
work of another, in literature or art, and the passing off 
of the same as original or without acknowledgment of the 
real authorship or source. The Lat. plagiarius meant a 
kidnapper, stealer or abductor of a slave or child, though it 
is also used in the modern sense of a literary pilferer or 
purloiner by Martial (I. 53, 9). The word plagium is used 
in the Digest of the offence of kidnapping or abduction, 
and the ultimate source is probably to be found in plaga, 
net, snare, trap, cognate with Gr. irXe/cetv, to weave, plait. 
The idea of plagiarism as a wrong is comparatively modern, 
and has grown up with the increasing sense of property in 
works of the intellect. (See COPYRIGHT.) 

PLAGIOCLASE, . an important group of rock-forming 
minerals, constituting an isomorphous series between albite, 
or soda-felspar and anorthite, or lime-felspar. Inter- 
mediate members are thus soda-lime-felspars, which in 
their crystallographical, optical and other physical characters 
vary progressively with the chemical composition between 
the two extremes albite (NaAlSisOg) and anorthite 
(CaAUSijOg). This variation is continuous in the series, 
but specific names are applied to members falling between 
certain arbitrary limits, viz.: Albite, Ab ( = NaAlSisOg) ; 
Oligoclase, Ab 6 Anj to Ab 3 Ani; Andesine, Ab 3 Ani to 
AbiAni; Labradorite, AbiAni to AbiAnj; Bytownite, 
AbiAnj to AbiAne; Anorthite, An (=CaAl 2 Si20s). 
All the members of the series crystallize in the anorthic 
(triclinic) system. They possess a perfect cleavage parallel 
to the basal pinacoid P (ooi) and a somewhat less pronounced 
cleavage parallel to the pinacoid M (oio). The angle between 
these two cleavages varies from 86 24' in albite to 85 50' in 
anorthite. It was on account of the oblique angle between 
the cleavages that A. Breithaupt in 1847 gave the name plagio- 
clase (Gr. ir\6.yios, oblique, and K\av, to cleave) to these felspars, 
to distinguish them from the orthoclase felspar in which the 
corresponding cleavage angle is a right angle. It should be 
noted that the potash and potash-soda-felspars, microcline 
(q.v.) an anorthoclase, though also anorthic, are not included 
in the plagioclase series of soda-lime-felspars. Crystals are 



PLAGUE 



693 



usually tabular in habit, parallel to the plane M, as shown in 
the accompanying figure; sometimes, however, they are flattened 
parallel to P, this being a characteristic habit of the pericline 
variety of albite; microlitic crystals forming the ground-mass 
of volcanic rocks are usually elongated in the direction of the 
edge between P and M. 

Twinning is an important character, which is almost invariably 
present and affords a ready means of distinguishing the plagioclases 
from other felspars. Most frequent is the twinning 
according to the " albite law " with M as twin-plane. 
One half of the twin is turned through 1 80 about 
the normal to this plane and the two portions are 
united along the same plane (for figures of twinned 
crystals see ALBITE). The basal planes of the two 
portions are inclined to each other at a salient or 
re-entrant angle of 7 12' in albite and 8 20' in 
anorthite. This twinning is usually polysynthetic, 
being many times repeated, and giving rise to 
numerous thin lamellae, which are the cause of the 
fine striations on the cleavage planes P and parallel to the edge PM , 
so characteristic of the plagioclases as seen in hand specimens. 
Viewed in polarized light, thin sections of twinned crystals show a 
very characteristic banded structure parallel to M. A second twin- 
law is known as the "pericline-law" because of its frequent occur- 
rence in pericline. Here the axis of rotation is the edge x P (the 
crystallographic axis 6) and the plane of composition is the " rhombic 
section " : the latter is a plane which intersects the prism faces T 
and / in a rhomb; it is not a possible face of the crystal, and its 
position varies in the different species. In addition to being 
twinned according to these two laws, plagioclase may also be 
twinned on the Carlsbad-, Baveno- and Manebach-laws, as in 
orthoclase (q.v.). 




a specific infectious fever, one variety being characterized by 
buboes (glandular swellings) and carbuncles. This definition 
excludes many of the celebrated pestilences recorded in history 
such as the plague of Athens, described by Thucydides; that 
not less celebrated one which occurred in the reign of Marcus 
Aurelius and spread over nearly the whole of the Roman world 
(A.D. 164-180), 'which is referred to, though not fully described, 
by the contemporary pen of Galen; and that of the 3rd century 
(about 253), the symptoms of which are known from the allusions 
of St Cyprian (Sermo de mortalitate) . There is a certain resem- 
blance between all these, but they were very different from 
Oriental plague. " Plague " was formerly divided into two 
chief varieties: (i) mild plague, pestis minor, larval plague 
(Radcliffe), peste fruste, in which the special symptoms are 
accompanied by little fever or general disturbance; and (2) 
ordinary epidemic or severe plague, pestis major, in which the 
general disturbance is very severe. Cases which are rapidly 
fatal from the general disturbance without marked local symp- 
toms have been distinguished as fulminant plague (pestis siderans, 
peste foudroyante) . 

History up to 1880. The first historical notice of the plague 
is contained in a fragment of the physician Rufus of Ephesus, 
who lived in the time of Trajan, preserved in the Collections of 
Oribasius? Rufus speaks of the buboes called pestilential as 
being specially fatal, and as being found chiefly in Libya, 
Egypt and Syria. He refers to the testimony of a physician 
Dionysius, who lived probably in the 3rd century B.C. or earlier, 



Constants of Plagioclase Felspars. 



Composi- 
tion. 


SiO 2 . 


A1 2 O 3 . 


Na 2 O. 


CaO. 


Sp. gr. 


Melting- 
point 
(Centigrade). 


Cleavage 
Angle 
PM. 


Angle of 
Rhombic 
Section. * 


Mean 
Refractive 
Index 
0- 


Optical Extinction. 


On P.* 


OnJf.* 


In sections 
j-M. 


Ab 


68-7 


I9-5 


n-8 





2-624 





86 24' 


+ 27 


534 


+ 4 30' 


+ I9 o 


-16 


AbjAni 


62-0 


24-0 


8-7 


5'3 


2-659 


1340 


86 8' 


+ 3 o 


542 


+ i4 


+ 4 36' 


+ 7 o 


AbiAni 
Ab,Ab, 
An 


55-6 
49-3 
43-2 


28-3 
32-6 
36-7 


57 

2-8 

o 


10-4 
15-3 

20-1 


2-694 
2-728 
2-758 


1419 
1477 
1532 


86 14' 

86 4' 
85 50' 


- 1 

- 9 
- 16 


558 
570 
582 


- 5 10' 
-17 40' 
-37 


-16 
-29 28' 
-36 


+27 
+48 

+53 



* Angles measured to the edge PM. 



The optical characters of the plagioclases have been the subject 
of much study, since they are of great value in determining 
the constituents of rocks in thin sections under the microscope. 
The mean indices of refraction and the angles of extinction on the 
cleavages P and M are given in the accompanying table. (The 
meaning of the + and directions will be seen from the figure, 
where the face P slopes from left to right, i.e. the angle between the 
normals to the faces lettered P and Afis less than 90). The extinc- 
tion angles on other faces, or in sections of known orientation in the 
crystal, also give constants of determinative value: for example, in 
sections perpendicular to the plane M the extinctions, which in 
crystals twinned according to the albite-law are symmetrical with 
respect to this place, reach the maximum values given in the table. 
Not only do the directions of extinction (axes of light-elasticity) 
vary in the different species, but also the optic axial angle, so that 
while albite is optically positive, anorthite is negative, and a member 
near andesine has an axial angle of 90. The figures seen in conver- 
gent polarized light through the P and M cleavages are characteristic 
of the different species. A detailed summary of the optical charac- 
ters and their employment in discriminating the several members 
of the plagioclase series is given by H. Rosenbuch, Mikroskopische 
Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine (4th ed. Stuttgart, 1905)- 

The plagioclases occur as primary constituents of igneous rocks 
of almost every kind, and are also frequent as secondary minerals 
in metamorphic rocks. Albite and oligoclase are more characteristic 
of acidic rocks, whilst the basic members at the anorthite end of 
the series are characteristic of rocks containing less silica. The 
composition may, however, vary even in the same crystal, zoned 
crystals with a basic nucleus and with shells successively more and 
more acid towards the exterior being common. 

For further particulars respecting individual species and their 
modes of occurrence see ALBITE ; ANDESINE ; ANORTHITE ; B YTOWNITE 
LABRADO RITE; OLIGOCLASE. (L. J. S.) 

PLAGUE (in Gr. Xot/uos; in Lat. pestis, peslilentia) , in medicine, 
a term given to any epidemic disease causing a great mortality, 
and used in this sense by Galen and the ancient medical writers, 
but now confined to a special disease, otherwise called Oriental, 
Levantine, or Bubonic Plague, which may be shortly defined as 



and to Dioscorides and Posidonius, who fully described these 
buboes in a work on the plague which prevailed in Libya in 
their time. Whatever the precise date of these physicians 
may have been, this passage shows the antiquity of the plague 
in northern Africa, which for centuries was considered as its 
home. The great plague referred to by Livy (Ix. Epitome) 
and more fully by Orosius (Histor. iv. n) was probably the 
same, though the symptoms are not recorded. It is reported 
to have destroyed a million of persons in Africa, but is not stated 
to have passed into Europe. 

It is not till the 6th century of our era, in the reign of Justinian, 
that we find bubonic plague in Europe, as a part of the great 
cycle of pestilence, accompanied by extraordinary natural 
phenomena, which lasted fifty years, and is described with a 
singular misunderstanding of medical terms by Gibbon in his 
forty-third chapter. The descriptions of the contemporary 
writers Procopius, Evagrius and Gregory of Tours are quite 
unmistakable. 3 The plague of Justinian began at Pelusium in 
Egypt in A.D. 542 ; it spread over Egypt, and in the same or the 
next year passed to Constantinople, where it carried off 10,000 
persons in one day, with all the symptoms of bubonic plague. 
It appeared in Gaul in 546, where it is described by Gregory of 
Tours with the same symptoms as lues inguinaria (from the 
frequent seat of buboes in the groin). In Italy there was a 
great mortality in 543, but the most notable epidemic was in 
565, which so depopulated the country as to leave it an easy 
prey to the Lombards. In 571 it is again recorded in Liguria, 

1 Amm. Marcell. xxiii. 7; see Hecker, De peste Antoniana (Berlin, 

2 Lib. xliv. cap. 1 7 CEuvres de Oribase, ed. Bussemaker and 
Daremberg (Paris, 1851), iii. 607. 

'Evagrius, Hist., eccles. iv. 29; Procopius, De betto perstco, 
ii. 22, 23. 



694 



PLAGUE 



' 



and in 590 a great epidemic at Rome is connected with the 
pontificate of Gregory the Great. But it spread in fact over the 
whole Roman world, beginning in maritime towns and radiating 
inland. In another direction it extended from Egypt along the 
north coast of Africa. Whether the numerous pestilences 
recorded in the 7th century were the plague cannot now be said; 
but it is possible the pestilences in England chronicled by Bede 
in the years 664, 672, 679 and 683 may have been of this disease, 
especially as in 690 pestis inguinaria is again recorded in Rome. 
For the epidemics of the succeeding centuries we must refer to 
more detailed works. 1 

It is impossible, however, to pass over the great cycle of 
epidemics in the I4th century known as the Black Death. 
Whether in all the pestilences known by this name 
the disease was really the same may admit of doubt, 
but it is clear that in some at least it was the bubonic 
plague. Contemporary observers agree that the disease was 
introduced from the East; and one eyewitness, Gabriel de 
Mussis, an Italian lawyer, traced, or indeed accompanied, the 
march of the plague from the Crimea (whither it was said to have 
been introduced from Tartary) to Genoa, where with a handful 
of survivors of a Genoese expedition he landed probably at the 
end of the year 1347. He narrates how the few that had them- 
selves escaped the pest transmitted the contagion to all they 
met. 2 Other accounts, especially old Russian chronicles, place 
the origin of the disease still farther east, in Cathay (or China), 
where, as is confirmed to some extent by Chinese records, 
pestilence and destructive inundations are said to have destroyed 
the enormous number of thirteen millions. It appears to have 
passed by way of Armenia into Asia Minor and thence to Egypt 
and northern Africa. Nearly the whole of Europe was gradually 
overrun by the pestilence. It reached Sicily in 1346, Constanti- 
nople, Greece and parts of Italy early in 1347, and towards the 
end of that year Marseilles. In 1348 it attacked Spain, northern 
Italy and Rome, eastern Germany, many parts of France 
including Paris, and England; from England it is said to have 
been conveyed to the Scandinavian countries. In England the 
western counties were first invided early in the year, and London 
in November. In 1349 we hear of it in the midlands; and in 
subsequent years, at least till 1357, it prevailed in parts of the 
country, or generally, especially in the towns. In 135 2 Oxford 
lost two-thirds of her academical population. The outbreaks of 
1361 and 1368, known as the second and third plagues of the 
reign of Edward III., were doubtless of the same disease, though 
by some historians not called the, black death. Scotland and 
Ireland, though later affected, did not escape. 

The nature of this pestilence has been a matter of much 
controversy, and some have doubted its being truly the plague. 
But when the symptoms are fully described they seem to justify 
this conclusion, one character only being thought to make a 
distinction between this and Oriental plague, viz. the special 
implication of the lungs as shown by spitting of blood and other 
symptoms. Guy de Chauliac notes this feature in the earlier 
epidemic at Avignon, not in the later. Moreover, as this com- 
plication was a marked feature in certain epidemics of plague 
in India, the hypothesis has been framed by Hirsch that a special 
variety of plague, pestis indica, still found in India, is that which 
overran the world in the I4th century. But the same symptoms 
(haemoptysis) have been seen, though less notably, in many 

1 See Noah Webster's History of Epidemic Diseases, 8vo (2 vols., 
London, 1800) (a work which makes no pretension to medical 
learning, but exhibits the history of epidemics in connexion with 
physical disasters as earthquakes, famines, &c.); Lersch, Kleine 
Pest-Chronik (Cvo, 1880) (a convenient short compendium, but not 
always accurate); " Athanasii Kircheri Chronologia Pestium " 
(to A.D. 1656), in Scrutinium pestis (Rome, 1658; Leipzig, 1671, 
4to); Bascome, History of Epidemic Pestilences (London, 1851, 8vo). 
The most complete medical history of epidemics is Haser's 
Geschichte der epidemischen Krankheiten (yd ed., Jena, 1882), 
forming the third volume of his History of Medicine. 

2 See the original account reprinted with other documents in 
Haser, op. cit.; also Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages, trans. 
by Babington, Sydenham Soc. (London, 1844); Volkskrankheiten 
des Mittelalters, ed. Hirsch (Berlin, 1865) ; R. Hoeniger, Der schwarze 
Tod in Deutschland (Berlin, 1882). 



plague epidemics, even in the latest, that in Russia in 1878-1879, 
and, moreover, according to the latest accounts, are not a special 
feature of Indian plague. According to a Surgeon-General 
Francis (Trans. Epidem. Soc. v. 398) " haemorrhage is not an 
ordinary accompaniment " of Indian plague, though when seen 
it is in the form of haemoptysis. It seems, therefore, impossible 
to make a special variety of Indian plague, or to refer the black 
death to any such special form. Gabriel de Mussis describes 
it even in the East, before its arrival in Europe, as a bubonic 
disease. 

The mortality of the black death was, as is well known, 
enormous. It is estimated in various parts of Europe at two- 
thirds or three-fourths of the population in the first pestilence, 
in England even higher; but some countries were much less 
severely affected. Hecker calculates that one-fourth of the 
population of Europe, or 25 millions of persons, dTed in the 
whole of the epidemics. 

In the i sth century the plague recurred frequently in nearly all 
parts of Europe. In the first quarter it was very destructive in 
Italy, in Spain (especially Barcelona and Seville), in Germany and 
in England, where London was severely visited in 1400 and 1406, 
and again in 1428. In 1427, 80,000 persons died in Dantzic and 
the neighbourhood. In 1438-1439 the plague was in Germany, 
and its occurrence at Basel was described by Aeneas Sylvius, after- 
wards Pope Pius II. In 1448-1450 Italy (Kircher), Germany 
(Lersch, from old chronicles), France and Spain, were ravaged by 
a plague supposed to have arisen in Asia, scarcely less destructive 
than the black death. England was probably seldom quite free 
from plague, but the next great outbreak is recorded in 1472 and 
following years. In 1466, 40,000 persons died of plague in Paris; 
in 1477-1485 the cities of northern Italy were devastated, and in 
1485 Brussels. In the fifteenth year of Henry VII. (1499-1500) 
a severe plague in London caused the king to retire to Calais. 
__ The i6th century was not more free from plague than the I5th. 
Simultaneously with a terrible pestilence which is reported to 
have nearly depopulated China, plague prevailed over Germany, 
Holland, Italy and Spain, in the first decade of the century, and 
revived at various times in the first half. In 1529 there was plague 
in Edinburgh; in London in 1537-1539, and again 1547-1548; and 
also in the north of England, though probably not absent before. 
Some of the epidemics of this period in Italy and Germany are 
known by the accounts of eminent physicians, as Vochs, Fracastor, 
Mercurialis, Borgarucci, Ingrassia, Massaria, Amici, &c.,* whose 
writings are important because .the question of contagion first 
began to be raised, and also plague had to be distinguished from 
typhus fever, which began in this century to appear in Europe. 

The epidemic of 1563-1564 in London and England was very 
severe, a thousand dying weekly in London. In Paris about this 
time plague was an everyday occurrence, of which some were less 
afraid than of a headache (Borgarucci). In 1570, 200,000 persons 
died in Moscow and the neighbourhood, in 1572, 50,000 at Lyons; 
in 1568 and 1574 plague was at Edinburgh, and in 1570 at New- 
castle. When, however, in 1575 a new wave of plague passed over 
Europe, its origin was referred to Constantinople, whence it was 
said to have spread by sea to Malta, Sicily and Italy, and by land 
through the Austrian territories to Germany. Others contended 
that the disease originated locally; and, indeed, considering previous 
history, no importation of plague would seem necessary to explain 
its presence in Europe. Italy suffered severely (Venice, in 1576, 
lost 70,000); North Europe riot less, though later; London in 
1580-1582. In 1585 Breslau witnessed the most destructive 
plague known in its history. The great plague of 1592 in London 
seems to have been a part of the same epidemic, which was hardly 
extinguished by the end of the century, and is noted in London 
again in 1599. On the whole, this century shows a decrease of 
plague in Europe. 

In the first half of the I7th century plague was still prevalent 
in Europe, though considerably less so than in the middle ages. 
In the second half a still greater decline is observable, and by the 
third quarter the disease had disappeared or was disappearing from 
a great part of western Europe. The epidemics in England will 
be most conveniently considered in one series. From this time 



'Vochs, Opusculum de peslilentia (1537); Fracastorius, " De 
Contagione, &c.," Opera (Venice, 1555) ; Hieron. Mercurialis, De 
peste, pracsertim de Veneta et Patavina (Basel, 1577); Prosper 
Borgarutius, De peste (Venice, 1565), 8vo; Filippo Ingrassia, In- 
formatione del pestifero morbo . . . Palermo ... regno di Sicilia 
( I 575.-i576, 4to, Palermo, 1576-1577); A. Massaria, De peste 
(Venice, 1597); Diomedes Amicus, Tres tractatus (Venice, 1599), 
4to; Victor de Bonagentibus, Decein problemata de peste (Venice, 
1556), 8vo; Georgius Agricola, De peste libri ires (Basel, 1554) 8vo. 
The works of English physicians of this period are of little medical 
value; but Lodge's Treatise of the Plague (London, 1603) deserves 
mention. 



PLAGUE 



695 



onwards we have the guidance of the " Bills of Mortality " issued 
in London, which, though drawn up on the evidence of ignorant 
persons, are doubtless roughly true. The accession of James I. in 
1603 was marked by a very destructive plague which killed 38,000 
in London. In this and subsequent years the disease was widely 
diffused in England for instance, Oxford, Derbyshire, Newcastle. 
It prevailed at the same time in Holland, and had done so some 
years previously in northern Germany. In the same year (1603) 
one million persons are said to have died of plague in Egypt. This 
plague is said to have lasted eight years in London. At all events 
in 1609 we have the second great plague year, with a mortality of 
11,785. After this there is a remission till about 1620, when plague 
again began to spread in northern Europe, especially Germany 
and Holland, which was at that time ravaged by war. In 1625 
(the year of the siege of Breda in Holland) is the third great London 
plague with 35,417 deaths though the year 1624 was remarkably 
exempt, and 1626 nearly so. In 1630 was the great plague of 
Milan, described by Ripamonti. 1 In 1632 a severe epidemic, 
apparently plague, was in Derbyshire. 1636 is the fourth great 
plague year in London with a mortality of 10,400, and even in the 
next year 3082 persons died of the same disease. The same year 
7000 out of 20,000 inhabitants of Newcastle died of plague; in 1635 
it was at Hull. About the same time, 1635-1637, plague was pre- 
valent in Holland, and the epidemic of Nijmwegen is celebrated 
as having been described by Diemerbroeck, whose work (Tractates 
de peste, 4to, 1641-1665) is one of the most important on the subject. 
The English epidemic was widely spread and lasted till 1647, in 
which year, the mortality amounting to 3597, we have the fifth 
epidemic in London. The army diseases of the Civil Wars were 
chiefly typhus and malarial fevers, but plague was not unknown 
among them, as at Wallingford Castle (Willis, " Of Feavers," 
Works, ed. 1681, p. 131) and Dunstar Castle. From this time till 
1664 little was heard of plague in England, though it did not cease 
on the Continent. In Ireland it is said to have been seen for the 
last time in i65o. 2 

In 1656 one of the most destructive of all recorded epidemics 
in Europe raged in Naples; it is said to have carried off 300,000 
persons in the space of five months. It passed to Rome, but there 
was much less fatal, making 14,000 victims only a result attri- 
buted by some to the precautions and sanitary measures introduced 
by Cardinal Gastaldi, whose work, a splendid folio, written on 
this occasion (Tractatus de avertenda et profliganda peste politico- 
legalis, Bologna, 1684) is historically one of the most important 
on the subject of quarantine, &c. Genoa lost 60,000 inhabitants 
from the same disease, but Tuscany remained untouched. The 
comparatively limited spread of this frightful epidemic in Italy at 
this time is a most noteworthy fact. Minorca is said to have been 
depopulated. Nevertheless the epidemic spread in the next few 
years over Spain and Germany, and a little later to Holland, where 
Amsterdam in 16631664 was again ravaged with a mortality given 
as 50,000, also Rotterdam and Haarlem. Hamburg suffered in 
1664. 

The Great Plague of London. The preceding enumeration will 
have prepared the reader to view the great plague of 1664-1665 
Ores* in its true relation to others, and not as an isolated 
Plague at phenomenon. The preceding years had been unusu- 
London. a |] y f ree f rom plague, and it was not mentioned in 
the bills of mortality till in the autumn of 1664 (Nov. 2) a few 
isolated cases were observed in the parishes of St Giles and 
St Martin's, Westminster, and a few occurred in the following 
winter, which was very severe. About May 1665 the disease 
again became noticeable, and spread, but somewhat slowly. 
Boghurst, a contemporary doctor, notices that it crept down 
Holborn and took six months to travel from the western suburbs 
(St Giles) to the eastern (Stepney) through the city. The 
mortality rapidly rose from 43 in May to 590 in June, 6137 in 
July, 17,036 in August, 31,159 in September, after which it 
began to decline. The total number of deaths from plague 
in that year, according to the bills of mortality, was 68,596, in 
a population estimated at 460,000,' out of whom two-thirds 
are supposed to have fled to escape the contagion. This number 
is likely to be rather too low than too high, since of the 6432 
deaths from spotted fever many were probably really from 
plague, though not declared so to avoid painful restrictions. 
In December there was a sudden fall in the mortality which 
continued through the winter; but in 1666 nearly 2000 deaths 
from plague are recorded. 

1 Josephus Ripamontius, De peste anni 1630 (Milan, 1641), 4to. 

* For this period see Index to Remembrancia in Archives of City 
of London 1579-1664 (London, 1878) ; Richardson, Plague and Pesti- 
lence in North of England (Newcastle, 1852). 

1 Graunt, Observations on the Bills of Mortality (3rd ed., London, 
1665)- 



According to some authorities, especially Hodges, the plague 
was imported into London by bales of merchandise from Holland, 
which came originally from the Levant; according to others it 
was introduced by Dutch prisoners of war; but Boghurst 
regarded it as of local origin. It is in favour of the theory that 
it spread by some means from Holland that plague had been all 
but extinct in London for some seventeen years, and prevailed 
in Holland in 1663-1664. But from its past history and local 
conditions, London might well be deemed capable of producing 
such an epidemic. In the bills of mortality since 1603 there are 
only three years when no deaths from plague are recorded. 
The uncleanh'ness of the city was comparable to that of oriental 
cities at the present day, and, according to contemporary 
testimony (Garencieres, Angliae flagellum, London, 1647, p. 85), 
little improved since Erasmus wrote his well-known description. 
The spread of the disease only partially supported the doctrine 
of contagion, as Boghurst says: " The disease spread not 
altogether by contagion at first, nor began only at one place 
and spread further and further as an eating sore doth all over 
the body, but fell upon several places of city and suburbs like 
rain." In fact dissemination seems to have taken place, as 
usual, by the conversion of one house after another into a focus 
of disease, a process favoured by the fatal .custom of shutting 
up infected houses with all their inmates, which was not only 
almost equivalent to a sentence of death on all therein, but 
caused a dangerous concentration of the poison. The well- 
known custom of marking such houses with a red cross and the 
legend " God have mercy upon us!" was no new thing: it is 
found in a proclamation in the possession of the present writer 
dated 1641; and it was probably older still. Hodges testifies 
to the futility and injurious effects of these regulations. The 
lord mayor and magistrates not only carried out the appointed 
administrative measures, but looked to the cleanliness of the 
city and the relief of the poor, so that there was little or no 
actual want ; and the burial arrangements appear to have been 
well attended to. The college of physicians, by royal command, 
put forth such advice and prescriptions as were thought best for 
the emergency. But it is clear that neither these measures nor 
medical treatment had any effect in checking the disease. Early 
in November with colder weather it began to decline; and in 
December there was so little fear of contagion that those who 
had left the city " crowded back as thick as they fled." As has 
often been observed in other plague epidemics, sound people 
could enter infected houses and even sleep in the beds of those 
who had died of the plague " before they were even cold or 
cleansed from the stench of the diseased " (Hodges). The 
symptoms of the disease being such as have been generally 
observed need not be here considered. The disease was, as 
always, most destructive in squalid, dirty neighbourhoods and 
among the poor, so as to be called the " poor's plague." Those 
who lived in the town in barges or ships did not take the disease; 
and the houses on London Bridge were but little affected. Of 
those doctors who remained in the city some eight or nine died, 
not a large proportion. Some had the rare courage to investigate 
the mysterious disease by dissecting the bodies of the dead. 
Hodges implies that he did so, though he left no full account of 
his observations. Dr George Thomson, a chemist and a disciple 
of Van Helmont, followed the example, and nearly lost his life 
by an attack which immediately followed. 4 

The plague of 1665 was widely spread over England, and was 



4 On the plague of 1665 see Nath. Hodges, Loimologia sive peslis 
nuperae api'd populum londinensem narratio (London, 1672) 8vo in 
English by Quincy (London, 1720), (the chief authority) ; Aoi/zo-ypo^ia 
or an Experimental Relation of the last Plague in the City of London, 
by William Boghurst, apothecary in St Giles's-in-the-Fields (London, 
1666), a MS. in British Museum (Sloane 349), containing im- 
portant details; George Thomson, AOIMOTOMIA, or the Pest 
Anatomized, 8vo (London, 1666); Sydenham, " Febris pestilentialis 
et pestis annorum 1665-1666," Opera, ed. Greenhill, p. 96 (London, 
1844); Collection of Scarce Pieces on the Plague in 1665 (London, 
1721), 8vo; Defoe s fascinating Journal of a Citizen, which should 
be read and admired as a fiction, but accepted with caution as 
history; T. Vincent (minister of the gospel), God's Terrible Voice 
in the City, 8vo (London, 1667) ; Calendar of State Papers (1665- 
1666; " Domestic " series), by M. E. Green. 



6 9 6 



PLAGUE 



generally regarded as having ba;n transmitted from London, as it 
appeared mostly later than in the metropolis, and in many cases the 
importation by a particular person could be traced. Places near 
London were earliest affected, as Brentford, Greenwich, Deptford; 
but in July or August 1665 it was already in Southampton, Sunder- 
land, Newcastle, &c. A wider distribution occurred in the next 
year. Oxford entirely escaped, though the residence of the court 
and in constant communication with London. The exemption was 
attributed to cleanliness and good drainage. 

After 1666 there was no epidemic of plague in London or any 
part of England, though sporadic cases appear in bills of mortality 
up to 1679; and a column filled up with "o" was left till 1703, 
when it finally disappeared. The disappearance of plague in 
London was attributed to the Great Fire, but no such cause existed 
in other cities. It has also been ascribed to quarantine, but no 
effective quarantine was established till 1720, so that the cessation 
of plague in England must be regarded as spontaneous. 

But this was no isolated fact. A similar cessation of plague was 
noted soon after in the greater part of western Europe. In 1666 a 
severe plague raged in Cologne and on the Rhine, which was pro- 
longed till 1670 in the district. In the Netherlands there was 
plague in 1667-1669, but there are no definite notices of it after 
1672. France saw the last plague epidemic in 1668, till it reappeared 
in 1720. In the years 1675-1684 a new plague epidemic appeared 
in North Africa, Turkey, Poland, Hungary, Austria and Germany, 
progressing generally northward. Malta lost 11,000 persons in 
1675. The plague of Vienna in 1679 was very severe, causing 
76,000 or probably more deaths. Prague in 1681 lost 83,000 by 
plague. Dresden was affected in 1680, Magdeburg and Halle in 
1682 in the latter town with a mortality of 4397 out of a popula- 
tion of about 10,000. Many North German cities suffered about 
the same time; but in 1683 the plague disappeared from Germany 
till the epidemic of 1707. In Spain it ceased about 1681; in Italy 
certain cities were attacked till the end of the century, but not 
later (Hirsch). 

Plague in the zSth Century. At the beginning of this period 
plague was very prevalent in Constantinople and along the Danube. 
In 1703 it caused great destruction in the Ukraine. In 1704 it 
began to spread through Poland, and later to Silesia, Lithuania, 
Prussia and a great part of Germany and Scandinavia. In Prussia 
and Lithuania 283,000 persons perished ; Dantzig, Hamburg and 
other northern cities suffered severely. Copenhagen was attacked 
in 1710. In Stockholm there was a mortality of 40,000. Certain 
places near Brunswick (10 E.) marked the western limit of the 
epidemic ; and cholera was arrested at the same spot in later years 
(Haser). 

At the same time the plague spread westward from the Danube 
to Transylvania and Styria, and (1713) appeared in Austria and 
Bohemia, causing great mortality in Vienna. Thence it passed to 
Prague and Ratisbon to the former, possibly to the latter, almost 
certainly conveyed by human intercourse. This city (12 E.) was 
the western limit reached in this year. Haser states that the 
plague disappeared everywhere in Europe after the great hurricane 
of the 27th of February 1714. 

In 1717 plague raged severely in Constantinople; and in 1719 
it made a fresh progress westward into Transylvania, Hungary, 
Galicia and Poland, but not farther (about 20 E.). It thus 
appears that each successive invasion had a more easterly western 
limit, and that the gradual narrowing of the range of plague, which 
began in the I7th century, was still going on. 

This process suffered a temporary interruption by the outbreak 
of plague of southern France in 1720-1722. In 1720 Marseilles 
became affected with an epidemic plague, the origin of which was 
attributed by some to contagion through the ship of a Captain 
Chataud which arrived on the 2oth of May 1720, from Syria, where 
plague at that time prevailed, though not epidemically when 
he sailed. Six of the crew had died on the voyage to Leghorn, 
but the disease was declared not to be plague. Cases of plague 
occurred, however, on the ship, and on the 22nd of June among 
porters unloading the cargo. Hence, according to believers in 
contagion, the disease passed to families in the " old town," the 
poorest and unhealthiest quarter. In the meantime other ships 
had arrived from Syria, which were put in quarantine. According 
to others the plague arose in Marseilles from local causes; and re- 
cently discovered data show that suspicious cases of contagious 
disease occurred in the town before the arrival of Chataud's ship. 1 
Opinions were divided, and the evidence appears even now nearly 
balanced, though the believers in contagion and importation 
gained the victory in public opinion. The pestilence was fearfully 
severe. Thousands of unburied corpses filled the streets, and in 
all 40,000 to 60,000 persons were carried off. In December 1721 
the plague passed away, though isolated cases occurred in 1722. 
It passed to, or at least broke out in, Aries and Aix in 1720, causing 
great mortality, but in Toulon not till 1721, when it destroyed 

1 Relation historique de la peste de Marseille (Cologne, 1721, 
Paris, 1722, &c.); Chicoyneau, Verny, &c., Observations et reflexions 
. . . de la peste (Marseilles, 1721); Chicoyneau, TraM de la peste, 
Paris, 1744); Littre, article "Peste," in Dictionnaire de medicine, 
xxiv. (Paris, 1841). 



two-thirds of the population. The epidemic spread generally 
over Provence, but not to other parts of France, notwithstanding 
that, as confessed by D'Antrechaus, consul of Toulon, a believer 
in the exclusive power of contagion, there were abundant oppor- 
tunities. The disease was in fact, as in other cases, self-limited. 
In all 87,659 persons are said to have died out of a population of 
nearly 250,000.* 

This great epidemic caused a panic in England which led to the 
introduction (under Mead's advice) of quarantine regulations, 
never previously enforced, and also led to the publication of many 
pamphlets, &c., beside Mead's well-known Discourse on Pestilential 
Contagion (London, 1720). 

Plague in Sicily in 1743. An outbreak of plague at Messina in 

1743 is important, not only for its fatality, but as one of thestrong- 
est cases in favour of the theory of imported contagion. Messina 
had been free from plague since 1624, and the Sicilians prided them- 
selves on the rigour of the quarantine laws which were thought 
to have preserved them. In May 1743 a vessel arrived from Corfu, 
on board of which had occurred some suspicious deaths. The ship 
and cargo were burnt, but soon after cases of a suspicious form 
of disease were observed in the hospital and in the poorest parts 
of the town; and in the summer a fearful epidemic of plague 
developed itself which destroyed 40,000 or 50,000 persons, and 
then became extinct without spreading to other parts of Sicily. 

Spread of Plague from the East. Independent of the episodes of 
Marseilles and Messina, the spread of plague from the East con- 
tinued to exhibit the above-mentioned law of limitation. In 1738 

1744 the disease was in the Ukraine, Hungary, the borders of Carn- 
iola, Moravia and Austria, extending along the Carpathians as far 
as Poland (20 E.), and also in Bukowina (25 E.). It lasted till 
1745, and then disappeared from those parts for fifteen years. In 
17551757 plague prevailed in parts of European Turkey, whence 
it on one occasion extended into Transylvania, in the neighbour- 
hood of Cronstadt, where it was checked (25-5 E.). 8 

In 1770 a destructive plague arose in Moldavia during the Russo- 
Turkish War, and shortly afterwards in Wallachia, apparently 
endemic in the former country at least. It affected also Transyl- 
vania and part of Hungary, and still more severely Poland, but 
was confined to Podolia, Volhynia, the Ukraine and east Galicia 
(5 E.), not even penetrating as far as Warsaw. After destroying, 
it is said, 300,000 persons, and without being checked by any 
quarantine regulations, the plague died out finally in March 1771, 
being remarkable for its short duration and spontaneous limitation 
(Haser). 

In another direction the plague spread over Little Russia in 1770, 
and desolated Kieff, while in the next year it broke out in Moscow 
and produced one of the most destructive epidemics of modern 
times. More than 50,000 persons, nearly one-fourth of the popula- 
tion, were carried off. 4 

The remaining European plague-epidemics of the 1 8th century 
were inconsiderable, but on that very account noteworthy. Tran- 
sylvania was again affected in 1785, Slavonia and Livonia (a 
district of eastern Galicia) in 1795-1796 (25 E.), Volhynia in 
1798. The disease, while reappearing in the seats of the terrible 
earlier epidemics, was more limited in its range and of shorter 
duration. 6 An epidemic in Dalmatia in 1783-1784 is noteworthy 
in connexion with later outbreaks in the same region. In the last 
years of the century (1799-1800) there was a new epidemic in Syria 
and- Egypt, where it affected the French and afterwards the English 
army. 

Plague in the igth Century. Plague appeared at Constanti- 
nople in 1802-1803, about the same time in Armenia (Kars), 
and in 1801 in Bagdad. It had prevailed since 1798 in 
Georgia and the Caucasus, and in 1803-1806 began to spread 
from the north of the Caucasus into Russia, till in 1806 it was 
established at or near Astrakhan, and in 1807 reached Zareff, 
200 m. higher up the Volga. These localities are interesting 
as being near those where plague appeared in 1877-1878. 
It is also said to have entered the government of Saratov, 
but probably no great distance. 6 The plague remained in 
the Caucasus and Georgia till 1819 at least. In 1828-1831 it 
was in Armenia, and again in 1840-1843, since which time it 
has not been heard of in that country. 

1 D'Antrechaus, Relation de la peste de Toulon en 1721 (Paris, 
1756); G. Lambert, Histoire de la peste de Toulon en-ifzi (Toulon, 
1861), quoted by Haser, Gesch. der epidem. Krankh. 

8 Adam Chenot, Ablumdlung von der Pest (Dresden, 1776); Dt 
Peste (Vienna, 1766). 

4 Samoilowitz, Memoire sur la peste en Russie, 1771 (Paris, 1783); 
Mertens, De la peste en 1771 (Paris, 1784). 

6 Lorinser, Pest des orients (Berlin, 1837) p. 103; Schraud, Ptst 
in Syrmien, 1795 (2 vols., Pcsth, 1801). 

" From the annals of the Moravian community of Sarepta on 
the Volga, Geschichte der Bruder-Gemeinde Sarefta, by A. Glitsch 
(Sarepta and Berlin, 1865); also Tholozan, Eptdemies de peste dv 
Caucase (Paris, 1879). 



PLAGUE 



697 



In 1808 plague was at Constantinople, in 1809 at Smyrna. 
In 1812 was a more general epidemic affecting these places and 
also Egypt. An outbreak at Odessa is supposed to have been 
brought from Constantinople, and thence to have passed to 
Transylvania. In 1813 a severe plague at Bucharest is sup- 
posed to have been brought from Constantinople. About the 
same time plague prevailed in Bosnia, and is supposed to have 
passed thence to Dalmatia in 1815. In 1814-1815 it again 
appeared in Egypt, and once more invaded the continent of 
Europe in Albania and Bosnia. Two insular outbreaks, Malta 
in 1813 and Corfu in 1815, attracted much attention as being 
both thought to be cases of importation by sea-traffic, 1 and 
there seems good reason for this opinion. 

A panic spread through Europe in 1815 in consequence of an 
outbreak in Noja on the eastern coast cf Italy. According to 
one view it was imported from the opposite coast of Dalmatia, 
though no definite history of contagion was established; accord- 
ing to others, it originated endemically in that place. It 
remained, however, strictly confined to a small district, perhaps 
in consequence of the extraordinarily rigorous measures of 
isolation adopted by the Italian government. In 1828 an 
isolated epidemic appeared in Greece in the Morea, supposed to 
have been brought by troops from Egypt. 2 In 1824-1825 an 
outbreak took place at TutchkoS in Bessarabia; the town was 
strictly isolated by a military cordon and the disease did not 
spread.* Cronstadt in Transylvania was the scene of a small 
outbreak in 1828, which was said to be isolated by similar 
measures (Lorinser) . A far more serious epidemic was connected 
with the campaign of the Russian army against Turkey in 
1828-1829. Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia were widely 
affected; the disease broke out also in Odessa and the Crimea, 
and isolated cases occurred in Transylvania. The most 
northerly points reached by the plague were near Czernowitz 
on the frontier of Bessarabia and Bukowina, and its limitation 
was as before attributed to the Russian and Austrian military 
cordons. 

In 1831 another epidemic occurred in Constantinople and 
Roumelia; in 1837 again in Roumelia and in Odessa its last 
appearance in these regions, and the last on the European 
continent except an isolated outbreak in Dalmatia in 1840, and 
one in Constantinople in i84i. 4 

The plague-epidemics in Egypt between 1833 and 1845 are 
very important in the history of plague, since the disease was 
almost for the first time scientifically studied in its home by 
skilled European physicians, chiefly French. The disease was 
found to be less contagious than reported to be by popular 
tradition, and most of the French school went so far as to deny the 
contagiousness of the disease altogether. The epidemic of 1834- 
1835 was .not less destructive than many of those notorious 
in history; but in 1844-1845 the disease disappeared. 

In 1853 plague appeared in a district of western Arabia, the 
Aslr country in North Yemen, and it is known to have occurred 
in the same district in 1815, as it did afterwards in 1874 and 
1879. In 1874 the disease extended within four days' march of 
Mecca. From the scantiness of population the mortality was 
not great, but it became clear that this is one of the endemic 
seats of plague. 5 

In June 1858 intelligence was received in Constantinople of an 
outbreak of disease at the small town Benghazi, in the district 
of Barca, province of Tripoli, North Africa, which though at 
first misunderstood" was clearly bubonic plague. From later 
researches there is reason to believe that it began in 1856 or in 
1855. The disease did not spread, and ceased in the autumn, to 

1 Faulkner, On the Plague in Malta (London, 1820), 8vo; J. D. 
Tully, History of the Plague in Malta, Cozo, Corfu and Cephalonia 
(London, 1821), 8vo; White, Treatise on the Plague (at Corfu) (London 
1847); Calvert, " On the Plague in Malta, 1813," Med.-Chi. Trans- 
actions, vi. r. 

1 L. A. Gosse, Relation de la peste en Crece, 1827-1828 (Paris, 
1838). 

' Lorinser, Pest des orients, p. 319. 

4 For the authorities, see Haser, Op. cit. 

1 J. N. Radcliffe, Report of Local Government Board 1870-1880, 
suppl., p. 42. 



return with less violence in 1859, when it died out. In the 
autumn of 1873 it returned, but came again to a spontaneous 
termination. 6 

After the epidemic of Benghazi in 1856-1859, plague was next 
heard of in the district of Maku, in the extreme north-west of 
Persia in November 1863. It occurred in a scattered population, 
and the mortality was not absolutely large. 7 

In 1867 an outbreak of plague was reported in Mesopotamia 
(Irak), among the marshes of Hindieh bordering on the lower 
Euphrates. The epidemic began in December 1866 (or probably 
earlier) and ceased in June 1867. But numerous cases of non- 
fatal mild bubonic disease (mild plague or peslis minor) occurred 
both before and after the epidemic, and according to Tholozan 
similar cases had been observed nearly every year from 1856 to 
1 86s. 8 

The next severe epidemic of plague in Irak began in December 
1873. But facts collected by Tholozan show that pestis minor, 
or sporadic cases of true plague, had appeared in 1868 and 
subsequent years. The outbreak of 1873-1874 began about 60 m. 
from the origin of that of 1867. It caused a much greater 
mortality and extended over a much wider area than that of 
1867, including the towns of Kerbela and Hilleh. After a short 
interval it reappeared at Divanieh in December 1874, and spread 
over a much wider area than in the previous epidemics. This 
epidemic was carefully studied by Surgeon-Major Colvill.' He 
estimated the mortality at 4000. The epidemic ceased in July, 
but broke out again early in 1876, and in this year extended 
northwards to Bagdad and beyond. The whole area now' 
affected extended 250 m. from north-west to south-east, and 
the total number of deaths was believed to be 20,000. In 
1877 plague also occurred at Shuster in south-west Persia, 
probably conveyed by pilgrims returning from Irak, and caused 
great mortality. 

After its customary cessation in the autumn the epidemic 
began again in October 1876, though sporadic cases occurred 
all the summer. The disease appeared in 1877 in other parts of 
Mesopotamia also with less severity than in 1876, but over a 
wider area, being now announced at Samara, a town 70 m. above 
Bagdad on the Tigris. The existence of plague in Bagdad or 
Mesopotamia was not again announced till the year 1884, when 
accounts again appeared in the newspapers, and in that July the 
usual official statement was made that the plague had been 
stamped out. 

In 1870-1871 it appeared in a district of Mukri in Persian 
Kurdistan to the south of Lake Urumiah (far removed from the 
outbreak of 1863). The epidemic appears, however, to have 
died out in 1871, and no further accounts of plague there were 
received. The district had suffered in the great epidemic of plague 
in Persia in 1829-1835. In the winter 1876-1877 a disease which 
appears to have been plague appeared in two villages in the 
'extreme north of the province of Khorasan, about 25 leagues 
from the south-east angle of the Caspian Sea. In March 1877 
plague broke out in Resht, a town of 20,000 inhabitants, in the 
province of Ghilan, near the Caspian Sea at its south-west angle, 
from which there is a certain amount of trade with Astrakhan. 
In 1832 a very destructive plague had carried off half the 
inhabitants. In 1877 the plague was very fatal. From March 
to September 4000 persons were calculated to have died. The 
disease continued till the spring of 1878. In 1877 there was a 
doubtful report of the same disease at Astrabad, and also in some 
parts near the Perso-Afghan frontier. In 1878 plague again 
occurred in Kurdistan in the district of So-uj-Bulak, said by Dr 
Tholozan to be the same as in the district of Mukri where it 
occurred in 1870-1871. These scattered outbreaks of plague in 
Persian territory are the more remarkable because that country 

6 Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie dans les temps modernes (Paris, 
1880). 

7 J. Netten Radcliffe, Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy 
Council, &c. (1875); also in Papers on Levantine Plague, presented 
to parliament (1879), p. 7. 

8 Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie, p. 86. 

See his report cited by Radcliffe, Papers on Levantine Plague 
(1879)- 



6 9 8 



PLAGUE 



had been generally noted for its freedom from plague (as com- 
pared with Asiatic Turkey and the Levant). 

A few cases of plague occurred in January 1877 at Baku on 
the west shore of the Caspian, in Russian territory. 1 

An outbreak of plague on European soil in 1878-1879 on the 
banks of the Volga caused a panic throughout Europe. 2 In 
the summer of 1877 a disease prevailed in several villages in 
the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and in the city itself, which was 
clearly a mild form of plague (pestis minor). It caused no 
deaths (or only one due to a complication) and died out appar- 
ently spontaneously. An official physician, Dr Kastorsky, who 
investigated the matter for the government, declared the disease 
to be identical with that prevailing in the same year at Resht 
in Persia; another physician, Dr Janizky, even gave it the name 
of pestis nostras. In October 1878 some cases appeared in the 
stanitza or Cossack military settlement of Vetlanka, 130 m. 
from Astrakhan on the right bank of the Volga, which seem to 
have puzzled the physicians who first observed them, but on 
the 3oth of November were recognized as being but the same 
mild plague as had been observed the year before near Astrakhan 
by Dr Doppuer, chief medical officer of the Cossacks of Astra- 
khan. His report on the epidemic is the only original one we 
have. At the end of November 3 the disease became suddenly 
more severe, and most of those attacked died; and from the 2ist 
of December it became still more malignant, death occurring in 
some cases in a few hours, and without any buboes being formed. 
No case of recovery was known in this period. At the end of 
the year it rapidly declined, and in the first weeks of January 
still more so. The last death was on the 24th of January. In 
the second half of December, when the disease had already lasted 
two months, cases of plague occurred in several neighbouring 
villages, all of an extremely malignant type, so that in some 
places all who were attacked died. In most of these cases the 
disease began with persons who had been at Vetlanka, though 
this was not universally established. The inhabitants of these 
villages, terrified at the accounts from Vetlanka, strictly isolated 
the sick, and thus probably checked the spread of the disease. 
But it evidently suffered a spontaneous decline. By the end of 
January there were no cases left in the district except at one 
village (Selitrennoye), where the last occurred on the 9th of 
February. The total number of cases in Vetlanka, out of a 
population of about 1700, was 417, of whom 362 died. In the 
ether villages there were about 62 deaths from plague, and not 
more than two or three cases of recovery. In consequence of 
the alarm excited by this appearance of plague upon European 
soil, most European governments sent special commissions to 
the spot. The British commissioners were Surgeon-Major 
Colvill and Dr J. F. Payne, who, like all the foreign commis- 
sioners, reached the spot when the epidemic was over. With 
respect to the origin of this epidemic, the possibility of its having 
originated on the spot, as in Resht and on the Euphrates in 
very similar situations, is not to be denied. An attempt was 
made to show that the contagion was brought home by Cossacks 
returning from the Turkish War, but on absolutely no evidence. 
In the opinion of Dr Payne the real beginning of the disease was 
in the year 1877, in the vicinity of Astrakhan, and the sudden 
development of the malignant out of a mild form of the disease 
was no more than had been observed in other places. The Astra- 
khan disease may have been imported from Resht or Baku, or 
may have been caused concurrently with the epidemics of these 
places by some cause affecting the basin of the Caspian generally. 

Plague in India. It used to be held as a maxim that plague 
never appeared east of the Indus; nevertheless it was observed 
during the igth century in more than one distinct centre in 
India. So long ago as 1815 the disease appeared in Guzerat, 
Kattywar and Cutch, " after three years of severe famine." 

1 J. Netten Radc'.iffe, Reports; Tholozan, Histoire de la peste 
bubonique en Perse (Paris, 1874). 

2 See Radcliffe, Reports (1879-1880); Hirsch and Sommerbrodt, 
Pest-Epidemie 1878-1879 in Astrakhan (Berlin, 1880); Zuber, 
La Peste d' Astrakhan en 1878-1879 (Paris, 1880) ; Colvill and Payne, 
Report to tru Lord President of the Council (1879). 

* The dates are all reduced to new style. 



It reappeared early next year, in the same locality, when it 
extended to Sind as far as Hyderabad, and in another direction 
south-east as far as Ahmedabad and Dhcllerah. But it disap- 
peared from these parts in 1820 or early in 1821, and was not 
heard of again till July 1836, when a disease broke out into 
violence at the town of Pali in Marwar in Rajputana. It 
spread from Pali to the province of Meywar, but died out spon- 
taneously in the hot season of 1837. The origin of these two 
epidemics was obscure. No importation from other countries 
could be traced. 

In 1823 (though not officially known till later) an epidemic 
broke out at Kedarnath in Gurwhal, a sub-district of Kumaon 
on the south-west of the Himalayas, on a high situation. In 
1834 and 1836 other epidemics occurred, which at last attracted 
the attention of government. In 1849-1850, and again in 1852, 
the disease raged very severely and spread southward. In 1853 
Dr Francis and Dr Pearson were appointed a commission to in- 
quire into the malady. In 1876-1877 another outbreak occurred. 
The symptoms of this disease, called maha murree or mahamari 
by the natives, were precisely those of oriental plague. The 
feature of blood-spitting, to which much importance had been 
attached, appeared to be not a common one. A very remarkable 
circumstance was the death of animals (rats, and more rarely 
snakes) at the outbreak of an epidemic. The rats brought up 
blood, and the body of one examined after death by Dr Francis 
showed an affection of the lungs. 4 

Oriental plague was observed in the Chinese province of 
Yunnan from 1871, and also at Pakhoi, a port in the Tongking 
Gulf, in 1882 being said to have prevailed there at least fifteen 
years. In both 'places the symptoms were the same, of 
undoubted bubonic plague. At Pakhoi it recurs nearly every 
year. 6 

In 1880 therefore plague existed or had existed within ten 
years, in the following parts of the world: (i) Benghazi, Africa; 
(2) Persian Kurdistan; (3) Irak, on the Tigris and Euphrates; 
(4) the Aslr country, western Arabia; (5) on the lower Volga, 
Russia; (6) northern Persia and the shores of the Caspian; 
(7) Kumaon and Gurhwal, India; (8) Yunnan and Pakhoi, 
China. 

LITERATURE. See the following works, besides those already 
quoted: Kamintus, Regimen contra epidimiam sive peslem, 410, 
c. 1494 (many editions) ; Jacobus Soldus, Opus insigne de peste, 
4to (Bologna, 1478) ; Alex. Benedictus, De observatione in pestilenlia, 
410 (Venice, 1493) ; Nicolaus Massa, Defebre pestilentia, 410 (Venice, 
1556, &c.); Fioravanti, Regimento della pesle, 8vo, Venice, 1556; 
John Woodall, The Surgeon's Male, folio (London, 1639); Van 
Helmont, Tumulus pestis, 8vo (Cologne, 1644, &c.); Muratori, 
Trattato del governo della peste, Modena, 1714; John Howard, 
An Account of Lazarettoes in Europe, &c., 410 (London, 1789); 
Patrick Russell, A Treatise of the Plague, 410 (London, 1791); 
Thomas Hancock, Researches into the Laws of Pestilence, 8vo 
(London, 1821); Foden?, Lemons sur les epidemics, &c., 4 vols. 8vo 
(Paris, 1822-1824); S6gur Dupeyron, Recherches historiques, &c., 
sur la peste (1837); Bulard, La Peste orientak, 8vo (Pans, 1839); 
Griesinger, Die Infectionskrankheiten (2nd ed., 8vo, Erlangen, 
1864). (J. F. P.) 

History since 1880. The most striking feature of the early 
history of plague summarized above is the gradual retrocession 
of plague from the west, after a series of exceedingly destructive 
outbreaks extending over several centuries, and its eventual 
disappearance from Europe. It appears to have come to a 
sudden end in one country after another, and to have been seen 
there no more. Those lying most to the west were the first. 

4 On Indian plague, see Francis, Trans. Epidem. Spc. Land. 
iv. 407-408; John Murray, ibid., vol. iv. part 2; J. N. Radcliffe, 
Reports of Local Government Board (1875, 1876, 1877 and for 1879- 
1880); Parliamentary Papers (1879); Frederick Forbes, On Plague 
in North-West Provinces of India (Edinburgh, 1840) (Disserta- 
tion) ; Hirsch, Handbuch der historischen-geogr . Pathologie, i. 209 
(1860), (Eng. trans, by Crcighton, London, 1883); Heckcr's Volks- 
krankheiten des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1865), p. 101 ; Webb, Pathologia 
indica (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1848). 

6 See J. N. Radcliffe's Report for 1879-1880, p. 45; Manson in 
Reports of Imperial Chinese Customs, special series No. 2, for half- 
year ended the 3 1st of March 1878, ijth issue (Shanghai); Lowry, 

Notes on Epidemic Disease at Pakhoi " (1882), ibid., 24th issue, 
P-3I- 



PLAGUE 



699 



to be freed from its presence, namely, England, Portugal and 
Spain. From all these it finally disappeared about 1680, at the 
close of a period of pandemic prevalence. Northern and central 
Europe became free about 1714, and the south of France in 
1722. The last outbreak in northern Russia occurred in 1770. 
After this plague only appeared in the south-east of Europe, 
where in turn it gradually died away during the first half of the 
ipth century. In 1841 its long reign on this continent came to 
an end with an isolated outbreak in Turkey. From that time 
until quite recently it remained extinct, except in the East. 
The province of Astrakhan, where a very small and limited out- 
break occurred in 1878, is politically in Europe, but geographi- 
'cally it belongs rather to Asia. And even in the East plague 
was confined to more or less clearly localized epidemics; it showed 
no power of pandemic diffusion. In short, if we regard the his- 
tory of this disease as a whole, it appears to have lost such 
power from the time of the Great Plague of London in 1665, 
which was part of a pandemic wave, until the present day. 
There was not merely a gradual withdrawal eastwards lasting 
nearly two hundred years, but the outbreaks which occurred 
during that period, violent as some of them were, showed a 
constantly diminishing power of diffusion and an increasing 
tendency to localization. The sudden reversal of that long 
process is therefore a very remarkable occurrence. Emerging 
'from the remote endemic centres to which it had retreated, 
plague has once more taken its place among the zymotic diseases 
with which Western communities have to reckon, and that 
which has for more than a century been little more than a name 
and a tradition has become the familiar object of investigation, 
carried on with all the ardour and all the resources of modern 
science. In what follows an attempt will be made to summarize 
the facts and indicate the conclusions to be drawn from recent 
experience. 

Diffusion. At the outset it is characteristic of this subtle 
disorder that the present pandemic diffusion cannot be traced 
with certainty to a definite time or place of origin. Herein it 
differs notably from other exotic diseases liable to similar 
diffusion. For instance, the last visitation of cholera could be 
traced clearly and definitely to a point of origin in northern 
India in the spring of 1892, and could be followed thence step 
by step in its march -westward (see CHOLERA). Similarly, 
though not with equal precision, the last wave of influenza was 
shown to have started from central Asia in the spring of 1889, 
to have travelled through Europe from east to west, to have 
been carried thence across the sea to America and the Antipodes, 
until it eventually invaded every inhabited part of the globe 
(see INFLUENZA). In both cases no doubt remains that the 
all-jmportant means of dissemination is human Intercourse. 
The movements of plague cannot be followed in the same way. 
With regard to origin, several endemic centres are now recog- 
nized in Asia and Africa, namely, (i) the district of Assyr in 
Arabia, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea; (2) parts of Meso- 
potamia and Persia; (3) the district of Garwhal and Kumaon 
in the North- West Provinces of India; (4) Yunnan in China; 
(5) East and Central Africa. The last was recently discovered 
by Dr Koch. It includes the district of Kisiba in German 
East Africa, and extends into Uganda. In applying the term 
" endemic centres " to these localities, no very precise meaning 
can be attached to the word. They are for the most part so 
remote, and the information about them so scanty, that our 
knowledge is largely guesswork. What we mean is that there 
is evidence to show that under various names a disease identical 
with plague has been more or less continuously prevalent for a 
number of years, but how long and how continuously is not 
known. Whether any of them are permanent homes of plague 
the evidence does not enable us to say. They seem, at any 
rate, to have harboured it since its disappearance from Europe, 
and probably further investigation would disclose a still wider 
prevalence. For instance, there are good reasons for believing 
that the island of Reunion has been subject, since 1840 or there- 
abouts, to outbreaks under the name of " lymphangite infec- 
tieuse." an elegant euphemism characteristically French. In 



all the countries named plague appears to behave very much as 
it used to do in Europe from the time of the Black Death on- 
wards. That is to say, there are periods of quiescence, with 
epidemic outbreaks which attract notice at irregular intervals. 

Taking up the story at the point where the earlier historical 
summary leaves off, we get the following list of countries in 
which plague is known to have been present in each year (see 
Local Government Board's Reports): 1880, Mesopotamia; 
1881, Mesopotamia, Persia and China; 1882, Persia and China; 
1883, China; 1884, China and India (as mahamari) ; 1885, Persia; 
1886, 1887, 1888, India (as mahamari); 1889, Arabia, Persia and 
China; 1890, Arabia, Persia and China; 1891, Arabia, China 
and India (as mahamari); 1892, Mesopotamia, Persia, China, 
Russia (in central Asia); 1893, Arabia, China, Russia and 
India (as mahamari); 1894, Arabia, China and India (as 
mahamari); 1895, Arabia and China; 1896, Arabia, Asia 
Minor, China, Japan, Russia and India (Bombay); 1897, Arabia, 
China, Japan, India, Russia and East Africa; 1898, Arabia, 
Persia, China, Japan, Russia, East Africa, Madagascar and 
Vienna; 1899, Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Mesopotamia, 
East Africa, West Africa, Philippine Islands, Straits Settlements, 
Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Egypt, European Russia, 
Portugal, Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Paraguay, Argen- 
tine, Brazil: 1900, to the foregoing should be added Turkey, 
Australia, California, Mexico and Glasgow; in 1901, South 
Africa and in 1902 Russia chiefly at Odessa. 

This list is probably by no means exhaustive, but it sufficiently 
indicates in a summary fashion the extent of that wave of diffu- 
sion which set in during the closing years of the igth century. 
It did not fully gather way till 1896, when plague appeared in 
Bombay, but our modern knowledge of the disease dates from 
1894, when it attacked Hong Kong and first presented itself to 
accurate observation. From this point a more detailed account 
may be given. Plague was recognized at Hong Kong in May 
1894, and there can be little doubt that it was imported from 
Canton, where a violent outbreak said to have caused 100,000 
deaths was in progress a few months earlier, being part of an 
extensive wave of infection which is believed to have come 
originally out of the province of Yunnan, one of the recognized 
endemic centres, and to have invaded a large number of places 
in that part of China, including Pakhoi and other seaports. 
Hong Kong was severely affected, and has never since been 
entirely free from plague. In two intermediate years 1895 
and 1897 very few cases were recorded, but more recently the 
epidemic has gathered force again. The following table gives 
the cases and deaths in each of the six years 1894-1899: 



Year. . 


Cases. 


Deaths. 


Case Mortality. 


1804 


2833 


2550 


o/ 

/o 

9 


1895 
1896 

1897 
1808 


45 
1204 

21 

I32O 


36 
1078 
18 
1175 


80 
89 
85 
89 


1800 


1486 


1415 


95 










Total . . 


6909 


6272 


90-7 



The excessively high rate of mortality is probably due in 
part to under-statement of the number of cases. Concealment 
is practised by the Chinese, who are chiefly attacked, and it is 
easier to conceal sickness than death. Plague appears to have 
been equally persistent and destructive on the mainland in 
southern China during the period indicated, but no accurate 
details are available. In 1897 the Portuguese settlements of 
Lappa and Macao were invaded. In addition to the provinces 
of Yunnan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung in southern China, 
plague is reported to have been present for several years in a 
district in Mongolia to the north of Peking, and distant about 
" twelve days' ride." More recently several localities in Mon- 
golia and Manchuria have been affected. Formosa was attacked 
in 1896, and suffered considerably in subsequent years; in 1899 
the Japanese government officially reported 2633 cases, with 



yoo 



PLAGUE 



1974 deaths. Japan itself has had a certain amount of imported 
plague, but not on a large scale. Speaking generally, the disease 
has persisted and spread in the Far East since 1894, but precise 
information is lacking, except with regard to Hong Kong. 
W. J. Simpson in his Report on the Causes of the Plague in 
Hong Kong (1903) reports the endemicity of the plague in that 
colony to be maintained by (a) infection among rats often 
connected with infectious material in rat runs or in houses, the 
virus of which has not been destroyed, (6) retention of infection 
in houses which are rat-ridden, and (c) infected clothing of people 
who have been ill or died of plague. He considers the outbreaks 
are favoured by the seasonal heat and moisture of the spring 
and early summer, and the movement from place to place of 
infected rats or persons. He also believes that human beings 
may infect rats. In 310 cases of plague examined by Simpson 
56% were bubonic, 40% septic and 4% pneumonic. 

In 1896 plague appeared in the city of Bombay. It was 
certainly present in August, but was not recognized until the 
23rd of September, and the diagnosis was not bacteriolcgically 
confirmed until the i3th of October. This fact should be 
remembered when failure to recognize the disease on its first 
appearance occurs elsewhere. The origin of the Bombay inva- 
sion is shrouded in obscurity. It is not even known when or 
in what part of the city it began (Condon, The Bombay Plague). 
Several theories have been put forward, and importation by 
sea from China is the theory which has met with most acceptance. 
The native form of plague, known as mahamari, is confined to 
the southern slopes of the Himalaya. It is described above, 
but that account may be supplemented by seme earlier references 
unearthed by the Bombay Gazetteer (vol. iv.). Ibn Batesta 
notices two destructive pestilences in the I4th century, and 
Ferishta one in 1443, which he calls ta'un, and describes as very 
unusual in India. At the end of the i6th century there was a 
pestilence following a prolonged famine, and in the I7th century 
two violent epidemics are recorded under the names ta'un and 
wdba. In the second of these, which occurred in the Ahmedabad 
district of the Bombay Presidency in 1683-89, buboes are 
distinctly described. In the i8th century several pestilences 
are recorded without description. It is at least probable from 
these notes that even before the undoubted outbreak, which 
began in Cutch in 1812, India was no stranger to epidemic 
plague. To return to Bombay and 1896: the infection spread 
gradually and slowly at first, but during the first three months 
of 1897 not only was the town of Bombay severely affected, but 
district after district in the presidency was attacked, notably 
Poona, Karachi, Cutch Mandvi, Bhiwandi and Daman. The 
number of cases and deaths reported in the presidency, exclusive 
of the city, in each year down to the end of 1899, was as follows: 



Year. 


Cases. 


Deaths. 


Case Mortality. 


1896 

1897 
1898 

1899 
Total . . 


367 
49,125 
90,506 
131,794 


273 
36,797 
68,061 
101,485 


"/ 

/o 

74-3 
74-7 
75-2 
77-o 


271,792 


206,616 


75'8 



The corresponding figures for Bombay city are: 



Year. 


Cases. 


Deaths. 


Case Mortality. 


1896 

1897 
1898 
1899 

Total . . 


2,530 
11,963 
19,863 

19,484 


1,801 
10,232 
18,160 
15.830 


o/ 
/o 

TI-I 

85-7 
91-2 

81-3 


53,840 


46,023 


85-4 



The total for the presidency, including the city, in four years 
was 325,632 cases with 252,549 deaths in a population of 
26,960,421 (census of 1891). The population of the city is 
821,764, but during the earlier plague period large numbers 
fled, so that the foregoing figures do not give the true plague 



Year. 


Bengal Presidency 
(including Calcutta). 


Bombay Presidency 
(including Bombay City). 


All India. 


1896 





2,219 


2,219 


1897 





47,710 


47,974 


1898 


219 


86,191 


89,265 


1899 


3-264 


96,592 


102,369 


1900 


38-412 


33,196 


73,576 


1901 


78,629 


128,259 


236,433 


1902 


32,967 


184-752 


452,655 


1903 


65,680 


281,269 


684,445 


1904 


75.438 


223,957 


938,010 


1905 


126,084 


7L363 


940,821 


1906 


59,619 


51,525 


300,355 



incidence according to population. Moreover, concealment 
was extensively practised. The most striking fact brought out 
by the tables just given is the large and steady increase year 
by year in the presidency, in spite of all efforts to arrest the 
spread of infection. It has gone on since 1899, and it has not 
been confined to Bombay, but has extended over the whole of 
India. In 1897 it had already penetrated to Rajputana, the 
Punjab, the North West Provinces and the Central Provinces. 
In the following year Bengal, Madras, Haidarabad and Mysore 
were invaded. Not all these provinces suffered alike, but on the 
whole plague steadily strengthened its hold on India generally, 
and hardly relaxed it in any part. The most noteworthy 
details available are as follows, taken from the plague mortality 
returns published June 1908. In the Punjab from 179 deaths 
in 1897 the mortality reached a maximum of 334,897 in 1905, 
in Agra and Oudh they rose from 72 in 1897 to 383,802 in 1905, 
and in Madras Presidency from 1658 in 1899 to 20,125 i Q I 94- 
The most striking figures, however, are those for Bombay and 
Bengal which are given below, as well as the total mortality in 
India. 



Outside China and India plague has caused no great mortality 
in any of the countries in which it has appeared, with the 
exception perhaps of Arabia, about which very little is known. 
But some of the outbreaks are interesting for other reasons, 
and require notice. The first case is the singular occurrence of 
three deaths at Vienna in October 1898. The earliest victim 
was an attendant named Barisch, employed in the pathological 
laboratory of the Vienna General Hospital, and told off to look 
after the animals and bacteriological apparatus devoted to the 
investigation of plague, cultures of which had been brought 
from India by the medical commissioners sent by the Royal 
Academy of Science in 1897. Barisch was drunk and out all 
night on the 8th of October; on the i4th of October he fell ill. 
Plague was suspected, but Dr Miiller, who attended the man and 
had studied the disease in India, would not admit the diagnosis 
on clinical grounds, nor was it bacteriologically established 
until the igth of October. Barisch died on the i8th of October. 
On the 2oth one of the nurses, and on the 2ist Dr Miiller, fell ill. 
Both died of pneumonic plague, from which also Barisch had 
undoubtedly suffered. A second nurse and a sister of mercy 
had feverish attacks, but no further case occurred. Barisch 
was shown to have been careless in the performance of his duties, 
and to have disregarded instructions; and the inference is that 
he conveyed the infection to his mouth, and so to the lungs, 
from the bacteriological specimens or inoculated animals. The 
melancholy incident illustrates several points of interest: (i) the 
correctness of the bacterial theory of causation, and the identity 
of the bacillus pestis as the cause; (2) the infectious character 
of the pneumonic type of disease; (3) its high fatality; (4) the 
difficulty of diagnosis. 

The next occurrence of special interest is the appearance of 
plague in Portugal in 1899, after an absence of more than 200 
years. Its origin is shrouded in obscurity. Oporto, the seat 
of the outbreak, had no connexion by sea with any place known 
to be infected, and all attempts to trace introduction ended in 
speculation or assumption. The most probable theory was that 
soldiers returning home from infected Portuguese possessions 
in the East brought it with them, but this does not explain the 
selection of Oporto and the escape of other places. The earliest 



PLAGUE 



701 



cases, according to retrospective inquiry, occurred in June 1899; 
suspicions were aroused in July, but the diagnosis was not 
established until August. The conclusion reached, after careful 
investigation by Dr Jorge, the medical officer of health, that the 
commencement really dated from June, is confirmed by the fact 
that about that time the riverside labourers, who were first 
affected, began to notice an illness among themselves sufficiently 
novel to attract their attention and that of an English ship- 
owner, who from their description suspected plague. Through 
him the suspicion was conveyed to the Medical Times and 
Gazette, in which the suggestion of plague at Oporto was made 
before any public mention of it in the town itself. The outbreak 
never assumed large proportions. It gained ground by degrees 
until October, after which it declined, and eventually ceased in 
February 1900. No recrudescence has been officially announced. 
The number of cases recorded in a population of 150,000 was 310, 
with 114 deaths, representing a case mortality of 36-7%. They 
were widely scattered about the town and outlying suburbs; 
but no further extension occurred, except some isolated cases at 
Braga, a town 35 m. distant, and one at Lisbon, in the person 
of the distinguished bacteriologist, Professor Camara Pestana, 
who contracted the disease in making a post-mortem at Oporto, 
and died in Lisbon. 

The only other appearance of plague in Europe in 1899 was 
on the Volga. Three places were affected, namely, Kolobovka, 
and Krasnoyarsk, in the province of Astrakhan, and Samara, 
higher up the river. All three outbreaks were small and limited, 
and no further extension took place. A commission appointed 
by the Russian government pronounced the disease to be 
undoubtedly plague, and it appears to have been very fatal. The 
origin was not ascertained. 

The most interesting extensions of plague in 1900 were those 
in Australia and Glasgow. The following towns were affected 
in Australia: Sydney, in New South Wales; Adelaide, in South 
Australia; Melbourne, in Victoria; Brisbane, Rockhampton, 
Townsville, Cairns and Ipswich, in Queensland; Freemantle, 
Perth and Coolgardie, in West Australia. In none of these, 
with the exception of Sydney, did plague obtain a serious hold. 
The total number of cases .reported in Queensland was only 123, 
with 53 deaths. In Sydney there was 303 cases, with 103 
deaths, a case mortality of 34%. The infection is supposed to 
have been brought from Noumea, in New Caledonia, where it 
was present at the end of 1899; and the medical authorities 
believe that the first case, which occurred on the igth of January, 
was recognized. The outbreak, which hardly reached epidemic 
proportions, lasted about six months. That in Glasgow was on 
a still smaller scale. It began, so far as could be ascertained, 
in August 1900, and during the two months it lasted there were 
34 cases and 15 deaths. Once more the disease was not at first 
recognized, and its origin could not be traced. In 1901 plague 
invaded South Africa, and obtained a distinct footing both at 
Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. The total number of cases 
down to July was 760, with 362 deaths; the number of Europeans 
attacked was 196, with 68 deaths, the rest being natives, Malays, 
Indians, Chinese and negroes. With regard to Great Britain, a 
few ship-borne cases have been dealt with at different ports from 
time to time since 1896, but except at Glasgow the disease has 
nowhere obtained a footing on land. 

Causation. Plague is a specific infectious fever, caused by 
the bacillus pestis, which was identified in 1894 by Kitasato, 
and subsequently, but independently, by Yersin (see PARASITIC 
DISEASES). It is found in the buboes in ordinary cases, in the 
blood in the so-called " septicaemic " cases, and in the sputum 
of pneumonic cases. It may also be present in the urine. Post 
mortem it is found in great abundance in the spleen and liver. 
Nothing is known of its natural history outside the body, but 
on cultivation it is apt to undergo numerous involution forms. 
Its presence in a patient is regarded as positive diagnostic proof 
of plague; but failure to find or to identify it does not possess 
an equal negative value, and should not be too readily accepted, 
for many instances are recorded in which expert observers have 
only succeeded in demonstrating its presence after repeated 



attempts. It is clear, from the extreme variations in the severity 
of the illness, that the resisting power of individuals varies 
greatly. According to the Plague Research Committee of 
Bombay, the predisposing causes are " those leading to a lower 
state of vitality," of which insufficient food is probably the most 
important. There is no evidence that age, sex or race exercises 
a distinct predisposing influence. The largest incidence in 
Bombay was on young adults; but then they are more numerous 
and more exposed to infection, because they go about more 
than the younger and the older. Similarly, the comparative 
immunity of Europeans in the East may be explained by their 
different conditions of life. It is doubtful whether the distinc- 
tion drawn between pestis minor and pestis major has a real 
aetiological basis. Very mild cases occurring in the course of 
an outbreak of typical plague may be explained by greater power 
of resistance in individuals, but the epidemic prevalence of a 
mild illness preceding the appearance of undoubted plague 
suggests some difference or modification of the exciting cause. 
" It is impossible," writes Sir Richard Thome (Local Government 
Board Report, 1898-1899), " to read the medical history of this 
disease in almost every part of the world without being impressed 
with the frequency with which recognized plague has been pre- 
ceded by ailments of such slight severity, involving some bubonic 
enlargement of glands and some rise in body-temperature, as 
to mask the real nature of the malady." Considering the great 
importance of arresting the spread of infection at the outset, 
and the implicit reliance placed upon bacteriological criteria, 
the aetiology of such antecedent ailments deserves more atten- 
tion than has hitherto been paid to it. Of course plague does 
not stand alone in this respect. Epidemic outbreaks of other 
diseases for instance, cholera, diphtheria and typhoid fever 
are often preceded and followed by the prevalence of mild illness 
of an allied type; and the true significance of this fact is one of 
the most important problems in epidemiology. In plague, 
however, it is of special importance, on account of the peculiarly 
insidious manner in which this disease fastens itself upon a 
locality. 

The path by which the bacillus enters the body varies. In 
pneumonic cases it is presumed to enter by the air-passages, 
and in bubonic cases by the skin. The Bombay Plague Research 
Committee, whose experience is unequalled, say: " In a number 
of instances points of inoculation were found on the extremities 
of patients, from which plague cultures were obtained, and 
in these cases buboes were found above the point of inoculation. 
In the majority of instances, however, no local indication could 
be found marking the point at which the microbe was implan- 
ted." From the fact that bacilli are hardly ever found in the 
blood of bubonic cases it may be inferred that they are arrested 
by the lymphatic glands next above the seat of inoculation, and 
that the fight which is the illness takes place largely in the 
bubo; in non-bubonic cases they are not so arrested, and the 
fight takes place in the general circulatory system, or in the 
lungs. As might be expected from these considerations, the 
bubonic type is very little infectious, while pneumonic cases 
are highly so, the patients no doubt charging the surrounding 
atmosphere by coughing. Whether infection can be introduced 
through the digestive tract by infected food is doubtful. The 
bacillus is non-resistant and easily killed by heat and germicide 
substances, particularly acids. Little is known of its toxic 
action; only a weak toxin has been obtained from cultures. 
Of the lower animals, mice, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, squirrels 
and monkeys are susceptible to the bacillus; horses, cattle, 
sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and cats are more or less resistant, but 
cats and dogs have been known to die of plague (Oporto, Daman, 
Cutch and Poona). In the Great Plague of London they were 
believed to carry the infection, and were killed in vast numbers. 
The bacillus has been demonstrated in the bodies of fleas, flies, 
bugs and ants. 

Clinical Characters. One of the results of recent observation 
is the classification of plague cases under three heads, which 
have already been mentioned several times: (i) bubonic, 
(2) pneumonic, (3) septicaemic. (The word " pesti-caemic " is 



702 



PLAGUE 



also used instead of " septi-caemic," and though etymologically 
objectionable, it is otherwise better, as " septicaemic " already 
has a specific and quite different meaning.) It should be under- 
stood that this classification is a clinical one, and that the 
second and third varieties are just as much plague as the first. 
It is necessary to say this, because a misleading use of the word 
" bubonic " has given rise to the erroneous idea that true plague 
is necessarily bubonic, and that non-bubonic types are a different 
disease altogether. The word " plague " or " pest," which is 
the name used in other languages had originally a general 
meaning, and may have required qualifications when applied to 
this particular fever; but it has now become a specific label, 
and the prefix "bubonic" should be dropped. 

The illness varies within the widest limits, and exhibits all 
gradations of severity, from a mere indisposition, which may pass 
almost unnoticed, to an extreme violence, only equalled by the 
most violent forms of cholera. The mild cases are always 
bubonic; the other varieties are invariably severe, and almost 
always fatal. Incubation is generally from four to six days, 
but it has been observed as short as thirty-six hours and as 
long as ten days (Bombay Research Committee). Incubation, 
however, is so difficult a thing to determine that it is unwise to 
lay down any positive limit. As a rule the onset is sudden and 
well marked. The symptoms may be described under the 
headings given above, (i) Bubonic cases usually constitute 
three-fourths of the whole, and the symptoms may therefore 
be called typical. In a well-marked case there is usually an 
initial rigor in children convulsions followed by a rise of 
temperature, with vomiting, headache, giddiness, intolerance to 
light; pain in epigastrium, back and limbs; sleeplessness, apathy 
or delirium. The headache is described as splitting; delirium 
is of the busy type, like delirium tremens. The temperature 
varies greatly; it is not usually high on the first day from 101 
to 103 and may even be normal, but sometimes it rises rapidly 
to 104 or 105 or even 107 F.; a fall of two or three degrees 
on the second or third day has frequently been observed. The 
eyes are red and injected; the tongue is somewhat swollen, and 
at first covered with a thin white fur, except at the tip and 
edges, but later it is dry, and the fur yellow or brownish. Pros- 
tration is marked. Constipation is the rule at first, but diarrhoea 
may be present, and is a bad sign. A characteristic symptom 
in severe cases is that the patient appears dazed and stupid, is 
thick in speech, and staggers. The condition has often been 
mistaken for intoxication. There is nothing, however, in all 
these symptoms positively distinctive of plague, unless it is 
already prevalent. The really pathognomonic sign is the appear- 
ance of buboes or inflamed glands, which happens early in the 
illness, usually on the second day; sometimes they are present 
from the outset, sometimes they cannot be detected before the 
third day, or even later. The commonest seat is the groin, and 
next to that the axilla; the cervical, submaxillary and femoral 
glands are less frequently affected. Sometimes the buboes are 
multiple and on both sides, but more commonly they are 
unilateral. The pain is described as lancinating. If left, they 
usually suppurate and open outwards by sloughing of the skin, 
but they may subside spontaneously, or remain hard and 
indurated. Petechiae occur over buboes or on the abdomen, 
but they are' not very common, except in fatal cases, when they 
appear shortly before death. Boils and carbuncles are rare. 
(2) Pneumonic plague was observed and described in many of 
the old epidemics, and particularly by two medical men, Dr 
Gilder and Dr Whyte, in the outbreak in Kathiawar in 1816; 
but its precise significance was first recognized by Childe in 
Bombay. He demonstrated the presence of the bacilli in the 
sputa, and showed that the inflammation in the lungs was set up 
by primary plague infection. The pneumonia is usually 
lobular, the onset marked by rigors, with difficult and hurried 
breathing, cough and expectoration. The prostration is great 
and the course of the illness rapid. The breathing becomes very 
hurried forty to sixty respirations in the minute and the face 
dusky. The expectoration soon becomes watery and profuse, 
with little whitish specks, which contain great quantities of 



bacilli. The temperature is high and irregular. The physical 
signs are those of broncho-pneumonia; oedema of the lungs 
soon supervenes, and death occurs in three or four days. (3) In 
septicaemic cases the symptoms are those of the bubonic type, 
but more severe and without buboes. Prostration and cerebral 
symptoms are particularly marked; the temperature rises 
rapidly and very high. The patient may die comatose within 
twenty-four hours, but more commonly death occurs on the 
second or third day. Recovery is very rare. 

There is no reason for doubting that the disease described 
above is identical with the European plagues of the i4th and 
subsequent centuries. It does not differ from them in its clinical 
features more than epidemics of other diseases are apt to vary 
at different times, or more than can be accounted for by difference 
of handling. The swellings and discolorations of the skin which 
play so large a part in old descriptions would probably be equally 
striking now but for the surgical treatment of buboes. Similarly, 
the comparatively small destructiveness of modern plague, even 
in India, may be explained by the improved sanitary conditions 
and energetic measures dictated by modern knowledge. The 
case mortality still remains exceedingly high. The lowest 
recorded is 34% in Sydney, and the highest 95% at Hong Kong 
in 1899. During the first few weeks in Bombay it was calculated 
by Dr Viegas to be as high as 99%. It is very much higher 
among Orientals than among Europeans. In the Bombay 
hospitals it was about 70% among the former, and between 30 
and 40% among the latter, which was much the same as in 
Oporto, Sydney and Cape Town. It appears, therefore, that 
plague is less fatal to Europeans than cholera. The average 
duration of fatal cases is five or six days; in the House of Correc- 
tion at Byculla, where the exact period could be well observed, 
it was five and a half days. Patients who survive the tenth or 
twelfth day have a good chance of recovery. Convalescence 
is usually prolonged. Second attacks are rare, but have been 
known to occur. 

Diagnosis. When plague is prevalent in a locality, the 
diagnosis is easy in fairly well-marked cases of the bubonic 
type, but less so in the other varieties. When it is not prevalent 
the diagnosis is never easy, and in pneumonic and septicaemic 
cases it is impossible without bacteriological assistance. The 
earliest cases have hardly ever been even suspected at the time 
in any outbreak in a fresh locality. It may be taken at first for 
almost any fever, particularly typhoid, or for venereal disease 
or lymphangitis. In plague countries the diseases with which it 
is most liable to be confounded are malaria, relapsing fever and 
typhus, or broncho-pneumonia in pneumonic cases. 

Treatment. The treatment of plague is still symptomatic. 
The points requiring most attention are the cerebral symptoms 
headache, sleeplessness, delirium, &c. and the state of the 
heart. Alcohol and cardiac stimulants may be required to 
prevent heart failure. Speaking generally, it is important to 
preserve strength and guard against collapse. Extracts of 
supra-renal gland have been found useful. Buboes should be 
treated on ordinary surgical principles. An antitoxic serum 
has been prepared from horses by the Institut Pasteur in France, 
but has not met with success. The results in India obtained 
by British and various foreign observers were uniformly unfa- 
vourable, and the verdict of the Research Committee (1900) 
was that the serum had " failed to influence favourably the 
mortality among those attacked." Success was somewhat 
noisily claimed for an improved method tried in Oporto, but the 
evidence is of little or no value. Of 142 cases treated, 21 died; 
while of 72 cases not treated, 46 died; but the former were all 
hospital patients, and included several convalescents and many 
cases of extreme mildness, whereas the non-serum cases were 
treated at home or not at all, some being only discovered when 
death had made further concealment impossible. Later obser- 
vations have, however, established that the Yersin-Roux serum 
is of undoubted benefit when used early in the case, in fact 
during the first twenty-four hours. Very large doses, so 
much as 150 cc. may be injected subcutaneously or preferably 
intravenously, and it is stated to modify the whole course of 



PLAGUE 



703 



the disease. Another serum has been prepared by Lustig and 
Galeotti. 

Morbid Anatomy. (i) Bubonic cases. A bubo is found to 
consist of a chain of enlarged glands, surrounded by a mass of 
engorged connective tissue, coagulated blood and serum. 
Nearly all the lymphatic glands in the body are a little swollen, 
but the lymphatic vessels show little or no change. The spleen 
and liver are always enlarged, the former to sometimes twice or 
thrice its natural size. The lungs are engorged and oedematous, 
and often show haemorrhages. The kidneys are enlarged and 
congested. The serous membranes show petechiae and hae- 
morrhages. The right side of the heart is frequently dilated, 
with clots in the cavities. The heart muscle is normal, or soft 
and friable. The substance of the brain, spinal cord and nerve- 
trunks is normal, but the membranes are engorged. (2) Pneu- 
monic cases. The lymphatic glands are hardly affected. There 
is general engorgement and oedema of the lungs, with pneumonic 
patches varying in size and irregularly distributed. (3) Septi- 
caemic cases. Nearly all the lymphatic glands in the body are 
involved, and have a characteristic appearance. They are 
enlarged to the size of an almond, rounded, firm and pink; there 
is some engorgement and oedema on section; the substance is 
rather soft, and can be scraped off with a knife. The surrounding 
tissue is not engorged or oedematous. The description of the 
other organs given under (i) applies also to (2) and (3). 

Dissemination. Given the bacillus, the questions arise, How 
is it disseminated? and What are the conditions that favour its 
propagation? That it is conveyed from person to person is 
an undoubted fact, proved by innumerable cases, and tagitly 
implied by the word " infectious," which is universally allowed. 
The sick are a source of danger and one means of dissemination, 
and, since the illness may be so slight as to pass unrecognized, 
an obviously insidious one. The ambulatory plague patient 
goes far to explain the spread of the disease without leaving any 
track. But there is evidence that persons may carry the infec- 
tion and give it to others without being ill at all themselves. 
One such case occurred at Glasgow, and another at Oporto. 
In the Glasgow case the wife of a laundryman employed in 
handling plague linen contracted the disease. She was brought 
into connexion with it in no other way, and there can be no 
doubt that she took it from her husband, though he was not ill 
at all himself. The Oporto instance is still more conclusive. 
Two little girls had plague at Argoncilhe, a suburb some miles 
from Oporto, and were the only cases which occurred in 
that place. Their father was a riverside labourer, who 
lodged during the week in Oporto, but went home for 
Sunday. He was not ill, but several cases of plague occurred 
in the house in which he lodged. How the poison passes from 
one person to another is less clear. In pneumonic cases patients 
no doubt spread it around them by coughing, and others may 
take it up through the air-passages or the skin; but even then 
the range of infection is small, and such cases are comparatively 
rare. In the vast majority of cases the bacilli are in. the lym- 
phatic or the circulatory system, and aerial convection, even 
for a short distance, seems highly improbable. This view is 
borne out by the experience in hospitals and with " contacts," 
which goes to show that with reasonable care and under fair 
conditions the risk of infection from ordinary plague patients 
is very small. When persons live crowded together in close 
contact, and when they are careless with regard to discharges 
of all kinds from patients, the risk is obviously much increased. 
Discharges vomited matters, sputa, urine and faeces are 
possible media by which plague is spread from person to person. 
They also contaminate clothing, which thus becomes another 
means of dissemination capable of acting at a distance. This 
is the most probable explanation of the two cases of indirect 
infection related above. Failure to catch or induce plague 
from clothing that has been worn by plague patients proves 
nothing. Such clothing is not necessarily infectious; indeed, 
the probability is that it is not, unless contaminated by 
discharges. There is no evidence that merchandise and food- 
stuffs are means of dissemination, but a great deal of evidence 



against such a theory. Then we come to the lower animals. 
Attention has been concentrated on rats, and some observers 
seem disposed to lay upon them the whole blame for the propa- 
gation and spread of plague, which is held to be essentially a 
rat-borne disease. The susceptibility of rats has been noted 
from remote times and in many countries, particularly in China, 
but it has never attracted so much attention as during the recent 
prevalence of plague. From one place after another a great 
mortality among rats was reported, and the broad fact that they 
do die of plague is incontestable. It is therefore easily intelligible 
that they may play an important part in multiplying and fixing 
the poison on a locality. As to how they convey it from man 
to man the greatest probability is in favour of the flea as an 
intermediary. Mortality among rats is said to precede the 
appearance of human plague, but the evidence of this is always 
retrospective and of a very loose character. At Sydney a 
careful investigation was made; and the conclusion reached by 
Dr Tidswell was that " there was no ground for even a suspicion 
that our epidemic was being maintained by any process of direct 
contagion between man and man," but that rats were the 
carriers. In Glasgow the experience was just the contrary. 
Personal connexion was traced in every case, and rats excluded ; 
there was no mortality among them, and of 300 caught and 
examined none had plague (Chalmers). Similarly, at Oporto, 
personal connexion was traced in all the earlier cases; there was 
no mortality among rats, and no evidence to connect them 
with the outbreak (Jorge). Again, a comparison between rat- 
infested and rat-free districts in Bombay showed a much higher 
incidence of plague in the latter. A campaign against rats in 
Bombay, by which 50,000 or 60,000 were killed in a short time, 
had no effect in checking the disease. Plague-rats have rarely 
been found in ships sailing from infected ports; and though 
millions of these animals must have been carried backwards and 
forwards irom quay to quay betweenHong-Kong, Bombay and the 
great European ports, they have not brought the disease ashore. 
By far the most important communication on the r61e of rats 
in the spread of plague is formed by the " Report on the Plague 
Investigations in India " (Journal of Hygiene, vol. vi. No. 4; 
vol. vii. No. 3, 1907). The chief conclusions arrived at in the 
report as the result of experiments are the following: 

1. Healthy rats contracted plague from infected rats when the 
only apparent means of communication between the two was the 
rat flea (pulex cheppis). 

2. In 21 experiments out of 38, 55% of healthy rats living in 
flea-proof cages have contracted plague after receiving fleas collected 
from rats either dead or dying of septicaemic plague; consequently 
it is proved the rat flea can transmit plague from rat to rat. 

3. Close and continuous contact of plague-infected animals with 
healthy ones does not infect the latter if fleas are excluded. 

4. Should fleas be present an epizootic at once starts and spreads 
in porportion to the number of fleas present. 

5. Guinea-pigs set free in plague-infected houses become infected 
with the rat flea and develop plague in a certain percentage. 

6. Fleas caught on plague-infected rats are able to infect rats 
placed in flea-proof cages. 

7. Guinea-pigs placed in plague-infected houses do not contract 
plague if they are protected from fleas; those placed in cages pro- 
tected by a border of sticky paper at least six inches in radius, 
which the fleas cannot jump over, do not contract plague; the others 
not similarly protected, do. 

8. Chronic plague may prevail in rats. 

On this report it may, therefore, be taken that aerial infection, 
except, perhaps, in pneumonic cases, may be excluded, and that 
the chief source of infection is the flea. It was also shown that 
animals may become infected through the faeces of a flea which 
has been fed on plague-infected rats. This may serve to explain 
the manner in which plague-infected linen and clothing may 
convey the disease. The report also considers it proved that 
the bacillus pestis multiplies in the stomach of a flea and may 
remain a considerable time within its host. 

Browning Smith says the following facts are admitted as known. 
(i) Plague can be carried by fleas from an unhealthy rat. (2) A 
flea can retain the plague bacilli alive for seven or eight days. 
(3) Man is, in the majority of cases, infected through the skin, though 
the puncture may not be seen. (4) The rat flea, when finding no 
rats, will attack man and it will also attack other animals. 



704 



PLAGUE 



Very little light has been thrown on the conditions which 
favour the prevalence of plague. We do not know why it has 
developed a diffusive activity of late years, nor why it has 
attacked some places and consistently passed by others, such 
as Singapore. The words " dirt " and " insanitary conditions " 
are much used, but such general terms explain nothing. Singa- 
pore, where plague has several times been introduced, but 
never taken hold, is probably quite as dirty and insanitary as 
Hong-Kong, and it is pertinently remarked by the Bombay 
Research Committee that filth per se has but little influence, 
inasmuch as " there occurred in the House of Correction at 
Byculla, where cleanliness is brought as near to perfection as is 
attainable, an outbreak which exceeded in severity that in any of 
the filthy chawls and tenements around." Again, in Oporto 
there is an area which combines every possible sanitary 
defect dense overcrowding, great poverty, no light, no air, 
no drainage, no scavenging, water brought in buckets. Plague 
got into this quarter, but did not spread there; on the other 
hand, it appeared in other and vastly superior parts of the 
town. Yet in at least one case neither the patient nor the " con- 
tacts " were removed, but were all shut up in one room with 
a sentry at the door and another in the street. The seasonal 
variations have been well marked and extremely regular in 
Bombay. The disease begins to be active in late autumn or 
the beginning of winter, and reaches its height in February or 
March, dying down in the summer. Baldwin Latham made an 
elaborate examination of the meteorological conditions, and 
more particularly of the vapour tension, from which he draws 
the conclusion that the seasonal variations are due to exhalation 
from the ground. His observations are original and worth 
attention. A simpler explanation is that the people live more 
indoors, and are so more exposed to infection during the 
plague season. The curve shows two rises, one at the begin- 
ning of winter, and the other at the commencement of the 
monsoon, and at both these times the people are driven indoors. 
A broad survey of the epidemiological facts suggests some 
general conclusions. The outbreaks fall into two well-defined 
groups: (i) those in which the disease is destructive and per- 
sistent, (2) those in which its effects are slight and transient. 
In the former the poison clearly fastens on the locality, and 
gradually increases its hold. The place is infected, not merely 
the people in it; for if they evacuate it, the disease soon ceases 
among them, and if they return in a short time, they are again 
attacked. Now the poison is contained, as we have already 
seen, in the discharges from patients, and in such infected 
localities the standing conditions and the habits of the people 
combine to retain the discharges on the premises. The floors, 
mostly of mud covered with dung, are fouled with spittle, 
vomit, and urine, and, being seldom or never cleaned out, foster 
a gradual accumulation of poison, to which infected rats and 
the concealment of illness contribute. These are just the con- 
ditions which prevailed in Europe in the old plague days. They 
do not prevail now in those " white countries " which have been 
invaded but have repelled the attack with comparative ease 
and little loss. It may be concluded, with some confidence, 
from experience and theory alike, that localities where they do 
not prevail may fail to keep plague out, but have very little to 
fear from it, except the disturbance of trade caused by the 
traditional terrors that still cling to the name. 

Prevention. The principles are the same as those which 
govern the prevention of other infectious diseases. " Sanitary 
cordons " and the like are obsolete. International procedure 
is supposed to be regulated by the Venice convention of 1897 
(see QUARANTINE), but that instrument contains an optional 
clause, which allows countries to do as they please with their 
own frontiers. Except Great Britain and Germany, they all 
retain quarantine in a more or less stringent form at seaports. 
It is generally used as a system of local extortion imposed upon 
travellers and shipping. According to the Venice convention, 
ships are divided into (i) healthy, (2) suspected, (3) infected. 

(1) Healthy are those free from plague throughout the voyage; 

(2) suspected, those in which plague has occurred, but no fresh 



case within twelve days; (3) infected, those in which plague has 
occurred within, twelve days. Great Britain relies on medical 
inspection, removal of sick or suspected cases, and supervision 
of the healthy arriving on an infected ship; infected clothing 
is burnt and infected ships are disinfected. The procedure is the 
same as for cholera, but it has been equally successful. Ships 
passing through the Suez Canal are subject to similar inspection ; 
sick persons are landed at Moses Wells, and suspected ones 
detained. The risk of importing plague from India has been 
materially lessened by medical inspection of outward-bound 
ships at the principal ports. This has been very thoroughly 
carried out at Bombay with good results. In 1897 pilgrimages 
from India to .the Hedjaz were prohibited. By the Venice 
convention a number of articles of merchandise are classed 
as susceptible and liable to be refused admission, but the only 
ones which there is any reason to consider dangerous are used 
clothing and rags. A watch should be kept on rats at ports 
of arrival and on board ships from infected countries. 

When plague is present in a place, the measures to be taken 
are the usual ones for dealing with infectious disease, with some 
additions. The sick and suspected should be removed in special 
ambulances to an isolation hospital, their soiled linen, &c., 
should be burnt, and the premises disinfected. Corrosive 
sublimate in an acid solution is the best disinfectant, but sul- 
phuric acid, i in 250, is efficient and cheaper. Suspected cases 
should be bestowed in a special isolated building until the 
diagnosis is fully determined. " Contacts " should be kept 
under observation. Rats should be exterminated as far as 
possible, especially by means of the Danysz virus, which spreads 
a disease amongst rats which cannot be communicated to man. 
The greatest care should be taken in dealing with the hospital 
linen and discharges from patients. Hospital staffs should be 
kept apart. Inoculation with Haffkine's prophylactic fluid 
should be offered to all persons willing to avail themselves of 
it. It is especially desirable for hospital and ambulance staffs 
to be inoculated with a vaccine prepared from sterilized cultures 
of plague bacillus. Inoculation is harmless, and the results 
obtained in India justify a favourable opinion of its protective 
efficacy. 1 At Hubli, where nearly the whole population was 
inoculated between the nth of May and the 27th of September 

1 The system of inoculation against plague with a fluid prepared 
from sterilized virus of the disease was introduced in India by Pro- 
fessor Haffkine early in 1897. The composition of this fluid was 
subjected to a searching inquiry by the Indian Plague Commission, 
who pronounced its employment to be free from danger, and it 
was used on a large scale in various parts of India without producing 
injurious effects. In September 1902 the standard method of 
manufacturing this fluid was changed by the director of the Plague 
Institute on his own authority, with the object of expediting the 
process, and thus meeting the heavy demand then being made 
by the Punjab government in connexion with a large scheme of 
inoculation. The change involved the omission of a small pro- 
portion of carbolic acid which had up till then been added to the 
original fluid as a further precaution against contamination. The 
new fluid, or water agar process, contained no carbolic acid, other 
methods being relied upon to ensure its purity. On the 6th of 
November 1902, nineteen persons who had been inoculated on 
the 3Oth of October in the village of Malkowal from a single bottle 
(labelled 53-n) of the new fluid were found to be suffering from 
tetanus, and all of them subsequently died. A commission, con- 
sisting of Sir Lawrence Jenkins, Lieut.-Colonel Bomford, M.D., 
principal of the Medical College, Calcutta, and Major Semple, 
R.A.M.C., director of the Pasteur Institute, Kasauli, was appointed 
by the government of India to inquire into the disaster. They 
found that the germ of tetanus had been introduced into the fluid 
before the bottle was opened at Malkowal, and they thought it pro- 
bable that this might have occurred owing either to insufficient 
sterilization or to the process of filling the bottle from a larger 
flask having been performed with defective precautions. They 
also expressed the opinion that carbolic acid was a valuable agent 
in restraining tetanus growth when added to plague prophylactic, 
and they, therefore, thought that its omission was a grave mistake. 
Experiments undertaken in India by two independent inquiries 
appeared to confirm the view, and their conclusions, together with 
the data on which they were based, were submitted with the report 
of the commission for examination and further experiment to the 
Lister Institute in London. With reference to the findings of the 
Malkowal commission the Institute were asked to report: (i) On 
the comparative efficacy of the standard and new fluids as a 



PLAICE PLAIN SONG 



705 



1898, the mean mortality among the inoculated was 1-3%; 
among the uninoculated 13-2 %. At Daman the mortality was 
inoculated 1-6%, uninoculated 24-6%; at Dharwar, inoculated 
1-2%, uninoculated 5-2%. In all these cases the numbers 
dealt with were large and the test fair. 

Simpson, in The Practitioner (Dec. 1906), gives an analysis 
of the results of Haffkine's serum inoculations as follows: 



Year. 


Case Mortality. 


Uninoculated. 


Inoculated. 


1897-1900 average . 
1900-1901 ... 
1901-1902 ... 
1902-1903 


66-99 
60-59 
65-12 
60- 1 


36-55 
36-50 
35-07 
23-9 



In Poona, out of 5595 uninoculated cases the incidence was 
6-8%, while in 1300 inoculated cases it was only 0-33%. Klein 
also prepares a new prophylactic from the dried organs of a 
guinea-pig, and one of the most interesting experiments is that 
of Strong (A rch ivfitrSchiffs-undtropische Hygiene, April, 1906), 
who uses for producing immunity in man a living virulent 
culture of the bacillus pestis. He immunized 40 persons with- 
out mishap and with no more unpleasant results than those 
occurring after vaccination. Inoculation protects against 
attack, and greatly modifies the illness when it fails to protect. 
How long the protection lasts has not been determined, but it 
appears to be several months at least. 

The main authorities for the researches into plague are in the 
official reports of recent years from India and elsewhere. See 
generally W. J. Simpson, A Treatise on Plague (1905). 

(A. SL.;H. L. H.) 

protection against plague; (2) on the comparative liability of each 
fluid to contamination; and (3) on the probable origin of tetanus 
virus in the Malkowal cases. Their report on these points (Dec. 
1904). contained the following conclusions: (l) " The Institute 
sees no reason to differ from the conclusions of the commission 
that the new prophylactic is not less efficacious than the old. 
(2) The Institute is of opinion that in the hands of more or less 
unskilled workers it is easier to ensure freedom from contamination 
by Haffkine's ' standard method ' of manufacturing plague vaccine 
than with the ' water agar process ' as employed by him. (3) The 
Institute is in entire agreement with the commission as to the value 
of 5 % carbolic acid in restraining tetanus growth when added to 
plague prophylactic, and its experiments emphasize still further 
the importance of this addition in preventing growth and toxin 
formation in a vaccine which might be liable to the possibility of 
contamination with spores of tetanus. (4) The conclusions of the 
Institute coincide with those of the commission that in all probability 
tetanus was at the time of inoculation in the fluid contained in 
the bottle, but that it is impossible to determine at what stage in 
its history or in what way the bottle (53-n) became contaminated." 

The government decided, on the advice of the director, that only 
the standard fluid should be manufactured at the plague institute. 
This fluid was sterilized by methods approved by the Indian Plague 
Commission and contained the requisite proportion of carbolic 
acid. It was bottled by a new method patented by Dr E. Maynard. 

The result of the inquiries by the commission and the Lister 
Institute led to a protracted controversy with regard to the re- 
sponsibility of Mr Haffkine's laboratory, and to his subsequent 
treatment by the government of India; and the leading bacteri- 
ologists in England warmly took up his cause. A parliamentary 
" Return of Papers " was issued in June 1907, and in The Times 
of the 2gth of July there appeared a letter signed by the distinguished 
pathologists, Ronald Ross, R. T. Hewlett, A. S. Grunbaum, W. I. 
Simpson, R. F. C. Leith, W. R. Smith, G. Sims Woodhead, E. 
Klein, S. Flexner and C. Hunter Stewart, pointing out that the 
evidence, so far from showing that Mr Haffkine's laboratory was 
to blame, made it clear to those acquainted with bacteriological 
work that it could have had nothing to do with the occurrence. 
They agreed that there was strong evidence to show that " the 
contamination took place when the bottle was opened at Malkowal, 
owing to the abolition by the plague authorities of the technique 
prescribed by the Bombay laboratory, and to the consequent 
Failure to sterilize the forceps which were used in opening the bottle, 
and which during the process were dropped on the ground "; and 
they complained of the inadequacy of the inquiries made by the 
Indian government, and called for Mr Haffkine's exoneration. 
The evidence showed that it had been much too readily believed 
that the tetanus germs had entered the fluid before the bottle was 
opened, and that a grave injustice had been done to Mr Haffkine. 
Acting on this view, in November 1907, the Indian government 
invited Mr Haffkine again to take up work in India. 
xxi. 23 



PLAICE (Pleuronectes platessa), a species of flat-fish, common 
on the coasts of northern Europe from Iceland to the Bay of 
Biscay. It is readily recognized by the yellow or orange-coloured 
spots which are placed in a row along the dorsal and anal fins, 
and scattered over the body. The eyes are on the right side, and 
the teeth in the jaws compressed and truncate. The scales are 
minute and smooth. Plaice, like other flat-fishes, prefer a 
sandy flat bottom to a rocky ground, and occur in suitable 
localities in great abundance; they spawn early in spring, and 
are in finest condition in the month of May. Individuals of 
seven or eight pounds weight are considered fish of large size, 
but specimens of double that weight have been caught. 

See the monograph by F. J. Cole and J. Johnstone (Liverpool, 
1901); and W. Garstang's " Reports on the Natural History of the 
Plaice " (Rapports et proch-verbaux du conseil international pour 
I' exploration de la mer, 1905 seq.). 

PLAID (Gael, plaide, Ir. ploid, usually taken to be derived from 
Gael, peall, sheepskin, Lat. pellis, skin), an outer garment, 
consisting of an oblong piece of woollen cloth, which has formed 
the principal outer part of the costume of the Highlanders of 
Scotland. The wearer wrapped himself in the plaid, the lower 
portion, reaching to the knees and belted, forming the kilt. 
Later the lower portion was separated, being called the phili- 
beg, the plaid being used as a covering for the shoulders and 
upper part of the body. The plaids were usually of a checked 
or tartan pattern. The word is thus used of any cloth made 
with such a pattern. " Shepherd's plaid " is a cloth with a 
chequer of black on a white ground. 

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. planum), a level surface; hence 
in physical geography a tract of country generally quite flat or 
comparatively so (see GEOGRAPHY). The adjective " plain " 
signifies " level," and thence smooth, clear, simple, ordinary, &c. 

PLAINFIELD, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 
about 24m. W. by S. of New York City. Pop. (1910 U.S. census), 
20,550. It is served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey and 
by electric lines connecting with neighbouring towns. It is 
situated for the most part on a plain; north-east are heights 
occupied by the suburb of Netherwood, and north in Somerset 
county, on the slope of the first Watchung Mountain, is the 
borough of North Plainfield (pop. 1910 U.S. census, 6117), 
which forms with Plainfield virtually a single residential and 
business community. Plainfield is one of the most attractive 
residential suburbs of New York. The city has an excellent 
public school system, a good public library, with an art gallery 
and museunr. The Muhlenberg hospital, club houses and a 
driving track are features of the city. The value of the factory 
products increased from $2,437,434 in 1900 to $3,572,134 in 
1905, or 46-6%. Plainfield was settled in r684, but it was not 
until 1735 that the first frame house was erected. In 1760 a 
grist mill was erected, and for several years the place was 
called Milltown. The township of Plainfield was created out of 
Westfield township in 1847, and in 1867 Plainfield was chartered 
as a city. 

PLAIN SONG, or PLAIN CHANT (Gregorian Music; Lat. canlus 
planus; Ital. canto gregoriano; Fr. plain chant), a style of 
unisonous music, easily recognizable by certain strongly marked 
characteristics, some very ancient fragments of which are 
believed to have been in use under the Jewish dispensation 
from a remote period, and to have been thence transferred to 
the ritual of the Christian Church. 

The theories advanced as to the origin of this solemn form of 
ecclesiastical music are innumerable. The most widely spread 
opinion is that the older portion of it originated with the Psalms 
themselves, or at least sprang from the later synagogue music. 
Another theory traces the origin of plain song to the early Greeks; 
and the supporters of this view lay much stress on the fact 
that the scales in which its melodies are composed are named 
after the old Greek " modes." But, beyond the name, no 
connexion whatever exists between the two tonalities. Less 
reasonable hypotheses attribute the origin of the plain song to the 
Phoenicians, to the Egyptians, to the early Christian converts, 
and to the musicians of the middle ages. 



yo6 



PLAINTIFF 



Towards the close of the 4th century Ambrose of Milan, 
fearing the loss or corruption of the venerable melodies which 
had been preserved by means of oral tradition only, endeavoured 
to restore them to their primitive purity, and to teach the clergy 
to sing them with greater precision. A still more extensive 
work of the same nature was undertaken, two centuries later, 
by Pope Gregory the Great. And thus arose two schools of 
ecclesiastical music, still known as the " Ambrosian " and the 
" Gregorian chant " the first of which is practised only in the 
diocese of Milan, while the latter is universally accepted as the 
authorized " Roman use." In order to explain the essential 
differences between these two schools, we must describe in detail 
some of the peculiar characteristics of plain song. 

The melodies which form the repertoire of plain chant are not 
written in modern major and minor scales, but in certain 
tonalities bearing names analogous to those of the early Greek 
"modes," though constructed on very different principles. 
Of these " modes," fourteen exist in theory, though twelve only 
are in practical use. The intervals of each " mode " are derived 
from a fundamental sound, called its " final." 1 The compass of 
each mode comprises eight sounds that of the first, third, fifth, 
seventh, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth " modes " extending 
to the octave above the " final," and that of the second, fourth, 
sixth, eighth, tenth, twelfth and fourteenth extending from the 
fourth note below the final to the fifth note above it. Con- 
sequently, the " finals " of the first series, called the " authentic 
modes," occupy the lowest place in each system of sounds, and 
those of the second series, called the " plagal modes," the middle 
place the same " final " being common to one " authentic " 
and one " plagal mode." The following table exhibits the entire 
system, expressed in the alphabetical notation peculiar to modern 
English music the " final " being indicated in each case by an 
asterisk, and the position of the semitones, from which each mode 
derives its distinctive character, by brackets. 



P!as"l Modes. 

2. Hypodorian, A, B, C, *D. E, F, G, A. 

4. Hypophrygian,BT?,D, *CF,G,A,B. 

6. Hypolydian, C, D, ~*F, G, A, fi'Tc 

8. Hypomixolydian,D,E,F,*G,A,B,C,D. 
10. Hypoaeolian, E, F. G, *A, B, C, D, E. 
12. Hypolocrian, P,G,A, *B^C, D, E^F. 
14. Hypoionian, G, A, B"T*C, D, E^F, G. 



Authentic Modes. 

I. Dorian, * D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D. 

3. Phrygian, *", G, A, B"Tc, D, E. 

5. Lydian, * F, G, A, fiTc, D, ]O. 

7. Mixolydian, *G, A, B, C, D, E^~F, G. 

9. Aeolian, *A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A. 
ii. Locrian, *B, C, D, E,F, G, A, B. 
13. Ionian, *C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. 

Nos. 1 1 and 12 in this series are rejected, for technical reasons 
into which we have not space to enter; they are practically useless. 2 

Of these modes Ambrose used four only the first four 
" authentic modes," now numbered i, 3, 5 and 7. Gregory 
acknowledged, and is said by some historians of credit to have 
invented, the first four " plagal modes " Nos. 2, 4, 6 and 8. 
The use of the remaining " modes," except perhaps the ninth, 
was not formally authorized until the reign of Charlemagne, 
who published an official decision upon the subject. In one or 
other of the twelve " modes " recognized by this decision every 
plain-chant melody is composed. The number of such melodies 
preserved to us, the genuineness of which is undoubted, is very 
large; and the collection is divided into several distinct classes, 
the most important of which are the melodies proper to the 
Psalm-Tones and Antiphons; the Ordinarium Missae, the 
Introits, Graduate and O/ertoria; the Praefationes, Versiculi 
and Responsoria; the Hymns and Sequences; and the Lamenta- 
tiones, Exultet and other music used in Holy Week. 

Of these classes the most interesting by far is that which 
includes the psalm-tones, or psalm-tunes, called by modern 
English historians, the " Gregorian tones." The oldest of these 
are tones i, 3, 5 and 7, as sung by Ambrose. The antiquity of 
tones 2, 4, 6 and 8 is less firmly established, though there is no 
doubt that Gregory the Great sanctioned their use on strong 
traditional evidence. In addition to these, a peculiarly beautiful 
melody in mode 9, known as the Tonus peregrinus, has been 
sung from time immemorial only to the psalm In exitu Israel. 

1 Analogous to the tonic or key-note of the modern scale. 

2 For fuller information on the subject see the article " Modes," 
in Grove's Dictionary of Music. 



The oldest version of this melody now extant is undoubtedly to a 
certain extent impure; but tradition imputes to it a very high 
antiquity, and even our doubts as to the authenticity of the now 
generally accepted reading extend only to one single note. A 
widely accepted tradition points out this melody as the tune 
sung to In exitu Israel, as part of the Great Hallel (see PSALMS), 
which is generally (but hardly rightly) identified with the hymn 
sung by Christ and His apostles immediately after the Last 
Supper. 

One very powerful argument in favour of the Jewish origin of 
the psalm-tones lies in the peculiarity of their construction. 
It is impossible to ignore the perfect adaptation of these venerable 
melodies to the laws of Hebrew poetry, as opposed to those which 
governed Greek and Latin verse. The division of the tune 
into two distinct strains, exactly balancing each other, points 
assuredly to the intention of singing it to the two contrasted 
phrases which, inseparable from the constitution of a Hebrew 
verse, find no place in any later form of poetry. And it is very 
remarkable that this constructional peculiarity was never 
imitated, either in the earliest hymns or antiphons we possess 
or in those of the middle ages evidently because it was found 
impossible to adapt it to any medieval form of verse even to 
the Te Deum, which, though a manifest reproduction of the 
Hebrew psalm, was adapted by Ambrose to a melody of very 
different formation, and naturally so since so many of its phrases 
consist of a single clause only, balanced in the following verse. 
This peculiarity now passes for the most part unnoticed; and the 
Te Deum is constantly sung to a psalm-tone, very much to the 
detriment of both. But in the middle ages this abuse was 
unknown; and so it came to pass that, until the " School of the 
Restoration " gave birth, in England, to the single chant, 
avowedly built upon the lines of its Gregorian predecessor, and a 
somewhat later period to the double one, so constructed as to 
weld two verses of the psalm into one, often with utter disregard 
to the sense of the words, the venerable psalm-tones stood quite 
alone the only melodies in existence to which the psalms could 
be chanted. And so intimate is the adaptation of these plain- 
chant melodies to the rhythm as well as to the sense of the sacred 
text, even after its translation into more modern languages, so 
strongly do they swing with the one and emphasize the other, 
that it is difficult to believe that the composition of the music was 
not coeval with that of the poetry. 

Next in antiquity to the psalm-tones are the melodies adapted 
to the antiphons, the offertoria, the graduals and the introits, 
sung at High Mass. Those proper to the Ordinarium missae are 
probably of later date. Those belonging to hymns and sequences 
are of all ages. Among the latest we possess perhaps the very 
latest of any great importance is that of Lauda Sion, a very 
fine one, in modes 7 and 8, adapted to the celebrated sequence 
written by Thomas Aquinas about 1261. 

To the melodies adapted to the Lamentationes and the Exultet, 
as sung in the Church of Rome during Holy Week, it is abso- 
lutely impossible to assign any date at all. All we know is that 
they are of extreme antiquity, and beautiful beyond all descrip- 
tion. The melody of Exultet is, indeed, very frequently cited 
as the finest example of plain song in existence. 

To assert that melodies so old as these have been handed 
down to us in their original purity would be absurd. But the 
presence of corruption rarely passes undetected by the initiated ; 
and vigorous efforts have been made from time to time to purify 
the received text by reference to the oldest and most trustworthy 
MSS. attainable. Such an effort was begun on a very extensive 
scale by the " Congregation of Rites," at the instigation of 
Pope Pius IX., in the year 1868; and the labours of that learned 
body, together with those of the monks of Solesmes and else- 
where, have done much towards the restoration of plain chant 
to the highest state of purity possible. In England the Plain- 
Song and Medieval Music Society, founded in 1888, has also done 
valuable work by its publications. (W. S. R.) 

PLAINTIFF, one who brings a " plaint " (Low Lat. plancta 
plangere, beat the breast, lament), the name, in law, of the 
party who brings an action against another, who is called the 



PLAIT PLANARIANS 



707 



" defendant." In suits for divorce the party bringing the suit 
is styled the " petitioner," the party against whom it is 
brought the " respondent." 

PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plidtum, folded, 
plicare, to fold), properly a fold, especially a fold of cloth, now 
usually in the collateral form " pleat." " Plait " is now princi- 
pally applied to entwined strands of ribbon, hair, straw or fibre. 

PLAN (from Lat. planus, flat), a diagram on a flat surface; 
hence by analogy any deliberate scheme or design. In archi- 
tecture, a " plan " is a horizontal geometrical section of the 
walls of a building, or indications, on a horizontal plane, of the 
relative positions of the walls and partitions, with the various 
openings, such as windows and doors, recesses and projections, 
chimneys and chimney-breasts, columns, pilasters, &c. This 
term is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of design (q.v.). 

PLANARIANS, a well-defined group of animals, characterized 
externally by their ovoid or vermiform shape, their gliding 
movement and their soft, unsegmented, ciliated bodies: inter- 
nally by that combination of low somatic type of structure and 
complex gonidial organization which is characteristic of the 
Platyelmia (<?..). Their low type of bodily structure may be 
exemplified by the facts that the mouth is the only means of 
ingress to and egress from the blind alimentary sac, and that no 
vascular system is differentiated. Most Planarians are aquatic 
and the cilia that cover the body produce by their beating a 
stirring of the water. Hence the class is generally known by the 
name Turbellaria. 

Planarians form one of the basal groups of the animal kingdom. 
They are the simplest of multicellular creeping things. In them 
the gliding movement has become habitual. The lowest 
Planarians are still largely free-swimming animalcule and we 
can trace within the limits of the group the development of the 
creeping habit and the consequences that flow from it. It has 
led to the differentiation of anterior and posterior extremities; 
to the formation of bilateral symmetry; and to the development 
of a mucilage protecting the body against friction. It entails 
the concentration of the scattered nervous system on the ventral 
surface and at the anterior end, and it has induced the segregation 
of the diffused sense-organs in the head. The Planarians occupy 
a position midway between the simple planula larva of Coelen- 
terates and the segmented Annelids. They have probably 
sprung either from an early Coelomate stock, or represent an 
independent class descended from a two-layered parentage 
distinct from that of the Coelenterates; a view which is adopted 
in the present article. 

Occurrence. Most Turbellaria are aquatic. They abound on 
the seashore and in fresh water, amongst weeds or under cover 
of stones, shells and sand. Few of them are pelagic or deep- 
water forms, and only some half-dozen Planarians are known to 
be parasitic. A large number of land Planarians are known, 
chiefly from tropical and south temperate countries. 

The majority of marine Planarians are nocturnal or cryptozoic, 
hiding away during the period of low tide to avoid desiccation 
of their soft sticky bodies and coming out at night or during high 
tide to feed. They are mostly carnivorous, and their movements 
are correlated largely with the nature of their food. The smaller, 
more active species occur in companies amongst the finer sea- 
weeds over which they creep or swim in pursuit of their food. 
The larger marine species occur singly or in pairs on Ascidians, 
Nullipores or Polyzoa, from whence as the tide rises they issue 
to feed. By the time the next low tide exposes them, these 
Planarians have so completely digested their meal that we know 
very little of its nature. The common fresh-water Planarians 
form either little companies of a dozen or more, usually of a 
single species, huddled together under a stone or in some cranny 
(see Pearl [8] 1 ), or societies of several species that inhabit 
Sphagnum and other fresh-water vegetation. This fresh-water 
planarian fauna is of two kinds, the fauna of permanent and that 
of temporary sheets of water and both show a certain adaptation 
to their environment. The latter, being subject to greater 
extremes of temperature than the lacustrine Planarians, produce 

1 These references are to the literature at the end of this article. 



thick-shelled eggs only. The development of these eggs is rapid 
in warm water, slow in cold: so that a pool after a few days of 
early spring sunshine is soon populated and provision is made for 
the continuance of the race should a cold snap follow. Ths 
lacustrine Planarians exhibit a different form of adaptation. 
The eggs laid by many of these animals are either thin-shelled 
and rapidly hatched or thick-shelled and slowly hatched. The 
lake-water, however, is in spring, even after sunshine, of a much 
lower temperature than that of pool-water, but the masses of 
Sphagnum and other weeds that border lakes and marshes are 
often warmer than the open water and may be as much as 13 or 
15 C. higher in temperature. Here the Planarians assemble to 
benefit by the warmth, and under such favourable conditions 
lay thin-shelled eggs which rapidly develop; whilst in colder 
surroundings or at the onset of winter thick-shelled resting 
eggs are laid. In this manner we can understand the abun- 
dance of Planarian life in cold meres and transitory pools in 
Great Britain, Scandinavia, Finland, Denmark and North 
America. 

In contrast to the general habit among Turbellaria of haunting 
dim or dark places, the station chosen by a few species is exposed 
and strongly illuminated. The marine Convoluta and Poly- 
chaerus and the fresh-water Vortex iiiridis may be taken as 
examples. Convoluta parado'sa occurs among brown weeds which 
receive much light during neap tides and strong direct sun 
or light every fortnight. Polychaerus creeps about the New 
England shore without resorting habitually to cover, and is also 
strongly insolated. Vortex resembles the green Hydra of our 
ponds in choosing the lightest side of its surroundings; and 
finally, Convoluta roscojfensis paints the beach green in Brittany, 
part of Normandy and Natal. In every such case the Planarian 
is coloured brown or green by the presence of photosynthetically 
active cells and the singular heliotropic habit of these Turbellaria 
is associated with the illumination necessary for the activity of 
their coloured cells. 

Only one branch of the Planarians has become terrestrial, but 
this has spread over almost all the whole globe. One species 
(Rhynchodemus terrestris, fig. i, e) is fairly common in Great 
Britain under stones, logs and occasionally on fungi, but the 
Holarctic countries (North America, Europe and North Africa, 
North Asia) are extremely poor in terrestrial species. In coun- 
tries lying in the centre and in the south of the great continents 
and in the south temperate continental islands and archipelagoes 
these land Planarians become more abundant and varied; and 
being frequently transported with earth or plants they are often 
found in hothouses and botanical gardens far from their native 
country. Their distribution offers some points of special 
interest showing a close relationship between the South American 
fauna and that of Australia and New Zealand: between the land 
Planarians of Madagascar, of Ceylon and of Indo-Malaya: and 
a marked contrast between Japan and the rest of the Palaearctic 
region (see Von Graff [i], 1899). 

. External Characters. Planarians range from the minute forms 
no larger than Infusoria to ovate, marine species, 6 in. in 
diameter and to ribbon-like land forms 8 in. in length. The 
majority are small, somewhat cylindrical organisms with a 
flat creeping surface. Others, comprising the common fresh- 
water and marine forms, are flattened and leaf-like, often 
provided with a pair of tentacles near the front end of the 
body, and in some cases the whole dorsal surface is beset with 
papillae. The land forms are elongate and smooth, and their 
anterior extremity is often modified into the arcuate shape 
of a cheese-cutter. Their movements are usually of a gliding 
character. The minuter forms perform short excursions into 
the water round their station, and in so doing recall Infusoria. 
The larger forms, in addition to gliding like pellicles, fold the 
expanded anterior part of their body into a couple of fins, 
with which they swim after the fashion of a skate. The 
folded margins of other forms clasp the weeds on which they 
live. Adhesion is effected by the mucous investment of the 
body and frequently by some specially developed local secretion 
of slime, or by a sucker. By these means, aided by their 



yo8 



PLANARIANS 



algal-frequenting and cryptic habits, the Turbellaria, though 
soft-bodied, are able to withstand the violence of the waves. 
The anterior end in all Turbellaria is the site of the chief 
a & lift c[ sense-organs, and in some 

I forms (Proboscida) 

d 




forms (Proboscida) becomes 
transformed into an invagin- 
able proboscis of highly tactile 
nature. Such forms lead 
naturally to the Nemertina 



FIG. i. 

a, Convoluta paradoxa, Oe. 

b, Vortex viridis, M. Sch. 

c, Monotus fuscus, Gff. 

d, Thysanozoon brochii, Gr., with 

elevated anterior extremity 
(after Joh. Schmidt). 

e, Rhynchodemus terrestris, O. F. 

Miiller (after Kennel). 
/, Bipalium ceres, Mos. (after 

Moseley). 

g, Polycelis cornula, O. Sch., at- 
tached by the pharynx(/f)toa 
dead worm (after Johnson). 
All the figures of natural size, and 
viewed from the dorsal surface. 
a, c and d are marine, 6 and g 
are fresh-water, e and / are ter- 
restrial. All found in Great 
Britain except d. 



Coloration. The coloration 
of Planarians is of interest. 
The flattened marine forms 
are often brilliantly coloured 
on the dorsal surface, either 
uniformly or with some strik- 
ing marginal band; or they 
may exhibit longitudinal 
bands of contrasting tints or 
a mottled appearance. The 
significance of these colours is 
not fully understood, but in 
some cases of sympathetic 
coloration the derivative 
function of the pigments is 
probably to aid cryptic re- 
semblance. The terrestrial 
Planarians exhibit the most 
striking patterns in longitu- 
dinal striping and cross-bars 
which appear to have no 
relation to the environment 
of these essentially nocturnal 
animals. The fresh-water 
forms are colourless or dusky, 
often dark-brown, possibly in 
relation to the retention of 
heat ; but in a number of both 
fresh-water and marine Plana- 
rians a green colour is present, 
constantly in some species, 



sporadically in others. 

This green effect is due to the infection of the Planarian by a 
minute alga which multiplies in the tissues and may profoundly 
affect the habits and even the structure of its " host." The 
planarian so affected acquires a helio tropic habit; it becomes 
gregarious and in extreme cases ceases to ingest solid food. In 
Convoluta roscojfensis the green cells have become indispensable. 
They function both as the nutritive and excretory organs of the 
Planarian, and the young animal cannot develop until it is 
infected and has acquired a supply of these green cells which 
become incorporated into its tissues (Gamble and Keeble [7]). 
Brown algal cells (Zooxanthellae) are known in other species of. 
Convoluta. 

Food. The food of Turbellarians consists, in the smaller 
species, of diatoms, unicellular algae, microscopic animals and 
other Turbellarians; in the larger ones, of worms, mollusca and 
insects. The fine feeders capture their food chiefly at night by 
gulping down the minute organisms that settle or swim in their 
neighbourhood. The coarse feeders enclose their prey with a 
coating of slime and then proceed either to engulf it in their 
expansible mouth or to perforate it by their trumpet-like pharynx. 
The mouth is remarkably variable in position (fig. 2). In many 
flattened Planarians it is placed centrally on the ventral surface 
somewhat as in a jelly-fish. In the majority it is nearer the 
anterior end, but in a few remarkably elongate forms it occupies 
a position near the hinder end of the animal. In the cylindrical 
forms (Rhabdocoels) a similar variability in the position of the 
mouth is met with. 

Anatomy. The structure of the Turbellaria though greatly 
varied in detail, conforms to a single type of somatic organization 
which is transitory in the higher invertebrates. The sexual organs, 



on the other hand, are founded on two or more types, and the 
astounding complications of these structures suggest that their 
evolution has been governed by quite other factors or combina- 
tions of factors than those that have guided the somatic evolution 
of the group. 



Ph 




C A B 

(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. "Worms, &c.," by permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd. After Lang.) 

FIG. 2. A group of Polyclad Turbellaria, illustrating the various 
positions in which the mouth of Planarians may occur, and the 
concomitant changes in other organs. 

A, Anonymus virilis: mouth central, male genital aperture (3) 
multiple and biradial. 

B, Prosthiostomun siphunculus: mouth anterior, the pharynx 
protruded through it. 

C, Cestoplana: mouth posterior (m); j, male; S, female genital 
aperture; Br. brain; CG, eyes especially related to the brain; 
Ey, marginal eyes; m, mouth; MG, stomach; Ph, Pharynx; 
j, sucker. 

The general structural characters are as follows. The body 
consists of a muscular envelope covered externally by a ciliated 
glandular epidermis and of an alimentary sac, cylindrical or branched, 

EM PC EP 




SC PC M 

(After Bohmig.) 
FIG. 3. To show the structure of the simplest Turbellaria. 

The figure represents the left half of a transverse section across 
the body of the Acoelous planarian Haplodiscus. The mouth (M) 
is plugged up with a digestive polynuclear mass of cytoplasm and 
the transitions from this to the stellate scattered central paren- 
chyma (SC) and again from the latter to a firmer peripteral zone 
(PC) are shown. The outermost layer (EP) is a ciliated epidermis 
resting on (BM), a basement membrane (dark line); the row of 
dots beneath this represents the longitudinal muscles (L). 

for which the mouth serves both as ingress and egress. Between 
this aproctous gut and the integument the body consists of a 
jelly-like, vacuolated mesenchyme made up of branched gland- 
cells, excretory cells, pigment- and muscle-cells. A space may be 
secondarily hollowed out around part of the gut; but no coelomic 
or true perivisceral cavity exists in the sense in which these terms 
are used in higher animals. A nervous system is present and 
consists of an anterior "brain" and of ramifying ganglionic trunks 
that are developed in relation to the muscular integument and to 
the sense-organs for the perception of light and pressure. No 



PLANARIANS 



709 



respiratory organs are developed, probably in correlation with the 
absence of a blood-vascular system. On the other hand, the 
process of reproduction is elaborately organized. The Planarians 
are hermaphrodite and, as in so many other small animals, the body, 
after attaining maturity, becomes in many Planarians practically 
a genital sac and is soon exhausted by the repeated calls upon its 
reserves that are involved in the rapid production of eggs and sper- 
matozoa. The intervals between successive clutches has been 
found in Convoluta roscoffensis to be a month, thus suggesting the 
influence of the lunar tides upon maturation. 

Integument. The epidermis is ciliated and highly glandular. 
It consists of a single layer of cubical or oblong cells with the 
structure seen in fig. 3. The glandular secretion takes various 
forms, such as mucus, mucinoid granular blocks, or fusiform re- 
fringent homogeneous rods. These rods or " rhabdites " are 



DM-- 




--Rmc 



(Partly after Luther: Zeilschriftfiirwissmschafl. Zoologie, 

by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.) 

FIG. 4. Portion of a transverse section of Mesostoma ehrenbergii 
(X8oo). 

The epidermis () consists of cells divided into an outer and inner 
zone, the latter containing rhabdites (Rb); the cilia (Ci) are 
thickened about the middle of their length. Below the epidermis 
is the basement-membrane (BM), a layer of circular muscles (C) and 
of longitudinal ones (L). Below this again is the mesenchyma (M), 
made up of branched cells and dorso-ventral muscle-fibres (DM). 
The mesenchymatous glands (Rmc) are producing rhammites (Rm) 
which pass outwards. 

frequently coloured red or yellow, and are highly characteristic of 
the Turbellaria. Their real use is unknown. In only two genera 
does the epidermis produce cuticular spines (Acanthozoon, Enantia) 
on the surface, but chitinoid hooks, spines and spirals occur 
frequently on the lining membrane of the male and female 
copulatory ducts. 

Below the epidermis is a firm basement membrane into which 
the subjacent muscles are inserted. They are divided into cuter 
circular and inner longitudinal groups and subdivided in the larger 
forms by diagonal fibres, and in the most highly differentiated 
Planarians there are six muscular layers, two of each kind. In 
a number of Turbellaria the musculature is modified to form a 
sucker either single or double and anterior or posterior, and it 
undergoes further modification in connexion with the pharynx 
and reproductive organs. 



bm. 




Im 



FIG. 5.' Integument of Mesostoma lingua, O. Sch. 
On the right hand is the epidermis (2) with perforations (/) through 
which the rhabdites (st) project. Beneath this the basement mem- 
brane (bm), and beneath this again the muscular layers consisting 
of circular (rm), diagonal (sm), and longitudinal (Im) fibres. 

Alimentary Sac. The alimentary sac consists of a muscular 
pharynx opening outwards through the mouth and inwards into 
a median digestive organ which may be solid or hollow, and in the 
latter case straight, lobate or branched. These characters are 
correlated with such a number of distinctive features that the 



classification of the Planarian is based on them. Thus we have 
the Rhabdocoelida with straight gut and the Tricladida and the 
Polycladida with triple and multiple branches to the gut. The 
Rhabdocoelida are further divided into three groups: the Acoela 





FIG. 6. Main trunks of 
the Excretory System of 
Mesostoma ehrenbergii, O. 
Sch., opening to the exterior 
through the mouth; ph, 
Pharynx. 



(From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology 

Part IV.) 
FIG. 7. Flame-cell from the 

Excretory System, 
a, nucleus; b, excretory granules; 
c, " flame "; d, branches of cell; 
e, beginning of excretory tube. 



OT -- - 




with a simple syncytial gut not sharply separated from the surround- 
ing mesenchyma; the Rhabdocoela, with a hollow gut and a peri- 
visceral schizocoelic span; and the Alloeocoela with a lobate gut 
and reduced schizocoele. The last group leads one naturally to 
the Tricladida; the Polyclads being an independent group. 

The pharynx varies widely in structure. In the Acoela it is a 
mere thickening and pitting of the integument. In the Rhabdo- 
coela a great number of elaborate modifications are found. These 
are based on the type of a buccal invagination, which forms the 
pharyngeal sheath, and from the 
bottom of this there springs a mus- 
cular outwardly directed tube or fold. 
In the Alloeocoela and Tricladida the 
pharynx is an elongate protrusible 
cylinder, and in the Polyclads it may 
be an immensely distensible frilled 
organ, the folds of which have indepen- 
dent movement, or an elongate tube. 
At the base of the pharynx lie the 
openings of salivary glands. In the 
Polycladida the section of the alimen- 
tary sac into which the pharynx opens 
is a median stomach from which 
the intestinal branches radiate. The 
stomach in few forms is provided 
with digestive glands. The branches 
possess an independent musculature System of a Simple Plan- 
and exhibit active peristalsis. The in- a " a " (Haplodiscus, one of 
testine of Planarians is not ciliated, and tne Acoela;. 
digestion appears to be largely intra- B, the brain which gives 
cellular and not cavitary. 

Mesenchyma. The mesenchyma 
(Bohmig: parenchyma attctt.) consists 
of a mass of branched vacuolated cells, 
imbedded in which lie gland-cells, pig- 
ment-cells and the excretory system. 
It envelops the genital organs, which 
though in the mesenchyma are not of. 
it, and it forms an investment to the 
gut and to the space (schizocoel) which often occurs between 
the gut and the mass of the mesenchyma. The mesenchymatous 
gland-cells are of different kinds. (l) Single cells in which 
rods (rhammites) are developed (fig. 4, Rmc). Such cells in 
embryonic life give rise to a process which perforates the soft 
basement-membrane and penetrates between the epidermal cells. 
The process becomes hollow, and the rhammites pass outwards 
along it _on to the surface of the animal, forming in many 
Turbellarians thickly set rows of rods on the head. (2) Similar 
cells contain nematpcysts in a few Planarians (Microstnma, Steno- 
stoma, Anonymus virilis and Stylochoplana tarda). Whether these 



LN 



'-J-/--VN 



DN 



FIG. 8. The Nervous 



off a dorsal (DN)~and 
a ventral (VN) plexus 
and also lateral nerves 
(LN). The mouth (M) 
and the otocyst (07*) 
are shown. The former 
is ventral, the latter 
dorsal in position. 



PLANARIANS 



nematocysts develop in the Turbellarian is doubtful, and it is not 
impossible that they are derived from the tissues of some coelenter- 
ate animals eaten by the Planarian, as has been shown to be the case 
in the nematocysts of Eolids. (3) Cells producing aciculate spicules, 
sometimes associated with a spiral thread. These structures are 
often associated together in batteries, notably so in the remarkable 
genus Anonymus. 

Excretory System. The excretory system consists of proto- 
nephridia, that is, of tubes opening to the exterior by one or more 




(From Cambridge Natural History, vo). ii. " Worms, &c.," by permission of 
Macmillan & Co. , Ltd. After Lang. ) 

FIG. 9. Double Eye found on the brain of Polyclads. Each 
consists of a pigment-cup and of four nerve-end cells (rod-cells) in 
which the nerves terminate. 

N, nerve fibres and cells. PC, pigment-cell. Re, rod cell. 

apertures, and after branching extensively in the mesenchyma, 
end blindly in peculiar hollow cells (flame-cells) provided with a 
bunch of synchronously vibrating cilia. The excretory tubules 
have a markedly sinuous course and are provided with cilia. The 
motion of these cilia and of the flame-cells 
is to induce an outward current of the fluid 
from the canals, but the process of excre- 
tion seems to be performed chiefly by the 
branched mesenchymatous flame-cells. The 
position of the external opening varies 
greatly. It may be single or paired, mid- 
ventral or terminal, or again multiple and 
arranged in pairs along the dorsal surface 
(Tricladida and probably in Pplycladida). 
The flame-cells are arranged in pairs in 
Tricladida, but lie less regularly in the 
mesenchyma of most forms. Finally, it is 
noteworthy that in the Acoela no excretory 
system is known. 

Nervous System. The nervous system is 
present in all divisions of the order. It 
consists of a paired, anterior ganglion lying 
ventral to the gut, and from this are given 
off, right and left, dorsal, lateral and ventral 
fibres interconnected by a plexus. The 
nerve-cells are scattered throughout the 
plexus. The chief development of the system 
occurs in relation to the muscular body- 
wall, sense-organs and the pharynx. In 
these characters the nervous system of 
Planarians shows an interesting transition 
from the scattered plexus of Coelenterates 
to the segmental ganglia and sympathetic 
nervous system of Annelids. 

Sense-organs. These occur in the form of 
tactile organs, otocysts and eyes. The whole 
skin of many Planarians is sensitive, and 
amongst the ordinary locomotor cilia long 
FIG. lo.-Microstoma s t'ff ones are found which it is natural to 
lineare, be., under- think are tactile organs. The head-end is 
going division. There often provided with specialized cells that 
are 16 individuals. 8 appear to subserve the sense of touch and 
with mouth apertures, possibly of taste also. The abundance 
showing the buds of of rhammites, of long stiff cilia, and the 
the first (m), second great mobility and sensitiveness of this 
(m 1 ), third (m*), and region, bear out this conclusion. A further 
fourth (m'") ge'nera- development of cephalic, sensory structures 
tion. The fifth genera- occurs in the form of a crescentic groove 
tion has not yet (Polyclads) of paired, lateral pits (Micro- 
acquired a mouth stoma, fig. 10) of mobile papillae on the 
aperture, c, ciliated extreme front margin (Land Triclads) 
grooves; e, eye spots; and f extensible tentacles, marginal or 
t, intestine. ' nuchal in most Pclyclads. 

The otocyst occurs constantly in the 

Acoela and sporadically in every other division of the group. It 
is with one exception a single median organ placed over the brain, 
and consists ot a uni- or bi-cellular sac containing a calcareous 



concretion lying in a fluid. From what is known of these organs 
in higher invertebrates we may infer that they serve to increase 
the perception of slow wave-movement and enhance the control of 
the muscular sense. 

Eyes are generally present in Planarians. Two types are dis- 
tinguishable eyes with a cup-shaped retina facing outwards, and 
those with an inverted retina facing inwards. The former occur 
in Triclads and Polyclads around the margin of the body often a 
hundred or more may be present. The latter occur in all groups 
except the Acoela, but are limited to the neighbourhood of the 
brain or bases of the nuchal tentacles. Recent investigation has 
shown that the essential part of the eyes has in all cases a compli- 
cated structure and is not a mere epidermal cell-group enclosed 
by pigment and provided with an optic nerve. On the contrary 
(Hesse [10]), adequately known eyes are composed of rod-cells that 
contain each an axial filament or bundle of nbrillae (the termination 
of the nerve), and the distal end of the rod-cell is converted into a 
striated usually broad border where the action of light commences. 
A group of such specialized rod-cells is enclosed in a pigmented 
cup opening either outwards or inwards and pierced by an optic 
nerve. The whole is usually depressed beneath the epidermis, 
but in some Acoela and Alloeocoela the eyes retain a surface- 
position. In the Polyclads eyes may increase by division and in 
Triclads may decrease in number by fusion (Carriere [n]). The 
marginal and often radial disposition of the scattered eyes, and the 
prostomial position of the paired eyes, afford interesting evidence 
of the intermediate position that Planarians occupy between the 
radiate Coelentera and the bilateral Annelids. 

Reproduction. All Turbellaria are hermaphrodite, and reproduce 
sexually, but a few forms (Microstomidae and some Triclads) 





FIG. 12. Plan of a Rhabdo- 

coelous Turbellarian. 
be, Bursa copulatrix. 
en, Brain. 
e, ' Eye. 
g, Germarium. 
*', Intestine. 

In, Longitudinal nerve trunk. 
m, Mouth. 
ph, Pharynx. 

rs, Receptaculum seminis. 
s , Salivary gland. 
t, Testis. 

, J Uterus (containing an egg). 
v, Yelk gland. 
vs, Vesicula seminalis. 
cf, Chitinouscopulatory organ, 
cf 9, Common sexual aperture. 
be, Bursa copulatrix. 

increase during the summer by fission and during the winter by 
eggs. The body of the Microstomidae becomes constricted and 
partially subdivided into two, the posterior half regenerates a brain 
and pharynx. Subsequently each becomes again converted into 
two zooids, and the process is repeated until a chain is formed as 
in fig. 10. This breaks up into its constituent members, each of 
which repeats the process until the onset of reproduction. The 



J V 



FIG. n. Plan of an Acoelous 

Turbellarian. 
Eye. 

, Mucous gland, formerly mis- 
taken for the mouth, which 
lies in the centre of the 
body. 
Otolith. 
Ovary. 

Digesting parenchyma. 
Testicular follicles. 
Vesicula seminalis. 
Male-organ of copulation. 
Common sexual aperture. 



PLANARIANS 



711 



Triclads, on the other hand, fragment, without undergoing prepara- 
tory changes. 

The male and female genital ducts (gono-ducts) open to the 
exterior, either through a common chamber on the ventral surface 
(most Rhabdocoelida and all Tricladida, figs. 12, 14) or by separate 
apertures that are also usually ventral. In the latter case, the male 
gonopore is usually in front of the female one (all Polycladida and 
some Rhabdocoelida). A separate opening is sometimes acquired 
by one or other of the accessory reproductive organs (as by the 
spermotheca in some Rhabdocoelida in which it is dorsal). 

The generative organs of the Planarians are complex. Male and 
female germ-cells develop in one and the same individual and reach 
the exterior by independent ducts. These ducts are provided 
with accessory glands along their course and terminate in penial 





FIG. 13. Plan of an Alloeo- FIG. 14. Plan of a Tricladid. 

inf as^Jfifi^ 11 - L * t ~ <' *>****> ** y P aire <? ^ 

tenor branches of intestine. 

od, Oviduct. 
te, Tentacle. 
vd, Vas deferens. 

(5\ Male, and ?, female copulatory 
organ. Other letters as in fig. 12. 

or vaginal structures, often of great complexity, which are sur- 
rounded by an " atrium " or invagination of the ventral body- 
wall. From this invagination a special vesicle " uterus " is often 
developed for the reception of the fertilized egg previous to 
oviposition. 

The Acoela present the simplest arrangement. In this group (fig. 
n) the male germ-cells arise in follicles each of which is the 
product of a single sperm-mother-cell. From these follicles, the 
motile spermatozoa enter the paired sperm-duct, which opens by 
a single aperture near the hinder end of the animal, and is provided 
with a simple unarmed glandular penis. The female germ-cells or 
ova arise from a paired ovary, some of the cells of which appear 
to act as nurse-cells, supplying the young eggs with nourishment. 
When mature the eggs are transferred to the oviduct. At the point 
where the two oviducts join in order to open to the exterior they 
receive a conical sac (spermotheca) which contains spermatozoa. At 
this point the eggs are fertilized, and deposited in a mucilaginous 
mass which is attached to algae or buried in the sand. ' It is 
characteristic of the Acoela that the testes and ovaries should 
not be continuous with either the sperm-duct or the oviduct 
respectively. 

In one genus of the Acoelous Turbellaria Polychaerus this 
primitive arrangement undergoes a development which foreshadows 
the complicated ovaria and vitellaria of higher forms. In Poly- 
chaerus the eggs mature in a special roomy chamber and are here 
provided with yolk which is elaborated by a sterile part of the 
ovary. Thus we have a differentiation of germ-cells into two 
portions allocated to two chambers : fertile ova which open eventu- 



ally into the oviduct, and sterile ova that become yolk-cells and 
open into the brood-pouch. 

The remaining Rhabdocoelida possess separate ovaries and yolk- 
glands. The union between the two sets of ducts takes place in 
the genital atrium which is provided with a spermotheca for the 
fertilization of the ova, but in at least one sub-family (Cylindro- 
stominoe) the spermotheca opens by a special dorsal pore. These 
ova, together _with the yolk and spermatozoa, are then transferred 
to another atrial diverticulum the uterus, in which a shell is formed 
and from which they are deposited in the form of a cocoon. In 
addition, a muscular pouch, the so-called " bursa copulatrix," is 
usually present. The male organs of Rhabdocoelida are no less 
complex. The testes are either follicular (Alloeocoela) or compact 



ov 



en 




In, 
m, 
od, 
ov, 
pit, 
phi, 



FIG. 15. Plan 

Brain. 

Intestinal branches. 

Anterior unpaired intestinal 

branch. 

Longitudinal nerve cord. 
Mouth. 
Oviduct. 
Ovarian follicle. 
Pharynx. 
Pharyngeal pouch. 



of a Polycladid. 

st, Stomach. 

/, Testicular follicle. 

, Uterus. 

vd, Vas deferens. 

C?, Male copulatory organ, with 

the male aperture behind. 
9, Female copulatory organ, 

with the female aperture 

before it. The eyes are 

omitted. 



(Rhabdocoela), and communicate indirectly or directly with the 
paired seminal ducts. The ducts unite at the base of an evagin- 
able penis. This muscular organ is provided with glandular and 
chitinoid appendages of considerable complexity, and, in addition 
to these, a poison gland and duct are sometimes present. In certain 
genera (Mocrorhynchus, Prorhynchus) the penis is used for catching 
prey, perhaps exclusively so in the former genus. The opening 
of the atrium into the oral cavity in Cylindrostominae and of the 
male organ into the mouth of Prorhynchus is possibly explained 
by this fact. 

From the Alloeocoela we pass readily to the Triclads. In both 
of these groups the reproductive organs are based on the same plan; 
but in Triclads the separation of ovarian and vitellarian portions 
of the gonad is less perfectly effected. The oviduct transmits the 
eggs from the anteriorly placed ovary, and receives in its course 
the openings of numerous vitellaria (ng. 14). No distinct spermo- 
theca is developed, but a cocoon is formed in a special chamber 



7 I2 



PLANARIANS 



the uterus which may either be a dilatation of the common 
oviduct (vagina) or of the atrium, and may open to the exterior 
independently (single in Uteriporus, paired in Syncoelidium). In 
Bdelloura the uterus is said to act as a spermotheca. In addition 
to these structures, accessory muscular organs are found in Dendro- 
coelum and developed to a high degree in land Planarians, where 
they form the so-called adenocheiri and adenodactyli (see von 
Graff, 1899). 

Lastly, the Polyclads offer certain distinctive sexual characters. 
The ovaries are follicular, very numerous, and the ova elaborate 
their own yolk (fig. 15). The oviducts open into a chamber which, 
after receiving a voluminous shell-gland, opens by a muscular 
bursa to the exterior. No special uterus is developed, but 
from the point of union of the two egg-chambers a vesicle is given 
off which may open separately to the exterior (Trigonoporus). 
The testes are equally diffused and the seminal vesicles usually 
form a median muscular eversible sac which opens in front of the 
female genital pore. In Stylostomum' however, this penial organ 
opens through the mouth, as in certain Rhabdocoelida. Moreover, 
it may be paired (Thysanozoon) or multiple. Thus in Anonymus 
twelve or more pairs occur. In Cryptocelides two, four or six may 
be present, but in this genus they all lie in a common sac. In 
Polypostia twenty pores occur ranged about the female pore, but 
the most posteriorly placed of these structures are devoid of a 
seminal duct. This condition supports the view that in Polyclads 
the penis was at first a glandular organ probably used for attacking 
prey and that it has become secondarily connected with repro- 
duction. In confirmation of this conclusion we have the observa- 
tions of Lang (5) that Yungia stabs the body of other Polyclads 
with its penis when brought into contact with them. (See Whit- 
man [9].) The genus Laidlavia differs from all other Polyclads 
in possessing a dorsal genital opening. 

Development. The development of the Planarians is fairly 
well known. Except for one or two species of Polyclads, develop- 
ment is direct and without meta- 
morphosis; but in Thysanozoon and 
Yungia the embryo develops eight 
strongly ciliated lobes which form a 
circumoral band of larval processes. 
These have been compared with the 
girdle of Trochosphere larvae and 
also with the eight rows of swimming 
plates in Ctenophores. From the 
name of their discoverer these girdled 
larvae are called M Ciller's larvae 
(fig. 16). 

In the Rhabdocoelida the eggs are 
usually laid in a shell which has 
characteristic shapes. Each capsule 
contains a single ovum and several 
yolk-cells. Segmentation results in 
the formation of dislocated megacytes 
and microcytes. The latter give rise 
to the epidermis which is laid down 
in bilateral sheets, the former to the 
various internal organs. There is no 
distinction of germ-layers, and the 
gut is gradually organized from the 
mesenchyme, the rest of which gives 
rise to the parenchyma. The pharynx 
and the rudiment of the gonads are 
the first organs to appear (Breslau 
FIG. 16. Larva of Yungia [,3], 1905). The development of the 
aurantica, L. (Polycladida), Acoela differs in certain particulars 
with provisional ciliated f rom t h a t of other Rhabdocoelida. 
processes. The ova contain yolk-granules, and 

yolk-cells are absent. Groups of such eggs, each with its own 
shell, are laid in a gelatinous envelope. Each ovum segments into 
a two-layered embryo composed of a ciliated outer layer and a 
central syncytium. No trace of a distinct enteron or gut is visible, 
but as the embryo grows the syncytium becomes differentiated 
into a more fluid central portion and a firmer peripteral zone. The 
former, together with the wandering phagocytes, corresponds 
functionally to the separate gut of other Rhabdocoelida. Pelagic 
larvae with a coat of long cilia have been identified by Uljanin as 
belonging to the Acoela. 

The development of the Tricladida offers other peculiarities. 
From four to twenty or more ova are surrounded by several hundred 
amoeboid yolk-cells in each cocoon. Each egg-cell divides; but, 
as happens in the capsular ova of certain Mollusca and Oligochaeta, 
they do not all survive, some being used up as food by the remainder. 
The segmented ovum becomes dislocated as in some Rhabdocoels, 
the blastomeres moving apart from one another. The details of 
organ-formation are still imperfectly understood. 

The eggs of the Polyclads are laid somewhat like those of the Acoela 
in a gelatinous envelope, each ovum being provided with yolk 
and an egg-shell which may be operculate. The majority of 
species go through a direct development. The segmentation of the 
egg in Discocelis and Leptoplana has been worked out by Lang 
and his results re-interpreted by Wilson and others (Hubrecht 




(After A. Lang.) 



[12]). In Polyclads a distinction of germ-layers similar to that 
occurring in the development of Mollusca, Chaetopod-Annelids 
and certain other Invertebrates, is early apparent. The ovum by 
unequal segmentation gives rise to megameres and micromeres, 
and between the two, intermediate cells form one origin for the 
mesenchyma. The micromeres surround the intermediate and 
centrally placed macromeres. The latter undergo division into 
hypoblast cells and yolk-masses. The similarity of cell-lineage 
in Polyclads and Coelomate Invertebrates, together with the 
trochosphere-like Polyclad larval form (Miiller's larva), have been 
the two chief arguments in support of the view that this group is 
a link between the Planarian and Coelomata. It is at present, 
however, doubtful whether such highly organized animals as Poly- 
clads can be regarded as in any sense ancestral forms. Their re- 
lations to other Turbellaria are quite uncertain, and on present 
evidence it seems legitimate to hold that they are the most highly 
differentiated division both in embryonic and adult structure. 

Systematic Arrangement. 

Order Turbellaria. Free-living Platyelmia with a ciliated epidermis. 
A well-developed nervous system and .sense-organs concentrated at 
the anterior end of the body, diffused elsewhere. 

Sub-order A. RhabdocoeMa. Gut syncytial or tubular. Female 
gonads always compact. 

Tribe I. Acoela (fig. II). Mesenchyma not differentiated into 
separate gut and parenchyma. No excretory organs of protone- 
phridial type. A simple pharynx. A median otocyst (statocyst) 
over the brain. Small, often flattened forms. All marine and 
many infected by brown or green algal cells. One species parasitic 
in Echinoderms. 

Tribe II. Rhabdocoela (fig. 12). Gut and parenchyma separate, 
the former a simple straight sac. Vitellaria usually present. 
Testes compact. Penis and pharynx often complex, occasionally 
protruded through a common opening. Marine and fresh-water. 
Many fresh-water forms infected by algal cells. Typhloplana, 
Graffilla, Anoplodium, are respectively parasitic in Nephthys, in 
Gastropods and Holothurians. 

Tribe III. Alloeocoela. Gut and parenchyma distinct. In- 
testine straight or lobate. Testes follicular. Penis and pharynx 
simple. One family with otolith. All marine except Plagiostoma 
lemani (deep-water, Geneva) and the Bothrioplanidae. 

Sub-order B. Dendrocoelida. Large forms with flattened body, 
branched intestine, follicular testes and follicular ovaries or compact 
ovaries and yolk-glands. 

Tribe I. Tricladida. Intestine with three main branches. A 
pair of compact ovaria and numerous yolk-glands connected by 
a common duct. A single genital aperture. Fresh-water forms: 
Planaria, Dendrocoelum, Polycelis, common. Peculiar forms in 
Lake Baikal. Marine forms: Gunda segmentata, Bdelloura (ex- 
ternal parasite of Limulus). Terrestrial forms: Rhynchodemus, 
Geoplana, Bipalium. 

Tribe II. Polycladida. Body leaf-like. Intestine composed of 
a median stomach with many branched or reticulate coeca; testes 
and ovaries follicular; genital openings usually separate, the male 
gonopore preceding the female one. Multiple male gonopores in 
some forms. All marine and widely distributed; some genera 
cosmopolitan. 

LITERATURE. (i) L. von Graff (Rhabdocoela, Acoela, Tricladida), 
Monographic d. Turbellarien (1882), vol. i., (1899) vol. ii.; Die Acoela 
(1891) ; (2) Arbeiten aus der zool. Instiiut zu Graz (1904, 1905, 1906) ; 
(3) " Turbellaria," in Bronn's Klassen v. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs, 
vol. ii.; (4) Turbellaria als Parasikn v. Wirthe (Graz, 1904); (5) A. 
Lang, " Die Polycladen," Fauna and Flora of the Gulf of Naples, 
vol. ii. (1884); (6) F. F. Laidlaw (Polyclads) in Zoological Results 
of Expeditions conducted by Dr Willey, Stanley Gardiner and 
C. Crossland, Cambridge Univ. Press, and Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902- 
1906); (7) Gamble and Keeble (Green cells of Convoluta}, Quart. 
Jour. Micro. Set. (1903, 1907); (8) E. R. Pearl (Bionomics of 
Planarians), ibid. (1903); (9) Whitman (Hypodermic Impregna- 




Hubrecht (affinities), Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss (Jena, 1905); (13) 
Breslau (Development of Rhabdocoels), Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 
(1905). Besides these special works, useful general accounts of 
the Turbellaria will be found in Cambridge Natural History, ii. 
1-50; A Treatise on Zoology (Black), iv. 1-42, and the references 
given by these works. 

Appendix to the Turbellaria. 

Class Temnocephaloidea. This small class of Platyelmia possesses 
a special interest. It connects the Turbellaria (and in particular 
the Vorticid rhsbdocoela) with the Trematoda. At the same time 
the Temnocephaloidea present certain peculiar structural features 
which entitle the class to an independent position. 

The name of the class is derived from the digitate tentacles 
which occur on the anterior or lateral margins of the body. The 
body measures about 5 mm. in length, and the flattened ventral 
surface is armed with a sucker. It presents in most genera the 
appearance of a minute cephalopod, but in Craspedella the posterior 



PLANCEER PLANCK, G. J. 



part of the dorsal surface is raised up into three transverse fringed 
lamellae. These animals are epizoic, i.e. they live attached to the 
outer surface of other organisms, but are not ectoparasitic for they 
ingest Infusoria, Rotifera and Diatoms. Most of the species occur 
on fresh-water crayfish and crabs in Chile, Madagascar, the Malay 
Archipelago and Australasia. Two Brazilian forms are known, 
one from the pulmonary chamber of the Mollusc Ampullaria and 
the other from water tortoises. The genus Temnocephala is found 
in all the countries mentioned. The two others, Craspedella and 
Actinodactylella are only known from Australia. 

The epidermis offers an interesting transitional structure. It is 
still, as in Turbellaria, cellular, or rather syncytial without cell- 
boundaries, but in most species has lost its cilia and developed a 




vd, 



u.t 



th 



(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. " WORMS," &C., 
by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) 

FIG. 17. The anatomy of Temnocephala (after Haswell). 
9 j, Common genital aperture. rh, Rhabdites. 

d, Gut. rh.c, Rhabdite-forming cells. 
ex.s, Excretory sac. sc, Sucker. 

m, Mouth. sh, Shell-gland. 

ov. Ovary. te, Testis. 

ovd, Oviduct. at. Uterus. 

ph, Pharynx. vg, Vagina. 

rv, Receptaculum vitelli. vs, Vesicula seminalis. 

thick cuticle as in Trematodes, pierced by the necks of subdermal 
gland-cells. These cells, however, still retain the Turbellarian 
character of secreting rhabdites and form thickly-grouped tracts. 
The mouth, which is placed near the anterior end, leads into a 
bulbous pharynx from which a short, broad digestive sac is given 
off. The excretory system is peculiar. Besides the ordinary 
flame cells, single large canaliculated cells may form the com- 
mencement of the tubules, composed of comparatively few cells 
with large nuclei. They open to the exterior by a pair of con- 
tractile sacs situated dorsally at the level of the mouth as in certain 
Ttematoda. Each sac is the product of a single cell, and is said 
to contain several branches of " flames " or synchronously con- 
tractile cilia. The reproductive system recalls that of certain 
Rhabdocoels, whilst the nervous system has retained a more primi- 
tive condition. The brain, which is placed over the mouth, gives 
rise to six main longitudinal tracts interconnected by a subdermal 
network. A pair of eyes is placed above the brain. 

Class and order Temnocepholoidea. Platyelmia in which the 
flattened body is produced into anterior or anterior and lateral 
tentacular processes and carries a ventral sucker. The epidermis 
is a syncytium covered by a thick cuticle. Cilia and rhabdites 
are present. Family I. : Temnocephalidae: 4-12 anterior ten- 
tacles. Family II. : Actinodactylellidae. Lateral tentacular pro- 
cesses. 

See Haswell, Macleay Memorial Volume (1893); Plate, S^tz- 
berich. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1894), p. 527. ' (F. W. GA.) 

PLANCEER, or PLANCHIER (O. Fr. plunder, or planchier, 
planking), in architecture, a term sometimes used in the same 
sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the 
corona in a cornice. 

PLANCHE, JEAN BAPTISTS GUSTAVE (1808-1857), French 
critic, was born in Paris on the i6th of February 1808. Intro- 



duced by Alfred de Vigny to Francois Buloz, he began to write 
for the Revue des deux mondes, and continued to do so until 
1840. He resumed his connexion with the journal in 1846 and 
contributed to it until his death in Paris on the i8th of September 
1857. Gustave Planche was an altogether honest critic and 
refused to accept a place from Napoleon III. for fear of compro- 
mising his freedom. He was in early life a fervent admirer of 
George Sand, and he lavished praise on De Vigny. But he had 
nothing but scorn for Victor Hugo, whose earlier dramas he 
characterized as odes, those following Le Roi s'amuse as anti- 
theses, and the later ones as nothing but spectacle. His critical 
papers were collected under the titles: Portraits lilteraires (1836- 
1849); Nouveaux portraits lilteraires (1854); and art criticisms, 
Etudes sur I'ecole franqaise (1855). 

See Ernest Mont6gut, in the Revue des deux mondes (June 1858) ; 
Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX' specie 
(1891). 

PLANCHE, JAMES ROBINSON (1796-1880), English dra- 
matist and antiquary, was born in London on the 27th of. 
February 1796, the son of a watchmaker of Huguenot descent. 
In 1810 he was articled to a bookseller. In 1818 his first dra- 
matic piece, a burlesque entitled Amoroso, King of Little Britain, 
was produced at Drury Lane theatre. From this time onwards 
he made play-writing his principal work. In 1820-1821 he wrote 
ten pieces for the Adelphi theatre. In 1823 he designed the 
dresses for Charles Kemble's revival of King John at Covent 
Garden, and superintended its production. This was the first 
time that an historical drama had been " dressed " in the 
costume of the period. In 1828 he began writing regularly for 
Covent Garden theatre, and in 1830 was manager of the Adelphi. 
On Mme Vestris taking the Olympic theatre in 1831, Planch6 
entered into an agreement with her to write a series of plays. 
The first of these, Olympic Revels, a burlesque, was given on the 
opening night of the theatre, the performance being given in 
correct classical costume. In 1843 his Fair One with the Golden 
Locks was produced by Webster at the Haymarket. In 1847 
Mme Vestris became manageress of the Lyceum theatre, and 
Planche was engaged as her leading author and designer, his 
principal success being the Island of Jewels (1849). Subse- 
quently he wrote for a number of other managements, his last 
dramatic piece being King Christmas (1871), but he also wrote 
the songs for Babil and Bijou at Covent Garden (1872). In 
addition to his dramatic work Planche enjoyed a considerable 
reputation as an antiquary and heraldic student. He was a 
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and aided in the foundation 
of the British Archaeological Association in 1843. In 1834 he 
published The History of British Costumes. In 1854 he was 
appointed Rouge Croix pursuivant of arms at the Heralds' 
College, and in 1866 Somerset herald. In 1869, at the request of 
the War Office, he arranged the collection of armour at the 
Tower of London in chronological order. He died at Chelsea on 
the 30th of May 1880. 

Planch6's Recollections and Reflections were published in 1872. 

PLANCK, GOTTLIEB JAKOB (1751-1833), German Protestant 
divine and historian, was born at Niirtingen'in Wiirttemberg, 
where his father was a notary, on the isth of November 1751. 
Educated for the Protestant ministry at Blaubeuren, Beben- 
hausen and Tubingen, he became repentent at Tubingen in 1774, 
preacher at Stuttgart in 1780, and professor of theology at 
Gottingen in 1784. At Tubingen he wrote Das Tagebuch eines 
neuen Ehemannes. In 1781 he published anonymously the first 
volume of his Geschichle des protestantischen Lehrbegriffs; the 
second, also anonymous, appearing in 1783, and it was completed 
in six volumes in 1800. It was followed by an extensive 
Geschichte der christlich-kirchlichen Gesellschaftsverfassung in five 
volumes (1803-1809). Both are works of considerable impor- 
tance, and are characterized by abundant learning. He died on 
the 3ist of August 1833. His son Heinrich Ludwig Planck 
(1785-1831), also professor of theology at Gottingen, published 
Bemerkungen tiber den ersten Brief an den Timotheus (1808) and 
Abriss d. philos. Religionslehre (1821). 



PLANCK, K. C. PLANET 



PLANCK, KARL CHRISTIAN (1819-1880), German philo- 
sopher, was born at Stuttgart on the i;th of January 1819. He 
studied at Tubingen, where he became doctor of philosophy in 
1840 and Privatdozent in 1848. During this period the 
influence of Reiff led him to oppose the dominant Hegelianism 
of the time. In 1850-1851 he published his great book, Die 
Weltalter, in which he developed a complete original system of 
philosophy, based on the realistic view that thought should 
proceed from nature to the highest forms of existence in the 
spiritual life. Not only did Planck oppose the idealism of his 
confreres; his views were, in another aspect, directly antagonistic 
to the Darwinian theory of descent, which he specifically attacked 
in Wahrheit und Flachheit des Darwinismus (Nordlingen, 1872). 
The natural consequence of this individuality of opinion was 
that his books were practically disregarded, and Planck was 
deeply incensed. The ill success of Die Weltalter nerved him to 
new efforts, and he repeated his views in Katechismus des Rechts 
(1852), Grundlinen einer Wissenschafl der Natur (1864), Seek 
und Geist (1871), and numerous other books, which, however, 
met with no better fate. In the meantime he left Tubingen for 
Ulm, whence he came finally to the seminary of Maulbronn. He 
died on the 7th of June 1880 in an asylum after a short period 
of nervous prostration. After his death a summary of his work 
came into the hands of K. Kostlin (author of Aesthetics, 1869), 
who published it in 1881 under the titleTeslamenteinesDeutschen, 
Philosophic der Natur und der Menschheit. Planck's views were 
elaborately developed, but his method of exposition told heavily 
against their acceptance. He regarded himself as the Messiah 
of the German people. 

Beside the works above quoted, he wrote System des reinen 
Idealismus (1851); Anthropologie und Psychologic auf naturwissen- 
schaftlicher Grundlage (1874); a political treatise, Bismarck : Sud- 
deutsMand und der deutsche Nationalstaat (1872); and Logisches 
Causalgesetz und nalurliche Zweckmassigkeit (1874). 

See Umfrid, Karl Planck, dessen Werke und Wirken (Tubingen, 
1881); and Schmidt, " Das Lebensideal Karl Christian Plancks," 
in the Vortrage der philosophischen Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1896). 

PLANE, i. In botany, the common name of a handsome tree 
known botanically as Platanus orientalis, a native of Greece and 
western Asia, a favourite shade-tree of the ancient Greeks and 
Romans, and introduced by the latter to south-west Europe. It 




Plane (Platanus orientalis). 
i, Leaf, i nat. size. 
2 and 3, Base of leaf-stalk showing bud-protecting cap, 

about J nat. size. 
4, Male, 5, Female inflorescence. 

6, Head of fruits, about J nat. size. 

7, A fruit with enclosed seed, cut lengthwise. 

is one of the most successful trees in London and other large 
towns; the smooth face of the leaf is easily washed by rain; and 
the periodical peeling of the bark also serves to get rid of im- 
purities. It is a large tree with widely spreading branches and 
alternate, palmately five-lobed leaves, resembling those of the 
sycamore in shape, but quite hairless and of a brighter green. 
The bud in the leaf axil is protected during its development by 
the hollow base of the leaf-stalk, which lifts off 'ike an extin- 
guisher when the leaf falls in autumn. The minute, unisexual 



flowers are borne in dense pendulous heads, which contain either 
male or female flowers; the small one-seeded fruits are densely 
crowded in a ball, from which they gradually separate in drying, 
and are readily carried by the wind. The wood, which is hard 
and heavy, though not strong, is used in Persia and other coun- 
tries of western Asia for house construction and furniture. A 
variety of forms are known in cultivation, the commonest being 
the maple-leaved (acerifolia) , the London plane, which has usually 
three-lobed leaves; var. laciniata has very deeply much divided 
leaves, and var. variegata, variegated foliage. Platanus occi- 
dentalis, an allied species, is a native of the United States, being 
most abundant and growing to its largest size in the bottom lands 
of the basins of the lower Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. It was 
introduced into England early in the i7th century, and is occa- 
sionally met with in western and central Europe. Professor C. S. 
Sargent (Silva of North America) refers to it as the most massive 
if not the tallest, deciduous-leaved tree of the North American 
forest; it is known in America as sycamore and buttonwood. 
It differs from P. orientalis in its less deeply lobed, more 
leathery pubescent leaves and in the usually solitary balls of 
fruit. 

2. The name of a carpenter's hand-tool, used for levelling and 
smoothing (Lat. planus, level) the surface of wood. The machine 
tool used for a similar purpose for metals is generally known as a 
planing-machine or planer. 

PLANET (Gr. TrXa^TJjs, a wanderer), in the ancient astro- 
nomy, one of seven heavenly bodies characterized by being in 
motion relative to the fixed stars, which last appeared immovable 
upon the celestial sphere. As thus defined the planets were the 
sun, the moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In 
modern astronomy since Copernicus, the term is applied to any 
opaque body moving around the sun. Taken in its widest sense 
it applies to the satellites which are sometimes termed secondary 
planets. Each of these moves around a planet larger than 
itself, which it accompanies in its revolution round the sun. 
A planet not revolving round another is termed a primary 
planet. 

The primary planets are classified as major and minor. The 
former are eight in number and, with the sun, form the principal 
members of the solar system, under which head their arrange- 
ment is described. The earth on which we live is the third in the 
order of the major planets from the sun. With respect to the 
positions of their orbits relative to the earth, the other planets 
are distinguished as inferior and superior. The former, only two 
in number, comprise Mercury and Venus, which revolve between 
the earth and the sun. The superior planets are those whose 
orbits are outside that of the earth. The synodic revolution of 
an inferior planet is the time in which it performs a revolution 
relative to the line joining the earth and the sun. This is greater 
:han its actual time of revolution. The phases or appearances 
presented by such a planet depend upon its configuration with 
respect to the earth and sun, and therefore go through their 
complete periods in a synodic revolution. At superior conjunc- 
tion the illuminated hemisphere of the planet is presented to the 
earth so that it presents the form of a full moon. As it moves 
towards inferior conjunction, the lines from the planet to the 
sun and to the earth, or the angle sun-earth as seen from the 
planet, on which the phase depends, continually make a greater 
angle. At the time of greatest elongation this angle is 90, and 
the planet appears one half illuminated, like the moon at first 
or last quarter. Then, as it approaches inferior conjunction, the 
visible portion of the disk assumes the crescent form, and while 
the circle bounding the disk continually increases owing to the 
approach of the planet to the earth, the crescent becomes thinner 
and thinner until, near inferior conjunction, the planet is no 
onger visible. After conjunction the phases occur in the reverse 
order. The brilliancy of the planet, as measured by the total 
amount of light we receive from it, goes through a similar cycle 
of change. The point of greatest brilliancy is between inferior 
conjunction and greatest elongation. In the case of Venus this 
jhase occurs about three or four weeks before and after inferior 
conjunction. 



PLANET 



25 The dote nuiul the ortttt ehtu 

the volition of tht plant ti at 

male of a thoueand daut 

n 



dot* rouid fh orbits 9hou, 

the planets at Interva 's 



jj/n5o/t I \id>cat the yreatnt 
distance of an orbit north and south 
ofthi ol(i*Qfth9 ft/t 



7 arrou-head on *ach orbft stiolas 

the direction of revolution, also the 

place of cacti planet on Jan. tft.1910 at noon 



lemtmet 

bundrcds of millions at mfiee 




Scale ten thoueand -timee that of Orbits Scale about one hundred time* tkat of OrbHi 

(ft* fatth,Han.and the Sun, are ehomn ae seen from the direction of Ua fab of the ecliptic in their true axial poeitiom) 

FIG. 3. 



Saturn 



- v2 efu. ^ 







ranas Neptune 



Scale of Planet* 10,000 timet that of Oroite 

FIG. 4 . 



f Jupiter and Saturn art shown In thtlr true axial position, 
Gran** and Neptune In the axial positions inferred from the motions of their Sattltltei)- 









5ca/ about 4000 times 


that of the Ortite 






{M 


l} 


-V 

7 




Saturn's 


A * 


System 


of Satellite! 


<n 
ft 


[o 


1 


! 


^ f 0) j u p/fe<--s 




I System 


S o/ Satellites 


* | [ W O ) J 



FIG. 5. 



In the figures given above are shown the relative orbits of the 
planets, the orbits of Mars, the Earth, Venus and Mercury (fig. l) 
being drawn to a scale twenty times that of the outer ones Neptune, 
Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter (fig. 2). The positions of the planets at 
ten-day intervals; their actual position on the ist of January 1910 at 
noon, of their nodes and nearer apses, and the points when they 
are farthest distant north and south of the ecliptic, are also given. 



The relative sizes of the planets are also given, orientated in their 
true axial position with regard to the ecliptic. The nearer planets 
(and also the Moon) are separately compared (fig. 3) ; and then shown 
(on a smaller scale) in comparison with the more distant ones 
(fig. 4). Finally scale diagrams of the distances of the orbits of 
the satellite-systems of Saturn, Uranus, Jupiter and Neptune are 
given (fig. 5). 



PLANET 



The phases of a superior planet are less strongly marked, 
because the lines from the planet to the earth and sun never 
increase to a right angle. The result is that although the appar- 
ent disk of Mars is sometimes gibbous in a very marked degree, it 
is always more than half illuminated. In the case of the other 
superior planets, from Jupiter outward, no variation in phase is 
perceptible even to telescopic vision. The entire disk always 
seems fully illuminated. 

The most favourable time for viewing an inferior planet is near 
that of greatest brilliancy. As it recedes further from the earth, 
although a continually increasing proportion of its disk is illu- 
minated by the sun, this advantage is neutralized by the diminu- 
tion in its size produced by the increasing distance. When a 
superior planet is in opposition to the sun it rises at sunset and is 
visible all night. This is also the time when nearest the earth, 
and therefore when the circumstances are most . favourable for 
observation. 

The greater the distance of a planet from the sun the less is 
the speed with which it moves in its orbit. The orbit being 
larger, the time of its revolution is greater in a yet larger degree. 
An approximation to the general laws of speed in different 
planets is that the linear speed is inversely proportional to the 
square root of the mean distance. From this follows Kepler's 
third law, that the squares of the times of revolution are pro- 
portional to the cubes of the mean distances. 

Notes on the Plate showing Planetary Spectra. 

Only those lines and bands are mentioned which are peculiar to 
the planets; the Fraunhofer lines are therefore omitted. 



Wave 
length. 


Remarks. 




4600 




Neptune. 


4800 


F hydrogen, H/? strong. 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn If) 


5090 




Neptune, Uranus. 


5i 9 o 


Broad. 


Neptune, Uranus. 


5370 




Neptune, Uranus. 


5430 


Broad, unsyrametrical, 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, 




strong. 


Jupiter. 


5570 




Neptune, Uranus (?). 


5700 


Broad, unsymmetrical, 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn (?) 




strong. 


Jupiter (?). 


5980 


Strong. 


Neptune, Uranus. 


6090 




Neptune, Uranus. 


6190 


Very strong. 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, 






Jupiter. 


6400 


Broad (?). 


Neptune, Uranus. 


6500 




Neptune, Uranus, Jupiter, 






Saturn (?). 


6560 


C hydrogen, Ho. 


Neptune, Uranus. 


6670 


Broad band. 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, 






Jupiter. 


[6780 


Bright region due to ab- 


Neptune, Uranus. 




sence of selective ab- 






sorption which is strong 






both above and below. 




6820 


Strong, narrow, near 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, 




above B. 


Jupiter. 


7020 


Strong, broad. 


Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, 






Jupiter. 


[7140 


Bright, unabsorbed region 


Neptune, Uranus. 




similar to that at 6780. 




7260 


Strongest band present. 


Saturn, Jupiter. 


7500 


Band (?). 

* 


Saturn. 



It was once supposed that the planets were surrounded by 
comparatively dense atmospheres. The question whether such 
Spectra and 1 * the case, and, if so, what is the physical constitu- 
Atmo- tion of the atmospheres, is a difficult one, on which 

<AeP/an' little ^ ght is t ^ rown except by the spectroscope. 
' If any of these bodies is surrounded by a transparent 
atmosphere like that of the earth, the light which reaches us 
from it will have passed twice through this atmosphere. If 
the latter were materially different in its constitution from 
that of the earth, that fact would be made known by the 
spectrum showing absorption lines or bands different from 
those found in the solar spectrum as we observe it. If, how- 
ever, the planetary atmosphere had the same composition as 
ours we should see only an intensification of the atmospheric 
lines, which might be imperceptible were the atmosphere rare. 



Actual observation has thus far shown no well marked devia- 
tion in the spectra of any of the inner group of planets, Mercury, 
Venus and Mars, from the solar spectrum as we see it. It 
follows that any atmospheres these planets may have must, 
if transparent, be rare. The evidence in the cases of Venus and 
Mars is given in the articles on these planets. Taking the outer 
group of planets, it is found that the spectrum of Jupiter shows 
one or more very faint shaded bands not found in that of the 
sun. In Saturn these bands become more marked, and in 
Uranus and Neptune many more are seen. The spectra in 
question have been observed both optically and photographically 
by several observers, among whom Huggins, Vogel and Lowell 
have been most successful. It may be said, in a general way, 
that seven or eight well marked dark bands, as well as some 
fainter ones are observable in the spectra of the two outer 
planets. The general conclusion from this is that these planets 
are surrounded by deep and dense atmospheres, semi-trans- 
parent, of a constitution which is probably very different from 
that of the earth's atmosphere. But it has not, up to the present 
time, been found practicable to determine the chemical constitu- 
tion of these appendages, except that hydrogen seems to be 
an important constituent. (See Plate.) 

Intimately associated with this subject is the question of the 
conditions necessary to the permanence of an atmosphere round 
a planet. Dr Johnstone Stoney investigated these stability of 
conditions, taking as the basis of his work the Planetary 
kinetic theory of gases (Trans. Roy. Dubl. Soc. vi. Atmo- 
305). On this theory every molecule of a gaseous sp * eres - 
mass is completely disconnected from every other and is in 
rapid motion, its velocity, which may amount to one or 
more thousand feet per second, depending on the temperature 
and on the atomic weight of the gas. At any temperature the 
velocities of individual molecules may now and then increase 
without any well-defined limit. If at the boundary of an atmo- 
sphere the velocity should exceed a certain limit fixed by the mass 
and force of gravity of the planet, molecules might fly away 
through space as independent bodies. The absence of hydrogen 
from the atmosphere of the earth, and of an atmosphere from 
the moon, may be thus explained. If the fundamental hypo- 
theses of Dr Stoney's investigations are correct and complete, it 
would follow that neither the satellites and minor planets of the 
solar system nor Mercury can have any atmosphere. If the 
separate molecules thus flying away moved according to the laws 
which would govern an ordinary body, they would, after leaving 
their respective planets, move round the sun in independent 
orbits. The possibility is thus suggested' that the matter 
producing the zodiacal light may be an agglomeration of gaseous 
molecules moving round the sun; but several questions respecting 
the intimate constitution of matter will have to be settled before 
any definite conclusions on this point can be reached. It is not 
to be assumed that a molecule would move through the ether 
without resistance as the minutest known body does, and there 
is probably a radical difference between the minutest particle 
of meteoric matter and the molecule of a gas. The relations of 
identity or difference between such finely-divided matter as 
smoke and atmospheric haze and a true gas have yet to be fully 
established, and until this is done a definite and satisfactory 
theory of the subject does not seem possible. 

Since the radiation of heat by a planet is, with our present 
instruments, scarcely capable of detection and measurement, 
the temperature of these bodies can be estimated Temperature 
only from general physical laws. The laws govern- of the 
ing the radiation of heat have been so developed plaaets - 
during recent years that it is now possible to state at least 
the general principle on which a conclusion as to the tem- 
perature of a planet may be reached. At the same time our 
knowledge of the conditions which prevail on other planets 
is so limited, especially as regards their atmospheres, that only 
more or less probable estimates of the temperature of their 
surfaces can even now be made. Summarily stated, some of 
the physical principles' are these : 

i. A neutrally coloured body understanding by that term 



PLANET 



PLATE 1. 



PLANETARY SPECTRA, PHOTOGRAPHED AT LOWELL OBSERVATORY, FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA. 

BY V. M. SLIPHER. 



MOON 




5000 



b E 

52OO 



D 



5600 



6000 
I 



6400 




JUPITER. 




SATURN. 



URANUS. 




NEPTUNE. 





Comparison spectrograms of the Moon and Mars, showing absorption bands in that of the latter, which denote the presence 

of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere (see MARS). 
XXI. 716. 



PLATE II. 



SB "I 



XI 



B-l 



PLANET 

REPRESENTATIVE STELLAR SPECTRA, PHOTOGRAPHED AT LOWELL OBSERVATORY, 
FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA, BY V. M. SLIPHER. 



I 



CJ g 



".2 
C'S 



Si 
11 



a .a 

O r3 



< 



o 

> 

O 




PLANETS, MINOR 



717 



one which absorbs the same fraction of the thermal radiation 
falling upon it whatever the wave length of this radiation 
exposed to the sun's radiation in void space tends to assume 
a definite temperature, called the normal temperature, the 
degree of which depends upon the distance of the body from 
the sun. This is a result of Kirchhoff 's laws of radiation. 

2. An atmosphere surrounding such a body, if at rest, will 
tend to assume a state of thermal equilibrium, in which the 
temperature will be the same at all heights. 

3. If the atmosphere is kept in constant motion by an inter- 
change between its higher and lower portions, the tendency is 
towards adiabatic equilibrium, in which the temperature 
diminishes at a constant rate with the height, until it may 
approach the absolute zero. The rate of diminution depends 
upon the intensity of gravity and the physical constants of 
the gases composing the atmosphere. 

4. In the actual case of a planet surrounded by an atmosphere 
and exposed to the sun's radiation, the actual rate of diminution 
of temperature with height above the surface of the planet lies 
between the extreme limits just defined, the rate varying widely 
with the conditions. The general tendency will be towards a 
condition in which the temperature at the base of the atmosphere 
is higher than the normal, while in the upper regions it is lower. 
The temperature of the surface of the planet on which the 
atmosphere rests is determined partly by the sun's radiation 
and partly by the temperature of^the air. What we should 
generally expect in the absence of any selective absorption by 
the air is that the temperature of the lower air would be higher 
than that of the material surface on which it rests. But this 
condition might be reversed by the effect of such absorption 
in either the air or the material of the planet. 



ment. Something of this sort has been suspected in the case 
of Jupiter, which has several points of resemblance to the sun. 
The planets Uranus and Neptune which, but for their atmo- 
spheres, would approximate to the absolute zero in temperature, 
may be prevented from doing so by the dense atmosphere 
which the spectroscope shows around them. 

A very elaborate investigation of the probable mean tempera- 
tures of the surfaces of the several planets has been made by 
J. H. Poynting, Phil. Trans, (vol. 202 A, 1904). 

Tables of Planetary Elements and Constants. 

Table I. gives the elements determining the motions of each 
major planet, and Table II. certain numbers pertaining to its 
physical condition. For explanation of terms used see ORBIT. 
The elements are given for the epoch 1900, Jan. o, Greenwich 
mean time, except the mean longitudes, which are for 1910, Jan. o. 

In interpreting or using the numbers it must be remembered 
that only the mean distances and mean daily motions can be 
regarded as well determined and invariable quantities. The other 
elements are subject to a secular variation, and all vary more or 
less from the action of the planets. In Table II. the reciprocal of the 
mass is given, the mass of the sun being unity. Some of these 
and other quantities are extremely uncertain. This is especially 
the case with the mass of Mercury, which the astronomical tables 
put at 1/6,000,000 that of the sun, while G. W. Hill has computed 
from an estimate of the probable density of the planet that it is 
probably less than .1/11,000,000. In the table we assume the 
round number 1/10,000,000. The volumes are derived from micro- 
metric measures of the diameters, which are more or less uncertain. 
From these and the mass follows the density of each planet. From 
this again is derived the intensity of gravity at the surface; this 
is also frequently uncertain. Finally the normal temperature is 
that which a black or neutrally coloured body would assume when 
every part of it is equally exposed to the sun's rays by a rapid 
revolution. As has already been intimated, the actual temperature 
may also depend upon the interior heat of the planet, which is an 
unknown quantity. (S. N.) 



TABLE I. Elements of the Orbits of the Eight Major Planets. 



Planet. 


Mean Distance from Sun. 


Eccentricity 
of Orbit. 


Longitude 
of Peri- 
helion. 


Longitude 
of Node. 


Inclina- 
tion. 


Period of 
Revolution. 


Mean Daily 
Motion. 


Mean Long- 
itude 1910, 
Jan. o. 


Astronomical 
Units. 


Thousands 
of Miles. 


Mercury . 
Venus 
Earth . . 
Mars . 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 
Neptune . 


0-3870987 
0-72333I5 

I-OOOOOOO 

1-523688 

5-202804 
9-538844 

19-19096 
30-07067 


36,000 
67,269 
92,998 
141,701 

483-853 
887,098 
1,784.732 
2,796,528 


0-205614 
0-006821 
0-016751 
0-093309 
0-048254 
0-056061 
0-047044 
0-008533 


75" 54' 
130 10' 
101 13' 

334 13' 
12 36' 
90 49' 
169 3' 
43 45' 


47 9' 
75 47' 

48 47' 
99 37 
33 ; 
73 29' 
130 41' 


7 o' 
3 24' 

i5i' 
ii 9 ' 
2 30' 
o46' 
i47' 


Days. 

87-969256 

224-700798 
365-256360 
686-979702 

4332-5879 

10759-2010 
30586-29 
60187-65 


4'0927 

I-602I 

o-9856 
o-52403 
o-o83O9i 
o-03346o 
o-oii77O 

O-O06O2O 


3 32' 
73 53' 
99 17 
47 39' 
i8i43 
28 56' 
286 42' 
107 i' 



TABLE II. Physical Constants pertaining to the Major Planets. 



Planet. 


Angular Semidiameter. 


At 
Dist. 


Diameter 
in Miles. 


Reciprocal of 
Mass. 
(O's mass = i) 


Density. 


Gravity at 
Surface. 
(0 = 1) 


Orbital 
Velocity. 
Miles per sec. 


Normal 
Temperature. 
Centigrade. 


Equatorial. 


Polar. 


(Water = I) 


(e = i) 


Mercury 
Venus . 
Earth . . 
Mars 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
Uranus 
Neptune 


3-30* 
8-46' 

8-79' 
4-80' 

I8 ' 75 l 
8-75 
1-90" 
i-io" 


3-30' 
8-46* 
8-76' 
4-76' 

I7-65* 
7-88" 
1-90" 
i-io" 


I 
I 
I 

i 
5-203 
9-539 
19-19 
30-07 


2,976 
7,629 
7,917 
4,3i6 
86,259 
72,772 
32,879 
29,827 


10,000,000 
408,000 
333,430 
3,093,500 
1,047-35 
3,500 
22,869 
i9i3H 


3-5 
5-05 
5-53 
3-68 
1-363 
0-678 

I-I3 
1-79 


633 
913 

I -000 

666 

247 
123 
204 
322 


0-24 
0-880 

I-OO 

0-363 
2-68 

J-I3 

0-85 

1-22 


29-76 

21-77 
18-52 
15-00 

8-12 

6-00 

4-24 
3-40 


": 

7 i 

19 
- 36 
-144 

~ I77 l 
-205 

-218 



It would follow from these laws that the temperature of the 
superior planets diminishes rapidly with distance from the sun, 
and must therefore be far below that of the earth, unless.they 
are surrounded by atmospheres of such height and density as 
to be practically opaque to the rays of heat, or unless they have 
no solid crust. 

The resemblance of the spectra of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn 
to that of the sun leads to the conclusion that the atmospheres 
of these planets are transparent down to the reflecting surface 
of the body. The temperature of these surfaces must therefore 
be determined by Kirchhoff's law, unless they resemble the sun 
in being entirely liquid or gaseous, or in having only solid nuclei 
surrounded by liquid matter in a condition of continual move- 



PLANETS, MINOR. The minor planets, commonly known 
as asteroids or planetoids, form a remarkable group of small 
planetary bodies, of which all the known members but three 
move between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Until recently 
they were all supposed to be contained within the region just 
mentioned; but the discovery of one, which at perihelion comes 
far within the orbit of Mars, and of two others, which at aphelion 
pass outside the orbit of Jupiter, shows that no well-defined 
limit can be set to the zone containing them. Before the exist- 
ence of this group was known, the apparent vacancy in the region 
occupied by it, as indicated by the arrangement of the planets 
according to Bode's law, had excited remark and led to the belief 
that a planet would eventually be found there. Towards the 



yi8 



PLANETS, MINOR 



end of the iSth century the conviction that such a planet existed 
was so strong that an association of astronomers was formed 
to search for it. The first discovery of the looked-for planet 
was not, however, made by any member of this association, but 
by Giuseppe Piazzi of Palermo. On the ist of January 1801 
he noted a small star in Taurus, which, two days later, had 
changed its place, thus showing it to be a planet. Shortly after 
Piazzi's discovery the body was lost in the rays of the sun, and 
was not again seen until near the following opposition in 1801- 
1802. The orbit was then computed by C. F. Gauss, who found 
its mean distance from the sun to correspond with Bode's law, 
thus giving rise to the impression that the gap in the system 
was filled up. The planet received the name Ceres. 

On the 28th of March 1802 H. W. M. Gibers (1758-1840) 
discovered a second planet, which was found to move in an orbit 
a little larger than that of Ceres, but with a very large eccen- 
tricity and inclination. This received the name of Pallas. The 
existence of two planets where only one was expected led Olbers 
to his celebrated hypothesis that these bodies were fragments 
of a larger planet which had been shattered by an internal 
convulsion; and he proposed that search should be made near 
the common node of the two orbits to see whether other frag- 
ments could be found. Within the next few years two other 
planets of the group were discovered, making four. No others 
were found for more than a generation; then on the 8th of 
December 1845 a fifth, Astrea, was discovered by K. L. Hencke 
of Driesen. The same observer added a sixth in 1847. Two 
more were found by J. R. Hind of London during the same year, 
and from that time discovery has gone on at an increasing rate, 
until the number now known is more than six hundred and is 
growing at the rate of thirty or more annually. 

Up to 1890 discoveries of these bodies were made by skilful 
search with the telescope and the eye. Among the most success- 
ful discoverers were Johann Palisa of Vienna, C. H. F. Peters 
(1813-1890) of Clinton, New York, and James Craig Watson 
(1838-1880) of Ann Arbor, Michigan. In recent times the dis- 
coveries are made almost entirely by photography. When a 
picture of the stars is taken with a telescope moved by clock- 
work, so as to follow the stellar sphere in its apparent diurnal 
rotation, the stars appear on the plates as minute dots. But 
if the image of a planet is imprinted on the plate it will 
generally appear as a short line, owing to its motion relative to 
the stars. Any such body can therefore be detected on the 
plate by careful examination much more expeditiously than by 
the old method of visual search. The number now known is so 
great that it is a question whether they can be much longer 
individually followed up so as to keep the run of their 
movements. 

Among the distinctive features of the planets of this group 
one is their small size. None exists which approaches either 
Mercury or the moon in dimensions. The two largest, Ceres 
and Juno, present, at opposition a visible disk about i* in dia- 
meter, corresponding to about 400 miles. The successively 
discovered ones naturally have, in the general average, been 
smaller and smaller. Appearing only as points of light, even 
in the most powerful telescopes, nothing like a measure of their 
size is possible. It can only be inferred from their apparent 
magnitude that the diameters of those now known may range 
from fifteen or twenty miles upwards to three or four hundred, 
the great majority being near the lower limit. There is yet no 
sign of a limit to their number or minuteness. From the in- 
creasing rate at which new ones approaching the limit of visibility 
are being discovered, it seems probable that below this limit 
the number of unknown ones is simply countless; and it may 
well be that, could samples of the entire group be observed, 
they would include bodies as small as those which form the 
meteors which so frequently strike our atmosphere. Such being 
the case, the question may arise whether the total mass of 
the group may be so great that its action on the major planets 
admits of detection. The computations of the probable mass 
of those known, based upon their probable diameter as concluded 
from the light which they reflect, have led to the result that their 



combined action must be very minute. But it may well be a 
question whether the total mass of the countless unknown 
planets may not exceed that of the known. The best answer 
that can be made to this question is that, unless the smaller 
members of the group are almost perfectly black, a number 
great enough to produce any observable effect by their attraction 
would be visible as a faintly illuminated band in the sky. Such 
a band is occasionally visible to very keen eyes; but the observa- 
tions on it are, up to the present time, so few and uncertain that 
nothing can positively be said on the subject. On the other 
hand, the faint " Gegenschein" opposite the sun is sometimes 
regarded as an intensification of this supposed band of light, 
due to the increased reflection of the sun's light when thrown 
back perpendicularly (see ZODIACAL LIGHT). But this sup- 
position, though it may be well founded, does not seem to fit 
with all the facts. All that can be said is that, while it is possible 
that the light reflected from the entire group may reach the 
extreme limit of visibility, it seems scarcely possible that the mass 
can be such as to produce any measurable effect by its attraction. 
Another feature of the group is the generally large inclinations 
and eccentricities of the orbits. Comparatively few of these 
are either nearly circular or near any common plane. Con- 
sidering the relations statistically, the best conception of the 
distribution of the planes of the orbits may be gained by con- 
sidering the position of their poles on the celestial sphere. The 
pole of each orbit is defined as the point in which an axis per- 
pendicular to the plane intersects the celestial sphere. When 
the poles are marked as points on this sphere it is found that 
they tend to group themselves around a certain position, not 
far from the pole of the invariable plane of the planetary system, 
which again is very near that of the orbit of Jupiter. This 
statistical result of observation is also inferred from theory, 
which shows that the pole of each orbit revolves around a point 
near the pole of the invariable plane with an angular motion 
varying with the mean distance of the body. This would result 
in a tendency toward an equal scattering of the poles around 
that of Jupiter, the latter being the centre of position of the 
whole group. From this it would follow that, if we referred 
the planes of the orbit to that of Jupiter, the nodes upon the 
orbit of that planet should also be uniformly scattered. Ex- 
amination, however, shows a seeming tendency of the nodes 
to crowd into two nearly opposite regions, in longitudes of about 
1 80 and 330. But it is difficult to regard this as anything 
but the result of accident, because as the nodes move along at 
unequal rates they must eventually scatter, and must have 
been scattered in past ages. In other words it does not seem 
that any other than a uniform distribution can be a permanent 
feature of the system. 

A similar law holds true of the eccentricities and the perihelia. 
These may both be defined by the position of the centre of the orbit 
relative to the sun. If a be the mean distance and e the eccentricity 
of an orbit, the geometry of the ellipse shows that the centre of the 
orbit is situated at the distance ae from the sun, in the direction of 
the aphelion of the body. When the centres of the orbits are laid 
down on a diagram it is found that they are not scattered equally 
around the sun but around a point lying 
in the direction of the centre of the 
orbit of Jupiter. The statistical law 
governing these may be seen from 
fig. i. Here S represents the position 
of the sun, and J that of the centre of 
the orbit of Jupiter. The direction 
JS produced is that of the perihelion 
of Jupiter, which is now near longitude 12. As the perihelion, 
moves by its secular variation, the line SJ revolves around S. 
Theory then shows that for every asteroid there will be a certain 
point A near the line SJ and moving with it. Let C be the actual 
position of the centre of the planetoid. Theory shows that C is in 
motion around A as a centre in the direction shown by the arrow, the 
linear eccentricity ae being represented by the line SC. It follows 
that e will be at a minimum when AC passes through S, and at a 
maximum when in the opposite direction. The position of A is 
different in the case of different planetoids, but is generally about 
two-thirds of the way from S to J. The lines AC for different 
ttodies are at any time scattered miscellaneously around the region 
A as a centre. AC may be called the constant of eccentricity of the 
planetoid, while SC represents its actual but varying eccentricity, 




FIG. i. 



PLANK 



719 



Grouping of the Planetoids. A curious feature of these bodies 
is that when they are classified according to their distances from 
the sun a tendency is seen to cluster into groups. Since the 
mean distance and mean motion of each planet are connected 
by Kepler's third law, it follows that this grouping may also be 
described as a tendency toward certain times of revolution or 
certain values of the mean motion around the sun. This feature 
was first noticed by D. Kirkwood in 1870, but at that time the 
number of planetoids known was not sufficient to bring out its 
true nature. The seeming fact pointed out by Kirkwood was 
that, when these bodies are arranged in the order of their 
mean motions, there are found to be gaps in the series at 
those points where the mean motion is commensurable with 
that of Jupiter; that is to say, there seem to be no mean daily 
motions near the values 598", 748" and 898", which are respec- 
tively 2, 25 and 3 times that of Jupiter. Such mean motions 
are nearly commensurable with that of Jupiter, and it is shown 
in celestial mechanics that when they exist the perturbations 
of the .planet by Jupiter will be very large. It was therefore 
supposed that if the commensurability should be exact the orbit 
of the planet would be unstable. But it is now known that such 
is not the case, and that the only effect of even an exact com- 
mensurability would be a libration of long period in the mean 
motion of the planetoid. The gaps cannot therefore be ac- 
counted for on what seemed to be the plausible supposition that 
the bodies required to fill these gaps originally existed but were 
thrown out of their orbits by the action of Jupiter. The fact 
can now be more precisely stated by saying that we have not 
so much a broken series as a tendency to an accumulation of 
orbits between the points of commensurability. The law in 
question can be most readily shown in a graphical form. In 
fig. 2 the horizontal line represents distances from the sun, 



limits of the groups shown in the figure. Eros is so near the 
sun, and its orbit is so eccentric, that at perihelion it is only 
about 0-16 outside the orbit of the earth. On those rare occasions 
when the earth is passing the perihelion point of the orbit at 
nearly the same time with Eros itself, the parallax of the latter 
will be nearly six times that of the sun. Measurements of parallax 
made at these times will therefore afford a more precise value 
of the solar parallax than can be obtained by any other purely 
geometrical measurement. An approach almost as close as 
the nearest geometrically possible one occurred during the winter 
of 1893-1894. Unfortunately the existence of the planet was 
then unknown, but after the actual discovery it was found that 
during this opposition its image imprinted itself a number of 
times upon the photographs of the heavens made by the Harvard 
Observatory. The positions thus discovered have been ex- 
tremely useful in determining the elements of the orbit. The 
next near approach occurred in the winter of 19001901, when 
the planet approached within 0-32 of the earth. A combined 
effort was made by a number of observatories at this time to 
determine the parallax, both by micrometric measures and by 
photography. Owing to the great number of stars with which 
the planet had to be compared, and the labour of determining 
their positions and reducing the observations, only some frag- 
mentary results of this work are now available. These are 
mentioned in the article PARALLAX. So far as can yet be seen, 
no other approach so near as this will take place until January 



A few of the minor planets are of such special interest that 
some pains will doubtless be taken to determine their orbits 
and continue observations upon them at every available opposi- 
tion. To this class belong those of which the orbits are so 
eccentric that they either pass near that of Jupiter or approach 



FIG. 2. 



increasing toward the left, of which certain equidistant numerical 
values are given below the line. Points on the line corresponding 
to each o-oi of the distances are then taken, and at each point 
a perpendicular line of dots is drawn, of which the number is 
equal to that of the planetoids having this mean distance, no 
account being taken of fractions less than o-oi. The accumula- 
tions between the points of close commensurability with the 
mean motion of Jupiter may be seen by inspection. For 
example, at the point 2-59 the mean motion is three times that 
of Jupiter; at the point 2-81 twice the mean motion is equal to 
five times that of Jupiter; at 3-24 the mean motion is twice that 
of Jupiter. It will be seen that there is a strong tendency toward 
grouping near the values 2-75, and a lesser tendency toward 3-1 
and 2-4. It is probable that the grouping had its origin in the 
original formation of these bodies and may be plausibly attributed 
to the formation of three or more separate rings which were 
broken up to form the group. 

Continuing the question beyond these large collections, it 
will be seen that between the values 3-22 and 3-33 there are no 
orbits at all. Then between 3-3 and 3-5 there are nine orbits. 
The space between 3-5 and 3-9 is thus far a complete blank; 
then there are three orbits between 3-90 and 3-95, not shown 
in the diagram. 

A group of great interest, of which only three members are 
yet known, was discovered during the years 1906-1907. The 
mean distance of each member of this group, and therefore its 
time of revolution, is so near that of Jupiter that the relations 
of the respective orbits are yet unknown. The case thus offered 
for study is quite unique in the solar system, but its exact nature 
cannot be determined until several more years of observation 
are available. 

Several planetoids of much interest are situated without the 



near that of the earth. With most of the others little more can 
be done than to compute their elements with a view of subse- 
quently identifying the object when desired. Unless followed 
up at several oppositions after discovery, the planet is liable to 
be quite lost. Of those discovered before 1890 about fifteen 
have not again been found, so that if discovered, as they doubt- 
less will be, identification will be difficult. 

The system of nomenclature of these bodies is not free from 
difficulty. When discoveries began to go on at a rapid rate, 
the system was introduced of assigning to each a number, in 
the order of its discovery, and using as its symbol its number 
enclosed in a circle. Thus Ceres was designated by the symbol; 
Pallas by @, &c., in regular order. This system has been con- 
tinued to the present time. When photography was applied 
to the search it was frequently doubtful whether the planet of 
which the image was detected on the plates was or was not 
previously known. This led to the use of capital letters in 
alphabetical order as a temporary designation. When the 
alphabet was exhausted a second letter was added. Thus there 
are planetoids temporarily designated as A, B, &c., and AB, 
AC, &c. The practice of applying a name to be selected by 
the discoverer has also been continued to the present time. 
Originally the names were selected from those of the gods or 
goddesses of classical mythology, but these have been so far 
exhausted that the name is now left to the discretion of the 
person selecting it. At present it is customary to use both the 
number and the name, the former being necessary to the ready 
finding of the planetoid in a list, while the name serves for more > 
certain identification. (S. N.) 

PLANK, a flat piece of timber, sawn and planed; it is techni- 
cally distinguished from a " board " by its greater thickness, and 
should measure from 2 to 4 in. in thickness and from 10 to 1 1 in. 



720 



PLANKTON 



in width. The word comes through the Fr. planche (from post- 
Augustan, Lat. planca, a nasalized adaptation probably of Gr. 
irXd, something flat, especially a flat stone. The use of the 
word " plank " in the sense of an article in a political programme 
is of American origin and is due to the use of " platform " for 
the programme itself. 

PLANKTON, a name invented by Professor Victor Hensen 
for the drifting population of the sea. This is a convenient 
heading under which to discuss not only plankton proper, but 
the benthos, or crawling population of the sea-bottom. Scientific 
investigation of these subjects dates from the reports of the 
" Challenger " expedition, which, despite its many successors, 
still stands out as the most important of the oceanographic 
expeditions, alike by the work achieved, the distance traversed, 
the time occupied, and the money devoted to the publication 
of the results. It laid the foundation of our knowledge of the 
physics and chemistry of ocean water, of oceanic and atmospheric 
currents, of the contour of the sea-bottom, and of the main 
features of .distribution of deep-sea life. Later work has con- 
firmed and expanded, but not revoked, the conclusions thus 
attained.' But, in spite of this and of several subsequent 
expeditions, it cannot be pretended that we are in a position 
to formulate general canons of marine distribution other than 
of the most tentative character. Two fallacies underlie many 
attempts to define distributional oceanic areas for special groups: 
the one, that such areas can be made to bear some relation to 
existing geographical or even national divisions; the other, that 
what is true for one group of the animal kingdom must hold 
good equally for another. It is necessary at the outset to divest 
oneself of these errors; oceanic conditions depend only very 
indirectly upon the distribution of the land, and strongly swim- 
ming or freely floating animals are not to be confined by the 
same factors as determine the distribution of sessile forms, whose 
range is governed by a variety of circumstances. 

As Wyville Thomson pointed out long ago, there is but one 
ocean. This surrounds the southern half of the globe, and has 
two large gulfs, generally called the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
which meet through narrow channels in the small Arctic Ocean, 
and a half gulf, the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic and Pacific 
exhibit a striking homology of atmospheric pressure and of 
prevalent wind and current; the Indian, to a great extent, 
resembles the southern half of a larger one, but this resemblance 
is modified by the neighbourhood of vast land masses. The 
prevalent winds, dependent on the fairly constant distribution 
of atmospheric pressure over the great oceans, are the most 
important determinant of currents. As at most points in the 
ocean the temperature, salinity and chemical composition of 
the water are mainly determined by the currents that is, by 
the condition at the place whence the water came it is obvious 
that a study of currents must precede any general view of the 
distribution of marine forms. 

Regard must be had not merely to the superficial currents 
indicated in fig. i , but also to the movements of the deeper layer. 
Ice melting at the poles, together with polar precipitation of hail, 
snow and rain, yields large quantities of water of low salinity 
and very low temperature; this water sinks under the warmer 
salter surface water drifted from lower latitudes, and, creeping 
slowly north and south from the poles, covers the bottom of all 
the great open oceans at very uniformly low temperatures (in 
some cases as low as 30 F.). Between surface and bottom the 
temperature gradually decreases (except where affected by local 
circumstances), and in the middle layers the existence of slow 
currents is suspected. The cold bottom water wells up to the 
surface in certain areas, replacing the surface water drained 
away by currents, notably to the westward of the great land 
masses. Ocean water is remarkably uniform as regards its 
contained salts and gases, and it does not seem likely that we 
can look to these to explain the facts of distribution. In its 
temperature, on the contrary, there is enormous variation. 
While the bottom water of the ocean is very cold, and the mid- 
water of a more or less intermediate temperature, the surface 
water, according as it has drifted from the equator polewards 



or in the reverse direction, has a mean annual temperature 
somewhere between 84 and 30 F., losing or gaining heat on its 
way. In the case of narrow or " closed " seas, and near land 
masses, sea- water does not exhibit that uniformity of composition 
which characterizes the open ocean; but even in such cases the 
temperature is largely influenced by adjacent currents, and, 
though less obviously than in the open ocean, seems to be a very 
important agent in distribution. 

The fauna of the sea is divisible into the plankton, the swim- 
ming or drifting fauna which never rests on the bottom (generally 
taken now to include E. Haeckel's nekton, the strong swimmers, 
such as fish and cephalopods), and the benthos, which is fixed 
to or crawls upon the bottom. These groups require a further 
subdivision according to depth the more necessarily since, to 
some zoologists, any water over 100 fathoms is " deep " or even 
" abyssal." It is simplest to begin with the benthos. From 




FlG. I. Diagram of the Atlantic Ocean, showing the Main 
Surface Currents (some are seasonal only) : the corresponding Indian 
and Pacific currents are cited in parentheses; they are rarely so 
strongly marked as in the Atlantic. 
I. Counterequatorial (also l' Pacific and Indian). 

North Equatorial (also Pacific). 

The Equatorial (also 2* Pacific and Indian). 

Gulf Stream proper (Japan Stream). 

Brazil Current (Australian Current). 

Mozambique Current (recurved off Cape Agulhas). 

Labrador Current (Kamchatka Current). 

Falkland Current. 

North Atlantic Drift, generally called Gulf Stream (North Pacific 

Drift). 
5'. South Atlantic Drift, ill defined (South Pacific Drift). 

6. North African Current (Mexico Current). 
6'. Benguela Current. 

6". Peru Current. 

7. Antarctic Circumpolar Drift. 7', its northerly branches on 

the west sides of Africa and South America. 

the shore seawards we may distinguish several zones. Even 
the tidal zone, between high and low water-mark, is subdivisible 
by its fauna and flora. There generally follows on this a very 
gentle slope to the depth of about 100 fathoms, locally sub- 
divisible into many lesser zones. It has been termed the con- 
tinental shelf or littoral zone, not very appropriately, since it 
occurs round many oceanic islands, and even away from any 
land. In this zone, if near land, fall to the bottom the heavy 
materials produced by land waste and river drainage. The 
fauna of this zone, generally very well characterized, may be 



PLANKTON 



721 



distinguished as the epibenthos. As with the shallowest or tidal 
zone, its nature varies much more according to latitude and the 
character of the coast than the deeper zones. Everywhere, 
however, the epibenthic fauna is exposed to certain definite 
environmental conditions, as compared with a deeper fauna: 
namely, a high or fairly high temperature (except near the poles) ; 
a fairly good light, with its important consequence, a vegetable 
basis of food supply; tide and current to distribute the larvae 
to a suitable habitat, which the varied nature of the bottom 
near land is likely to furnish. Passing farther seawards, we find 
a steeper slope to about the soo-fathom line, the so-called 
continental slope. In this zone the environment is absolutely 




FIG. 2. Mean Annual Surface Isotherms of the Atlantic. (After 
Buchan, " Challenger " Report on " Oceanic Circulation.") On 
the north-east and south-west sides they are deflected polewards 
by the warm North Atlantic Drift and Brazil Current ; on the south- 
east and north-west sides equatorwards by the cold Labrador and 
Benguela Currents. Note the markedly different latitudes of the 
same isotherms east and west of South America and Africa; also 
the effect of tne Falkland Current against the Brazil Current. 

different. The water, no longer subject to seasonal variations 
of temperature, or to direct sunlight, is cold, and of a nearly 
uniform annual temperature (300 fathoms, 44-7 F.). Light 
has disappeared from all but the shallower part, and with it 
plant life; tide and current are no longer felt. To the latter 
fact is due, however, a great part of the food supply, which 
maintains in this zone an abundant fauna: a great quantity 
of organic matter, brought down by river action, produced by 
disintegrated sea-weed, and due to the death of surface organisms, 
together with the finer clayey materials of land waste, settles 
to the bottom in quiet water, near the ico-fathom contour, thus 
making the mud-line the richest feeding-ground in the ocean 
(Murray). The mud-line is the real upper limit of this zone; 
it typically begins at about 100 fathoms, but may begin at 5 to 20 
fathoms in deep sheltered firths, or be pushed down to 300 
fathoms where currents are strong. The fauna of this zone 
may be termed the mesobenthos; it is not so abundant, nor so 
sharply characterized, as the epibenthos, and yet is sufficiently 
distinct to deserve at any rate a provisional name. Another 



difference of condition between epibenthos and mesobenthos is 
the pressure of the water; at a depth of 500 fathoms this is, 
roughly speaking, half a ton to the square inch. It is very 
doubtful whether this enormous pressure makes the slightest 
difference to marine invertebrates, the tissues of which are 
uniformly permeated by fluids, so that the pressure is uniform in 
every direction; but animals with free gases naturally require 
time to adjust the gas-pressure when altering their levels. As 
regards the penetration of light, assimilative rays useful to plant 
life probably do not reach beyond 150 fathoms. Photographic 
rays have been detected as low as 220 fathoms, and if any light 
penetrate beyond this depth, it will consist only of blue, violet 
and ultra-violet rays: it has been suggested that the red colour 
prevalent in many deep-sea animals may be a screen from these 
hurtful rays. Below the soo-fathom line the ocean bottom 
exhibits almost .uniform conditions everywhere, varied only by 
the character of the bottom deposit and the amount of food 
supply. In this zone, which extends from about 500 fathoms to 
the greatest depths (which may in some cases exceed 5000 
fathoms, or more than sJ m.), the temperature at any given 
point is uniform throughout the year, and is always very low: 
the mean at 2200 fathoms is 35-2 F.; at greater depths and in 
special circumstances less than 30 F. has been recorded. The 
darkness is probably absolute ; for food the animals are dependent 
upon each other and upon the incessant rain of dead plankton 
from higher levels; the pressure may be anything between 
half a ton and five tons per square inch. To the fauna which 
lives in these remarkable circumstances the name hypobenthos 
may be applied. 

That each of the three benthic groups is well characterized by 
a special fauna is shown by the following table, out of the total 
numbers of species captured by the " Challenger " at seventy 
stations in these three zones : 





Species confined 
to this Zone. 


Species occurring 
in other Zones. 


Epibenthos. 
Mesobenthos . 
Hypobenthos . 


91% 
74 .. 
61 


8% 

38 ,'; 



Out of the 25 % of its species which the mesobenthos shares with 
other zones, 59% occur also in the epibenthos, about 40% in the 
hypobenthos; the mesobenthos, therefore, on these figures, may 
be taken to consist of 74% of peculiar species, 15% shared with 
the epibenthos, 10% with the hypobenthos. Speaking of the 
benthos as a whole, it may be said that the following statement 
holds good : The number of individuals, the proportion of species 
to genera, and the number of individuals of a given species, all 
decrease with increasing depth. Animal life also tends to diminish 
with increasing distance from land; this may be partly due to the 
greater food supply near land, partly to the fact that population 
is obviously thinnest on the advancing fringe of a migration. 

The plankton can be subdivided into at least two groups. The 
fauna to which light and warmth are more or less necessary, which 
feeds either upon plants or upon organisms nearly dependent 
upon plant life, may be termed the epiplankton. This fauna is 
capable of a good deal of vertical movement upwards and down- 
wards, the causes of which are still obscure, but most of its members 
seem rarely to descend lower than about 100 fathoms. Below this 
depth the fauna may be called the mesoplankton. In every area 
this appears to have its peculiar species, but the careful study by 
opening and closing tow-nets of the distribution of the meso- 
plankton is of so recent a growth that no statistics, such as we 
have of the benthos, are available. It is now generally admitted 
that the mesoplankton extends to the lowest depths yet searched 
(2730 to 2402 fathoms, Vafdivia); but the number of specimens 
decreases rapidly after 200 fathoms, and below 1000 fathoms very 
little is captured. The conditions of light, temperature, pressure, 
&c., are practically those of the corresponding depths of the benthos; 
as regards the food, however, the mesoplankton can only depend 
on intercepting dead organisms which are falling from higher 
horizons, or on capturing the scanty prey of its own zone. It is 
possible that the plankton immediately over the bottom may 
prove to be sufficiently distinct to be separately classed as 
hypoplankton. 

The main subdivisions of the marine fauna having thus been 
briefly sketched, it is advisable to consider them in somewhat 
more detail. The epibenthos is obviously that fauna fi _ ftea<4os 
to which, except in polar regions, light and warmth 
are necessary; and the absence of these at greater depths is 



722 



PLANKTON 



probably the chief barrier to its vertical extension; the food 
supply is sufficiently plentiful in, at any rate, the upper parts 
of the mesobenthic zone to present no obvious barrier. The 
chemical constitution of the water (except to animals in brackish 
water near river mouths) and the pressure appear to exert little 
or no influence; and only those species which attach themselves 
to clean hard substances would be repelled by the mud-line. 



restrain. In relation to temperature the wide-ranging species 
are termed eurythermal, the limited, stenothermal (Moebius); 
the terms are useful to record a fact, but are not explanatory. 
It seems to be the case that to every organism is assigned a 
minimum temperature below which it dies, a maximum tempera- 
ture above which it dies, and an optimum temperature at 
which it thrives best; but these have to be studied separately 




FIG. 3. Diagram showing the Coastwise (not seaward) Extension of the Provinces of Epibenthic Gastropods and Lamellibranchs. 
Provinces : 



1. Arctic. 

2. Boreal of East Atlantic. 
2'. Boreal of West Atlantic. 

3. Celtic. 

4. Lusitanian. 

5. West African. 



6. South African. 

7. Indo-Pacific. 

8. Japanese. 

9. Australian. 

10. New Zealand. 

11. Aleutian. 



12. Californian. 

13. Panama. 

14. Peruvian. 

15. Generally termed Patagonian 
or Magellanic for purely epi- 
benthic forms, but in many 



Orders part of the circumpolar 
Antarctic region. 

16. Argentinian. 

17. Caribbean. 

1 8. Transatlantic. 



The chief barrier to a horizontal extension of the epibenthos 
is undoubtedly temperature. As an example of its distribution 
may be taken the Gastropod and Lamellibranch Molluscs, as 
groups of which the distribution has been studied for many years 
by specialists. The shallow-water species fall into provinces 
(compare Cooke, Camb. Nat. Hist. vol. " Molluscs," ch. xii.), 
and a comparison of figs, i and 3 shows at once the profound 
influence upon them of the great currents. Taking the Atlantic 
Ocean, we find the Arctic species, tempted southwards by the 
cold Labrador Current, repelled northwards by the warm 
North Atlantic Drift. The Boreal or sub-Arctic species, many 
of which are identical on both sides of the ocean (2 and 2', fig. 3), 
lie much farther southwards on the west than on the east side, 
from the same causes. The warm-water molluscs of West 
Africa (5) are cut off from those of the east side (7) by the cold 
water from the great easterly Antarctic Drift, which impinges 
on the Cape, giving it a special fauna (6) . On the South American 
coasts the tropical and temperate fauna reach respectively 
to 28 S. and 45 S. on the east coast, owing to the warm Brazil 
Current; but the corresponding groups on the west coast only 
to 5 S. and 37 S., being kept back by cold upwelling and Hum- 
boldt's Current. This influence is visible in individual" species 
as well as in the facies of a fauna: Purpura lapillus, a temperate 
form, reaches on the east side of the Pacific to 24 N. and on 
the East Atlantic to 32 N.; but on the West Pacific only to 
41 N. and the West Atlantic to 42 N., being repelled by the 
Japan stream (and other warm currents of the south-west 
monsoon) and Gulf Stream respectively. 

But while some species may be confined to a bay, others to 
a province, others to an ocean, there are cosmopolitan species 
which either vertical or horizontal barriers, or both, fail to 



for every species. Similarly, in regard to depth, species 
have been classed as eurybalhic and stenobathic, but, since in- 
creased depth practically means diminished temperature, these 
are probably merely expressions of the same fact in another 
form. That an Arctic shallow-water species should stretch 
to considerable depths is not surprising, but it is remarkable 
to find such forms as, for example, Venus mcsodesma on a New 
Zealand beach at 55 F. and in 1000 fathoms at 37 F. off Tristan 
d'Acunha. The provinces of zoological distribution, like the 
geographical divisions of mankind, must be taken merely to 
indicate the facies of a well-characterized fauna, not to imply 
the restriction of all its habitants to that area. 

In considering the effect of temperature (and this applies 
to plankton as well asio benthos down to 100 fathoms), attention 
must be directed not only to the question of general warmth or 
cold as expressed by the mean annual temperature, but also 
to the range between the annual extremes: these ranges of 
variation have been carefully mapped by Sir J. Murray (Geog. 
Journ. xii. 113; compare ibid. xiv. 34). Still more important 
to the death-rate than these is the suddenness with which such 
variations occur: many animals are known to endure great 
extremes of heat and cold if exposed to them gradually, but to 
succumb to rapid alterations of temperature. Hence the frontier 
districts (Mischgebiete) between opposing currents are character- 
ized by a heavy death-rate, and constitute marked barriers. 
A conspicuous instance of such a barrier in distribution is afforded 
at the Cape. The warm Mozambique Current, with a south- 
westerly direction off Natal, meets a north-east branch of the 
cold Antarctic Drift, and is beaten back eastwards: a result 
of the constant warring of these hot and cold currents is a high 
range of sudden temperature variation. Hence the Cape fauna 



PLANKTON 



723 



consists mainly of only such species from neighbouring provinces 
as can endure high sudden variations; and the district is practi- 
cally impassable. For example, nineteen species of Echinoids 
are known from the Cape district. Of these twelve are peculiar 
to the Indo-Pacific province, which stretches from East Africa 
to the Sandwich Islands and from Japan to Australia; two species 
are Southern Ocean forms, all but confined to south of 40 S.; 
four species are peculiar to the Atlantic Ocean: of these eighteen 
not one gets past the Cape into the next province; the nine- 
teenth is practically a cosmopolitan (A. Agassiz, " Challenger " 
Reports: " Echinoidea"; compare also C. Chun, Aus den Tiefen 
des Weltmeeres, pp. 157, 158). 

Among the barriers to the horizontal extension of epibenthos 
must be mentioned a wide deep ocean. The Indo-Pacific fauna 
ranges from East Africa to about 108 W., stepping from island 
to island over the Pacific; but this continuity is then broken by 
37 degrees of longitude and more than 2000 fathoms of water, and 
such sessile species as are most Mollusca (cf. fig. 3) are unable 
to reach the American coast. This is presumably due to the 
fact that the planktonic larvae of epibenthic adults must settle 
on a suitable bottom within a certain period or die. In spite 
of the direct set of the currents from Florida to the British Isles, 
the epibenthos of the two is absolutely dissimilar; the similarity 
of the two Boreal provinces (2 and 2', fig. 3) is to be assigned to 
a former continuity by way of Greenland, Iceland and Faeroe; 
a similar continuity, still unbroken, is exhibited by the Aleutian 
province on both sides of the Pacific. Though larvae cannot 
cross wide oceans, adults may no doubt traverse great stretches 
occasionally on floating timber, &c. 

This barrier by distance may be instanced in another way. 
In the Arctic regions land masses are continuous or contiguous, 
and there are many circumpolar species, as, for example, 
Rhynchonella psittacea; towards the South Pote the* southern 
continent is almost ice-bound, and the availaUe lanc-1 consists 
only of the tips of the continents and of the fewocean:-'c islands. 
Hence few if any littoral species are circumpolar ^ or example, 
not a single littoral Ophiurid surrounds the South Pole, but 
five or six species are circumpolar in the northern hemisphere. 

Taking next the mesobenthos and hypobenthos, living at depths 
where temperature is constant and current practically negligible, 
Meso- there appears theoretically to be no reason why an 
benthos; organism which can thrive at 500 fathoms should 
Hypo- not have a world-wide range over the bottom of all 
benthos, oceans. Yet this is not often, although occasionally, 
known to be the case; and although perhaps, speaking generally, 
hypobenthic species have wider ranges than epibenthic, still 
they also seem to be limited. It must, however, be remembered 
that the ocean is large, deep hauls of trawl or dredge few, and 
individuals at great depths scattered, so that too much stress 
must not be laid on this point. The " Challenger " results seem 
to allow of at least one generalization the deeper the fauna, the 
wider its range. This is shown by the following table of the 
" Challenger" benthos: the first column gives the number of 
benthos species captured at depths indicated in fathoms by the 
second column; the percentage of these species which is known 
to have been captured between the tropics, as well as south 
and north of the tropics, is shown in the third column: 



Number of 
Specimens. 


Horizon. 


S. T. N. 


4248 
1887 
616 
493 
394 
247 

153 


O-IOO 

100-500 
500-1000 
1000-1500 
1500-2000 
2000-2500 
over 2500 


0-6 

2 

4 
7 
7 
9 
9 



We can only guess at the causes of the apparently limited range 
of many deep-sea types, (a) One of these is probably the limited 
food supply: presumably, as with a land fauna, there are as 
many mouths in a given area as it will support, and an equi- 
librium of species is maintained which will at least hinder the 
extension of any one. For food the bulk of the deep-water fauna 



is dependent upon the rain of dead organisms falling from higher 
levels, these, slowly disintegrating (probably under chemical, 
not bacterial, action), seem to form with the bottom deposit 
a kind of nitrogenous ooze, through which many deep-sea organ- 
isms slowly swallow their way, as an earthworm goes through 
earth extracting nutriment. (6) Another hindrance to the 
extension of many deep-sea species is that they are holobenlhic, 
that is, do not pass through a free-swimming larval stage; the 
means of dispersal is therefore regulated by the animal's own 
power of locomotion. Generally speaking, as might be expected, 
the freely-moving hypobenthos, fish and Crustacea, have the 
widest ranges, and even these are not helped by currents, as 
are epibenthic or planktonic forms. The larval history of deep- 
water forms is, however, unfortunately obscure, (c) Lastly, 
extension of area of a species being at best difficult in deep water 
for non-swimmers, the place and date of their first migration 
must be taken into account; forms which have comparatively 
recently adopted deep-water life cannot be expected to have 
spread far from their original centre. As regards this point, 
in the first place, it is with migration, not with local evolution, 
that we have to deal: no classes and orders, only a few families 
and genera, rarely sub-orders, are peculiar to the hypobenthos; 
the deep members of each group consist for the most part of 
widely separated genera, the species do not grade into each other, 
as is so often the case in the epibenthos; and evolution could 
hardly have produced these species and genera under the 
uniformity of their present environment. This migration down- 
wards from the mud-line has no doubt occurred all over the 
world, notably in the Southern Ocean, if we may judge by the 
richness of the deep-water fauna there to-day; probably also 
largely in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, less so in tropical and 
temperate zones As to the date of migration, the following 
fact seems to show that it is of comparatively recent origin, and 
is indeed still in progress: taking the " Challenger " species from 
the epibenthos, from the mesobenthos, and then from zones 
of 500 fathoms down to 2500, each zone shares a larger per- 
centage of species with the zone above it than with that 
below it (except in one case where they are nearly equal). But 
it is not to be supposed that all our present-day deep-water 
forms began their migration simultaneously, and we can say 
with fair certainty that migration to deep water did not begin 
before the close of the Mesozoic epoch. Had it begun earlier, 
we should find typical Mesozoic and even older forms, or their 
congeners, at great depths: so far is this from being the case 
that the most venerable animals of to-day Lingula, Amphioxus, 
Limulus, 75% of Crinoids, 90% of Brachiopoda, &c. are 
epibenthic or mesobenthic. On the other hand, it is extremely 
likely that the Cretaceous epoch marked the commencement 
of migration. The hexactinellidan sponges are known to have 
lived in quite shallow water at the date of deposition of the 
Inferior Oolite; to-day none occur at a less depth than 95 fathoms; 
and as only two genera are known from the shallow Tertiary 
deposits, it would seem that the migration began about Creta- 
ceous times (" Challenger " Reports: " Hexactinellida," F. E. 
Schulze). In 1881 (A. Agassiz, " Challenger " Reports: " Echin- 
oidea ") 105 living genera of Echinoidea were admitted; of these 
23 % were known from Cretaceous but not from Tertiary deposits, 
35% from Tertiary but not Cretaceous, and 40% as Recent 
only. The species of Cretaceous genera constituted only 29% of 
the epibenthic Echinoids, 44% of the mesobenthic, and no less 
than 55% of the hypobenthic. These species of Cretaceous 
genera were distributed fairly evenly over all three zones, but 
72% of the species of Tertiary genera and 55% of the Recent 
forms were confined to the epibenthos. As out of the twenty-five 
living genera known from the Cretaceous only seven are known 
also from Jurassic deposits, it is obvious that the close relation- 
ship is between Cretaceous and hypobenthos, rather than 
between any other geological and bathymetric horizons. Other 
instances, such as that of the Eryonidae, seem to point to similar 
conclusions. 

Excepting the essential air-breathers, practically every phylum 
and class and most orders are represented in the benthos. The 



724 



PLANKTON 



epibenthos of warm seas appears to be especially wealthy in 
such forms as secrete heavy calcareous skeletons; but in colder 
water, among the epibenthos of polar or sub-polar regions, and 
the hypobenthos everywhere in open oceans, the predominant 
forms are those which exhibit little or no calcareous secretion : 
even the apparent exceptions, Madreporaria and Echinoderma 
from great depths, tend to develop slighter skeletons than their 
warm-water congeners. The following table will serve to 
illustrate this point, and to give an idea of the composition of 
the epibenthos of cold and warm seas and of the hypobenthos: 
the figures are the percentages of total species captured in each 
locality by H.M.S. " Challenger," the balance being made up 
by few specimens in scattered groups: 





Kerguelen 
Area over 
1260 fm. 


Kerguelen 
Area o to 
150 fm. 


Cape York 
o to 12 fm. 


Madreporaria 


0-8 


o-o 


3-3 .1 3 a -g 


Alcyonaria . 
Shelled Mollusca 


1-2 

8-0 


I-O 

19-7 


3-3 82-1 
57-3 hS-lll 


Decapoda 


3-6 


0-8 


8-1 -il 1 


Echinodermata 


33-6 


n-7 


7-9 Jo"" 


Actiniaria . ) 
Hydrozoa . ) 


6-8 


4-6 


i-7 "I 3a 

o o 


Annelida 


6-8 


8-0 


0-9 1 S g 


Crustacea . i 
except Decapoda t 


16-5 


25-0 


7-6 [ 81^ 

70 Jri & 


Tunicata 


4.4 


6-8 


i-i J u 




81-7 


77-6 


91-2 



While the Madreporaria represent only 3'3 % of the species at the 
tropical station, it must be remembered that they probably made 
up 80 % or more of the weight. 

The epiplankton is dependent either directly or proximately 
upon light, warmth and the presence of plant life. The wealth 
Epi- of minute organisms near the surface is inconceivable 

plankton, to, those who have not seen the working of a two-net: 
it may be gauged by the fact that a single species is sometimes 
present in such quantities as to colour the sea over an appreciable 
area, and by the estimate that the skeletons of epiplankton from 
a square mile of tropical ocean a hundred fathoms deep would 
yield 16 tons of lime. In the tropics the wealth of species, and 
towards the poles the number of individuals of comparatively 
few species, are characteristic of the latitudes. In temperate 
and tropical regions there is a great difference between the 
epiplankton near land and that far out at sea: the former is 
termed neritic; it extends, roughly speaking, at least as far out 
as the mud-line, and is characterized by the predominance of 
what may be termed hemibenthic forms, that is, benthic forms 
with a planktonic larval stage (Decapoda, Polychaeta, &c.), or 
with a planktonic phase (metagenetic Medusae). The horizontal 
barriers to the neritic plankton are practically those mentioned 
as governing the epibenthos; indeed, it would seem that the 
distribution of hemibenthic adults is determined by that of their 
more delicate larvae. Special conditions of wind and current 
may of course carry into the neritic zone forms which are 
characteristic of the open sea, and vice versa. In the neritic 
epiplankton of polar waters the larvae of hemibenthic forms are 
almost absent; indeed, the development of cold-water benthos, 
whether shallow or abyssal, appears to be in most cases direct, 
this is, without a larval metamorphosis. The epiplankton of 
the open sea is described as oceanic; it consists almost entirely 
of holoplanktonic forms and their larvae. The chief barrier to 
horizontal distribution, here as elsewhere, is doubtless tempera- 
ture. For example, through the reports of the " National " cruise 
(German Plankton Expedition) runs the same story; one fauna 
characterized their course from Shetland to Greenland and 
Newfoundland, another the traverse of the Gulf Stream, Sargasso 
Sea and the Equatorial Currents. The influence of temperature 
may be gauged in another way: where hot and cold currents 
meet, occur " frontier " districts, in which the respective 
organisms are intermingled, and can only exist till their maxima 
or minima are reached. Well-marked examples of such districts 
occur off New Jersey (Gulf Stream and Labrador Current), in 



the China Sea (warm currents of the south-west monsoon and 
Kamchatka Current), in the Faeroe Channel, south of the Cape 
(recurving of the Agulhas Current) : in some of these the range 
of variation amounts to as much as 50 F. in the year, with the 
result of a colossal death-rate of the plankton, and its corollary, 
a rich bottom fauna, for which food is thus amply supplied. 
The majority of the oceanic epiplankton appears to be steno- 
thermal; for example, few components of the well-characterized 
fauna of the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea ever reach the British 
shores alive, although, if current and salinity were the determin- 
ing factors and not temperature, this fauna should reach to 
Shetland, and even to Lofoten. It will only be possible to make 
satisfactpry distributional areas for these oceanic forms by such 
systematic traverses as that of the " National "; at present it 
would seem that adjacent species have such different maxima 
and minima that every species must be mapped separately 
(compare the distribution-maps of the " National " Plankton 
Expedition). Some members of the epiplankton are, however, 
extraordinarily eurythermal and eurybathic; for example, 
Calanus finmarchicus ranges from 76 N. to 52 S. (excepting 
perhaps for 10 each side of the equator), and is apparently 
indifferent to depth. 

In the first hundred fathoms at sea the fall of temperature is 
gradual and slight, and forms practically no hindrance to the 
diurnal oscillation of the oceanic epiplankton the alleged rise 
and fall of almost the entire fauna. Roughly speaking, the 
greatest number of animals is nearest the surface at midnight; 
but different species sink and rise at different times, and to or 
from different depths. Apart from this diurnal oscillation, 
unfavourable conditions at the surface send or keep the fauna 
down in a remarkable way: for example, in the Bay of Biscay 
few organisms are to be found in the first fathom in bright sun- 
light, but on a still, hot day the next few fathoms teem with life; 
yet after -.a few minutes' wind or rain these upper layers will be 
found alri'iost ceserted. This leads to the consideration of the 
hydrostatics of the plankton: apart from strong swimmers, the 
majority contests the tendency to sink either by some means of 
diminishing specific gravity (increasing floating power) or by 
increased frictional resistance. The former is generally attained 

(a) by increase of bulk through development of a fluid secretion 
of low specific gravity (vacuoles of Foraminifera, Radiolaria, &c.) ; 

(b) or of a gelatinous secretion of low specific gravity (Medusae, 
Chaetopod and Echinoderm larvae, Chaetognalha, Thaliacea: 
the characteristic transparence of so many oceanic forms is 
probably attributable to this) ; (c) by secretion or retention of 
air or other gas (Physalia, Minyas, Evadne) ; (d) by development 
of oil globules (Copepoda, Cladocera, fish ova). Increased 
frictional resistance is obtained by flattening out of the body 
(Phyllosoma, Sapphirina), or by its expansion into lateral pro- 
cesses (Tomopteris, Glaucus), or by the development of long 
delicate spines or hairs (pelagic Foraminifera, many Radiolaria, 
many Chaetopod and Decapod larvae). In many cases two or 
more of these are combined in the same organism. Notwith- 
standing the above adaptations, some of which are adjustable, 
it is difficult to understand the mechanics of the comparatively 
rapid oscillations of the epiplankton, of which both causes and 
methods are still obscure. 

It will be seen from the distribution of the Thecosomatous 
Pteropoda a purely oceanic group how difficult it will prove 
to draw distributional areas for classes of epiplankton. P. 
Pelseneer recognizes in all ten such provinces (" Challenger " 
Reports: " Zool.," xix., xxiii.) and 42 good species: of the latter 
i is confined to the Arctic, 4 to the Antarctic province, but of 
the remaining -37 species and eight provinces 30% occur in 
all eight, 16 % in seven, and only 35 % have as yet been captured 
in a single province only. 

The mesoplanklon has only received serious attention during 
the last few years. In the " Challenger," open nets towed at 
various depths seemed to show the existence of a 
deep-water plankton, but this method gives no 
certain information as to the horizon of capture, 
the nets being open in their passage down and up. C Chun 






PLANQUETTE PLANT AGENET 



725 



constructed the first efficient net which could be opened 
and shut at known depths, using a propeller mechanism 
(Bibl. Zool. vol. i.); and he improved his original pattern 
for the " National " and " Valdivia " expeditions. The present 
writer has devised a net, of which the opening and closing 
are effected from the deck by heavy weights; this has been 
used successfully on the " Siboga " expedition and in cruises of 
the " Research " (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1898). W. Garstang has con- 
structed an ingenious net which is useful in comparatively 
shallow water, but is open to criticism as being too light for depths 
beyond 100 fathoms; and several other types are in use. The 
existence of a mesoplankton, that is, of a plankton living between 
100 fathoms from the surface and the bottom, has been generally 
considered as definitely proved by these nets. On the other 
hand, A. Agassiz, using the Tanner tow-nets, contends that while 
a mixture of surface and bottom species may occur in a closed 
sea near land, there is no intermediate fauna in the open ocean 
between about 200 fathoms from the surface and the bottom; 
his conclusions, based on negative evidence, have not met with 
general acceptance. Animals captured below the first hundred 
fathoms in the open sea (the Mediterranean, for special physical 
reasons, is on a special footing) are divisible into at least three 
categories: (i) those which are eurythermal and eurybathic, 
e.g. Calanus finmarchicus; (2) those which, so far as we know, 
are purely mesoplanktonic and never come to the surface, for 
example, the Radiolarian family Tuscaroridae; (3) those which, 
like some Schizopoda, spend a larval period in the epiplankton, 
and seek deeper water when adult, rising to the surface, if at 
all, only at night. But until the publication of the results of 
expeditions provided with efficient mesoplankton nets, generali- 
zations about this fauna had better be stated with all reserve. 
There is, however, a certain amount of evidence to show that 
the. mesoplankton includes different organisms in different 
latitudes; that surface animals of the north and south, unable 
to spread into the warmer surface water of lower latitudes, there 
sink into the cooler waters of the mesoplankton; the distribu- 
tional area of such an organism will be in three dimensions 
bounded by isotherms (isobathytherms) and isothermobaths. 
As with the hypobenthos, there seems to be no theoretical reason 
against the universal distribution of the mesoplankton. 

When a more systematic investigation of the various horizons 
has been carried out, many of the present cases of supposed 
discontinuous distribution will doubtless disappear. There are, 
however, undoubted cases of discontinuity where physical 
barriers have cut across a distributional area, an example of 
which may be cited here. The Isthmus of Panama was appar- 
ently only upraised about Miocene time, having been previously 
an archipelago through which a great circumequatorial current 
could pass; consequently the benthos of the Panama region 
shows marked alliance with the Caribbean, with which it was 
formerly continuous, but practically none with the Indo-Pacific. 
To the same cause is doubtless attributable the distribution of 
the five Decapoda which are characteristic of the Sargasso Sea, 
which are circumequatorial oceanic types, only occasionally 
littoral: three of these are known only from the Atlantic, one 
occurs in the Atlantic and Pacific, one in the Atlantic, Pacific 
and Indian Oceans. The damming of a great circumequatorial 
current by the Isthmus of Panama is probably also responsible 
for that dislocation of currents which resulted in the present 
relations of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift to the 
Labrador Current, and cut the Atlantic Boreal fauna into two 
discontinuous districts (2 and 2', fig. 3). 

Under the head of discontinuous distribution, the alleged 
phenomenon known as bipolarity must be mentioned. In 
summarizing the work of the " Challenger," Sir John Murray 
maintained on the basis of the reports that numerous species 
occurred in both polar and sub-polar areas which were absent 
from the tropic. He regarded them as the hardy survivors of 
a universal fauna which had withstood that polar cooling which 
set in towards the close of the Mesozoic period (Murray, Trans. 
Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxxviii., 1896; G. Pfeffer, Verh. deulsch. Zool. 
Gesellsch. ix. 1899). This view and the facts on which it was 



based have been acutely contested, and the question is still far 
from settlement (for lists of the literature see A. E. Ortmann, 
Am. Nat. xxxiii. 583; and Miss E. M. Pratt, Mem. Manchester 
Soc. vol. xlv., 1901). As regards the purely epibenthic and sessile 
fauna, there are a few undoubted instances of actual specific 
identity; in some classes, however, such as the Echinoderms, this 
does not appear to hold (Hamburger Magalhaensche Sammelreise; 
and F. Rb'mer and F. Schaudinn's Fauna arctica); but even 
in these the general composition of the fauna and the presence 
of certain identical and peculiar genera seem to point to some- 
thing more than a mere " convergence " due to similar environ- 
ment. As regards the plankton of the two polar regions and 
such epibenthic forms as extend also into deep water, the 
suggestion has been made that the Arctic and Antarctic benthos 
and plankton are really continuous by way of deep water in the 
main oceans, where the organisms can find a suitably low tem- 
perature. As an instance of this, C. Chun (Bezieh. swischen dent 
arkt. und antarkt. Plankton, 1897) cites Krohnia hamala, a 
characteristic Arctic and sub-Arctic constituent of the epi- 
plankton and mesoplankton, known only from the mesoplankton 
in the tropics, but rising to 38 fathoms at 40 S. 26" E. More 
exact information, such as may be expected from the various 
Antarctic expeditions, is required to settle this interesting 
question with its far-reaching corollaries. (G. H. Fo.) 

See also ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION: Marine. 

PLANQUETTE, ROBERT (1850- ), French musical com- 
poser, was born in Paris on the 3ist of July 1850, and educated 
at the Conservatoire. As a boy he wrote songs and operettas 
for cafe concerts, and sprang into fame as the composer of 
Les Cloches de Corneville (Paris, 1877; London, 1878). In this 
work he showed a fertile vein of melody, which won instant 
recognition. There is in his music a touch of pathos and 
romantic feeh'ng, which, had he cared to cultivate it, would have 
placed him far above contemporary writers of opera boujfe. 
Unfortunately, he did little but repeat the formula which 
originally brought him reputation. Le Chevalier Gaston was 
produced in 1879 with little success. In 1880 came Les Volti- 
geurs du $2 me> which had a long run in London in 1887 as The 
Old Guard, and La Cantiniere, which was translated into English 
as Nectarine, though never produced. In 1882 Rip van Winkle 
was produced in London, being subsequently given in Paris as 
Rip, in both cases with remarkable success. The libretto, an 
adaptation by H. B. Farnie of Washington Irving's famous tale, 
brought out what was best in Planquette's talent. In 1884 the 
phenomenon of an opera by a French composer being produced 
in London previously to being heard in Paris was repeated in 
Nell Guiynne, which was tolerably successful, but failed com- 
pletely when produced in Paris as La Princesse Colombine. 
It was followed by La Cremaillere (Paris, 1885), Surcouf (Paris, 
1887; London, as Paul Jones, 1889), Captain Therese (London, 
1887), La Cocarde tricolore (Paris, 1892), Le Talisman (Paris, 
1892), Panurge (Paris, 1895) and Mam'zelle Quat'sous (Paris, 
1897): 

PLANTAGENET, a surname conveniently, but unhistori- 
cally, applied to the royal line descended from the union of 
Geoffrey, count of Anjou, with the empress Maud, who are now 
styled by historians the Angevin house. It was, historically, 
only a personal nickname of Geoffrey, as was " Beauclerc " of 
his father-in-law (Henry I.) and " Curtmantel " of his son 
(Henry II.), and was derived from his wearing in his cap a sprig 
of the broom (genet) plant, "which in early summer makes the 
open country of Anjou and Maine a blaze of living gold." When 
the fashion of personal nicknames passed away, the members 
of the royal house were usually named from their birthplace, 
as Thomas " of Brotherton," Thomas "of Woodstock," Edmund 
" of Woodstock," Edmund " of Langley," Lionel " of Antwerp," 
and so forth. But Edward I. and his younger brother, the 
founder of the house of Lancaster, had still nicknames respec- 
tively, as " Longshanks " and " Crouchback." In the later 
days of the dynasty the surname of Beaufort was adopted by 
the legitimated issue of John of Gaunt by Katherine Swynford, 
but that of Plantagenet was bestowed on Arthur, natural son 



726 



PLANTAIN PLANTATION 



of Edward IV., who was created Viscount L'Isle. It appears, 
however, to have been adopted as a surname by Richard duke 
of York (fatherof Edward IV.) sometwelve years before hisdeath. 

At the death of Geoffrey's grandson, Richard I., the succession 
was in doubt, John's elder brother Geoffrey having left, by the 
heiress of Brittany, a son and a daughter. But at that epoch 
the law of inheritance was in such a case unsettled, and their 
right was not clear. Arthur's fate is well known, and Eleanor, 
the daughter, was kept captive till her death in 1241. John's 
younger son Richard, king of the Romans, left a son Edmund, 
earl of Cornwall, with whom his line ended; his elder son Henry 
III. left two sons, of whom the younger was created earl of 
Lancaster and was grandfather of Henry, earl of Lancaster, 
whose heiress married John of Gaunt (i.e. Ghent). Edward I., 
the elder son, was grandfather of Edward III., the marriages 
of whose numerous children greatly affected English history. 
Edward his heir, the " Black Prince," left an only son, who 
succeeded his grandfather as Richard II., on whose death (1399) 
this line became extinct. Lionel, the next surviving brother 
of the Black Prince, left an only child Philippa, who married 
the earl of March, in whose heirs was the right to the succes- 
sion. But John of Gaunt, the next brother, who had married 
the heiress of Lancaster and had been created duke of Lancaster 
in consequence, refounded the Lancastrian line, which obtained 
the throne in the person of his only son by her, Henry IV., on 
the deposition of Richard II., to the exclusion of the infant 
earl of March. His next brother, Edmund of Langley,who was 
created duke of York (1385), founded the Yorkist line, and was 
father, by a daughter and co-heiress of Pedro the Cruel, king 
of Castile, of two sons, Edward, second duke, who was slain at 
Agincourt, and Richard, earl of Cambridge, who by marrying 
the granddaughter and eventual heiress of Lionel's daughter 
Philippa, brought the right to the succession into the house 
of York. 

Between their son and Henry VI. (grandson of Henry IV.) 
and Edward and Henry, sons and heirs of these rivals, was 
fought out the dynastic struggle known as " the Wars of the 
Roses," which proved fatal to several members of both houses. 
Richard, the son of Richard and Anne Mortimer, became third 
duke of York (1425), and was made protector of the realm 
1454-1455, being finally declared heir to the throne on the 
triumph of his side in 1460; but he was slain at the battle of 
Wakefield (Dec. 31, 1460). Of his four sons, Edward, the eldest, 
became king as Edward IV. within three months of his death; 
Edmund, the second, was slain with his father at Wakefield; 
George, the third, duke of Clarence, was put to death in 1478; 
and Richard, the fourth, duke of Gloucester, became king as 
Richard III. in 1483 and was slain on Bosworth Field in 1485. 
King Edward IV. 's two surviving sons, Edward and Richard 
(the princes in the Tower), had been mysteriously put to death 
in 1483, so that the only male descendant of the house of York, 
and indeed of the whole Plantagenet race, was the duke of 
Clarence's son Edward, earl of Warwick (grandson of " the 
Kingmaker"), who was imprisoned by Richard III. (his father's 
younger brother) in 1483, and finally executed on Tower Hill, 
under Henry VII., in 1499. 

Of the house of Lancaster, the only son of Henry VI. was 
slain after the battle of Tewkesbury (1471), while Edmund 
(Beaufort) duke of Somerset, a grandson of John of Gaunt, 
was slain at the first battle of St Albans (1455), and all his 
three sons were slain or beheaded. On the death of Henry VI. 
and his son in 1471, so complete was the extinction of their line 
that its representation vested in the heirs of the two daughters 
of John of Gaunt by the heiress of Lancaster, viz. Philippa 
queen of Portugal and Elizabeth countess of Huntingdon. 
But by his second wife, the heiress of Castile, John had left an 
only daughter, wife of Henry III., king of Castile and Leon, 
who also left descendants, and from his third but ambiguous 
union sprang the house of Beaufort, whose doubtful claims to 
his heirship passed with his great-granddaughter Margaret, by 
her husband Edmund Tudor, to their son Henry VII. Although 
Henry was careful to claim the crown in his own right (1485), 



he soon fortified that claim by marrying Elizabeth, eldest 
daughter of Edward IV. and rightful heiress to the throne. 
The marriage of their eldest daughter Margaret to James IV. 
of Scotland in 1503 resulted in the accession of James VI. of 
Scotland, a century later, as next heir to the throne (see 
STEWART). 

Although no other dynasty has reigned so long over England 
since the Norman Conquest, the whole legitimate male issue 
of Count Geoffrey Plantagenet is clearly proved to have become 
extinct in 1499. Of its illegitimate descendants the house 
of Cornwall was founded by Richard, a natural son of Richard, 
king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, who was ancestor of 
Lord Cornewall of Fanhope, temp. Henry VI., of the Cornewalls, 
" barons of Burford," and other families; but the principal 
house is that which was founded, at a later date, by Sir Charles 
Somerset, natural son of Henry (Beaufort) duke of Somerset 
(beheaded 1464), who was created earl of Worcester in 1513, 
and whose descendant Henry, marquess and earl of Worcester, 
obtained the dukedom of Beaufort in 1682. From him descend 
the ducal house, who bear the ancient arms of France and 
England, quarterly, within a bordure. (J. H. R.) 

PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago), a name given to certain plants 
with broad leaves. This is the case with certain species of 
Plantago, Alisma and Musa, to all of which the term is popularly 
applied. The species of Plantago are mostly weeds with a dense 
tuft of radical leaves and scapes bearing terminal spikes of small 
flowers; the long spikes of P. major, when in seed, are used for 
feeding cage-birds; P. lanceolata, so called from its narrow 
lanceolate 3-6-ribbed leaves, is popularly known as ribwort; 
Alisma P. is the water-plantain, so called from the resemblance 
of its broad ribbed aerial leaves to those of P. major. The 
tropical fruit known as plantain belongs to the genus Musa 
(see BANANA). 

PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant), literally the placing 
of plants in the ground, hence a place planted or a collection of 
growing things, &c., particularly used of ground planted with 
young trees. The term was early applied, in a figurative sense, to 
the settlement of people, and particularly to the colonization of 
North America in the early part of the i7th century and to the 
settlement of Scotch and English in the forfeited lands in Ireland 
(see below). The practice of sending convicted criminals to 
serve on the plantations in the colonies became common in 
the lyth century (see DEPORTATION). These plantations were 
chiefly in the cotton, sugar and tobacco growing colonies, and 
the term " plantation " is thus particularly applied to estates 
in tropical or semi-tropical countries; the proprietors of such 
estates are specifically styled " planters." 

The negroes on the plantations of the Southern States of 
North America sang their songs and hymns and danced to 
tunes which were traditional, and are frequently 
known as " Plantation Songs." It has been claimed song'!'" 
for some of them that they represent the folk songs 
brought by the first slaves from Africa; but the more generally 
accepted view is that they were those European hymn and 
song tunes which the negroes picked up from the revivalist 
preachers or from the Europeans around them, and adapted 
to their own strongly marked rhythms, which are certainly of 
African origin. The earliest song which became familiar to 
those outside the Southern States was " Jim Crow," sung by 
Dan Rice, and introduced to England about 1836. The 
" Jubilee Singers," a troupe from Fisk University, Nashville, 
Tennessee, toured the United States and Europe in 1871; but 
the great popularity of the negro songs and dances, and the 
traditional instruments, the bones and tambourine (the banjo 
was not originally used by the genuine negro), was due to 
the so-called " negro minstrel " troupes, of which the best 
known in England were Christy's, whence the generic name of 
Christy Minstrels, and later of the Moore and Burgess troupe 
at St James's Hall, London, started in 1862 and finally dis- 
solved in 1904. 

The best collection of genuine " plantation songs " and their 
words is Slave Songs of the United States (New York, 1871); see also 



PLANTIN 



727 



C. L. Edwards, Bahama Songs and Stories (Boston, 1895); J. B. T. 
Marsh, The Story of the Jubilee Singers (Boston, 1895); and articles 
by G. W. Cable on " The Creole Slave Dance " and " Creole Slave 
Songs," in the Century, February and April 1886. 

Plantation of Ulster. The Irish rebellion, which had dis- 
turbed Ulster during the closing years of Elizabeth's reign, 
was followed under James I. by further trouble, due partly to 
the inability of the English government to understand the 
system of land ownership prevalent in Ireland. At this time 
the chief offenders against the authority of England were the 
earls of Tyrconnell and Tyrone, but in September 1607 these 
once powerful nobles fled from the country. The English 
lawyers declared that the extensive estates which they held, 
not in their personal capacity, but as the heads respectively 
of the tribes of O'Neill and O'Donnell, had become the property 
of the English crown; and the problem which now confronted 
James I. and his advisers was what to do with the land, which 
was much too large to be cultivated properly by the scanty 
population living thereon. The idea of a plantation or coloniza- 
tion of Ulster, which was put forward as an answer to this 
question, is due mainly to Sir Arthur Chichester, the Irish lord 
deputy; its object was to secure the better cultivation of the 
land and to strengthen the English influence in Ulster by granting 
estates to English and Scottish settlers. Chichester proposed 
that the native inhabitants should be allowed to occupy as much 
land as they could cultivate, for he said, " that many of the 
natives in each county claim freehold in the lands they possess, 
and albeit these demands are not justifiable by law, yet it is 
hard and almost impossible to displant them." Even if this 
advice were carried out on a generous scale, the deputy con- 
sidered that there would be abundance of land to offer to 
colonists, and also to reward the class of men known as servitors, 
those who had served the English king in Ireland. He submitted 
his ideas to Sir James Ley and Sir John Davies, two of the minis- 
ters of James I.; they reported to the English privy council, 
which signified its approval, and after the question had been 
illuminated by Bacon's great intellect, a committee was ap- 
pointed to make the necessary arrangements. But those 
responsible for the plantation made one cardinal mistake, a 
mistake which was to cost the country much in the future. 
They rejected Chichester's idea of allotting land to the native? 
on a liberal scale, preferring to turn them out and to parcel 
out the whole of the forfeited district anew. 

The forfeited lands lay in six counties, Tyrone, Donegal, 
Armagh, Fermanagh, Cavan and Coleraine (Londonderry), 
and the scheme for the plantation having been drawn up, the 
necessary survey began in May 1609. This was very inaccurate, 
but it served its purpose. The land was divided into three 
sections. One block was set apart for English and Scottish 
settlers, who were not to be allowed to have any Irish tenants; 
another was allotted to the servitors, who might have either 
English or Irish tenants; and a third was reserved for the Irish. 
Applications were then entertained from those willing to take 
up the land, and under Chichester's direction the settlement 
was proceeded with. The land was divided into portions of 
1000, 1500 and 2000 acres, each colonist undertaking in return 
for his grant to build a castle or a walled enclosure, and to keep, 
train and arm sufficient men for its defence. Moreover he must 
take the oath of supremacy to James, and must not alienate his 
estate to an Irishman. He was given two years in which to do 
the necessary building; during this period he was freed from 
paying rent, but afterwards he must pay a quit-rent to the 
Crown. A scale of rents was drawn up, the native Irish paying 
at a higher rate than the English and Scottish settlers. Out 
of the forfeited lands provision was made for the maintenance 
of churches and schools, which were to be erected in conformity 
with the scheme. 

The work progressed very slowly and much of the building 
was not even begun within the required time. Then in 1611 
James I., who had from the first taken a lively interest in the 
plantation, sent Lord Carew to report on it. Carew's inspection 
did not reveal a very favourable condition of affairs, and in 



1615 Sir Josiah Bodley was sent to make a further report about 
the progress of the work. A third report and survey was made 
three years later by Nicholas Pynnar, who found in the six 
counties 1974 British families, with 6215 men capable of bearing 
arms. He said that even on the lands occupied by the colonists 
the cultivation of the soil was still very much neglected The 
words spoken by Bacon in 1617 with reference to the plantation 
had come true. " Take it from me," he said, " that the bane 
of a plantation is when the undertakers or planters make such 
haste to a little mechanical present profit, as disturbeth the 
whole frame and nobleness of the work for times to come." 
Another survey took place in 1622, when various changes were 
suggested, but no serious alterations were made. On the whole 
the plantation had been a failure. Very few of the settlers 
had carried out their undertaking. In many cases the Irish had 
remained on the land allotted to the colonists, living under 
exactly the same conditions as they had done before the planta- 
tion, and holding on " whether the legal landlords liked it or 
not." As actually carried out the plantation dealt with 511,465 
acres. Two-fifths of this was assigned to British colonists, 
being divided about equally between Englishmen and Scotchmen. 
Rather more than one-fifth went to the Church and about the 
same amount to the servitors and the natives. The best settlers 
were the Scots, although their tendency to marry with the 
Irish was noted and condemned during the early years of the 
settlement. 

An important part of the plantation was the settlement of 
the county of Coleraine by the corporation of the city of London. 
Receiving a grant of practically the whole of the county the 
corporation undertook to spend 20,000, and within two years 
to build 200 houses in Derry and 100 in Coleraine. This was 
the most successful part of the settlement, and to it Londonderry 
owes its present name. 

The expulsion of the Irish from the land in which by law and 
custom they had a certain proprietary and hereditary right, 
although not carried out on the scale originally contemplated, 
naturally aroused great indignation among them. Attacks 
on the settlers were followed by reprisals, and the plantation may 
fairly be regarded as one of the causes which led to the terrible 
massacre in Ulster in 1641. During Elizabeth's reign a scheme 
for the plantation of Munster was considered, and under Charles 
I. there was a suggestion for the plantation of Connaught, but 
eventually both were abandoned. 

The " Orders and Conditions of Plantation " are printed in 
Walter Harris's Hibernica (Dublin, 1770); and in George Hill's 
Historical Account of the Plantation in Ulster, j<5oS-/(5.2o(Belfast,i877). 
See also S. R. Gardiner, History of England (1899), vol. i. ; and 
R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts (1909), vol. i. 

PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE (1514-1589), French printer, was 
born in a village near Tours (probably Saint-Avertin). He 
learned bookbinding and bookselling at Caen, and, having 
married in that town, settled in 1549 as bookbinder in Antwerp, 
where he was soon known as the first in his profession. A 
bad wound in the arm seems to have been the cause that first 
led him (about 1555) to apply himself to typography. The 
first known book printed in his office was La Institulione di una 
fanciulla nata nobttmenle, by J. M. Bruto, with a French transla- 
tion, and this was soon followed by many other works in French 
and Latin, which in point of execution rivalled the best printing of 
his time, while the masters in the art of engraving then flourish- 
ing in the Netherlands illustrated many of his editions. In 1562, 
Plantin himself being absent in Paris, his workmen printed 
an heretical pamphlet, which caused his movables to be seized 
and sold. It seems, however, that he recovered a great deal 
of the money, and in 1563 he associated himself with some 
friends to carry on his business on a larger scale. Among 
them were two grand-nephews of Dan. Bomberg, who furnished 
him with the fine Hebrew types of that renowned Venetian 
printer. His editions of the Bible in Hebrew, Latin and 
Dutch, his Corpus juris, Latin and Greek classics, and many 
other works produced at this period are renowned for their 
beautiful execution and accuracy. A much greater enterprise 



728 



PLANTS 



[CLASSIFICATION 



was planned by him in those years the publication of a Biblia 
polyglotta, which should fix the original text of Old and New 
Testaments on a scientific basis. In spite of clerical opposition 
he was supported by Philip II. king of Spain, who sent him the 
learned Benedictus Arias Montanus to take the leading part in 
the work of editorship. With his zealous help the work was 
finished in five years (1569-1573, 8 vols. folio). Plantin earned 
little profit, but received the privilege of printing all liturgical 
books for the states of King Philip, and the officeof " prototypo- 
graphus regius." Though outwardly a faithful son of the 
church, he was till his death the partisan of a mystical sect of 
heretics; and it is now proved that many of their books published 
without the name of a printer came from his presses together 
with the missals, breviaries, &c., for the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

Besides the polyglot Bible, Plantin published in those years 
many other works of note, such as editions of St Augustine and 
St Jerome, the botanical works of Dodonaeus, Clusius and 
Lobelius, the description of the Netherlands by Guicciardini, 
&c. In 1575 his printing-office reckoned more than twenty 
presses and seventy-three workmen, besides a similar number 
that worked for the office at home. But in November 1576 
the town was plundered and in part burnt by the Spaniards, 
and Plantin had to pay an exorbitant ransom. He established 
a branch of his office in Paris; and v/hen in 1583 the states of 
Holland sought a typographer for the newly erected university 
at Leiden, he left his much reduced business in Antwerp to his 
sons-in-law John Moerentorf (Moretus) and Francis van Ravel- 
inghen (Raphelengius), and settled there. When in 1585 
Antwerp was taken by the prince of Parma and affairs became 
there more settled, he left the office in Leiden to Raphelengius 
and returned to Antwerp, where he laboured till his death on 
the ist of July 1589. His son-in-law, John Moretus, and his 
descendants continued to print many works of note " in officina 
Plantiniana," but from the second half of the i7th century 
the house began to decline. It continued, however, in the 
possession of the Moretus family, which religiously left every- 
thing in the office untouched, and when in 1876 the town of 
Antwerp acquired the old buildings with all their contents, 
for 1,200,000 francs, the authorities were able with little trouble 
to create one of the most remarkable museums in existence 
(the Musee Plantin, opened August 19, 1877). 

See Max Rooses, Chrislophe Plantin imprimeur anversois (Ant- 
werp, 1882); Aug. de Backer and Ch. Ruelens, Annales de I'im- 
primerie Plantinienne (Brussels, 1865); Degeorge, La Maison 
Plantin (2nd ed., Brussels, 1878). (P. A. T.) 

PLANTS. In the most generally used sense, a plant is a 
member of the lower or vegetable order of living organized things; 
the term is also popularly applied to the smaller herbaceous 
plants, thus excluding trees and shrubs. The early use of the 
word is for a twig, shoot, cutting or sapling, which was the 
meaning of Lat. planta (for plancta, the root being that seen in 
planus, flat, cf . Gr.xXa.Ti>s, broad; planta thus meant a spreading 
shoot or sucker). Other meanings of " plant " are derived from 
the verb " to plant " (Lat. plantare, to fix in position or place). 
It is thus used of the fixtures, machinery, apparatus necessary 
for the carrying on of an industry or business, and in colloquial 
or slang use, of a swindle, a carefully arranged plot or trap laid 
or fixed to deceive; cf. also PLANTATION. In the following 
sections the botanical sense of the word is followed, the term 
being used generally as opposed to " animals." 

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 

Some account of the history of plant classification and the 
development of a natural system in which an attempt is made to 
show the actual relationships of plants, is given in the article 
BOTANY. The plant world falls into two great divisions, the 
higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams), characterized by the 
formation of a seed, and the lower or flowerless plants (Crypto- 
gams) , in which no seed is formed but the plants are disseminated 
by means of unicellular bodies termed spores. The term 



Cryptogam is archaic, implying a hidden method of reproduction 
as compared with the obvious method represented by the flower 
of the Phanerogam; with the aid of a good microscope it is, 
however, easier to follow the process of fertilization in many 
Cryptogams than in the flowering plants. These two great 
divisions are moreover of unequal value, for the Cryptogams 
comprise several groups differing from each other by characters 
as marked as those which separate some of them from the 
Phanerogams. The following groups or sub-kingdoms are 
those which are now generally recognized: 

f I. Thallophyta. 
Cryptogams -< II. Bryophyta. 

[III. Pteridophyta. 
Phanerogams or IV. Spermatophyta. 

Thallophyta are the most lowly organized plants and include a 
great variety of forms, the vegetative portion of which consists of 
a single cell or a number of cells forming a more or less branched 
thallus. They are characterized by the absence of that differentia- 
tion of the body into root, stem and leaf which is so marked a feature 
in the higher plants, and by the simplicity of their internal structure. 
Both sexual and asexual reproduction occur, but there is usually 
no definite succession of the two modes marking that alternation 
of sexual generation (gametophyte) and asexual generation (sporo- 
phyte) which characterizes the higher groups. The group has 
until recent years been regarded as comprising three classes dis- 
tinguished by well-marked physiological features the Algae (includ- 
ing the Seaweeds) which contain chlorophyll, the Fungi which have 
no chlorophyll and therefore lead a saprophytic or parasitic mode of 
life, and the Lichens which are composite organisms consisting 
of an alga and a fungus living together in a mutual parasitism 
(symbiosis); Bacteria were regarded as a section of Fungi. Such 
a system of classification, although convenient, is not the most 
natural one, and a sketch of the system which better expresses the 
relationships between the various subdivisions is given here. It 
has however been deemed advisable to retain the older groups 
for purpose of treatment in this work, and articles will be found 
under the headings ALGAE, FUNGI, BACTERIA, and LICHENS. The 
study of phylogeny has suggested fourteen classes arranged in the 
following sequence: (i) Bacteria; (2) Cyanophyceae (Blue-green 
algae); (3) Flagellatae; (4) Myxomycetes (Slime-fungi); (5) Peri- 
dineae; (6) Conjugatae; (7) Diatomaceae (Diatoms); (8) Hetero- 
conteae; (9) Chlorophyceae (Green Algae); (10) Characeae (Stone- 
worts); (11) Rhodophyceae (Red Algae); (12) Eumycetes (Fungi); 
(13) Phycomycetes (Algal fungi); (14) Phaeophyceae (Brown 
Algae). Bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY) and Cyanophyceae (see 
ALGAE), which are often grouped together as Schizophyta, are 
from points of view of both structure and reproduction extremely 
simple organisms, and stand apart from the remaining groups, 
which are presumed to have originated directly or indirectly from 
the Flagellatae, a group of unicellular aquatic organisms combining 
animal and plant characteristics which may be regarded as the 
starting-point of unicellular Thallophytes on the one hand and of 
the Protozoa on the other. Thus simple forms included in the 
Heteroconteae, Chlorophyceae and Phaeophyceae show an obvious 
connexion with the Flagellatae; the Peridineae may be regarded 
as a further developed branch; the Conjugatae and Diatomaceae 
cannot be directly connected ; the origin of the Rhodophyceae is 
also obscure; while the Characeae are an advanced and isolated 
group (see ALGAE). The Mycetozoa (q.v.) or Myxomycetes are a 
saprophytic group without chlorophyll, of simple structure and 
isolated position. The algal fungi, Phycomycetes, are obviously 
derived from the Green Algae, while the remaining Fungi, the 
Eumycetes, appear to have sprung from the same stock as the 
Rhodophyceae (see FUNGI). Owing to the similarity of structure 
and mode of life it is convenient to treat the Lichens (?..) as a distinct 
class, while recognizing that the component fungus and alga are 
representatives of their own classes. 

The Bryophyta and Pteridophyta have sprung from the higher 
Thallophyta, and together form the larger group Archeeoniatae, 
so-called from the form of the organ (archegonium) in wnich the 
egg-cell is developed. The Archeeoniatae are characterized by a 
well-marked alternation of gametophyte and sporophyte generations; 
the former bears the sexual organs which are of characteristic 
structure and known as antheridia (male) and archegonia (female) 
respectively; the fertilized egg-cell on germination gives rise to 
the spore-bearing generation, and the spores on germination give 
rise directly or indirectly to a second gametophyte. 

The Mosses and Liverworts (see BRYOPHYTA) include forms with 
a more or less leaf-like thallus, such as many of the liverworts, 
and forms in which the plant shows a differentiation into a stem 
bearing remarkably simple leaves, as in the true mosses. They 
have no true roots, and their structure is purely cellular or conducting 
bundles of a very simple structure are present. The independent 
plant which is generally attached to the soil by hair-like structures 
is the sexual generation, the sporophyte is a stalked or sessile capsule 






ANATOMY1 



PLANTS 



which remains always attached to the gametophyte from which 
it derives the whole or part of its nourishment. 

The Ferns and fern-like plants (see PTERIDOPHYTA) have on 
the other hand a well developed independent sporophyte which 
is differentiated into stem, leaf and root with highly organized 
internal structure including true vascular bundles. In general 
structure they approach the Phanerogams with which they form 
collectively the Vascular Plants as contrasted with the Cellular 
Plants Thallophyta and Bryophyta. The gametophyte is a 
small thalloid structure which shows varying degrees of independence 
affording an interesting transition to the next group. 

Spermatophyta are characterized by an extreme reduction of the 
gametophyte generation. The sporophyte is the plant which is 
differentiated into stem, leaf and root, which show a wonderful 
variety of form; the internal structure also shows increased com- 
plexity and variety as compared with the other group of vascular 
plants, the Pteridophyta. The spores, as in the heterosporous 
Pteridophyta, are of two kinds microspores (pollen grains) borne 
in microsporangia (pollen sacs) on special leaves (sporophylls) known 
as stamens, and macrospores (embryo-sac) borne in macrosporangia 
(ovules) on sporophylls known as carpels. The fertile leaves or 
sporophylls are generally aggregated on special shoots to form 
flowers which may contain one or both kinds. The microspores 
are set free from the sporangium and carried generally by 
wind or insect agency to the vicinity of the macrospore, which 
never leaves the ovule. The male gametophyte is represented 
by one or few cells and, except in a few primitive forms where 
the male cell still retains the motile character as in the Pterido- 
phyta, is carried passively to the macrospore in a development 
of the pollen grain, the pollen tube. The Spermatophyta are 
thus land plants par excellence and have, with the few exceptions 
cited, lost all trace of an aquatic ancestry. Aquatic plants occur 
among seed plants but these are readaptations of land plants to 
an aquatic environment. After fertilization the female cell, now 
called the oospore, divides and part of it develops into the embryo 
(new sporophyte), which remains dormant for a time still protected 
by the ovule which has developed to become the seed. The seed 
is a new structure characteristic of this group, which is therefore 
often referred to as the Seed-plants. The seed is set free from the 
parent plant and serves as the means of dissemination (see FLOWER ; 
POLLINATION; FRUIT, and SEED). The Spermatophyta fall into 
two classes, Gymnosperms (q.v.) and Angiosperms (q.v.) ; the former 
are the more primitive group, appearing earlier in geological time 
and showing more resemblance in the course of their life-history 
to the Pteridophyta. A recently discovered fossil group, the 
Pteridospermae (see PALAEOBOTANY) have characters inter- 
mediate between the Pteridophyta and the more primitive seed- 
plants. 

In GYMNOSPERMS so-called because the ovules (and seeds) 
are borne on an open sporophyll or carpel the microsporophylls 
and macrosporophylls are not as a rule associated in the same 
shoot and are generally arranged in cone-like structures ; one or two 
small prothallial cells are formed in the germination of the micro- 
spore ; the male cells are in some older members of the group motile 
though usually passive. The ovule is not enclosed in an ovary, 
and the usually solitary macrospore becomes filled with a pro- 
thallus, in the upper part of which are formed several rudimentary 
archegonia. The fertilized egg-cell (oospore) forms a filamentous 
structure, the proembryo, from a restricted basal portion of which 
one or more embryos develop, one only as a rule reaching maturity. 
The embryo consists of an axis bearing two or more cotyledons and 
ending below in a radicle; it lies in a generally copious food-storing 
tissue (endosperm) which is the remains of the female prothallus. 
The plant has a well-developed main root (tap-root) and a single 
or branched leafy stem which is provided with a means of secondary 
increase in thickness. The leaves are generally tough-skinned and 
last for more than one season. 

The ANGIOSPERMS, which are much the larger class, derive their 
name from the fact that the carpel or carpels form a closed chamber, 
the ovary, in which the ovules are developed associated with this 
is the development of a receptive or stigmatic surface on which the 
pollen grain is deposited. The sporophylls (stamens and carpels) 
are generally associated with other leaves, known as the perianth, 
to form a flower ; these subsidiary leaves are protective and attrac- 
tive in function and their development is correlated with the 
transport of pollen by insect agency (see ANGIOSPERMS; POLLINA- 
TION, and FLOWER). The male gametophyte is sometimes repre- 
sented by a transitory prothallial cell ; the two male cells are carried 
passively down into the ovary and into the mouth of the ovule 
by means of the pollen-tube. The female gametophyte is extremely 
reduced ; there is a sexual apparatus of naked cells, one of which 
is the egg-cell which, after fusion with a male cell, divides to form 
a large " suspensorial " cell and a terminal embryo. Endosperm 
is formed as the result of the fusion of the second male cell with 
the so-called " definitive nucleus " of the embryo-sac (see ANGIO- 
SPERMS). The embryo consists of an axis bearing one (Mono- 
cotyledons) or two (Dicotyledons) cotyledons, which protect the 
stem bud (plumule) of the future plant, and ending below in a 
radicle. The seed is enclosed when ripe in the fruit, a development 
of the ovary as a result of fertilization of the egg-cell. (A. B. R.) 



729 



ANATOMY or PLANTS 

The term " Anatomy," originally employed in biological 
science to denote a description of the facts of structure revealed 
on cutting up an organism, whether with or without the aid 
of lenses for the purposes of magnification, is restricted in the 
present article, in accordance with a common modern use, .to 
those facts of internal structure not concerned with the constitu- 
tion of the individual cell, the structural unit of which the 
plant is composed. 

An account of the structure of plants naturally begins 
with the cell which is the proximate unit of organic structure. 
The cell is essentially an individualized mass of protoplasm 
containing a differentiated protoplasmic body, called a micleus. 
But all cells which are permanent tissue-elements of the plant- 
body possess, in addition, a more or less rigid limiting membrane 
or cell-wall, consisting primarily of cellulose or some allied 
substance. It is the cell-walls which connect the different cells 
of a tissue (see below), and it is upon their characters (thickness, 
sculpture and constitution) that the qualities of the tissue 
largely depend. In many cases, indeed, after the completion 




FIG. i. Examples of the differentiation of the cells of plants. 



A, Cell (individual) of the unicellular Green Alga Pleurococcus, 
as an example of an undifferentiated autonomous assimilating 
cell, pr., Cell protoplasm; n., nucleus; chl., chloroplast; c.w., 
cell-wall. 

B, Plant of the primitive Siphoneous Green Alga Protosiphon 
botryoides. The primitive cell sends colourless tubelets (rhizoids, 
rh.) into the mud on which it grows. The subaerial part is tubular 
or ovoid, and contains the chloroplast (chl.). There are several 
nuclei. 

C, Base of the multicellular filamentous Green Alga Chaetomorpha 
aerea. The basal cell has less chlorophyll than the others, and is 
expanded and fixed firmly to the rock on which the plant grows by 
the basal surface, rh, thus forming a rudimentary rhizoid. 

D, Part of branched filamentous thallus of the multicellular Green 
Alga Oedocladium. cr. ax., Green axis creeping on the surface of 
damp soil; rh., colourless rhizoids penetrating the soil; asc. ax., 
ascending axes of green cells. 

E, Vertical section of frond of t le complicated Siphoneous Green 
Alga Halimeda. The substance ot the frond is made up by a single 
much-branched tube, with interwoven branches, cond. med., 
Longitudinally running comparatively colourless central (medullary) 
branches, which conduct food substances and support the (ass. cor.) 
green assimilating cortical branches, which are the ends of branches 
from the medulla and fit tightly together, forming the continuous 
surface of the plant. 

F, Section through the surface tissue of the Brown Alga Cutteria 
multifida, showing the surface layer of assimilating cells densely 
packed with phaeoplasts. The layers below have progressively 
fewer of these, the central cells being quite colourless. 

G, Section showing thick-walled cells of the cortex in a Brown Alga 
(seaweed). Simple pits (p.) enable conduction to take place readily 
from one to another. 

H, Two adjacent cells (leptoids) of a food-conducting strand in 
Fucus (a Brown seaweed). The wall between them is perforated, 
giving passage to coarse strands of protoplasm. 

I, End of hydroid of the thalloid Liverwort Blyttia, showing the 
thick lignified wall penetrated by simple pits. 

of the cell-wall (which is secreted by the living cell-body) the 
protoplasm dies, and a tissue in which this has occurred consists 
solely of the dead framework of cell-walls, enclosing in the 
cavities, originally occupied by the protoplasm, simply water 
or air. In such cases the characters of the adult tissue clearly 
depend solely upon the characters of the cell-walls, and it is 
usual in plant-anatomy to speak of the wall with its enclosed 



730 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



cavity as " the cell," and the contained protoplasm or ether 
substances, if present, as cell-contents. This is in accordance 
with the original use of the term " cell," which was applied 
in the i;th century to the cavities of plant-tissues on the analogy 
of the cells of honeycomb. The use of the term to mean the 
individualized nucleated mass of living protoplasm, which, 
whether with or without a limiting membrane, primitively 
forms the proximate histological element of the body of every 
organism, dates from the second quarter of the ipth century. 
For a more detailed description of the cell see CYTOLOGY and the 
section on Cytology of Plants below). In all but the very simplest 
forms the plant-body is built up of a number of these cells, 
associated in more or less definite ways. In the higher (more 
complicated) plants the cells differ very much among themselves, 
and the body is composed of definite systems of these units, 
each system with its own characteristic structure, depending 
partly on the characters of the component cells and partly 




00*' 


*/' * 


OO O 
K3GCK 




) 




;<Vo 






! 1 


o o c 




i 


1 

t 


LPOJ 








Q R si 




FIG. la. Examples of the differentiation of the tissue of plants. 

J, End of hydroid of the Moss Mnium, showing particularly thin 
oblique end-wall. No pits. 

K, Optical section of two adjacent leptoids of the Moss Polytrichum 
juniperinum. The leptoids are living and nucleated. They bulge 
in the neighbourhood of the very thin cross-wall. Note resemblance 
to H and R. 

L, Optical section of cell of parenchyma in the same moss. 
Embedded in the protoplasm are a number of starch grains. 

M, Part of elongated stereid of a Moss. Note thick walls and 
oblique slit-like pits with opposite inclination on the two sides of 
the cell seen in surface view. 

N, One side of the end of hydroid (tracheid) of a Pteridophyte 
(fern), with scalariform pits. 

O, Optical section of two adjacent leptoids (sieve-tube segments) 
of Pteridophyte, with sieve plates (s. pi.) on oblique end-wall and 
side- walls. 

P, Part of spiral hydroid (tracheid) of Phanerogam (Flowering 
Plant). 

Q, Three segments of a " pitted " vessel of Phanerogam. 

R, Optical section of leptoid (sieve-tube segment) of Phanerogam, 
with two proteid (companion) cells, s. pi., sieve- plate. 

S, Optical section of part of thick- walled stereid of Phanerogam, 
with, almost obliterated cavity and narrow slit-like oblique 
pits. 

T, Part of vertical section through blade of typical leaf of Phanero- 
gam. .., Upper epidermal cells, with (c) cuticle, (p) Assimilating 
(palisade) cells, sp., Assimilating (spongy) cells with large lacunae. 
I.e., Lower epidermis, with St., stoma. 

U, Absorbing cell, with process (root-hair) from piliferous layer 
of root of Phanerogam. 

V, Endodermal cell of Phanerogam, with suberized central band 
on radial and transverse walls. 

on the method of association. Such a system is called a tissue- 
system, the word tissue being employed for any collection 
of cells with common structural, developmental, or functional 
characters to which it may be conveniently applied. The word 
is derived from the general resemblance of the texture of plant 
substance to that of a textile fabric, and dates from a period 
when the fundamental constitution of plant substance from in- 
dividual cells was not yet discovered. It is convenient here to 
define the two chief types of cell-form which characterize tissues 



of the higher plants. The term parenchyma is applied to 
tissues whose cells are isodiametric or cylindrical in shape, 
prosenchyma tissues consisting of long narrow cells, with pointed 
ends. 

We may now proceed to a systematic account of the anatomy 
of the different groups of plants, beginning with the simplest, 
and passing to the more complicated forms. 

Thallophyta. The simplest members of both the Algae and 
the Fungi (q.v.) (the two divisions of the Thallophyta, which is 
the lowest of the four great groups into which the plant-kingdom 
is divided) have their bodies each composed of a single cell. 
In the Algae such a cell consists essentially of: (i) a mass of 
protoplasm provided with (2) a nucleus and (3) an assimilating 
apparatus consisting of a coloured protoplasmic body, called a 
chromatophore, the pigment of which in the pure green forms is 
chlorophyll, and which may then be called a chloroplast. The 
whole of these living structures are covered externally by the 
dead cell-membrane (fig. i A). It is from such a living and 
assimilating cell, performing as it does all the vital functions 
of a green plant, that, according to current theory, all the 
different cell-forms of a higher plant have been differentiated 
in the course of descent. 

Among the Green Algae the differentiation of cells is compara- 
tively slight. Many forms, even when multicellular, have all their 
cells identical in structure and function, and are often 
spoken of as " physiologically unicellular." The cells c *"n<' 
are commonly joined end to end in simple or branched Tlssue 
filaments. Such differentiation as exists in the higher Dl " ereatla - 
types mainly takes two directions. In the fixed forms " oa ' nA1 g&- 
the cell or cells which attach the plant to the substratum often 
have a peculiar form, containing chlorophyll and constituting 
a rudimentary fixing organ or rhizoid (fig. I C). In certain types 
living on damp soil, the rhizoids penetrate the substratum, and in 
addition to fixing the plant absorb food substances (dissolved 
salts) from the substratum (fig. I B and D). 

The second type of differentiation is that between supporting 
axis and assimilating appendages. The cells of the axis are com- 
monly stouter and have much less chlorophyll than those of the 
appendages (Draparnaldia). This differentiation is parallel with 
that between stem and leaf of the higher plants. In the group of 
the Siphoneae both these types of differentiation may exist in the 
single, long, branched, tube-like and multinucleate " cell " (coenocyte) 
which here forms the plant-body. Protosiphon (fig. i B) is an 
example parallel with Oedocladium; Bryopsis, with Draparnaldia. 
In Caulerpa the imitation of a higher plant by the differentiation 
of fixing, supporting and assimilating organs (root, stem and leaf) 
from different branches of the single cell is strikingly complete. 
In the Siphoneous family of Codiaceae the branches of the primitive 
cell become considerably interwoven one with another, so that a 
dense tissue-like structure is often produced. In this we get a 
further differentiation between the central tubes (branches of the 
primitive cell), which run in a longitudinal direction through the 
body, possess little or no chlorophyll, and no doubt serve to conduct 
food substances from one region to another, and the peripheral 
ones, which are directed perpendicularly to the surface of the body, 
ending blindly there, contain abundant chlorophyll, and are the 
assimilating organs (fig. I E). 

None of the existing Red Seaweeds (Rhodophyceae) has a unicellu- 
lar body. The thallus in all cases consists of a branched filament 
of cells placed end to end, as in many of the Green Algae. Each 
branch grows simply by the transverse division of its apical cell. 
The branches may be quite free or they may be united laterally 
to form a solid body of more or less firm and compact consistency. 
This may have a radial stem-like organization, a central cell-thread 
giving off from every side a number of short sometimes unicellular 
branches, which together form a cortex round the central thread, 
the whole structure having a cylindrical form which only branches 
when one of the short cell-branches from the central thread grows 
out beyond the general surface and forms in its turn a new central 
thread, from whose cells arise new short branches. Or the thallus 
may have a leaf-like form, the branches from the central threads 
which form the midrib growing out mainly in one plane and forming 
a lamina, extended right and left of the mjdrib. Numerous varia- 
tions and modifications of these forms exist. In all cases, while 
the internal threads which bear the cortical branches consist of 
elongated cells with few chromatophores, and no doubt serve 
mainly for conduction of food substances, the superficial cells of the 
branches themselves are packed with chromatophores and form 
the chief assimilating tissue of the plant. In the bulky forms 
colourless branches frequently grow out from some of the cortical 
cells, and, pushing among the already-formed threads in a longi- 
tudinal direction, serve to strengthen the thallus by weaving its 
original threads together. The cells belonging to any given thread 
may be recognized at an early stage of growth, because each cell 



ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



73 1 



is connected with its neighbours belonging to the same thread by 
two depressions or pits, one at each end. The common wall separat- 
ing the pits of the two adjoining cells is pierced by strands of 
protoplasm. The whole structure, consisting of the two pits and 
the wall between is known as a genetic pit. Other pits, connecting 
cells not belonging to the same branch, are, however, formed at a 
later stage. 

Many of the lower forms of Brown Seaweeds (Phoeophyceae) have 
a thallus consisting of simple or branched cell threads, as in the 
green and red forms. The lateral union of the branches to form 
a solid thallus is not, however, so common, nor is it carried to so high 
a pitch of elaboration as in the Rhodophyceae. In a few of the 
lower forms (Sphacelariaceae), and in the higher forms which 
possess a solid thallus, often of very large size, the plant-body is 
no longer formed entirely of branched cell-threads, but consists of 
what is called a true parenchymatous tissue, i.e. a solid mass 
of cells, formed by cell division in all directions of space. In 
the Laminariaceae this tissue is formed by cell division at what is 
called an intercalary growing point, i.e. a meristematic (cell-dividing) 
region occupying the whole of a certain transverse zone of the thallus, 
and cutting off new cells to add to the permanent tissue on both sides. 
In the Fucaceae, on the other hand, there is a single prismatic 
apical cell situated at the bottom of a groove at the growing apex 
of the thallus, which cuts off cells from its sides to add to the 
peripheral, and from its base to add to the central permanent 
cells. The whole of the tissue of the plant is formed by trie division 
of this apical cell._ In whatever way the tissues are originally formed, 
however, the main features of their differentiation are the same. 
According to a law which, as we have seen, applies also to the green 
and red forms, the superficial cells are packed with chromatopnores 
and form the assimilating tissue (fig. I, F). In these brown types with 
bodies of considerable thickness (Laminariaceae and Fucaceae), there 
is, however, a further differentiation of the internal tissues. The 
cells immediately subjacent to the superficial assimilating layer 
form a colourless, or nearly colourless, parenchymatous cortex, which 
acts as a food storage tissue (fig. I , G), and surrounds a central medulla 
of elongated conducting cells. The latter are often swollen at the 
ends, so that the cross-wall separating two successive cells has a 
larger surface than if the cells were of uniform width along their 
entire length. Cells of this type are often called trumpet-hyphae 
(though they have no connexion with the hyphae of Fungi), and in 
some genera of Laminariaceae those at the periphery of the medulla 
simulate the sieve-tubes of the higher plants in a striking degree^ 
even (like these latter) developing the peculiar substance callose on 
or in the perforated cross-walls or sieve-plates. A specialized con- 
ducting tissue of this kind, used mainly for transmitting organic 
substances, is always developed in plants where the region of 
assimilative activity is local in the plant-body, as it is in practically 
all the higher plants. This is the case in the Fucaceae, and in a 
very marked degree in the Laminariaceae in question, where the 
assimilative frond is borne at the end of an extremely long supporting 
and conducting stipe. A similar state of things exists in some of 
the more highly differentiated Red Seaweeds. The tissue developed 
to meet the demands for conduction in such cases always shows 
some of the characters described. It is known as leptom, each 
constituent .cell being a leptoid (fig. I, H). Inadditionto the cell types 
described, it is a very common occurrence in these bulky forms for 
rhizoid-like branches of the cells to grow out, mostly from the 
cells at the periphery of the medulla, and grow down between the 
cells, strengthening the whole tissue, as in the Rhodophyceae. 
This process may result in a considerable thickening of the 
thallus. In many Laminariaceae the thalliis also grows regularly 
in thickness by division of its surface layer, adding , to the 
subjacent permanent tissue and thus forming a secondary meristem. 
The simpler Fungi, like the simpler Green Algae, consist of 
single cells or simple or branched cell-threads, but among the 

higher kinds a massive body is often formed, particu- 
TIssueDlf- l ar ly ; n connexion with the formation of spores, and 
laFuaxi ' this may exhibit considerable tissue-differentiation. 

A characteristic feature of the fungal vegetative plant- 
body (mycelium) is its formation from independent coenocytic 
tubes or cell-threads. These branch, and may be packed or inter- 
woven to form a very solid structure; but each grows in length 
independently of the others and retains its own individu- 
ality, though its growth in those types with a definite external 
form is of course correlated with that of its neighbours and is 
subject to the laws governing the general form of the body. Such 
an independent coenocytic branch or cell-thread is called a hypha. 
Similar modes of growth occur among the Siphoneous Green Algae 
and also among the Red Seaweeds. A solid fungal body may 
usually be seen to consist of separate hyphae, but in some cases 
these are so bent and closely interwoven that an appearance like 
that of ordinary parenchymatous tissue is obtained in section, 
the structure being called pseudoparenchyma. By the formation of 
numerous cross-walls the resemblance to parenchyma is increased. 
The surface-layer of the body in the massive Fungi differs in character 
according to its function, which is not constant throughout the 
class, as in the Algae, because of the very various conditions of 
life to which different Fungi are exposed. In many forms its 
hyphae are particularly thick-walled, and may strikingly resemble 



the epidermis of a vascular plant. This is especially the case in 
the lichens (symbiotic organisms composed of a fungal mycelium 
in association with algal cells), which are usually exposed to very 
severe fluctuations in external conditions. The formation of a 
massive body naturally involves the localization of the absorptive 
region, and the function of absorption (which in the simpler forms 
is carried out by the whole of the vegetative part of the mycelium 
penetrating a solid or immersed in a liquid substratum) is subserved 
by the outgrowth of the hyphae of the surface-layer of that region 
into rhizoids, which, like those of the Algae living on soil, resemble 
the root-hairs of the higher plants. The internal tissue of the body 
of the solid higher Fungi, particularly the elongated stalks (stipes) 
of the fructifications of the Agarics, consists of hyphae running 
in a longitudinal direction, which no doubt serve for the conduction 
of organic food substances, just as do the " trumpet-hyphae," 
similar in appearance, though not in origin, of the higher Brown 
Seaweeds. (In one genus (Lactarius) " milk-tubes," recalling the 
laticiferous tubes of many vascular plants, are found.) These 
elongated hyphae are frequently thick-walled, and in some cases 
form a central strand, which may serve to resist longitudinal pulling 
strains. This is particularly marked in certain lichens of shrubby 
habit. The internal tissues, either consisting of obvious hyphae 
or of pseudoparenchyma, may also serve as a storehouse of plastic 
food substances. 

Looking back over the progress of form and tissue-differenti- 
ation in the Thallophyta, we find that, starting from the simplest 
unicellular forms with no external differentiation of the body, 
we can trace an increase in complexity of organization every- 
where determined by the principles of the division of physio- 
logical labour and of the adaptation of the organism to the needs 
of its environment. In the first place there is a differentiation 
of fixing organs, which in forms living on a soft nutrient sub- 
stratum penetrate it and become absorbing organs. Secondly, 
in the Algae, which build up their own food from inorganic 
materials, we have a differentiation of supporting axes from 
assimilating appendages, and as the body increases in size 
and becomes a solid mass of cells or interwoven threads, a 
corresponding differentiation of a superficial assimilative system 
from the deep-lying parts. In both Algae and Fungi the latter 
are primarily supporting and food-conducting, and in some 
bulky Brown Seaweeds, where assimilation is strongly localized, 
some of the deep cells are highly specialized for the latter func- 
tion. In the higher forms a storage and a mechanically-strength- 
ening system may also be developed, and in some aerial Fungi 
an external protective tissue. The " hyphal " mode of growth, 
i.e. the formation of the thallus, whatever its external form, 
by branched, continuous or septate, coenocytic tubes (Siphoneae 
and Fungi), or by simple or branched cell-threads (Red and 
many Green Algae), in both cases growing mainly or entirely 
at the apex of each branch, is almost universal in the group, 
the exceptions being met with almost entirely among the higher 
Brown Seaweeds, in which is found parenchyma produced by 
the segmentation of an apical cell of the whole shoot, or by cell 
division in some other type of meristem. 

Bryophyta. The Bryophyta [including the Liverworts 
(Hepaticae) and Mosses (Musci)], the first group of mainly 
terrestrial plants, exhibit considerably more advanced tissue 
differentiation, in response to the greater complexity in the 
conditions of life on land. In a general way this greater complex- 
ity may be said to consist (i) in the restriction of regular absorp- 
tion of water to those parts of the plant-body embedded in the 
soil, (2) in the evaporation of water from the parts exposed to 
the air (transpiration). But these two principles do not find 
their full expression till we come, in the ascending series, to the 
Vascular Plants. In the Bryophytes water is still absorbed, 
not only from the soil but also largely from rain, dew, &c., 
through the general surface of the subaerial body (thallus), 
or in the more differentiated forms through the leaves. The 
lowest Hepaticae have an extremely simple vegetative structure, 
little more advanced than that found in some of the higher 
Green Algae and very much simpler than in the large Red and 
Brown Seaweeds. The plant-body (thallus) is always small and 
normally lives in very damp air, so that the demands of terres- 
trial life are at a minimum. It always consists of true paren- 
chyma, and is entirely formed by the cutting off of segments 
from an apical cell. 



732 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



Liver- 
worts. 



A sufficient description of the thallus of the liverworts will be 
found in the article BRYOPHYTA. We may note the universal 
occurrence on the lower surface of the thallus of fixing 
and absorbing rhizoids in accordance with the terrestrial 
life on soil (cf. Oedodadium among the Green Algae). 
The Marchantiaceae (see article BRYOPHYTA) show considerable 
tissue-differentiation, possessing a distinct assimilative system of 
cells, consisting of branched cell threads packed with chloroplasts 
and arising from the basal cells of large cavities in the upper part 
of the thallus. These cavities are completely roofed by a layer of 
cells; in the centre of the roof is a pore surrounded by a ring of 
special cells. The whole arrangement has a strong resemblance 
to the lacunae, mesophyll and stomata, which form the assimilative 
and transpiring (water-evaporating) apparatus in the leaves of 
flowering plants. The frondose (thalloid) Jungermanniales show 
no such differentiation of an assimilating tissue, though the upper 
cells of the thallus usually have more chlorophyll than the rest. 
In three genera Blyttia, Symphyogyna and Hymenophytum 
there are one or more strands or bundles consisting of long thick- 
walled fibre-like (prosenchymatous) cells, pointed at the ends and 
running longitudinally through the thick midrib. The walls of 
these cells are strongly lignified (i.e. consist of woody substance) 
and are irregularly but thickly studded with simple pits (see 
CYTOLOGY), which are usually arranged in spirals running round the 
cells, and are often elongated in the direction of the spiral (fig. I, I). 
These cells are not living in the adult state, though they sometimes 
contain the disorganized remains of protoplasm. They serve to 
conduct water through the thallus, the assimilating parts of which 
are in these forms often raised above the soil and are comparatively 
remote from the rhizoid-bearing (water-absorbing) region. Such 
differentiated water-conducting cells we call hydroids, the tissue 
they form hydrom. The sporogonium of the liverworts is in the 
simpler forms simply a spore-capsule with arrangements for the 
development, protection and distribution of the spores. As such 
its consideration falls outside the scheme of this article, but in one 
small and peculiar group of these plants, the Anthoceroteae, a 
distinct assimilating and transpiring system is found in the wall 
of the very long cylindrical capsule, clearly rendering the sporo- 
gonium largely independent of the supply of elaborated organic 
food from the thallus of the mother plant (the gametophyte). A 
richly chlorophyllous tissue with numerous intercellular spaces 
communicates with the exterior by stomata, strikingly similar to 
those of the vascular plants (see below). If the axis of such a 
sporogonium were prolonged downwards into the soil to form 
a fixing and absorptive root, the whole structure would become a 
physiologically independent plant, exhibiting in many though by 
no means all respects the leading features of the sporophyte or 
ordinary vegetative and spore-bearing individual in Pteridophytesand 
Phanerogams. These facts, among others, have led to the theory, 
plausible in some respects, of the origin of this sporophyte by 
descent from an Anthoceros-like sporogonium (see PTERIDOPHYTA). 
But in the Bryophytes the sporogonium never becomes a sporophyte 
producing leaves and roots, and always remains dependent upon the 
gametophyte for its water and mineral food, and the facts give us 
no warrant for asserting homology (i.e. morphological identity) 
between the differentiated tissues of an Anthocerotean sporogonium 
and those of the sporophyte in the higher plants. Opposed to the 
thalloid forms are the group of leafy Liverworts (Acrogynae), whose 
plant-body consists of a thin supporting stem bearing leaves. The 
latter are plates of green tissue one cell thick, while the stem consists 
of uniform more or less elongated cylindrical cells. The base of 
the stem bears numerous cell-fiTaments (rhizoids) which fix the plant 
to the substratum upon which it is growing. 

In the Mosses the plant-body (gametophyte) is always separable 
into a radially organized, supporting and conducting axis (stem) 
Mos.-n.-s an ^ tmn ' ^ at ' assimilating, and transpiring appendages 
(leaves). To the base of the stem are attached a 
number of branched cell-threads (rhizoids) which ramify in the 
soil, fixing the plant and absorbing water from soil. [For the 
histology of the comparatively simple but in many respects 
aberrant Bog-mosses (Sphagnaceae), see BRYOPHYTA.] The stems 
of the other mosses resemble one another in their main histological 
features. In a few cases there is a special surface or epidermal 
layer, but usually all the outer layers of the stem are composed of 
brown, thick-walled, lignified, prosenchymatous, fibre-like cells 
forming a peripheral stereom (mechanical or supporting tissue) 
which forms the outer cortex. This passes gradually into the 
thinner-walled parenchyma of the inner cortex. The whole of the 
cortex, stereom and parenchyma alike, is commonly living, and its 
cells often contain starch. The centre of the stem in the forms 
living on soil is occupied by a strand of narrow elongated hydroids, 
which differ from those of the liverworts in being thin-walled, 
unlignified, and very seldom pitted (fig. I, J). The hydrom strand 
has in most cases no connexion with the leaves, but runs straight 
up the stem and spreads out below the sexual organs or the foot 
of the sporogonium. It has been shown that it conducts water 
with considerable rapidity. In the stalk of the sporogonium there 
is a similar strand, which is of course not in direct connexion with, 
but continues the conduction of water from, the strand of the 
gametophytic axis. In the aquatic, semi-aquatic, and xerophilous 



types, where the whole surface of the plant absorbs water, per- 
petually in the first two cases and during rain in the last, the hydrom 
strand is either much reduced or altpgether absent. In accord- 
ance with the general principle already indicated, it is only where 
absorption is localized (i.e. where the plant lives on soil from which 
it absorbs its main supply of water by means of its basal rhizoids) 
that a water-conducting (hydrom) strand is developed. The leaves 
of most mosses are flat plates, each consisting of a single layer 
of square or oblong assimilating (chlorophyllous) cells. In many 
cases the cells bordering the leaf are produced into teeth, and 
very frequently they are thick-walled so as to form a supporting 
rim. The centre of the leaf is often occupied by a midrib consisting 
of several layers of cells. These are elongated in the direction 
of the length of the leaf, are always poor in chlorophyll and form 
a channel for conducting the products of assimilation away from 
the leaf into the stem. This is the first indication of a conducting 
foliar strand or leaf bundle and forms an approach to leptom, though 
it is not so specialized as the leptom of the higher Phaeophyceae. 
Associated with the conducting parenchyma are frequently found 
hydroids identical in character with those of the central strand 
of the stem, and no doubt serving to conduct water to or from the 
leaf according as the latter is acting as a transpiring or a water- 
absorbing organ. In a few cases the hydrom strand is continued 
into the cortex of the stem as a leaf-trace bundle (the anatomically 
demonstrable trace of the leaf in the stem). This in several cases 
runs vertically downwards for some distance in the outer cortex, 
and ends blindly the lower end or the whole of the trace being 
band-shaped or star-shaped so as to present a large surface for 
the absorption of water from the adjacent cortical cells. In other 
cases the trace passes inwards and joins the central hydrom strand, 
so that a connected water-conducting system between stem and 
leaf is established. 

In the highest family of mosses, Polytrichaceae, the differentia- 
tion of conducting tissue reaches a decidedly higher level. In 
addition to the water-conducting tissue or hydrom there is a well- 
developed tissue (leptom) inferred to be a conducting channel for 
organic substances. This leptom is not so highly differentiated as in 
the most advanced Laminariaceae, but shows some of the characters 
of sieve-tubes with great distinctness. Each leptoid is an elongated 
living cell with nucleus and a thin layer of protoplasm lining the 
wall (fig. I, K). The whole cavity of the cell is sometimes stuffed 
with proteid contents. The end of the cell is slightly swollen, 
fitting on to the similar swollen end of the next leptoid of the row 
exactly after the fashion of a trumpet-hypha. The end wall is 
usually very thin, and the protoplasm on artificial contraction 
commonly sticks to it just as in a sieve-tube, though no perforation 
of the wall has been found. Associated with the leptoids are 
similar cells without swollen ends and with thicker cross-walls. 
Besides the hydrom and leptom, and situated between them, there 
is a tissue which perhaps serves to conduct soluble carbohydrates, 
and whose cells are ordinarily full of starch. This may be called 
amylom. The stem in this family falls into two divisions, an 
underground portion bearing rhizoids and scales, the rhizome, and 
a leafy aerial stem forming its direct upward continuation. The 
leaf consists of a central midrib, several cells thick, and two wings, 
one cell thick. The midrib bears above a series of closely set, verti- 
cal, longitudinally-running plates of green assimilative cells over 
which the wings close in dry air so as to protect the assimilative and 
transpiring plates from excessive evaporation of water. The midrib 
has a strong band of stereom above and below. In its centre is a 
band-shaped bundle consisting of rows of leptom, hydrom and 
amylon cells. This bundle is continued down into the cortex of 
the stem as a leaf-trace, and passing very slowly through the scleren- 
chymatous external cortex and the parenchymatous, starchy 
internal cortex to join the central cylinder. The latter has a 
central strand consisting of files of large hydroids, separated from 
one another by very thin walls, each file being separated from 
its neighbour by stout, dark-brown walls. This is probably homo- 
logous with the hydrom cylinder in the stems of other mosses. 
It is surrounded by (l) a thin-walled, smaller-celled hydrom 
mantle; (2) an amylom sheath; (3) a leptom mantle, interrupted here 
and there by starch cells. These three concentric tissue mantles 
are evidently formed by the conjoined bases of the leaf traces, each 
of which is composed of the same three tissues. As the aerial 
stem is traced down into the underground rhizome portion, these 
three mantles die out almost entirely the central hydrom strand 
forming the bulk of the cylinder and its elements becoming mixed 
with thick-walled stereids; at the same time this central hydrom- 
stereom strand becomes three-lobed, with deep furrows between 
the lobes in which the few remaining leptoids run, separated from 
the central mass by a few starchy cells, the remains of the amylom 
sheath. At the periphery of the lobes are some comparatively 
thin-walled living cells mixed with a few thin-walled hydroids, 
the remains of the thin-walled hydrom mantle of the aerial stem. 
Outside this are three arcs of large cells showing characters typical 
of the endodermis in a vascular plant; these are interrupted by 
strands of narrow, elongated, thick-walled cells, which send branches 
into the little brown scales borne by the rhizome. The surface 
layer of the rhizome bears rhizoids, and its whole structure strikingly 
resembles that of the typical root of a vascular plant. In Catharinea 



ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



733 



undulata the central hydrom cylinder of the aerial stem is a loose 
tissue, its interstices being filled up with thin-walled, starchy 
parenchyma. In Dawsonia superba, a large New Zealand moss, 
the hydroids of the central cylinder of the aerial stem are mixed 
with thick-walled stereids forming a hydrom-stereom strand some- 
what like that of the rhizome in other Polytrichaceae. 

The central hydrom strand in the seta of the sporogonium of 
most mosses has already been alluded to. Besides this there 
is usually a living conducting tissue, sometimes differentiated as 
leptom, forming a mantle round the hydrom, and bounded ex- 
ternally by a more or less well-differentiated endodermis, abutting 
on an irregularly cylindrical lacuna ; the latter separates the central 
conducting cylinder from the cortex of the seta, which, like the 
cortex of the gametophyte stem, is usually differentiated into 
an outer thick-walled stereom and an inner starchy parenchyma. 
Frequently, also, a considerable differentiation of vegetative^tissue 
occurs in the wall of the spore-capsule itself, and in some of the 
higher forms a special assimilating and transpiring organ situated 
just below the capsule at the top of the seta, with a richly lacunar 
chlorophyllous parenchyma and stomata like those of the wall of 
the capsule in the Anthocerotean liverworts. Thus the histo- 
logical differentiation , of the sporogonium of the higher mosses is 
one of considerable complexity; but there is here even less reason 
to suppose that these tissues have any homology (phylogenetic 
community of origin) with the similar ones met with in the higher 
plants. 

The features of histological structure seen in the Bryophytic 
series are such as we should expect to be developed in response 
to the exigencies of increasing adaptation to terrestrial life on 
soil, and of increasing size of the plant-body. In the liverworts 
we find fixation of the thallus by water-absorbing rhizoids; in 
certain forms with a localized region of water-absorption the 
development of a primitive hydrom or water-conducting system ; 
and in others with rather a massive type of thallus the differentia- 
tion of a special assimilative and transpiring system. In the 
more highly developed series, the mosses, this last division 
of labour takes the form of the differentiation of special assimila- 
tive organs, the leaves, commonly with a midrib containing 
elongated cells for the ready removal of the products of assimila- 
tion; and in the typical forms with a localized absorptive region, 
a well-developed hydrom in the axis of the plant, as well as 
similar hydrom strands in the leaf-midribs, are constantly met 
with. In higher forms the conducting strands of the leaves 
are continued downwards into the stem, and eventually come 
into connexion with the central hydrom cylinder, forming a 
complete cylindrical investment apparently distinct from the 
latter, and exhibiting a differentiation into hydrom, leptom 
and amylom which almost completely parallels that found 
among the true vascular plants. Similar differentiation, 
differing in some details, takes place independently in the other 
generation, the sporogonium. The stereom of the moss is 
found mainly in the outer cortex of the stem and in the midrib 
of the leaf. 

Vascular Plants. In the Vascular Plants (Pteridophytes, 
i.e. ferns, horse-tails, club mosses, &c., and Phanerogams or 
Flowering Plants) the main plant-body, that which we speak of 
in ordinary language as "the plant," is called the sporophyte 
because it bears the asexual reproductive cells or spores. 
The gametophyte, which bears the sexual organs, 'is either 
a free-living thallus corresponding in degree of differentiation 
with the lower liverworts, or it is a mass of cells which 
always remains enclosed in a spore and is parasitic upon the 
sporophyte. 

The body of the sporophyte in the great majority of the 
vascular plants shows a considerable increase in complexity 
over that found in the gametophyte of Bryophytes. The 
principal new feature in the external conformation of the body 
is the acquirement of " true " roots, the nearest approach to 
which in the lower forms we saw in the " rhizome " of Poly- 
trichaceae. The primary root is a downward prolongation of 
the primary axis of the plant. From this, as well as from 
various parts of the shoot system, other roots may originate. 
The root differs from the shoot in the characters of its surface 
tissues, in the absence of the green assimilative pigment chloro- 
phyll, in the arrangement of its vascular system and in the mode 
of growth at the apex, all features which are in direct relation 
to its normally subterranean life and its fixative and absorptive 



functions. Within the limits of the sporophyte generation the 
Pteridophytes and Phanerogams also differ from the Bryophytes 
in possessing special assimilative and transpiring organs, the 
leaves, though these organs are developed, as we have seen, in 
the gametophyte of many liverworts and of all the mosses. 
The leaves, again, have special histological features adapted to 
the performance of their special functions. 

Alike in root, stem and leaf, we can trace a three-fold division 
of tissue systems, a division of which there are indications among 
the lower plants, and which is the expression of the fundamental 
conditions of the evolution of a bulky differ- Tlssue 
entiated plant-body. From the primitive uniform System*. 
mass of undifferentiated assimilating cells, which 
we may conceive of as the starting-point of differentiation, 
though such an undifferentiated body is only actually realized 
in the thallus of the lower Algae, there is, (i) on the one hand, 
a specialization of a surface layer regulating the. immediate 
relations of the plant with its surroundings. In the typically 
submerged Algae and in submerged plants of every group this 
is the absorptive and the main assimilative layer, and may also 
by the production of mucilage be of use in the protection of 
the body in various ways. In the terrestrial plants it differs in 
the subterranean and subaerial parts, being in the former pre- 
eminently absorptive, and in the latter protective provision 
at the same time being made for the gaseous interchange of 
oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary for respiration and feeding. 
This surface layer in the typically subaerial " shoot " of the 
sporophyte in Pteridophytes and Phanerogams is known as the 
epidermis, though the name is restricted by some writers, on 
account of developmental differences, to the surface layer of 
the shoot of Angiosperms, and by others extended to the surface 
layer of the whole plant in both these groups. On the other 
hand, we have (2) an internal differentiation of conducting tissue, 
the main features of which as seen in the gametophyte of Bryo- 
phytes have already been fully described. In the Vascular Plants 
this tissue is collectively known as the vascular system. The 
remaining tissue of the plant-body, a tissue that we must regard 
phylogenetically as the remnant of the undifferentiated tissue 
of the primitive thallus, but which often undergoes further 
differentiation of its own, the better to fulfil its characteristically 
vital functions for the whole plant, is known, from its peripheral 
position in relation to the primitively central conducting tissue, 
as (3) the cortex. Besides absorption, assimilation, conduction 
and protection there is another very important function for 
which provision has to be made in any plant-body of considerable 
size, especially when raised into the air, that of support. Special 
tissues (stereom) may be developed for this purpose in the cortex, 
or in immediate connexion with the conducting system, according 
to the varying needs of the particular type of plant-body. 
The important function of aeration, by which the inner living 
tissues of the bulky plant-body obtain the oxygen necessary for 
their respiration, is secured by the development of an extensive 
system of intercellular spaces communicating with the external 
air. 

In relation to its characteristic function of protection, the epi- 
dermis, which, as above denned, consists of a single layer of cells 
has typically thickened and cuticularized outer walls. p 
These serve not only to protect the plant against slight p 
mechanical injury from without, and against the entry of smaller 
parasites, such as fungi and bacteria, but also and especially to 
prevent the evaporation of water from within. 

At intervals it is interrupted by pores (stomata) leading from 
the air outside to the system of intercellular spaces below. Each 
stoma is surrounded by a pair of peculiarly modified stomala. 
epidermal cells called guard-cells (fig. I, T), which open and 
close the pore according to the need for transpiration. The structure 
of the stomata of the sporophyte of vascular plants is fundamentally 
the same as that of the stomata on the sporogonium of the true 
mosses and of the liverwort Anthoceros. Stomata are often situated 
at the bottom of pits in the surface of the leaf. This arrangement 
is a method of checking transpiration by creating a still atmosphere 
above the pore of the stoma, so that water vapour collects in it 
and diminishes the further outflow of vapour. This type of struc- 
ture, which is extremely various in its details, is found especially, 
as we should expect, in plants which have to economize their water 



734 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



supply. The stomata serve for all gaseous interchange between 
the plant and the surrounding air. The guard-cells contain chloro- 
phyll, which is absent from typical epidermal cells, the latter acting 
as a tissue for water storage. Sometimes the epidermis is consider- 
ably more developed by tangential division of its cells, forming a 
many-layered water-tissue. This is found especially in plants 
which during certain hours of the day are unable to cover the water 
lost through transpiration by the supply coming from the roots. 
The water stored in such a time supplies the immediate need of the 
transpiring cells and prevents the injury which would result from 
their excessive depletion. 

The epidermis of a very large number of species bears hairs of 
various kinds. The simplest type consists simply of a single 
elongated cell projecting above the general level of the 
Hairs. epidermis. Other hairs consist of a chain of cells; 
others, again, are branched in various ways; while yet others have 
the form of a flat plate of cells placed parallel to the leaf surface 
and inserted on a stalk. The cells of hairs may have living con- 
tents or they may simply contain air. A very common function of 
hairs is to diminish transpiration, by creating a still atmosphere 
between them, as in the case of the sunk stomata already mentioned. 
But hairs have a variety of other functions. They may, for instance, 
be glandular or stinging, as in the common stinging nettle, where the 
top of the hair is very brittle, easily breaking off when touched. The 
sharp, broken end penetrates the skin, and into the slight wound 
thus formed the formic acid contained by the hair is injected. 

Mention may be made here of a class of epidermal organ, the 
hydathodes, the wide distribution and variety of which have been 
revealed by recent research. These are special organs, 
Hydathodes. usua iiy situated on foliage leaves, for the excretion of 
water in liquid form when transpiration is diminished so that the 
pressure in the water-channels of the plant has come to exceed a 
certain limit. They are widely distributed, but are particularly 
abundant in certain tropical climates where active root absorption 
goes on while the air is nearly saturated with water vapour. In 
one type they may take the form of specially-modified single 
epidermal cells or multicellular hairs without any direct connexion 
with the vascular system. The cells concerned, like all secreting 
organs, have abundant protoplasm with large nuclei, and sometimes, 
in addition, part of the cell-wall is modified as a filter. In a second 
type they are situated at the ends of tracheal strands and consist 
of groups of richly protoplasmic cells belonging to the epidermis 
(as in the leaves of many ferns), or to the subjacent tissue (the 
commonest type in flowering plants) ; in this last case the cells in 
question are known as epithem. The epithem is penetrated by a 
network of fine intercellular spaces, which are normally filled with 
water and debouch on one or more intercellular cavities below the 
epidermis. Above each cavity is situated a so-called water-stoma, 
no doubt derived phylogenetically from an ordinary stoma, and 
enclosed by guard-cells which have nearly or entirely lost the 
power of movement. The pores of the water-stomata are the outlets 
of the hydathode. The epithem is frequently surrounded by a 
sheath of cuticularized cells. In other cases the epithem may be 
absent altogether, the tracheal strand debouching directly on 
the lacunae oi the mesophyll. This last type of hydathode is usually 
situated on the edge of the leaf. Some hydathodes are active 
glands, secreting the water they expel from the leaf. [Many other 
types of glands also exist, either in connexion with the epidermis 
or not, such as nectaries, digestive glands, oil, resin and mucilage 
glands, &c. They serve the most various purposes in the life 
of the plant, but they are not of significance in relation to the 
primary vital activities, and cannot be dealt with in the limits of 
the present article.] The typical epidermis of the shoot of a land 
plant does not absorb water, but some plants living in situations 
where they cannot depend on a regular supply from the roots (e.g. 
epiphytic plants and desert plants) have absorptive hairs or scales 
on the leaf epidermis through which rain and dew can be absorbed. 
Some hydathodes also are capable of absorbing as well as excreting 
water. 

The surface layer of the root, sometimes included under the 
term epidermis, is fundamentally different from the epidermis 
of the stem. In correspondence with its water-absorbing 
/ a L* f unct ' on ' f - ' s not cuticularized, but remains usually thin- 
walled; the absorbing surface is increased by its cells 
being produced into delicate tubes which curl round and adhere 
firmly to particles of soil, thus at once fixing the root firmly in the 
soil, and enabling the hair to absorb readily the thin films of water 
ordinarily surrounding the particles (fig. I, U). The root-hair ends 
blindly and is simply an outgrowth from a surface cell, having 
no cross-walls. It corresponds in function with the rhizoid of a 
Bryophyte. At the apex of a root, covering and protecting the 
delicate tissue of the growing point, is a special root-cap consisting 
of a number of layers of tissue whose cells break down into" mucilage 
towards the outer surface, thus facilitating the passage of the apex 
as it is pushed between the particles of soil. 

The cortex, as has been said, is in its origin the remains of the 

primitive assimilating tissue of the plant, after differentiation 

c-rlg f the surface layer and the conducting system. It 

consists primitively of typical living parenchyma; but 

its differentiation may be extremely varied, since in the complex 



bodies of the higher plants its functions are numerous. In all green 
plants which have a special protective epidermis, the cortex of the 
shoot has to perform the primitive fundamental function of carbon 
assimilation. In the leafy shoot this function is mainly localized 
in the cortical tissue of the leaves, known as mesophyll, Mesoohyll 
which is essentially a parenchymatous tissue containing 
chloroplasts, and is penetrated by a system of intercellular spaces 
so that the surfaces of the assimilating cells are brought into contact 
with air to as large an extent as possible, in order to facilitate gaseous 
interchange between the assimilating cells and the atmosphere. At 
the same time the cells of the mesophyll are transpiring cells i.e. 
the evaporation of water from the leaf goes on from them into the 
intercellular spaces. The only pathways for the gases which thus 
pass between the cells of the mesophyll and the outside air are the 
stomata. A land plant has nearly always to protect itself against 
over-transpiration, and for this reason the stomata of the typical 
dorsiventral leaf (fig. 2, A), which has distinct upper and lower faces, 
are placed mainly or exclusively on the lower side of the leaf, where 
the water vapour that escapes from them, being lighter than air, 
cannot pass away from the surface of the leaf, but remains in contact 
with it and thus tends to check further transpiration. The stomata are 
in direct communication with the ample system of intercellular spaces 
which is found in the loosely arranged mesophyll (spongy tissue) 
on that side. This is the main transpiring tissue, and is protected 
from direct illumination and consequent too great evaporation. 
The main assimilating tissue, on the other hand, is under the upper 
epidermis, where it is well illuminated, and consists of oblong cells 
densely packed with chloroplasts and with their long axes perpen- 
dicular to the surface (palisade tissue). The intercellular spaces 
are here very narrow channels between the palisade cells. Leaves 
whose blades are normally held in a vertical position possess palisade 
tissue and stomata on both sides (isobilateral leaves) (fig. 2, B), since 
there is no difference in the illumination and other external conditions, 




Fie. 2. Transverse Sections of Leaves. 

A, Dorsiventral leaf. B, Isobilateral leaf. 

cp, epidermis; st, stoma; mcs, mesophyll; fat, palisade; spo, spongy tissue; 

i.sp, inteicellular space; w.t. t water tissue; x, xylem; pit, phloem; 

phlt, phloeoterma; scl, sclerenchyma. 

while those which are cylindrical or of similar shape (centric leaves) 
have it all round. The leaves of shade plants have little or no 
differentiation of palisade tissue. In fleshy leaves which contain 
a great bulk of tissue in relation to their chlorophyll content, the 
central mesophyll contains little or no chlorophyll and acts as water- 
storage tissue. The cortex of a young stem is usually green, and plays 
a more or less important part in the assimilative function. It also 
always possesses a well-developed lacunar system communicating 
with the external air through stomata (in the young stem) or lenticels 
(see below). This lacunar system not only enables the cells of 
the cortex itself to respire, but also forms channels through which 
air can pass to the deeper lying tissues. The cortex of the older 
stem of the root frequently acts as a reserve store-house for food, 
which generally takes the form of starch, and it also assists largely 
in providing the stereom of the plant. In the leaf-blade this 
sometimes appears as a layer of thickened subepidermal cells, the 
hypoderm, often also as subepidermal bundles of sclerenchymatous 
fibres, or as similar bundles extending right across the leaf from one 
epidermis to the other and thus acting as struts. Isolated cells 
(tdioblasts), thickened in various ways, are not uncommonly found 
supporting the tissues of the leaf. In the larger veins of the leaf, 
especially in the midrib, in the petiole, and in the young stem, an 
extremely frequent type of mechanical tissue is collenchyma. This 
consists of elongated cells with cellulose walls, which are locally 
thickened along the original corners of the cells, reducing the lumen 
to a cylinder, so that a number of vertical pillars of cellulose con- 
nected by comparatively thin walls form the framework of the 
tissue. This tissue remains living and is usually formed quite 
early, just below the epidermis, where it provides the first peripheral 
support for a still growing stem or petiole. Sclerenchyma may be 
formed later in various positions in the cortex, according to local 
needs. Scattered single stereids or bundles of fibres are not 
uncommon in the cortex of the root. 



ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



735 



The innermost layer of the cortex, abutting on the central 
cylinder of the stem or on the bundles of the leaves, is called the 
Phloeo- phloeoterma, and is often differentiated. In the leaf- 
terma ~ blade it takes the form of special parenchymatous 
_ sheaths to the bundles. The cells of these sheaths are 
often distinguished from the rest of the mesophyll by containing 
little or no chlorophyll. Occasionally, however, they are par- 
ticularly rich in chloroplasts. These bundle sheaths are important 
in the conduction of carbohydrates away from the assimilating 
cells to other parts of the plant. Rarely in the leaf, frequently 
in the stem (particularly in Pteridophytes), and universally 
in the root, the phloeoterma is developed as an endodermis (see 
below). In other cases it does not differ histologically from the 
parenchyma of the rest of the cortex, though it is often dis- 
tinguished by containing particularly abundant starch, in which 
case it is known as a starch sheath. 

One of the most striking characters common to the two highest 
groups of plants, the Pteridophytes and Phanerogams, is the 
V s lar P ossess i n f a double (hydrom-leptom) conducting 
S stem system, such as we saw among the highest mosses, 
but with sharply characterized and peculiar features, 
probably indicating common descent throughout both these groups. 
It is confined to the sporophyte, which forms the leafy plant in these 
groups, and is known as the vascular system. Associated with it are 
other tissues, consisting of parenchyma, mainly starchy, and in the 
Phanerogams particularly, of special stereom. The whole tissue 
system is known as the stelar system (from the way in which in 
primitive forms it runs through the whole axis of the plant in the form 
of a column). The stelar system of Vascular Plants has> no direct 
phylogenetic connexion with that of the mosses. The origin of 
the Pteridophyta (q.v.) is very obscure, but it may be regarded as 
certain that it is not to be sought among the mosses, which are 
an extremely specialized and peculiarly differentiated group. 
Furthermore, both the hydrom and leptom of Pteridophytes have 
marked peculiarities to which no parallel is to be found among 
the Bryophytes. Hence we must conclude that the conduct- 
ing system of the Pteridophytes has had an entirely separate 
evolution. All the surviving forms, however, have a completely 
established double system with the specific characters alluded 
to, and since there is every reason to believe that the condi- 
tions of evolution of the primitive Pteridophyte must have 
been essentially similar to those of the Bryophytes, the various 
stages in the evolution of the conducting system of the latter 
(p. 732) are very useful to compare with the arrangements met 
with in the former. 

The hydroid of a I ceridophyte or of a Phanerogam is character- 
istically a dead, usually elongated, cell containing air and water, and 
T/ either thin- walled with lignified (woody) spiral (fig. I, P.) 

El <e t* or annu ' ar thickenings, or with thick lignified walls, in- 
'' completely perforated by pits (fig.i, Q.) (usually bordered 
pits) of various shapes, e.g. the pits may be separated by a network 
of thickenings when the tracheid is reticulate or they may be trans- 
versely elongated and separated by >ars of thickening like the 
rungs of a ladder (scalariform thickening). When, in place of a 
number of such cells called tracheids, we have a continuous tube with 
the same kind of wall thickening, but composed of a number of cells 
whose cross walls have disappeared, the resulting structure is called 
a vessel. Vessels are common in the Angiospermous group of Flower- 
ing Plants. The scalariform hydroids of Ferns (fig. I, N.) have been 
quite recently shown to possess a peculiar structure. The whole of 
the middle lamella or originally formed cell-wall separating one 
from another disappears before the adult state is reached, so that 
the walls of the hydroids consist of a framework of lignified bars 
with open communication between the cell cavities. The tracheids 
or vessels, indifferently called tracheal elements, together with 
the immediately associated cells (usually amylom in Pteridophytes) 
constitute the xylem of the plant. This is a morphological term 
given to the particular type of hydrom found in both Pteridophytes 
and Phanerogams, together with the parenchyma or stereom, 
or both, included within the boundaries of the nydrom tissue strand. 
The leptoid of a Pteridophyte (fig. I, O.) is also an elongated cell, 
with a thin lining of protoplasm, but destitute of a nucleus, and 
always in communication with the next cell of the leptom strand 
by perforations (in Pteridophytes often not easily demonstrable), 
through which originally pass strings of protoplasm which are 
bored out by a ferment and converted into relatively coarse " slime 
strings," along which pass, we must suppose, the organic substances 
which it is the special function of the leptoids to conduct from one 
part of the plant to another. The peculiar substance called callose, 
chemically allied to cellulose, is frequently formed over the surface 
of the perforated end-walls. The structure formed by a number 
of such cells placed end to end is called a sieve-tube (obviously 
comparable with a xylem-vessel), and the end-wall or area of end- 
wall occupied by a group of perforations, a sieve-plate. When the 
sieve-tube has ceased to function and the protoplasm, slime strings, 
and callose have disappeared, the perforations through which the 
slime strings passed are left as relatively large holes, easily visible 
in some cases with low powers of the microscope, piercing the 
sieve-plate. The sieve-tubes, with their accompanying paren- 
chyma or stereom, constitute the tissue called phloem. This is 



the term for a morphologically defined tissue system, i.e. the leptom 
found in Pteridophytes and Phanerogams with its associated cells, 
and is entirely parallel with the xylem. The sieve-tubes differ, 
however, from the tracheids in being immediately associated, 
apparently constantly, not with starchy parenchyma, but with 
parenchymatous cells, containing particularly abundant proteid 
contents, which seem to have a function intimately connected with 
the conducting function of the sieve-tubes, and which we may 
call proteid-cells. In the Angiosperms there are always sister- 
cells of sieve-tube segments and are called companion-cells 
(fig. i, R.). 

The xylem and phloem are nearly always found in close asso- 
ciation in strands of various shapes in all the three main organs 
of the sporophyte root, stem and leaf and form a connected 
tissue-system running through the whole body. In the primary 
axis of the plant among Pteridophytes and many Phanerogams, 
at any rate in its first formed part, the xylem and phloem are 
associated in the form of a cylinder (stele), with xylem occupying 
the centre, and the phloem (in the upward-growing part or primary 
stem) forming a mantle at the periphery (fig. 4). In 
the downward growing part of the axis (primary root), ArTa "K e ' 
however, the peripheral mantle of phloem is interrupted, ' 
the xylem coming to the surface of the cylinder fi r 'c tnl 
along (usually) two or (sometimes) more vertical lines. c ' fa j" r 
Such an arrangement of vascular tissue is called radial, 
and is characteristic of all roots (figs. 3 and 10). The cylinder is sur- 
rounded by a mantle of one or more layers of parenchymatous cells, 
the pericycle, and the xylem is generally separated from the phloem in 
the stem by a similar layer, the mesocycle (corresponding with the 
amylom sheath in mosses). The pericycle and mesocycle together 
form the conjunctive tissue of the stele in these simplest types. 
When the diameter of the stele is greater, parenchymatous conjunc- 
tive tissue often occupies its centre and is frequently called the pith. 
In the root the mesocycle, like the phloem, is interrupted, and 
runs into the pericycle where the xylem touches the latter (fig. 3). 
The whole cylinder is enclosed by the peculiarly differentiated 
innermost cell-layer of the cortex, known as the endodermis. This 
layer has its cells closely united and scaled to one another, so to 
speak, by the conversion of the radial and transverse walls (which 
separate each cell from the other cells of the layer), or of a band 
running in the centre of these, into corky substance (fig. I, v.), so that 
the endodermal cells cannot be split apart to admit of the formation 
of intercellular spaces, and an air-tight sheath is formed round the 
cylinder. Such a vascular cylinder is called a haplostele, and the 
axis containing it is said to be haplostelic. In the stele of the root 
the strands of tracheids along the lines where the xylem touches 
the pericycle are spiral or annular, and are the xylem elements 
first formed when the cylinder is developing. Each strand of 
spiral or annular first-formed tracheids is called a protoxylem 
strand, as distinct from the metaxylem or rest of the xylem, which 
consists of thick-walled tracheids, the pits of which are often scalari- 
form. The thin-walled spiral or annular tracheae of the protoxylem 
allow of longitudinal stretching brought about by the active growth 
in length of the neighbouring living parenchymatous cells of a grow- 
ing organ. During the process the thin walls are stretched and the 
turns of the spiral become pulled apart without rupturing the wall 
of the tracheid or vessel. If the pitted type of tracheal element 
were similarly stretched its continuously thickened walls would 
resist the stretching and eventually break. Hence such tracheae 
are only laid down in organs whose growth in length has ceased. 
The stele is called monarch, diarch, . . . polyarch according as it 
contains one, two, ... or many protoxylems. When the proto- 
xylem strands are situated at the periphery of the stele, abutting 
on the pericycle, as in all roots, and many of the more primitive 
Pteridophyte stems, the stele is said to be exarch. When there 
is a single protoxylem strand in the centre of the stele, or when, as 
is more commonly the case, there are several protoxylem strands 
situated at the internal limit of the xylem, the centre of the stem 
being occupied by parenchyma, the stele is endarch. This is the 
case in the stems of most Phanerogams and of some Pteridophytes. 
When the protoxylems have an intermediate position the stele is 
mesarch (many Pteridophytes and some of the more primitive 
Phanerogams). In many cases external protophloem, usually con- 
sisting of narrow sieve-tubes often with swollen walls, can be 
distinguished from metapUoem. 

As the primitive stele of a Pteridophyte is traced upwards 
from the primary root into the stem, the phloem becomes con- 
tinuous round the xylem. At the same time the 
stele becomes more bulky, all its elements increas- 
ing in number (fig. 4). Soon a bundle goes off to 
the first leaf. This consists of a few xylem elements, nmaa 
a segment of phloem, pericycle, and usually an arc of phytes 
endodermis, which closes round the bundle as it detaches 
itself from the stele. As the stele is traced farther upwards it 
becomes bulkier, as do the successive leaf-bundles which leave it. 
In many Pteridophytes the solid haplostele is maintained through- 
out the axis. In others a central parenchyma or primitive pith 
a new region of the primitive stelar conjunctive appears in 
the centre of the xylem. In most ferns internal phloem appears 
instead of a parenchymatous pith (fig. 5). Sometimes this condition, 



Evolution 
of the 
Stele la 



73 6 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



that of the amphiphloic haplostele, is maintained throughout the 
adult stem (Lindsaya). In the majority of ferns, at a higher level, 
after the stele has increased greatly in diameter, a large-celled 
true pith or medulla, resembling the cortex in its characters, and 
quite distinct from conjunctive, from which it is separated by an 
internal endodermis, appears in the centre. These successive new 
tissues, appearing in the centre of the stele, as the stem of a higher 
fern is traced upwards from its first formed parts, are all in con- 
tinuity with the respective corresponding external tissues at the 
point of origin of each leaf trace (see below). Where internal 
phloem is present this is separated from the internal endodermis 
by an endocycle or " internal pericycle," as it is sometimes called, 
and from the xylem by an internal mesocycle these two layers, 
together with the outer mesocycle and pericycle, constituting the 
conjunctive tissue of the now hollow cylindrical stele. (The 
conjunctive frequently forms a connected whole with bands of 



axis. The type of siphonostele characteristic of many ferns, in 
which are found internal phloem, and an internal endodermis 
separating the vascular conjunctive from the pith, is known 
as a solenostele. The solenostele of the ferns is broken by the 
departure of each leaf-bundle, the outer and inner endodermis 
joining so that the stele becomes horseshoe-shaped and the cortex 
continuous with the pith (fig. 6). Such a break is known as 
a leaf-gap. A little above the departure of the leaf-bundle the 
stele again closes up, only to be again broken by the departure 
of the next leaf-bundle. Where the leaves are crowded, a given 
leaf-gap is not closed before the next ones appear, andT the 
solenostele thus becomes split up into a number of segments, 
sometimes band-shaped or semilunar, sometimes isodiametric 
in cross-section (fig. 7). In the latter case each _.. 
segment of the solenostele frequently resembles SL L " a y ste 'y- 
haplostele, the segments of inner endodermis, pericycle, phloem and 




Explanation of Littering: st. stele; msl. meristele; /./. leaf-trace; l.g. leaf-gap; cor. cortex; p.t. peristelar tissue; p.l. peristelar lacuna; end. endodermis; p.c. passage 
cell; per. pericycle; ph. phloem; mes. mesocycle; x. xylem; px. protoiylem; mt. metaxylem; p. pith; scl. p. sclerised pith; c. cambium; p.m.r. primary, medullary, ray. 



starchy xylem-parenchyma, which, when the xylem is bulky, usually 
appear among the tracheids, the phloem also often being pene- 
trated by similar bands of phloem-parenchyma.) 

In the other groups of Pteridophytes internal phloem is not 
found and an internal endodermis but rarely. The centre of the 
Slphoao- ste ' e * s however often occupied by a large-celled pith 
stely. resembling the cortex in structure, the cortex and pith 

together being classed as ground tissue. To this type of 
stele having a " ground-tissue pith," whether with or without internal 
phloem, is given the name siphonostele to distinguish it from the solid 
haplostele characteristic of the root, the first-formed portion of the 
stem, and in the more primitive Pteridophytes, of the whole of the 



mesocycle joining with the corresponding outer segments to form 
a nearly concentric structure. For this reason a stem in which 
the vascular system has this type of structure used to be spoken of 
as polystelic, the term " stele ' being transferred from the primary 
central cylinder of the axis and applied to the vascular strand" 
just described. In this use the term loses, of course, its morpho 
logical value, and it is better to call such a segment of a broken-up 
stele a meristele, the whole solenostele with overlapping leaf-gaps 
being called a dictyostele. The splitting up of the vascular tube 
into separate strands does not depend wholly upon the occurrence 
of leaf-gaps. In some forms other gaps (perforations') appear in 
the vascular tube placing the pith and cortex in communication. 



ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



737 



In other cases the leaf-gaps are very broad and long, the meristeles 
separating them being reduced to comparatively slender strands, 
while there is present in each gap a network of fine vascular threads, 
some of which run out to the leaf, while others form cross-connexions 
between these " leaf- trace " strands and also with the main cauline 
meristeles. Finally the cauline meristeles themselves may be 
resolved into a number of fine threads. Such a structure may be 
spoken of as a dissected dictyostele. 

In some solenostelic ferns, and in many dictyostelic ones additional 
vascular strands are present which do not form part of the orimary 
Pnlvcvclv vascu ' ar tub 6 - They usually run freely in the pith and 

v * v ' join the primary tube in the neighbourhood of the 
leaf-gaps. Sometimes a complete internal vascular cylinder, 
having the same structure as the primary one, and concentric with 
it, occurs in the pith, and others may appear, internal to the first 
(Matonia, Saccoloma). Junctions of the first internal cylinder 
are made with the primary (external) cylinder at the leaf- 
gaps, and of the second internal cylinder with the first in the same 
neighbourhood (fig. 8). In dictyostelic ferns similar internal (dicty- 
ostelic) cylinders are found in some forms, and occasionally a large 
series of such concentric cylinders is developed (Marattiaceae) (fig. 9). 
In such cases the vascular system is said to be polycyclic in contrast 
with the ordinary monocydic condition. These internal strands 
or cylinders are to be regarded as peculiar types of elaboration of 
the stele, and probably act as reservoirs for water-storage which 
can be drawn upon! when the water supply from the root is 
deficient. 

The vascular supply of the leaf (leaf-trace) consists of a single 
strand only in the haplostelic and some of the more primitive 
Leaf-trace s 'ph noste li c forms. In the " microphyllous " groups 
".",.. of Pteridophytes (Lycopodiales and Equisetales) in 
* . which the leaves are small relatively to the stem, the 
single bundle destined for each leaf is a small strand 
whose departure causes no disturbance in the cauline stele. In 
the " megaphyllous " forms, on the other hand, (Ferns) whose leaves 
are large relatively to the stem, the departure of the correspondingly 
large trace causes a gap (leaf-gap) in the vascular cylinder, as 
already described. In the haplostelic ferns the leaf-trace appears 
as a single strand with a tendency to assume the shape of a horse- 
shoe on cross-section, and this type is also found in the more primi- 
tive solenostelic types. In the more highly developed forms, 
as already indicated, the leaf-trace is split up into a number of strands 
which leave the base and sides of the leaf-gap independently. In 
the petiole these strands may increase in number by branching, 
and though usually reducible to the outline of the primitive " horse- 
shoe," more or less elaborated, they may in some of the complex 
polycylic dictyostelic types (Marattiaceae) be arranged in several 
concentric circles, thus imitating the arrangement of strands 
formed in the stem. The evolution of the vascular structure of the 
petiole in the higher ferns is strikingly parallel with that of the 
stem, except in some few special cases. 

There is good reason to believe that the haplostele is primitive 
in the evolution of the vascular system. It is found in most of 
Parallel of tnos ? Pteridophytes which we have other reasons for 
considering as primitive types, and essentially the same 

with tv P e ' s f un d> a ? we have seen, in the independently 

developed primitive conducting system of the moss- 
Phylogeny. stem Th ; s type of stem j g tnere f ore o f ten spo k e n 

of as protostelic. In the Ferns there is clear evidence that the 
amphiphloic haplostele or protostele succeeded the simple (ecto- 
phloic) protostele in evolution, and that this in its turn gave rise 
to the solenostele, which was again succeeded by the dictyostele. 
Polycycly was derived independently from monocycly in soleno- 
stelic and in dictyostelic forms. In the formation of the stem of 
any fern characterized in the adult condition by one of the more 
advanced types of vascular structure all stages of increase in com- 
plexity from the haplostele of the first-formed stem to the par- 
ticular condition characteristic of the adult stem are gradually 
passed through by a series of changes exactly parallel with those 
which we are led to suppose, from the evidence obtained by a 
comparison of the adult forms, must have taken place in the 
evolution of the race. There is no more striking case in the plant- 
kingdom of the parallel between ontogeny (development of the 
individual) and phylogeny (development of the race) so well known 
in many groups of animals. 

The stele of most Lycopods is a more or less modified protostele, 
but in the genus Lycopodium a peculiar arrangement of the xylem 
Ab rrant ant ^ P n ' oem ' s f un d, in which the latter, instead of being 
s . confined to a peripheral mantle of tissue, forms bands 

running across the stele and alternating with similar 
J? bands of xylem (fig. 12). In Selaginella the stelar system 

shows profounder modifications. In some forms we find 
phytes. a sml pi e protostele, exarch-polyarch in one species 
(5. spinosa), exarch-diarch in several (fig. 10). In other species, how- 
ever, a peculiar type of polystely is met with, in which the original 
diarch stele gives rise to so-called dorsal and ventral stelar " cords " 
which at first lie on the surface of the primary stele, but eventually, 
at a higher level separate from it and form distinct " secondary " 
steles resembling the primary one. Similar cords may be formed 
on, and may separate from, these secondary steles, thus giving rise 

XXI. 24 



to a series of steles arranged in a single file (fig. n). In the 
creeping stem of one species (5. Lyallh) a polycyclic solenostele 
is found exactly parallel with that of the rhizome of ferns. The 
gaps in the outer tubular stele, however, are formed by the departure 
of aerial branch-traces, instead of leaf-traces as in the ferns. The 
first formed portion of the stem in all species of Selagineila which 
have been investigated possesses an exarch haplostele. The stele 
of Equisetum is of a very peculiar type whose relations are not 
completely clear. It consists of a ring of endarch collateral bundles, 
surrounding a hollow pith. The protoxylem of each is a leaf- 
trace, while the metaxylem consisting of a right and a left portion 
forms a quite distinct cauline system. All the metaxylems join 
at the nodes into a complete ring of xylem. The whole stele may 
be surrounded by a common external endodermis; sometimes 
there is an internal endodermis in addition, separating the bundles 
from the pith; while in other cases each bundle possesses a separate 
endodermis surrounding it. At the nodes the relation of the 
endodermis to the bundles undergoes rather complex but definite 
changes. It is probable that this type of stele is a modification 
of a primitive protostele, in which the main mass of stelar xylem has 
become much reduced and incidentally separated from the leaf- 
traces. 

During recent years a number of fossil (Carboniferous and Permian) 
plants have been very thoroughly investigated in the light of modern 
anatomical knowledge, and as a result it has become _ 
clear that in those times a large series of plants existed * teI * rS y s - 
intermediate in structure between the modern ferns tenl ol Cyca ~ 
and the modern Gymnosperms (especially Cycads), do " llces - 
and to these the general name " Cycadofilices has been applied. 
We now know that many at least of the Cycadofilices bore seeds, 
of a type much more complex than that of most modern seed 
plants, and in some cases approximating to the seeds of existing 
Cycads. Among the Cycadofilices a series of stages is found 
leading from the primitive fern-protostele to the type of siphono- 
stele characteristic of the Cycads which agrees in essentials in all 
the Spermophytes. The main events in this transition appear 
to have been (l) disappearance of the central xylem of the proto- 
stele and replacement by pith, leading to the survival of a number 
of (mesarch) collateral bundles (see below) at the periphery of the 
stele; (2) passage from mesarchy to endarchy of these bundles cor- 
related with a great increase in secondary thickening of the stele. 
The leaves of the more primitive members of this series were entirely 
fern-like and possessed a fern-like vascular strand ; while in the later 
members, including the modern Cycads, the leaf bundles, remaining 
unaffected by secondary thickening, are mesarch, while those of the 
stem-stele have become endarch. Besides the types forming this 
series, there are a number of others (Medulloseae and allied forms) 
which show numerous, often very complex, types of stelar structure, 
in some cases polystelic, whose origin and relationship with the simpler 
and better known types is frequently obscure. Among the existing 
Cycads, though the type of vascular system conforms on the whole 
with that of the other existing seed-plants, peculiar structures are 
often found (e.g. indications of polystely, frequent occurrence of 
extra-stelar concentric bundles, " anomalous " secondary thicken- 
ing) which recall these complex types of stelar structure in the 
fossil Cycadofilices. 

The typical structure of the vascular cylinder of the adult 
primary stem in the Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons is, like 
that of the higher ferns, a hollow cylinder of vas- struct f 
cular tissue enclosing a central parenchymatous pith. .. st , , 
But, unlike the ferns, there is in the seed-plants no in- 
ternal phloem (except as a special development in 
certain families) and no internal endodermis. The xylem and phloem 
also, rarely form perfectly continuous layers as they do in a soleno- 
stelic fern. The vascular tissue is typically separable into distinct 
collateral bundles (figs. 13, 23), the xylem of which is usually wedge- 
shaped in cross-section with the protoxylem elements at the inner 
extremity, while the phloem forms a band on the outer side of the 
xylem, and separated from it by a band of conjunctive tissue 
(mesodesm). These collateral bundles are separated from one another 
by bands of conjunctive tissues called primary medullary rays, 
which may be quite narrow or of considerable width. When the 

Cith is large celled, the xylems of the bundles are separated from it 
y a distinct layer of conjunctive tissue called the endocycle, and 
a similar layer, the pericycle, separates the phloem from the cortex. 
The inner layer of the cortex (pUoeoterma) may form a well-marked 
endodermis, or differ in other ways from the rest of the cortex. 
The pericycle, medullary rays, endocycle and mesoderm all form 
parts of one tissue system, the external conjunctive, and are only 
topographically separable. The external conjunctive is usually a 
living comparatively small-celled tissue, whose cells are consider- 
ably elongated in the direction of the stem-a_xis and frequently 
contain abundant starch. Certain regions of it, particularly the 
whole or part of the pericycle, but sometimes also the endocycle, 
are typically converted into thick-walled hard (sclerenchymatous) 
tissue usually of the prosenchymatous (fibrous) type, which is 
important in strengthening the stem, particularly in enablingit 
to resist bending strains. The relatively peripheral position in 
the stem of the pericycle is important in this connexion. Various 
secondary meristems (see p. 741) also arise in the external conjunctive. 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



Most of the collateral bundles of this spermophytic type of 
siphonostele are leaf-trace bundles, i.e. they can be traced upwards 
from any given point till they are found to pass out of the cylinder, 
travel through the cortex of the stem and enter a leaf. The 
remaining bundles (compensation bundles) which go to make up the 
cylinder are such as have branched off from the leaf-traces, and 
will, after joining with others similarly given off, themselves form 
the traces of leaves situated at a higher level on the stem. Purely 
cauline vascular strands (i.e. confined to the stem) such as are found 
in the dictyosteles of ferns are rare in the flowering plants. The 
leaf trace of any given leaf rarely consists of a single bundle only 
(unifascicular) ; the number of bundles of any given trace is always 
odb!; they may either be situated all together before they leave 
the stele or they may be distributed at intervals round the stele. 
The median bundles of the trace are typically the largest, and at 
any given level of the stem the bundles destined for the next leaf 
above are as a whole larger than the others which are destined 
to supply higher leaves. Leaf-gaps are formed in essentially the 
same way as in the ferns, but when in the case of a plurifascicular 
trace the bundles are distributed at intervals round the cylinder 
it is obvious that several gaps must be formed as the different 
bundles leave the stele. The gaps, are, however, often filled as 
they are formed by the development of external conjunctive tissue 
immediately above the points at which the bundles begin to bend 
out of the stele, so that sharply defined open gaps such as occur in 
fern-steles are but rarely met with in flowering plants. The con- 
stitution of the stele of a flowering plant entirely from endarch 
collateral bundles, which are either themselves leaf-traces or will 
form leaf-traces after junction with other similar bundles, is the 
great characteristic of the stem-stele of flowering plants. These 
collateral bundles are obviously highly individualized. The external 
conjunctive tissue is often arranged in relation to each bundle sepa- 
rately, the pericyclic fibres for instance, already referred to, being 
often confined to the bands of pericyclic tissue abutting on the 
phloem of each bundle, while the cortex and pith frequently form 
rays in the intervals between the adjacent bundles. 

In some cases this individualization is carried further, the cortex 
and pith becoming continuous between the bundles which appear 

as isolated strands em- 

Aberraat 

Types at 

Stele la 

Anglo- 




sperms. 



as 

bedded in a general 
ground-tissue. Each 
bundle has its own 
investment of tissue 
corresponding with 
external conjunctive, and now 
called peridesm. The bundles some- 
times keep their arrangement 
in a ring corresponding with the 
stele, though the continuous cylin- 
der no longer exists (species of 
Ranunculus). This condition is 
known as astely. In some astelic 
stems (Nymphaeaceae) the number 
of bundles is greatly increased and 
they are scattered throughout the 
ground tissue. A " polystelic " con- 
dition arises in some members of this 
order by the association of collateral 
bundles round common centres. A 
similar phenomenon is seen in two 
widely separated genera of flower- 
ing plants: Primula Auricula and 
Gunnera (Halorageae). 

The monocotyledons, one of the 
primary divisions of angiosperms, 
typically possess large 
Moaocoty. leavcs with broad 

sheathing bases contain- 
ing a very great number 
of bundles. This results in the 
number of bundles present at any 
given level of the stem being enor- 



ledonous 
Type. 



,,,,-1,, 
mono- mousl V 

are scattered in a definite though not 



(Sachs.) 

FIG. 1 6. Transverse section of the 
closed vascular bundle of a 

cotyledon. _ 

r. Annular vessel superficially obvious order through 

/.fntr^SarcanaL th . e . conjunctive tissue of the stele, 

j. Pitted vessel. which occupies nearly the whole 
.. Sieve-tubes with accompanying com- diameter of the stem, the cortex 

panion-cells. being reduced to a very narrow 

scl.6. SclerU'-d pendesm. j. . ,. , 

t. Surrounding parenchyma. Outer layer, or disappearing altogether 
cells of the bundle are parenchy- (fig. 3). The mass of conjunctive 
matous i marks the inner side of tissue is developed as a large-celled 

ttif hnnHl* . . *;, , . 

ground-tissue, and round each 
_ bundle there is a " peridesm " which 
is often fibrous (fig. 16). It is possible to suppose that this con- 
dition is derived from the astelic condition already referred to, 
but the evidence on the whole leads to the conclusion that it has 
arisen by an increase in the number of the bundles within the stele, 
the individuality of the bundle asserting itself after its escape from 
the original bundle-ring of the primitive cylinder. 



the bundle. 



In the stems of many water-plants various stages of reduction 
of the vascular system, especially of the xylem, are met with, and 
very often this reduction leads to the formation of a . 
compact stele in which the individuality of the separate JH It lie 
bundles may be suppressed, so that a closed cylinder _*? 
of xylem surrounds a pith. The phloem is generally 
unreduced, and there is normally a well marked endodermis (fig. 17). 




Stelar 
Tissue of 
Leaf and 
Root. 



FlC. 17. Transverse section of the stele of the stem of a water-plant (Naias); 
1. intercellular channel representing xylem; ph. phloem; c. endodermis. 

In other cases the reduction goes much further, till the endodermis 
eventually comes to surround nothing but an intercellular channel 
formed in place of the stelar tissue. 

In the blade of a typical leaf of a vascular plant essentially a 
thin plate of assimilating tissue the vascular system takes the 
form of a number of separate, usually branching and 
anastomosing strands. These, with their associated 
stereom, form a kind of framework which is of great 
importance in supporting the mesophyll; but also, and 
chiefly, they provide a number of channels, pene- 
trating every part of the leaf, along which water and dissolved 
salts are conveyed to, and elaborated food-substances from, .the 
mesophyll cells. The bundle-system is of 
course continuous with that of the petiole 
and stem. The leaf-bundles are always 
collateral (the phloem being turned down- 
wards and the xylem upwards), even in 
Ferns, where the petiolar strands are con- 
centric, and they have the ordinary meso- 
desm and peridesm of the collateral 
bundle. The latter is often sclerized, 
especially opposite the phloem, and to a 
less extent opposite the xylem, as in the 
stem. As a bundle is traced towards its 
blind termination in the mesophyll the 
pendesmic stereom first disappears, the 
sieve-tubes of the phloem are replaced by 
narrow elongated parenchyma cells, which 
soon die out, and the bundle ends with a 
strand of tracheids covered by the phloeo- 
termic sheath. 

The structure of the stele of the primary FiciS.- Vertical sectionof 

.. f j . . rw *_i \. ^ a ralm-stem, snowing tne 

root as it is found in most Ptendophytes vascular bundles, /n, curving 
and many Phanerogams has been already inwards and then outwards, 
described. The radial structure is char- 
acteristic of all root-steles, which have in essential points 
a remarkably uniform structure throughout the vascular plants, 
a fact no doubt largely dependent on the very uniform con- 
ditions under which they live. While the stele of the primary 
root in both Gymnosperms -and Angiosperms is usually diarch 
or tetrarch, the large primary root-steles of many adventitious 
roots are frequently polyarch, sometimes with a very large 
number of protoxylems. Such a stele seldom has the centre 
filled up with xylem, this being replaced by a large-celled 
pith, so that a siphonostelic structure is acquired (fig. 15). 
Sometimes, however, the centre of a bulky root stele has 
strands of metaxylem (to which may be added strands of meta- 
phloem) scattered through it, the interstices being filled _ with 
conjunctive. The conjunctive of a root-stele possessing a pith is 
often sclerized between the pith and the pericycle. Sometimes 
all the parenchyma within the stele undergoes this change. In 
the roots of some palms and orchids a " polystelic " structure 
obtains. 

In certain families of Angiosperms a peculiar tissue, called lattci- 
ferous tissue is met with. This takes the form of long usually 




ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



739 



richly branched tubes which penetrate the other tissues of the 
plant mainly in a longitudinal direction. They possess a delicate 
Latlclferous l a Y er f protoplasm, with numerous small nuclei lining 
Tissue. tne wa " s > while the interior of the tube (corresponding 
with the cell-vacuole) contains a fluid called latex, 
consisting of an emulsion of fine granules and drops of very various 
substances suspended in a watery medium in which various other 
substances (salts, sugars, rubber-producers, tannins, alkaloids and 
various enzymes) are dissolved. Of the suspended substances, 
grains of caoutchouc, drops of resin and oil, proteid crystals and 
starch grains may be mentioned Of this varied mixture of sub- 
stances some are undoubtedly plastic (i.e of use in constructing 
new plant-tissue), others are apparently end-products of meta- 
bolism, in other words excreta, though they are not actually cast 
out from the plant-body. The relation 
of the laticiferous tissue to the assimi- 
lating cells under which they often end, 
and the fact that where this tissue is 
richly developed the conducting paren- 
chyma of the bundles, and sometimes also 
the sieve-tubes, are poorly developed, as 
well as various other facts, point to the 
conclusion that the laticiferous system 
has an important function in conduct- 
ing plastic substances, in addition to 
acting as an excretory reservoir. As a 
secondary function we may recognize, 
in certain cases, the power of closing 
wounds, which results from the rapid 
coagulation of exuded latex in contact 
with the air. The use of certain plants 
as rubber-producers (notably Hevea 
brasiliensis, the Para rubber-tree) de- 
pends on this property. The trees are 
regularly tapped and the coagulated 
latex which exudes is collected and 
worked up into rubber. Opium is ob-. 
tained from the latex of the opium poppy 
(Papaver somniferum), which contains 
the alkaloid morphine. 

Laticiferous tissue is of two kinds: 
(l) laticiferous cells (coenocytes) (fig. 19) 
which branch but do not anastomose, and 
the apices of which keep pace in their 
growth with that of the other tissues of 
tne plant (Apocynaceae, most Euphorbi- 
aceae, Ac.) ; (2) laticiferous vessels (fig. 20) 
which are formed from rows of meri- 

FIG. 19 A portion of a lactici- stematic cells, the walls separating the 
ferous coenocyte dissected out of ce ll s breaking down, so that a network 
theleaf of a Euphorbia (XI20). Q{ laticiferous tubes arises (p apa yer- 

aceae, Hevea, &c.). In some cases (Allium, 

Convolvulaceae, &c.) rows of cells with latex-like contents 
occur, but the walls separating the individual cells do not break 
down. 

The body of a vascular plant is developed in the first place 
by repeated division of the fertilized egg and the growth of 
Develop- the products of division. The body thus formed 
meat ot is called the embryo, and this develops into the adult 
Primary plant, not by continued growth of all its parts as 
in an animal, but by localization of the regions of 
cell-division and growth, such a localized region being called a 
growing-point. This localization takes place first at the two 
free ends of the primary axis, the descending part of which is 
the primary root, and the ascending the primary shoot. Later, 
the axis branches by the formation of new growing-points, and 
in this way the complex system of axes forming the body 
of the ordinary vascular plant is built up. In the flowering 
plants the embryo, after developing up to a certain point, stops 
growing and rests, enclosed within the seed. It is only on 
" germination " of the latter that the development of the embryo 
into the free plant is begun. In the Pteridophytes, on the other 
hand, development from the egg is continuous. 

The triple division of tissues is laid down in most cases at a 
very early period of development in the flowering plants usually 
before the resting stage is reached. In many Ptendophytes the 
first leaf is formed very early, and the first vascular strand is 
developed at its base, usually becoming continuous with the cylinder 
of the root ; the strand of the second leaf is formed in a similar way 
and runs down to join that of the first, so that the stem stele is formed 
by the joined bases of the leaf-traces. In other cases, however, a 
continuous primitive stele is developed, extending from the primary 
stem to the primary root, the leaf-traces arising later. This is 




mission.) 



correlated with the comparatively late formation and small develop- 
ment of the first leaves. The evidence scarcely admits of a decision 
as to which of these methods is to be regarded as primitive in descent. 
I n the seed-forming plants (Phanerogams) one or more primary leaves 
(cotyledons) are already formed in the resting embryo. In cases 
where the development of the embryo is advanced at the resting 
period, traces run from the cotyledons and determine the symmetry 
of the stele of the primitive axis, the upper part of which often shows 
stem-structure, in some respects at least, and is called the hypocoty- 
ledonary stem or hypocotyl, while the lower part is the primary root 




(After Sachs. From Vines' Text-Booh of Botany, by permission.) 

FIG. o. Laticiferous Vessels from the cortex of the root Scononern 

kispanica, tangential section. 
A, Slightly magnified. B, A small portion highly magnified. 

(radicle). In other cases the root structure of the stele continues 
up to the cotyledonary node, though the hypocotyl is still to be dis- 
tinguished from the primary root by the character of its epidermis. 
On germination of the seed the radicle first grows out, increasing 
in size as a whole, and soon adding to its tissues by cell division 
at its apical growing-point. The hypocotyl usually elongates, by its 
cells increasing very greatly in the longitudinal direction both in 
number and size, so that the cotyledons are raised into the air as 
the first foliage-leaves. Further growth in length of the stem is 
thenceforward confined to the apical growing point situated between 
the cotyledons. In other cases this growing-point becomes active 
at once, there being little or no elongation of the hypocotyl and the 
cotyledon or cotyledons remaining in the seed. 

The structure of the growing-points or apical meristems varies 
much in different cases. In most Pteridophytes there is a single 
large apical cell at the end of each stem and root axis, 
This usually has the form of a tetrahedron, with its 
base occupying the surface of the body of the axis 
and its apex pointing towards the interior. In the stem, segments 
are successively cut off from the sides of the tetrahedron, and by 
their subsequent division the body of the stem is produced. In the 
root exactly the same thing occurs, but segments are cut off also 
from the base of the tetrahedron, and by the division of these 
the root-cap is formed (fig. 21). In both stem and root early walls 
separate the cortex from the stele. The epidermis in_ the stem 
and the surface layer of the root soon becomes differentiated from 
the underlying tissue. In some Pteridophyte stems the apical cell 
is wedge-shaped, in others prismatic; in the latter case segments 
are cut off from the end of the prism turned towards the body of 
the stem. In other cases, again, a group of two or four prismatic 
cells takes the place of the apical cell. Segments are then cut off 



740 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



from the outer sides of these initial cells. In most of the Phanero- 
gams the apical (or primary) meristem, instead of consisting ol 
a single apical cell or a group of initials, is stratified i.e. there is 

f Pb 




(After Strasburger. From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.) 



FIG. 21. Median Longitudinal Section through the Apex of the Root of 

Pleris cretica. (X 240.) 
Apical cell. p, Wall marking limit between the plerome 

Initial segment of root -cap. P and the pleriblem Pb. 



, -. 

kn. Outermost layer of root -cap. 



. 

c, Wall marking the inner limit of the outer 
cortex. 



more than one layer of initials (fig. 22). Throughout the Angio- 
sperms the epidermis of the shoot originates from separate initials, 
which never divide tangentially, so that the young shoot is covered 
by a single layer of dividing cells, the dermatogen. Below this are 




(Alter De Bary. From Vines' Ttxl-Book of Botany, by permission.) 

F" 5 - 22. Median Longitudinal Section of the Growing Point of the Stem of Hippuris 
vulguris, showing a many-layered meristem. (X 225.) 

/, Rudiment of leaf; d, dermatogen. 

the initials of the cortex and central cylinder Whether these are 
always in layers which remain separate is not known, but it is certain 
that in many cases such layers cannot be distinguished. This, 
however, may be due to irregularity of division and displacement 
of the cells by irregular tensions destroying the obvious layered 
arrangement. In some cases there is a perfectly definite line of 
separation between the young cylinder (plerome) and young cortex 
(periblem), the latter having one or more layers of initials at the 
actual apex. This clear separation between periblem and plerome 
'! m . ost 'y f ur| d in plants whose stem-apex forms a naked cone, 
the leaves being produced relatively late, so that the stele of the 
young stem is obvious above the youngest leaf -traces (fig. 22). Where 
the leaves are developed early, they often quite overshadow the 
actual apex of the stem, and the rapid formation of leaf-tissue 
disturbs the obviousness of, and perhaps actually destroys, the 
stratified arrangement of the shoot initials. In this case also, 



the differentiation of leaf-bundles, which typically begins at the 
base of the leaf and extends upwards into the leaf and downwards 
into the stem, is the first phenomenon in the development of vascular 
tissue, and is seen at a higher level than the formation of a stele. 
The latter is produced (except in cases of complete astely where a 
cylinder is never formed) after a number of leaf-traces have appeared 
on different sides of the stem so as to form a circle as seen in trans- 
verse section, the spaces intervening between adjacent bundles 
becoming bridged by small-celled tissue closing the cylinder. 
In this tissue fresh bundles may become differentiated, and what 
remains of it becomes the rays of the fully-formed stele. Many 
cases exist which are intermediate between the two extreme types 
described. In these the stele becomes obvious in transverse section 
at about the same level as that at which the first leaf-traces are 
developed. _Where a large-celled pith is developed this often 
becomes obvious very early, and in some cases it appears to have 
separate initials situated below those of the hollow vascular cylinder. 
In some cases where there is apparently a well-marked plerome 
at the apex, this is really the young pith, the distinction between the 
stelar and cortical initials, if it exists, being, as is so often the case, 
impossible to make out. The young tissue of the stelar cylinder, 
in the case of the modified siphonostele characteristic of the dicotyle- 
donous stem, differs from the adjoining pith and cortex in its narrow 
elongated cells, a difference produced by the stopping of transverse 
and the increased frequency of longitudinal divisions. This is 
especially the case in the young vascular bundles themselves (des- 
mogen strands). The protoxylem and protophloem are developed 
a few cells from the inner and outer margins respectively of the 
desmogen strand, the desmogenic tissue left over giving rise to the 
segments of endocycle and pericycle capping the bundle. Differ- 
entiation of the xylem progresses outwards, of the phloem inwards, 
but the two tissues never meet in the centre. Sometimes develop- 
ment stops altogether, and a layer of undifferentiated parenchyma 
(the mesodesm) is left between them ; or it may continue indefinitely, 
the central cells keeping pace by their tangential division with the 
differentiation of tissue on each side. In this case the formation of 
the primary bundle passes straight over into the formation of 
secondary tissue by a cumbium, and no line can be drawn between 
the two processes. The differentiation of the stelar stereom, which 
usually takes the form of a sclerized pericycle, and may extend 
to the endocycle and parts of the rays, takes place in most cases 
later than the formation of the primary vascular strand. In the 
very frequent cases where the bundles have considerable individual- 
ity, the fibrous " pericyclic " cap very clearly has a common origin 
from the same strand of tissue as the vascular elements themselves. 
In such cases it is part of the peridesm or sheath of elongated narrow- 
celled tissue surrounding the individual bundle. 

The separation of layers in the apical meristem of the root is 
usually very much more obvious than in that of the stem. The 
outermost is the calyptrogen, which gives rise to the root-cap, and in 
Dicotyledons to the piliferous layer as well. The periblem, one 
:ell thick at the apex, produces the cortex, to which the piliferous 
ayer belongs in Monocotyledons; and the plerome, which is nearly 
always sharply separated from the periblem, gives rise to the vascular 
cylinder. In a few cases the boundaries of the different layers 
are not traceable. The protoxylems and the phloem strands are 
developed alternately, just within the outer limit of the young 
cylinder. The differentiation of metaxylem follows according to 
the type of root-stele, and, finally, any stereom there may be is 
developed. Differentiation is very much more rapid i.e. the tissues 
are completely formed much nearer to the apex, than is the case in 
the stem. This is owing to the elongating region (in which proto- 
xylem and protophloem alone are differentiated) being very much 
shorter than in the stem. The root hairs grow out from the 
cells of the piliferous layer immediately behind the elongating 
egion. 

The branches of the stem arise by multiplication of the cells of 
the epidermis and cortex at a given spot, giving; rise to a protuber- 
ance, at the end of which an apical meristem is established. The 
vascular system is connected in various ways with that of the 
parent axis by the differentiation of bundle-connexions across the 
cortex of the latter. This is known as exogenous .branch-formation. 
!n the root, on the other hand, the origin of branches is endogenous. 
The cells of the pericycle, usually opposite a protoxylem strand, 
divide tangentially and give rise to a new growing-point. The new 
root thus laid down burrows through the cortex of the mother-root 
and finally emerges into the soil. The connexions of its stele with 
:hat of the parent axis are made across the pericycle of the latter. 
Its cortex is never in connexion with the cortex of the parent, but 
with its pericycle. Adventitious roots, arising from stems, usually 
take origin in the pericycle, but sometimes from other parts of the 
conjunctive. 

In most of the existing Pteridophytes, in the Monocotyledons, 
and in annual plants among the Dicotyledons, there is no 
urther growth of much structural importance in the 
issues after differentiation from the primary meri- 
stems. But in nearly all perennial Dicotyledons, 
n all dicotyledonous and gymnospermous trees and shrubs, 



ANATOMY] 



PLANTS 



and in fossil Pteridophytes belonging to all the great groups, 
certain layers of cells remain meristematic among the permanent 
tissues, or after passing through a resting stage reacquire meri- 
stematic properties, and give rise to secondary tissues. Such 
meristematic layers are called secondary meristems. There are 
two chief secondary meristems, the cambium and the phellogen. 
The formation of secondary tissues is characteristic of most 
woody plants, to whatever class they belong. Every great 
group or phylum of vascular plants, when it has become domi- 
nant in the vegetation of the world, has produced members with 
the tree habit arising by the formation of a thick woody trunk, 
in most cases by the activity of a cambium. 

The cambium in the typical case, which is by far the most 
frequent, continues the primary differentiation of xylem and 
phloem in the desraogen strand (see above), or arises in the resting 
mesodesm or mesocycle and adds new (secondary) xylem and phloem 
to the primary tissues. New tangential walls arise in the cells 
which are the seat of cambial activity, and an initial layer of cells 
is established which cuts off tissue mother-cells on the inside and out- 
side, alternately contributing to the xylem and to the phloem. A 
tissue mother-cell of the xylem may, in the most advanced types 
of Dicotyledons, give rise to ( I ) a tracheid ; (2) a segment of a vessel ; 
(3) a xylem-fibre; or (4) a vertical file of xylem-parenchyma cells. 
In the last case the mother-cell divides by a number of horizontal 
walls. A tissue mother-cell of the phloem may give rise to (i) a 
segment of a sieve-tube with its companion cell or cells; (2) a phloem 
fibre ; (3) a single phloem-parenchyma (cambiform) cell, or a vertical 
file of short parenchyma cells. At certain points the cambium 
does not give rise to xylem and phloem elements, but cuts off cells 
on both sides which elongate radially and divide by horizontal 
walls. When a given initial cell of the cambium has once begun to 
produce cells of this sort it continues the process, so that a radial 
plate of parenchyma cells is formed stretching in one plane through 
the xylem and phloem. Such a cell-plate is called a medullary^ ray. 
It is essentially a living tissue, and serves to place all the living 
cells of the secondary vascular tissues in communication. It con- 
ducts plastic substances inwards from the cortex, and its cells are 
frequently full of starch, which they store in winter. They are 
accompanied by intercellular channels serving for the conduction 
of oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, the living cells in the interior 
of the wood, which would otherwise be cut off from the means of 
respiration. The xylem and phloem parenchyma consist of living 
cells, fundamentally similar in most respects to the medullary ray 
cells, which sometimes replace them altogether. The parenchyma is 
often arranged in tangential bands between the layers of sieve- 
tubes and tracheal elements. The xylem parenchyma is often 
found in strands associated with the tracheal elements. These 
strands are not isolated, but form a connected network through the 
wood. The xylem parenchyma cells are connected, as are the 
medullary ray cells, with the tracheal elements by one-sided bordered 
pits i.e. pits with a border on the tracheal element side, and simple 
on the parenchyma cell side. The fibres are frequently found in 
tangential bands between similar bands of tracheae or sieve-tubes. 
The fibrous bands are generally formed towards the end of the year's 
growth in thickness. The fibres belong to the same morphological 
category as the parenchyma, various transitions being found be- 
tween them; thus there may be thin- walled cells of the shape of 
fibres, or ordinary fibres may be divided into a number of super- 
posed cells. These intermediate cells, like the ordinary parenchyma, 
frequently store starch, and the fibres themselves, though usually 
dead, sometimes retain their protoplasm, and in that case may also 
be used for starch accumulations. The vessels and tracheids are 
very various in size, shape and structure in different plants. They 
are nearly always aggregated in strands, which, like those of the 
parenchyma, are not isolated, but are connected with one another. 
In a few cases some of the tracheids have very thick walls and 
reduced cavities, functioning as mechanical rather than as water- 
conducting elements. All transitions are found between such forms 
and typical tracheids. These fibre-tracheids are easily confused 
on superficial view with the true wood-fibres belonging to the paren- 
chyinatous system; but their pits are always bordered, though in 
the extreme type they are reduced to mere slits in the wall. The 
sieve-tubes of the secondary phloem usually have very oblique 
end-walls bearing a row of sieve-plates; plates also occur on the 
radial side-walls. 

The tissue-elements just described are found only in the more 
complicated secondary vascular tissues of certain Dicotyledons. 
A considerable evolution in complexity can be traced in passing 
from the simplest forms of xylem and phloem found in the primary 
vascular tissues both among Pteridophytes and Phanerogams 
to these highly differentiated types. In the simplest condition we 
have merely tracheae and sieve-tubes, respectively associated with 
parenchyma, which in the former case is usually amylom, i.e. consists 
of starch-containing cells, and in the latter of proteid cells. This 
type is found in nearly all Pteridophytes and, so far as is known, in 
Cycadofilices, both in primary and secondary tissue. The stereom 



is furnished either by cortical cells or by the tracheal elements, in 
a few cases by fibres which are probably homologous with sieve- 
tubes. Among Gymnosperms the secondary xylem is similarly 
simple, consisting of tracheids which act as stereom as well as hydrom, 
and a little amylom; while the phloem-parenchyma sometimes under- 
goes a differentiation, part being developed as amylom, part as 
proteid cells immediately associated with the sieve-tube. In 
other cases the proteid cells of the secondary phloem do not form part 
of the phloem-parenchyma, but occupy the top and bottom cell- 
rows of the medullary rays, the middle rows consisting of ordinary 
starchy cells. The top and bottom rows of the xylem rays are often 
developed as irregularly-thickened radially-elongated tracheids 
which serve for the radial conduction of water, and communicate 
with the ordinary tracheids of the secondary xylem by large bordered 
pits. The primary vascular tissues of Angiosperms are likewise 
nearly always simple, consisting merely of tracheae and sieve-tubes 
often associated with amylom. A characteristic peculiarity, both 




(From Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission.) 

FIG. 23. Section of part of hypocotyledonary stem of Ricinus communis. 

a. Starch sheath; at the extremities of the figure its cells are represented as empty; 
b , cambium layer. 

in the primary and secondary tissue, is that the proteid cells of the 
phloem are here always sister-cells of the leptoids and are known 
as companion-cells. In the secondary tissues -of Dicotyledons we 
may have, as already described, considerably more differentiation 
of the cells, all the varieties being referable, however, on the one 
hand to the tracheal or sieve-tube type, on the other to the paren- 
chyma type. The main feature is the development of special vas- 
cular stereom and storage tissue. In some cases special secreting 
tissues, resin ducts, oil glands, laticiferpus tissue, crystal sacs, 
&c., may be developed among the ordinary secondary vascular 
elements. 

The limit of each year's increment of secondary wood, in those 
plants whose yearly activity is interrupted by a regular winter 
or dry season, is marked by a more or less distinct . ^ 
line, which is produced by the sharp contrast between ^ to ' 
the wood formed in the late summer of one year 
(characterized by the sparseness or small diameter of the tra- 
cheal elements, or by the preponderance of fibres, or by a com- 
bination of these characters, giving a denseness to the wood) 
and the loose spring wood of the next year, with its absence of 
fibres, or its numerous large tracheae. The abundance of water- 
conducting channels is in relation to the need for a large and rapid 
supply of water to the unfolding leaves in the spring and early 
summer. In Gymnosperms, where vessels and fibres are absent, 
the late summer wood is composed of radially narrow thick-walled 
tracheids, the wood of the succeeding spring being wide-celled and 
thin-walled, so that the limit of the year's growth is very well 
marked. The older wood of a large tree forming a cylinder in the 
centre of the trunk frequently undergoes marked changes in charac- 
ter. The living elements die, and the walls of all the cells often 
become hardened, owing to the deposit in them of special substances. 
Wood thus altered is known as heart-wood, or duramen, as dis- 
tinguished from the young sap-wood, or alburnum, which, forming 
a cylinder next the cambium, remains alive and carries on the active 
functions of the xylem, particularly the conduction of water. The 
heart-wood ceases to be of any use to the tree except as a support, 
but owing to its dryness and hardness it alone is of much use for 
industrial purposes. The great hardness of teak is due to the silica 
deposited in the heart-wood, and the special colouring matters of 
various woods, such as satinwood, ebony, &c., are confined to the 
heart-wood. In some cases the heart-wood, instead of becoming speci- 
ally hard, remains soft and easily rots, so that the trunk of the tree 
frequently becomes hollow, as is commonly the case in the willow. 
Heart-wood is first formed at very different epochs in the life 
of a tree, according to the species e.g. after fifteen to twenty 
years in the oak, forty years in the ash, &c. 



'42 



PLANTS 



[ANATOMY 



In many annual plants no cambium is formed at all, and the 
same is true of most perennial Pteridophytes and Monocotyledons. 
When the vascular tissue of such plants is arranged 
1 in separate bundles these are said to be closed. The 
la Stems. Bundles o f plants which form cambium are, on the 
contrary, called open. In stems with open bundles the formation 
of cambium and secondary tissue may be confined to these, when it 
is said to be entirely fascicular. In that case either very little 
secondary tissue is formed, as in the gourds, some Ranunculaceae, 
&c., or a considerable amount may be produced (clematis, barberry, 
ivy). In the latter event the cells of the primary rays are either 
merely stretched radially, or they divide to keep pace with the growth 
of the bundles. If this division occurs by means of a localized 
secondary meristem connecting the cambial layers of adjacent 
bundles, an interfascicular is formed in addition to the fascicular 
cambium. The interfascicular cambium may form nothing but 
parenchymatous tissue, producing merely continuations of the 
primary rays. Such rays are usually broader and more conspicuous 
than the secondary rays formed within the wedges of wood opposite 
the primary bundles, and are distinguished as principal rays 
from these narrower subordinate or fascicular rays (fig. 24). This 
is the typical case in most trees where the primary bundles are close 
together. Where the primary bundles are farther apart, so that the 
primary rays are wider, the interfascicular cambium may form 
several fairly broad (principal) secondary rays in continuation of 
certain radial bands of the primary ray, and between these, wedges 
of secondary xylem and phloem: or, finally, secondary xylem 
and phloem may be formed by the whole circumference of the 
cambium, fascicular and interfascicular alike, interrupted only by 
narrow secondary rays, which have no relation to the primary ones. 

ft* 




(After Kuy, from Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission.) 

FIG. 24. Section of three-year-old stem of Lime. (X 50.) 

ft, periderm; c, cortex; ph, phloem with alternating strands of fibres, sieve-tubes and 
parenchyma; pr.r. r principal ray; s.r., subordinate rays; ca, cambium. 

In a good many cases, sometimes in isolated genera or species, 
sometimes characteristic of whole families, so-called anomalous 
cambial layers are formed in the stem, either as an extension of, 
or in addition to, the original cambial cylinder. They are fre- 
quently associated with irregularities in the activity of the original 
cambium. Irregularity of cambium occurs in various families of 
woody dicotyledonous plants, mostly among the woody climbers, 
known as lianes, characteristic of tropical and sub-tropical forests. 
In the simplest cases the cambium produces xylem more freely along 
certain tracts of the circumference than along others, so that the 
stem loses its original cylindrical form and becomes elliptical or 
lobed in section. In others the secondary phloem is produced more 
abundantly in those places where the secondary xylem is deficient, 
so that the stem remains cylindrical in section, the phloem occupying 
the bays left in the xylem mass. Sometimes in such cases the cam- 
bium ceases to be active round these bays and joins across the out- 
side of the bay, where it resumes its normal activity, thus isolating 
a phloem strand, or, as it is sometimes called, a phloem island, in the 
midst of the xylem. The significance of these phenomena, which pre- 
sent many minor modifications in different cases, is no.: fully under- 
stood, but one purpose of the formation of phloem promontories and 
islands seems to be the protection of the sieve-tubes from crushing by 
the often considerable peripheral pressure that is exercised on the 



stems of these lianes. Sometimes the original cambial ring is 
broken into several arcs, each of which is completed into an indepen- 
dent circle, so that several independent secondary vascular cylinders 
are formed. The formation of additional cambial cylinders or 
bands occurs in the most various families of Dicotyledons and in 
some Gymnosperms. They may arise in the pericycle or endocycle 
of the stele, in the cortex of the stem, or in the' parenchyma of the 
secondary xylem or phloem. The activity of the new cambium 
is often associated with the stoppage of the original one. Some- 
times the activity of the successive cambiums simply results in the 
formation of concentric rings or arcs of secondary xylem and phloem. 
In other cases a most intricate arrangement of secondary tissue 
masses is produced, quite impossible to interpret unless all stages 
of their development have been followed. Sometimes in lianes 
the whole stem breaks up into separate woody strands, often twisted 
like the strands of a rope, and running into one another at intervals. 
An ordinary cambium is scarcely ever found in the Monocotyledons, 
but in certain woody forms a secondary meristem is formed outside 
the primary bundles, and gives rise externally to a little secondary 
cortex, and internally to a secondary parenchyma in which are 
developed numerous zones of additional bundles, usually of concen- 
tric structure, with phloem surrounded by xylem. 

The cambium in the root, which is found generally in those plants 
which possess a cambium in the stem, always begins in the con- 
junctive tissue internal to the primary phloems, and cambium 
forms new (secondary) phloem in contact with the ^ n ootSt 
primary, and secondary xylem internally. In roots 
which thicken but slightly, whose cambium usually appears late, 
it is confined to these regions. If the development of secondary 
tissues is to proceed further, arcs of cambium are formed in the 
pericycle external to the primary xylems, and the two sets of cambial 
arcs join, forming a continuous, wavy line on transverse section, 
with bays opposite the primary phloems and promcntories opposite 
the primary xylems. Owing to the resistance offered by the hard 
first-formed secondary xylem, the bays are pushed outwards as 
growth proceeds, and the wavy line becomes a circle. Opposite 
the primary xylems, the cambium either (a) forms parenchyma on 
both sides, making a broad, secondary (principal) ray, which inter- 
rupts the vascular ring and is divided at its inner extremity by the 
islet of primary xylem ; or (6) forms secondary xylem and phloem in 
the ordinary way, completing the vascular ring. In either case, 
narrow, secondary rays are formed at intervals, just as in the stem. 
Thus the structure of an old thickened root approximates to that of 
an old thickened stem, and so far as the vascular tissue is concerned 
can often only be distinguished from the latter by the position and 
orientation of the primary xylems. The cambium of the primary 
root, together with the tissues which it forms, is always directly 
continuous with that of the primary stem, just in the same way as 
the tissues of the primary stele. The so-called anomalous cambiums 
in roots follow the same lines as those of the stem. 

In nearly all plants which produce secondary vascular tissues 
by means of a cambium there is another layer of secondary meristem 
arising externally to, but in quite the same fashion as, pt, e u OI[ea 
the cambium, and producing like the latter an external aad 
and an internal secondary tissue. This is the phellogen, p el iderm. 
and the whole of the tissue it gives rise to is known as 
periderm. The phellogen derives its name from the fact that its 
external product is the characteristic tissue known as cork. This 
consists typically of close-fitting layers of cells with completely 
suberized walls, intended to replace the epidermis as the external 
protective layer of the plant when the latter, incapable as it is of 
further growth after its original formation, is broken and cast off 
by the increase in thickness of the stem through the activity of the 
cambium. Cork is also formed similarly in the root after the latter 
has passed through its primary stage as an absorptive organ, and 
its structure is becoming assimilated to that of the stem. The inter- 
nal tissue formed by the phellogen is known as phelloderm, and con- 




the cortex, or in the pericycle. Its most usual seat of origin in the 
stem is the external layer of the cortex immediately below the 
epidermis ; in the root, the pericycle. All the tissues external to the 
cork are cast off by the plant. The extent of development of 
the phelloderm is dependent upon whether the phellogen has a 
superficial or a deep-seated origin. In the former case the formation 
of phelloderm is trivial in amount; in the latter, considerable, since 
this tissue has to replace the cast-off cortex, as a metabolic and 
particularly a storage tissue. 

Provision is made for gaseous interchange between the internal 
tissues and the external air after the formation of cork, by the de- 
velopment of lenticels. These are special organs which j^,,^/^ 
interrupt the continuity of the impermeable layer of 
ordinary cork-cells. A lenticel is formed by the phellogen at a 
given spot dividing very actively and giving rise to a loose tissue of 
rounded cells which soon lose their contents, and between which air 
can pass to the tissues below (fig. 25). A lenticel appears to the naked 
eye as a rounded or elongated scar, often forming a distinct promin- 
ence on the surface of the organ. The lenticels of the stem are usually 
formed beneath stomata, whose function they take up after the 



HISTORY] 



PLANTS 



stomata have been ruptured and cast off with the rest of the epider- 
mis. Both cork and phelloderm may be differentiated in various 
ways. The former often has its cells lignified, and may consist of 
alternate layers of hard and soft cells. The latter may develop 
stereom, and may also be the seat of origin of new formations of 
various kindse.g. supplementary vascular bundles, anomalous 
cambial zones, &c. It is often enormously developed and forms a 
very important tissue in roots. In the stem of a tree the original 



743 




(From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.) 

FIG. 35. Lenticel in the transverse section of a twig of Elder. (X 300.) 

E, epidermis; q, phellogen; /, cells, and fl, the phellogen of the lenticel; fc cortical 
parenchyma, containing chlorophyll. 

phellogen is replaced by successive new phellogenic layers of deeper 
and deeper origin, each forming its own layer of cork. Eventually 
the new phellogens reach the level of the secondary phloem, and are 
formed in the parenchyma of the latter, keeping pace in their inward 
march with the formation of fresh secondary phloem by the cam- 
bium. The complex system of dead and dying tissues cut off by 
these successive periderms, together with the latter themselves 
in fact, everything outside the innermost phellogen, constitutes 
what is often known botanically as the bark of the tree. Rhytidome 
is, however, a preferable term, as the word bark has long been estab- 
lished in popular usage to mean all the tissue that can easily be 
peeled off i.e. everything down to the wood of the tree. The rough 
surface of the bark of many trees is due to the successive phellogens 
not arising in regular concentric zones, but forming in arcs which 
join with the earlier-formed arcs, and thus causing the. bark 
to come off in flakes or thick chunks. A layer of cork is regularly 
formed in most Phanerogams across the base of the petiole before 
leaf fall, so as to cover the wound caused by the separation of the 
leaf from the stem. Special " wound-cork " is also often formed 
round accidental injuries so as to prevent the rotting of the tissues 
by the soaking in of rain and the entrance of fungal spores and 
bacteria. A peculiar modification of periderm is formed by the 
phellogen in the submerged organs (roots or stems) of many aquatic 
or marsh-loving plants. This may take various forms and may 
cover the whole of the organ or be localized in special regions; but 
its cells are always living and are separated by very large intercellular 
spaces containing air. This tissue is called aerenchym, and no doubt 
its function is to facilitate the respiration of the organs on which it 
is formed and to which the access of oxygen is difficult. In other 
cases, a similar formation of spongy but dead periderm tissue may 
occur for the same purpose in special patches, called pneumatodes, 
on the roots of certain trees living in marshy places, which rise 
above the soil in order to obtain air. 

History and Bibliography. The study of plant anatomy was 
begun in the middle of the seventeenth century as a direct 
result of the construction of microscopes, with which a clear 
view of the structure of plant tissues could be obtained. The 
Englishman Grew and the Italian Malpighi almost simul- 
taneously published illustrated works on the subject, in which 
they described, for the most part very accurately, what they saw 
with the new instruments. The subject was practically dormant 
for nearly a century and a half, largely owing to the dominance 
of classificatory botany under the influence of Linnaeus. It 
was revived by several German workers, prominent among 
whom were Treviranus and Link, and later Moldenhawer, as 
well as by the Frenchmen Mirbel, at the beginning of the igth 
century. The new work largely centred round a discussion 
of the nature and origin of vessels, conspicuous features in 
young plant tissues which thus acquired an importance in the 
contemporary literature out of proportion to their real signifi- 
cance in the construction of the vascular plant. The whole 
of the writings of this time are dominated by a preoccupation 
with the functions of the different tissues, in itself an excellent 
standpoint for investigation, but frequently leading in the case 
of these early investigators to one-sided and distorted views 
of the facts of structure. The pioneer of modern plant anatomy 
was Hugo von Mohl (fl. 1840), who carefully investigated and 



described the facts of anatomical structure without attempting 
to fit them into preconceived views of their meaning. He 
produced a solid body of accurately described facts which has 
formed the secure groundwork of subsequent advance. From 
Mohl down to the eighth decade of the century the study of 
anatomy was entirely in the hands of a group of German investi- 
gators, prominent among whom were several of the most eminent 
founders of modern scientific botany such, for instance, as 
Nageli, Sanio and De Bary. To the first we owe the secure 
foundation of our knowledge of the structure and course of the 
vascular strands of the higher plants (" Ueber den Bau und die 
Anordnung der Gefassbundel bei den Stamm und Wurzel der 
Phanerogamen," Beitriige zur wissenschaftlichen Botanik, Heft 
i., Leipzig, 1859) ; to the second the establishment of the sound 
morphological doctrine of the central cylinder of the axis as 
the starting-point for the consideration of the general arrange- 
ment of the tissues, and the first clear distinction between 
primary and secondary tissues (Botanische Zeitung, 1861 and 
1863); to the last the putting together of the facts of plant 
anatomy known up to the middle of the eighth decade of the 
century in that great encyclopaedia of plant anatomy, the 
Vergleichende Anatomic der Vegetationsorgane bei den Phanero- 
gamen und Farnen (Stuttgart, 1876; Eng. trans., Comparative 
Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the Phanerogams and Ferns, 
Oxford, 1882). In 1870-1871 Van Tieghem published his 
great work, " Sur la Racine," Ann. set. not. bot. (Paris). 
This was not only in itself an important contribution to plant 
anatomy, but served as the starting-point of a series of researches 
by Van Tieghem and his pupils, which has considerably 
advanced our knowledge of the details of histology, and also 
culminated in the foundation of the doctrine of the stele (Van 
Tieghem and Douliot, "Sur la polystelie, ;> Ann. sci. not. bot., 
1887; Van Tieghem, Traiti de botanique (and ed. Paris, 
1889-1891). This has had a most important effect on the 
development in recent years of morphological anatomy. 

In the progress of the last three decades, since the publication 
of De Bary's great work, five or six main lines of advance can be 
distinguished. First, the knowledge of the details Modem 
of histology has of course advanced greatly in the Progress ot 
direction through the ceaseless activity of very the Subject. 
numerous, mainly German, workers, though no fundamen- 
tally new types of tissue have been discovered. Secondly, 
the histology of fossil plants, particularly woody plants 
of the carboniferous period, has been placed on a sound basis, 
assimilated with general histological doctrine, and has consider- 
ably enlarged our conceptions of plant anatomy as a whole, 
though again without revealing any entirely new types of 
structure. This branch of the subject, founded by Corda, 
Goppert, Stenzel and others in Germany, was enormously 
advanced by Williamson's work on the Coal Measures plants, 
recorded in the magnificent series of memoirs, "Researches 
on the Organization of Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures " (Phil. 
Trans. Roy. Soc., vols. i.-xix., 1871-1893). The work of Solrns 
Laubach in Germany, Renault and Bertrand in France, and 
in recent years, of Zeiller in France, and Scott, Seward 
and others in England, has advanced our knowledge of the 
anatomy of fossil plants in an important degree. While con- 
vincing us that the plants of past ages in the earth's history 
were exposed to very similar conditions of life, and made very 
much the same adaptive responses as their modern representa- 
tives, one of the main results of this line of work has been to 
reveal important data enabling us to fill various gaps in our 
morphological knowledge and to obtain a more complete picture 
of the evolution of tissues in the vascular plants. One of the 
most striking incidents in the progress has been the recognition 
within the last few years of the existence of an extinct group of 
plants lying on the borderland between Filicales and Gymno- 
sperms, and known as the Cycadofilices, a group in which, 
curiously enough, the reproductive organs remained undis- 
covered for some time after the anatomy of the vegetative organs 
was sufficiently well known to afford clear evidence of their 
true affinities. Thirdly, we have_to record very considerable 



744 



PLANTS 



[PHYSIOLOGY 



progress in our knowledge of distinctively morphological 
anatomy, i.e. the study of tissues from the standpoint of 
evolution. The Russian plant-anatomist, Russow, may be said 
to have founded the consideration of plant tissues from the 
point of view of descent ( Vergleichende Untersuchungen uber die 
Leitbiindelkryptogamen, St Petersburg, 1872; and Betrachlungen 
uber Leitbundel und Grundgewebe, Dorpat, 1875). He was ably 
followed by Strasburger (Ueber den Bau und die Verrichtungen 
der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen, Jena, 1891), Haberlandt 
and others. The explicit adoption of this point of view has 
had the effect of clearing up and rendering definite the older 
morphological doctrines, which for the most part had no fixed 
criterion by which they could be tested. 

Since about 1895 this branch has been most actively pursued in 
England, where the work of Boodle and of Gwynne-Vaughan 
especially on Ferns) has been the most important, leading to 
a coherent theory of the evolution of the vascular system in 
these plants (Tansley, Evolution of the Filicinean Vascular 
System, Cambridge, 1908); and in America, where Jeffrey has 
published important papers on the morphology of the vascular 
tissues of the various groups of Pteridophytes and Phanerogams 
and has sought to express his conclusions in a general morpho- 
logical theory with appropriate terminology. As a result of this 
activity Van Tieghem's so-called " Stelar theory " has been 
revised and modified in the light of more extended and detailed 
anatomical and developmental knowledge. Schoute's Die 
Steliir-Theorie (Groningen, 1902), gives an important critical 
account of this subject. 

Fourthly, attention must be called to the great development 
of what is called " Systematic Anatomy," i.e. the study of the 
anatomical features characteristic of the smaller groups of 
flowering plants, i.e. the orders, families, genera and species. 
Radlkofer (1883) was the first to call attention to the 
great importance of this method in systematic botany, as 
providing fresh characters on which to base a natural classifi- 
cation. Solereder's great work, Systematische Anatomie der 
Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1898-1908; Eng. trans., Systematic 
Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Oxford, 1908), brings together so many 
of the facts as are at present known in an orderly arrangement. 
Theoretically this branch of the subject should connect with 
and form the completion of " morphological anatomy," but 
the field] has not yet been sufficiently explored to allow of the 
necessary synthesis. The true relation of " systematic " to 
" ecological " anatomy (see below) also awaits proper elucidation. 

Fifthly, we have to record the foundation of the modern 
study of " physiological anatomy " (i.e. the study of the specific 
functions of the various tissues) by Schwendener (Das mechan- 
ische Princip im Bau der Monocotylen, 1874, and other works), 
followed by numerous pupils and others, among whom Haber- 
landt (Physiologische Pflanzen- Anatomie, Leipzig, ist ed., 1884, 
4th ed., 1909, and other works) is pre-eminent. The pursuit 
of this study has not only thrown valuable light on the economy 
of the plant as a whole, but forms an indispensable condition of 
the advance of morphological anatomy. A great deal of work 
still remains to be done in this department, which at the present 
time affords one of the most promising fields of anatomical 
investigation. 

Finally we may mention " ecological anatomy," i.e. the study 
of anatomical features directly related to the habitat. A very 
considerable body of knowledge relating to this subject already 
exists, but further work on experimental lines is urgently 
required to enable us to understand the actual economy of plants 
growing under different conditions of life and the true relation 
of the hereditary anatomical characters which form the subject 
matter of " systematic anatomy " to those which vary accord- 
ing to the conditions in which the individual plant is placed. 
On these lines the future of anatomical study presents almost 
inexhaustible possibilities. (A. G. T.) 

PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 

The so-called vegetable physiology of a generation ago was in 
arrear of animal, and particularly of human, physiology, the 



study of the latter being followed by many more observers, 
and from its relative degree of advancement being the more 
capable of rapid development. It was fully recognized by 
its followers that the dominating influence in the structure 
and working of the body was the protoplasm, and the division 
of labour which it exhibited, with the accompanying or result- 
ing differentiation into various tissues, was the special subject of 
investigation. Many who followed the study of vegetable 
structure did not at that time give an equal prominence to this 
view. The early histological researches of botanists led them 
to the recognition of the vegetable cell, and the leading writers 
in the middle of the igth century pointed out the probable 
identity of Von Mohl's " protoplasm " with the " sarcode " of 
zoologists. They laid great stress on the nitrogenous nature 
of protoplasm, and noted that it preceded the formation of the 
cell-membrane. But by the ordinary student of thirty years 
latej their work was to some extent overlooked, and the cell-wall 
assumed a prominence to which it was not entitled. The study 
of the differentiation of protoplasm was at that time seldom 
undertaken, and no particular attention was paid either to 
fixing it, to enable staining methods to be accurately applied to 
it, or to studying the action of chemical reagents upon it. It is 
only comparatively recently that the methods of histological 
investigation used by animal physiologists have been carefully 
and systematically applied to the study of the vegetable organ- 
isms. They have, however, been attended with wonderful 
results, and have revolutionized the whole study of vegetable 
structure. They have emphasized the statements of Von 
Mohl, Cohn, and other writers alluded to, that the protoplasm 
is here also the dominant factor of the body, and that all the 
peculiarities of the cell-wall can only be interpreted in the light 
of the needs of the living substance. 

The Nature of the Organization of the Plant, and the Relations 
of the Cell-Membrane and the Protoplasm. This view of the 
structure of the plant and this method of investigation lead us 
to a greatly modified conception of its organization, and afford 
more completely an explanation of the peculiarities of form 
found in the vegetable kingdom. 

The study of simple organisms, many of which consist of 
nothing but a little mass of protoplasm, exhibiting a very 
rudimentary degree of differentiation, so far as our methods 
enable us to determine any at all, shows that the duties ol 
existence can be discharged in the absence of any cell-wall. 
Those organisms which possess the latter are a little higher in 
the scale of life than those which remain unclothed by it, but a 
comparison of the behaviour of the two quickly enables us to 
say that the membrane is of but secondary importance, and 
that for those which possess it, it is nothing more than a protec- 
tive covering for the living substance. Its physical properties, 
permeability by water, extensibility and elasticity, receive 
their interpretation in the needs of the latter. We come, 
accordingly, to regard it as practically an exoskeleton, and its 
functions as distinctly subordinate to those of the protoplasm 
which it clothes. If we pass a little higher up the scale ot life 
we meet with forms consisting of two or more cells, each of 
which contains a similar minute mass of living substance. A 
study of them shows that each is practically independent of the 
others; in fact, the connexion between them is so slight that 
they can separate and each become free without the slightest dis- 
advantage to another. So long as they are connected together 
mechanically they have apparently the power of influencing 
one another in various ways, and of passing liquid or gaseous 
materials from one to another. The conjoined organism is, 
in fact, a colony or association of the protoplasmic units, though 
each unit retains its independence. When we pass, again, 
from these to examine more bulky, and consequently more 
complex, plants, we find that the differences which can be ob- 
served between them and the simple lowly forms are capable 
of being referred to the increased number of the protoplasmic 
units and the consequent enlarged bulk of the mass or colony. 
Every plant is thus found to be composed of a number of these 
protoplasmic units, or, as they may preferably be termed, 



PHYSIOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



745 



protoplasts, all of which are at first exactly alike in appearance 
and in properties. This is evident in the case, of such plants as 
have a body consisting of filaments or plates of cells, and is 
little less conspicuous in those whose mass is but small, though 
the cells are evidently capable of computation in three dimen- 
sions. It does not at first appear to be the same with the 
bulkier plants, such as the ordinary green herbs, shrubs or trees, 
but a study of their earlier development indicates that they do 
not at the outset differ in any way from the simple undifferen- 
tiated forms. Each commences its existence as a simple naked 
protoplast, in the embroyo-sac or the archegonium, as the case 
may be. After the curious fusion with another similar proto- 
plast, which constitutes what we call fertilization, the next 
stage in complexity already noted may be observed, the proto- 
plasm becoming clothed by a cell-membrane. Very soon the 
single cell gives rise to a chain of cells, and this in turn to a cell 
mass, the individual units of which are at first quite uniform. 
With increase of number, however, and consequently enlarge- 
ment of bulk in the colony, differentiation becomes compulsory. 
The requirements of the several protoplasts must be met by 
supplies from without, and, as many of them are deep seated, 
varieties of need arise, so that various members of the colony 
are set apart for special duties, masses of them being devoted 
to the discharge of one function, others to that of another, and 
so on. Such limitations of the powers and properties of the 
individuals have for their object the well-being of the community 
of which those individuals are constituents. 

Physiological and Morphological Differentiation. The first 
indication of this differentiation in the vegetative body of the 
plant can be seen not only in the terrestrial green plants which 
have been particularly referred to, but also in the bulkier sea- 
weeds. It is an extension of the first differentiation which was 
observable in the simple protoplasts first discussed, the formation, 
that is, of a protective covering. Fucus and its allies, which 
form conspicuous members of the larger Algae, have their 
external cells much smaller, more closely put together, and 
generally much denser than the rest of their tissue. In the lowly 
as well as the higher green plants we have evidence of special- 
ization of the external protoplasts for the same purpose, which 
takes various shapes and shows different degrees of complete- 
ness, culminating in the elaborate barks which clothe our forest 
trees. 

The second prominent differentiation which presents itself 
takes the form of a provision to supply the living substance 
with water. This is a primal necessity of the protoplast, and 
every cell gives evidence of its need by adopting one of the 
various ways in which such need is supplied. What little 
differentiation can be found to exist in the protoplasm of the 
simple unicellular organism shows the importance of an adequate 
water-supply, and indeed, the dependence of life upon it. The 
naked cells which have been alluded to live in water, and call 
therefore for no differentiation in connexion with this necessity; 
but those which are surrounded by a cell-wall always develop 
within themselves a vacuole or cavity which occupies the greater 
part of their interior, and the hydrostatic pressure of whose 
contents keeps the protoplasm in contact with the membrane, 
setting up a condition of turgidity. 

The need for a constant supply of water is partly based upon 
the constitution of protoplasm, so far as we know it. The 
apparently structureless substance is saturated with it; and if 
once a cell is completely dried, even at a low temperature, in the 
enormous majority of cases its life is gone and the restoration 
of water fails to enable it to recover. Besides this intimate 
relationship, however, we can point to other features of the 
necessity for a constantly renewed water supply. The proto- 
plasm derives its food from substances in solution in the water; 
the various waste products which are incident to its life are 
excreted into it, and so removed from the sphere of its activity. 
The raw materials from which the food is constructed are ab- 
sorbed from the exterior in solution in water, and the latter is 
the medium through which the gaseous constituents necessary 
for life reach the protoplasm. Moreover, growth is essentially 



dependent upon water-supply. There is little wonder, then, 
that in a colony of protoplasts such as constitute a large plant 
a considerable degree of differentiation is evident, bearing upon 
the question of water supply. Certain cells of the exterior are 
set apart for absorption of water from the soil, this being the 
source from which supplies are derived. Others are devoted 
to the work of carrying it to the protoplasts situated in the 
interior and at the extremities of the plant, a conducting system 
of considerable complexity being the result. 

Other collections of cells are in many cases set apart for giving 
rigidity and strength to the mass of the plant. It is evident 
that as the latter increases in bulk, more and more attention 
must be paid to the dangers of uprooting by winds and storms. 
Various mechanisms have been adopted in different cases, some 
connected with the subterranean and others with the sub-aerial 
portions of the plant. Another kind of differentiation in such a 
cell-mass as we are dealing with is the setting apart of particular 
groups of cells for various metabolic purposes. We have 
the formation of numerous mechanisms which have arisen in 
connexion with the question of food supply, which may not 
only involve particular cells, but also lead to differentiation 
in the protoplasm of those cells, as in the development of the 
chloroplastids of the leaves and other green parts. 

The inter-relations of the members of a large colony of proto- 
plasts such as constitute a tree, demand much adjustment. 
Relations with the exterior are continually changing, and the 
needs of different regions of the interior are continually varying, 
from time to time. Two features which are essentially proto- 
plasmic assume a great importance when we consider these 
relations. They are the power of receiving impressions or 
stimuli from the exterior, and of communicating with each 
other, with the view of co-ordinating a suitable response. We 
have nothing structural which corresponds to the former of 
these. In this matter, differentiation has proceeded very 
differently in animals and plants respectively, no nerves or sense 
organs being structurally recognizable. Communication between 
the various protoplasts of the colony is, however, carried on 
by means of fine protoplasmic threads, which are continuous 
through the cell-walls. 

All the peculiarities of structure which we encounter conse- 
quently support the view with which we started, that the proto- 
plasm of the plant is the dominant factor in vegetable structure, 
and that there need be but one subject of physiology, which 
must embrace the behaviour of protoplasm wherever found. 
There can be no doubt that there is no fundamental difference 
between the living substance of animals and plants, for many 
forms exist which cannot be referred with certainty to either 
kingdom. Free-swimming organisms without cell-membranes 
exist in both, and from them series of forms can be traced in 
both directions. Cellulose, the material of which vegetable 
cell-walls are almost universally composed, at any rate in their 
early condition, is known to occur, though only seldom, among 
animal organisms. Such forms as Vohox and the group of the 
Myxomycetes have been continually referred to both kingdoms, 
and their true systematic position is still a subject of controversy. 
All physiology, consequently, must be based upon the identity 
of the protoplasm of all living beings. 

This method of study has to a large extent modified our ideas 
of the relative importance of the parts of such an organism as 
a large tree. The interest with which we regard the latter no 
longer turns upon the details of the structure of its trunk, limbs 
and roots, to which the living substance of the more superficial 
parts was subordinated. Instead of regarding these as only 
ministering to the construction of the bulky portions, the living 
protoplasts take the first place as the essential portion of the 
tree, and all the other features are important mainly as minister- 
ing to their individual well-being and to their multiplication. 
The latter feature is the growth of the tree, the well-being of the 
protoplasts is its life and health. The interest passes from the 
bulky dense interior, with the elaborate features of its cell -walls, 
to the superficial parts, where its life is in evidence. We see 
herein the reason for the great subdivision of the body, with its 



746 



PLANTS 



[PHYSIOLOGY 



finely cut twigs and their ultimate expansions, the leaves, and 
we recognize that this subdivision is only an expression of the 
need to place the living substance in direct relationship with the 
environment. The formation and gradually increasing thickness 
of its bark are explained by the continually increasing need of 
adequate protection to the living cortex, under the strain of the 
increasing framework which the enormous multiplication of 
its living protoplasts demands, and the development of which 
leads to continual rupture of the exterior. The increasing 
development of the wood as the tree grows older is largely due 
to the demands for the conduction of water and mineral matters 
dissolved in it, which are made by the increased number of leaves 
which from year to year it bears, and which must each be put 
into communication with the central mass by the formation 
of new vascular bundles. Similar considerations apply to the 
peculiar features of the root-system. All these points of struc- 
ture can only be correctly interpreted after a consideration 
of the needs of the individual protoplasts, and of the large 
colony of which they are members. 

Gaseous Interchanges and their Mechanism. Another feature 
of the construction of the plant has in recent years come into 
greater prominence than was formerly the case. The organism 
is largely dependent for its vital processes upon gaseous inter- 
changes. It must receive a large constituent of what ultimately 
becomes its food from the air which surrounds it, and it must also 
take in from the same source the oxygen of its respiratory 
processes. On the other hand, the aerial environment presents 
considerable danger to the young and tender parts, where the 
protoplasts are most exposed to extremes of heat, cold, wet, &c. 
These must in some way be harmonized. No doubt the primary 
object of the cell- wall of even the humblest protoplast is pro- 
tection, and this too is the meaning cf the coarser tegumentary 
structures of a bulkier plant. These vary considerably in 
completeness with its age; in its younger parts the outer cells 
wall undergoes the change known as cuticularization, the material 
being changed both in chemical composition and in physical 
properties. The corky layers which take so prominent a share 
in the formation of the bark are similarly modified and subserve 
the same purpose. But these protective layers are in the main 
impermeable by gases and by either liquid or vapour, and prevent 
the access of either to the protoplasts which need them. Investi- 
gations carried out by Blackman, and by Brown and Escombe, 
have shown clearly that the view put forward by Boussingault, 
that such absorption of gases takes place through the cuticular 
covering of the younger parts of the plant, is erroneous and can 
no longer be supported. The difficulty is solved by the provision 
of a complete system of minute intercellular spaces which form 
a continuous series of delicate canals between the cells, extending 
throughout the whole substance of the plant. Every protoplast, 
except in the very young regions, has part of its surface abutting 
on these, so that its wall is accessible to the gases necessary 
for its vital processes. There is no need for cuticularization 
here, as the external dangerous influences do not reach the 
interior, and the processes of absorption which Boussingault 
attributed to the external cuticularized cells can take place 
freely through the delicate cell-walls of the interior, saturated 
as these are with water. This system of channels is in com- 
munication with the outer atmosphere through numerous 
small apertures, known as slomata, which are abundant upon 
the leaves and young twigs, and gaseous interchange between 
the plant and the air is by their assistance rendered constant 
and safe. This system of intercellular spaces, extending 
throughout the plant, constitutes a reservoir, charged with an 
atmosphere which differs somewhat in its composition from the 
external air, its gaseous constituents varying from time to time 
and from place to place, in consequence of the interchanges 
between itself and the protoplastE. It constitutes practically 
the exterior environment of the protoplasts, though it is ramify- 
ing through the interior of the plant. 

The importance of this provision in the case of aquatic vascular 
plants of sturdy bulk is even greater than in that of terrestrial 
organisms, as their environment offers considerable obstacles 



to the renewal of the air in their interior. They are without 
stomata on their submerged portions, and the entry of gases 
can only take place by diffusion from the water through their 
external cells, which are not cuticularized. Those which are 
only partially submerged bear stomata on their exposed portions, 
so that their environment approximates towards that of a 
terrestrial plant, but the communication even in their case is much 
less easy and complete, so that they need a much larger reservoir 
of air in their ulterior. This is secured by the development 
of much larger intercellular spaces, amounting to lacunae or 
passages of very considerable size, which are found ramifying 
in different ways in their interior. 

Transpiration. In the case of terrestrial plants, the continual 
renewal of the water contained in the vacuoles of the protoplasts 
demands a copious and continuous evaporation. This serves 
a double purpose, bringing up from the soil continually a supply 
of the soluble mineral matters necessary for their metabolic 
processes, which only enter the plant in solutions of extreme 
dilution, and at the same time keeping the plant cool by the 
process of evaporation. The latter function has been found to 
be of extreme importance in the case of plants exposed to the 
direct access of the sun's rays, the heat of which would rapidly 
cause the death of the protoplasts were it not employed in the 
evaporation of the water. Brown and Escombe have shown that 
the amount of solar energy taken up by a green leaf may often 
be fifty times as much as it can utilize in the constructive pro- 
cesses of which it is the seat. If the heat were allowed to accu- 
mulate in the leaf unchecked, they have computed that its 
temperature would rise during bright sunshine at the rate of 
more than 12 C. per minute, with of course very rapidly fatal 
results. What is not used in the constructive processes is 
employed in the evaporation of the water, the leaf being thus 
kept cool. Whether the leaf is brightly or only moderately 
illuminated, the same relative proportions of the total energy 
absorbed are devoted to the purposes of composition and con- 
struction respectively. This large evaporation, which constitutes 
the so-called transpiration of plants, takes place not into the 
external air but into this same intercellular space system, being 
possible only through the delicate cell-walls upon which it abuts, 
as the external coating, whether bark, cork or cuticle, is 
impermeable by watery vapour. The latter ultimately reaches 
the external air by diffusion through the stomata, whose dimen- 
sions vary in proportion as the amount of water in the epidermal 
cells becomes greater or less. 

Mechanism and Function of Stomata. It is not quite exact 
to speak of either the gaseous interchanges or the transpiration 
as taking place through the stomata. The entry of gases into, 
and exit from, the cells, as well as the actual exhalation of watery 
vapour from the latter, take place in the intercellular space 
system of which the stomata are the outlets. The opening and 
closing of the stomata is the result of variation in the turgidity of 
their guard cells, which is immediately affected by the condition 
of turgidity of the cells of the epidermis contiguous to them. 
The amount of watery vapour in the air passing through a 
stoma has no effect upon it, as the surfaces of the guard cells 
abutting on the air chamber are strongly cuticularized, and there- 
fore impermeable. The only way in which their turgidity is 
modified is by the entry of water into them from the contiguous 
cells of the general epidermis and its subsequent withdrawal 
through the same channel. This opening and closing of the 
stomata must be looked upon as having a direct bearing only 
on the emission of watery vapour. There is a distinct advantage 
in the regulation of this escape, and the mechanism is directly 
connected with the greater or smaller quantity of water in the 
plant, and especially in its epidermal cells. This power of 
varying the area of the apertures by which gases enter the 
internal reservoirs is not advantageous to the gaseous inter- 
changes indeed it may be directly the reverse. It may lead 
to an incipient asphyxiation, as the supply of oxygen may be 
greatly interfered with and the escape of carbon dioxide may be 
almost stopped. It may at other times lead to great difficulties 
in the supply of the gaseous constituents which are used in the 



PHYSIOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



747 



manufacture of food. The importance of transpiration, is, 
however, so great, that these risks must be run. 

The Ascent of Water in Trees. The supply of water to the 
peripheral protoplasts of a tree is consequently of the first 
importance. The means by which such a supply is ensured are 
by no means clearly understood, but many agencies are probably 
at work. The natural source of the water is in all cases the soil, 
and few plants normally obtain any from elsewhere. The water 
of the soil, which in well-drained soil is met with in the form of 
delicate films surrounding the particles of solid matter, is 
absorbed into the plant by the delicate hairs borne by the young 
roots, the entry being effected by a process of modified osmosis. 
Multitudes of such hairs on the branches of the roots cause the 
entry of great quantities of water, which by a subsequent similar 
osmotic action accumulates in the cortex of the roots. The great 
turgidity which is thus caused exerts a considerable hydrostatic 
pressure on the stele of the root, the vessels of the wood of which 
are sometimes filled with water, but at other times contain air, 
and this often under a pressure less than the ordinary atmospheric 
pressure. This pressure of the turgid cortex on the central 
stele is known as root pressure, and is of very considerable amount. 
This pressure leads to the filling of the vessels of the wood of 
both root and stem in the early part of the year, before the leaves 
have expanded, and gives rise to the exudation of fluid known as 
bleeding when young stems are cut in early spring. 

Root pressure is one of the forces co-operating in the forcing 
of the water upwards. The evaporation which is associated with 
transpiration is no doubt another, but by themselves they are 
insufficient to explain the process of lifting water to the tops of 
tall trees. There is at present also a want of agreement among 
botanists as to the path which the water takes in the structural 
elements of the tree, two views being held. The older is that the 
water travels in the woody cell-walls of the vascular bundles, 
mainly under the action of the forces of root pressure and trans- 
piration, and that the cavities of the vessels contain only air. The 
other is that the vessels are not empty, but that the water travels 
in their cavities, which contain columns of water in the course of 
which are large bubbles of air. On this view the water flows 
upwards under the influence of variations of pressure and tension 
in the vessels. These forces however fail to furnish a complete 
explanation of the ascent of the current, and others have been 
thought to supplement them, which have more or less weight. 
Westermaier and Godlewski put forward the view that the living 
cells of the medullary rays of the wood, by a species of osmosis, 
act as a kind of pumping apparatus, by the aid of which the 
water is lifted to the top of the tree, a series of pumping-stations 
being formed. Though this at first met with some acceptance, 
Strasburger showed that the action goes on in great lengths of 
stem the cells of which have been killed by poison or by the 
action of heat. More recently, Dixon and Joly in Dublin and 
Askenasy in Germany have suggested the action of another 
force. They have shown that columns of water of very small 
diameter can so resist tensile strain that they can be lifted bodily 
instead of flowing along the channel. They suggest that the 
forces causing the movement are complex, and draw particular 
attention to the pull upwards in consequence of disturbances in 
the leaves. In these we have (i) the evaporation from the damp 
delicate cell-walls into the intercellular spaces; (2) the imbibition 
by the cell-wall of water from the vacuole; (3) osmotic action, 
consequent upon the subsequent increased concentration of the 
cell sap, drawing water from the wood cells or vessels which abut 
upon the leaf parenchyma. They do not, of course, deny the 
co-operation of the other forces which have been suggested, 
except so far as these are inconsistent with the motion of the 
water in the form of separate columns rather than a flowing 
stream. This view requires the existence of certain anatomical 
Arrangements to secure the isolation of the separate columns, and 
cannot be said to be fully established. 

Nature of the Food of Plants. The recognition of the fundamental 
identity of the living substance in animals and plants has directed 
attention to the manner in which plants are nourished, and especially 
to the exact nature of their food. The idea was till recently currently 
accepted, that anything which plants absorbed from without, and 



which went to build up their organic substance, or to supply them 
with energy, or to exert some beneficial influence upon their meta- 
bolism, constituted their food. Now, as the materials which plants 
absorb are carbon dioxide from the air, and various inorganic 
compounds from the soil, together with water, it is clear that if this 
view is correct, vegetable protoplasm must be fed in a very different 
way from animal, and on very different materials. A study of the 
whole vegetable kingdom, however, negatives the theory that the 
compounds absorbed are in the strict sense to be called food. Fungal 
and phanerogamic parasites can make no use of such substances as 
carbon dioxide, but draw elaborated products from the bodies of 
their hosts. Those Fungi which are saprophytic can only live 
when supplied with organic compounds of some complexity, which 
they derive from decomposing animal or vegetable matter. Even 
in the higher flowering plants, in which the processes of the absorp- 
tion of substances from the environment has been most fully studied, 
there is a stage in their life in which the nutritive processes approxi- 
mate very closely to those of the group last mentioned. When the 
young sporophyte first begins its independent life ^when, that is, 
it exists in the form of the embryo in the seed its living substance 
has no power of utilizing the simple inorganic compounds spoken of. 
Its nutritive pabulum is supplied to it in the shape of certain complex 
organic substances which have_ been stored in some part or other of 
the seed, sometimes even in its own tissues, by the parent plant 
from which it springs. When the tuber of a potato begins to ger- 
minate the shoots which it puts out derive their food from the 
accumulated store of nutritive material which has been laid up jn 
the cells of the tuber. If we examine the seat of active growth in 
a young root or twig, we find that the cells in which the organic 
substance, the protoplasm, of the plant is being formed and increased, 
are not supplied with carbon dioxide and mineral matter, but with 
such elaborated material as sugar and proteid substances, or others 
closely allied to them. 

Identity of the Food of Animals and Plants. It is evidently to the 
actual seats of consumption of food, and of consequent nutrition 
and increase of living substance, that we should turn when we wish 
to inquire what are the nutritive materials of plants. If we go back 
to the first instance cited, the embryo in the seed and its development 
during germination, we can ascertain what is necessary for its life 
by inquiring what are the materials which are deposited in the seed, 
and which become exhausted by consumption as growth and develop- 
ment proceed. We find them to consist of representatives of the 
great classes of foodstuffs on which animal protoplasm is nourished, 
and whose presence renders seeds such valuable material for animal 
consumption. They are mainly carbohydrates such as starch and 
sugar, proteids in the form of globulins or albumoses, and in many 
cases fats and oils, while certain other bodies of similar nutritive 
value are less widely distributed. 

The differences between the nutritive processes of the animal 
and the plant are not therefore fundamental, as they were formerly 
held to be. The general vegetable protoplasm has not the capacity 
of being nourished by inorganic substances which are denied to the 
living substance of the animal world. Differences connected with 
the mode of supply of nutritive material do exist, but they are mainly 
correlated with the structure of the organisms, which makes the 
method of absorption different. The cell-walls of plants render the 
entry of solid material into the organism impossible. The food 
must enter in solution in order to pass the walls. Moreover, the 
stationary habit of plants, and the almost total absence of locomo- 
tion, makes it impossible for them to seek their food. 

The Special Apparatus of Plants for constructing Food. The 
explanation of the apparent difference of food supply is very simple. 
Plants are furnished with a constructive mechanism by which they 
are enabled to fabricate the food on which they live from the inor- 
ganic, gaseous and liquid matters which they absorb. The fact 
of such absorption does not render these substances food; they are 
taken in not as food, but as raw materials to be subjected to the 
action of this constructive mechanism, and by it to be converted 
into substances that can nourish protoplasm, both vegetable and 
animal. It is sometimes forgotten, when discussing questions of 
animal nutrition, that all the food materials of all living organisms 
are prepared originally from inorganic substances in exactly the same 
way, in exactly the same place, and by the same machinery, which is 
the chlorophyll apparatus of the vegetable kingdom. A consideration 
of these facts emphasizes still more fully the view with which we set 
out, that all living substance is fundamentally the same, though 
differentiated both anatomically and physiologically in many direc- 
tions and in different degrees. All is nourished alike on materials 
originally prepared by a mechanism attached to the higher vegetable 
organism, and capable of being dissociated, in theory at least, 
from its own special means of nutrition, if by the latter term we 
understand the appropriation by the protoplasm of the materials 
so constructed. 

The chlorophyll apparatus of plants demands a certain descrip- 
tion. It consists essentially of a number of minute corpuscles or 
plastids, the protoplasmic substance of which is impregnated with a 
green colouring matter. These bodies, known technically as chloro- 
plasts, are found embedded in the protoplasm of the cells of the meso- 
phyll of foliage leaves, of certain of the cells of some of the leaves of 
the flower, and of the cortex of the young twigs and petioles. Usually 



PLANTS 



[PHYSIOLOGY 



they are absent from the cells of the epidermis, though in some of 
the lower plants they are met with there also. The plastids are not 
rigidly embedded in the cytoplasm, but are capable of a certain 
amount of movement therein. Each is a small protoplasmic 
body, in the meshes of whose substance the green colouring matter 
chlorophyll is contained in some form of solution. Various solvents, 
such as benzene, alcohol and chloroform, will dissolve out the 
pigment, leaving the plastid colourless. Chlorophyll is not soluble 
in water, nor in acids or alkalies without decomposition. 

These plastids are especially charged with the duty of manufactur- 
ing carbohydrates from the carbon dioxide which the air contains, 
and which is absorbed from it after it has entered the! intercellular 
passages and has so reached the cells containing the plastids. This 
action is found to take place only in the presence of light, preferably 
moderate sunlight. The reason for the distribution of the chloro- 
plasts described above is consequently seen. The relation of the 
chlorophyll to light has been studied by many observers. If a 
solution of the pigment is placed in the path of a beam of light which 
is then allowed to fall on a prism, the resulting spectrum will be 
found to be modified. Instead of presenting the appearance of a 
continuous band in which all the colours are represented, it is 
interrupted by seven vertical dark spaces. The rays which in the 
absence of the solution of chlorophyll would have occupied those 
spaces have no power to pass through it, or in other words chlorophyll 
absorbs those particular rays of light which are missing. 

The absorption of these rays implies that the pigment absorbs 
radiant energy from the sun, and gives us some explanation of its 
power of constructing the carbohydrates which has been mentioned 
as the special work of the apparatus. The working of it is not at 
all completely understood at present, nor can we say exactly what 
is the part played by the pigment and what is the r61e of the proto- 
plasm of the plastid. It is not certain either whether the action 
of the chlorophyll apparatus is confined to the manufacture of 
carbohydrates or whether it is concerned, and if so how far, with 
the construction of proteids also. 

As the action of the chlorophyll apparatus is directly dependent 
upon light, and the immediate result of its activity is the building 
up of complex compounds, it has become usual to speak of the 
processes it sets up under the name of photosynthesis. 

Photosynthesis. In the presence of light and when the plant is 
subjected to a suitable temperature, photosynthesis commences, 
provided that the plant has access to air containing its normal 
amount of carbon dioxide, about 3 parts, or rather less, in 10,000. 
The process involves the inter-action of water also, and this, as we 
have seen, is always present in the cell. In addition, certain in- 
organic salts, particularly certain compounds of potassium, are 
apparently necessary, but they seem to take no part in the chemical 
changes which take place. The original hypothesis of Baeyer sug- 
gested that the course of events is the following : the carbon dioxide 
is decomposed into carbon monoxide and oxygen, while water is 
simultaneously split up into hydrogen and oxygen; the hydrogen 
and the carbon monoxide unite to form formaldehyde and the oxygen 
is exhaled. This explanation is unsatisfactory from many points 
of view, but till quite recently no acceptable alternative has been 
advanced. There is no evidence that carbon monoxide is ever 
produced, indeed there are strong reasons for disbelieving in its 
occurrence. The formation of formaldehyde has till recently not 
been satisfactorily proved, though it has been obtained from certain 
leaves by distillation. Certain Algae have been found capable of 
forming nutritive carbohydrates in darkness, when supplied with 
a compound of this body with sodium-hydrogen-sulphite. But it 
is certain that it can only be present in a cell in very small amount 
at any moment, for an extremely dilute solution acts as a poison 
to protoplasm. If formed, as it probably is, it is immediately 
changed into some more complex combination, and so rendered 
incapable of exerting its poisonous action. 

Baeyer's hypothesis was entertained by botanists partly because 
it explained the gaseous interchanges accompanying photosynthesis. 
These show that a definite intake of carbon dioxide is always 
accompanied by an exhalation of an equal volume of oxygen. 

Recent investigations have confirmed Baeyer's view of the forma- 
tion of formaldehyde, but a different explanation has been recently 
advanced. The first chemical change suggested is an interaction 
between carbon dioxide and water, under the influence of light acting 
through chlorophyll, which leads to the simultaneous formation of 
formaldehyde and hydrogen peroxide. The formaldehyde at once 
undergoes a process of condensation or polymerization by the proto- 
plasm of the plastid, while the hydrogen peroxide is said to be 
decomposed into water and free oxygen by another agency in the 
cell, of the nature of one of the enzymes of which we shall speak 
later. 

Polymerization of the aldehyde was also a feature of Baeyer's 
hypothesis, so that this view does not very materially differ from 
those he advanced. More emphasis is, however, now laid on the 
action of the plastid in polymerization, while the initial stages are 
still not definitely explained. 

The steps which lead from the appearance of formaldehyde to 
that of the first well-defined carbohydrate are again matters of 
speculation. There are many possibilities, but no definite body 
of simpler composition than a sugar has so far been detected. Nor 



is the nature of the first formed sugar certain; the general opinion 
has been that it is a simple hexose such as glucose or fructose, 
CeHizOs. Brown and Morris in 1892 advanced strong reasons for 
thinking that cane-sugar, Ci 2 H M On, is the first carbohydrate 
synthesized, and that the hexosts found in the plant result from 
the decomposition of this. The whole story of the different 
sugars existing in the plant their relations^ and their several 
functions requires renewed investigation. 

The first visible carbohydrate formed, one which appears so 
rapidly on the commencement of photosynthesis as to have been 
regarded as the first evidence of the setting up of the process, is 
starch. This is met with in the form of small granular specks in 
the substance of the chloroplast, specks which assume a blue colour 
when treated with a solution of iodine. Its very prompt appear- 
ance, as soon as the apparatus became active, led to the opinion 
formerly held, that the work of the latter was complete only when the 
starch was formed. We have seen that the starch is preceded by the 
formation of sugar, and its appearance is now interpreted as a sign 
of surplus manufacture. As much sugar as is produced in excess 
of the immediate requirements of the cell is converted into the 
insoluble form of starch by the plastidsof the chlorophyll apparatus, 
and is so withdrawn from the sphere of action, thereby enabling 
the construction of further quantities of sugar to take place. The 
presence of too much sugar in solution in the sap of the cell inhibits 
the activity of the chloroplasts; hence the necessity for its removal. 
Starch, indeed, wherever it appears in the plant seems to be a reserve 
store of carbohydrate material, deposited where it is found for 
longer or shorter periods till it is needed for consumption. The 
readiness with which it is converted into sugar fits it especially to 
be a reserve or stored material. 

Proteid Formation. We have seen that it has been suggested that 
the.chlorophyll apparatus may perhaps be concerned in the manu- 
facture of proteids as well as of carbohydrates. If not, there must 
exist in the green plant, side by side with it, another mechanism 
which is concerned with the manufacture of the complex compounds 
in which nitrogen is present. The independence of the two is sug- 
gested by the fact that fungi can live, thrive and grow in nutritive 
media which contain carbohydrates together with certain salts 
of ammonia, but which are free from proteids. It is certain that 
their protoplasm cannot be nourished by inorganic compounds of 
nitrogen, any more than that of animals. We must therefore 
surmise their possession of a mechanism which can construct proteids, 
if supplied with these compounds of nitrogen together with sugar. 

The probability is that this mechanism is to be found in green 
plants in the leaves at any rate there is a certain body of evidence 
pointing in this direction. It may be, however, that there is no 
special mechanism, but that this power is a particular differentiation 
of a physiological kind, existing in all vegetable protoplasm, or in 
that of certain cells. The idea of an identity of protoplasm does 
not involve a denial of special powers developed in it in different 
situations, and the possession of such a power by the vegetable 
cell is not more striking than the location of the powers of co-ordina- 
tion and thought in the protoplasm of cells of the human brain. 

But if we accept either view we have still to examine the process 
of construction in detail, with a view to ascertaining the stages by 
which proteid is built up. Here unfortunately we find ourselves 
in the region of speculation and hypothesis rather than in that of 
fact. The nitrogen is absorbed by the plant in some form of combi- 
nation from the soil. The green plant prefers as a rule nitrates of 
various metals, such as calcium, magnesium or potassium. The 
fungus seems to do better when supplied with compounds of 
ammonia. The nitrogen of the atmosphere is not called into re- 
quisition, except by a few plants and under special conditions, as 
will be explained later. The fate of these inorganic compounds 
has not been certainly traced, but they give rise later on to the 
presence in the plant of various amino acid amides, such as leucin, 
glycin, asparagin, &c. That these are stages on the way to proteids 
has been inferred from the fact that when proteids are split up by 
various means, and especially by the digestive secretions, these 
nitrogen-containing acids are among the products which result. 

While we know little of the processes of proteid-construction, we 
are almost completely in the dark also as to what are the particular 
proteids which are first constructed. 

Opinions are conflicting also as to the conditions under which 
proteids are formed. There is a certain amount of evidence that at 
any rate in some cases light is necessary, and that the violet rays 
of the spectrum are chiefly concerned. But the subject requires 
elucidation from both chemical and biological points of view. 

The normal green plant is seen thus to be in possession of a 
complete machinery for the manufacture of its own food. The way 
in which such food when manufactured is incorporated into, and 
enabled to build up, the living substance is again hidden in obscurity. 
This is, however, also the case with the nutrition of animal proto- 
plasm. 

The building up and nutrition of the living substance by the 
foods manufactured or absorbed is properly spoken of as the assimi- 
lation of such food. Up to very recently the original absorption 
and subsequent treatment of the carbon dioxide ana the compounds 
of nitrogen has been called by the same term. We frequently find 
the expression used, "the 'assimilation' of carbon dioxide, or of 



PHYSIOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



749 



nitrogen." As this is not the incorporation of either into the living 
substance, but is only its manufacture into the complex substances 
which we find^in the plant, it seems preferable to limit the term 
" assimilation " to the processes by which foods are actually taken 
into the protoplasm. 

Symbiosis. Though green plants thus possess a very complete 
mechanism for the manufacture of their different foodstuffs, it is 
not always exercised to the fullest extent. Many of them are known 
to supplement it, and some almost entirely to replace it, by absorb- 
ing the food they need in a fully prepared condition from their 
environment. It may be that they procure it from decomposing 
organic matter in the soil, or they may get it by absorption from other 
plants to which they attach themselves, or they may in rare cases 
obtain it by preying upon insect life. The power of green plants, 
not even specialized in any of these directions, to absorb certain 
carbohydrates, particularly sugars, Irom the soil was demonstrated 
by Acton in 1889. Similar observations have been made in the 
case of various compounds of nitrogen, though these have not been 
so complex as the proteids. It was formerly the custom to regard 
as parasites all those p'ants which inserted roots or root-like organs 
into the tissues of other plants and absorbed the contents of the 
latter. The most conspicuous case, perhaps, of all these is the 
mistletoe, which flourishes luxuriantly upon the apple, the poplar 
and other trees. Bonnier has drawn attention to the fact that the 
mistletoe in its turn, remaining green in the winter, contributes 
food material to its host when the latter has lost its leaves. The 
relationship thus existing he showed to be mutually beneficial, each 
at one time or another supplying the necessities of the other. Such a 
relationship is known as symbiosis, and the large majority of the 
cases of so-called parasitism among green plants can be referred to 
it. Bonnier showed that the same relationship could be proved in 
the cases of such plants as the rattle (Rhinanthus) , the eye-bright 
(Euphrasia), and other members of the Natural Orders, Scrophulari- 
aceae and Santalaceae, which effect a union between their roots and 
the roots of other plants growing near them. The union taking 
place underground, while the bulk of both partners in the symbiosis 
rises into the air, renders the association a little difficult to see, 
but there is no doubt that the plants in question do afford each other 
assistance, forming, as it were, a kind of partnership. The most 
pronounced case of parasitism, that of Cuscuta, the dodder, which 
infests particularly clover fields, appears to differ only in degree 
from those mentioned, for the plant, bare of leaves as it is, yet con- 
tains a little chlorophyll. The advantages it can offer to its host 
are, however, infinitesimal when compared with the injury it does 
it. Many other cases of symbiosis have been investigated with 
some completeness, especially those in which lower plants than the 
Phanerogams are concerned. The relations of the Alga and the 
Fungus, which have formed a close associationship in the structure 
known as the Lichen, were established many years ago. Since about 
1880 our knowledge of the species which can enter into such 
relationships has been materially extended, and the fungal con- 
stituents of the Lichens are known to include Basidiomycetes as 
well as Ascomycetes. 

Mycorhizas. The most interesting cases, however, in which 
Fungi form symbiotic relationships with green plants have been 
discovered in connexion with forest trees. The roots of many of 
the latter, while growing freely in the soil are found to be surrounded 
with a dense feltwork of fungal mycelium, which sometimes forms a 
mass of considerable size. The plants showing it are not all forest 
trees, but include also some Pteridophytes and some of the prothallia 
of the Ferns, Club-mosses, Liverworts and Horsetails. The true 
nature of the relationship was first recognized by Pfeffer in 1877, 
but few cases were known till recent years. Very complete examina- 
tion, however, has now been made of many instances, and the name 
mycorhiza has been given to the symbiotic union. Two classes are 
recognized. In the first, which are called ectotropic, the fungal 
filaments form a thick felt or sheath round the root, either completely 
enclosing it or leaving the apex free. They seldom penetrate the 
living cells, though they do so in a few cases. The root-hairs pene- 
trate between masses of the hyphae of the Fungus. This type of 
mycorhiza is found among the Poplars, Oaks and Fir trees. The 
other type is called endctropic. The fungal filaments either pene- 
trate the epidermis of the root, or enter it from the stem and ramify 
in the interior. Some make their way through the cells of the outer 
part of the cortex towards the root-tip, and form a mycelium or 
feltwork of hyphae, which generally occupies two or three layers of 
cells. From this branches pass into the middle region of the cortex 
and ramify through the interior half of its cells. They often cause 
a considerable hypertrophy of the tissue. From the outer cortical 
mycelium, again, branches pass through the epidermis and grow 
out in the soil. In such cases the roots of the plants are usually 
found spreading in soils which contain a large amount of humus, 
or decaying vegetable matter. The organic compounds of the latter 
are absorbed by the protruding fungal filaments, which take the 
place of root-hairs, the tree ceasing to develop the latter. The food 
so absorbed passes to the outer cortical mycelium, and from this to 
the inner hyphae, which appear to be the organs of the interchange 
of substance, for they are attracted to the neighbourhood of the 
nuclei of the cells, which they enter, and in which they form agglom- 
erations of interwoven filaments. The prothalli of the Pterido- 



phytes, which form similar symbioses, show a somewhat different 
mode of arrangement, the Fungi occupying the external or the lower 
layers of the thalloid body. 

The discovery of the widespread occurrence of this mycorhizal 
symbiosis must be held to be one of the most important results of 
research upon the nutritive processes of plants during the closing 
decade of the igth century. Among green plants the symbionu 
include Conifers, Orchids, Heaths, Oaks, Poplars and Beeches, 
though all do not derive equal advantages from the association. 
Monotropas afford an extreme case of it, having lost their chlorophyll 
almost entirely, and come to depend upon the Fungi for their nutri- 
ment. The fungal constituents vary considerably. Each species 
of green plant may form a mycorhiza with two or three different 
Fungi, and a single species of Fungus may enter into symbiosis 
with several green plants. The Fungi that have been discovered 
taking part in the union include Eurotium. Pythium, Boletus, 
Agaricus, Lactarius, Penicillium and many others of less frequent 
occurrence. All the known species belong to the Oomycetes, the 
Pyrenomycetes, the Hymenomycetes or the Gasteromycetes. The 
habit of forming mycorhizas is found more frequently in warm cli- 
mates than cold; indeed, the percentage of the flora exhibiting this 
peculiarity seems to increase with a certain regularity from the 
Arctic Circle to the equator. 

Fixation of Nitrogen. Another, and perhaps an even more impor- 
tant, instance of symbiotic association has come to the front during 
the same period. It is an alliance between the plants of the Natural 
Order Leguminosae and certain bacterium-like forms which find a 
home within the tissues of their roots. The importance of the 
symbiosis can only be understood by considering the relationship in 
which plants stand with regard to the free nitrogen of the air. Long 
ago the view that this gas might be the source of the combined 
nitrogen found in different forms within the plant, was critically 
examined, particularly by Boussingault, and later by Lawes and 
Gilbert and by Pugh, and it was ascertained to be erroneous, the 
plants only taking nitrogen into their substance when it is presented 
to their roots in the form of nitrates of various metals, or compounds 
of ammonia. Many writers in recent years, among whom may be 
named especially Hellriegel and Wilfarth, Lawes and Gilbert, and 
Schlcesing and Laurent, have shown that the Leguminosae as a 
group form conspicuous exceptions to this rule. While they are 
quite capable of taking up nitrates from the soil where and so long 
as these are present, they can grow and thrive in soil which contains 
no combined nitrogen at all, deriving their supplies of this element 
in these cases from the air. The phenomena have been the subject 
of very careful and critical examination for many years, and may be 
regarded as satisfactorily established. The power of fixing atmo- 
spheric nitrogen by the higher plants seems to be confined to this 
solitary group, though it has been stated by various observers with 
more or less emphasis that it is shared by others. Frank has claimed 
to have found oats, buckbeans, spurry, turnips, mustard, potatoes 
and Norway maples exercising it; Nobbe and others have imputed 
its possession to Elaeagnus. There is little direct evidence pointing 
to this extension of the power, and many experimenters directly 
contradict the statements of Frank. 

The power exercised by the Leguminosae is associated with the 
presence of curious tubercular swellings upon their roots, which are 
developed at a very early age, as they are cultivated in ordinary soil. 
If experimental plants are grown in sterilized soil, these swellings do 
not appear, and the plant can then use no atmospheric nitrogen. 
The swellings have been found to be due to a curious hypertrophy 
of the tissue of the part, the cells being filled with an immense num- 
ber of minute bacterium-like organisms of V, X or Y shape. The 
development of these structures has been studied by many observers, 
both in England and on the continent of Europe. They appear 
to be present in large numbers in the soil, and to infect the Legumin- 
ous plant by attacking its root-hairs. One of these hairs can be 
seen to be penetrated at a particular spot, and the entering body 
is then found to grow along the length of the hair till it reaches the 
cortex of the root. It has the appearance of a delicate tube which 
has granular contents, and is provided with an apex that appears to 
be open. The wall of the tube is very thin and delicate, and does not 
seem to be composed of cellulose or any modification of it. Careful 
staining shows that the granular substance of the interior really 
consists of a large number of delicate rod-like bodies. As the tube 
grows down the hair it maintains its own independence, and does 
not fuse with the contents of the root-hair, whose protoplasm re- 
mains quite distinct and separate. After making its way int9 the 
interior, the intruder sets up a considerable hyper trophy of the tissue, 
causing the formation of a tubercle, which soon shows a certain 
differentiation, branches of the vascular bundles of the root being 
supplied to it. The rod-like bodies from the interior of the tube, 
which has considerable resemblance to the zoogloea of many Bacteria, 
are liberated into the interior of the cells of the tubercle and fill it, 
increasing by a process of branching and fission. When this stage 
is reached the invading tubes and their ramifications frequently 
disappear, leaving the cells full of the bacterioids, as they have been 
called. When the root dies later such of these as remain are dis- 
charged into the soil, and are then ready to infect new plants. In 
some cases the zoogloea thread or tube has not been seen, the organ- 
ism consisting entirely of the bacterioids. 



750 



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[PHYSIOLOGY 



This peculiar relationship suggests at once a symbiosis, the Fungus 
gaining its nutriment mainly or entirely from the green plant, while 
the latter in some way or other is able to utilize the free nitrogen of 
the air. The exact way in which the utilization or fixation of the 
nitrogen is effected remains undecided. Two views are still receiving 
certain support, though the second of them appears the more prob- 
able. These are: (i) That the green plant is so stimulated by the 
symbiotic association which leads to the hypertrophy, that it is 
able to fix the nitrogen or cause it to enter into combination. (2) 
That the fixation of the gas is carried out by the fungal organism 
either in the soil or in the plant, and the nitrogenous substance so 
produced is absorbed by the organism, which is in turn consumed 
by the green plant. Certain evidence which supports this view 
will be referred to later. 

Whichever opinion is held on this point, there seems no room 
for doubt that the fixation of the nitrogen is concerned only with the 
root, and that the green leaves take no part in it. The nodules, in 
particular, appear to play the important part in the process. Mar- 
shall Ward has directed attention to several points of their structure 
which bear out this view. They are supplied with a regular system 
of conducting vascular bundles communicating with those of the 
roots. Their cells during the period of incubation of the symbiotic 
organism are abundantly supplied with starch. The cells in which 
the fungoid organism is vigorously flourishing are exceedingly active, 
showing large size, brilliant nuclei, protoplasm and vacuole, all of 
which give signs of intense metabolic activity. The sap in these 
active tissues is alkaline, which has been interpreted as being in 
accordance with Loew's suggestion that the living protoplasm in 
presence of an alkali and free nitrogen can build up ammonium 
nitrate, or some similar body. It is, however, at present entirely 
unknown what substances are formed at the expense of the atmo- 
spheric nitrogen. 

The idea that the atmospheric nitrogen is gradually being made use 
of by plants, although it is clearly not easily or commonly utilized, 
has been growing steadily. Besides the phenomena of the symbiosis 
just discussed, certain experiments tend to show that we have 
a constant fixation of this gas in the soil by various Bacteria. 
Researches which have been carried out since 1885 by Berthelot, 
Andree, Laurent and Schlcesing, and more recently by Kossowitsch, 
seem to establish the fact, though the details of the process remain 
undiscovered. Berthelot imputes it to the action of several species 
of soil Bacteria and Fungi, including the Bacterium of the Legu- 
minosae, when the latter is cultivated free from its ordinary host. 
Laurent and Schlcesing affirm that the free nitrogen of the air can 
be fixed by a number of humble green plants, principally lowly green 
Algae. They must be exposed freely to light and air during the 
process, or they fail to effect it. Frank has stated that Penicilli'im 
cladiosporioides can flourish in a medium to which no nitrogen but 
that of the atmosphere has access. Kossowitsch claims to have 
proved that fixation of nitrogen takes place under the influence of a 
symbiosis of certain Algae and soil Bacteria, the process being much 
facilitated by the presence of sugar. The Algae include Nostoc, 
Cystococcus, Cylindrospermum and a few other forms. In the sym- 
biosis the Algae are supplied with nitrogen by the bacteria, and in 
turn they construct carbohydrate material, part of which goes to the 
microbes. This is supported by the fact that if the mixed culture 
js placed in the light there is a greater fixation than when it is left 
in darkness. If there is a plentiful supply of carbon dioxide, more 
nitrogen is fixed. 

Nitrification and Denitrification in the Soil. Another aspect of the 
nitrogen question has been the subject of much investigation and 
controversy since 1877. The round of changes which nitrogenous 
organic matter undergoes in the soil, and how it is ultimately made 
use of again by plants, presents some curious features. We have 
seen that when nitrogenous matter is present in the condition of 
humus, some plants can absorb it by their roots or by the aid of 
mycorhizas. But the changes in it in the usual course of nature 
are much more profound than these. It becomes in the soil the prey 
of various microbes. Ammonia appears immediately as a product 
of the disruption of the nitrogen-containing organic molecule. Later, 
oxidation processes take place, and the ammonia gives rise to 
nitrates, which are absorbed by plants. These two processes go on 
successively rather than simultaneously, so that it is only towards 
the end ot the decomposition of the organic matter that nitrification 
of the ammonia which is formed is set up. In this process of nitri- 
fication we can distinguish two phases, first the formation of nitrites, 
and secondly their oxidation to nitrates. The researches of Waring- 
ton in England and Winogradsky on the Continent have satis- 
factorily shown that two distinct organisms are concerned in it, 
and that probably more than one species of each exists. One of them 
comprising the genera Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus, has the power 
of oxidizing salts of ammonium to the condition of compounds of 
nitrous acid. When in a pure culture this stage has been reached 
no further oxidation takes place. The oxidation of the nitrites into 
nitrates is effected by another organism, much smaller than the 
first. The name Nitrobacter has been given to this genus, most of 
our knowledge of which is due to the researches of Winogradsky. 

The two kinds of organism are usually both present in the same 
soil, those of the second type immediately oxidizing the nitrites 
which those of the first form from ammonium salts. The Nitro- 



bacter forms not only cannot oxidize the latter bodies, but they are 
very injuriously affected by the presence of free ammonia. When 
cultivated upon a suitable nutritive material in the laboratory, 
the organism was killed by the presence of -015 % of this gas, and 
seriously inconvenienced by one-third as much. Except in this 
respect, however, the two classes show great similarity. A very 
interesting peculiarity attaching to them is their distaste for organic 
nutriment. They can be cultivated most readily on masses of 
gelatinous silica impregnated with the appropriate compounds of 
nitrogen, and their growth takes place most copiously in the 
absence of light. They need a little carbonate in the nutrient 
material, and the source of the carbon which is found in the increased 
bulk of the plant is partly that and partly the carbon dioxide of the 
air. 

We have in these plants a power which appears special to them, 
in the possession of some mechanism for the construction of organic 
substance which differs essentially from the chlorophyll apparatus 
of green plants, and yet brings about substantially similar results. 
The steps by which this carbon dioxide is built up into a compound 
capable of being assimilated by the protoplasm of the cells are 
not known. The energy for the purpose appears to be supplied by 
the oxidation of the molecules containing nitrogen, so that it is 
dependent upon such oxidation taking place. Winogradsky has- 
investigated this point with great care, and he has come to the 
conclusion that about 35 milligrammes of nitrogen are oxidized for 
each milligramme of carbon absorbed and fixed. 

Deposition and Digestion of .Reserve Materials in Plants and 
Animals. As we have seen, the tendency of recent research is to 
prove the identity of the mode of nutrition of vegetable and animal 
organisms. The material on which they feed is of the same descrip- 
tion and its treatment in the body is precisely similar. In both 
groups we find the presence of nutritive material in two forms, one 
specially fitted for transport, the other for storage. We have seen 
that in the plant the processes of construction go on in the seats of 
manufacture faster than those of consumption. We have the sur- 
plus sugar, for instance, deposited as starch in the chloroplasta 
themselves. The manufacture goes on very actively so long as 
light shines upon the leaves, and we find towards night a very great 
surplus stored in the cells. This excess of manufacture is one of the 
features of plant life, and is exhibited, though in various degrees, 
by all green plants. The accumulated material is made to minister 
to the need of the plant in various ways; it may be by increasing the 
bulk of the plant, as by the formation of the wood of the trunk, 
branches and roots; or it may be by laying up a store of nutritive 
materials for purposes of propagation, as in tubers, corms, seeds, &c. 
In any case the surplus is continuously being removed from the seats 
of its construction and deposited for longer or shorter periods in 
other parts of the structure, usually near the regions at which its 
ultimate consumption will take place. We have the deposition of 
starch, aleurone grains, amorphous proteids, fats, &c., in the 
neighbourhood of growing points, cambium rings and phellogens; 
also the more prolonged storage in tubers, seeds and other repro- 
ductive bodies. Turning to the animal, we meet with similar pro- 
visions in the storage of glycogen in the liver and other parts, of fat 
in various internal regions, and so on. In both we find the reserve 
of food, so far as it is in excess of immediate need, existing in twc- 
conditions, the one suitable for transport, the other for storage, 
and we see continually the transformation of the one into the other. 
The formation of the storage form at the expense of the travelling 
stream is due to the activity of some protoplasmic structure it 
may be a plastid or the general protoplasm of the cell and is a pro- 
cess of secretion. The converse process is one of a true digestion, 
which deserves the name no less because it is intracellular. We 
find processes of digestion strictly comparable to those of the 
alimentary canal of an animal in the case of the insectivorous 
Nepenthes, Drosera and other similar plants, and in the saprophytic 
Fungi. Those which now concern us recall the utilization of the 
glycogen of the liver, the stored fats and proteids of other parts of 
the animal body being like them intracellular. 

Enzymes. The agents which effect the digestive changes in plants 
have been studied with much care. They have been found to be 
mainly enzymes, which are in many cases identical with those of 
animal origin. A vast number of them have been discovered and 
investigated, and the majority call for a brief notice. Their number, 
indeed, renders it necessary to classify them, and rather to look at 
groups of them than to examine them one by one. They are usually 
classified according to the materials on which they work, and we 
may here notice especially four principal groups, the members of 
which take part in the digestion of reserve materials as well as in the 
processes of external digestion. These decompose respectively 
carbohydrates, glucosides, proteids and fats or oils. The action of 
the enzyme in nearly every case is one of hydration, the body acted 
on being made to take up water and to undergo a subsequent 
decomposition. 

Among those which act on carbohydrates the most important are: 
the two varieties of diastase, which convert starch into maltose or 
malt sugar; inulase, which forms fructose from inulin; invertase, 
which converts cane sugar into glucose (grape sugar) and fructose; 
glucase or maltase, which produces grape sugar from maltose; and 
cytase, which hydrolyses cellulose. Another enzyme which does 



PHYSIOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



not appear to be concerned with digestion so directly ac the others is 
pecta.se, which forms vegetable jelly from pectic substances occurring 
in the cell-wall. 

The enzymes which act upon glucosides are many; the best known 
are emulsin and myrosin, which split up respectively amygdalin, the 
special glucoside of certain plants of the Rosaceae; and sinigrin, 
which has a wide distribution among those of the Cruciferae. Others 
of less frequent occurrence are erythrozym, rhamnase and gaul- 
therase. 

The proteolytic enzymes, or those which digest proteids, are 
usually divided into two groups, one which breaks down ordinary 
proteids into diffusible bodies, known as peptones, which are them- 
selves proteid in character. Such an enzyme is the pepsin of the 
stomach of the higher animals. The other group attacks these 
peptones and breaks them down into the amino-acids of which we 
have spoken before. This group is represented by the erepsin of 
the pancreas and other organs. A third enzyme, the trypsin of the 
pancreas, possesses the power of both pepsin and erepsin. The 
relationships existing between these enzymes are still the subjects 
of fexperiment, and we cannot regard them as exhaustively examined. 
It is not quite certain whether a true pepsin exists in plants, but many 
trypsins have been discovered, and one form of erepsin, at least, is 
very widespread. Among the trypsins we have the papain of the 
Papaw fruit (Carica Papaya), the bromelin of the Pine-apple, and 
the enzymes present in many germinating seeds, in the seedlings of 
several plants, and in other parts. Another enzyme, rennet, which 
in the animal body is proteolytic, is frequently met with in plants, 
but its function has not been ascertained. 

The digestion of fat or oil has not been adequately investigated, 
but its decomposition in germinating seeds has been found to be due 
to an enzyme, which has been called lipase. It splits it into a fatty 
acid and glycerine, but seems to have no further action. The details 
of the further transformations have not yet been completely followed. 

Oxidases. Another class of enzymes has been discovered in both 
animals and plants, but they do not apparently take any part in 
digestion. They set up a process of oxidation in the substances 
which they attack, and have consequently been named oxidases. 
Very little is known about them. 

In many cases the digestion of reserve food materials is effected 
by the direct action of the protoplasm, without the intervention of 
enzymes. This property of living substance can be proved in the 
case of the cells of the higher plants, but it is especially prominent 
in many of the more lowly organisms, such as the Bacteria. The 
processes of putrefaction may be alluded to as affording an instance 
of such a power in the vegetable organisms. At the same time it 
must be remembered that the secretion of enzymes by Bacteria is 
of widespread occurrence. 

Supply and Distribution of Energy in Plants. It is well known that 
one of the conditions of life is the maintenance of the process which 
is known as respiration. It is marked by the constant and continu- 
ous absorption of a certain quantity of oxygen and by the exhalation 
of a certain volume of carbon dioxide and water vapour. There is 
no direct connexion between the two, the oxygen is absorbed almost 
immediately by the protoplasm, and appears to enter into some kind 
of chemical union with it. The protoplasm is in a condition of 
instability and is continually breaking down to a certain extent, 
giving rise to various substances of different degrees of complexity, 
some of which are again built up by it into its own substances, and 
others, more simple in composition, are given off. Of these carbon 
dioxide and water are the most prominent. These respiratory pro- 
cesses are associated with the liberation of energy by the protoplasm, 
energy which it applies to various purposes. The assimilation of 
complex foods consequently may be regarded as supplying the proto- 
plasm with a potential store of energy, as well as building up its 
substance. Whenever complex bodies are built up from simple ones 
we have an absorption of energy in some form and its conversion 
into potential energy; whenever decomposition of complex bodies 
into simpler ones takes place we have the liberation of some or all 
of the energy that was used in their construction. 

Since about 1880 considerable attention has been directed to the 
question of the supply, distribution and expenditure of energy 
in the vegetable kingdom. This is an extremely important question, 
since the supply of energy to the animal world has been found to 
depend entirely upon the vegetable one. The supply of energy to 
the several protoplasts which make up the body of a plant is as 
necessary as is the transport to them of the food they need ; indeed, 
the two things are inseparably connected. The source of energy 
which is the only one accessible to the ordinary plant as a whole 
is the radiant energy of the rays of the sun. and its absorption is 
mainly due to the properties 01 chlorophyll. This colouring matter, 
as shown by its absorption spectrum picks out of the ordinary beam 
of light a large proportion of its red and blue rays, together with some 
of the green and yellow. This energy is obtained especially by the 
chloroplastids, and part of it is at once devoted to the construction 
of carbohydrate material, being thus turned from the kinetic to the 
potential condition. The other constructive processes, which are 
dependent partly upon the oxidation of the carbohydrates so formed, 
and therefore upon an expenditure of part of such energy, also mark 
the storage of energy in the potential form. Indeed, the construc- 
tion of protoplasm itself indicates the same thing. Thus even in 



these constructive processes there occurs a constant passage of energy 
backwards and forwards from the kinetic to the potential condition 
and vice versa. The outcome of the whole round of changes, how- 
ever, is the fixation of a certain part of the radiant energy absorbed 
by the chlorophyll. The rays of the visible spectrum do not supply 
all the energy which the plant obtains. It has been suggested by 
several botanists, with considerable plausibility, that the ultra-violet 
or chemical rays can be absorbed and utilized by the protoplasm 
without the intervention of any pigment such as chlorophyll. There 
is some evidence pointing to the existence of this power in the cells 
of the higher plants. Again, we have evidence of the power of 
pjants to avail themselves of the heat rays. There is, no doubt, a 
direct interchange of heat between the plant and the air, which 
in many cases results in a gain of heat by the plant. Indeed, the 
tendency to absorb heat in this way, either from the air or directly 
from the sunlight, has already been pointed out as a danger which 
needs to be averted by transpiration. 

There is probably but little transformation of one form of kinetic 
energy into another in the plant. It has been suggested that the 
red pigment Anthocyan, which is found very commonly in young 
developing shoots, petioles and midribs, effects a conversion of light 
rays into heating ones, so facilitating the metabolic processes of the 
plant. This is, however, rather a matter of speculation. The 
various electrical phenomena of plants also are obscure. 

Certain plants possess another source of energy which is common to 
them and the animal world. This is the absorption of elaborated 
compounds from their environment, by whose decomposition the 
potential energy expended in their construction can be liberated. 
Such a source is commonly met with among the Fungi, the insecti- 
vorous plants, and such of the higher plants as have a saprophytic 
habit. This source is not, however, anything new, for the elaborated 
compounds so absorbed have been primarily constructed by other 
plants through the mechanism which has just been described. 

The question of the distribution of this stored energy to the 
separate protoplasts of the plant can be seen to be the same problem 
as the distribution of the food. The material and the energy go 
together, the decomposition of the one jn the cell setting free the 
other, which is used at once in the vital processes of the cell, 
being in fact largely employed in constructing protoplasm or storing 
various products. The actual liberation in any cell is only very 
gradual, and generally takes the form of heat. The metabolic 
changes in the cells, however, concern other decompositions side by 
side with those which involve the building up of protoplasm from 
the products of which it feeds. So long as food is supplied the 
living substance is the seat of transformations which are continu- 
ally proceeding, being partially decomposed and again constructed, 
the new food being incorporated into it. The changes involve a 
continual liberation of energy, which in most cases is caused by the 
respiration of the protoplasm and the oxidation of the substances 
it contains. The need of the protoplasm for oxygen has already 
been spoken of : in its absence death soon supervenes, respiration 
being stopped. Respiration, indeed, is the expression of the libera- 
tion of the potential energy of the protoplasm itself. It is not 
certain how far substances in the protoplasm are directly oxidized 
without entering into the composition of the living substance, 
though this appears to take place. Even their oxidation, however, 
is effected by the protoplasm acting as an oxygen carrier. 

The supply of oxygen to a plant is thus seen to be as directly 
connected with the utilization of the energy- of a cell as is that 
of food concerned in its nutrition. If the access of oxygen to a 
protoplast is interfered with its normal respiration soon ceases, 
bjt frequently other changes supervene. The partial asphyxiation 
or suffocation stimulates the protoplasm to set up a new and perhaps 
supplementary series of decompositions, which result in the libera- 
tion of energy just as do those of the respiratory process. One of 
the constant features of respiration the exhalation of carbon dioxide 
can still be observed. This comes in almost all such cases from 
the decomposition of sugar, which is split up by the protoplasm 
into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Such decompositions are now 
generally spoken of as anaerobic respiration. The decomposition 
of the complex molecule of the sugar liberates a certain amount of 
energy, as can be seen from the study of the fermentation set up 
by yeast, which is a process of this kind, in that it is intensified 
by the absence of oxygen. The liberated energy takes the form of 
heat, which raises the temperature of the fermenting wort. It has 
been ascertained that in many cases this decomposition is effected 
by the secretion of an enzyme, which has been termed zymase. 
This body has been prepared from active yeast, and from fruits and 
other parts which have been kept for some time in the absence of 
oxygen. The protoplasm appears to be able also to bring about the 
change without secreting any enzyme. 

Expenditure of Energy by Plants. The energy of the plant is, as 
we have seen, derived originally from the kinetic radiant energy of 
the sun. In such cells as are capable of absorbing it, by virtue of 
their chlorophyll apparatus, the greater part of it is converted into 
the potential form, and by the transport from cell to cell of the 
compounds constructed every part of the plant is put into possession 
of the energy it needs. The store of energy thus accumulated 
and distributed has to subserve various purposes in the economy 
of the plant. A certain part of it is devoted to the maintenance oi 



752 



PLANTS 



PHYSIOLOGY 



the framework of the fabric of the cell, and the construction of a 
continuously increasing skeleton; part is used in maintaining the 
normal temperature of the plant, part in constructing various sub- 
stances which are met with in the interior, which serve various 
purposes in the working of the vital mechanism. A great part again 
is utilized in that increase of the body of the plant which we call 
growth. 

Growth, as usually spoken of, includes two essentially different 
processes. The first of these, which may be regarded as growth 
proper, is the manufacture of additional quantities of living sub- 
stance. The second, which is usually included in the term, is the 
increase of such accessories of living substance as are necessary for 
its well-being. These include cell walls and the various stored 
products found in growing cells. There is clearly a difference 
between these two categories. The formation of living substance 
is a process of building up from simple or relatively simple materials; 
the construction of its cellulose framework and supporting substance 
is done by the living substance after its own formation is completed, 
and is attended by a partial decomposition of such living substance. 

Growth is always going on in plants while they are alive. Even 
the oldest trees put out continually new leaves and twigs. It does 
not, of course, follow that increase of bulk is always conspicuous; 
in such trees death is present side by side with life, and the one often 
counterbalances the other. As, however, we can easily see that the 
constructive processes are much greater than those which lead to the 
disappearance of material from the plant-body, there is generally 
to be seen a conspicuous increase in the substance of the plant. This 
is, in nearly all cases, attended by a permanent change in form. 
This is not perhaps so evident in the case of axial organs as it is in 
that of leaves and their modifications, but even in them it can be 
detected to a certain extent. 

In the lowliest plants growth may be co-extensive with the plant- 
body ; in all plants of any considerable size, however, it is localized 
in particular regions, and in them it is associated with the formation 
of new protoplasts or cells. These regions have been called growing 
points. In such stems and roots as increase in thickness there are 
other growing regions, which consist of cylindrical sheaths known as 
cambium layers or phellogens. By the multiplication of the proto- 
plasts in these merismatic areas the substance of the plant is in- 
creased. In other words, as these growing regions consist of cells, 
the growth of the entire organ or plant will depend upon the 
behaviour of the cells or protoplasts of which the merismatic tissues 
are composed. 

The growth of such a cell will be found to depend mainly upon 
five conditions: (l) There must be a supply of nutritive or plastic 
materials, at the expense of which the increase of its living substance 
can take place, and which supply the needed potential energy. 
(2) There must be a supply of water to such an extent as to set up a 
certain hydrostatic pressure in the cell, for only turgid cells can 
grow. (3) The supply of water must be associated with the formation 
of osmotic substances in the cell, or it cannot be made to enter it. 
(4) The cell must have a certain temperature, for the activity of a 
protoplast is only possible within certain limits, which differ in the 
case of different plants. (5) There must be a supply of oxygen to 
the growing cell, for the protoplast is dependent upon this gas for 
the performance of its vital functions, and particularly for the libera- 
tion of the energy which is demanded in the constructive processes. 
This is evident from the consideration that the growth of the cells 
is attended by the growth in surface of the cell wall, and as the latter 
is a secretion from the protoplasm, such a decomposition cannot 
readily take place unless oxygen is admitted to it. 

When these conditions are present, the course of the growth of a 
cell appears to be the following: The young cell, immediately it is 
cut on from its fellow, absorbs water, in consequence of the presence 
in it of osmotically active substances. With the water it takes in 
the various nutritive substances which the former contains in solu- 
tion. There is set up at once a certain hydrostatic pressure, due to 
the turgidity which ensues upon such absorption, and the extensible 
cell wall stretches, at first in all directions. The growth or increase 
of the protoplasm at the expense of the nutritive matter for a time 
keeps pace with the increased size of the cell, but by and by it be- 
comes vacuolated as more and more water is attracted into the 
interior. Eventually the protoplasm usually forms only a lining 
to the cell wall, and a large vacuole filled with cell sap occupies 
the centre. The growth of the protoplasm, though considerable, 
is therefore not commensurate with the increase in the size of the 
cell. The stretching of the cell wall by the hydrostatic pressure is 
fixed by a secretion of new particles and their deposition upon the 
original wall, which as it becomes slightly thicker is capable of still 
greater extension, much in the same way as a thick band of india- 
rubber is capable of undergoing greater stretching than a thin one. 
The increase in surface of the cell wall is thus due firstly to the 
stretching caused by turgidity, and secondly to the formation and 
deposition of new substance upon the old. When the limit of 
extensibility is reached the cell wall increases in thickness from the 
continuation of the latter of the two processes. 

The rate of growth of a cell varies gradually throughout its course ; 
it begins slowly, increases to a maximum, and then becomes slower 
till it stops. The time during which these regular changes in the rate 
can be observed is generally spoken of as the grand period of growth. 



If we consider the behaviour of a growing organ such as a root, 
we find that, like a cell, it shows a grand period 01 growth. Just 
behind its apex the cells are found to be all in process of active 
division. Growth is small, and consists mainly in an increase of the 
quantity of protoplasm, for the cells divide again as soon as they have 
reached a certain size. As new cells are continually formed in the 
merismatic mass those which are farthest from the apex gradually 
cease to divide and a different process of growth takes place in them, 
which is associated more particularly with the formation of the 
vacuoles, consequent upon the establishment of considerable hydro- 
static pressure in them, thus causing the bulk of the cells to be greatly 
enlarged. Here it is that the actual extension in length of the root 
takes place, and the cells reach the maximum point of the grand 
period. They then gradually lose the power of growth, the oldest 
ones or those farthest from the apex parting with it first, and they 
pass gradually over into the condition of the permanent tissues. 

The same order of events may be ascertained to take place in the 
stem; but in this region it is complicated by the occurrence of nodes 
and internodes, growth in length being confined to the latter, many of 
which may be growing simultaneously. The region of growth in the 
stem is, as a rule, much longer than that of the root. The growth 
of the leaf is at first apical, but this is not very prolonged, and the 
subsequent enlargement is due to an intercalary growing region 
near the base. 

The turgidity in the cells of a growing member is not uniform, but 
shows a fairly rhythmical variation in its different parts. If the 
member is one which shows a difference of structure on two sides, 
such as a leaf, the two sides frequently show a difference of degree 
of turgidity, and consequently of rate of growth. If we consider a 
leaf of the common fern we find that in its young condition it is 
closely rolled up, the upper or ventral surface being quite concealed. 
As it gets older it gradually unfolds and expands into the adult 
form. This is due to the fact that while young the turgidity and 
consequent growth are greater in the dorsal side of the leaf, so that 
it becomes rolled up. As it develops the maximum turgidity and 
growth change to its upper side, and so it becomes unfolded or 
expanded. These two conditions are generally described under the 
names of hyponasty and epinasty respectively. 

Cylindrical organs may exhibit similar phenomena. One side of 
a stem may.be more turgid than the opposite one, and the maximum 
turgidity, with its consequent growth, may alternate between two 
opposite sides. The growing apex of such a stem will alternately 
incline,. first to one side and then to the other, exhibiting a kind of 
nodding movement in the two directions. More frequently the re- 
gion of maximum turgidity passes gradually round the growing zone. 
The apex in this case will describe a circle, or rather a spiral, as it is 
elongating all the time, pointing to all points of the compass in 
succession. This continuous change of position has been called 
circumnutation, and is held to be universal in all growing cylindrical 
organs. The passage of the maximum turgidity round the stem may 
vary in rapidity in different places, causing the circle to be replaced 
by an ellipse. The bending to two sides alternately, described 
above, often called simple nutation, may be regarded as only an 
extreme instance of the latter. 

Nervous System of Plants. So far we have considered the 
plant almost exclusively as an individual organism, carrying 
out its own vital processes, and unaffected by its surroundings 
except in so far as these supply it with the materials for its 
well-being. When we consider, however, the great variability 
in those surroundings and the consequent changes a plant must 
encounter, it appears obvious that interaction and adjustment 
between the plant and its environment must be constant and 
well balanced. That such adjustment shall take place postulates 
on the part of the plant a kind of perception or appreciation of the 
changing conditions which affect it. 

Careful examination soon shows an observer that such 
perceptions exist, and that they are followed by certain purpose- 
ful changes in the plant, sometimes mechanical, sometimes 
chemical, the object being evidently to secure some advantage 
for the plant, to ward off some danger, or to extricate it from 
some difficulty. We may speak, indeed, of the plant as possessed 
of a rudimentary nervous system, by the aid of which necessary 
adjustments are brought about. The most constantly occurring 
changes that beset a plant are connected with illumination, 
temperature, moisture, and contact with foreign bodies. Setting 
aside other susceptibilities, we have evidence that most plants are 
sensitive to all these. 

If a growing stem receives stronger illumination on one side 
than another, its apex slowly turns from the vertical in the direc- 
tion of the light source, continuing its change of position until 
it is in a direct line with the incident rays. If a root is similarly 
illuminated, a similar change of direction of growth follows, but 



PHYSIOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



753 



in this case the organ grows away from the light. These move- 
ments are spoken of as heliotropic and apheliotropic curvatures. 
The purpose of the movements bears out the contention that the 
plant is trying to adjust itself to its environment. The stem, by 
pointing directly to the light source, secures the best illumination 
possible for all of its leaves, the latter being distributed sym- 
metrically around it. The root is made to press its way into the 
darker cracks and crannies of the soil, so bringing its root-hairs 
into better contact with the particles round which the hygroscopic 
water hangs. Leaves respond in another way to the same influ- 
ence, placing themselves across the path of the beam of light. 

Similar sensitivenesses can be demonstrated in other cases. 
When a root comes in contact at its tip with some hard body, 
such as might impede its progress, a curvature of the growing 
part is set up, which takes the young tip away from the stone, or 
what-not, with which it is in contact. When a sensitive tendril 
comes into contact with a foreign body, its growth becomes so 
modified that it twines round it. Many instances might be 
given of appreciation of and response to other changes in the 
environment by the growing parts of plants; among them 
we may mention the opening and closing of flowers during the 
days of their expansion. One somewhat similar phenomenon, 
differing in a few respects, marks the relation of the plant to the 
attraction of gravity. Observation of germinating seedlings 
makes it clear that somehow they have a perception of direction. 
The young roots grow vertically downwards, the young stems 
vertically upwards. Any attempt to interfere with these direc- 
tions, by placing the seedlings in abnormal positions, is frustrated 
by the seedlings themselves, which change their direction of 
growth by bringing about curvatures of the different parts of 
their axes, so that the root soon grows vertically downward 
again and the stem in the opposite direction. Other and older 
plants give evidence of the same perception, though they do not 
respond all in the same way. Speaking generally, stems grow 
upwards and roots downwards. But some stems grow parallel 
to the surface of the soil, while the branches both of stems and 
roots tend to grow at a definite angle to the main axis from which 
they come. These movements are spoken of as different kinds 
of geotropic curvatures. This power of perception and response 
is not by any means confined to the growing organs, though in 
these it is especially striking, and plays a very evident part in 
the disposition of the growing organs in advantageous positions. 
It can, however, be seen in adult organs, though instances are 
less numerous. 

When the pinnate leaf of a Mimosa pudica, the so-called 
sensitive plant, is pinched or struck, the leaf droops rapidly 
and the leaflets become approximated together, so that their 
upper surfaces are in contact. The extent to which the disturb- 
ance spreads depends on the violence of the stimulation it may 
be confined to a few leaflets or it may extend to all the leaves of 
the plant. 

The leaves and leaflets of many plants, e.g. the telegraph plant, 
Desmodium gyrans, behave in a similar way under the stimulus of 
approaching darkness. 

A peculiar sensitiveness is manifested by the leaves of the so- 
called insectivorous plants. In the case of Dionaea muscipula we 
find a two-lobed lamina, the two lobes being connected by a 
midrib, which can play the part of a kind of hinge. Six sensitive 
hairs spring from the upper surface of the lobes, three from 
each; when one of these is touched the two lobes rapidly close, 
bringing their upper surfaces into contact and imprisoning any- 
thing which for the moment is between them. The mechanism is 
applied to the capture of insects alighting on the leaf. 

Drosera, another of this insectivorous group, has leaves which 
are furnished with long glandular tentacles. When these are 
excited by the settling of an insect on the leaf they slowly bend 
over and imprison the intruder, which is detained there mean- 
while by a sticky excretion poured out by the glands. 

In both these cases the stimulation is followed, not only by 
movement, but by the secretion of an acid liquid containing a 
digestive juice, by virtue of which the insect is digested after 
being killed. 



The purposeful character of all these movements or changes of 
position indicates that they are of nervous origin. We have in 
them evidence of two factors, a perception of some features of the 
environment and following this, after a longer or shorter interval, 
a response calculated to secure some advantage to the responding 
organ. We find on further investigation that these two con- 
ditions are traceable to different parts of the organs concerned. 
The perception of the changes, or, in other words, the reception 
of the stimulus, is associated for example, with the tips of roots 
and the apices of stems. The first recognition of a specially 
receptive part was made by Charles Darwin, who identified the 
perception of stimulation with the tip of the young growing 
root. Amputation of this part involved the cessation of the 
response, even when the conditions normally causing the stimu- 
lation were maintained. Francis Darwin later demonstrated 
that the tips of the plumules of grasses were sensitive parts. 
The responding part is situated some little distance farther back, 
being in fact the region where growth is active. This bending 
part has been proved to be insensitive to the stimuli. There is 
consequently a transmission of the stimulus from the sensitive 
organ to a kind of motor mechanism situated some little way off. 
We find thus three factors of a nervous mechanism present, a 
receptive, a conducting, and a responding part. The differen- 
tiation of the plant's substance so indicated is, however, 
physiological only; there is no histological difference between 
the cells of these regions that can be associated with the several 
properties they possess. Even the root tip, which shows a certain 
differentiation into root cap and root apex, cannot be said to be a 
definite sense organ in the same way as the sense organs of an 
animal. The root is continually growing and so the sensitive 
part is continually changing its composition, cells being formed, 
growing and becoming permanent tissue. The cells of the tip 
at any given moment may be sensitive, but in a few days the 
power of receiving the stimulus has passed to other and younger 
cells which then constitute the tip. The power of appreciating 
the environment is therefore to be associated with the protoplasm 
only at a particular stage of its development and is transitory in 
its character. 

What the nature of the stimulation is we are not able to say. 
The protoplasm is sensitive to particular influences, perhaps of 
vibration, or of contact or of chemical action. We can imagine 
though perhaps only vaguely, the way in which light, tempera- 
ture, moisture, contact, &c., can affect it. The perception of 
direction or the influence of gravity presents greater difficulty, 
as we have no clear idea of the form which the force of gravity 
takes. Recently some investigations by Haberlandt, Noll, 
Darwin and others have suggested an explanation which has 
much to recommend it. The sensitive cells must clearly be 
influenced in some way by weight not the weight of external 
organs but of some weight within them. This may possibly be 
the cell sap in their interior, which must exercise a slightly 
different hydrostatic pressure on the basal and the lateral walls of 
the cells. Or more probably it may be the weight of definite 
particulate structures in their vacuoles. Many experiments 
point to certain small grains of starch which are capable of dis- 
placement as the position of the cell is altered. Such small 
granules have been observed in the sensitive cells, and there is an 
evident correlation between these and the power of receiving the 
geotropic stimulus. It has been shown that if the organ con- 
taining them is shaken for some time, so that the contact between 
them and the protoplasm of the cells is emphasized, the stimulus 
becomes more efficient in producing movement. This reduces 
the stimulus to one of contact, which is in harmony with the 
observations made upon roots similarly stimulated from the 
exterior. The stimulating particles, whether starch grains in 
all cases, or other particles as well, have been termed slatoliths. 

We have spoken of the absence of structural differentiation 
in the sense organs. There is a similar difficulty in tracing the 
paths by which the impulses are transmitted to the growing and 
curving regions. The conduction of such stimulation to parts 
removed some distance from the sense organ suggests paths of 
transmission comparable to those which transmit nervous 



754 



PLANTS 



[PATHOLOGY 



impulses in animals. Again, the degree of differentiation is 
very slight anatomically, but delicate protoplasmic threads have 
been shown to extend through all cell-walls, connecting together 
all the protoplasts of a plant. These may well serve as con- 
ductors of nervous impulses. The nervous mechanism thus 
formed is very rudimentary, but in an organism the conditions 
of whose life render locomotion impossible great elaboration 
would seem superfluous. There is, however, very great delicacy 
of perception or appreciation on the part of the sense organ, 
stimuli being responded to which are quite incapable of 
impressing themselves upon the most highly differentiated 
animal. 

The power of response is seen most easily in the case of young 
growing organs, and the parts which show the motor mechanism 
are mainly the young growing cells. We do not find their 
behaviour like that of the motor mechanism of an animal. The 
active contraction of muscular tissue has no counterpart in the 
plant. The peculiarity of the protoplasm in almost every cell 
is that it is especially active hi the regulation of its permeability 
by water. Under different conditions it can retain it more 
strongly or allow it to escape more freely. This regulation of 
turgor is as characteristic of vegetable protoplasm as contraction 
is of muscle. The response to the stimulus takes the form of 
increasing the permeability of particular cells of the growing 
structures, and so modifying the degree of the turgidity that is 
the precursor of growth in them. The extent of the area affected 
and of the variation in the turgor depends upon many circum- 
stances, but we have no doubt that in the process of modifying 
its own permeability by some molecular change we have the 
counterpart of muscular contractibility. 

The response made by the adult parts of plants, to which 
reference has been made, is brought about by a mechanism 
similar in nature though rather differently applied. If the leaf of 
Mimosa or Desmodium be examined, it will be seen that at the 
base of each leaflet and each leaf, just at the junction with the 
respective axes, is a swelling known as a pulvinus. This has a 
relatively large development of succulent parenchyma on its 
upper and lower sides. In the erect position of the leaf the lower 
side has its cells extremely turgid, and the pulvinus thus forms 
a cushion, holding up the petiole. On stimulation these cells 
part with their v.-ater, the lower side of the organ becomes flaccid 
and the weight of the leaf causes it to fall. The small pulvini 
of the leaflets, by similar changes of the distribution of turgidity, 
take up their respective positions after receiving the stimulus. 
In some cases the two sides of the pulvini vary their turgidity in 
turns; in others cnly the lower side becomes modified. 

Similar turgescence changes, taking place with similar rapidity 
in the midrib of the leaf of Dionaea, explain the closing of the 
lobes upon their hinge. More slowly, but yet in the same way, 
we may note the change in turgidity of certain cells of the 
Drosera tentacles, as they close over the imprisoned insect. 

Organic Rhythm. It is a remarkable fact that during the 
process of growth we meet with rhythmic variation of such 
turgidity. The existence of rhythm of this kind has been ob- 
served and studied with some completeness. It is the immediate 
cause of the phenomena of circumnutation, each cell of the 
circumnutating organ showing a rhythmic enlargement and 
decrease of its dimensions, due to the admission of more and less 
water into its interior. The restraint of the protoplasm changes 
gradually and rhythmically. The sequence of the phases of the 
rhythm of the various cells are co-ordinated to produce the 
movement. Nor is it only in growing organs that the rhythm 
can be observed, for many plants exhibit it during a much 
longer period than that of growth. It is easy to realize how such 
a rhythm can be modified by the reception of stimuli, and can 
consequently serve as the basis for the movement of the stimu- 
lated organ. This rhythmic affection of vegetable protoplasm 
can be observed in very many of its functions. What have been 
described as " periodicities," such as the daily variations of 
root-pressure, afford familiar instances of it. It reminds us of a 
similar property of animal protoplasm which finds its expression 
in the rhythmic beat of the heart and other phenomena. 



AUTHORITIES. Sachs, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, trans- 
lated by Marshall Ward ; Vines, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants ; 
Pfeffer, The Physiology of Plants, trans, by Ewart ; Reynolds Green, 
Introduction to Vegetable Physiology; The Soluble Ferments and Fer- 
mentation; Detmer, Practical Plant Physiology, trans, by Moor; 




Protoplasm, trans, by Minchin. 



(J. R. GR.) 



PATHOLOGY OF PLANTS 



" Phytopathology " or plant pathology (Gr. 4>vrbv, plant), 
comprises our knowledge of the symptoms, course, causes and 
remedies of the maladies which threaten the life of plants, or 
which result in abnormalities of structure that are regarded, 
whether directly injurious or not to life, as unsightly or undesir- 
able. In its systematized form, as a branch of botanical study, 
it is of recent date, and, as now understood, the subject first 
received special attention about 1850, when the nature of 
parasitism began to be intelligible; but many disjointed refer- 
ences to diseased conditions of plants had appeared long before 
this. The existence of blights and mildews of cereals had been 
observed and recorded in very ancient times, as witness the Bible, 
where half a dozen references to such scourges occur in the Old 
Testament alone. The epidemic nature of wheat-rust was 
known to Aristotle about 350 B.C., and the Greeks and Romans 
knew these epidemics well, their philosophers having shrewd 
speculations as to causes, while the people held characteristic 
superstitions regarding them, which found vent in the dedication 
of special festivals and deities to the pests. Pliny knew that 
flies emerge from galls. The few records during the middle ages 
are borne out by what is known of famines and pestilence. 
Shakespeare's reference in King Lear (Act m., sc. iv.) may be 
quoted as evincing acquaintance with mildew in the iyth century, 
as also the interesting Rouen law of Loverdo (1660). Malpighi 
in 1679 gave excellent figures and accounts of leaf-rolling and 
gall insects, and Grew in 1682 equally good descriptions of a leaf- 
mining caterpillar. During the iSth century more academic 
treatment of the subject began to replace the scattered notes. 
Hales (1727-1733) discussed the rotting of wounds, cankers, &c., 
but much had to be done with the microscope before any real 
progress was possible, and it is easily intelligible that until the 
theory of nutrition of the higher plants had been founded by the 
work of Ingenhouss, Priestley and De Saussure, the way was not 
even prepared for accurate knowledge of cryptogamic parasites 
and the diseases they induce. It was not till De Bary (1866) 
made known the true nature of parasitic Fungi, based on his 
researches between 1853-1863, that the vast domain of epidemic 
diseases of plants was opened up to fruitful investigation, and 
such modern treatises as those of Frank (1880 and 1895), Sorauer 
(1886), Kirchner (1890), were gradually made possible. 

Plant pathology embraces several branches of study, and may 
be conveniently divided as follows: 

1. The observation and accurate description of symptoms 
(Diagnosis). 

2. The study of causes or agencies inducing disease (Aetiology). 

3. The practise of preventive and remedial measures (Thera- 
peutics). 

In plants, however, the symptoms of disease are apt to exhibit 
themselves in a very general manner. Our perceptions differen- 
tiate but imperfectly symptoms which are due to very different 
causes and reactions, probably because the organization of the 
plant is so much less highly specialized than that of higher 
animals, f The yellowing and subsequent casting of leaves, for 
instance, is a very general symptom of disease in plants, and may 
be induced by drought, extremes of temperature, insufficient or 
excessive illumination, excess of water at the roots, the action of 
parasitic Fungi, insects, worms, &c., or of poisonous gases, and so 
forth; and extreme caution is necessary in dealing with amateur 
descriptions of such symptoms, especially when the untrained 
eye has taken no cognisance of, or has only vaguely observed, the 
numerous collateral circumstances of the case. 

The causes of disease may be provisionally classified somewhat 
as follows, but it may be remarked at the outset that no one of 



PATHOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



755 



these proximal causes, or agents, is ever solely responsible; and it 
is very easy to err in attributing a diseased condition to any of 
them, unless the relative importance of primary and subordinate 
agencies is discoverable. For instance, a Fungus epidemic is 
impossible unless the climatic conditions are such as to favour 
the dispersal and germination of the spores; and when plants are 
killed off owing to the supersaturation of the soil with water, it 
is by no means obvious whether the excess of water and dissolved 
materials, or the exclusion of oxygen from the root-hairs, or the 
lowering of the temperature, or the accumulation of foul products 
of decomposition should be put into the foreground. In every 
case there are chains of causation concerned, and the same factors 
will be differently grouped in different cases. 

Bearing in mind these precautions, we may classify the 
proximal causal agents of disease as 

I. External agencies. 



A. Non-living. 
a. Material. 

1. Physical 
Soil. 
Water. 
Atmosphere. 

2. Chemical 
Soil. 
Water. 
Atmosphere. 



b. Non-materiaL 

1. Temperature. 

2. Illumination. 

3. Other agencies. 
B. Living. 

a. Animals. 

1. Vertebrata. 

2. Invertebrata. 

b. Plants. 

1. Phanerogams. 

2. Cryptogams. 



ll. Internal agencies. 
While such a classification may serve its purpose as a sort of 
index, it must be confessed that the limits of its usefulness are 
soon reached. In the first place, the so-called '' internal causes " 
of disease is probably a mere phrase covering our ignorance of the 
factors at work, and although a certain convenience attaches 
to the distinction between those cases where tender breeds of 
plants apparently exhibit internal predisposition to suffer more 
readily than others from parasites, low temperatures, excessive 
growth, &c. as is the case with some grafted plants, cultivated 
hybrids, &c. the mystery involved in the phrase " internal 
causes " only exists until we find what action of the living or non- 
living environment of the essential mechanism of the plant has 
upset its equilibrium. 

I. Passing to the recognized external agencies, the physical 
condition of the soil is a fruitful source of disease. If too closely 
packed, the soil particles present mechanical obstacles to growth; 
if too retentive of moisture, the root-hairs suffer, as already hinted ; 
if too open or over-drained, the plant succumbs to drought. All 
those properties of soil known as texture, porosity, depth, inclina- 
tion to the horizon, &c., are concerned here. Many maladies of 
plants are traceable to the chemical composition of soils e.g. 
deficiency of nutritive salts, especially nitrates and phosphates; 
the presence of poisonous salts of iron, copper, &c., or (in the soil 
about the roots of trees in towns) of coal-gas and so forth. But 
it is worthy of special attention that the mere chemical com- 
position of agricultural and garden soils is, as a rule, the least im- 
portant feature about them, popular opinion to the contrary 
notwithstanding. Ordinary soils will almost always provide the 
necessary chemical ingredients if of proper physical texture, depth, 
&c. (see FUNGI and BACTERIOLOGY). 

As regards water, its deficiency or excess is a relative matter, and 
although many of the minor maladies of pot-plants in windows 
and greenhouses controlled by amateurs depend on its misuse, 
water alone is probably never a primary cause of disease. Its 
over-supply is, however, a frequent cause of predisposition to the 
attacks of parasitic Fungi e.g. the damping off "of seedlings and 
in saturated soils not only are the roots and root-hairs killed by 
asphyxiation, but the whole course of soil fermentation is altered, 
and it takes time to " sweeten " such by draining, because not 
only must the noxious bodies be gradually washed out and the 
lost salts restored, but the balance of suitable bacterial arid fungal 
life must be restored. 

The atmosphere is a cause of disease in the neighbourhood of 
chemical works, large towns, volcanoes, &c., in so far as it carries 
acid gases and poisons to the leaves and roots; but it is usual to 
associate with it the action of excessive humidity' which brings 
about those tender watery and more or less etiolated conditions 
which favour parasitic Fungi, and diminish transpiration and there- 
fore nutrition. It is customary to speak of the disastrous effects 
of cold winds, snow, hail and frost, lightning, &c., under the heading 
of atmospheric influences, which only shows once more how im- 
possible it is to separate causes individually. 

Turning to the non-material external agents, probably no factors 
are more responsible for ill-health in plants than temperature and 



light. Every plant is constrained to carry out its functions of 
germination, growth, nutrition, reproduction, &c., between certain 
limits of temperature, and somewhere between the extremes of 
these limits each function finds an optimum temperature at which 
the working of the living machinery is at its best, and, other things 
being equal, any great departure from this may induce pathological 
conditions; and many disasters are due to the failure to provide 
such suitable temperatures e.g. in greenhouses where plants 
requiring very different optimum temperatures and illumination 
are kept together. Equally disastrous are those climatic or seasonal 
changes which involve temperatures in themselves not excessive 
but in wrong sequence; how many more useful plants could be 
grown in the open in the United Kingdom if the deceptively mild 
springs were not so often followed by frosts in May and June! 
The indirect effects of temperature are also important. Trees, of 
which the young buds are " nipped " by frost, would frequently 
not suffer material injury, were it not that the small frost-cracks 
serve as points of entry for Fungi; and numerous cases are known 
where even high temperatures can be endured on rich, deep, reten- 
tive soils by plants which at once succumb to drought on shallow 
or non-retentive soils. 

All chlorophyll plants require light, but in very different degrees, 
as exemplified even in the United Kingdom by the shade-bearing 
beech and yew contrasted with the Tight-demanding larch ana 
birch ; and as with temperature so with light, every plant and even 
every organ has its optimum of illumination. The " drawn " or 
etiolated condition of over-shaded plants is a case in point, though 
here again the soft, watery plant often really succumbs to other 
disease agents e.g. parasitic Fungi supervening on its non- 
resistant condition. 

Animals and plants as agents of disease or injury form part of 
the larger subject of the struggle for existence between living 
organisms, as is recognized even by those who do not so readily 
apprehend that diseased conditions in general are always signs of 
defeat in the struggle for existence between the suffering organism 
and its environment, living and non-living. 

The Vertebrata come within the scope of our subject, chiefly as 
destructive agents which cause wounds or devour young shoots 
and foliage, &c. Rabbits and other burrowing animals injure 
roots, squirrels and birds snip off buds, horned cattle strip off bark, 
and so forth. It is among the Invertebrata that epidemics of 
destruction are referred to, though we should bear in mind that 
it is only the difference in numerical proportion that prevents our 
speaking of an epidemic of elephants or of rabbits, though we use 
the term when speaking of blight insects; there is little consistency 
in the matter, as it is usual to speak of an invasion or scourge of 
locusts, caterpillars, &c. Insect injuries are very varied in degree 
and in kind. Locusts devour all before them ; caterpillars defoliate 
the plant, and necessitate the premature utilization of its reserves; 
other insects (e.g. Grapholitha) eat the buds or the roots (e.g. wire- 
worms), and so maim the plant that its foliage suffers from want 
of water and assimilation is diminished, or actual withering follows. 
Many aphides, &c., puncture the leaves, suck out the sap, and 
induce va/ious local deformations, arrest of growth, pustular 
swellings, &c., and if numerous all the evils of defoliation may 
follow. Others (e.g. miners) tunnel into the leaf parenchyma, 
and so put the assimilating areas out of action in another way. 
It should be remembered that a single complete defoliation of a 
herbaceous annual may so incapacitate the assimilation that no 
stores are available for seeds, tubers, &c., for another year, or at 
most so little that feeble plants only come up. In the case of a 
tree matters run somewhat differently; most large trees in full 
foliage have far more assimilatory surface than is immediately 
necessary, and if the injury is confined to a single year it may be 
a small event in the life of the tree, but if repeated the cambium, 
bud-stores and fruiting may all suffer. Many larvae of beetles, 
moths, &c., bore into bark, and injure the cambium, or even the 
wood and pith; in addition to direct injury, the interference with 
the transpiration current and the access of other parasites through 
the wounds are also to be feared in proportion to the numbers of 
insects at work. Various local hypertrophies, including galls, 
result from the increased growth of young tissues irritated by the 
punctures of insects, or by the presence of eggs or larvae left behind. 
They may occur on all parts, buds, leaves, stems or roots, as shown 
by the numerous species of Cynips on oak, Phylloxera on vines, &c. 
The local damage is small, but the general injury to assimilation, 
absorption and other functions, may be important if the numbers 
increase. In addition to insects, various kinds of worms, molluscs, 
&c., are sometimes of importance as pests. The so-called eel- 
worms (Nematodes) may do immense damage on roots and in 
the grains of cereals, and every one knows how predatory slugs 
and snails are. (See ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY.) 

Plants as agents of damage and disease may be divided into 
those larger forms which as weeds, epiphytes and so forth, do- 
injury by dominating and shading more delicate species, or by 
gradually exhausting the soil, &c., and true parasites which actually 
live on and in the tissues of the plants. It must be remembered 
that phanerogams also include parasitic species e.g. Cuscuta, 
Loranthus, Viscum, Thesium, Rhinanthus, &c. with various capac- 
ities for injury. These enemies are as a rule so conspicuous that 



75 6 



PLANTS 



[PATHOLOGY 



we do not look on their depredations as diseases, though the gradual 
deterioration of hay under the exhausting effects of root-parasites 
like Rhinanthus, and the onslaught of Cuscuta when Unduly abund- 
ant, should teach us how unimportant to the definition the question 
of size may be. 

It is, however, among the Fungi that we find the most disastrous 
and elusive agents of disease. Parasitic Fungi may be, as regards 
their direct action, purely local e.g. Schinzia, which forms gall- 
like swellings on the roots of rushes; Gymnosporangium, causing 
excrescences on juniper stems; numerous leaf Fungi such as Puc- 
cinia, Aecidium, Septoria, &c., causing yellow, brown or black 
spots on leaves; or Ustilago in the anthers of certain flowers. In 
such cases the immediate damage done may be slight; but the 
effects of prolonged action and the summation of numerous attacks 
at numerous points are often enormous, certain of these leaf- 
diseases costing millions sterling annually to some planting and 
agricultural communities. , In other cases the Fungus is virulent 
and rampant, and, instead of a local effect, exerts a general de- 
structive action throughout the plant e.g. Pythium, which causes 
the " damping off " of seedlings, reducing them to a putrid mass in 
a few hours, and Phytophthora, the agent of the potato disease. 
Many Fungi, in themselves not very aggressive, slowly bring about 
important and far-reaching secondary effects. Thus, many Hymeno- 
mycetes (Agarics, Polyporei, &c.) live on the wood of trees. This 
wood is in great part already dead substance, but the mycelium 
gradually invades the vessels occupied with the transmission of 
water up the trunk, cuts off the current, and so kills the tree; in 
other cases such Fungi attack the roots, and so induce rot and starva- 
tion of oxygen, resulting in " fouling." Numerous Fungi, though 
conspicuous as parasites, cannot be said to do much individual 
injury to the host. The extraordinary malformations known as 
" Witches' Brooms," caused by the repeated branching and tufting 
of twigs in which the mycelium of Exoascus (on birch) or Aecidium 
(on silver fir) are living, may be borne in considerable numbers 
for years without any very extensive apparent injury to the tree. 
Again, the curious distortions on the stems of nettles attacked by 
the Aecidium form of the heteroecious Puccina Caricis (see FUNGI 
for Heteroecism), or on maize stems and leaves attacked by Ustilago 
Maydis, or on the inflorescence of crucifers infested with Cystopus, 
&c., are not individually very destructive; it is the cumulative 
effects of numerous attacks or of extensive epidemics which eventu- 
ally tell. Some very curious details are observable in these cases 
of malformation. For instance, the Aecidium elalinum first referred 
to causes the new shoots to differ in direction, duration and arrange- 
ment, and even shape of foliage leaves from the normal; and the 
shoots of Euphorbia infected with the aecidia of Uromyces Pisi 
depart so much from the normal in appearance that the attacked 
plants have been taken for a different species. Si milarly with A nemone 
infested with Puccinia and Vaccinium with Calyptospora, and many 
other cases of deformations due to hypertrophy or atrophy. In- 
stances of what we may term tolerated parasitism, where the host 
plant seems to accommodate itself very well to the presence of the 
Fungus, paying the tax it extorts and nevertheless not succumbing 
but managing to provide itself with sufficient material to go on with, 
are not rare; and these seem to lead to those cases where the mutual 
accommodation between host and guest has been carried so far 
that each derives some benefit from the association symbiosis 
(see FUNGI). 

II. The kinds of disease due to these various agencies are very 
different. A plant may be diseased as a whole, because nearly 
all its tissues are in a morbid or pathological condition, owing to 
some Fungus pervading the whole e.g. Pythium in seedlings or 
to a poison diffusing from cell to cell; in the case of unicellular 
plants e.g. an alga infested with a Chytridium indeed, matters 
can hardly be otherwise. But the case is obviously different 
where a plant dies because some essential organ or tissue tract has 
been destroyed, and other parts have suffered because supplies 
are cut off e.g. when the upper parts of a tree die off owing to 
destruction of the roots, or to the ringing of the stem lower down, 
and consequent interference with the transpiration current. In 
a large number of cases, however, the disease is purely local, and 
does not itself extend far into the organ or tissue affected. 

If a mass of living plant-tissue is cut, the first change observed 
is one of colour: the white " flesh " of a potato or an apple turns 
brown as the air enters, and closer examination shows that cell 
walls and contents are alike affected. The cut cells die, and oxidized 
products are concerned in the change of colour, the brown juices 
exuding and soaking into the cell-walls. The next change observ- 
able after some hours is that the untouched cells below the cut 
grow larger, push up the dead surface, and divide by walls tangential 
to it, with the formation of tabloid cork-cells. The layer of cork 
thus formed cuts out the dead d6bris and serves to protect the 
uninjured cells below. Such healing by cork formation is accom- 
panied by a rise of temperature: the active growth of the dividing 
cells is accompanied by vigorous metabolism and respiration, and 
a state of " wound fever " supervenes until the healing is completed. 
The phenomena described occur in all cases of cicatrization of 
wounds in nature e.g. leaf-tissue, young stems, roots, &c., when 
cut or pierced by insects, thorns and so forth. They are con- 
cerned in the occlusion of broken twigs and of falling leaves, and 



it is from the actively growing " callus " developed at the surface 
of the wounded tissues of cuttings, buddings, prunings, &c., that 
the healing and renewal of tissues occur of which advantage is 
taken in the practice of what might well be termed plant surgery. 
A third phenomenon observable in such healing tissues is the 
increased flow and accumulation of plastic materials at the seat of 
injury. The enhanced metabolism creates a current of draught 
on the supplies of available food-stuffs around. The phenomenon 
of irritability here concerned is well shown in certain cases where 
a parasitic organism gains access to a cell e.g. Pleotrachelus causes 
the invaded Pilobolus to swell up, and changes the whole course 
of its cell metabolism, and similarly with Plasmodiophora in the 
roots of turnips, and many other cases. 

Irritation and hypertrophy of cells are common signs of the pres- 
ence of parasites, as evinced by the numerous malformations, galls, 
witches'-brooms, &c., on diseased plants. The now well-known 
fact that small doses of poisonous substances may act as stimuli 
to living protoplasm, and that respiratory activity and growth 
may be accelerated by chloroform, ether and even powerful mineral 
poisons, such as mercuric chloride, in minimal doses, offers some 
explanation of these phenomena of hypertrophy, " wound fever," 
and other responses to the presence of irritating agents. Still 
further insight is afforded by our increasing knowledge of the 
enzymes, and it is to be remarked that both poisons and enzymes 
are very common in just such parasitic Fungi as induce discolora- 
tions, hypertrophies and the death of cells e.g. Bolrytis, Ergot, &c. 
Now it is clear that if an organism gains access to all parts of a 
plant, and stimulates all or most of its cells to hypertrophy, we may 
have the latter behaving abnormally i.e. it may be diseased through- 
out; and such actually occurs in the case of Euphorbia pervaded 
with Uromyces Pisi, the presence of which alters the whole aspect 
of the host-plant. If such a general parasite carries its activities 
farther, every cell may be killed and the plant forthwith destroyed 
e.g. Phytophthora in potatoes. If, on the other hand, the irritating 
agent is local in its action, causing only a few cells to react, we have 
the various pimples, excrescences, outgrowths, &c., exhibited in 
such cases as Ustilago Maydis on the maize, various galls, witches'- 
brooms, &c. 

It must not be overlooked that the living cells of the plant react 
upon the parasite as well as to all external agencies, and the nature 
of disease becomes intelligible only if we bear in mind that it con- 
sists in such altered metabolism deflected physiology as is here 
implied. The reaction of the cells may be in two directions, 
moreover. For instance, suppose the effect of a falling temperature 
is to so modify the metabolism of the cells that they fill up more 
and more with watery sap; as the freezing-point is reached this 
may result in destructive changes, and death from cold may result. 
If, on the contrary, the gradual cooling is met by a corresponding 
depletion of the cells of water, even intense cold may be sustained 
without injury. 

Or, take another case. If the attack of a parasite is met by the 
formation of some substance in the protoplasm which is chemo- 
tactically repulsive to the invader, it may be totally incapable of 
penetrating the cell, even though equipped with a whole armoury 
of cytases, diastatic and other enzymes, and poisons which would 
easily overcome the more passive resistances offered by mere 
cell- walls and cell-contents of other plants, the protoplasm of which 
forms bodies chemotactically attractive to the Fungus. 

The various degrees of parasitism are to a certain extent explained 
by the foregoing. In order that a Fungus may enter a plant, it 
must be able to overcome not merely the resistance of cell-walls, 
but that of the living protoplasm; if it cannot do this, it must remain 
outside as a mere epiphyte, e.g. Fumago, Herpotrichia, &c., or, at 
most, vegetate in the intercellular spaces and anchor itself to the 
cell-walls, e.g. Trichosphaeria. The inability to enter the cells 
may be due to the lack of chemotactic bodies, to incapacity to 
form cellulose-dissolving enzymes, to the existence in the host- 
cells of antagonistic bodies which neutralize or destroy the acids, 
enzymes or poisons formed by the hyphae, or even to the forma- 
tion and excretion of bodies which poison the Fungus. But even 
when inside it does not follow that the Fungus can kill the cell, 
and many cases Jlre known where the Fungus can break through 
the cell's first lines of defence (cell-wall and protoplasmic lining) ; 
but the struggle goes on at close quarters, and various degrees of 
hypertrophy, accumulation of plastic bodies or secretions, dis- 
colorations, &c., indicate the suffering of the still living cell. 
Finally, cases occur where the invaded cell so adapts itself to the 
presence of the intruder that life in common symbiosis results. 

The dissemination of plant parasites is favoured by many cir- 
cumstances not always obvious, whence an air of mystery regarding 
epidemics was easily created in earlier times. The spores of 
Rusts, Erysipheae and other Fungi may be conveyed from plant 
to plant by snails; those of tree-killing polyporei, &c., by mice, 
rabbits, rats, &c., which rub their fur against the hymenophores. 
Bees carry the spores of Sclerotinia as they do the pollen of the 
bilberries, and flies convey the conidia of ergot from grain to grain. 
Insects, indeed, are largely concerned in disseminating Fungi, 
either on their bodies or via the alimentary canal. Worms bring 
spores to the surface of soil, ducks and other birds convey them on 
their muddy feet, and, as is well-known, wind and other physical 



PATHOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



757 



agencies are very efficient in dissemination. The part played by 
man also counts for much. Gardeners and farm labourers convey 
spores from one bed or field to another; carted soil, manure, &c., 
may abound in spores of Smuts, Fusarium, Polyporei and in sclerotia ; 
and articles through the post and so forth often carry infective 
spores. Every time a carpenter saws fresh timber with a saw 
recently put through wood attacked with dry-rot, he risks infect- 
ing it with the Fungus; and similarly in pruning, in propagating 
by cuttings, &c. 

The annual losses due to epidemic plant diseases attain pro- 
portions not easily estimated. As regards money value alone the 
following figures may serve in illustration. In 1882 the United 
States was calculated to have lost 40,000,000 to 60,000,000 from 
insect and other pests. The wheat-rust costs Australia 2,000,000 
to 3,000,000 annually, and in 1891 alone the loss which Prussia 
suffered from grain-rusts was estimated at 20,000,000 sterling. 

The terrible losses sustained by whole communities of farmers, 
planters, foresters, &c., from plant diseases have naturally stimu- 
lated the search for remedies, but even now the search is too often 
conducted in the spirit of the believer in quack medicines, although 
the agricultural world is awakening to the fact that before any 
measures likely to be successful can be attempted, the whole chain 
of causation of the disease must be investigated. Experience with 
epidemics, dearly bought in the past, has shown that one fruitful 
cause is the laying open to the inroads of some Fungus or insect, 
hitherto leading a quiet endemic life in the fields and forests, large 
tracts of its special food, along which it may range rampant without 
check to its dispersal, nutrition and reproduction. Numerous 
wild hypotheses as to changes in the constitution of the host-plant, 
leading to supposed vulnerability previously non-existent, would 
probably never have seen the light had the full significance of the 
truth been grasped that an epidemic results when the external 
factors favour a parasite somewhat more than they do the host. 
It may be that in particular cases particular modes of cultivation 
disfavour the host; or that the soil, climate or seasons do so; but 
overwhelming evidence exists to show that the principal causes of 
epidemics reside in circumstances which favour the spread, nutrition 
and reproduction of the pest, and the lesson to be learnt is that 
precautions against the establishment of such favouring conditions 
must be sought. Nevertheless, epidemics occur, and practical 
measures are devised to meet the various cases and to check the 
ravages already begun. The procedure consists- in most cases in 
spraying the affected plants with poisonous solutions or emulsions, 
or in dusting them with fungicidal or insecticidal powders, or apply- 
ing the fumes of lethal gases. For the composition of the numerous 
liquids and powders special works must be consulted, but the 
following principles apply generally. The poison must not be 
strong enough to injure the roots, leaves, &c., of the host-plant, 
or allowed to act long enough to bring about such injury. Care 
and intelligence are especially needful with certain insecticides 
such as poisonous gases, or the operators may suffer. It is worse 
than useless to apply drastic remedies if the main facts cf the life- 
history of -the pest are not known ; e.g. the application of ordinary' 
antiseptic powders to leaves inside which a Fungus, such as a Uredp 
or Ustilago, is growing can only result in failure, and similarly if 
tobacco fumes, for instance, are applied when the insects con- 
cerned are hibernating in the ground beneath. Such applications 
at the moment when spores are germinating on the leaves, e.g. 
Peronospora, or to the young mycelia of epiphytic parasites, e.g. 
Erysiphe, or the steeping in hot water of thoroughly ripe hard grains 
to which spores are attached, e.g. Ustilago, and filling a greenhouse 
with hydrocyanic acid gas when young insects are commencing 
their ravages, e.g. Red-spider all these and similar procedures 
timed to catch the pest at a vulnerable stage are intelligent and 
profitable prophylactic measures, as has been repeatedly shown. 
Numerous special methods of preventing the spread of Fungi, or 
the migrations of insects, or of trapping various animals; of leaving 
infested ground fallow, or of growing another crop useless to the 
pest, &c., are also to be found in the practical treatises. More 
indirect methods, such as the grafting of less resistant scions on 
more vigorous stocks, of raising special late or early varieties by 
crossing or selection, and so on, have also met with success; but 
it must be understood that " resistant " in such cases usually 
means that some peculiarity of quick growth, early ripening or 
other life-feature in the plant is for the time being taken ad vantage 
of. _ Among the most interesting modern means of waging war 
against epidemic pests is that of introducing other epidemics 
among the pests themselves e.g. the infection of rats and mice 
with disease bacilli, or of locusts with insect-killing Fungi, and 
signs of the successful carrying out of such measures are not wanting. 
That the encouragement of insectivorous birds has been profitable 
is well established, and it is equally well-known that their destruc- 
tion may lead to disastrous insect plagues. 

Diseases and Symptoms. The symptoms of plant diseases are, 
as already said, apt to be very general in their nature, and are 
sometimes so vaguely defined that little can be learned from 
them as to the causes at work. We may often distinguish 
between primary symptoms and secondary or subordinate 



symptoms, but for the purposes of classification in an article of 
this scope we shall only attempt to group the various cases under 
the more obvious signs of disease exhibited. 

1. Discolorations are among the commonest of all signs that a 
plant is " sickly " or diseaserf. The principal symptom may show 
itself in general pallor, including all cases where the normal healthy 
green hue is replaced by a sickly yellowish hue indicating that the 
chlorophyll apparatus is deficient. It may be due to insufficient 
illumination (Etiolation), as seen in geraniums kept in too shaded 
a situation, and is then accompanied by soft tissues, elongation 
of internodes, leaves usually reduced in size, &c. The laying of 
wheat is a particular case. False etiolation may occur from too 
low a temperature, often seen in young wheat in cold springs. 
Cases of pallor due to too intense illumination and destruction of 
chlorophyll must also be distinguished. Chlorosis is a form of 
pallor where the chlorophyll remains in abeyance owing to a want 
of iron, and can be cured by adding ferrous salts. Lack of other 
ingredients may also induce chlorotic conditions. Yellowing is a 
common sign of water-logged roots, and if accompanied by wilting 
may be due to drought. Over-transpiration in bright wintry 
weather, when the roots are not absorbing, often results in yellow- 
ing. In other cases the presence of insects, Fungi or poisons at 
the roots may be looked for. Albinism, with which variegated 
foliage may be considered, concerns a different set of causes, still 
obscure, and usually regarded as internal, though experiments 
go to show that some variegations are infectious. 

2. Spotted Leaves, &fc. Discoloured spots or patches on leaves 
and other herbaceous parts are common symptoms of disease, and 
often furnish clues to identification of causes, though it must be 
remembered that no sharp line divides this class of symptoms from 
the preceding. By far the greater number of spot-diseases are due 
to Fungi, as indicated by the numerous " leaf-diseases " described, 
but such is by no means always the case. The spot or patch is an 
area of injury; on (or in) it the cell-contents are suffering destruc- 
tion from shading, blocking of stomata, loss of substance or direct 
mechanical injury, and the plant suffers in proportion to the area 
of leaf surface put out of action. It is somewhat artificial to classify 
these diseases according to the colour of the spots, and often im- 
possible, because the colour may differ according to the age of the 
part attacked and the stage of injury attained; many Fungi, for 
instance, induce yellow spots which become red, brown or black 
as they get older, and so on. White or grey spots may be due to 
Peronospora, Erysiphe, Cystopus, Entyloma and other Fungi, the 
mycelium of which will be detected in the discoloured area ; or they 
may be scale insects, or the results of punctures by Red-spider, &c. 
Yellow spots, and especially bright orange spots, commonly indicate 
Rust Fungi or other Uredineae; but Phyllosticta, Exoascus, Clastero- 
sporium, Synchytrium, &c., also induce similar symptoms. Certain 
Aphides, Red-spider, Phylloxera and other insects also betray 
their presence by such spots. It is a very common event to find the 
early stages of injury indicated by pale yellow spots, which turn 
darker, brown, red, black, &c., later, e.g. Dilophia, Rhytisma, &c. 
Moreover, variegations deceptively like these disease spots are 
known, e.g. Senecio Kaempferi. Red spots may indicate the 
presence of Fungi, e.g. Polystigma, or insects, e.g. Phytoptus. Brown 
spots are characteristic of Phytophthpra, Puccinia, &c., and black 
ones of Fusidadium, Ustilago, Rhytisma, &c. Both are common 
as advanced symptoms of destruction by Fungi and insects. 
Brilliantly coloured spots and patches follow the action of acid 
fumes on the vegetation near towns and factories, and such parti- 
coloured leaves often present striking resemblance to autumn 
foliage. Symptoms of scorching owing to abnormal insolation 
e.g. in greenhouses where the sun's rays are concentrated on 
particular spots and a certain class of obscure diseases, such as 
" silver-leaf " in plums, " foxy leaves " in various plants, may also 
be placed here. 

3. Wounds. The principal phenomena resulting from a simple 
wound, and the response of the irritated cells in healing by cork 
and in the formation of callus, have been indicated above. Any 
clean cut, fracture or bruise which injures the cambium over a 
limited area is met with the same response. The injured cells die 
and turn brown; the living cells beneath grow out, and form cork, 
and under the released pressure bulge outwards and repeatedly 
divide, forming a mass of succulent regenerative tissue known as 
callus. Living cells of the pith, phloem, cortex, &c., may also 
co-operate in this formation of regenerative tissue, and if the wound 
is a mere knife-cut in the " bark," the protruding lips of callus 
formed at the edges of the wound soon meet, and the slit is healed 
over ^occluded. If a piece of bark and cortex are torn off, the 
occlusion takes longer, because the tissues have to creep over the 
exposed area of wood; and the same is true of a transverse cut 
severing the branch, as may be seen in any properly pruned tree. 
Wounds may be artificially grouped under such heads as the 
following: Burrows and excavations in bark and wood due to 
boring insects, especially beetles. Breakages and abrasions due 
to wind, snow, lightning, and other climatic agents. Cuts, break- 
ages, &c., due to man and other vertebrate animals. Erosions of 
leaves and herbaceous parts by caterpillars, slugs, earwigs and so 
forth. Frost-cracks, scorching of bark by sun and fire, &c., and 



PLANTS 



[PATHOLOGY 



wounds due to plants which entwine, pierce or otherwise materially 
injure trees, &c., on a large scale. 

4. Excrescences. Outgrowths, more or less abnormal in character, 
are frequent signs of diseased organs. They are due to hyper- 
trophy of young tissues, which may undergo profound alterations 
subsequently, and occur on all parts of the plants. The injury 
which initiates them may be very slight in the first place a mere 
abrasion, puncture or Fungus infection but the minute wound or 
other disturbance, instead of healing over normally, is frequently 
maintained as a perennial source of irritation, and the regenerative 
tissues grow on month after month or year after year, resulting 
in extraordinary outgrowths often of large size and remarkable 
shape. Excrescences may be divided into those occurring on 
herbaceous tissues, of which Galls are well-known examples, and 
those found on the woody stem, branches, &c., and themselves 
eventuajly woody, of which Burrs of various kinds afford common 
illustrations. Among the simplest examples of the former are the 
hairs which follow the irritation of the cells by mites. These hairs 
often occur in tufts, and are so coloured and arranged that they 
were long taken for Fungi and placed in the " genus " Erineum. 

Cecidia or galls arise by the hypertrophy of the subepidermal 
cells of a leaf, cortex, &c., which has been pierced by the ovipositor 
of an insect, and in which the egg is deposited. The irritation set 
up by the hatching egg and its resulting larva appears to be the 
stimulus to development, and not a poison or enzyme injected by 
the insect. The extraordinary forms, colours and textures of the 
true galls have always formed some of the most interesting of 
biological questions, for not only is there definite co-operation 
between a given species of insect and of plant, as shown by the facts 
that the same insect may induce galls of different kinds on different 
plants or organs, while different insects induce different galls on 
the same plant e.g. the numerous galls on the oak but the gall 
itself furnishes well adapted protection and abundant stores of 
nutriment to its particular larva, and often appears to be borne 
without injury to the plant. This latter fact is no doubt due to 
the production of an excess of plastic materials over and above 
what the tree requires for its immediate needs. Galls in the wide 
sense technically Cecidia are not always due to insects. The 
nodules on the roots of leguminous plants are induced by the 
presence of a minute organism now known to do no injury to the 
plant. Those on turnips and other Cruciferae are due to the 
infection of Plasmodiophora, a dangerously parasitic Myxomycete. 
Nodules due to " eel-worms " (Nematodes) are produced on numer- 
ous classes of plants, and frequently result in great losses e.g. 
tomatoes, cucumbers, &c. ; and the only too well known Phylloxera, 
which cost France and other vine-growing countries many millions 
sterling, is another case in point. Fungus-galls on leaves and stems 
are exemplified by the " pocket-plums " caused by the Exoasceae, 
the black blistering swellings of Ustilago Maydis, the yellow swellings 
on nettles due to Aecidium, &c. 

In many cases the swellings on leaves are minute, and may be 
termed pustules e.g. those due to Synchytrium, Protomyces, Cystopus, 
many Ustilagineae, &c. These cases are not easily distinguished 
superficially from the pustular outgrowth of actual mycelia and 
spores (stromata) of such Fungi as Nectria, Puccinia, &c. The 
cylindrical stem-swellings due to Calyptospora, Epichloe, &c., may 
also be mentioned here, and the tyro may easily confound with 
these the layers and cushions of eggs laid on similar organs by 
moths. There is a class of gall-like or pustular outgrowths for 
which no external cause has as yet been determined, and which are 
therefore often ascribed to internal causes of disease. Such are 
the cork-warts on elms, maples, &c., and the class of outgrowths 
known as Intumescences. Recent researches point to definite 
external conditions of moisture, affecting the processes of respira- 
tion and transpiration, &c., as being responsible for some of these. 
The " scab " of potatoes is another case in point. Frost blisters 
are pustular swellings due to the up-growth of callus-tissue into 
cavities caused by the uprising of the superficial cortex under the 
action of intense cold. 

Turning now to outgrowths of a woody nature, the well-known 
burrs or ' knaurs," so common on elms and other trees are cases 
in point. They are due to some injury e.g. bruising by a cart- 
wheel, insects having started a callus on which adventitious buds 
arise, or to the destruction of buds at an early stage. Then, stores 
of food-material being accumulated at the injured place, other 
buds arise at the base of or around the injured one. If matters 
are propitious to the development of these buds, then a tuft of 
twigs is formed and no burr; but if the incipient twigs are also de- 
stroyed at an early stage, new buds are again formed, and in larger 
numbers than before, and the continued repetition of these processes 
leads to a sort of conglomerate woody mass of fused bud-bases, 
not dead, but unable to grow put, and thus each contributing a 
crowded portion of woody material as it slowly grows. There are 
many varieties of burrs, though all woody outgrowths of old trees 
are not to be confounded with them, e.g. the " knees " of Taxo- 
dium, &c. Many typical burrs might be described as witches'- 
brooms, with all the twigs arrested to extremely short outgrowths. 
Witches'-brooms are the tufted bunches of twigs found on silver 
firs, birches and other trees, and often present resemblances to 
birds' nests or clumps of mistletoe if only seen from a distance. 



They are branches in which a perennial Fungus (Aecidium, Exoascus, 
&c.) has obtained a hold. This Fungus stimulates the main twig 
to shoot out more twigs than usual; the mycelium then enters 
each incipient twig and stimulates it to a repetition of the process, 
and so in the course of years large broom-like tufts result, often 
markedly different from the normal. 

But undoubtedly the most important of the woody excrescences 
on trees are cankers. A canker is the result of repeated frustrated 
attempts on the part of the callus to heal up a wound. If a clean 
cut remains clean, the cambium and cortical tissues soon form callus 
over it, and in this callus regenerative tissue new wood, &c., 
soon forms, and if the wound was a small one, no trace is visible 
after a few years. But the occluding callus is a mass of delicate 
succulent cells, and offers a dainty morsel to certain insects 
e.g. Aphides and may be easily penetrated by certain Fungi such 
as Peziza, Nectria; and when thus attacked, the repeated conflicts 
between the cambium and callus, on the one hand, trying to heal 
over the wound, and the insect or Fungus, on the other, destroying 
the new tissues as they are formed, results in irregular growths; 
the still uninjured cambium area goes on thickening the branch, 
the dead parts, of course, remain unthickened, and the portion in 
which the Fungus is at work may for the time being grow more 
rapidly. Such cankers often commence in mere insect punctures, 
frosted buds, cracks in the cortex, &c., into which a germinating 
spore sends its hypha. The seriousness of the damage done is 
illustrated by the ravages of the larch disease, apple canker, &c. 

5. Exudations and Rotting. The outward symptoms of many 
diseases consist in excessive discharges of moisture, often accom- 
panied by bursting of over-turgid cells, and eventually by putre- 
factive changes. Conditions of hyper-turgescence are common in 
herbaceous plants in wet seasons, or when overcrowded and in 
situations too moist for them. This unhealthy state is frequently 
combined with etiolation: what is termed rankness is a particular 
case, and if the factors concerned are removed by drainage, weed- 
ing out, free transpiration, &c., no permanent harm may result. 
With seedlings and tender plants, however, matters are frequently 
complicated by the onslaughts of Fungi e.g. Pythium, Perono- 
spara, Completoria, Volutelta, Botrytis, &c. That such over- 
turgescence should lead to the bursting of fleshy fruits, such as 
gooseberries, tomatoes and grapes, is not surprising, nor can we 
wonder that fermentation and mould Fungi rapidly spread in 
such fruits; and the same is true for bulbs and herbaceous organs 
generally. The rotting of rhizomes, roots, &c., also comes into 
this category; but while it is extremely difficult in given cases to 
explain the course of events in detail, certain Fungi and bacteria 
have been so definitely associated with these roots e.g. beet-rot, 
turnip disease, wet-rot of potatoes that we have to consider each 
case separately. It is, of course, impossible to do this here, but I 
will briefly discuss one or two groups of cases. 

Honey-dew. The sticky condition of leaves of trees e.g. lime 
in hot weather is owing to exudations of sugar. In many cases 
the punctures of Aphides and Coccideae are shown to be responsible 
for such exudations, and at least one instance is known where a 
Fungus Claviceps causes it. But it also appears that honey- 
dew may be excreted by ordinary processes of over-turgescence 
pressing the liquid through water-pores, as in the tropical Caesal- 
pinia, Calliandra, &c. That these exudations on leaves should 
afterwards serve as pabulum for Fungi e.g. Fumago, Antennaria 
is not surprising, and the leaves of limes are often black with 
them. 

Flux. A common event in the exudation of turbid, frothing 
liquids from wounds in the bark of trees, and the odours of putre- 
faction and even alcoholic fermentation in these are sufficiently 
explained by the coexistence of albuminous and saccharine matters 
with fungi, yeasts and bacteria in such fluxes. It is clear that in 
these cases the obvious symptom the flux is not the primary 
one. Some wound in the succulent tissues has become infected 
by the organisms referred to, and their continued action prevents 
healing. At certain seasons the wound " bleeds," and the organ- 
isms some of which, by the bye, are remarkable and interesting 
forms -multiply in the nutritious sap and ferment it. The pheno- 
menon is, in fact, very like that of the fermentation of palm wine 
and pulque, where the juices are obtained from artificial cuts. 

Comparable with these cases is that of Cuckoo-spit, due to the 
juices sucked out by Aphrophthora on herbaceous plants of all 
kinds. Outflows of resin Resinosis al?o come under this general 
heading; but although some resin-fluxes are traced to the destructive 
action of Agaricus melleus in Conifers, others, as well as certain 
forms of Gummosis, are still in need of explanation. 

Bacteriosis. Many of the plant diseases involving rot have been 
ascribed to the action of bacteria, and in some cases e.g. cabbage- 
rot, bulb-rot of hyacinths, &c., carnation disease there is evidence 
that bacteria are causally connected with the disease. It is not 
sufficient to find bacteria in the rotting tissues, however, nor even 
to be successful in infecting the plant through an artificial wound, 
unless very special and critical precautions are taken, and in many 
of the alleged cases of bacteriosis the saprophytic bacteria in the 
tissues are to be regarded as merely secondary agents. 

6. Necrosis. A number of diseases the obvious symptoms of 
which are the local drying up and death of tissues, in many cases 



ECOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



with secondary results on organs or parts of organs, may be brought 
together under this heading. No sharp line can be drawn between 
these diseases and some of the preceding, inasmuch as it often 
depends on the external conditions whether necrosis is a dry-rot, 
m the sense I employ the term here, or a wet-rot, when it would 
come under the preceding category. The " dying back " of the 
twigs of trees and shrubs is a frequent case. The cortical tissues 
gradually shrink and dry up, turning brown and black in patches 
or all over, and when at length the cambium and medullary ray 
tissues dry up the whole twig dies off. This may be due to frost 
especially in " thin-barked " trees, and often occurs in beeches, 
pears, &c.; or it may result from bruising by wind, hailstones, 
gun-shot wounds in coverts, &c., the latter of course very local. 
It is the common result of fires passing along too rapidly to burn 
the trees; and " thin-barked " trees hornbeam, beech, firs, &c. 
may exhibit it as the results of sunburn, especially when exposed 
to the south-west after the removal of shelter. The effects of frost 
and of sunburn are frequently quite local. The usual necrosis of 
the injured cortex occurs drying up, shrivelling, and consequent 
stretching and cracking of the dead cortex on the wood beneath. 
Such frost-cracks, sun-cracks, &c., may then be slowly healed over 
by callus, but if the conditions for necrosis recur the crack may be 
again opened, or if Fungi, &c., interfere with occlusion, the healing 
is prevented; in such cases the local necrosis may give rise to 
cankers. The dying back of twigs may be brought about by many 
causes. General attacks of leaf-diseases invariably lead to starva- 
tion and necrosis of twigs, and similarly with the ravages of cater- 
pillars and other insects. Drought and consequent defoliation 
result in the same, and these considerations help us to understand 
how old-established trees in parks, &c., apparently in good general 
health, become " stag-headed " by the necrosis of their upper 
twigs and smaller branches: the roots have here penetrated into 
subsoil or other unsuitable medium, or some drainage scheme has 
deprived them of water, &c., and a dry summer just turns the scale. 
Such phenomena are not uncommon in towns, where trees with 
their roots under pavement or other impervious covering do well 
for a time, but suddenly fail to supply the crown sufficiently with 
water during some hot summer. 

7. Monstrosities. A large class of cases of departure from the 
normal form, depending on different and often obscure causes, 
may be grouped together under this heading; most of them are of 
the kind termed Teratological, and it is difficult to decide how far 
they should be regarded as pathological if we insist that a disease 
threatens the existence of the plant, since many of these malforma- 
tions e.g. double flowers, phyllody of floral parts, contortions 
and fascinations, dwarfing, malformed leaves, &c. can not only 
be transmitted in cultivation, but occur in nature without evident 
injury to the variety. In many cases, however, monstrosities of 
flowers have been shown to be due to the irritating action of minute 
insects or Fungi, and others are known which, although induced 
by causes unknown to us, and regarded as internal, would not be 
likely to survive in the wild condition. This subject brings the 
domain of pathology, however, into touch with that of variation, 
and we are profoundly ignorant as to the complex of external 
conditions which would decide in any given case how far a variation 
in form would be prejudicial or otherwise to the continued existence 
of a species. Under the head of malformations we place cases of 
atrophy of parts or general dwarfing, due to starvation, the attacks 
of Fungi or minute insects, the presence of unsuitable food-materials 
and so on, as well as cases of transformation of stamens into petals, 
carpels into leaves, and so forth. Roots are often flattened, twisted 
and otherwise distorted by mechanical obstacles; stems by excess 
of food in rich soils, the attacks of minute parasites, overgrowth 
by climbing plants, &c. Leaves are especially apt to vary, and 
although the formation of crests, pitchers, puckers, &c., must be 
put down to the results of abnormal development, it is often difficult 
to draw the line between teratological and merely varietal pheno- 
mena. For instance, the difference between the long-stalked and 
finely-cut leaves of Anemone attacked with rust and the normal 
leaves with broad segments, or between the urceolate leaves oc- 
casionally found on cabbages and the ordinary form in these 
cases undoubtedly pathological and teratological respectively is 
nothing like so great as between the upper and lower normal- 
leaves of many Umbelliferae or the submerged and floating leaves 
of an aquatic Ranunculus or Cabomba. When we come to pheno- 
mena such as proliferations, vivipary, the development of " Lammas 
shoots," adventitious buds, epicormic branches, and to those mal- 
formations of flowers known as peloria, phyllody, virescence, &c. 
while assured that definite, and in many cases recognizable, physio- 
logical disturbances are at work, we find ourselves on the borderland 
between pathological and physiological variation, where each case 
must be examined with due regard to all the circumstances, and 
no generalization seems possible beyond what has been sketched. 
This is equally true of the phenomena of apogamy and apospory 
in the light of recent researches into the effects of external con- 
ditions on reproduction. 

This sketch of an enormous subject shows us that the pathology 
of plants is a special department of the study of variations which 
threaten injury to the plant, and passes imperceptibly into the 



759 



study of variations in general. Moreover, we have good reasons 
for inferring that different constellations of external causes may 
determine whether the internal physiological disturbances 
induced by a given agent shall lead to pathological and dangerous 
variations, or to changes which may be harmless or even advan- 
tageous to the plant concerned. 

AUTHORITIES. General and Historical. Berkeley, "Vegetable 
Pathology," Gardener's Chronicle (1854) p. 4; Plowiight, British 
Uredtneae and Ustilagineae (1889); Eriksson and Henning, Die 
Getreideroste (Stockholm, 1896); De Bary, Comparative Morph. 
and Biol. of the Fungi, &c. (1887); Frank, Die Krankheiten der 
Pflanzen (1895-1896); Sorauer, Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheilen 
(1906); Ward, Disease in Plants (1901). Causes of Disease, &c. 
Pfeffer, Physiology of Plants (Oxford, 1900) ; Sorauer, Treatise on 
the Physiology of Plants (1895); Bailey, The Principles of Agri- 
culture (1898); Lafar, Technical Mycology (1898); Hartig, Diseases 
of Trees (1894); Marshall Ward, Proc. Roy. Soc. (1890) xlvii. 394; 
and Timber and some of its Diseases (London, 1889). Fungi. 
See FUNGI and BACTERIA; also Marshall Ward, Diseases of Plants 
(Romance of Science Series), S.P.C.K.; Massee, Text-Book of Plant 
Diseases (1899) ; Tubeuf, Diseases of Plants (London, 1897). Insects. 
Ormerod, Manual of Injurious Insects (1890) ; C. V. Riley, Insect Life, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1888-1895); Judeich and Mitsche, 
Lehrbuch der mitteleuropdischen Forstinsektenkunde (Vienna, 1889). 
Healing of Wounds, &c. Shattock, "On the Reparatory Pro-' 
cesses which occur in Vegetable Tissues," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1882) 
xix. I ; Richards, " The Respiration of Wounded Plants," Ann. of 
Bot. (1896), x. 531; and "The Evolution of Heat by Wounded 
Plants," Ann. of Bot. (1897), xi. 29. Enzvmes. Green, The Soluble 
Ferments and Fermentation (1899). Chemotaxis, &c. Miyoshi, 
" Die Durchbohrung von Membranen durch Pilzfaden," Pringsh. 
Jahrb., B. (1895), xxviii. 269, and literature. Parasitism, &c. 
Marshall Ward, " On some Relations between Host and Parasite, 
&c.," Proc. Roy. Soc. xlvii. 393; and "Symbiosis," Ann. of Bot. 
(1899), xiii. 549, with literature. Specialization of Parasitism. 
Salmon, in Massee's Text-Book of Fungi (1906), pp. 146-157. 
Statistics. See Wyatt, Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta, 1805), p. 71; 
Balfour, The Agricultural Pests of India (1887), p. 13; Eriksson and 
Henning, Die Getreideroste; the publications of the U.S. Agri- 
cultural Department ; the Kew Bulletin; Zeitschrift fur Pflanzen- 
krankheiten, and elsewhere. Spraying, &c. See Lodemau, The 
Spraying of Plants (1896), and numerous references in the publica- 
tions of U.S. Agricultural Department, Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrank- 
heiten, the Gardener's Chronicle, &c. Etiolation, &c. Pfeffer, 
Physiology of Plants, and other works on physiology. Albinism, &c. 
Church, A Chemical Study of Vegetable Albinism," Journ. 
Chem. Soc. (1879, 1880 and 1886); Beijerinck, " Ueber ein Con- 
tagium," &c., in Verhandl. d. kon. Acad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam, 
1898); Koning in Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankh. (1899), ix. 65; Baur, 
Ber. deuischen hot. Ges. (1904), xxii. 453; Sitzungsber. berlin. Akad. 
(Jan. 6, 1906); Hunger, Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankheiten (1905), 
xv. Heft 5. Wounds, &c. Marshall Ward, Timber and som 
of its Diseases, p. 210; Hartig, Diseases of Trees (London, 1804). 
Cecidia and Galls. Kuster, < Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Gallen- 
anatomie," Flora (1900), p. 117; Pathologische Pflanzenanatomie 
(1903); Molliard, Revue generate de hot. (1900), p. 157. Canker. 
Frank, Krankheiten der Pflanzen, and papers in Zeitschr. f. Pflanzen- 
krankh. Rotting, &c. Migula, Krit. Uebersicht derjenigen Pflanzen- 
krankheiten, vielche angeblich durch Bakterien verursacht werden 
(1892); Smith, " Pseudomonas campestris," Cent. f. Bakt. B. iii. 
284 (1897); Arthur and Bolley, Bacteriosis of Carnations, Purdue 
Univ. Agr. Station (1896), vii. 17; A. F. Woods, " Stigmonose, a 
Disease of Carnations, Vegetable, Physiol. and Pathol. Bull. 19 
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1900); Sorauer, Handbuch der 
Pflanzenkrankheiten (1905), 18-93. Frost, Drought, &c. Hartig, 
Lehrbuch der Anal, und Phys. der ffianzen; Fischer, Forest Protection, 
iv. of Schlich's Manual of Forestry. Teratology, &c. Masters, 
Vegetable Teratology, Ray Society (1869); Molliard, " Cecidies 
florales," Ann. Set. Nat. ser. 8, i. (hot.) p. 67 (1895). (H. M. W.) 

ECOLOGY OF PLANTS 

Introduction. The word ecology is derived from O[KOS, a 
house (habitat), and Xo7os, a discourse. As a botanical term, 
ecology denotes that branch of botany which comprises the 
study of the relations of the individual plant, or the species, or 
the plant community with the habitat. Following Schroter 1 
(Flahault and Schroter, 1910 : 24), the term aulecology may be 
used for the study of the habitat conditions in relation to the 
single species, and the term synecology for this study in relation 
to plant communities. 

From the phytogeographical standpoint, ecology is frequently 
termed ecological plant geography. Thus Warming 2 ( 1 901 : i and 2) 

1 Flahault and Schroter, Phytogeographical Nomenclature: reports 
and propositions (Zurich, 1910). 

1 Warming, Oecology of Plants (Oxford, 1909). 



760 



PLANTS 



[ECOLOGY 



subdivided plant geography into floristic plant geography and 
ecological plant geography. The former is concerned with the 
division of the earth's surface into major districts characterized 
by particular plants or taxonomic groups of plants, with the 
subdivision of these floristic districts, and with the geographical 
distribution (both past and present) of the various taxonomic 
units, such as species, genera, and families. On the other hand, 
ecological plant geography seeks to ascertain the distribution 
of plant communities, such as associations and formations, and 
enquires into the nature of the factors of the habitat which are 
related to the distribution of plants plant forms, species, and 
communities. In a general way, floristic plant geography is 
concerned with species, ecological plant geography with vege- 
tation. The study of the distribution of species dates back to 
the time of the early systematists, the study of vegetation to the 
time of the early botanical travellers. Humboldt, 1 for example, 
defined his view of the scope of plant geography as follows: 
" C'est cette science qui considere les vegetaux sous les rapports 
de leur association locale dans les differents climats " (1807: 
14). 

The Habitat. The term habitat, in its widest sense, includes 
all the factors of the environment which affect a plant or a plant 
community, though the term is frequently used to signify only 
some of these factors. The factors of the habitat may be 
grouped as follows: geographical, physical, and biological. 

Geographical Factors. Geographical position determines the 
particular species of plants which grow in any particular locality. 
This matter is bound up with the centres of origin and with the 
past migrations of species; and such questions are usually treated 
as a part of floristic plant geography. Here, therefore, floristics 
and ecology meet. Flahault and Schroter, 2 in defining the term 
habitat, appear to exclude all geographical factors. They state 
that " the term habitat is understood to include everything relating 
to the factors operative in a geographically defined locality, so far 
as these factors influence plants " (1910: 24); but the exclusion of 
geographical and historical factors from the concept of the habitat 
does not appear to be either desirable or logical. 

Physical Factors. These are frequently classified as edaphic or 
soil factors and climatic factors; but there is no sharp line of de- 
marcation between them. Edaphic factors include all those 
relating to the soil. The water content of the soil, its mineral 
content, its humus content, its temperature, and its physical char- 
acteristics, such as its depth and the size of its component particles 
are all edaphic factors. Climatic factors include all those relating 
to atmospheric temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, and 
light and shade. Factors connected with altitude, aspect, and 
exposure to winds are also climatic: such are often spoken of as 
physiographical factors. The difficulty of sharply delimiting 
edaphic and climatic factors is seen in the case of temperature. 
Soil temperature is partly dependent on the direct rays of the sun, 
partly on the colour and constitution of the soil, and partly on the 
water content of the soil. Again, the temperature of the air is 
affected by radiation from the soil; and radiation differs in various 
soils. 

Biological Factors. These include the reactions of plants and 
animals on the habitat. Here again, no sharp boundary-line can 
be drawn. In one sense, the accumulation of humus and peat is 
a biological factor, as it is related to the work of organisms in the 
soil ; but the occurrence or otherwise of these organisms in the soil 
is probably related to definite edaphic and climatic conditions. 
Again, the well-known action of earthworms may be said to be a 
biological work; but the resulting aeration of the soil causes edaphic 
differences; and earthworms are absent from certain soils, such as 
peat. The pollination of flowers and the dispersal of seeds by 
various animals are biological factors; but pollination and dis- 
persal by the wind cannot be so regarded. The influence of man 
on plants and vegetation is also a biological factor, which is fre- 
quently ignored as such, and treated as if it were a thing apart. 

When the nature and effect of ecological factors have become 
more fully understood, it will be possible to dispense with the above 
artificial classification of factors, and to frame one depending on 
the action of the various factors; but such a classification is not 
possible in the present state of knowledge. 

Ecology and Physiology. Whilst our knowledge of the nature 
and effect of habitat is still in a very rudimentary condition, 
much progress has been made in recent years in the study of 
plant communities; but even here the questions involved in 
relating the facts of the distribution of plant communities to the 

1 Humboldt and Bonpland, Essai sur la geographic des planles 
(Paris, 1807). 

2 Flahault and Schroter (op. cit.). 



factors of the habitat are very imperfectly understood. This is 
due to a lack of precise knowledge of the various habitat factors 
and also of the responses made by plants to these factors. Until 
much more advance has been made by ecologists in the investi- 
gation of the nature of habitat factors, and until the effect of the 
factors on the plants has been more closely investigated by 
physiologists, it will remain impossible to place ecology on 
a physiological basis: all that is possible at present is to give a 
physiological bias to certain aspects of ecological research. 
Obviously no more than this is possible until physiologists are 
able to state much more precisely than at present what is the 
influence of common salt on the plants of salt-marshes, of the 
action of calcium carbonate on plants of calcareous soils, and of 
the action of humous compounds on plants of fens and peat 
moors. 

Ecological Classes. Many attempts have been made to divide 
plants and plant communities into classes depending on habitat 
factors. One of the best known classifications on these lines is 
that by Warming. 3 Warming recognized and denned four 
ecological classes as follows: 

Hydrophytes. These live in a watery or wet substratum, with 
at least 80% of water. Warming included plants of peat-bogs 
among his hydrophytes. 

Xerophytes. These are plants which live in very dry places, 
where the substratum has less than 10% of water. 

Halophytes. These are plants living in situations where the sub- 
stratum contains a high proportion of sodium chloride. 

Mesophytes. These are plants which live in localities which are 
neither specially dry nor specially wet nor specially salty. 

Such terms as hydrophytes, xerophytes, and halophytes had 
been used by plant geographers before Warming's time e.g., by 
Schouw; 4 and the terms evidently supply a want felt by botanists 
as they have come into general use. However, the terms are 
incapable of exact definition, and are only useful when used in a 
very general way. The above classification by Warming, 
although it was without doubt the best ecological classification 
which had, at the time, been put forward, has not escaped criti- 
cism. The criticisms were directed chiefly to the inclusion of 
sand dune plants among halophytes, to the exclusion of halo- 
phytes from xerophytes, to the inclusion of " bog xerophytes " 
among hydrophytes, to the inclusion of all conifers among 
xerophytes and of all deciduous trees among mesophytes, and to 
the group of mesophytes in general. 

Schimper 6 made a distinct advance when he distinguished 
between physical and physiological dryness or wetness of the 
soil. A soil may be physically wet; but if the plants absorb the 
water only with difficulty, as in a salt marsh, then the soil is, as 
regards plants, physiologically dry. All soils which are physi- 
cally dry are also physiologically dry; and hence only the 
physiological dryness or wetness of soils need be considered in 
ecology. 

Schimper used the term xerophytes to include plants which live 
in soils which are physiologically dry, and the term hygrophytes 
those which live in soils which are physiologically wet or damp. 
Schimper recognized that the two classes are connected by transi- 
tional forms, and that it is useless to attempt to give the matter 
a statistical basis. It is only in a general sense like Schimper's 
that such ecological terms as xerophytes have any value; and it 
is not possible, at least at present, to frame ecological classes, 
which shall have a high scientific value, on a basis of this nature. 
Whilst Schimper objected to the constitution of a special 
category, such as mesophytes, to include all plants which are 
neither pronounced xerophytes nor pronounced hygrophytes, 
he recognized the necessity of a third class in which to place those 

* Warming, Plantesamfund, Kjobenhavn, 1895. (See German 
trans, by Knoblauch, " Lehrbuch der okologischen Pflanzen- 
geographie " (Berlin, 1896); new German ed. by Graebner (Berlin, 
1902). 

* Schouw, Grundtraek til en almindelig Plantegeografie (Kjoben- 
havn, 1822); German trans., " Grundziige emer allegemeinen 
Pflanzengeographie " (Berlin, 1823). 

6 Schimper, Pflanzengeographie auf physiologischer Grundlage 
(Berlin, 1898); Eng. trans, by Fisher, " Plant Geography upon a 
Physiological Basis " (Oxford, 1903-1904). 



ECOLOGY] 



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761 



plants which, like deciduous trees and bulbous plants, are hygro- 
phytes during one season of the year and xerophytes during 
another season of the year. Such plants, which comprise the 
great majority of the species of the central European flora, 
Schimper termed tropophytes. 

Recently, Warming 1 (1909 : 136), assisted by Vahl, has 
modified his earlier classification, and adopted the following: 

A. The soil (in the widest sense) is very wet, and the abundant 
water is available to the plant (at least in hydrophytes). 

1. Hydrophytes. These include plants of the plankton, or micro- 
phytes that float free on water, of the pleuston, or macrophytes 
which float on or are suspended in water, and of the benthos, or 
all aquatic plants which are fixed to the substratum. 

2. Helophytes. These are marsh plants which normally have 
their roots in soaking soil but whose branches and foliage are more 
or less aerial. Warming admits there is no sharp limit between 
marsh plants and land plants; and it seems equally obvious that 
there is no sharp limit between some of his helophytes and some of 
his hydrophytes. For example, the difference between aquatic 
plants with floating leaves, such as the yellow water-lily (Nymphaea 
lutea) and those with erect leaves, such as Typha angustifolia, is 
probably more apparent than real. Among helophytes, Warming 
places plants of the reed swamp, and includes such trees as the alder 
(Alnus rotundifolia), willows (e.g., Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. cinerea, 
S. pentandra), birch, and pine, when these grow in marshy places. 

B. The soil is physiologically dry. 

3. Oxylophytes. These plants, sometimes spoken of as " bog 
xerophytes, ' grow in soils which contain an abundance of free 
humous compounds, and include plants which grow on fens and 
moors. 

4. Psychrophytes These include the plants which grow on the 
cold soils of subniveal and polar districts.' 

5. Halophytes. These are plants which grow on saline soils. 

C. The soil is physically dry. 

6. Lithophytes. These are plants which grow on " true rock," 
but not " on the loose soil covering rock, even though this may 
entertain species that are very intimately associated with the rock. 
Still to this limitation an exception must be made in favour of the 
vegetation growing in clefts and niches " (Warming, 1909 : 240). 
Many Algae, lichens, and mosses are included among lithophytes, 
and also Saxifraga Aizoon, S. oppositifolia, Silene acaults, and 
Gnaphalium luteo-album. 

7. Psammophytes. These are plants which grow on sand and 
gravel. Plants of sand-dunes, whether in maritime or inland 
localities, are psammophytes, as well as plants (such as Calluna 
vulgaris) of dune heaths, dune " bushland " or scrub, and dune 
forest. 

8. Chersophytes. Here are placed certain " xerophytic perennial 
herbs " which occur on " particular dry kinds of soil, such as lime- 
stone rocks, stiff clay, and so forth " (Warming, 1909 : 289). 

D. The climate is very dry, and the properties of the soil are 
decided by climate. 

9. Eremophytes. Under this term, are placed plants of deserts 
and steppes. 

10. Psilophytes. Here are placed plants found in " savannah- 
vegetation, ' viz. (i.) " thorny savannah-vegetation, including: (a) 
orchard-scrub, (6) thorn-bushland and thorn-forest; (ii.) true 
savannah: tropical and sub-tropical savannah ; (iii.) savannah-forest, 
including bush-forest in Africa and ' campos serrados ' in Brazil " 
(Warming, 1909 : 293 et seq.). 

11. Sclerophyllous formations, e.g., garigues, maquis, and forests 
of evergreen oaks (Q. Ilex, Q. Ballota, Q. Suber), and of Eucalyptus 
spp. 

E. The soil is physically or physiologically dry. 

12. Coniferous forest formations, e.g., of Pinus sylvestris, Picea 
excelsa, Abies pectinata, Larix sibirica, L. decidua. 

F. " Soil and climate favour the development of mesophilous 
formations." 

13. Mesophytes. Warming defines mesophytes as " plants that 
show a preference for soil and air of moderate humidity, and avoid 
soil with standing water or containing a great abundance of salts " 
(1909 : 317). Under mesophytes, Warming places plants occurring 
in " Arctic and Alpine mat-grassland and mat-herbage," in " mat- 
vegetation of the Alps," in meadows, in pasture on cultivated soil, 
in " mesophytic bushland," in deciduous dicotyledonous forests, 
and in evergreen dicotyledonous forests. 

This new system of Warming's, whilst probably too involved 
ever to come into general use, must be taken as superseding his 
older one; 2 and perhaps the best course open to botanists is to 
select such terms as appear to be helpful, and to use the selected 
terms in a general kind of way and without demanding any pre- 
cise definitions of them: it must also be borne in mind that the 

'Warming (1909, op. cit.}. 
2 Ibid (1894, op. cit.). 



various classes are neither mutually exclusive nor of equivalent 
rank. From this point of view, the following terms will perhaps 
be found the most serviceable: 

Hydrophytes (submerged aquatic plants). Plants whose vege- 
tative organs live wholly in water; e.g., most Algae, many mosses, 
such as Fontinalis spp., and liverworts, such as Jungermannia spp. ; 
a few Pteridophytes, such as Pilularia. spp., Isoetes spp.; several 
flowering plants, such as Potamogeton peclinatus, Ceratophyllum 
spp., Hottonia palustris, Utricularia spp., Littorella lacustris. 

Hemi-hydrophytes (swamp plants, marsh plants, &c.). Plants 
whose vegetative organs are partly submerged and partly aerial; 
Vaucheria terrestris, Philonotis fontana, Scapania undulala, Mar- 
silia spp., Salvinia natans, Azolla spp., Equisetum limosum, Typha 
angustifolia, Phragmites communis, Scirpus lacustris, Nymphaea 
lutea, Oenanthe fistulosa, Bidens cernua. 

Hygrophytes. Plants which are sub-evergreen or evergreen but 
not sclerophyllous, and which live in moist soils; e.g., Lastraea 
Filix-mas, Poa pratensis, Carex malts, Plantago lanceolata, and 
Achillaea Millefolium. 

Xerophytes. Plants which grow in very dry soils; e.g., most 
lichens, Ammophila (Psamma) arenaria, Elymus arenarius. Ana- 
basis aretioides, Zilla macroptera, Sedum acre, Bupleurum spinosum, 
Artemisia herba-alba, Zollikofferia arborescens. 

Halophytes. Plants which grow in very saline soils; e.g., Triglochin 
maritimum, Salicornia spp., Zygophyllum cornutum, Aster Tri- 
polium, Artemisia maritima. It should be recognized, however, 
that " a halophyte, in fact, is one form of xerophyte " (Warming, 
1909: 219). 

Sclerophyllous Plants. These are plants with evergreen leathery 
leaves, and typical of tropical, sub-tropical, and warm temperate 
regions; e.g., Quercus Suber, Ilex Aquifolium, Hedera Helix, Eucalyp- 
tus Clobulus, Rosmarinus officinalis. Sclerophyllous leaves are 
usually characterized by entire or sub-entire margins, a thick cuticle, 
small but rarely sunken stomata, a well-developed and close-set 
palisade tissue and a feeble system of air-spaces. 

Hydro-xerophytes (" bog xerophytes "). Plants which live in 
wet, peaty soils, and which possess aeration channels and xero- 
philous leaves; e.g., Cladium Mariscus, Enophorum angustifolium, 
Rubus Chamaemorus, and Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea. The term oxylo- 
phyte " is open to the objection that some peaty waters are alkaline, 
and not acidic as the term implies. Many plants of peaty soils 
are sclerophyllous. 

Tropophytes. Plant* which are hygrophytes during some favour- 
able part of the year and xerophytes during the rest of the year; 
e.g., deciduous trees and shrubs, deciduous herbaceous plants with 
underground perennating organs, and annuals and ephemerals. 

Plant Communities. The study of plant communities 
(Formationslehre or synecology) has made much progress in 
recent years. Even here, however, general agreement has not 
been reached; and the questions involved in relating the facts 
of the distribution of plant communities to the factors of the 
habitat are very imperfectly understood. Plant communities 
may be classified as follows: 

A plant association is a community of definite floristic com- 
position: it may be characterized by a single dominant species; 
or, on the other hand, it may be characterized by a number of 
prominent species, one of which is abundant here, another there, 
whilst elsewhere two or more species may share dominance. 
The former are pure associations, and are well illustrated by a 
heather moor, where Calluna vulgaris is the dominant plant. 
The latter are mixed associations, such as fens, where different 
fades are produced by the varying abundance of characteristic 
plants, such as Cladium Mariscus, Phragmites communis, Molinia 
coerulea, Calamagroslis lanceolata, and Juncus oblusiflorus. The 
different facies are possibly related to slight differences in a 
generally uniform habitat: it is unscientific to regard them as 
due to chance; still, in the majority of cases, the causes of the 
different facies have not been demonstrated. A local aggre- 
gation of a species other than the dominant one in an associ- 
ation brings about a plant society; for example, societies of Erica 
Tetralix, of Scirpus caespitosus, of Molinia coerulea, of Carex 
curia, of Narlhecium ossifragum, and others may occur within 
an association of Calluna vulgaris. The plant societies are also 
doubtless due to slight variations of the habitat. 

The plant association is sometimes referred to in technical 
language; 3 the termination -etum is added to the stem of the 
generic name, and the specific name is put in the genitive. Thus 

3 See Moss, "The Fundamental Units of Vegetation: historical 
development of the concepts of the plant association and the plant 
formation." Botany School (Cambridge, 1910). 



762 



PLANTS 



[ECOLOGY 



an association of Quercus sessttiflora may be referred to as a 
Quercetum sessiliflorae. 

A plant formation is a group of associations occupying habitats 
which are in essentials identical with each other. Thus, associ- 
ations of Agropyrum (Triticum) junceum, of Carex arenaria, ol 
AmmophUa (Psamma) arenaria, and of other plants occur on 
sand dunes: the associations are related by the general identity 
of the habitat conditions, namely, the physiological dryness 
and the loose soil; but they are separated by differences in 
floristic composition, especially by different dominant species, 
and by minor differences of the common habitat. The whole 
set of associations on the sand dunes constitutes a plant 
formation. 

The plant formation may be designated in technical language 
by the termination -ion added to a stem denoting the habitat. 
Thus, a sand dune formation may be termed an Arenarion. The 
associations! term, in the genitive, may be added to the forma- 
tional term to indicate the relationship of the formation and the 
association; thus, a plant association of AmmophUa arenaria 
belonging to the plant formation of the sand dunes may be 
designated an Arenarion Ammophilae-arenariae (cf. Moss, op. cit. 
1910: 43). 

The question of universal names for vegetation units is bound 
up with that of the universality or otherwise of particular 
formations. " Remote regions which are floristically distinct 
. . . may possess areas physically almost identical and yet be 
covered by different formations" (Clements, 1 1905:203). For 
example, the sand dunes of North America and those of western 
Europe are widely separated in geographical position and there- 
fore in floristic composition, yet they are related by common 
physical factors. This relationship may be indicated by the 
addition of some prefix to the formational name. For example, 
an Arenarion in one climatic or geographical region might be 
termed an a-Arenarion and one in a different region a /3-Arena- 
rion, and so on (Moss, loc. cit.). 

It is, however, frequently desirable to consider such allied 
formations as a single group. Such a group of formations may be 
designated a plant federation: and this term may be defined as a 
group of formations, which are characterized by common edaphic 
factors of the habitat, and which occur in any geographical 
region. Thus, different geographical or climatic regions are 
characterized by salt marshes. The latter all agree in their 
edaphic characteristics; but they differ climatically and in 
floristic composition. The salt marshes of a given region con- 
stitute a single plant formation : the salt marsh formations of 
the whole world constitute a plant federation. 

Again, it is possible to arrange plant associations into groups 
related by a common plant form. Thus woodland associations 
may be classified as deciduous forests, coniferous forests, sclero- 
phyllous forests, &c. These, in a general way, are the "forma- 
tions " of Warming, 2 and (in part) the " climatic formations " 
of Schimper. 3 Thus the various reed-swamps of the whole world 
constitute a " formation " in Warming's sense (1909 : 187). 

There is much difference of opinion among ecologists and 
plant geographers as to which of these points of view is the most 
fundamental. Among British authorities, it is now customary 
to adopt the position of Clements, who states (1905:292) 
that " the connexion between formation and habitat is so close 
that any application of the term to a division greater or smaller 
than the habitat is both illogical and unfortunate," and that 
(1905:18) " habitats are inseparable from the formations which 
they bear " (cf. Moss, 1910). 

From the standpoint of plant communities, it is convenient 
to divide the earth's surface into (i) tropical districts; 4 (2) sub- 

1 F. E. Clements, Research Methods in Ecology (1905), Lincoln, 
Neb., U.S.A. 

s Warming (1909, op. cit.). * Schimper (1898, op. cit.). 

'The nomenclature of the terms (floristic as well as ecological) 
used in geographical botany is in a very confused state. In the 
present article, the term " district " is used in a general sense to 
indicate any definite portion of the earth's surface. For a dis- 
cussion of such phytogeographical terms, see Flahault, " Premier 
essai de nomenclature phytogeographique," in Bull. Soc. langue- 
docienne de Ceogr. (1901) ; and also in Bull. Ton. Bot. Club (1901). 



tropical and warm temperate districts; (3) temperate districts; 
(4) cold temperate and frigid districts. 

i. Tropical Districts. The vegetation of tropical districts has 
been subdivided by Schimper (1903:260, et seq.) as follows: 
(i.) Tropical woodland: (a) rain forest, (b) monsoon forest, (c) 
savana forest, (d) thorn forest, (ii.) Tropical grassland: (a) 
savana, (b) steppe, (iii.) Tropical desert: (a) scrub, (6) succulent 
plants, (c) perennial herbs. 

Schimper regards the minor divisions as groups of " climatic 
formations"; and he also distinguishes certain tropical "edaphic 
formations," such as mangrove swamps. He states that rain 
forests and high monsoon forests in the tropics occur when the 
average rainfall is over 70 in. (178 cm.) per annum, and that tropical 
thorn forest may prevail when the mean annual rainfall is below 
35 in. 

A tropical rain forest exhibits great variety both of species of 
plant and of plant forms. There is great diversity in the trees 
and masses of tangled lianes, and a wealth of flowers in the leafy 
forest crown. Humboldt 6 points out that whilst temperate 
forests frequently furnish pure associations, such uniformity of 
association is usually absent from the tropics. Some tropical 
forests exhibit dense foliage from the forest floor to the topmost 
leafy layer; and the traveller finds the mass of foliage almost im- 
penetrable. Other tropical forests afford a free passage and a 
clear outlook. It is obvious that tropical forests will eventually 
be subdivided into plant associations; but the difficulties of deter- 
mining the relative abundance of the species of plants in the upper 
layers of tropical rain and monsoon forests are very great. One 
of the best known results of the great struggle for light which takes 
place in tropical forests is the number of epiphytic plants which 
grow on the high branches of the trees. 

The leaves cf the trees are frequently of leathery consistency, 
very glossy, usually evergreen, entire or nearly so, and seldom hairy ; 
and thus they agree closely with the leaves of sclerophyllous forest 
generally. 

Monsoon forests are characteristic of localities with a seasonal 
rainfall. The trees usually lose their foliage during the dry season 
and renew it during the monsoon rains. With a less abundant 
rainfall, savana forest and thorn forest occur. Less precipitation 
induces tropical grassland, which, according to Schimper (1903: 
346) is of the savana type; but Warming (1909:327) thinks that 
all grassland in the tropics is artificial. Still greater drought 
induces desert vegetation; but, as deserts are more characteristic 
of subtropical districts, they are discussed later on. 

Mangrove swamps, or tropical tidal forests, occur in saline or 
brackish swamps on flat, muddy shores in the tropics; and, being 
almost independent of atmospheric prei \pitations, Schimper 
regards them as " edaphic formations." Howrver, they arc climatic 
communities in the sense that they occur only in hot districts. 
Cases such as this illustrate the difficulty of regarding the dis- 
tinction between " climatic formations " and " edaphic formations " 
as absolute. The plants exhibit markedly xerophilous structures; 
and many of the fruits and seeds of the mangrove trees and shrubs 
are provided with devices to enable them to float and with curious 
pneumatophores or " prop roots." The latter serve as supports 
and also as a means of supplying air to the parts buried in the mud. 
The seedlings of characteristic species of Rhizophoraceae germinate 
on the trees, and probably perform some assimilatory work by 
means of the hypocotyl. 

Other tropical " edaphic formations " occur on sandy shores, 
where the creeping Ipomoea biloba (Pes-caprae) and trees of 
Barringtonia form characteristic plant associations. 

The succession of associations on new soils of a tropical shore 
has recently been described by Ernst. 8 

2. Warm Temperate and Subtropical Districts. In subtropical 
and warm temperate districts, characterized by mild and rainy 
winters and hot and dry summers, we find two types of forests. 
First, there are forests of evergreen trees, with thick, leathery 
leaves. Such forests are known as sclerophyllous forests, and they 
occur in the Mediterranean region, in south-west Africa, in south 
and south-west Australia, in central Chile, and in western California. 
In the Mediterranean district, forests of this type are sometimes 
dominated by the Cork Oak (Quercus Suber), sometimes by the 
Holm Oak (Q. Ilex). When these forests become degenerate, 
maquis and garigues respectively are produced. Maquis and 
?arigues are characterized by the abundance of shrubs and under- 
shrubs, especially by shrubby Leguminous plants, and by species 
Cistus and Lavandula. Secondly, there are -forests of coniferous 
trees. In the Mediterranean region, even at comparatively low 
altitudes, forests occur of the maritime pine (P-mus maritima) 
and of the Aleppo pine (P. halepensis) ; and these forests are also 
related to maquis and garigues respectively in the same way as 
the evergreen oaks. The occurrence of forests of this type in the 
Mediterranean and in Arctic regions, whose dominant species belong 
:o the same genus (Pinus) and to the same plant form, renders it 



6 Humboldt, Eng. trans, by Sabine, Aspects of Nature (London, 
1849)- 

Eng. trans, by Seward, The New Flora of the VolcaAlc Island of 
Krakatau (Cambridge, 1908). 



ECOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



7 6 3 



difficult to regard " coniferous forests " as a natural ecological 
group. At much higher altitudes, in the south-west of the Mediter- 
ranean region, forests occur of the Atlantic cedar (Cedrus atlantica). 
These occur from about 4000 ft. (1219 m.) to about 7000 ft. (2133 m.) 
on the Atlas Mountains. Some sclerophyllous forests of the eastern 
Atlas Mountains are, owing to a comparatively high rainfall, 
characterized by many deciduous trees, such as Fraxinus oxy- 
phylla, Ulmus campestris (auct. alg.), Alnus rotundifolia, Salix 
pedicellate, Prunus avium, &c. ; and thus they have some elements 
in common with the deciduous forests of central Europe. 

The forests of these subtropical and warm temperate regions 
are situated near the sea or in mountainous regions, and (as already 
stated) are characterized by winter rains. In inland localities, 
where the rainfall is much lower, steppes occur. For example, 
in southern Algeria, a region of steppes is situated on a flat plateau, 
about 3000 ft. (914 metres) high, between the southern slopes of the 
Tell Atlas and the northern slooes of the Saharan Atlas. The 
rainfall, which occurs chiefly in winter, only averages about 10 in. 
(254 mm.) per annum. Here we find open plant associations of 
Haifa or Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima) alternating with steppes 
of Chih (Artemisia herba-alba) ; and each plant association extends 
for several scores of miles. In the hollows of this steppe region, 
salt water lakes occur, known as Chotts; and on the saline soils sur- 
rounding the Chotts, a salt marsh formation occurs, with species 
of Salicornia, some of which are undershrubs. 

Where the rainfall is still lower, deserts occur. At Ghardaia, 
in south-eastern Algeria, the mean annual rainfall, from 1887 to 
1892, was about 4^ in. (114 mm.). In 1890, it fell as low as 2 in. 
(53 mm.) (Schimper, 1903 : 606). At Beni Ounif and Colomb 
Bechar, in south-western Algeria, I was informed, in March 1910, 
that there had been no rain for about three years. Here the gravelly 
desert is characterized by " cushion plants," such as Anabasis 
aretioides; by " switch plants," such zsRetama Retam ; and specially 
by spiny plants, such as Zizyphus Lotus and Zilla macropteris ; 
whereas succulent plants are rare. Both in the steppe and in 
the desert, small ephemeral species occur on the bare ground 
away from the large plants and especially in the wadis. Steppe 
and desert formations are of the open type. 

3. Temperate Districts. Temperate districts are characterized 
by forests of deciduous trees and of coniferous trees, the latter being 
of different species from those of the warm temperate districts, 
but frequently of the same plant form. The identity of plant form 
of many of the conifers of both temperate and of warm temperate 
districts is probably a matter of phylogenetic and not of ecological 
importance. 

Britain is fairly typical of the west European district. In these 
islands, we find forests ' or woods of oak (Quercus Robur and 0. 
sessiliflora), of birch (Betula lomentosa), of ash (Fraxinus excelsior), 
and of beech (Fagus sylvatica). In central Scotland, forests occur 
of Pinus sylvestris; and, in south-eastern England, extensive planta- 
tions and self-sown woods occur of the same species. 

Just as in the Mediterranean region, the degeneration of forests 
has given rise to maquis and garigues, so in western Europe, the 
degeneration of forests has brought about different types o: grass- 
land, heaths, and moors. 

4. Cold Temperate and Frigid Districts. In the coldest portion 
of the north temperate zone, forests of dwarfed trees occur, 
and these occasionally spread into the Arctic region itself (Schimper, 
1904: 685). Schimper distinguishes moss tundra, Polytrichum 
tundra, and lichen tundra; and the lichen tundra is subdivided into 
Cladonia tundra, Platysma tundra, and Alectoria heath. Where 
the climate is most rigorous, rock tundra occurs (p. 685). 

The types of vegetation (tropical forests, sclerophyllous forest, 
temperate forests, tundra, &c.) thus briefly outlined are groups of 
Schimper's " climatic formations." Such groups are interesting 
in that they are vegetation units whose physiognomy is, in a broad 
sense, related more to climatic than to edaphic conditions. For 
example, Schimper, after describing the sclerophyllous woodland 
of the Mediterranean district and of the Cape district, says: 
" The scrub of West and South Australia in its ecological aspect 
resembles so completely the other sclerophyllous formations that 
a description of it must seem a repetition." This resemblance, 
however, only has reference to the general aspect or physiognomy 
of the vegetation and to the plant forms: the floristic composition 
of the various sclerophyllous and other physiognomically 
allied associations in the various geographical districts is very 
different; and indeed it is true that, just as the general physio- 
gnomy of plant associations is related to climate, so their floristic 
composition is related to geographical position. Hence, in any 
cosmopolitan treatment of vegetation, it is necessary to consider 
the groups of plant communities from the standpoint of the 
climatic or geographical district in which they occur; and this 

1 See Moss, Rankin, and Tansley, " British Woodlands." Botany 
School (Cambridge, 1910). 



indeed is consistently done by Schimper. Finally, within any 
district of constant or fairly constant climatic conditions, it is 
possible to distinguish plant communities which are related 
chiefly to edaphic or soil conditions; and the vegetation units of 
these definite edaphic areas are the plant formations of some 
writers, and, in part, the "edaphic formations" of Schimper. 

When a district like England is divided into edaphic areas, a 
general classification such as the following may be obtained : 

I. Physically and physiologically wet habitats, with the accom- 
panying plant communities of lakes, reed swamps, and marshes. 
i 2. Physically wet but physiologically dry habitats? with the 
accompanying plant communities of fens, moors, and salt marshes. 

3. Physically and physiologically dry habitats, with the accom- 
panying plant communities of sand dunes and sandy heaths with 
little humus in the soil. 

4. Habitats of medium wetness, with the accompanying plant 
communities of woodlands and grasslands. This class may be 
subdivided as follows: 

a. Habitats poor in mineral salts, especially calcium carbonate, 
often rich in acidic humous compounds, and characterized by 
oak and birch woods, siliceous pasture, and heaths with much 
acidic humus in the sandy soil. 

6. Habitats rich in mineral salts, especially calcium carbonate, 
poor in acidic humous compounds, and characterized by ash 
woods, beech woods, and calcareous pasture. 

Ecological Adaptations. It is now possible to consider 
the ecological adaptations which the members of plant com- 
munties show in a given geographical district such as western 
Europe, of which England of course forms a part. In the present 
state of knowledge, however, this can only be done in a very 
meagre fashion; as the effect of habitat factors on plants is but 
little understood as yet either by physiologists or ecologists. 

Hydrophytes and hemi-hydrophytes (aquatic plants). Of marine 
hydrophytes, there are, in this country, only the grass-wracks 
(Zostera marina and Z. nana) among the higher plants. Even 
these species are sometimes left stranded by low spring tides, 
though the mud in which they are rooted remains saturated with 
sea-water. Although many plants typical of fresh water are able 
to grow also in brackish water, there are only a few species which 
appear to be quite confined to the latter habitats in this country. 
Such species perhaps include Ruppia maritima, R. spiralts, 
Zannichellia maritima, Z. polycarpa, Potamogeton interruptus 
( = P.fiabellalus), and Naias marina. 

In freshwater lakes and ponds, especially if the water is stagnant, 
aquatic plants are abundant. Aquatic vegetation may be con- 
veniently classified as follows: 

Aquatic plants with submerged leaves: Chara spp., Naias spp., 
Potamogeton pectinatus, Ceratophyllum spp., Myriophyllum spp., 
Hottonia palustris, Utricularia spp. 

Aquatic plants with submerged and floating leaves: Clyceria 
fluitans. Ranunculus peltatus, Nymphaea (Nuphar) lutea, Calli- 
triche slagnalis, Potamogeton polygonifohus. 

Aquatic plants with floating leaves: Lemna spp., Hydrocharis 
Morsus-ranae, Castalia (Nymphaea) alba. 

Aquatic plants with submerged leaves and erect leaves or stems: 
Sagittaria sagittifolia, Scirpus lacustris, Hippuris vulgaris, Stunt 
latiiolium. 

Aquatic plants with erect leaves or stems (reed swamp plants): 
Equisetum palustre, Phragmites communis, Clyceria aquatica, Carex 
riparia, Iris Pseudacorus, Rumex Hydrolapathum, Oenanthe fistulosa, 
Bidens spp. 

Marsh plants: Alopecurus geniculatus, Carex disiicha, Juncus 
spp., Caltha palustris, Nasturtium palustre. 

In many aquatic plants, the endosperm of the seed is absent 
or very scanty. The root-system is usually small. Root-hairs 
are frequently missing. The submerged stems are slender or 
hollow. Strengthening tissue of all kinds (and sometimes even 
the phloem) is more or less rudimentary. The stems are frequently 
characterized by aeration channels, which connect the aerial parts 
with the parts which are buried in practically airless mud or silt. 
Submerged leaves are usually filamentous or narrowly ribbon- 
shaped, thus exposing a large amount of surface to the water, some 
of the dissolved gases of which they must absorb, and into which 
they must also excrete certain gases. Stomata are often absent, 
absorption and excretion of gases in solution being carried on 
through the epidermal layer. Chloroplastids are frequently 
present in the epidermal cells, as in some shade plants.^ Very 
few aquatic plants are pollinated under water, but this is well- 
known to occur in species of Zostera and of Naias. In such plants, 
the pollen grains are sometimes filiform and not spherical in shape. 
In the case of aquatic plants with aerial flowers, the latter obey 



* As very little experimental work has been done with regard 
to physiological dryness in physically wet habitats, any classifica- 
tion such as the above must be of a tentative nature; 



7 6 4 



PLANTS 



[ECOLOGY 



the ordinary laws of pollination. Heterophylly is rather common 
among aquatic plants, and is well seen in several aquatic species 
of Ranunculus, many species of Potamogeton, Sagittaria sagitti- 
folia, Scirpus lacusiris, Castalia (Nymphaea) alba, Hippuris vul- 
garis, Callitriche spp., Sium latifolium. 

Insectivorous species occur among aquatic plants; e.g. Utricularia 
spp., which are locally abundant in peaty waters, are insectivorous. 

Xerophytes. These plants have devices (a) for procuring water, 
(b) or for storing water, (c) or for limiting transpiration; and these 
adaptations are obviously related to the physically or physio- 
logically dry habitats in which the plants live. Plants of physi- 
cally dry habitats, such as deserts and sand dunes, have frequently 
long tap-roots which doubtless, in some cases, reach down to a 
subterranean water supply. The same plants have sometimes 
a superficial root system in addition, and are thus able to utilize 
immediately the water from rain showers and perhaps also from 
dew, as Volkens 1 maintains. Root-hairs give an enlarged super- 
ficial area to the roots of plants, and thus are related to the pro- 
curing of water. 

The stems of some xerophytes, e.g. Cactaceous and Crassulaceous 
plants, may be succulent, i.e. they have tissues in which water 
is stored. Some deserts, like those of Central America, are specially 
characterized by succulents; in other deserts, such as the Sahara, 
succulents are not a prominent feature. Other xerophytes again 
are spinous. " Switch plants," such as Retama Retam and broom 
(Cytisus scoparius), have reduced leaves and some assimilating 
tissue in their stems; and stomata occur in grooves on the stem. 

The transpiring surface of xerophytes is frequently reduced. 
The ordinary leaves may be small, absent, or spinous. In " cushion 
plants " the leaves are very small, very close together, and the low 
habit is protective against winds. The latter, of course, greatly 
increase transpiration. A " cushion plant " (Anabasis aretioides) 
of the north-western Sahara, frequently shows dead leaves on the 
exposed side whilst the plant is in full vigour on the sheltered 
side. The buds and leaves on the exposed side are probably 
killed by sand blasts. Many xerophytes are hairy or have sunken 
stomata which may be further protected by partial plugs of wax: 
the stomata are frequently in grooves: the leaves are frequently 
rolled sometimes permanently so, whilst sometimes the leaves 
roll up only during unfavourable weather. These adaptations 
tend to lessen the amount of transpiration by protecting the 
stomata from the movements of the air. In species of Eucalyptus, 
the leaves are placed edge-wise to the incident rays of light and 
heat. The coriaceous leaves of " sclerophyllous plants " also, to 
some extent, are similarly protective. In such leaves, there are 
a well-marked cuticle, a thick epidermis, a thick hypodermis at 
least on the upper side of the leaf, well-developed palisade tissue, 
and a poorly developed system of air-spaces. Such adaptations 
are well seen in the leaf of the holly (Ilex aquifolium). Warming, 
however, states that " Ilex aquifolium is undubitably a meso- 
phyte " (1909: 135)- 

Halophytes, or plants which live in saline soils, have xerophytic 
adaptations. A considerable proportion of halophytes are succu- 
lents, i.e. their leaves and, to some extent, their stems have much 
water-storing tissue and few intercellular spaces. Some halo- 
phytes tend to lose their succulence when cultivated in a non- 
saline soil; and some non-halophytes tend to become succulent 
when cultivated in a salty soil; there is, it need scarcely be stated, 
little or no evidence that such characters are transmitted. British 
salt marshes furnish few instances of spiny plants, though such 
occur occasionally on the inland salt marshes of continental dis- 
tricts. Salsola Kali is British, and a hemi-halophyte at least; 
and it is rather spiny. Warming states that " the stomata of true, 
succulent, littoral halophytic herbs, in cases so far investigated, 
are not sunken " (1909 : 221). It is possible, however, that the 
absence of sunken stomata, and the occurrence of some other 
halophytic features, are related merely to the succulent habit and 
not to halophytism, for succulent species often occur on non-saline 
soils. Similarly, the small amount of cuticular and of epidermal 
protection, and of lignification in succulent halophytes may also 
be related to the same circumstance. Forms of " stone cells " 
or " stereids " occur in some of the more suffruticose halophytes, 
as in Arthrocnemum glaucum. The interesting occurrence of certain 
halophytes and hemi-halophytes on sea-shores and also on mountains 
is probably to be explained by the past distribution of the species 
in question. At one time, such plants were probably of more general 
occurrence: now they have been extirpated in the intermediate 
localities, chiefly owing to the cultivation of the land in these 
places by man. In the west of Ireland and in the Faroes, where 
certain inland and lowland localities are still uncultivated, Plantago 
maritima and other halophytes occur in quantity and side by side 
with some " Alpine species, such as Dryas oclopetala. 

The effect of common salt on the metabolism of plants is not 
understood. Lesage 2 has shown that the height of certain plants 
is decreased by cultivation in a saline soil, and that the leaves of 

1 Volkens, Die Flora der dgyptisch-arabischen Wiisle (Berlin, 
1887). 

1 Lesage, " Recherches experimentales sur les modifications des 
feuilles chez les plantes maritimes," in Rev. gen. de hot. (1890), voL ii. 



plants under such conditions become smaller and more succulent. 
He showed further, that the increase of common salt in the soil 
is correlated with a reduction in the number and size of the chloro- 
plastids, and therefore in the amount of chlorophyll. On the other 
hand, some plants did not respond to the action of common salt, 
whilst others were killed. Warming (1909: 220) quotes Griffon 
(1898), to the effect that " the assimilatory activity is less in the 
halophytic form than in the ordinary form of the same species." 
Schimper had previously maintained that the action of common 
salt in the cell-sap is detrimental as regards assimilation. Many 
marine Algae appear to be able to regulate their osmotic capacity 
to the surrounding medium ; and T. G. Hill * has shown that the root- 
hairs of Salicornia possess this property. There has, however, 
been performed upon halophytes very little physiologically ex- 
perimental work which commands general acceptance. 

Bog Xerophytes live in the peaty soil of fens and moors which are 
physically wet, but which are said to be physiologically dry. Related 
to the physiological drought, such plants possess some xerophytic 
characters; and, related to the physical wetness, the plants possess 
the aeration channels which characterize many hydrophytes and 
hemi-hydrophytes. The occurrence of xerophytic characters in 

flants of this type has given rise to much difference of opinion. 
t is sometimes maintained, for example, by Schimper, that their 
xerophytic characters are related to the physiological dryness of 
the habitat: this, however, is denied by others who maintain 
(Clements, 1905: 127) that the xerophytism is due to the persis- 
tence of ancestral structures. It is possible, of course, that each 
explanation is correct in particular cases, as the views are by no 
means mutually exclusive. With regard to the occurrence of 
plants, such as Juncus effusus, which possess xerophytic characters 
and yet live in situations which are not ordinarily of marked physio- 
logical dryness, it should be remembered that such habitats are 
liable to occasional physical drought; and a plant must eventually 
succumb if it is not adapted to the extreme conditions of its habitat. 
The xerophytic characters being present, it is not surprising that 
many marsh plants, like Juncus effusus and Iris pseudacorus, are 
able to survive in dry situations, such as banks and even garden 
rockeries. 

Tropophytes. These plants are characterized by being xerophytic 
during the unfavourable season. For example, deciduous trees 
shed their leaves in winter: geophytes go through a period of dor- 
mancy by means of bulbs, rhizomes, or other underground organs 
with buds; whilst annuals and ephemerals similarly protect them- 
selves by means of the seed habit. All such plants agree in reduc- 
ing transpiration to zero during the unfavourable season, although 
few or no xerophytic characters may be demonstrable during the 
period favourable to growth. 

Hygrophytes. Living, as these plants do, under medium con- 
ditions as regards soil, moisture and climate, they exhibit no cha- 
racters which are markedly xerophytic or hydrophytic. Hence, 
such plants are frequently termed mesophytes. Assimilation goes 
on during the whole year, except during periods of frost or when the 
plants are buried by snow. An interesting special case of hygro- 
phytes is seen with regard to plants which live in the shade of 
forests. Such plants have been termed sciophytes. Their stomata 
are frequently not limited to the underside of the leaves, but may 
occur scattered all over the epidermal surface. The epidermal 
cells may contain chlorophyll. Strengthening tissue is feebly 
developed. Many sciophytes are herbaceous tropophytes, and 
are dormant for more than half the year, usually during late summer, 
autumn and early winter. It may be that this is a hereditary 
character (cf. " bog xerophytes"), or that the physical drought 
of summer is unfavourable to shade-loving plants. In this con- 
nexion, it is interesting that in the east of England with the lowest 
summer rainfall of this country, many common sciophytes are 
absent or rare in the woods, such, for example, as Melica uniflora, 
Allium ursinum, Lychnis dioica, Oxalis Acetosella, and Asperula 
odorata. However, the cause of the absence or presence of a given 
species from a given locality is a department of ecology which 
has been studied with little or no thoroughness. 

Calcicole and Calcifuge Species. Plants which invariably inhabit 
calcareous soils are sometimes termed calcicoles; calcifuge species 
are those which are found rarely or never on such soils. The effect 
of lime on plants is less understood even than the effect of common 
salt. Doubtless, the excess of any soluble mineral salt or salts 
interferes with the osmotic absorption of the roots; and although' 
calcium carbonate is insoluble in pure water, it is slightly soluble) 
in water containing carbon dioxide. In England, the following 
species are confined or almost confined to calcareous soils : Asplenium 
Ruta-muraria, Melica nutans, Carex digitata, Aceras anthropophora, 
Ophrys apifera, Thalictrum minus, Helianthemum Chamaecistus, 
Viola hirta, Linum perenne. Geranium lucidum, Hippocrepis comosa, 
Potentilla verna, Viburnum Lantana, Galium asperum (= G. syl- 
vesire), Asperula cynanchica, Senecio campestris. The following 
plants, in England, are calcifuge: Lastraea Oreopteris, Holcus mollis, 
Carex echinata, Spergula arvensis, Polygala serpyllacea, Cytisus 

8 T. G. Hill, " Observations on the Osmotic Properties of the 
Root-Hairs of certain Salt Marsh Plants," in The New Phytologist 
(1908), vol. vii. 



CYTOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



7 6 5 



scoparius, Potentilla procumbens, Galium hercynicum (=G. saxatile), 
Gnaphalium sylvaticum. Digitalis purpurea. Other plants occur 
indifferently both on calcareous and on non-calcareous soils. 

It is sometimes said that lime acts as a poison on some plants 
and not on others, and sometimes that it is the physiological dry- 
ness of calcareous soils that is the important factor. In relation 
to the latter theory, it is pointed out that some markedly calcicple 
species occur on sand dunes; but this may be due to the lime which 
is frequently present in dune sand as well as to the physical dryness 
of the soil. Further, no theory of calciolous and calcifugous 
plants can be regarded as satisfactory which fails to account for 
the fact that both kinds of plants occur among aquatic as well as 
among terrestrial plants. Schimper (1903: 102) thinks that in 
the case of aquatic plants, the difference must depend on the 
amount of lime in the water, for the physical nature of the sub- 
stratum is the same in each case. Again, acidic humus does not 
form in calcareous soils; and hence one does not expect to find 
plants characteristic of acidic peat or humus on calcareous soils. 
Some such species are Blechnum boreale, Aira flexuosa, Calluna 
vulgaris, Vaccinium, Myrtillus, Rubus, Chamaemorus, Empetrum 
nigrum, Drosera spp. Some, at least, of these species possess my- 
corhiza in their roots, and are perhaps unable to live in soils where 
such organisms are absent. 

In England, the number of calcicole species is greater than the 
number of silicolous species. It would therefore be curious if it 
were proved that lime acts on plants as a poison. It is said that 
some plants may be calcicoles in one geographical district and not 
in another. However, until more is known of the exact chemical 
composition of natural as contrasted with agricultural soils, 
and until more is known of the physiological effects of lime, it is 
impossible to decide the vexed question of the relation of lime- 
loving and lime-shunning plants to the presence or absence of 
calcium carbonate in the soil. From such points of view as this, 
it is indeed true, as Warming has recently stated, " that ecology 
is only in its infancy." (C. E. M.) 

CYTOLOGY OF PLANTS 

The elementary unit of plant structure, as of animal structure, 
is the cell. Within it or its modifications all the vital phenomena 
of which living organisms are capable have their origin. Upon 
our knowledge of its minute structure or cytology, combined with 
a study of its physiological activities, depends the ultimate 
solution of all the important problems of nutrition and growth, 
reception and conduction of stimuli, heredity, variation, sex and 
reproduction. 

The Cell Theory. For a general and historical account of the cell 
theory see CYTOLOGY. It is sufficient to note here that cells were 
first of all discovered in various vegetable tissues by Robert Hooke 
in 1665 (Micrographia); Malpighi and Grew (1674-1682) gave the 
first clear indications of the importance of cells in the building up 
of plant tissues, but it was not until the beginning of the igth century 
that any insight into the real nature of the cell and its functions was 
obtained. Hugo von Mohl (1846) was the first to recognize that the 
essential vital constituent of the plant cell is the slimy mass proto- 
plasm inside it, and not the cell wall as was formerly supposed. 
The nucleus was definitely recognized in the plant cell by Robert 
Brown in 1831, but its presence had been previously indicated by 
various observers and it had been seen by Fontana in some animal 
cells as early as 1781. The cell theory so far as it relates to plants 
was established by Schleiden in 1838. He showed that all the 
organs of plants are built up of cells, that the plant embryo originates 
from a single cell, and that the physiological activities of the plant 
are dependent upon the individual activities of these vital units. 
This conception of the plant as an aggregate or colony of independent 
vital units governing the nutrition, growth and reproduction of the 
whole cannot, however, be maintained. It is true that in the uni- 
cellular plants all the vital activities are performed by a single cell, 
but in the multicellular plants there is a more or less highly developed 
differentiation of physiological activity giving rise to different tissues 
or groups of cells, each with a special function. The cell in such a 
division of labour cannot therefore be regarded as an independent 
unit. It is an integral part of an individual organization and as 
such the exercise of its functions must be governed by the organism 
as a whole. 

General Structure and Differentiation of the Vegetable Cell. 
The simplest cell forms are found in embryonic tissues, in repro- 
ductive cells and in the parenchymatous cells, found in various 
parts of the plant. The epidermal, conducting and strengthen- 
ing tissues show on the other hand considerable modifications 
both in form and structure. 

The protoplasm of a living cell consists of a semifluid granular 
substance, called the cytoplasm, one or more nuclei, and some- 
times centrosomes and plastids. Cells from different parts of a 
plant differ very much in their cell-contents. Young cells are 



full of cytoplasm, old cells generally contain a large vacuole or 
vacuoles, containing cell-sap, and with only a thin, almost 
invisible layer of cytoplasm on their walls. Chlorophyll grains, 
chromatophores, starch-grains and oil-globules, all of which can 
be distinguished either by their appearance or by chemical 
reagents, may also be present. Very little is known of the finer 
structure of the cytoplasm of a vegetable cell. It is sometimes 
differentiated into a clearer outer layer, of hyaloplasm, commonly 
called the ectoplasm, and an inner granular endoplasm. In 
some cases it shows, when submitted to a careful examination 
under the highest powers of the microscope, and especially when 
treated with reagents of various kinds, traces of a more or less 
definite structure in the form of a meshwork consisting of a clear 
homogeneous substance containing numerous minute bodies 
known as micro somes, the spaces being filled by a more fluid 
ground-substance. This structure, which is visible both in living 
cells and in cells treated by reagents, has been interpreted 
by many observers as a network of threads embedded in a 
homogeneous ground-substance. Biitschli, on the other hand, 
interprets it as a finely vacuolated foam-structure or emul- 
sion, comparable to that which is observed when small drops 
of a mixture of finely powdered potash and oil are placed in 
water, the vacuoles or alveoli being spaces filled with liquid, the 
more solid portion representing the mesh-work in which the 
microsomes are placed. Evidence is not wanting, however, that 
the cytoplasm must be regarded as, fundamentally, a semifluid, 
homogeneous substance in which by its own activity, granules, 
vacuoles, fibrils, &c., can be formed as secondary structures. 
The cytoplasm is largely concerned in the formation of spindle 
fibres and centrosomes, and such structures as the cell membrane, 
cilia, or flagella, the coenocentrum, nematoplasts or vibrioids and 
physodes are also products of its activity. 

Protoplasmic Movements. In the cells of many plants the 
cytoplasm frequently exhibits movements of circulation or 
rotation. The cells of the staminal hairs of Tradescantia virginica 
contain a large sap-cavity across which run, in all directions, 
numerous protoplasmic threads or bridges. In these, under 
favourable conditions, streaming movements of the cytoplasm in 
various directions can be observed. In other forms such as Elodea , 
Nitella, Char a, &c., where the cytoplasm is mainly restricted 
to the periphery of the sap vacuole and lining the cell wall, the 
streaming movement is exhibited in one direction only. In 
some cases both the nucleus and the chromatophores may be 
carried along in the rotating stream, but in others, such as Nitella, 
the chloroplasts may remain motionless in a non-motile layer of 
the cytoplasm in direct contact with the cell wall. 1 

Desmids, Diatoms and Oscillaria show creeping movements 
probably due to the secretion of slime by the cells; the swarm- 
spores and plasmodium of the Myxomycetes exhibit amoeboid 
movements; and the motile spores of Fungi and Algae, the 
spermatozoids of mosses, ferns, &c., move by means of delicate 
prolongations, cilia or flagella cf the protoplast. 

Chromatophores. The chromatophores or plastids are proto- 
plasmic structures, denser than the cytoplasm, and easily 
distinguishable from it by their colour or greater refractive power. 
They are spherical, oval, fusiform, or rod-like, and are always 
found in the cytoplasm, never in the cell-sap. They appear to 
be permanent organs of the cell, and are transmitted from one 
cell to another by division. In young cells the chromatophores 
are small, colourless, highly refractive bodies, principally located 
around the nucleus. As the cell grows they may become con- 
verted into leucoplasts (starch-formers), chloroplasts (chlorophyll- 
bodies) , or chromoplasts (colour-bodies) . And all three structures 
may be converted one into the other (Schimper). The chloro- 
plasts are generally distinguished by their green colour, which is 
due to the presence of chlorophyll; but in many Algae this is 
masked by another colouring matter Phycoerythrin in the 
Florideae, Phycophaein in the Phaeophyceae, and Phycocyanin 

1 Ewart, On the Physics and Physiology of Protoplasmic Stream- 
ing in Plants. (Oxford, 1903), gives an excellent account of the 
phenomena of protoplasmic streaming with a full discussion of the 
probable causes to which it is due. 



y66 



PLANTS 



[CYTOLOGY 



in the Cyanophyceae. These substances can, however, be 
dissolved out in water, and the green colouring matter of the 
chloroplast then becomes visible. The chloroplast consists of 
two parts, a colourless ground substance, and a green colouring 
matter, which is contained either in the form of fibrils, or in more 
or less regular spherical masses, in the colourless ground-mass. 
The chloroplasts increase in number by division, which takes 
place in higher plants when they have attained a certain size, 
independent of the division of the cell. In Spirogyra and allied 
forms the chloroplast grows as the cell grows, and only divides 
when this divides. The division in all cases takes place by con- 
striction, or by a simultaneous splitting along an equatorial plane. 
Chloroplasts are very sensitive to light and are capable in some 
plants of changing their position in the cell under the stimulus of a 
variation in the intensity of the light rays which fall upon them. 
In the chromatophores of many Algae and in the Liverwort 
Anthoceros there are present homogeneous, highly refractive, 
crystal-like bodies, called pyrenoids or starch-centres, which are 
composed of proteid substances and surrounded by an envelope 
of starch-grains. In Spirogyra the pyrenoids are distinctly 
connected by cytoplasmic strands to the central mass of cyto- 
plasm, which surrounds the nucleus, and according to some 
observers, they increase exclusively by division, followed by a 
splitting of the cytoplasmic strands. Those chromatophores 
which remain colourless, and serve simply as starch-formers in 
parts of the plant not exposed to the light, are called leucoplasts 
or amyloplasts. They are composed of a homogeneous proteid 
substance, and often contain albuminoid or proteid crystals of the 
same kind as those which form the pyrenoid. If exposed to light 
they may become converted into chloroplasts. The formation of 
starch may take place in any part of the leucoplast. When 
formed inside it, the starch-grains exhibit a concentric stratifi- 
cation; when formed externally in the outer layers, the stratifi- 
cation is excentric, and the hilum occurs on that side farthest 
removed from the leucoplast. As the starch-grains grow, the 
leucoplasts gradually disappear. 

Chromoplasts are the yellow, orange or red colour-bodies found 
in some flowers and fruits. They arise either from the leucoplasts 
or chloroplasts. The fundamental substance or stroma is colourless 
and homogeneous. The colour is due to the presence of xantho- 
phyll, or carotin or both. The colouring matters are not dissolved 
in the stroma of the chromoplast, but exist as amorphous granules, 
with or without the presence of a protein crystal, or in the form of 
fine crystalline needles, frequently curved and sometimes present in 
large numbers, which are grouped together in various ways in bundles 
and give the plastids their fusiform or triangular crystalline shape. 
Such crystalline plastids occur in many fruits and flowers (e.g. 
Tamus communis. Asparagus, Lonicera, berries of Solaneae, flowers 
of Cacalia coccinea, Tropaeolum, bracts of Strelitzia, &c.), and in the 
root of the carrot. In some cases the plastid disappears and the 
crystalline pigment only is left. In the red variety of Cucurbita 
pepo these crystals may consist of rods, thin plates, flat ribbons 
or spirals. Starch grains may often be seen in contact with the 
pigment crystals. The crystalline form appears to be due entirely 
to the carotin, which can be artificially crystallized from an alcohol 
or ether solution. In addition to the plastids, there are found in 
some plant-cells, e.g. in the epidermal cells of the leaf of species of 
Vanilla (Wakker), and in the epidermis of different parts of the 
flower of Funkia, Ornithogalum, &c. (Zimmermann), highly refrac- 
tive bodies of globular form, elaioplasts, which consist of a granular 
protein ground-substance containing drops of oil. They are stained 
deep red in dilute solution of alkanin. 

Substances contained in the Protoplasm. Starch may be found 
in the chlorophyll bodies in the form of minute granules as the 
first visible product of the assimilation of carbon dioxide, and it 
occurs in large quantities as a reserve food material in the cells 
of various parts of plants. It is highly probable that starch is 
only produced as the result of the activity of chromatophores, 
either in connexion with chromoplasts, chloroplasts or leucoplasts. 
Starch exists, in the majority of cases, in the form of grains, 
which are composed of stratified layers arranged around a nucleus 
or hilum. The stratification, which may be concentric or 
excentric, appears to be due to a difference in density of the 
various layers. The outer layers are denser than the inner, the 
density decreasing more or less uniformly from the outside layers 
to the centre of hilum. The outermost, newly formed layer is 
composed of a more homogeneous, denser substance than the 



inner one, and can be distinguished in all starch-grains that are in 
process of development. The separate layers of the starch-grain 
are deposited on it by the activity of the chromatophore, and 
according to Meyer the grain is always surrounded by a thin layer 
of the chromatophore which completely separates it from the 
cytoplasm. The layers appear to be made up of elements which 
are arranged radially. These are, according to Meyer, acicular 
crystals, which he calls trichites. The starch grain may thus be 
regarded as a crystalline structure of the nature of a sphere- 
crystal, as has been suggested by many observers. 

Whether the formation of the starch grain is due to a secretion 
from the plastid (Meyer, 1895) or to a direct transformation of 
the proteid of the plastid (Timberlake, 1901) has not been definitely 
established. 

Aleurone. Aleurone is a proteid substance which occurs in seeds 
especially those containing oil, in the form of minute granules or 
large grains. It may be in the form of an albumen crystal some- 
times associated with a more or less spherical body globoid com- 
posed of a combination of an organic substance with a double phos- 
phate of magnesium and calcium. Albumen crystals are also to be 
found in the cytoplasm, in leucoplasts and rarely in the nucleus. 

Glycogen, a substance related to starch and sugar, is found in 
the Fungi and Cyanophyceae as a food reserve. It gives a character- 
istic red-brown reaction with iodine solution. In the yeast cell it 
accumulates and disappears very rapidly according to the conditions 
of nutrition and is sometimes so abundant as to fill the cell almost 
entirely (Errera, 1882, 1895: Wager and Peniston, 1910). 

Volutin occurs in the cytoplasm of various Fungi, Bacteria, Cyano- 
phyceae, diatoms, &c., in the form of minute granules which have 
a characteristic reaction towards methylene blue (Meyer). It 
appears to have some of the characteristics of nucleic acid, and accord- 
ing to Meyer may be a combination of nucleic acid with an unknown 
organic base. 

Numerous other substances are also found in the cytoplasm, 
such as tannin, fats and oil, resins, mucilage, caoutchouc, gutta- 
percha, sulphur and calcium oxalate crystals. The cell sap con- 
tains various substances in solution such as sugars, inulin, alkaloids, 
glucosides, organic acids and various inorganic salts. The colours 
of flowers are due to colouring matters contained in the sap of which 
the chief is anthocyanin. 

Reference must also be made here to the enzymes or unorganized 
ferments which occur so largely in the cytoplasm. It is probable 
that most, if not all, the metabolic changes which take place in a 
cell, such as the transformation of starch, proteids, sugar, cellulose; 
and the decomposition of numerous other organic substances 
which would otherwise require a high temperature or powerful 
reagents is also due to their activity. Their mode of action is similar 
to that of ordinary mechanical catalytic agents, such as finely 
divided platinum (see Bayliss, The Nature of Enzyme Action, and 
J. R. Green, The Soluble Ferments). 

The Nucleus. The nucleus has been demonstrated in all 
plants with the exception of the Cyanophyceae and Bacteria, and 
even here structures have been observed which resemble nuclei 
in some of their characteristics. The nucleus is regarded as a 
controlling centre of cell-activity, upon which the growth and 
development of the cell in large measure depends, and as the 
agent by which the transmission of specific qualities from one 
generation to another is brought about. If it is absent, the cell 
loses its power of assimilation and growth, and soon dies. Haber- 
landt has shown that in plant cells, when any new formation of 
membrane is to take place in a given spot, the nucleus is found in 
its immediate vicinity; and Klebs found that only that portion 
of the protoplasm of a cell which contains the nucleus is capable 
of forming a cell-wall; whilst Townsend has further shown that 
if the non-nucleated mass is connected by strands of- protoplasm 
to the nucleated mass, either of the same cell or of a neighbouring 
cell, it retains the power of forming a cell-membrane. 

The Structure of the Nucleus. In the living condition the rest- 
ing nucleus appears to consist of a homogeneous ground sub- 
stance containing a large number of small chromatin granules and 
one or more large spherical granules nucleoli the whole being 
surrounded by a limiting membrane which separates it from the 
cytoplasm. When fixed and stained this granular mass is 
resolved into a more or less distinct granular network which 
consists of a substance called Linin, only slightly stained by the 
ordinary nuclear stains, and, embedded in it, a more deeply 
stainable substance called Chromatin. The nucleolus appears to 
form a part of the Linin network, but has usually also a strong 
affinity for nuclear stains. The staining reactions of the various 



CYTOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



767 



parts of the nucleus depend to some extent upon their chemical 
constitution. The chromatin is practically identical with 
nuclein. This has a strong attraction for basic aniline dyes, and 
can usually be distinguished from other parts of the cell which are 
more easily coloured by acid anilines. But the staining reactions 
of nuclei may vary at different stages of their development; 
and it is probable that there is no method of staining which 
differentiates with certainty the various morphological consti- 
tuents of the nucleus. 

Our knowledge of the chemical constitutions of the nucleus is 
due to the pioneer researches of Sir Lauder Brunton, Plosz, Miescher, 
Kossel and a host of more recent investigators. Nuclein is a com- 
plex albuminoid substance containing phosphorus and iron in organic 
combination (Macallum). It appears to be a combination of a pro- 
tein with nucleic acid. Recent researches have shown that the 
nucleic acid can be broken up by chemical means into a number of 
different compounds or bases. The results at first obtained were 
very confusing and seemed to show that nucleic acid is very variable 
in constitution, but thanks to the work of Schmiedeberg and Stendel 
(Germany), Ivar Bang (Sweden) and Walter Jones and Levene 
(America), the confusion has been reduced to some sort of order, and 
it now seems probable that all ordinary nucleic acids yield two 
purine bases, adenine and guanine; two pyrimidine bases, cytosine 
and thvmine and a hexose carbohydrate, the identity of which is 
uncertain. 1 

The Nucleolus. In the majority of plant-nuclei, both in the 
higher and lower plants, there is found, in addition to the 
chromatin network, a deeply stained spherical or slightly 
irregular body (sometimes more than one) called the nucleolus 
(fig. 2, A to D). It is often vacuolar, sometimes granular, and 
in other cases it is a homogeneous body with no visible structure 
or differentiation. The special function of this organ has been a 
source of controversy during the past few years, and much 
uncertainty still exists as to its true nature. It forms a part of 
the linin or plastin network of the nucleus and may become 
impregnated with varying quantities of chromatin stored up for 
use in the formation of the chromosomes and other nuclear 
activities. The relation of the nucleolus to the chromosomes is 
clearly seen in the reconstruction of the daughter nuclei after 
division in the cells of the root-apex of Phaseolus (fig. i, A to F). 
The chromosomes (fig. i, A) unite to form an irregular mass 
(fig. i, B) out of which is evolved the nucleolus and nuclear net- 
work (figs, i, E, F) by a fusion of the chromosomes (fig. i, C, D). 

Centrosome. The centrosome is a minute homogeneous 
granule found in the cytoplasm of some cells in the neighbour- 
hood of the nucleus. It is generally surrounded by a granular 
or radiating cytoplasmic substance. In plant cells its presence 
has been demonstrated in the Thallophytes and Bryophytes. 
In the higher plants the structures which have been often de- 
scribed as centrosomes are too indefinite in their constitution 
to allow of this interpretation being placed upon them, and many 
of them are probably nothing more than granules of the frag- 
mented nucleolus. The centrosomes in plants do not appear 
to be permanent organs of the cell. They are prominent during 
cell-division, but many disappear in the resting stage. They are 
more easily seen, when the nucleus is about to undergo mitosis, 
at the ends of the spindle, where they form the centres towards 
which the radiating fibres in the cytoplasm converge (see fig. 
7, E G). The centrosome or centrosphere is usually regarded as 
the dynamic centre of the cell and a special organ of division; 
but its absence in many groups of plants does not lend support to 
this view so far as plant-cells are concerned. 

Nuclear Division. The formation of new cells is, in the case 
of uninucleate cells, preceded by or accompanied by the division 
of the nucleus. In multinucleate cells the division of the 
nucleus is independent of the division of the cell. Nuclear 
division may be indirect or direct, that is to say it may either be 
accompanied by a series of complicated changes in the nuclear 
structures called mitosis or karyokinesis (fig. 2), or it may take 
place by simple direct division, amitosis, or fragmentation. 
Direct division is a much less common phenomenon than was 
formerly supposed to be the case. It occurs, most frequently in 
old cells, or in cells which are placed under abnormal conditions. 

1 See Halliburton. Science Progress in the zoth Century (1909), 
vol. iv. 



It may also take place where rapid proliferation of the cell is 
going on, as in the budding of the Yeast plant. It takes place 
in the internodal cells of Characeae; in the old internodal cells of 





B 




FIG. I. Reconstruction of the daughter nuclei of Phaseolus. 

Tradescantia; and in various other cells which have lost their 
power of division. It has been shown that, in cells of Spirogyra 
placed under special conditions, amitotic division can be induced, 
and that normal mitosis is resumed when they are placed again 
under normal conditions. Amitosis is probably connected by a 
series of intermediate gradations with karyokinesis. 

Mitosis. In indirect nuclear division the nucleus undergoes 
a series of complicated changes, which result in an equal division 
of the chromatic substance between the two daughter nuclei. 
Four stages can be recognized, (i) Prophase. The nucleus 
increases in size; the network disappears, and a much convoluted 
thread takes its place (fig. 2, B). The chromatin substance 
increases in amount; the thread stains more deeply, and in most 
cases presents a homogeneous appearance. This is commonly 
called the spirem-figure. The chromatin thread next becomes 
shorter and thicker, the nucleoli begin to disappear, and the thread 
breaks up into a number of segments chromosomes which 
vary in number in different species, but are fairly constant in the 
same species (fig. 2, C, D). Coincident with these changes the 
nuclear membrane disappears and a spindle-shaped or barrel- 
shaped group of threads makes its appearance in the midst of the 
chromosomes, the longitudinal axis of which is at right angles to 
the plane of the division (fig. 2, F). At each pole of this spindle 
figure there often occur fibres radiating in all directions into the 
cytoplasm, and sometimes a minute granular body, the centro- 
some, is also found there. (2) Melaphase. The chromosomes 
pass to the equator of the spindle and become attached to the 



y68 



PLANTS 



[CYTOLOGY 



spindle-fibres in such a way that they form a radiating star- 
shaped figure Aster when seen from the pole of the spindle. 
This is called the nuclear plate (fig. 2, E, F, G, H). As they pass 
into this position they undergo a longitudinal splitting by which 
the chromatin in each chromosome becomes divided into equal 
halves. (3) Anaphase. The longitudinal division of the chro- 
mosomes is completed by the time they have taken up their 
position in the nuclear plate, and the halves of the chromosomes 
then begin to move along the spindle-fibres to opposite poles of 
the spindle (fig. 2, I, J). Many observers hold the view that 
the chromosomes are pulled apart by the contraction of the 
fibres to which they are attached. (4) Telophase. When they 
reach the poles the chromosomes group themselves again in the 
form of stars Diaster with spindle-fibres extending between 
them (fig. 2, K). The chromosomes then fuse together again 
to form a single thread (fig. 2, L), a nucleolus appears, a nuclear 
membrane is formed, and daughter nuclei are thus constituted 
which possess the same structure and staining reactions as the 
mother nucleus. 

The spindle figure is probably the expression of forces which are 
set up in the cell for the purpose of causing the separation of the 
daughter chromosomes. Hartog has endeavoured to show that it 
can only be formed by a dual force, analagpus to that of magnetism, 
the spindle- fibres being comparable to the lines of force in a magnetic 
field and possibly due to electrical differences in the cell. The spindle 
arises partly from the cytoplasm, partly from the nucleus, or it may 
be derived entirely from the nucleus intranuclear spindle as 
occurs in many of the lower plants (Fungi, &c.). The formation of 
the spindle begins in the prophases of division. A layer of delicate 
filamentous cytoplasm lanoplasm may collect around the nucleus, 
or at its poles, out of which the spindle is formed. As division 
proceeds, the filamentous nature of this cytoplasm becomes more 
prominent and the threads begin either to converge towards the 
poles of the nucleus, to form a bipolar spindle, or may converge 
towards, or radiate from, several different points, to form a multi- 
polar spindle. The wall of the nucleus breaks down, and the cyto- 
plasmic spindle-fibres become mixed with those derived from the 
nuclear network. The formation of the spindle differs in details 
in different plants. 

The significance of this complex series of changes is very 
largely hypothetical. It is clear, however, that an equal 
quantitative division and distribution of the chromatin to the 
daughter cells is brought about; and if, as has been suggested, 
the chromatin consists of minute particles or units which are 
the carriers of the hereditary characteristics, the nuclear division 
also probably results in the equal division and distribution of one 
half of each of these units to each daughter cell. 

Reduction Divisions (Meiosis). The divisions which take 
place leading to the formation of the sexual cells show a reduction 
in the number of chromosomes to one-half. This is a necessary 
consequence of the fusion of two nuclei in fertilization, unless the 
chromosomes are to be doubled at each generation. In the 
vascular cryptogams and phanerogams it takes place in the spore 
mother cells and the reduced number is found in all the cells of 
the gametophyte, the full number in those of the sporophyte. 
We know very little of the details of reduction in the lower plants, 
but it probably occurs at some stage in the life history of all 
plants in which sexual nuclear fusion takes place. The reduc- 
tion is brought about simply by the segmentation of the spirem 
thread into half the number of segments instead of the normal 
number. In order to effect this the individual chromosomes must 
become associated in some way, for there is no diminution in the 
actual amount of nuclear substance, and this leads to certain 
modifications in the division which are not seen in the vegetative 
nuclei. The two divisions of the spore mother cell in which the 
reduction takes place, follow each other very rapidly and are 
known as Heterotype and Homotype (Flemming), or according to 
the terminology of Farmer and Moore (1905) as the meiotic phase. 
In the heterotype division the spirem thread is divided longi- 
tudinally before the segmentation occurs (fig. 2, B), and this 
is preceded by a peculiar contraction of the thread around the 
nucleolus which has been termed synopsis (fig. i, A). A second 
contraction may take place later, immediately preceding the 
segmentation of the thread. It has been suggested that synapsis 
may be connected with the early longitudinal splitting of the 
thread, or with the pairing of the chromosomes, but it is possible 



that it may be connected with the transference of nucleolar 
substance to the nuclear thread. The segments of each chromo- 
some are usually twisted upon each other and may be much 
contorted (fig. 2, C, D), and appearances are observed which 
suggest a second longitudinal division, but which are more 




(After Grcgoire.) 

FIG. 2. Various Stages in the Nuclear Division of the Pollen i 
Mother-cells of Lilium. 

probably due to a folding of the segment by which the two halves 
come to lie more or less parallel to each other, and form variously 
shaped figures of greater or less regularity (fig. 2, E). The 
chromosomes now become attached to the spindle-fibres (fig. 
2, F, G) and as the daughter chromosomes become pulled asunder 
they often appear more or less V-shaped so that each pair appears 
as a closed ring of irregular shape, the ends of the V's being in 
contact thus <> (fig. 2, H. I, J, K). This V has been 
variously interpreted. Some observers consider that it repre- 
sents a longitudinal half of the original segment of the spireme, 
others that it is a half of the segment produced by transverse 
division by means of which a true qualitative separation of the 
chromatin is brought about. The problem is a very difficult 
one and cannot be regarded as definitely settled, but it is difficult 
to understand why all this additional complexity in the division 
of the nucleus should be necessary if the final result is only a 
quantitative separation of the chromatin. It seems to be fairly 
well established that in the meiotic phase there is a true qualitative 
division brought about by the pairing of the chromosomes 
during synapsis, and the subsequent separation of whole 



CYTOLOGY] 



chromosomes to the daughter nuclei. The method by which this 
is brought about is, however, the subject of much controversy. 
There are two main theories: (i) that the chromosomes which 
finally separate are at first paired side by side (Allen, Gr6goire, 
Berghs, Strasburger and others), and (2) that they are joined 
together or paired end to end (Farmer and Moore, Gregory, 
Mottier and others). Good cytological evidence has been ad- 
duced in favour of both theories, but further investigation is 
necessary before any definite conclusion can be arrived at. The 
second or homotype division which immediately follows reverts 
to the normal type except that the already split chromosomes at 
once separate to form the daughter nuclei without the interven- 
tion of a resting stage. 

Cell Division. With the exception of a few plants among 
the Thallophytes, which consist of a single multinucleate cell, 
Caulerpa, Vaucheria, &c., the division of the nucleus is followed 
by the division of the cell either at once, in uninucleate cells, or 
after a certain number of nuclear divisions, in multinucleate 
cells. This may take place in various ways. In the higher 
plants, after the separation of the daughter nuclei, minute 
granular swellings appear, in the equatorial region, on the 
connecting fibres which still persist between the two nuclei, to 
form what is called the cell-plate. These fuse together to form a 
membrane (fig. i, C, D) which splits into two layers between 
which the new cell-wall is laid down. In the Thallophytes the 
cytoplasm may be segmented by constriction, due to the 
in-growth of a new cell wall from the old one, as in Spirogyra 
and Cladophora, or by the formation of cleavage furrows in 
which the new cell- wall is secreted, as occurs in the formation of 
the spores in many Algae and Fungi. Cell budding takes place 
in yeast and in the formation of the conidia of Fungi. 

In a few cases both among the higher and the lower plants, of 
which the formation of spores in the ascus is a typical example, 
new cells are formed by the aggregation of portions of the 
cytoplasm around the nuclei which become delimited from the 
rest of the cell contents by a membrane. This is known as 
free cell formation. 

In Fucus and allied forms the spindle-fibres between the 
daughter nuclei disappear early and the new cell-wall is formed 
in the cytoplasm. 

Cell. Membrane. The membrane which surrounds the proto- 
plasts in the majority of plants is typically composed of cellulose, 
together with a number of other substances which are known as 
pectic compounds. Some of these have a neutral reaction, 
others react as feeble acids. They can be distinguished by their 
insolubility in cuprammonia, which dissolves cellulose, and by 
their behaviour towards stains, some of which stain pectic 
substances but not cellulose. Cellulose has an affinity for acid 
stains, pectic substances for basic stains. The cell-membrane 
xnay become modified by the process of lignification, suberiza- 
tion, cuticularization or gelatinization. In the Fungi it is 
usually composed of a modified form of cellulose known as 
fungus cellulose, which, according to Mangin, consists of callose 
in combination either with cellulose or pectic compounds. The 
growth of the cell-wall takes place by the addition of new layers 
to those already formed. These layers arc secreted by the 
protoplasm by the direct apposition of substances on those 
already in existence; and they may go on increasing in thickness, 
both by apposition and by the intussusception of particles 
probably carried in through the protoplasmic fibres, which 
penetrate the cell- wall as long as the cell lives. The growth of 
the cell-wall is very rarely uniform. It is thickened more in 
some places than in others, and thus are formed the spiral, 
annular and other markings, as well as the pits which occur on 
various cells and vessels. Besides the internal or centripetal 
growth, some cell-walls are thickened on the outside, such as 
pollen grains, oospores of Fungi, cells of Peridineae, &c. This 
centrifugal growth must apparently take place by the activity 
of protoplasm external to the cell. The outer protective walls 
of the oospores of some Fungi are formed out of protoplasm 
containing numerous nuclei, which is at an early stage separ- 
ated from the protoplasm of the oospore. In the Peridineae, 

xxr. 25 



PLANTS 769 

Diatoms and Desmids, according to recent researches, the thick- 
enings on the outer walls of the cells are due to the passage of 
protoplasm from the interior of the cell to the outside, through 
pores which are found perforating the wall on all sides. 

Cell-walls may become modified by the impregnation of various 
substances. Woody or lignified cell-walls appear to contain sub- 
stances called coniferin and vanillin, in addition to various other 
compounds which are imperfectly known. Lignified tissues are 
coloured yellow by aniline sulphate or aniline chloride, violet with 
phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid, and characteristic reactions 
are also given by mixtures containing phenol, indol, skatol, thallin, 
sulphate, &c. (see Zimmermann's Microtechnique). Staining reagents 
can also be used to differentiate lignified cell-walls. Cuticularized 
or suberized cell-walls occur especially in those cells which per- 
form a protective function. They are impervious to water and 
gases. Both cuticularized and suberized membranes are insoluble 
in cuprammonia, and are coloured yellow or brown in a solution 
of chlor-iodide of zinc. It is probable that the corky or suberized 
cells do not contain any cellulose (Gilson, Wisselingh) ; whilst cuti- 
cularized cells are only modified in their outer layers, cellulose inner 
layers being still recognizable. The suberized and cuticularized 
cell-walls appear to contain a fatty body called suberin, and such 
cell-walls can be stained red by a solution of alcanin, the lignified 
and cellulose membranes remaining unstained. 

Fertilization. The formation of the zygote or egg-cell 
takes place usually by the fusion of the contents of two cells, 
and always includes, as 
an essential feature, the 
fusion of two germ nuclei. 
In many of the lower 
plants the fusing cells 
gametes are precisely 
similar so far as size and 
general appearance are 
concerned; and the whole 
contents of the two cells 
fuse together, cytoplasm 
with cytoplasm, nucleus 
with nucleus, nucleolus 
with nucleolus and plastid 
with plastid. The gametes 
may be motile (some Al- 
gae) or non-motile, as in 
Spirogyra, Mucor, Bas- 
idiobolus, &c. In many of 
the lower plants and in 
all higher plants there is 
a difference in size in the 
fusing cells, the male cell 
being the smaller. The 
reduction in size is due to 




(From Wilson. After Guignard and Mottier.) 
FIG. 3. Fertilization in the Lily. 
a, Antipodal cell ; sp, polar nuclei ; 

pt, pollen tube. 

A, Two vermiform nuclei in the em- 



the absence of cytoplasm, bryo sac; one approaching the egg- 
which is in some cases so nucleus, the other uniting with the 

upper polar nucleus. 

B, Onion of the vermiform nuclei 
with the egg-nucleus and the two 
polar nuclei. 

C, Fusion of the germ nuclei in the 



small in amount that the 
cell consists mainly of a 
nucleus. In all cases of 
complete sexual differenti- 
ation the egg-cell is quies- e SS~ ceu - 
cent; the male cell may be motile or non-motile. In many of 
the Fungi the non-motile male cell or nucleus is carried by means 
of a fertilizing tube actually into the interior of the egg-cell, 
and is extruded through the apex in close proximity to the egg 
nucleus. In the Florideae, Lichens and Laboulbeniaceae the 
male cell is a non-motile spermatium, which is carried to the 
female organ by movements in the water. In Monoblepharis, 
one of the lower Fungi, in some Algae, in the Vascular Crypto- 
grams, in Cycads (Zamia and Cycas), and in Ginkgo, an isolated 
genus of Gymnosperms, the male cell is a motile spermatozoid 
with two or more cilia. In the Algae, such as Fucus, Volwx, 
Oedogonium, Bulbochaete, and in the Fungus Monoblepharis, 
the spermatozoid is a small oval or elongate cell containing 
nucleus, cytoplasm and sometimes plastids. In the Characeae, 
the Vascular Cryptogams, in Zamia and Cycas, and in Ginkgo, , 
the spermatozoids are more or less highly modified cells with 
two or more cilia, and resemble in many respects, both in their 

5 



PLANTS 



[CYTOLOGY 




(After Webber.) 

FIG. 4. Spermatozoid and Fertiliza- 
tion in Zamia. 



structure and mode of formation, the spermatozoids of animals. 
In Characeae and Muscineae they are of elongate spiral form, 
and consist of an elongate dense nucleus and a small quantity of 

cytoplasm. At the an- 
terior end are attached 
two cilia or flagella. In 
the Vascular Cryptogams 
the structure is much the 
same, but a more or less 
spherical mass of cyto- 
plasm remains attached 
to the posterior spirals, 
and a large number of 
cilia are grouped along 
the cytoplasmic anterior 
portion of the spiral. In 
Zamia (fig. 4, A), Cycas 
and Ginkgo they consist 
of large spherical or oval 
cells with a coiled band 
of cilia at one end, and 
a large nucleus which 
nearly fills the cell. They 
are carried by the pollen 
tube to the apex of the 
prothallus, where they 
are extruded, and by 
means of their cilia swim 
through a small quantity 
of liquid, contained in a 
slight depression to the 
oosphere. In the other 
Phanerogams the male 
cell, which is non-motile, 
is carried to the oosphere 
by means of a pollen tube. In the spermatozoids of Chara, 
Vascular Cryptogams, and in those of Cycas, Zamia and Ginkgo, 
the cilia arise from a centrosome-like body which is found on one 
side of the nucleus of the spermatozoid mother-cell. This body 
has been called a blepharoplast, and in the Pteridophytes, Cycads 
and Ginkgo it gives rise to the spiral band on which the cilia are 
formed. Belajeff regards it as a true centrosome; but this is 
doubtful, for while in some cases it appears to be connected with 
the division of the cell, in others it is independent of it. The egg- 
cell or oosphere is a large cell containing a single large nucleus, 
and in the green plants the rudiments of plastids. In plants with 
multinucleate cells, such as Albugo, Peronospora and Vaucheria, 
it is usually a uninucleate cell differentiated by separation of 
the nuclei from a multinucleate cell, but in Albugo bliti it is 
multinucleate, and in Sphaeroplea it may contain more than 
one nucleus. In some cases the region where the penetration 
of the male organ takes place is indicated on the oosphere by a 
hyaline receptive spot (Oedogonium, Vaucheria, &c.), or by 
a receptive papilla consisting of hyaline cytoplasm (Perono- 
sporeae). Fertilization is effected by the union of two nuclei 
in all those cases which have been carefully investigated. 
Even in the multinucleate oosphere of Albugo bliti the nuclei 
fuse in pairs; and in the oospheres of Sphaeroplea, which may 
contain more than one nucleus, the egg nucleus is formed by the 
fusion of one only of these with the spermatozoid . nucleus 
(Klebahn). In the higher Fungi nuclear fusions take place in 
basidia or asci which involve the union of two (fig. 7, A) nuclei, 
which may be regarded as physiologically equivalent to a sexual 
fusion. The union of the germ nuclei has now been observed 
in all the main groups of Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Ferns, 
Mosses, Algae and Fungi, and presents a striking resemblance 
in all. In nearly all cases the nuclei appear to fuse in the 
resting stage (fig. 3, C). In many Gymnosperms the male 
nucleus penetrates the female nucleus before fusing with it 
(Blackman, Ikeno). In other cases the two nuclei place them- 
selves side by side, the nuclear membrane between them 
disappears, and the contents fuse together nuclear thread 



with nuclear thread, and nucleolus with nucleolus so com- 
pletely that the separate constituents of the nuclei are not 
visible. It was at one time thought that the centrosomes 
played an important part in the fertilization of plants, but 
recent researches seem to indicate that this is not so. Even 
in those cases where the cilia band, which is the product of the 
centrosome-like body or blepharoplast, enters the ovum, as in 
Zamia (c in fig. 4, B, C, D), it appears to take no part in the 
fertilization phenomena, nor in the subsequent division of the 
nucleus. During the process of fertilization in the Angiosperms 
it has been shown by the researches of Nawaschin and Guignard 
that in Lilium and Fritillaria both generative nuclei enter the 
embryo sac, one fusing with the oosphere nucleus, the other with 
the polar nuclei (fig. 3, A, B ). A double fertilization thus takes 
place. Both nuclei are elongated vermiform structures, and as 
they enter the embryo sac present a twisted appearance like a 
spermatozoid without cilia (fig. 3, A, B). It has since been shown 
by other observers that this double fertilization occurs in many 
other Angiosperms, both Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, so 
that it is probably of general occurrence throughout the group 
(see ANGIOSPERMS). 

The Nucleus in Relation to Heredity. There is a certain 
amount of cytological evidence to show that the nucleus is 
largely concerned with the transmission of hereditary characters. 
Whether this is entirely confined to the nucleus is, however, not 
certain. The strongest direct evidence seems to be that the 
nuclear substances are the only parts of the cells which are 
always equivalent in quantity, and that in the higher plants 
and animals the male organ or spermatozoid is composed almost 
entirely of the nucleus, and that the male nucleus is carried into 
the female cell without a particle of cytoplasm. 1 

Since, however, the nucleus of the female cell is always 
accompanied by a larger or smaller quantity of cytoplasm, and 
that in a large majority of the power plants and animals the male 
cell also contains cytoplasm, it cannot yet be definitely stated 
that the cytoplasm does not play some part in the process. On 
the other hand, the complex structure of the nucleus with its 
separate units, the chromosomes, and possibly even smaller 
units represented by the chromatin granules, and the means 
taken through the complex phenomena of mitosis to ensure that 
an exact and equal division of the chromosomes shall take place, 
emphasizes the importance of the nucleus in heredity. Further, 
it is only in the nucleus and in its chromosomes that we have any 
visible evidence to account for the Mendelian segregation of 
characters in hybrids which are known to occur. Visible 
differences in the chromosomes have even been observed, 
especially in insects, which are due apparently to an unequal 
division by which an additional or accessory chromosome is 
produced, or in some cases one or two extra chromosomes which 
differ in size from the others. These differences indicate a 
separation of different elements in the formation of the chromo- 
somes and have been definitely associated with the determination 
of sex. It is possible, however, that the segregation of charac- 
ters in the gametes may depend upon something far more subtle 
and elusive than the chromosomes or even of possible combina- 
tions of units within the chromosomes, but so far as we can see 
at present these are the only structures in the cell with which 
it can be satisfactorily associated. Boveri in fact has put 
forward the view that the chromosomes are elementary units 
which maintain an organic continuity and independent existence 
in the cell. The cytological evidence for this appears to be made 
stronger for animal than for plant cells. From numerous 
investigations which have been made to trace the chromosomes 
through the various stages of the nuclear ontogeny of plant cells, 
it appears that the individuality and continuity of the chromo- 
somes can only be conceived as possible if we assume the exis- 
tence of something like chromosome centres in the resting 
nucleus around which the chromosomes become organized for 
purposes of division. Rosenberg (1909) adduces evidence for 

1 Strasburger (1909) states very definitely that he has observed 
the entrance of the male nucleus into the egg without a trace of 
cytoplasm. 



CYTOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



771 



the existence of chromosomes or " prochromosomes " in resting 
nuclei in a large number of plants, but most observers consider 
that the chromosomes during the resting stage become com- 
pletely resolved into a nuclear network in which no trace of the 
original chromosomes can be seen. 

Special Cell-Modifications for the Deception of Stimuli. In 
studying the physiology of movement in plants certain modifica- 
tions of cell-structure have been observed which appear to have 
been developed for the reception of the stimuli by which the 
response to light, gravity and contact are brought about. Our 
knowledge of these structures is due mainly to Haberlandt. 

Organs which respond to the mechanical stimulus of contact are 
found to possess special contrivances in certain of their cells (l) 
sensitive spots, consisting of places here and there on the epidermal 
cells where the wall is thin and in close contact with protoplasmic 
projections. These occur on the tips of tendrils and on the tentacles 
of Drosera; (2) sensitive papillae found on the irritable filaments of 
certain stamens; and (3) sensitive hairs or bristles on the leaves 
of Dionaea muscipula and Mimosa pudica all of which are so con- 
structed that any pressure exerted on them at once reacts on the 
protoplasm. 

Response to the action of gravity appears to be associated with 
the movements of starch grains in certain cells statolith cells by 
which pressure is exerted on the cytoplasm and a stimulus set up 
which results in the geotropic response. 

The response to the action of light in diatropic leaves is, according 
to Haberlandt, due to the presence of epidermal cells which are 
shaped like a lens, or with lens-shaped thickenings of the cuticle, 
through which convergence of the light rays takes place and causes 
a differential illumination of the lining layer of protoplasm on the 
basal walls of the epidermal cells, by which the stimulus resulting 
in the orientation of the leaf is brought about. Fig. 5, A, shows the 




' 



A FIG. 5. B 

A, Epidermal cells of Saxifraga hirsutum. 

B, of Tradescant ia fluminensis. 

convergence of the light to a bright spot on the basal walls of the 
epidermal cells of Saxtfraga hirsutum, and fig. 5, B , shows a photograph 
taken from life through the epidermal cells of Tradescantia fluminen- 
sis. Notwithstanding the fact, however, that these cells are capable 
of acting as very efficient lenses the explanation given by Haber- 
landt has not been widely accepted and evidence both morphological 
and physiological has been brought forward against it. 

The presence of an eye-spot in many motile unicellular Algae and 
swarm spores is also probably concerned with the active response 
to light exhibited by these organisms. In Euglena viridis, which 
has been most carefully studied in this respect, the flagellum which 
brings about the movement bears near its base a minute spherica 
or oval refractive granule or swelling which is located just in the 
hollow of the red pigment-spot (fig. 6) ; and it has been suggested 
that the association of these two is analogous to the association ol 
the rods and cones of the animal eye with their pigment layer, the 
light absorbed by the red pigment-spot setting up changes which 
react upon the refractive granule and being transmitted^ to the 
flagellum bring about those modifications in its vibratiorts by 
which the direction of movement of the organism is regulated. 

The Nuclei of the Lower Plants It is only in comparatively 
recent times that it has been possible to determine with any 
degree of certainty that the minute deeply stainable bodies 
described more especially by Schmitz (1879) in many Algae and 
Fungi could be regarded as true nuclei. The researches of the 
last twenty years have shown that the structure of the nucleus 
and the phenomena of nuclear division in these lower forms 
conforms in all essential details to those in the higher plants 
Thus in the Basidiomycetes (fig. 7) the nuclei possess all the 
structures found in the higher plants, nuclear membrane 
chromatin network and nucleolus (fig. 7, B), and in the process 



of division, chromosomes, nuclear spindle and centrosomes are 
o be seen (fig. 7, C-G). The investigations of Dangeard, 
iarper, Blackman, Miss Fraser and many others have also 




(From the Journal of the Linnean Society, " Zoology " vol. xrvii.) 
FIG. 6. A, Eye-spots of Euglena, viridis. B, Anterior end of 

Euglena showing the flagellum with its swelling just in the hollow 

of the eye-spot. 

shown that in the Ascomycetes, Rust Fungi, &c., the same 

structure obtains so far as all essential details are concerned. 
The only groups of plants in which typical nuclei have not 

been found are the Cyanophyceae, Bacteria and Yeast Fungi. 










(From the Annals of Botany, vols. vii. and viii.) 
FIG. 7. Nuclei and Nuclear Division in the Basidiomycetes. 

A to D, Amanita muscarius; E to G, Mycena galericulatus. 
A, Basidium with two nuclei. B, single nucleus due to the 
fusion of the two pre-existing nuclei. C, Nuclear thread segment- 
ing. D, Nuclear cavity with chromosomes. E, Chromosomes on 
the spindle. F, Separation of the chromosomes into two groups. 
G, Chromosomes grouped at opposite ends of the spindle to form 
the daughter nuclei. 



772 



PLANTS 



[CYTOLOGY 



In the Cyanophyceae the contents of the cell are differentiated 
into a central colourless region, and a peripheral layer containing 
the chlorophyll and other colouring matters together with 
granules of a reserve substance called cyanophycin. Chromatin 
is contained in the central part together with granules known as 
volutin, the function of which is unknown. The central body 
probably plays the part of a nucleus and some observers consider 
that it has the characters of a typical nucleus with mitotic 
division. But this is very doubtful. The central body seems 
to consist merely of a spongy mass of slightly stainable substance, 
more or less impregnated with chromatin, which divides by 
constriction. At a certain stage in the division figures are 
produced resembling a mitotic phase (fig. 8, i), which are not, in 

\ 





(From Proc. Roy. Sac., vol. bcdi.) 



FIG. 8. Cell Structure of the Cyanophyceae. 
A and B, Tolypothrix lanata: (l) Young, (2) Old cells. 
C, Osciliaria limosa: transverse microtome section. 

the opinion of the writer, to be interpreted as a true mitosis. 
It is interesting to note that in many species the formation of 
new cell-walls is initiated before any indication of nuclear 
division is to be seen. 

The bacteria, in most cases, have no definite nucleus or central 
body. The chromatin is distributed throughout the cytoplasm 
in the form of granules which may be regarded as a distributed 
nucleus corresponding to what Hertwig has designated, in 
protozoa, chromidia. 

In the yeast cell the nucleus is represented by a homogenous 
granule, probably of a nucleolar nature, surrounded and perhaps 
to some extent impregnated by chromatin and closely connected 
with a vacuole which often has chromatin at its periphery, and 
contains one or more volutin granules which appear to consist 
of nucleic acid in combination with an unknown base. Some 
observers consider that the yeast nucleus possesses a typical 
nuclear structure, and exhibits division by mitosis, but the 
evidence for this is not very satisfactory. 

Tissues. The component parts of the tissues of which plants 
are composed may consist of but slightly modified cells with 
copious protoplasmic contents, or of cells which have been 
modified in various ways to perform their several functions. In 
some the protoplasmic contents may persist, in others they 
disappear. The formation of the conducting tubes or secretory 
sacs which occur in all parts of the higher plants is due either 
to the elongation of single cells or to the fusion of cells together 
in rows by the absorption of the cell- walls separating them. 
Such cell-fusions may be partial or complete. Cases of complete 
fusion occur in the formation of laticiferous vessels, and in the 
spiral, annular and reticulate vessels of the xylem. Incomplete 
fusion occurs in sieve tubes. Tubes formed by the elongation 
of single cells are found in bast fibres, tracheides, and especially 
in laticiferous cells. 

Laticiferous Tissue. The laticiferous tissue consists of a network 
of branching or anastomosing tubes which contain a coagulable 
fluid known as latex. These tubes penetrate to all parts of the 
plant and occur in all parts of the root, stem and leaves. A proto- 
plasmic lining is found on their walls which contains nuclei. The 



walls are pitted, and protoplasmic connexions between the latici- 
ferous tubes and neighbouring parenchyma-cells have been seen. 
There are two types of laticiferous tissue non-articulate and 
articulate. The non-articulate tissue which occurs in Euphorbiaceae, 
Apocynaceae, Urticaceae, Asclepiadaceae, consists of long tubes, 
equivalent to single multinucleate cells, which ramify in all directions 
throughout the plant. Laticiferous vessels arise by the coalescence 
of originally distinct cells. The cells not only fuse together in longi- 
tudinal and transverse rows, but put out transverse projections, 
which fuse with others of a similar nature, and thus form an anasto- 
mosing network of tubes which extends to all parts of the plant. 
They are found in the Compositae (Cichoriaceae), Campanulaceae, 
Papaveraceae, Lobeliaceae, Papayaceae, in some Aroideae and 
Musaceae, and in Euphorbiaceae (Manihot, Hevea). The nuclei 
of the original cells persist in* the protoplasmic membrane. The 
rows of cells from which the laticiferous vessels are formed can be 
distinguished in many cases in the young embryo while still in the 
dry seed (Scott), but the latex vessels in process of formation are 
more easily seen when germination has begun. In the process cf 
cell-fusion the cell-wall swells slightly and then begins to dissolve 
gradually at some one point. The opening, which is at first very 
small, increases in size, and before the cross- wall has entirely dis- 
appeared the contents of the two cells become continuous (Scott). 
The absorption of the cell-walls takes place very early in the germina- 
ting seedling. 

Sieve Tubes. The sieve tubes consist of partially fused rows of 
cells, the transverse cr lateral walls being perforated by minute 
openings, through which the contents of the cells are connected with 
each other, and which after a certain time become closed by the 
formation of callus on the sieve plates. The sieve tubes contain a 
thin lining layer of protoplasm on their walls, but no nuclei, and the 
cell sap contains albuminous substances which are coagulable by 
heat. Starch grains are sometimes present. In close contact with 
the segments of the sieve tubes are companion ceils which communi- 
cate with the sieve tubes by delicate protoplasmic strands; they can 
be distinguished from ordinary parenchymatous cells by their small 
size and dense protoplasm. Companion cells are not found in the 
Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms. In the latter their place is taken 
by certain cells of the medullary rays and bast parenchyma. The 
companion cells are cut off from the same cells as those which unite 
to form the sieve tube. The mode of formation of the sieve plate 
is not certainly known; but from the fact that delicate connecting 
threads of protoplasm are present between the cells from their 
first development it is probable that it is a special case of the normal 
protoplasmic continuity, the sieve pores being produced by a secon- 
dary enlargement of the minute openings through which these delicate 
strands pass. According to Lecomte, the young wall consists partly 
of cellulose and partly of a substance which is not cellulose, the latter 
existing in the form of slight depressions, which mark the position 
of the future pores. As the sieve plate grows these non-cellulose 
regions swell and gradually become converted into the same kind 
of mucous substance as that contained in the tube; the two cells are 
thus placed in open communication. If this is correct it is easy to 
see that the changes which take place may be initiated by the 
original delicate protoplasmic strands which pass through the cell- 
wall. (For further information regarding tissues, see the section on- 
Anatomy above.) 

Protoplasmic Continuity. Except in the unicellular plants 
the cell is not an independent unit. Apart from their depen- 
dence in various ways upon neighbouring cells, the protoplasts 
of all plants are probably connected together by fine strands 
of protoplasm which pass through the cell-wall (Tangl, Russow, 
Gardiner, Kienitz-Gerloff and others) 
(fig. 9). In Pinus the presence of 
connecting threads has recently been 
demonstrated throughout all the 
tissues of the plant. These proto- 
plasmic strands are, except in the 
case of sieve tubes, so delicate that 
special methods have to be employed 
to make them visible. The basis of 
these methods consists in causing a 
swelling of the cell-wall by means of 
sulphuric acid or zinc chloride, and 
subsequent staining with Hoffmann's 
blue or other aniline dyes. The 
results so far obtained show that the 
connecting threads may be either 
" pit-threads " which traverse the 
closing membrane of the pits in the 

cell-walls (fig. 9, B), or " wall- _ 

threads " which are present in the perm 
wall of the cell (fig. 9, A). Both (B). 




(Aftcr Gardraer '' 



com munis (A) and endos- 
of Lilium Martagon 



MORPHOLOGY] 



PLANTS 



pit-threads and wall-threads may occur in the same cell, but more 
often the threads are limited to the pits. The pit-threads are 
larger and stain more readily than the wall-threads. The threads 
vary in size in different plants. They are very thick in Viscum 
album, and are well seen in Phaseolus mulliflorus and Lilium 
Martagon. They are present from the beginning of the develop- 
ment of the cell-wall, and arise from the spindle fibres, all of 
which may be continued as connecting threads (endosperm of 
Tamus communis), or part of them may be overlaid by cellulose 
lamellae (endosperm of Lilium Martagon), or they may be all 
overlaid as in pollen mother-cells and pollen grains of Helkborus 
foetidus. The presence of these threads between all the cells 
of the plant shows that the plant body must be regarded as a 
connected whole; the threads themselves probably play an 
important part in the growth of the cell-wall, the conduction 
of food and water, the process of secretion and the transmission 
of impulses. 

LITERATURE. The following is a list of a few of the more im- 
portant papers in which further information and a more complete 
list of literature will be found: Allen, "Nuclear Division in the 
Pollen Mother-cells of Lilium canadense," Annals of Botany (1905), 
vol. xix. ; Berghs, " La Formation des chromosomes he'teVotypiques 
dans la sporog<Snfese ye'ge'tale," La Cellule (1904), vol. xxi. ; Blackman, 
" On the Fertilization, Alternation of Generations, and General 
Cytology of the Uredineae," Ann. of Bot. (1904), vol. xviii. ; Biitschli, 
Untersuchungen uber mikroskopische Schaume und das Protoplasma 
(Leipzig, 1892; Eng. trans, by Minchin, London, 1894); also Unter- 
suchungen uber Struktur (Leipzig, 1898) ; Courchet, " Recherches sur 
les Chromoleucites," Ann. d. sci. nat. (bot.): (1888); Delage, L'Annee 
biologique: comptes rendus annuels des travaux de biologic generale 
(Paris, l895),cfec. ; Farmer, "Recent Advances in Vegetable Cytology," 
Science Progress (1896), vol. v. ; " The Cell and some of its Constituent 
Structures, ' Science Progress (1897); Farmer and Moore, " On the 
Meiotic Phase in Animals and Plants," Quart. Journ. Micr. Set. (1905), 
vol. xlviii. ; Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy 
in Ferns," Ann. of Bot. (1907), vol. xxi.; "On the Cytological 
Features exhibited by certain Varietal and Hybrid Ferns," Ann. 
of Bot. (1910), vol. xxiv. ; Fischer, Fixirung, Fdrbung und Bau des 
Protoplasmas (Jena, 1899); Flemming, "Morphologic der Zelle," 
Ergebnisse der Anatomic und Entwickelungsgeschichte (1896); 
Gardiner, " The Histology of the Cell-Wall, with Special Reference 
to the Mode of Connexion of Cells," Proc. Roy. Sac. (1897-1898), 
Ixii., and his earlier papers there cited; see also Proc. Camb. 
Phil. Soc. (1908), vol. ix.; "The Genesis and Development of the 
Wall and Connecting Threads in the Plant Cell. Preliminary 
Communication," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1900), Ixvi.; Gates, "A Study of 
Reduction in Oenothera rubrinervis," Bot. Gaz. (1908), vol. xlvi. ; 
Green, " The Cell Membrane," Science Progress (1897), new series, 
vol. i.; Gr^goire, "Les Cineses polliniques chez les Lilicacees," 
La Cellule (1899), vol. xvi.; " Les R6sultats acquis sur les cine'ses 
de maturation dans les deux r6gnes," La Cellule (1905), vol. xxii. 
and (1910) vol. xxvi.; Gregoire and Wygaerts, " La Reconstitution 
du noyau et la formation des chromosomes dans les cineses 
somatiques," i. La Cellule (1903), vol. xxi.; Guignard, "Sur les 
antherozoides et la double copulation sexuelle chez les v6g6taux 
angiospermes," Comptes rendus_ (1899), 128; Haberlandt, Physiolo- 
gische Pflanzenanatomie (Leipzig, 1909); Die Lichtsinnesorgane der 
Laubbldtter (Leipzig, 1905); R. A. Harper, Sexual Reproduction and 
the Organization of the Nucleus in certain Mildews (pub. Carnegie 
Institution, 1905); M. Hartog, "The Dual Force of the Dividing 
Cell," Proc. Roy. Soc., B. Ixxvi. ; Henneguy, LeQons sur la cellule, 
morphologic et reproduction (Paris, 1896); 0. Hertwig, Die Zelle 
und die Gewebe (Jena, 1893 and 1898; see Eng. ed., London, 
1894); Hirase, "Etudes sur la fecondation et 1'Embryo- 
g6nie du Ginkgo biloba," Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. (Japan, 
1895); Ikeno, " Untersuchungen uber die Entwickelung der Gesch- 
lechtsorgane und den Vorgang der Befruchtung bei Cycas revoluta," 
Jahr. f. wiss. Botanik (1898), 32; Lee, The Microlomisl's Vade 
Mecum (London, 1900) ; Macallum, " On the Detection and Localiza- 
tion of Phosphorus in Animal and Vegetable Cells," Proc. Roy. Soc. 
(1898), vol. Ixiii. ; " On the Distribution of Assimilated Iron Com- 
pounds other than Haemoglobin and Haematins, in Animal and 
Vegetable Cells," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1896), vol. xxxviii.; 
Meyer, Untersuchungen uber die Stdrke-Korner (Jena, 1895) ; Mont- 
gomery, " Comparative Cytological Studies, with especial regard to 
the Morphology of the Nucleolus," Journ. of Morphology, vol. xv. 
(Boston, 1899); D. M. Mottier, " The Development of the Heterotype 
Chromosomes in Pollen Mother-cells," Ann. of Bot. (1907), vol. xxi. ; 
" On the Prophases of the Heterotype Mitosis in the Embryo-sac 
Mother-cell of Lilium," Ann. of Bot. (1909), vol. xxiii.; Fecundation 
in Plants (Carnegie Institution, 1904); Nawaschin, " Resultate 
einer Revision der Befruchtungsvorgange bei Lilium Martagon 
und Fritillaria tenella," Bull, de I'acad. des sci. de St Petersbourg 
(1898); " Ueber die Befruchtungsvorgange bei einigen Dicotyle- 
doneen," Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. (1900), vol. 18; Rosenberg, 



773 



" Cytologische und morphologische Studien an Drosera longifolia X. 
rotundifolia," Kungl. svenska vetenskapsakad. handl. (1909), vol. 
xliv.; Salter, " Zur naheren Kenntniss der Starkekorner," Pringsh. 
Jahrb. (1898); Sargant, "The Formation of the Sexual Nuclei in 
Lilium Martagon, L and II.," Ann.ofBol. (1896-1897), vols. x. andxi. ; 
" Recent Work on the Results of Fertilization in Angiosperms," 
Ann. of Bot. (1900), vol. xiv. ; Schimper, "Sur 1'Amidon et les 
Leucites," Ann. des sci. nat. (bot.) (1887); Scott, " Development of 
Articulated Laticiferous Vessels," Quart. Journ. Micr. Set. (1882); 
" On the Laticiferous Tissue of Manihot Glazwvii (the Ceara 
Rubber)," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1884); Strasburger, " Chromo- 
somenzahlen, Plasmastrukturen, Vererbungstrager und Reduktion- 
steilung," Jahrb. wiss. Bot. (1908), vol. xiv. ; Histologische Beitrage 
vols. i. to vii. (Jena) ; Strasburger and others, " Cytologische Studien 
aus dem Bonner botanischen Institut." Jahrb. fur wissensch. Botanik 
(1897), vol. 30; Wager, "On Nuclear Division in the Hymeno- 
mycetes," Ann. of Bot. (1893), vol. vii.; "On the Structure and 
Reproduction of Cystopus candidus," Ann. of Bot. (1896), vol. x. ; 
The Cell Structure of the Cyanophyceae," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1903), 
vol. Ixxii. ; Wager and Peniston, " Cytological Observations on the 
Yeast Plant," Ann. of Bot. (1910), vol. xxiv.; Webber, "The 
Development of the Antherozoids of Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897), vol. 
xxiv.; Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance (New York 
and London, 1900); Zimmermann, " Sammel-Referate aus dem 
Gesammtgebiete der Zellenlehre," Beihefte zum hot. Centralbl. (1893 
and 1894); Die Morphologic und Physiologic des pflanzlichen 
Zellkernes (Jena, 1898). (H. W.*) 

MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS 

The term morphology, which was introduced into science by 
Goethe (1817), designates, in the first place, the study of the 
form and composition of the body and of the parts of which 
the body may consist; secondly, the relations of the parts of the 
same body; thirdly, the comparison of the bodies or parts of 
the bodies of plants of different kinds; fourthly, the study of 
the development of the body and of its parts (ontogeny) ; fifthly, 
the investigation of the historical origin and descent of the body 
and its parts (phylogeny) ; and, lastly, the consideration of the 
relation of the parts of the body to their various functions, a 
study that is known as organography. 

It is this last department of morphology that was the first 
to be pursued. The earliest scientific result of the study of 
plants was the recognition of the fact that the various parts of 
the body are associated with the performance of different kinds 
of physiological work; that they are, in fact, organs discharging 
special functions. The origin of the organography of the present 
day may be traced back to Aristotle, who described the parts 
of plants as " organs, though very simple ones." It was not 
until many centuries had passed that the parts began to be 
regarded from the point of view of their essential nature and of 
their mutual relations; that is, morphologically instead of 
organographically. Joachim Jung, in his Isagoge phytoscopica 
(1678), recognized that the plant-body consists of certain definite 
members, root, stem and leaf, and defined them by their different 
form and by their mutual relations. This point of view was 
further developed in the following century by Caspar Friedrich 
Wolff (Theoria generationis, 1759), who first followed the 
development of the members at the growing-point of the stem. 
He observed that the " appendicular organs," as he called the 
leaves, are developed in the same way, whether they be foliage- 
leaves, or parts of the flower, and stated his conclusions thus: 
" In the entire plant, whose parts we wonder at as being, at the 
first glance, so extraordinarily diverse, I finally perceive and 
recognize nothing beyond leaves and stem (for the root may be 
regarded as a stem). Consequently all parts of the plant, 
except the stem, are modified leaves." Similar views were 
arrived at by Goethe, though by the deductive rather than the 
inductive method, and were propounded in his famous pamphlet, 
Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklaren (1790), 
from which the following is a quotation: "The underlying 
relationship between the various external parts of the plant, 
such as the leaves, the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, which 
develop one after the other and, as it were, out of one another, 
has long been generally recognized by investigators, and has in 
fact been specially studied; and the operation by which one 
and the same organ presents itself to us in various forms has 
been termed Metamorphosis of Plants." 

Pure Morphology. Th.us it became apparent that the many 



774 



PLANTS 



[MORPHOLOGY 



and various organs of plants are, for the most part, different 
forms of a small number of members of the body, which have 
been distinguished as follows, without any reference to function. 
The thallus (thallome) is a plant-body which is not differentiated 
into the members root, stem and leaf; it is the morphologically 
simplest body, such as is of common occurrence in the lower 
plants (e.g. Thallophyta). In a differentiated body the stem 
(caulome) is an axis capable of bearing leaves and (directly or 
indirectly) the proper reproductive organs. The leaf (phyllome) 
is an appendicular member only borne by a stem, but differing 
from it more or less obviously in form and development, though 
co-ordinate with it in complexity of structure. The root is an 
axis which never bears either leaves or the proper reproductive 
organs (whether sexual or asexual) of the plant. The hair 
(trichome) is a superficial appendage of simple structure, which 
may be borne by any of the other members. The emergence 
is also an appendicular member of more complex structure 
than the hair (e.g. the prickles of the rose). Further, it has 
been found convenient to designate the leaf-bearing stem as a 
whole by the term shoot, so that the body may, as Sachs 
suggested, be primarily analysed into shoot and root. 

At the present time some objection is being taken to this 
purely morphological conception of the body and its parts as 
being too abstract. It is urged that the various parts are, as a 
matter of fact, organs; and that it is therefore inadmissible to 
ignore their functions, as is done in the foregoing definitions. 
To this it may be replied that pure morphology and organo- 
graphy are not alternatives, but are two complementary and 
equally necessary modes of considering the composition of the 
plant-body. Moreover, the abstract terms " stem," " leaf," 
" root," &c., are absolutely indispensable; and are continually 
used in this sense by the most ardent organographers. It has 
not yet been suggested that they should be replaced by organo- 
graphical terms; were this accomplished, descriptive botany 
would become impossible. 

It is also urged against these definitions that they are not of 
universal applicability; that there are exceptional structures 
which cannot be brought within the limits of any one of them. 
But admitting the validity of this criticism, and even going so 
far as to question the possibility of ever devising absolutely 
inclusive and, at the same time, exclusive definitions, no sufficient 
reason is adduced for giving up all attempt at morphological 
analysis. 

Homology. All members belonging to the same morphological 
category are said to be homologous, however diverse their 
functions. Thus, in a phanerogam, the sepals, petals, stamens 
and foliage-leaves all come under the category leaf, though some 
are parts of the perianth, others are spore-bearing organs 
(sporophylls), and others carry on nutritive processes. The 
homology of members was based, in the first instance, upon 
similarity of development and upon similar relations to the 
other parts of the body, that is, upon ontogeny. But since the 
general adoption of the theory of evolution, similarity of descent, 
that is of phytogeny, has come to form an essential part of this 
conception; in other words, in order that their homology may 
be established the parts compared must be proved to be homo- 
genetic. 

The introduction of the phylogenetic factor has very much 
increased the difficulty of determining homologies; for the 
data necessary for tracing phylogeny can only be obtained by the 
study of a series of allied, presumably ancestral, forms. One 
of the chief difficulties met with in this line of research, which is 
one of the more striking developments of modern morphology, 
is that of distinguishing between organs which are " reduced," 
and those which are really " primitive." The object of the 
phylogenetic study of any organ is to trace it back to its primitive 
form. But, as will be pointed out later, organs are often found 
to have undergone " degeneration " or " reduction," and such 
reduced or degenerate structures may easily be mistaken for 
primitive structures, and so the investigator may be misled. 

The effect of the phylogenetic factor in homology may be 
illustrated in the following cases. The leaves of the true mosses 



and those of the club-mosses (Lycopodium, Selaginella) being 
somewhat alike in general appearance and in ontogeny, might 
be, and indeed have been, regarded as homologous on that 
ground. However, they belong respectively to two different 
forms in the life-history of the plants; the leaves of the mosses 
are borne by the gametophyte, those of the club-mosses by the 
sporophyte. In accordance with the prevalent antithetic view 
of the alternation of generations in these plants (see PLANTS, 
REPRODUCTION OF), the forms distinguished as sporophyte and 
gametophyte are not homogenetic; consequently their leaves 
are not homologous, but are only functionally similar (homo- 
plastic; see infra). 

Another effect is that different degrees of homology have to 
be recognized, just as there are different degrees of relationship 
or affinity between individual plants. When two organs can 
be traced along the same line of descent to one primitive form, 
that is when they are found to be monophyletic, their homology 
is complete; when, however, they are traceable to two primitive 
forms, though these forms belong to the same morphological 
series, they are polyphyletic and therefore only incompletely 
homologous. For instance, all the leaves of the Bryophyta 
are generally homologous inasmuch as they are all developments 
of the gametophyte. But there is reason to believe that they 
have been differentiated quite independently in various groups, 
such as the Marchantiaceae, the Jungermanniaceae, and the 
mosses proper; consequently their phylogeny is not the same, 
they are polyphyletic, and therefore they are not completely 
homologous, but are parallel developments. 

Analogy. Considering the parts of the body in relation to 
their functions, that is as organs, they are found to present pecu- 
liarities of form and structure which are correlated with the 
functions that they have to discharge; in other words, the organ 
shows adaptation to its functions. All organs performing the 
same function and showing similar adaptations are said to be 
analogous or homoplastic, whatever their morphological nature 
may be; hence organs are sometimes both homologous and analo- 
gous, sometimes only analogous. The tendrils of a vetch and 
of a cucumber are analogous, and also homologous because they 
both belong to the category leaf; but they are only analogous 
to the tendrils of the vine and of the passion-flower, which belong 
to the category stem. 

Metamorphosis. It has already been pointed out that each 
kind of member of the body may present a variety of forms. 
For example, a stem may be a tree-trunk, or a twining stem, or a 
tendril, or a thorn, or a creeping rhizome, or a tuber; a leaf may 
be a green foliage-leaf, or a scale protecting a bud, or a tendril, 
or a pitcher, or a floral leaf, either sepal, petal, stamen or carpel 
(sporophyll) ; a root may be a fibrous root, or a swollen tap-root 
like that of the beet or the turnip. All these various forms are 
organs discharging some special function, and are examples of 
what Wolff called " modification," and Goethe " metamor- 
phosis." It may be inquired what meaning is to be attached 
to these expressions, and what are the conditions and the nature 
of the changes assumed by them. The leaf of the higher plants 
will be taken as the illustrative case because it is the most 
" plastic " of the members, the one, that is, which presents the 
greatest variety of adaptations, and because it has been most 
thoroughly studied. 

In this, as in all morphological inquiries, two lines of investi- 
gation have to be followed, the phylogenetic and the ontogenetic. 
Beginning with its phylogeny, it appears, so far as present 
knowledge goes, that the differentiation of the shoot of the 
sporophyte into stem and leaf first occurred in the Pteridophyta; 
and, in accordance with the views of Bower (Origin of a Land- 
Flora), the primitive leaf was a reproductive leaf, a sporophyll, 
from which the foliage-leaf was derived by progressive steriliza- 
tion. From the nature of the case, this view is not, and could 
not be, based upon actual observation, nor is it universally 
accepted; however, it seems to correspond more closely than any 
other to the facts of comparative morphology. It was formerly 
assumed, and the view is still held, that the foliage-leaf was the 
primitive form from which all others were derived, mainly on 



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the ground that, in ontogeny, the foliage-leaf generally precedes 
the sporophyll. The phylogeny of the various floral leaves, 
for instance, was generally traced as follows: foliage-leaf, bract, 
sepal, petal, stamen and carpel (sporophylls) in accordance 
with what Goethe termed " ascending metamorphosis." Recent 
researches, however, more especially those of Celakovsky, tend 
to prove that the perianth-leaves have been derived from the 
stamens (i.e. from sporophylls); that is, they are the result of 
" descending metamorphosis." Moreover there is the fact that 
the flowers of nearly all the primitive phanerogams, such as the 
Gymnosperms, consist solely of sporophylls, having no perianth. 
There is thus a considerable body of evidence to support Bower's 
view of the primitive nature of the sporophyll. 

Accepting this view of the phylogeny of the leaf, the perianth- 
leaves (sepals and petals) and the foliage-leaves may be regarded 
as " modified " or " metamorphosed " sporophylls; that is, as 
leaves which are adapted to functions other than the bearing of 
spores. The sepals are generally organs for the protection of 
the flower-bud; the petals, for attracting insects by their con- 
spicuous form and colour; the foliage-leaves, for the assimilation 
of carbon dioxide and other associated functions. But this 
phylogenetic differentiation of the organs was not what Wolff 
and Goethe had in mind; what they contemplated was an onto- 
genetic change, and there is abundant evidence that such 
changes actually occur. Taking first the conversion of members 
of one morphological category into those of another, this has 
been actually observed, though rarely. Goebel (Organography) 
gives several instances of the conversion of the root into a shoot 
in ferns, and a few in phanerogams (Listera otiata, Neottia nidus- 
avis, Anthurium longifolium). Much more common is the 
conversion of one form of a member into another form. The 
most varied changes of this kind have been described, and are 
generally familiar as "monstrosities"; the study of them 
constitutes, under the name of teratology, a distinct department 
of biology. A simple case is that of " double " flowers, in which 
the number of the petals is increased by the " metamorphosis " 
of stamens; or again the conversion of floral leaves into green 
leaves, a change known as " chloranthy." These changes 
may be brought about by external causes, such as the attacks 
of insects or of fungi, alterations in external conditions, &c., or 
by some unexplained internal disturbance of the morphological 
equilibrium. They can also be effected experimentally. Goebel 
has shown that if the developing foliage-leaves of the fern 
Onoclea slruthiopteris be removed as they are formed, the 
subsequently developed sporophylls assume more or less com- 
pletely the habit of foliage-leaves, and may be sterile. Similarly 
bud-scales can be caused to develop into foliage-leaves, if the 
buds to which they belong are caused to grow out in the year of 
their formation by the removal of the existing foliage-leaves. 

Useful and suggestive as they often are, teratological facts 
played, at one time, too large a part in the framing of morpho- 
logical theories; for it was thought that the " monstrous " form 
gave a clue to the essential nature of the organ assuming it. 
There is, however, no sufficient reason for regarding the mon- 
strous form as necessarily primitive or ancestral, nor even as a 
stage in the ontogeny of the organ. For when the older morpho- 
logists spoke of a stamen as a " metamorphosed " leaf, it was 
implied that it originated as a foliage-leaf and subsequently 
became a stamen. As a matter of fact, a stamen is a stamen 
and nothing else, from the very beginning. The development 
of the organ is already determined at its first appearance upon 
the growing-point; though, as already explained, the normal 
course of its ontogeny may be interfered with by some abnormal 
external or internal condition. The word " metamorphosis " 
cannot, in fact, be used any longer in its original sense, for the 
change which it implied does not normally occur in ontogeny, 
and in phylogeny the idea is more accurately expressed by the 
term " differentiation." However, it may still be useful in 
describing " monstrosities," and perhaps also those cases in 
which an organ serves first one purpose and then another, as 
when a leafy shoot eventually becomes a thorn, or the base of a 
foliage-leaf becomes a bud-scale. 



Differentiation. Any account of the general morphology of 
living organisms is incomplete if it does not include some attempt 
at an explanation of its causation; though such an attempt 
cannot be carried far at the present time. A survey of the 
vegetable kingdom indicates that evolution has proceeded, on 
the whole, from the simple to the complex; at the same time, as 
has been already mentioned, evidence of reduction or degenera- 
tion in common. Thus in the series Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, 
Phanerogamia, whilst the sporophyte presents progressive 
development, the gametophyte presents continuous reduction. 

Evolution means the gradual development of " highly 
organized " from " lowly organized " forms; that is, of forms 
in which the " physiological division of labour " is more com- 
plete, from those in which it is less complete; of forms possessing 
a variety of organs, from forms possessing but few. Differentia- 
tion means the development and the specialization as organs 
of various parts of the body. It presents itself in two aspects: 
there is morphological differentiation, which can be traced in 
the distinction of the members of the body, root, stem, leaf, &c. ; 
there is physiological differentiation, which can be traced in the 
adaptation of these members to various functions. But, in 
actual operation, these two processes are simultaneous; every 
member is developed as an organ for the performance of some 
special function. 

Factors in Evolution. Evolution in the race involves progres- 
sive differentiation in the individual; hence the causes of evolu- 
tion and of differentiation must be the same. The evolution of 
higher from lower plants, it is generally assumed, has proceeded 
by variation. With regard to the causation of variation Darwin 
says (Origin of Species, ch. v.) : " In all cases there are two 
factors, the nature of the organism, which is much the most 
important of the two, and the nature of the conditions. The 
direct action of changed conditions leads to definite or indefinite 
results. In the latter case the organization seems to become 
plastic, and we have much fluctuating variability. In the former 
case the nature of the organism is such that it yields readily, 
when subjected to certain conditions, and all or nearly all the 
individuals become modified in the same way." 

In spite of the statement that the " nature of the organism " 
is the most important factor in variation, the tendency amongst 
evolutionists has been to take much more account of the influence 
of external conditions. Exceptions to this attitude are 
Lamarck, who speaks with regard to animals (but not to plants!) 
of " la composition croissante de 1'organisation " (Philosophie 
zoologique, t. i.), and Nageli, who attributes variation to causes 
inherent in the " idioplasm," and has elaborately worked out 
the view in his Abstammungslehre. 

The position assumed in this article is in agreement with 
the views of Lamarck and of Nageli. All but the lowest plants 
visibly tend towards or actually achieve in various degrees the 
differentiation of the body, whether sporophyte or gametophyte, 
into stem, leaf, root, &c., that is, the differentiation of parts not 
previously present. It is inconceivable that external conditions 
can impart to an organism the capacity to develop something 
that it does not already possess: can impart to it, that is, the 
capacity for variation in the direction of higher complexity. 
The alternative, which is here accepted, is that differentiation 
is essentially the expression of a developmental tendency inherent 
in the protoplasm of plants. Just as every crystallizable 
chemical substance assumes a definite and constant crystalline 
form which cannot be accounted for otherwise than by regarding 
it as one of the properties of the substance, so every living 
organism assumes a characteristic form which is the outcome 
of the properties of its protoplasm. But whereas the crystalline 
form of a chemical substance is stable and fixed, the organized 
form of a living organism is unstable and subject to change. 

Influence of External Conditions. This position does not, 
however, exclude the influence of external conditions; that 
influence is undeniable. Darwin's expression " the nature of 
the organism " has been interpreted in the preceding paragraph 
to mean an inherent tendency towards higher organization; 
that interpretation may now be completed by adding that the 



776 



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[MORPHOLOGY 



organism is susceptible to, and can respond to, the action of 
external conditions. There is every reason to believe that 
plants are as " irritable " to varying external conditions as they 
are- to light or to gravity. A change in its external conditions 
may act as a " stimulus," evoking in the organism a response 
of the nature of a change in its form. As Darwin has pointed 
out, this response may be direct or indirect. In illustration 
of the indirect response, the evolution of the Bryophyta and of 
more highly organized plants may be briefly considered. It is 
generally admitted that life originated in water, and that the 
earliest plants were Algae. The study of existing Algae, that is 
of plants that have continued to live in water, shows that under 
these conditions no high degree of organization has been reached, 
though some of them have attained gigantic dimensions. The 
primitive water-plants were succeeded by land-plants, a land- 
flora being gradually established. With the transition from 
water to land came the progressive development of the sporo- 
phyte which is the characteristic feature of the morphology of 
the Bryophyta and of all plants above them in the scale of life 
(see Bower, Origin of a Land-Flora). This evolution of the 
sporophyte is no doubt to be correlated with the great change 
in the external conditions of life. There is no conclusive ground 
for regarding the action of this change as having been direct, it 
is more reasonable to regard it as indirect, having acted as a 
general stimulus to which the ever-increasing complexity of the 
sporophyte was the response. 

Adaptation. The morphological and physiological differentia- 
tion of the plant-body has, so far, been attributed to (i) " the 
nature of the organism," that is to its inherent tendency towards 
higher organization, and (2) to the " indefinite results " of the 
external conditions acting as a stimulus which excites the 
organism to variation, but does not direct the course of variation. 
The " definite results " of the action of external conditions have 
still to be considered. 

It is a familiar observation that climatic and edaphic (nature 
of soil) conditions exert an influence upon the form and structure 
of plants (see PLANTS : Ecology of) . For instance, some xerophy tes 
are dry and hard in structure, whilst others are succulent 
and fleshy. This so-called direct effect of external conditions 
upon the form and structure of the body differs from the 
indirect effect in that the resulting variations bear a relation, of 
the nature of adaptation, to those conditions; the effect of the 
conditions is not only to cause variation, but to cause variation 
in a particular direction. Thus all existing hygrophytes 
(excepting the Algae) are considered to have been derived from 
land-plants which have adapted themselves to a watery habitat. 
The effect can also be demonstrated experimentally: thus it 
has been observed that a xerophyte grown in moist air will lose 
its characteristic adaptive features, and may even assume those 
of a hygrophyte. 

Climatic and edaphic conditions are not, however, the only 
ones to affect the structure and composition of the body or its 
parts; other conditions are of importance, particularly the 
relations of the plant to animals and to other plants. For 
instance, the " animal traps " of carnivorous plants (Drosera, 
Nepenthes, &c.) did not, presumably, originate as such; they 
began as organs of quite another kind which became adapted 
to their present function in consequence of animals having been 
accidentally caught. It is also probable that the various forms 
of the angiospermous flower, with its many specialized mechan- 
isms for pollination, may be the result of insect-visits, the 
flowers becoming adapted to certain kinds of insects, and the 
insects having undergone corresponding modification. Parasites, 
again, were derived from normal autotrophic plants, which, as 
the parasitic habit became more pronounced, acquired the 
corresponding characteristics of form and structure; there is, 
in fact, the group of hemi-parasites, plants which still retain 
autotrophic characters though they are root-parasites. 

Though adaptation to the environment seems sometimes to 
be considered, especially by neo-Lamarckians, as equivalent to, 
or at least as involving, the evolution of higher forms from 
lower, there does not appear to be any evidence that this is the 



case. The effect of external conditions is confined to the modi- 
fication in various directions of members or organs already 
existing, and cne very common direction is that of reduction 
or entire disappearance of parts: for instance, the foliage-leaves 
of certain xerophy tes (e.g. Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae), of 
parasites, and of saprophytes. Moreover, had the evolution 
of plants proceeded along the line of adaptation, the vegetable 
kingdom could not be subdivided, as it is, into the morphological 
groups Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Phanerogamia, 
but only into physiological groups, Xerophyta, Hygrophyta, 
Tropophyta, &c. 

In endeavouring to trace the causation of adaptation, it is 
obvious that it must be due quite as much to properties inherent 
in the plant as to the action of external conditions; the plant 
must possess adaptive capacity. In other words, the plant 
must be irritable to the stimulus exerted from without, and be 
capable of responding to it by changes of form and structure. 
Thus there is no essential difference between the " direct " and 
the " indirect " action of external conditions, the difference is 
one of degree only. In the one case the stimulus induces 
indefinite variation, in the other definite; but no hard-and-fast 
line can be drawn between them. 

Adaptive characters are often hereditary, for instance, the 
seed of a parasite will produce a parasite, and the same is true 
of a carnivorous plant. On the other hand, adaptations, 
especially those evoked by climatic or edaphic conditions, may 
only be shown by the seedling if grown under the appropriate 
external conditions; here what is hereditary is not the actual 
adaptation, but the capacity for responding in a particular 
way to a certain set of external conditions. 

Summary. The general theory of differentiation propounded 
in this article is an attempt at an analysis of the factors termed 
by Darwin " the nature of the organism " and " the nature 
of the conditions." It is assumed, as an inevitable conclusion 
from the facts of evolution, that plant-protoplasm possesses 
(i) an inherent tendency towards higher organization, and (2) 
that it is irritable to external conditions, or to changes in them, 
and can respond to them by changes of form which may be either 
indefinite or definite (adaptive). Thus it is that the variations 
are produced upon which natural selection has to work. 

Material Cause of Differentiation. It may be inquired, in 
conclusion, if there are any facts which throw light upon the 
internal mechanism of differentiation, whether spontaneous or 
induced; if it is possible to refer it to any material cause. It 
may be replied that there are such facts, and though they are 
but few as yet, they suffice to suggest an hypothesis that may 
eventually prove to be a law. Sachs was the first to formulate 
the theory that morphological differences are the expression of 
differences in material composition. He considered, for instance, 
that stems, leaves, roots and flowers differ as they do because 
the plastic substances entering into their structure are diverse. 
This view he subsequently modified to this that a relatively 
small proportion of diverse substance in each of these parts 
would suffice to account for their morphological, differences. 
This modification is important, because it transfers the formative 
influence from the plastic substances to the protoplasm, suggest- 
ing that the diverse constituents are produced (whether spon- 
taneously or as the result of stimulation) as secretions by the 
protoplasm. It is an obvious inference that if a small quantity 
of a substance can affect the development of an entire organ 
it probably acts after the manner of an enzyme. Beyerinck 
has, in fact, gone so far as to speak of " formative enzymes." 

It is not possible to go into all the facts that might be adduced 
in support of this view: one case, perhaps the most pregnant, 
must suffice. Beyerinck was led to take up the decided position 
just mentioned by his researches into the conditions determining 
the formation of plant-galls as the result of injury by insects. 
He found that the development of a gall is due to a temporary 
modification of the part affected, not, as is generally thought, 
in consequence of the deposition of an egg by the insect, 
but of the injection of a poisonous substance which has the effect 
of stimulating the protoplasm to develop a gall instead of normal 



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777 



structure. If this be so, it may justifiably be inferred that both 
normal and abnormal morphological features may be due to 
the presence of enzymatic substances secreted by the protoplasm 
that determine the course of development. At any rate this 
hypothesis suggests an explanation of many hitherto inexplicable 
facts. For instance, it has been pointed out in the article on 
the reproduction of plants that the effect of the fertilization of 
the female cell in the ovule of a phanerogam is not confined 
to the female cell, but extends more or less widely outside it, 
inducing growth and tissue-change. The ovule develops into 
the seed; and the gynaeceum and even more remote parts of 
the flower, develop into the fruit. The facts are familiar, but 
there is no means of explaining them. In the light of Sachs's 
theory the interpretation is this, that the act of fertilization 
causes the formation in the female cell of substances which are 
transmitted to adjacent structures and stimulate them to further 
development. 

LITERATURE. As the scope of this article limits it to the general 
principles of the morphology of plants, comparatively few facts 
have been adduced. Full morphological and organographical 
details are given in the articles on the various groups of plants, such 
as those on the Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Angiosperms, 
Gymnosperms, &c. The following works may also be consulted: 
Schimper, Plant-Geography (Clarendon Press, Oxford); Goebel, 
Organography (Clarendon Press, Oxford); Bower, The Origin of a 
Land-Flora (Macmillan); Beyerinck, " Ueber Cecidien," (Bat. 
Zeitung, 1888). (S. H. V.*) 

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS 

Common experience shows that temperature is the most 
important condition which controls the distribution of plants. 
Those of warmer countries cannot be cultivated in British 
gardens without protection from the rigours of winter; still less 
are they able to hold their own unaided in an unfavourable 
climate. Temperature, then, is the fundamental limit which 
nature opposes to the indefinite extension of any one species. 
Buffon remarked " that the same temperature might have been 
expected, all other circumstances being equal, to produce the 
same beings in different parts of the globe, both in the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms." Yet lawns in the United States are 
destitute of the common English daisy, the wild hyacinth of 
the woods of the United Kingdom is absent from Germany, and 
the foxglove from Switzerland. We owe to Buffon the recogni- 
tion of the limitation of groups of species to regions separated 
from one another by " natural barriers." When by the aid of 
man they surmount these, they often dominate with unexpected 
vigour the native vegetation amongst which they are colonists. 
The cardoon and milk thistle, both European plants, cover 
tracts of country in South America with impenetrable thickets 
in which both >, man and beast may be hopelessly lost. The 
watercress blocks the rivers of New Zealand into which it has 
been introduced from Europe. The problem, then, which plant- 
distribution presents is twofold: it has first to map out the 
earth's surface into " regions " or " areas of vegetation," and 
secondly to trace the causes which have brought them about 
and led to their restriction and to their mutual relations. 

The earliest attempts to deal with the first branch of the 
inquiry may be called physiognomical. They endeavoured 
to define " aspects of vegetation " in which the " forms " 
exhibited an obvious adaptation to their climatic surroundings. 
This has been done with success and in great detail by Grisebach, 
whose Vegetation der Erde from this point of view is still unsur- 
passed. With it may be studied with advantage the unique 
collection at Kew of pictures of plant-life in its broadest aspects, 
brought together by the industry and munificence of Miss 
Marianne North. Grisebach declined to see anything in such 
" forms " but the production by nature of that which responds 
to external conditions and can only exist as long as they remain 
unchanged. We may agree with Schimper that such a point of 
view is obsolete without rejecting as valueless the admirable 
accumulation of data of which it admittedly fails to give any 
rational explanation. A single example will be sufficient to 
illustrate this. The genus Senecio, with some 1000 species, 
is practically cosmopolitan. In external habit these exhibit 



adaptations to every kind of climatic or physical condition: 
they may be mere weeds like groundsels or ragworts, or climbers 
masquerading like ivy, or succulent and almost leafless, or they 
may be shrubs and even trees. Yet throughout they agree 
in the essential structure of their floral organs. The cause of 
such agreement is, according to Grisebach, shrouded in the 
deepest obscurity, but it finds its obvious and complete explana- 
tion in the descent from a common ancestor which he would 
unhesitatingly reject. 

From this point of view it is not sufficient, in attempting to 
map out the earth's surface into " regions of vegetation," to 
have regard alone to adaptations to physical conditions. We 
are compelled to take into account the actual affinity of the 
plants inhabiting them. Anything short of this is merely 
descriptive and empirical, and affords no rational basis for 
inquiry into the mode in which the distribution of plant-life 
has been brought about. Our regions will not be " natural " 
unless they mark out real discontinuities both of origin and 
affinity, and these we can only seek to explain by reference to 
past changes in the earth's history. We arrive thus at " the 
essential aim of geographical botany," which, as stated by 
Schimper, is " an inquiry into the causes of differences existing 
among the various floras." To quote further: " Existing 
floras exhibit only one moment in the history of the earth's 
vegetation. A transformation which is sometimes rapid, some- 
times slow, but always continuous, is wrought by the reciprocal 
action of the innate variability of plants and of the variability 
of the external factors. This change is due partly to the migra- 
tions of plants, but chiefly to a transformation of the plants 
covering the earth." This transformation is due to new charac- 
ters arising through variation. " If the new characters be useful, 
they are selected and perfected in the descendants, and consti- 
tute the so-called ' adaptations ' in which the external factors 
acting on the plants are reflected." The study of the nature 
of these adaptations, which are often extremely subtle and by 
no means merely superficial, is termed Ecology (see above). 

The remark may conveniently find its place here that plants 
which have reached a high degree of adaptive specialization 
have come to the end of their tether: a too complicated adjust- 
ment has deprived them of the elasticity which would enable 
them to adapt themselves to any further change in their surround- 
ings, and they would pass away with conditions with which 
they are too inextricably bound up. Vast floras have doubtless 
thus found their grave in geologic change. That wrought by 
man in destroying forests and cultivating the land will be no 
less effective, and already' specimens in our herbaria alone 
represent species no longer to be found in a living state. Extinc- 
tion may come about indirectly and even more surely. This 
is easy to happen with plants dependent on insects for their 
fertilization. Kronfeld has shown that aconites are dependent 
for this on the visits of a Bombus and cannot exist outside the 
area where it occurs. 

The actual and past distribution of plants must obviously 
be controlled by the facts of physical geography. It is concerned 
with the land-surface, and this is more symmetrically disposed 
than would at first sight appear from a glance at a map of the 
world. Lyell points out that the eye of an observer placed 
above a point between Pembroke and Wexford, lat. 52 N. and 
long. 6 W., would behold at one view the greatest possible 
quantity of land, while the opposite hemisphere would contain 
the greatest quantity of water. The continental area is on one 
side of the sphere and the oceanic on the other. Love[has shown 
(Nature, Aug. i, 1907, p. 328) that this is the result of physical 
causes and that the existence of the Pacific Ocean " shows that 
the centre of gravity of the earth does not coincide with the centre 
of figure." One half of the earth has therefore a greater density 
than the other. But " under the influence of the rotation the 
parts of greater density tend to recede further from the axis 
than the parts of less density . . . the effect must be to produce 
a sort of furrowed surface." The furrows are the great ocean 
basins, and these would still persist even if the land surface were 
enlarged to the 1400 fathoms contour. These considerations 



77 8 



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[DISTRIBUTION 



preclude the possibility of solving difficulties in geographica 
distribution by the construction of hypothetical land-surfaces 
an expedient which Darwin always stoutly opposed (Life am 
Letters, ii. 74-78). The furrowed surface of the earth gives th 
land-area a star-shaped figure, which may from time to tim 
have varied in outline, but in the main has been permanent 
It is excentric as regards the pole and sends tapering extensions 
towards the south. Sir George Darwin finds a possible explana- 
tion of these in the screwing motion which the earth woulc 
suffer in its plastic state. The polar regions travelled a little 
from west to east relatively to the equatorial, which laggec 
behind. 

The great primary divisions of the earth's flora present them- 
selves at a glance. The tropics of Cancer and Capricorn cut of] 
with surprising precision (the latter somewhat less so) the tropica 
from the north and south temperate zones. The north tem- 
perate region is more sharply separated from the other two than 
the south temperate region from the tropical. 

I. NORTH TEMPERATE REGION (Holarctic). This is the largest 
of all, circumpolar, and but for the break at Bering Straits, would 
be, as it has been in the past, continuous in both the old and new 
worlds. It is characterized by its needle-leaved Coniferae, its 
catkin-bearing (Amentaceae) and other trees, deciduous in winter, 
and its profusion of herbaceous species. 

II. SOUTH TEMPERATE REGION. This occupies widely separated 
areas in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and South America. 
These are connected by the presence of peculiar types, Proteaceae, 
Restiaceae, Rutaceae, &c., mostly shrubby in habit and on the whole 
somewhat intolerant of a moist climate. Individual species are 
extremely numerous and often very restricted in area. 

III. TROPICAL REGION. This is characterized by the presence 
of gigantic Monocotyledons, palms, Musaceae and bamboos, and of 
evergreen polypetalpus trees and figs. Herbaceous plants are rare 
and mostly epiphytic. 

A consideration of these regions makes it apparent that they are 
to a large extent adaptive. The boreal is cold, the austral warm, 
and the tropical affords conditions of heat and moisture to which the 
vegetation of the others would be intolerant. If we take with Drude 
the number of known families of flowering plants at 240, 92 are 
generally dispersed, 17 are more restricted, while the remainder are 
either dominant in or peculiar to separate regions. Of these 40 are 
boreal, 22 austral and 69 tropical. If we add to the latter figure 
the families which are widely dispersed, we find that the tropics 
possess 161 or almost exactly two-thirds of the large groups comprised 
in the world's vegetation. M. Casimir de Candolle has made an 
independent investigation, based on Hooker and Bentham's Genera 
plantarum. The result is unfortunately (1910) unpublished, but he 
informs the present writer that the result leads to the striking con- 
clusion: "La vegetation est un phe'nomene surtout intertropical, 
dont nous ne voyons plus que restes affaiblis dans nos regions tem- 
pe'rees." In attempting to account for the distribution of existing 
vegetation we must take into account palaeontological evidence. 
The results arrived at may be read as a sequel to the article on 
PALAEOBOTANY. 

The vegetation of the Palaeozoic era, till towards its close, was 
apparently remarkably homogeneous all over the world. It was 
characterized by arborescent vascular Cryptogams and Gymno- 
sperms of a type (Cordaiteae) which have left no descendants beyond 
it. In the southern hemisphere the Palaeozoic flora appears ulti- 
mately to have been profoundly modified by a lowering of tempera- 
ture and the existence of glacial conditions over a wide area. It was 
replaced by the Glossoptens flora which is assumed to have originated 
in a vast continental area (Gondwana land), of which remnants 
remain in South America, South Africa and Australia. 

The Glossopteris flora gradually spread to the northern hemisphere 
and intermingled with the later Palaeozoic flora which still persisted. 
Both were in turn replaced by the Lower Mesozoic flora, which again 
is thought to have had its birth in the hypothetical Gondwana land, 
and in which Gymnosperms played the leading part formerly taken 
by vascular Cryptogams. The abundance of Cycadean plants is 
one of its most striking features. They attained the highest degree 
of structural complexity in the Bennettiteae, which have been 
thought even to foreshadow a floral organization. Though now on 
the way to extinction, Cycadeae are still widely represented in the 
southern hemisphere by genera which, however, have no counterpart 
in the Mesozoic era. Amongst Conifers the archaic genera, Ginkgo 
and Araucaria still persist. Once widely distributed in the Jurassic 
period throughout the world, they are now dying out: the former 
is represented by the solitary maiden-hair tree of China and Japan ; 
the latter by some ten species confined to the southern hemisphere, 
once perhaps their original home. With them may be associated 
the anomalous Sciadopitys of Japan. 

So far the eyolution of the vegetable kingdom has proceeded with- 
out any conspicuous break. Succe_ssive types have arisen in ascend- 
ing sequence, taken the lead, and in turn given way to others. But 



the later period of the Mesozoic era saw the almost sudden advent 
of a fully developed angiospermous vegetation which rapidly occu- 
pied the earth's surface, and which it is not easy to link on with 
any that preceded it. The closed ovary implies a mode of fertiliza- 
tion which is profoundly different, and which was probably correlated 
with a simultaneous development of insect life. This was accom- 
panied by a vegetative organization of which there is no obvious 
foreshadowing. As Clement Reid remarked: " World- wide floras, 
such as seem to characterize some of the older periods, have ceased 
to be, and plants are distributed more markedly according to 
geographical provinces and in climatic zones." The field of evolu- 
tion has now been transferred to the northern hemisphere. Though 
Angiosperms become dominant in all known plant-bearing Upper 
Cretaceous deposits, their origin dates even earlier. In Europe 
Heer's Populus primaeva from the Lower Cretaceous in Greenland 
was long accepted as the oldest dicotyledonous plant. Other un- 
doubted Dicotyledons, though of uncertain affinity, of similar age 
have now been detected in North America. The Cenomanian rocks 
of Bohemia have yielded remains of a sub-tropical flora which has 
been compared with that existing at present in Australia. Upper 
Cretaceous formations in America have yielded a copious flora of 
a warm-temperate climate from which it is evident that at least the 
generic types of numerous not closely related existing dicotyledonous 
trees had already come into existence. It may be admitted that 
the identification of fragmentary leaf-remains is at most precarious. 
Even, however, with this reservation, it is difficult to resist the mass 
of evidence as a whole. And it is a plausible conjecture that the 
vegetation of the globe had already in its main features been consti- 
tuted at this period much as it exists at the present moment. There 
were oaks, beeches (scarcely distinguishable from existing species), 
birches, planes and willows (one closely related to the living Salix 
Candida), laurels, represented by Sassafras and Cinnamomum, 
magnolias and _ tulip trees (Liriodendron), myrtles, Liquidambar, 
Diospyros and ivy. This is a flora which, thinned out by losses, 
practically exists to this day in the southern United States. And 
one essentially similar but adapted to slightly cooler conditions 
existed as far north as the latitude of Greenland. 

The tertiary era opens with a climate in which during the Eocene 
period something like existing tropical conditions must have obtained 
in the northern hemisphere. The remains of palms (Sabal and Nipa) 
as well as of other large-leaved Monocotyledons are preserved. 
Sequoia (which had already appeared in the American Upper Cre- 
taceous) and the deciduous cypress (Taxodium distichum) are found 
in Europe. Starkie Gardner has argued with much plausibility that 
the Tertiary floras which have been found in the far north must 
have been of Eocene age. That of Grinnell Land in lat. 81 consisted 
of Conifers (including the living spruce), poplars and willows, such 
as would be found now 25 to the south. The flora of Disco Island 
in lat. 70 contained Sequoia, planes, maples and magnolias, and 
closely agrees with the Miocene flora of central Europe. Of this 
copious remains have been found in Switzerland ancf have been 
investigated with great ability by O. Heer. They point to cooler 
conditions in the northern hemisphere: palms and tropical types 
diminish; deciduous trees increase. Sequoia and the tulip-tree 
still remain; figs are abundant; laurels are represented by Sassafras 
and camphor; herbaceous plants (Ranunculaceae, Cruciferae, 
Umbelliferae) are present, though, as might be expected, only frag- 
mentarily preserved. 

We may draw with some certainty the conclusion that a general 
novement southward of vegetation had been brought about. 
While Europe and probably North America w^re occupied by a warm 
temperate flora, tropical types had been dnven southward, while 
the adaptation of others to arctic conditions had become accentuated. 
A gradual refrigeration proceeded through the Pliocene period. 
This was accompanied in Europe by a drastic weeding out of Miocene 
:ypes, ultimately leaving the flora pretty much as it now exists. 
This, as will be explained, did not take place to anything like the 
same extent in North America, the vegetation of which still pre- 
serves a more Miocene facies. Torreya, now confined to North 
America and Japan, still lingered, as did Ocotea, now profusely 
developed in the tropics, but in north temperate regions only 
existing in the Canaries : the evergreen oaks, so characteristic of the 
Miocene, were reduced to the existing Quercus ilex. At the close of 
the Pliocene the European flora was apparently little different from 
that now existing, though some warmer types such as the water- 
chestnut (Trapa natans) had a more northern extension. The 
jlacial period effected in Europe a wholesale extermination of 
emperate types accompanied by a southern extension of the arctic 
lora. But its operation was in great measure local. The Pliocene 
lora found refuges in favoured localities from which at its close the 
owlands were restocked while the arctic plants were left behind 
an the mountains. During the milder interglacial period some 
southern types, such as Rhododendron ponticum, still held their own, 
)ut ultimately succumbed. 

The evidence which has thus been briefly summarized, points 
unmistakably to the conclusion that existing vegetation originated 
n the northern hemisphere and under climatic conditions correspond- 
ng to what would now be termed sub-tropical. It occupied a con- 
inuous circumpolar area which allowed free communication between 
the old and new worlds. The gradual differentiation of their floras 



DISTRIBUTION] 



PLANTS 



779 



has been brought about rather by extermination than specialization, 
and their distinctive facies by the development and multiplication 
of the surviving types. 

The distribution of mountain barriers in the Old and New Worlds 
is in striking contrast. In the former they run from east to west; 
in the latter from north to south. In the Old World the boreal zone 
is almost sharply cut off and afforded no means of escape for the 
Miocene vegetation when the climate became more severe. Thus in 
the Mediterranean region the large groups of palms, figs, myrtles 
and laurels are each only represented by single surviving species. 
The great tropical family of the Gesneraceae has left behind a few 
outliers: Ramondia in the Pyrenees, Haberlea in the Balkans, and 
Jankaea in Thessaly ; the Pyrenees also possess a minute Dioscorea, 
sole European survivor of the yams of the tropics. 

In North America there is no such barrier: the Miocene flora 
has been able to escape by migration the fluctuations of climate and 
to return when they ameliorated. It has preserved its character- 
istic types, such as Magnolia, Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Torreya, 
Taxodium and Sequoia. While it has been customary to describe 
the Miocene flora of Europe as of a North American type, it would 
be more accurate to describe the latter as having in great measure 
preserved its Miocene character. 

If mountains serve as barriers which arrest the migration of the 
vegetation at their base, their upper levels and summits afford lines 
of communication by which the floras of colder regions in the 
northern hemisphere can obtain a southern extension even across 
the tropics. They doubtless equally supply a path by which southern 
temperate types may have extended northwards. Thus the 
characteristic assemblage of plants to which Sir Joseph Hooker has 
given the name Scandinavian " is present in every latitude of the 
globe, and is the only one that is so " (Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiii. 253). 
In the mountains of Peru we find such characteristic northern genera 
as Draba, Alchemilla, Saxifraga, Valeriana, Gentiana and Bartsia. 
High elevations reproduce the physical conditions of high latitudes. 
The aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is transparent to luminous 
but opaque to obscure heat-rays. The latter are retained to warm 
the air at lower levels, while it remains cold at higher. It results 
that besides a horizontal distribution of plants, there is also an 
altitudinal: a fact of cardinal importance, the first observation of 
which has been attributed to Tournefort. 

Speaking generally, all plants tend to exhaust particular consti- 
tuents of the soil on which they grow. Nature therefore has pro- 
vided various contrivances by which their seeds are disseminated 
beyond the actual position they occupy. In a large number of cases 
these only provide for migration within sufficient but narrow limits; 
such plants would be content to remain local. But other physical 
agencies come into play which may be briefly noticed. The first of 
these is wind : it cannot be doubted that small seeds can be swept 
up like dust and transported to considerable distances. This is 
certainly the case with fern-spores. The vegetation of Krakatoa 
was completely exterminated in 1883 by a thick coat of red-hot 
pumice. Yet in 1886 Treub found that it was beginning to cover 
itself again with plants, including eleven species of ferns; but the 
nearest source of supply was 10 m. distant. Seeds are carried with 
more facility when provided with plumes or wings. Treub found on 
Krakatoa four species of composites and two grasses. Water is 
another obvious means of transport. The littoral vegetation of 
coral islands is derived from sea-borne fruits. The seeds of West 
Indian plants are thrown on the western shores of the British Isles, 
and as they are capable of germination, the species are only pre- 
vented from establishing themselves by an uncongenial climate. 
Travers picked up a seed of Edwardsia in the Chatham Islands, 
evidently washed ashore from New Zealand (Linn. Soc. Journ. ix. 
1865). Rivers bring down the plants of the upper levels of their 
basins to the lower: thus species characteristic of the chalk are 
found on the banks of the Thames near London. Birds are even 
more effective than wind in transporting seeds to long distances. 
Seeds are carried in soil adhering to their feet and plumage, and 
aquatic plants have in consequence for the most part an exception- 
ally wide range. Fruit-pigeons are an effective means of transport 
in the tropics by the undigested seeds which they void in their 
excrement. Quadrupeds also play their part by carrying seeds or 
fruits entangled in their coats. Xanthium spinosum has spread from 
the Russian steppes to every stock-raising country in the world, 
and in some cases has made the industry impossible. Even insects, 
as in the case of South African locusts, have been found to be a means 
of distributing seeds. 

The primary regions of vegetation, already indicated, and their 
subordinate provinces may now be considered more in detail. 

I . NORTH TEMPERATE REGION. Many writers on the distribution 
of animals prefer to separate this into two regions of " primary rank " : 
the Palaearctic and the Nearctic. But to justify such a division it 
is necessary to establish either an exclusive possession or a marked 
predominance of types in the one which are correspondingly deficient 
in the other. This cannot apparently be done for insects or _ for 
birds; Newton accordingly unites the two into the Holarctic region. 
It equally fails for plants. To take, for example, one of the most 
characteristic features of the Palaearctic region, its catkin-bearing 
deciduous trees : in North America we find precisely the same genera 



as in the Old World oaks, chestnuts, beeches, hazels, hornbeams, 
airches, alders, willows and poplars. Or to take the small but well- 
defined group of five-leaved pines, all the species of which may be 
seen growing side by side at Kew under identical conditions: we 
have the Weymouth pine (Pinus Strobus) ire eastern North America, 
P. monticola and the sugar pine (P. Lambertiana) in California, 
P. Ayacahuite in Mexico, the Arolla pine (P. Cembra) in Switzerland 
Mid Siberia, P. Peuce in Greece, the Bhutan pine (P. excelsa) in the 
Himalayas, and two other species in Japan. Amongst broad- 
leaved trees Juglans has a similar Holarctic range, descending to 
the West Indies; so has Aesculus, were it not lacking in Europe; 
it becomes tropical in South America and Malaya, fi we turn to 
herbaceous plants, Hemsley has pointed out that of the thirteen 
genera of Ranunculaceae in California, eleven are British. 

While the tropics preserve for us what remains of the pre- 
Tertiary or, at the latest, Eocene vegetation of the earth, which 
formerly had a much wider extension, the flora of the North Tem- 
perate region is often described as the survival of the Miocene. 
Engler therefore calls it Arcio-Tertiary. We must, however, agree 
with Starkie Gardner that it is only Miocene as regards its present 
position, which was originally farther north, and that its actual 
origin was much earlier. There has been in effect a successive 
shitting of zones of vegetation southwards from the pole. Their 
distinctive and adaptive characteristics doubtless began to be 
established as soon as the phanerogamic flora was constituted. 
There is no reason to suppose that the peculiarities of the arctic 
flora are more modern than those of any other, though there is no 
fossil evidence to prove that it was not so. 

The North Temperate region admits of subdivision into several 
well-marked sub-regions. The general method by which this is 
effected in this and other cases is statistical. As A. de Candolle, 
however, points out, exclusive reliance on this may be misleading 
unless we also take into account the character and affinities of the 
plants dealt with (Geogr. Bol. i. 1 166). The numerical predominance 
of certain families or their absence affords criteria for marking out 
boundary lines and tracing relationships. The analysis of the flora 
of the British Isles will afford an illustration. This was first 
attempted in 1835 by H. C. Watson, and his conclusions were en- 
forced ten years later by Edward Forbes, who dealt also with the 
fauna. Watson showed that Scotland primarily, and to a less extent 
the north of England, possessed species which do not reach the south. 
Such are the crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), Trientalis europaea, 
Rubus saxatilis and the globe-flower (Trollius europaeus). He 
further found that there was an element which he termed " boreal 
... in a more intense degree," which amounted to about " a 
fifteenth of the whole flora." This was not confined to the north 
but may occur on the mountains of England and Wales: Salix 
herbacea, Silene acaulis and Dry as octopetala will serve as examples. 
Even so small an area as that of Britain illustrates what has already 
been pointed out, that the species of a flora change both with latitude 
and altitude. Watson further brought put the striking fact that the 
west and east of Britain each had species peculiar to it; the former 
he characterized as Atlantic, the latter as Germanic. The Cornish 
heath (Erica vagans) and the maiden-hair fern (Adiantum Capittus- 
Veneris) may serve as instances of the one, the man-orchis (Aceras 
anthropophora) and Reseda lutea of the other. Ireland illustrates 
the same fact. It possesses about looo species, or about two-thirds 
the number of Britain. On its western shores there are some 
twenty, such as Saxifraga umbrosa, Erica mediterranea and Arbutus 
unedo, which are not found in Britain at all. The British Phanero- 
gamic flora, it may be remarked, does not contain a single endemic 
species, and 58% of the total number are common to the three 
northern continents. 

The analysis of larger areas yields results of the same kind. Within 
the same region we may expect to find considerable differences as 
we pass from one meridian to another. Assuming that in its cir- 
cumpolar origin the North Temperate flora was fairly homogeneous, 
it would meet in its centrifugal extension with a wide range of local 
conditions; these would favour the preservation of numerous species 
in some genera, their greater or less elimination in others. Thus 
comparing the Nearctic and Palaearctic floras we find striking differ- 
ences overlying the points of agreement already indicated. _ The 
former is poor in Cruciferae, Caryophyllaceae, Umbelliferae, Primul- 
aceae and Labiatae ; but for the occurrence of Calluna in Newfound- 
land it would have no heaths. On the other hand, it is rich in Cpm- 
positae, especially Solidago and Aster, Polemoniaceae, Asclepiad- 
aceae, Hydrophyllaceae and Cyperaceae, and it has the endemic 
Sarracenia, type of a family structurally allied to poppies, of which 
of the remaining genera Darlingtonia is Californian, and Heliamphora 
Venezuelan. These distinctions led Sir Joseph Hooker to claim for 
the two divisions the rank of primary regions. Darwin doubted, 
however, whether they ought to be separated (Life, iii. 230). Lyell, 
discussing the facts of zoological distribution, admits that ' the 
farther we go north . . . the more the discordance in genera and 
species diminishes " (Principles, ii. 340) ; and Hemsley finds that 
not less than 75 % of the genera in the flora of eastern North America 
" are represented in the old world," and, according to Asa Gray, 50% 
in Europe. 

Latitudinally the region subdivides naturally into several well- 
marked sub-regions which must be briefly discussed. 



PLANTS 



[DISTRIBUTION 



1. The Arctic-Alpine sub-region consists of races of plants belong- 
ing originally to the general flora, and recruited by subsequent 
additions, which have been specialized in low stature and great 
capacity of endurance to survive long dormant periods, sometimes 
even unbroken in successive years by the transitory activity of the 
brief summer. It is continuous round the pole and roughly is 
bounded by the arctic circle. Mature seeds are highly tolerant 
of cold and have been shown to be capable of withstanding the 
temperature even of liquid hydrogen. Arctic plants make their 
brief growth and flower at a temperature little above freezing-point, 
and are dependent for their heat on the direct rays of the sun. 
Characteristic representatives are Papaver nudicaule, Saxifraga 
oppositifolia, which forms a profuse carpet, and Dryas octopetala. 
Such plants perhaps extend to the most northern lands at present 
known. On May 3Oth, in Ward Hunt's Island, lat. 83 5', Sir George 
Nares found that " vegetation was fairly represented as regards 
quantity in the poppy, saxifrage and small tufts of grass." We may 
compare this with extreme alpine conditions: on a spot above the 
Aletsch glacier at a height of 10,700 ft. Ball found the temperature 
one inch below the surface to be 83, and he collected " over forty 
species in flower." Taking the whole arctic flora at 762 species, 
Hooker found that 616 occurred in arctic Europe, and of these 586 
are Scandinavian. Beyond the arctic circle some 200, or more than 
a quarter, are confined to the mountains of the northern hemisphere 
and of " still more southern regions." This led Hooker to the 
striking observation already quoted. The arctic flora contains 
no genus that is peculiar to it, and only some fifty species that are so. 
Christ has objected to terming the arctic flora Scandinavian, but the 
name implies nothing more than that Scandinavia has been its 
chief centre of preservation. 

A detailed examination of mountain floras shows that a large local 
element is present in each besides the arctic. The one is in fact the 
result of similar physical conditions to that which has produced 
the other. Thus Saxifraga cernua is regarded as an alpine form of 
the lowland 5. granidata. Comparing the Alps with the Pyrenees, 
according to Ball, each has about half its flora common to the other: 
" the Alps have 172 endemic species and at least 15 genera that are 
not found in the Pyrenees, while the latter range counts about 100 
endemic species with several (six or seven) genera not found in the 
Alps." Drude has accordingly suggested the substitution of the term 
" High-mountain floras " for Alpine, which he regards as misleading. 
Its meaning has, however, become synonymous and is consecrated 
by usage. 

The repetition of the. same species in the arctic regions and in the 
high mountains of the North Temperate region is generally attributed 
to the exchange which took place during the glacial period. This 
was first suggested by Edward Forbes in 1846, though the idea had 
earlier suggested itself to Darwin (Life, i. 88). It took place south- 
Wards, for the arctic flora is remarkably uniform, and, as Chodat 
points out, it shows no evidence of having been recruited from the 
several mountain floras. That the arctic flora was driven south 
into Central Europe cannot be contested in the face of the evidence 
collected by Nathorst from deposits connected with the boulder- 
clay. And Reid has shown that during the glacial period the exist- 
ing flora was replaced by an arctic one represented by such plants 
as Salix polaris, S. herbacea, S. reticulata and Betula nana. At the 
same time the then existing alpine floras descended to lower levels, 
though we may agree with Ball that they did not necessarily become 
extinct at higher ones as long as any land-surface remained uncovered 
by ice. At the close of the glacial period the alpine floras retreated 
to the mountains accompanied by an arctic contingent, though 
doubtless many species of the latter, such as Salix polaris, failed to 
establish themselves. Christ, while admitting an ancient endemic 
element, such as Campanula excisa in the arctic-alpine flora of 
Europe, objects that a Scandinavian colonization could not furnish 
such characteristic plants as the larch and edelweiss. He traces 
the original home of the bulk of existing alpine plants to northern 
Asia, tine mountains of which appear to have escaped glaciation. 
At the close of the glacial epoch the north Asiatic flora spread west- 
wards into Europe and intermingled with the surviving vegetation. 
Some species, such us Anemone alpina, which are wanting in the Arctic 
flora of the Old World, he thinks must have reached Europe by way 
of Greenland from north-east America. 

2. The Intermediate sub-region comprises the vegetation of the 
large area occupied by the steppes of the Old World, the prairies of 
the new and the forest region of both. The former support a copious 
herbaceous flora, the characteristics of which in the Old and New 
Worlds have been already briefly summarized. In the former that 
of Europe and of Central Asia are continuous. Of species common 
to the two, Maximowicz finds that Manchuria possesses 40% and 
scarcely 9% that are endemic. Of a collection of about 500 species 
made in that country by Sir Henry James nearly a third are British. 
This confirms the theory of Christ that Europe was restocked mainly 
from Asia after the close of the glacial epoch, the south being closed 
to it. In the new world no southern barriers existed and it is more 
difficult to draw the line between contiguous sub-regions. 

The dominant characteristics of the arboreous vegetation are, 
besides deciduous and amentiferous trees, Coniferae, especially the 
more recent tribe of Abietineae pines, silver-firs, hemlocks, spruces 
and larches, of which, unlike the older types, no representative 



crosses the tropic. The prominent deciduous trees of Europe appear 
to be of eastern origin, and the progress of western migration has 
continued to historic times. The evidence of the peat bogs shows 
that the Scots fir, which is now extinct, was abundant in Denmark 
in the Roman period. It was succeeded by the sessile-fruited oak, 
which was in turn supplanted by the pedunculate form of the same 
tree. Quercus Robur has left no trace in the Tertiary deposits of 
Europe and it is most nearly allied to east Asiatic species. The oak 
in turn has been almost superseded in Denmark by the beech, which, 
if we may trust Julius Caesar, had not reached Britain in his time, 
though it existed there in the pre-glacial period, but is not native in 
either Scotland or Ireland. Its eastern limit in Europe is a line 
from Konigsberg to the Caucasus; thence through China it is con- 
tinued by varietal forms to Japan. It has a solitary representative 
in North America. 

Broadly speaking, the American portion of the sub-region consists 
of an Af'antic and Pacific forest area and an intervening non-forest 
one, partly occupied by the Rocky Mountains, partly by intervening 
plains. Its arboreal vegetation is richer both in genera and species 
than that corresponding to it in the Old World. Glacial elimination 
has been less severe, or rather there has been, at any rate on the 
Atlantic side, an unimpeded return of Miocene types. The Atlantic 
area has five magnolias, a tulip tree, an Anonacea (Asimina), two 
Ternstroemiaceae (Stuarlia and Gordonia), Liquidambar, Vitis (the 
fox-grape, V. Labrusca, reappears in Japan), and others; an assem- 
blage, as long ago pointed out by Asa Gray, which can only be 
paralleled in the Chino- Japanese region, another centre of preserva- 
tion of Miocene types. All these are wanting in the Pacific area, 
though there are indications in its gold-bearing gravels that it once 
possessed them. On the other hand, the latter " is rich in coniferous 
types beyond any country except Japan " (A. Gray), but till we 
reach California these are boreal in type. The Atlantic flora has 
also numerous oaks and maples, signalized by their autumnal colora- 
tion. These were abundant in Tertiary Europe, as they are now in 
Japan, and represent perhaps a cooler element in the flora than that 
indicated above. The highlands of Central America and the West 
Indies have preserved a number of Chino- Japanese types Bocconia, 
Deutzia, Abelic, &c. not met with elsewhere in the New World. 

3. The Medilerraneo-Orienlal sub-region contrasts no less vividly 
with the Intermediate than the Arctic-Alpine. It includes the 
Azores and Canaries, the Mediterranean basin, northern Africa as 
far as the Atlas and Sahara, Asia Minor, Persia and the countries 
eastward as far as Sind, being bounded to the north by the mountains 
which run from the Caucasus to the Hindu-Rush. Its extreme 
richness in number of species (it comprises six-sevenths of the 
European flora) and the extremely restricted areas of many of them 
point to a great antiquity. The Mediterranean basin has been a 
centre of preservation of Miocene vegetation: the oleander is said 
to have been found in local deposits of even earlier age, and the holm 
oak (Quercus Ilex) is the living representative of a Miocene ancestor. 
Extensions of the flora occur southwards of the high mountains 
of tropical Africa ; A denocarpus, a characteristic Mediterranean genus, 
has been found on Kilimanjaro and 2000 m. distant on the Cameroons. 
Two British plants may be added which both reach North 
Africa : Sanicula europaea extends from Abyssinia to the Cameroons 
and southwards to Cape Colony and Madagascar; Sambucus Ebulus 
reaches Uganda. The Mediterranean, however, has apparently 
been a barrier to the southward passage of the arcto-alpine flora 
which is totally wanting on the Atlas. The vegetation of the sub- 
region is rich in shrubs: myrtle, bay, Cistus, Pistacia, Arbutus, 
heaths in its western portion, and the ground-palm (Chamaerops). 
It is even richer in more herbaceous plants tolerant of a hot summer; 
giant Umbelliferae (such as Ferula) are especially characteristic 
and yield gum-resins which have long been reckoned valuable. Of 
the 1000 known species of Astragalus it possesses 800. Evergreen 
oaks and Conifers form the forests. Asia Minor has a Liquidambar. 
The Argan tree (Argania Sideroxylon) , which forms forests in Morocco, 
is a remarkable survivor of a tropical family (Sapotaceae). Amongst 
Conifers Cedrus is especially noteworthy; it is represented by geo- 
graphical races in the north-west Himalaya, in Syria, Cyprus and 
North Africa. 

This well-marked sub-region has a deeper interest than the 
botanical. It has been the cradle of civilization, and to it is due the 
majority of cultivated plants. Such are the date in Mesopotamia 
(a second species of Phoenix occurs in the Canaries) ; most European 
fruits, e.g. the vine, fig, mulberry, cherry, apricot, walnut; pulses, 
e.g. the bean, pea and lentil ; pot-herbs, e.g. lettuce, endive, beet, 
radish, cress; cereals; and fodder plants such as lucerne and carpb. 

4. The China-Japanese sub-region. Of the vegetation of China 
till recently very little has been known. In 1873 Elwes pointed out 
that the Himalayan avifauna extended into north-west China and 
established the Himalo-Chinese sub-region. Shortly afterwards the 
collections of Prejewalsky confirmed it for the flora. An<j we now 
know that, excluding the southern tropical area, it has the same 
character throughout the whole of China proper. We may therefore 
regard the Himalayan flora as a westward extension of the Chinese 
rather than the latter as a development of the former. Of four 
genera which Hooker singles out as the largest in Sikkim, in China 
Corydalis has 76 species, Saxifraga 58, Pedicularis 129, and Primula 
77. Of Rhododendron there are 134 species. Upwards of 8000 



DISTRIBUTION] 



PLANTS 



781 



species are known out of a probable total of not less than 12,000, 
and of these more than half are endemic. The number of species 
to a genus, 3, is only half that found in other large areas. This 
aggregation of genera and of endemic species is characteristic of the 
circumferential portions of the earth's land surface : the expansion 
of the one and the further advance of the other is arrested. The 
sub-region is probably sharply cut off from the Intermediate. 
Maximowicz finds that 40 % of the plants of Manchuria are common 
to Europe and Asia, but the proportion falls sharply to 16% in the 
case of Japan. Its connexion with the Mediterraneo-Oriental sub- 
region is still more remote. China has no Cistus or heath, only a 
single Ferula, while Astragalus is reduced to 35 species. There are 
two species of Pistacia and four of Liquidambar. The affinity to 
Atlantic North America is strongly marked as it has long been known 
to be in Japan. China has 66 species of Quercus, 35 of Vitis, 2 of 
Aesculus, 42 of Acer, 33 Magnoliaceae (including two species of 
Liriodendron), 12 Anonaceae, 71 Ternstroemiaceae (including the 
tea-plant), and 4 of Clethra, which has a solitary western represen- 
tative in Madeira. Trachycarpus and Rhapis are characteristic 
palms, and Cycadeae are represented by Cycas. 

5. The Mexico-American sub-region has as its northern boundary 
the parallel of lat. 36 as far as New Mexico and then northwards 
to the Pacific coast at lat. 40. The eastern and western halves 
are contrasted in climate the former being moist and the latter 
dry and have been distinguished by some zoologists as distinct sub- 
regions. They are in fact in some degree comparable to sub-regions 
3 and 4 in the Old World. The absence of marked natural boundaries 
makes any precise north and south limitation difficult. But it has 
been a centre of preservation of the Taxodieae, a tribe of Coniferae 
of great antiquity. Taxodium (with single species in China and 
Mexico) is represented by the deciduous cypress (T. distichum), 
which extends from Florida to Texas. The two species of Sequoia, 
the " Wellingtonia " (S. gigantea) and the redwood (S. sempervirens) , 
are confined to California. In the eastern forests the prevalence of 
Magnoliaceae and of Clethra and Rhododendron continues the alliance 
with eastern Asia. Florida derives a tropical element from the 
Antilles. Amongst palms the Corypheae are represented by Sabal 
and Thrinax, and there is a solitary Zamia amongst Cycads. The 
western dry areas have the old-world leguminous Astragalus and 
Prosopis (Mesquit), but are especially characterized by the north- 
ward extension of the new-world tropical Cactaceae, Mammillaria, 
Cereus and Opuntia, by succulent Amaryllideae such as Agave (of 
which the so-called " American aloe " is a type), and by arborescent 
Liliaceae (Yucca). Amongst palms Washingtonia, Brahea and 
Erythea (all Corypheae) replace the eastern genera. On the west 
coast Cup ressus Lawsoniana replaces the northern Thuya gigantea, 
and a laurel (Umbellularia of isolated affinity) forms forests. 
California and Arizona have each a species of Platanus, a dying-out 
genus. Elsewhere it is only represented by P. occidentalis, the 
largest tree of the Atlantic forests from Maine to Oregon, and by 
P. orientalis in the eastern Mediterranean. Otherwise the Califor- 
nian flora is entirely deficient in the characteristic features of 
that of eastern North America. Nor, with perhaps the interesting 
exception of Caslanopsis chrysophylla, the solitary representative 
in the New World of an east Asiatic genus, which ranges from Oregon 
to California, has it any affinity with the Chino-Japanese sub-region. 
Its closest connexion is with the South American Andine. 

II. THE TROPICAL REGION. The permanence of continents and 
great oceans was first insisted upon by J. D. Dana, but, as already 
stated, has later received support on purely physical grounds. It 
precludes the explanation of any common features in the dissevered 
portions of the tropical area of vegetation by lateral communi- 
cations, and throws back their origin to the remotest geological 
antiquity. In point of fact, resemblance is in the main con- 
fined to the higher groups, such as families and large genera; the 
smaller genera and species are entirely different. No genus or 
species of palm, for example, is common to the Old and New Worlds. 
The ancient broad-leaved Gymnosperm Gnetum has a few surviving 
species scattered through the tropics of both worlds, one reaching 
Polynesia. 

i. African sub-region. Western Arabia must be added to the 
African continent, which, with this exception and possibly a former 
European connexion in the far west, has had apparently from a 
very early period an almost insular character. Bentham remarks 
(Journ. Linn. Soc. xiii. 492) : " Here, more perhaps than in any other 
part of the globe, in Compositae as in so many other orders, we may 
fancy we see the scattered remains of ancient races dwindling 
down to their last representatives." It is remarkable that the 
characteristic features of the Miocene flora, which in other parts 
of the world have spread and developed southwards, are conspicu- 
ously absent from the African tropical flora. It has no Magnolia- 
ceae, no maples, Pomaceae, or Vacciniaceae, no Rhododendron 
and no Abietineae. Perhaps even more striking is the absence of 
Cupuliferae; Quercus, in particular, which from Tertiary times has 
been a conspicuous northern type and in Malayan tropical conditions 
has developed others which are widely divergent. Palms are 
strikingly deficient : there are only three out of 79 genera of Areceae, 
and the Corypheae are entirely absent. But including the Mas- 
carene Islands and Seychelles the Borasseae are exclusively African. 
Aroideae are poorly represented compared with either South 



America or Malays. A peculiar feature in which tropical Africa 
stands alone is that at least one-fifth and probably more of the 
species are common to both sides of the continent and presumably 
stretch right across it. An Indian element derived from the north- 
east is most marked on the eastern side: the Himalayan Cloriosa 
will suffice as an example, and of more tropical types Phoenix and 
Calamus amongst palms. The forest flora of Madagascar, though 
including an endemic family Chlaenaceae, is essentially tropical 
African, and the upland flora south temperate. 

2. The Indo-Malayan sub-region includes the Indian and Malayan 
peninsulas, Cochin-China and southern China, the Malayan archipel- 
ago, and Philippines, with New Guinea and Polynesia, excluding the 
Sandwich Islands. Probably in point of number of species the pre- 
ponderant family is Orchideae, though, as Hemsley remarks, they 
do not " give character to the scenery, or constitute the bulk of the 
vegetation." In Malaya and eastward the forests are rich in arbor- 
escent figs, laurels, myrtles, nutmegs, oaks and bamboos. Diptero- 
carpeae and Nepenthaceae only extend with a few outliers into the 
African sub-region. Screw pines have a closer connexion. Com- 
positae are deficient. Amongst palms Areceae and Calameae are 
preponderant. Cycads are represented by Cycas itself, which in 
several species ranges from southern India to Polynesia. In India 
proper, with a dryer climate, grasses and Leguminosae take the lead 
in the number of species. But it has few distinctive botanical 
features. In the north-west it meets the Mediterraneo-Oriental 
and in the north-east the Chino-Japanese sub-regions, while south 
India and Ceylon have received a Malayan contribution. Bengal 
has no Cycas, oaks or nutmegs. Apart from the occurrence of Cycas, 
the Asiatic character of the Polynesian flora is illustrated by the 
distribution of Meliaceae. C. de Candolle finds that with one excep- 
tion the species belong to genera represented in one or other of the 
Indian pe'ninsulas. 

3. The South American sub-region is perhaps richer in peculiar 
and distinctive types than either of .the preceding. As in the Indo- 
Malayan sub-region, epiphytic orchids are probably most numerous 
in point of species, but the genera and even sub-tribes are far more 
restricted in their range than in the Old World ; 4 sub-tribes with 74 
genera of Vandeae are confined to South America, though varying 
in range of climate and altitude. Amongst arboreous families 
Leguminosae and Euphprbiaceae are prominent; Hevea belonging 
to the latter is widely distributed in various species in the Amazon 
basin, and yields Para and other kinds of rubber. Amongst Rubia- 
ceae, Cinchoneae with some outliers in the Old World have their 
headquarters at cooler levels. In Brazil the myrtles are represented 
by " monkey-pots " (Lecythideae). Nearly related to myrtles are 
Melastomaceae which, poorly represented in the Old World, have 
attained here so prodigious a development in genera and species, 
that Ball looks upon it as the seat of origin of the family. Amongst 
Ternstroemiaceae, the singular Marcgravieae are endemic. So also 
are the Vochysiaceae allied to the " milkworts." Cactaceae are 
widely spread and both northwards and southwards extend into 
temperate regions. Screw pines are replaced by the nearly allied 
Cyclanthaceae. The Amazon basin is the richest area in the world 
in palms, of which the Cocoineae are confined to South America, 
except the coco-nut, which has perhaps spread thence into Polynesia 
and eastward. The singular shrubby Amaryllids, Vellozieae, are 
common to tropical and South Africa, Madagascar and Brazil. 
Aroids, of which the tribes are not restricted in their distribution, 
have two large endemic genera, Philodendron and Anthurium. 
Amongst Cycads, Zamia is confined to the New World, and amongst 
Conifers, Araucaria, limited to the southern hemisphere, has scarcely 
less antiquity; Finns reaches as far south as Cuba and Nicaragua. 

The flora of the Hawaiian Islands has complicated relations. 
Out of the 860 indigenous plants, 80 % are endemic, but Hillebrand 
finds that a large number are of American affinity. 

III. THE SOUTH TEMPERATE REGION contrasts remarkably with 
the northern. Instead of large continuous areas, in which local 
characteristics sometimes blend, it occupies widely dissevered 
territories in which specialization, intensified by long separation, has 
mostly effaced the possibility of comparing species and even genera, 
and compels us to seek for points of contact in groups of a higher 
order. The resemblances consist, in fact, not so much in the exis- 
tence of one general facies running through the regions, as is the case 
with the northern flora, but in the presence of peculiar types, such as 
those belonging to the families Restiaceae, Proteaceae, Ericaceae, 
Mutisiaceae and Rutaceae. 

i . The South African sub-region has a flora richer perhaps in number 
of species than any other; and these are often extremely local and 
restricted in area. It exhibits in a marked degree the density of 
species which, as already pointed out, is explicable by the arrest of 
further southern expansion. Hemsley remarks that the northern 
genus Erica, which covers thousands of square miles in Europe 
with very few species, is represented by hundreds of srjecies in a 
comparatively small area in South Africa." There is an interesting 
connexion with Europe through the so-called Iberian flora. Ben- 
tham (Pres. addr. Linn. Soc., 1869, p. 25) points out that " the west- 
European species of Erica, Genisteae, Lobelia, Gladiolus, &c., are 
some of them more nearly allied to corresponding Cape species than 
they are to each other; and many of the somewhat higher races, 
groups of species and genera, have evidently diverged from stocks 



782 



PLANTS 



[DISTRIBUTION 



now unrepresented anywhere but in South Africa." This flora 
extends from Ireland to the Canaries and reappears on the highlands 
of Angola. On the eastern side the southern flora finds representa- 
tives in Abyssinia, including Prolea, and on the mountains of equa- 
torial Africa, Calodendron capense occurring on Kilimanjaro. This 
is the most northern representative of the Rutaceous Diosmeae, 
which are replaced in Australia by the Boronieae. The Proteaceous 
genus, Faurea, occurs in Angola and Madagascar. The character- 
istic genus Pelargonium has a few Mediterranean representatives, 
and one even occurs in Asia Minor. In all these cases it is a nice 
question whether we are tracing an ascending or descending stream. 
Darwin thought that the migration southwards would always be 
preponderant (Origin of Species, sth ed., 458). Other characteristic 
features of the flora are the abundance of Compositae, Asclepiadeae, 
and petaloid Monocotyledons generally, but especially Orchideae 
(terrestrial species predominating) and Iridaceae. There is a marked 
tendency towards a succulent habit. The nearly related Ficoideae 
replace the new-world Cactaceae, but the habit of the latter is simu- 
lated by fleshy Euphorbias and Asclepiads, just as that of A gave is 
by the liliaceous Aloe. South Africa has only two palms (Phoenix 
and Hyphaene). In the Gnetaceous Welwitschia it possesses a 
vegetable type whose extraordinary peculiarities make it seem 
amongst contemporary vegetation much as some strange and extinct 
animal form would if suddenly endowed with life. _Conifers are 
scantily represented by Callitris and Podocarpus, which is common to 
all three sub-regions; and Cycads by the endemic Encephalartos 
and Stangeria. 

2. The Australian sub-region consists of Australia, Tasmania, 
New Caledonia and New Zealand, and, though partly lying within 
the tropic is most naturally treated as a whole. They are linked 
together by the presence of Proteaceae and of Epacrideae, which 
take the place of the nearly allied heaths in South Africa. The most 
dominant order in Australia is Leguminosae, including the acacias 
with leaf-like phyllodes (absent in New Zealand). Myrtaceae comes 
next with Eucalyptus, which forms three-fourths of the forests, and 
Melaleuca; both are absent from New Caledonia and New Zealand; 
a few species of the former extend to New Guinea and one of the 
latter to Malaya. Cupuliferae are absent except Fagus in Australia 
and New Zealand. The so-called " oaks " of Australia are Casuar- 
ina, which also occurs in New Caledonia, but is wanting in New 
Zealand. The giant rushes Xanthorrhoea and Kingia are peculiar 
to Australia. Palms are poorly represented in the sub-region and 
are of an Indo-Malayan type. Amongst Conifers, Podocarpus is 
found throughout, Agathis is common to Australia, New Zealand 
and New Caledonia; Araucaria to the first and last. Of Cycads, 
Australia and New Caledonia have Cycas, and the former the endemic 
Macrozamia and Bowenia. The Australian land-surface must be 
of great antiquity, possibly Jurassic, and its isolation scarcely less 
ancient. In Lower Eocene times its flora appears to have been 
distinctly related to the existing one. Little confidence can, however, 
be placed in the identification of Proteaceous or, indeed, of any 
distinctively Australian plants in Tertiary deposits in the northern 
hemisphere. The Australian flora has extensions at high levels in 
the tropics; such exists on Kinabalu in Borneo under the equator. 
The Proteaceous genus Helicia reaches as far north as China, but 
whether it is starting or returning must as in other cases be left an 
open question. 

While the flora of New Caledonia is rich in species (3000), that of 
New Zealand is poor (1400). While so many conspicuous Australian 
elements are wanting in New Zealand, one-eighth of its flora belongs 
to South American genera. Especially noteworthy are the Andine 
Acaena, Gunnera, Fuchsia and Calceolaria. By the same path it 
has received a remarkable contribution from the North Temperate 
region; such familiar genera as Ranunculus, Epilobium and Veronica 
form more than 9% of the flowering plants. And it is interesting 
to note that while the tropical forms of Quercus failed to reach Aus- 
tralia from Malaya, the temperate Fagus crept in by a back door. 
Three-quarters of the native species are endemic ; they seem, however, 
to be quite unable to resist the invasion of new-comers, and already 
600 plants of foreign origin have succeeded in establishing themselves. 

3. The Andine sub-region extends from Peru to the Argentine and 
follows roughly the watershed of the Amazon. In the New World, 
as already explained, the path of communication between the north- 
ern and southern hemispheres has always been more or less open, and 
the temperate flora of southern America does not exhibit the isolation 
characteristic of the southern region of the Old World. Taking, 
however, the Andean flora as typical, it contains a very marked 
endemic element; Ball finds that half the genera and four-fifths of 
the species are limited to it; on the other hand, that half the species 
of Gamopetalae belong to cosmopolitan genera such as Valeriana, 
Gentiana, Bartsia and Gnaphalium. The relation to the other 
sub-regions is slight. Ericeae are wholly absent, and it has but a 
single Epacrid in Fuegia. Proteaceae are more marked in Guevina 
and Embothrium. Of Restiaceae, a single Leptocarpus has been 
found in Chile. On the other hand, it is the headquarters of Muti- 
siaceae, represented in South Africa by such genera as Oldenburgia 
and Gerbera and by Trichodine in Australia. Tropaeolum takes the 
place of the nearly allied South African Pelargonium. There has 
been an interchange between it and the Mexico- American sub-region, 
but as usual the northern has been preponderant. Prosopis extends 



to the Argentine; other characteristic genera are Oenothera, Godetia 
Collomia, Heliotropium and Eritrichium. In the ascending stream 
may be mentioned Larrea, a small genus of Zygophylleae with 
headquarters in Paraguay and Chile, of which one species, L. 
mexicana, is the creosote plant of the Colorado desert, where it 
forms dense scrub; Acaena; the Loasaceae, of which Mentzelia 
reaches North America, Petunia and Lippia. Compositae compose 
a quarter of the Andean flora, which is a greater proportion than in 
any in the world. Baccharis, with some 250 species, ranges over the 
whole continent from the Straits of Magellan and, with seven species, 
to California. Melastomaceae, copiously represented in tropical 
America, are more feebly so in Peru and wholly wanting in Chile. 
A few Cactaceae extend to Chile. Of Cupuliferae, Quercus in three 
species only reaches Colombia, but Fagus, with only a single one in 
North America, is represented by several from Chile southwards and 
thence extends to New Zealand and Tasmania. The Magnoliaceous 
genus Drimys, with a single species in the new world, follows the same 
track. Bromeliaceae are represented by Rhodostachys and the tem- 
perate Puya. Palms as usual are few and not nearly related. 
Wettinia occurs in Peru, Trithrinax in Chile with the monotypic 
Jubaea, Juania, also monotypic, is confined to Juan Fernandez. 
Amongst Coniferae Podocarpus is common to this and preceding 
sub-regions; Libocedrus extends from California to New Zealand 
and New Caledonia; Fitzroya is found in Chile and Tasmania; and 
Araucaria in its most familiar species occurs in Chile. 

4. The Antarctic-Alpine region is the complement of the Arctic- 
Alpine, but unlike the latter, its scattered distribution over numerous 
isolated points of land, remote from great continental areas, from 
which, during migrations like those attending the glacial period in 
the northern hemisphere, it could have been recruited, at once 
accounts for its limited number of species and their contracted 
range in the world. On the whole, it consists of local species of 
some widely distributed northern genera, such as Carex, Poa, Ranun- 
culus, &c., with alpine types of strictly south temperate genera, 
characteristic of the separate localities. The monotypic Pring- 
lea antiscorbutica, the " Kerguelen Island cabbage," has no near 
ally in the southern hemisphere, but is closely related to the northern 
Cochlearia. 

Such a summary of the salient facts in the geographical 
distribution of plants sufficiently indicates the tangled fabric 
of the earth's existing floral covering. Its complexity reflects 
the corresponding intricacy of geographical and geological 
evolution. 

If the surface of the globe had been symmetrically divided 
into sea and land, and these had been distributed in bands 
bounded by parallels of latitude, the character of vegetation 
would depend on temperature alone; and as regards its aggre- 
gate mass, we should find it attaining its maximum at the 
equator and sinking to its minimum at the poles. Under such 
circumstances the earth's vegetation would be very different 
from what it is, and the study of plant distribution would be a 
simple affair. 

It is true that the earth's physical geography presents certain 
broad features to which plants are adapted. But within these 
there is the greatest local diversity of moisture, elevation and 
isolation. Plants can only exist, as Darwin has said, where 
they must, not where they can. New Zealand was poorly 
stocked with a weak flora; the more robust and aggressive one 
of the north temperate region was ready at any moment to 
invade it, but was held back by physical barriers which human 
aid has alone enabled it to surpass. 

Palaeontological evidence conclusively proves that the surface 
of the earth has been successively occupied by vegetative forms 
of increasing complexity, rising from the simplest algae to the 
most highly organized flowering plant. We find the ultimate 
explanation of this in the facts that all organisms vary, and that 
their variations are inherited and, if useful, perpetuated. 
Structural complexity is brought about by the superposition 
of new variations on preceding ones. Continued existence 
implies perpetual adaptation to new conditions, and, as the 
adjustment becomes more refined, the corresponding structural 
organization becomes more elaborate. Inheritance preserves 
what exists, and this can only be modified and added to. Thus 
Asclepiadeae and Orchideae owe their extraordinary floral 
complexity to adaptation to insect fertilization. 

All organisms, then, are closely adapted to their surroundings. 
If these change, as we know they have changed, the organisms 
must change too, or perish. In some cases they survive by 
migration, but this is often prohibited by physical barriers. 



PLANUDES PLASSEY 



783 



These, however, have often protected them from the com- 
petition of more vigorous invading races. Fagus, starting 
from the northern hemisphere, has more than held its own in 
Europe and Asia, but has all but died out in North America, 
finding conditions favourable for a fresh start in Australasia. 
The older types of Gymnosperms are inelastic and dying 
out. Even Pinus has found the task of crossing the tropics 
insuperable. 

The whole story points to a general distribution of flower- 
ing plants from the northern hemisphere southwards. It 
confirms the general belief on geological grounds that this 
was the seat of their development at the close of the Mesozoic 
era. It is certain that they originally existed under warmer 
conditions of climate than now obtain, and that progressive 
refrigeration has supplied a powerful impulse to migration. 
The tropics eventually became, what they are now, great areas 
of preservation. The Northern Temperate region was denuded 
of its floral wealth, of which it only retains a comparatively 
scanty wreck. High mountain levels supplied paths of com- 
munication for stocking the South Temperate region, the 
floras of which were enriched by adapted forms of tropical types. 
Such profound changes must necessarily have been accompanied 
by enormous elimination; the migrating hosts were perpetually 
thinned by falling out on the way. Further development was, 
however, not stopped, but in many cases stimulated by migra- 
tion and settlement in new homes. The northern Quercus, 
arrested at the tropic in the new world, expanded in that of 
the old into new and striking races. And it cannot be doubted 
that the profusion of Melastomaceae in South America was not 
derived from elsewhere, but the result of local evolution. There 
is some evidence of a returning stream from the south, but as 
Hooker and A. de Candolle have pointed out, it is insignificant 
as compared with the outgoing one. Darwin attributes this 
to the fact that " the northern forms were the more powerful " 
(Origin of Species, sth ed., p. 458). 

The result of migration is that races of widely different origin 
and habit have had to adapt themselves to similar conditions. 
This has brought about superficial resemblance in the floras of 
different countries. At first sight a South African Euphorbia 
might be mistaken for a South American Cactus, an Aloe for 
an Agave, a Senecio for ivy, or a New Zealand Veronica for a 
European Salicornia. A geographical botany based on such 
resemblances is only in reality a study of adaptations. The 
investigation of these may raise and solve interesting physio- 
logical problems, but throw no light on the facts and genetic 
relationship which a rational explanation of distribution 
requires. If we study a population and sort it into soldiers, 
sailors, ecclesiastics, lawyers and artisans, we may obtain facts 
of sociological value but learn nothing as to its racial origin and 
composition. 

In the attempt that has been made to map out the land 
surface of the earth, probable community of origin has been 
relied upon more than the possession of obvious characters. 
That sub-regions framed on this principle should show inter- 
relations and some degree of overlapping is only what might 
have been expected, and, in fact, confirms the validity of the 
principle adopted. It is interesting to observe that though 
deduced exclusively from the study of flowering plants, they 
are in substantial agreement with those now generally adopted 
by zoologists, and may therefore be presumed to be on the 
whole " natural." 

AUTHORITIES. A. de Candolle, La Geographie botanique raisonnee, 
(Paris and Geneva, 1855); A. Grisebach, La Vegetation du globe, 
transl. by P. de Tchihatchef (Paris, 1875); Engler, Versuch einer 
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig, 1879-1882); Oscar 
Drude, Manuel de geographic botanique, transl. by G. Poirault (Paris, 
1807) ; A. F. W. Schimper, Plant Geography, transl. by W. R. Fisher, 
(Oxford, 1903). (W. T. T.-D.). 

PLANUDES, MAXIMUS (c. 1260-1330), Byzantine grammarian 
and theologian, flourished during the reigns of Michael VIII. 
and Andronicus II. PalaeologL He was born at Nicomedia 
in Bithynia, but the greater part of his life was spent in Con- 
stantinople, where as a monk he devoted himself to study 



and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his 
original name Manuel to Maximus. Planudes possessed a 
knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy 
were regarded with hatred and contempt by the Byzantines. 
To this accomplishment he probably owed his selection as one 
of the ambassadors sent by Andronicus II. in 1327 to remonstrate 
with the Venetians for their attack upon the Genoese settlement 
in Pera. A more important result was that Planudes, especially 
by his translations, paved the way for the introduction of the 
Greek language and literature into the West. 

He was the author of numerous works; notably a Greek grammar 
in the form of question and answer.Hke the 'EpuT^oraof Moschopulus, 
with an appendix on the so-called " political " verse; a treatise on 
syntax; a biography of Aesop and a prose version of the fables; 
scholia on certain Greek authors; two hexameter poems, one a eulogy 
of Claudius Ptolemaeus, the other an account of the sudden change 
of an ox into a mouse; a treatise on the method of calculating in 
use amongst the Indians (ed. C. J. Gerhardt, Halle, 1865) ; and scholia 
to the first two books of the Arithmetic of Diophantus. His numerous 
translations from the Latin included Cicero's Somnium Scipionis 
with the commentary of Macrobius: Caesar's Gallic War; Ovid's 
Her aides and Metamorphoses; Boetius, De consolations philosophiae; 
Augustine, De trinitate. These translations were very popular 
during the middle ages as textbooks for the study of Greek. It is, 
however, as the editor and compiler of the collection of minor poems 
known by his name (see ANTHOLOGY: Greek) that he is chiefly 
remembered. 

See Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles, xi. 682; theological 
writings in Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxlvii; correspondence, ed. 
M. Treu (1890), with a valuable commentary; K. Krumbacher, 
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litleratur (1897); J. E. Sandys, Hist, 
of Class. Schol. (1906), vol. i. 

PLAQUE, a French term for a small flat plate for tablet, 
applied particularly to rectangular or circular ornamental 
plates or tablets of bronze, silver, lead or other metal, or of 
porcelain or ivory. Small plaques, plaquettes, in low relief in 
bronze or lead, were produced in great perfection in Italy at 
the end of the I5th and beginning of the i6th centuries, and 
were usually copies of ancient engraved gems, earlier goldsmith 
work and the like. 

PLASENCIA, a city of Spain and an episcopal see, in the 
north of the province of Caceres. Pop. (1900), 8208. Plasencia 
is situated on the river Jerte, a subtributary of the Tagus, 
and at the foot of the sierras of Bejar and Vera. The place 
has some interest on account of its fine walls, built in 1197 by 
Alphonso VIII. of Castile, and its cathedral, begun in 1498, a 
favourable specimen of the ornate Gothic of its period. The 
Hieronymite convent of Yuste, the scene of the last years of 
the emperor Charles V. (1500-1558), is 24 m. east. 

PLASSEY (Palasi), a village of Bengal on the river Bhagi- 
rathi, the scene of Clive's victory of the 23rd of June 1757, 
over the forces of the nawab Suraj-ud-Dowlah. The fall of 
Calcutta and the " Black Hole " atrocity led to instant action 
by the East India Company, and Clive, with as many troops as 
could be spared, undertook a campaign against the nawab, and 
soon reoccupied Calcutta. Long and intricate negotiations, 
or rather intrigues, followed, and at the time cf the battle the 
loyalty of most of the nawab's generals had been effectually 
undermined, though assistance, active or passive, could hardly 
be counted on. With this doubtful advantage, Clive, with 
1 100 European and 2100 native soldiers, and 10 field-pieces, 
took the field against the nawab, who had 50,000 men, 53 heavy 
guns, and some French artillery under M. de St Frais. Only 
the river Bhagirathi separated Clive's little force from the 
entrenched camp of the enemy, when the English leader, for 
once undecided, called a council of war. Clive and the majority 
were against fighting, Major Eyre Coote, of the 39th Foot, and 
a few others for action. Coote's soldierly advice powerfully 
impressed Clive, and after deep consideration he altered his 
mind and issued orders to cross the river. After a fatiguing 
march, the force bivouacked in a grove near Plassey early on 
the 23rd. The nawab's host came out of its lines and was 
drawn up in a huge semicircle almost enclosing the little force 
in the grove, and St Frais' gunners on the right wing opened 
fire. Clive replied, and was soon subjected to the converging fire 
of 50 heavy guns. For hours the unequal fight was maintained, 



7 8 4 



PLASTER PLASTER- WORK 



until a rainstorm stopped it. The English covered up their 
guns, but the enemy took no such precaution. Mir Mudin, the 
only loyal general of the nawab's army, thinking that Clive's 
guns were as useless as his own, made a disastrous cavalry 
charge upon them; he lost his own life, and his colleagues then 
had the game in their hands. Mir Jagar persuaded the 
nawab to retire into the entrenchments. St Frais stood fast 
until one of Clive's officers, Major Kilpatrick, successfully 
drove him in. Clive followed up this success by cannonading 
the camp at close range. But the rank and file of the native 
army, ignorant of the treachery of their leaders, made a furious 
sortie. For a time Clive was hard pressed, but his cool general- 
ship held its own against the undisciplined valour of the enemy, 
and, noticing Mir Jagar's division in his rear made no move 
against him, he led his troops straight against the works. 
After a short resistance, made chiefly by St Frais, the whole 
camp fell into his hands. At a cost of 23 killed and 49 wounded 
this day's work decided the fate of Bengal. The historic grove 
of mangoes, in which Clive encamped on the previous night, 
has been entirely washed away by changes in the course of the 
river; but other relics of the day remain, and a monument has 
recently been erected. 

PLASTER, a mixture of lime, hair and sand, used to cover 
rough walling of lathwork between timbers (see PLASTER- 
WORK) ; also a fine white plaster of gypsum, generally known 
as " plaster of Paris." The word (also as " plaister ") is used in 
medicine of adhesive mixtures employed externally for the 
protection of injured surfaces, for support of weak muscular 
or other structures, or as counter-irritants, soothing applications 
&c. The ultimate derivation of the word is the Gr. t/wrXao'Tpoi' 
or entrXaffTOV in the medical sense, from kv, on, and ir\a.<r<Teiv, 
to daub or smear. 

PLASTER OF PARIS, a variety of calcined gypsum (calcium 
sulphate) which forms a hard cement when treated with water 
(see CEMENT). The substance obtained its name in consequence 
of being largely manufactured in the neighbourhood of Paris. 

PLASTER-WORK, in building. Plastering is one of the 
most ancient of handicrafts employed in connexion with building 
operations, the earliest evidence showing that the dwellings of 
primitive man were erected in a simple fashion with sticks and 
plastered with mud. Soon a more lasting and sightly material 
was found and employed to take the place of mud or slime, and 
that perfection in the compounding of plastering materials was 
approached at a very remote period is made evident by the 
fact that some of the earliest plastering which has remained 
undisturbed excels in its scientific composition that which we 
use at the present day. The pyramids in Egypt contain plaster- 
work executed at least four thousand years ago (probably much 
earlier) and yet existing, hard and durable, at the present time. 
From recent discoveries it has been ascertained that the principal 
tools of the plasterer of that time were practically identical in 
design, shape and purpose with those used to-day. For their 
finest work the Egyptians used a plaster made from calcined 
gypsum just like the " plaster of Paris " of the present time, 
and their methods of plastering on reeds resemble in every way 
our " lath, plaster, float and set " work. Hair was introduced 
to strengthen the " stuff," and the whole finished somewhat 
under an inch thick. Very early in the history of Greek archi- 
tecture we find the use of plaster of a fine white lime stucco. 
Such has been found at Mycenae. The art had reached perfection 
in Greece more than five centuries before Christ, and plaster 
was frequently used to cover temples externally and internally, 
in some cases even where the building was of marble. It formed 
a splendid ground for decorative painting, which at this period 
of Grecian history had reached a very high degree of beauty. 
The temple of Apollo at Bassae, built of yellow sandstone about 
47 B.C., is an excellent example. Pavements of thick, hard 
plaster, stained with various pigments, were commonly laid in 
Greek temples. The Roman architect Vitruvius, in his book on 
architecture written about 16 B.C., gives detailed information 
concerning the methods of making plaster and the manner of 
using it. " The lime used for stucco," he writes, " should be 



of the best quality and tempered a long time before it is 
wanted for use. The Greeks, besides making their stucco 
work hard with thin coats of marble-dust plaster polished with 
chalk or marble, caused the plaster when being mixed to be 
beaten with wooden staves by a great number of men. Some 
persons cutting slabs of such plaster from ancient walls use 
them for tables and mirrors." Pliny the elder tells us that 
" no builder should employ lime which had not been slaked at 
least three years," and that " the Greeks used to grind their 
lime very fine and beat it with pestles of wood." In England 
the walls of large houses and mansions were formerly plastered 
above the wainscoting and coloured, while the ornamented 
plaster ceilings of the time of Henry VIII., Elizabeth and 
James I., are still the admiration of lovers of the art. Still earlier 
specimens of the plasterer's skill are extant in the pargeted and 
ornamented fronts of half-timbered houses. With regard to the 
smaller buildings, comprising small dwelling-houses and cot- 
tages, the general application of plaster is of comparatively late 
date; for wainscoted walls and boarded ceilings or naked joists 
alone are frequently found in houses of not more than a century 
old both in England and on the Continent. 

In the more common operations of plastering, comparatively 
few tools and few materials are required, but the workman 
efficient in all branches of the craft will possess a very large 
variety of implements.. The materials of the workman are 
laths, lath nails, lime, sand, hair, plaster of paris, and a variety 
of cements, together with various ingredients to form colouring 
washes, &c. 

Wood laths are narrow strips of some straight-grained wood, 
generally Baltic or American fir, in lengths of from two to four or 
five feet to suit the distances at which the timbers of 
a floor or partition are set. Laths are about an inch Lsthlag. 
wide, and are made in three thicknesses; " single " (J to ^ > n - thick), 
" lath and a half " (J in. thick), and " double " (f to in. thick). 
The thicker laths should be used in ceilings, to stand the extra strain, 
and the thinner variety in vertical work such as partitions, except 
where the latter will be subjected to rough usage, in which case 
thicker laths become necessary. Laths are usually nailed with 
a space of about f in. between them to form a key for the plaster. 
Laths were formerly all made by hand. A large quantity, however, 
are now made by machinery and are known as sawn laths, those made 
by hand being called rent or riven laths. Rent laths give the best 
results, as they split in a line with the grain of the wood, and are 
stronger and not so liable to twist as machine-made laths, some of 
the fibres of which are usually cut in the process of sawing. Laths 
must be nailed so as to break joint in bays three or four feet wide 
with ends butted one against the other. By breaking the joints 
of the lathing in this way, the tendency for the plaster to crack 
along the line of joints is diminished and a better key is obtained. 
Every lath should be nailed at each end and wherever it crosses a 
ioist or stud._ All timbers over three inches wide should be counter- 
lathed, that is, have a fillet or double lath nailed along the centre 
upon which the laths are then nailed. This is done to preserve a 
pod key for the plaster. Walls liable to damp are sometimes 
battened and lathed in order to form an air cavity between the 
damp wall and the plastering. 

Lathing of metal, either of wire or in the form of perforated 
sheets, is now extensively used on account of its fire-proof and lasting 
quality. There are very many kinds of this material 
made in different designs under various patents, the 
best-known in England being the Jhilmil, the Bostwick, Lathing. 
and the Expanded Metal lathing. The two last-named are also 
widely used in America. 

Lathing nails are usually of iron, cut, wrought or cast and in 
the better class of work they are galvanized to prevent rusting. 
Zinc nails are sometimes used, but are costly. 

The lime principally used for internal plastering is that calcined 
from chalk or other nearly pure limestone, and is known as fat, 
pure, chalk or rich lime. Hydraulic limes, which are 
referred to in the articles BRICKWORK and MORTAR, are 
also used by the plasterer, chiefly for external work. Perfect 
slaking of the calcined lime before being used is very important 
as, if used in a partially slaked condition, it will " blow " when in 
position and blister the work. Lime should therefore be run as 
soon as the building is begun, and at least three weeks should elapse 
between the operation of running the lime and its use. 

Hair is used in plaster as a binding medium, and gives tenacity 
to the material. Ox-hair, which is sold in three qualities, is the 
kind usually specified; but horsehair, which is shorter, . 

is sometimes substituted in its stead or mixed with the 
ox-hair in the lower qualities. Good hair should be long, strong, 
and free from grease and dirt, and before use must be well beaten 
to separate the lumps. In America, goats' hair is frequently used, 



PLASTER-WORK 



785 



though it is not so strong as ox-hair. The quantity used in good 
work is one pound of hair to two or three cubic feet of coarse 
stuff. 

Manila hemp fibre has been used as a substitute for hair. As 
a result of experiments to ascertain its strength as compared with 
that of other materials, it was found that plaster 
slabs made with Manila hemp fibre broke at 195 ft, 
t plaster mixed with Sisal hemp at 150 ft, jute at 145 ft, 
and goats hair at 144^ ft. Another test was made in the following 
manner. Two barrels of mortar were made up of equal propor- 
tions of lime and sand, one containing the usual quantity of goats' 
hair, and the other Manila fibre. After remaining in a dry cellar 
for nine months the barrels were opened. It was found that the 
hair had been almost entirely eaten away by the action of the lime, 
and the mortar consequently broke up and crumbled quite easily. 
The mortar containing the Manila hemp, on the other hand, showed 
great cohesion, and required some effort to pull it apart, the hemp 
fibre being apparently quite uninjured. Sawdust has been used as 
a substitute for hair and also instead of sand as an aggregate. It 
will enable mortar to stand the effects of frost and rough weather. 
It is useful sometimes for heavy cornices and similar work, as it 
renders the material light and strong. The sawdust should be 
used dry. 

Some remarks are made on the ordinary sands for building in 
the articles on BRICKWORK and MORTAR. For fine plasterer's 
Sand work special sands, not hitherto referred to, are used, 

such as silver sand, which is used when a light colour 
and fine texture are required. In England this fine white sand is 
procured chiefly from Leighton Buzzard. 

For external work Portland cement is undoubtedly the best 

material on account of its strength, durability, and weather resisting 

_ . properties. The first coat or rendering is from \ to 

I in. thick, and is mixed in the proportions of from 

one part of cement to two of sand to one part to five 

of sand. The finishing or setting coat is about fa in. thick, and 

is worked with a hand float on the surface of the rendering, which 

must first be well wetted. 

Stucco is a term loosely applied to nearly all kinds of external 
plastering, whether composed of lime or of cement. At the present 
time it has fallen into disfavour, but in the early part 
of the igth century a great deal of this work was done. 
The principal varieties of stucco are common, rough, trowelled and 
bastard. Cement has largely superseded lime for this work. 
Common stucco for external work is usually composed of one part 
hydraulic lime and three parts sand. The wall should be suffi- 
ciently rough to form a key and well wetted to prevent the moisture 
being absorbed from the plaster. 

Rough stucco is used to imitate stonework. It is worked with 
a hand float covered with rough felt, which forms a sand surface 
on the plaster. Lines are ruled before the stuff is set to represent 
the joints of stonework. Trowelled stucco, the finishing coat of 
this work, consists of three parts sand to two parts fine stuff. A 
very fine smooth surface is produced by means of the hand float. 
Bastard stucco is of similar composition, but less labour is expended 
on it. It is laid on in two coats with a skimming float, scoured off 
at once, and then trowelled. Coloured stucco: lime stucco may 
be executed in colours, the desired tints being obtained by mixing 
with the lime various oxides. Black and greys are obtained by 
using forge ashes in varying proportions, greens by green enamel, 
reds by using litharge or red lead, and blues by mixing oxide or 
carbonate of copper with the other materials. 

Rough-cast or Pebble-dash plastering is a rough form of external 
plastering in much use for country houses. In Scotland it is 
termed " harling." It is one of the oldest forms of external 
plastering. In Tudor times it was employed to fill in between the 
woodwork of half-timbered framing. When well executed with 
good material this kind of plastering is very durable. Rough- 
casting is performed by first rendering the wall or laths with a coat 
of well-haired coarse stuff composed either of good hydraulic lime 
or of Portland cement. This layet is well scratched to give a key 
for the next coat, which is also composed of coarse stuff knocked 
up to a smooth and uniform consistency. While this coat is still 
soft, gravel, shingle or other small stones are evenly thrown on 
with a small scoop and then brushed over with thin lime mortar 
to give a uniform surface. The shingle is often dipped in hot lime 
paste, well stirred up, and used as required. 

Sgraffito (Italian for " scratched ") is scratched ornament in 
plaster. Scratched ornament is the oldest form of surface decora- 
tion, and at the present day it is much used on the continent of 
Europe, especially in Germany and Italy, in both external and 
internal situations. Properly treated, the work is durable, effective 
and inexpensive. The process is carried out in this way: A first 
coat or rendering of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion 
of one to three, is laid on about J in. thick; then follows the colour 
coat, sometimes put on in patches of different tints as required 
for the finished design. When this coat is nearly dry, it is finished 
with a smooth-skimming, -fa to \ in. thick, of Parian, selenitic or 
other fine cement or lime, only as much as can be finished in one 
day being laid on. Then by pouncing through the pricked cartoon, 
the design is transferred to the plastered surface. Broad spaces 



of background are now exposed by removing the finishing coat, 
thus revealing the coloured plaster beneath, and following this the 
outlines of the rest of the design are scratched with an iron knife 
through the outer skimming to the underlying tinted surface. 
Sometimes the coats are in three different colours, such as brown 
for the first, red for the second, and white or grey for the final coat. 
The pigments used for this work include Indian red, Turkey red, 
Antwerp blue, German blue, umber, ochre, purple brown, bone 
black or oxide of manganese for black. Combinations of these 
colours are made to produce any desired tone. 

Lime plastering is composed of lime, sand, hair and water in 
proportions varying according to the nature of the work to be done. 
In all cases good materials, well mixed and skilfully 
applied, are essential to a perfect result. Plaster is 
applied in successive coats or layers on walls or lathing, work. 
and gains its name from the number of these coats. " One coat " 
work is the coarsest and cheapest class of plastering, and is limited 
to inferior buildings, such as outhouses, where merely a rough 
coating is required to keep out the weather and draughts. This is 
described as " render " on brickwork, and " lath and lay " or " lath 
and plaster one coat " on studding. " Two coat " work is often 
used for factories or warehouses and the less important rooms of 
residences'. The first coat is of coarse stuff finished fair with the 
darby float and scoured. A thin coat of setting stuff is then laid on, 
and trowelled and brushed smooth. " Two coat " work is described 
as " render and set " on walls, and " lath, plaster and set," or 
" lath, lay and set " on laths. " Three coat " work is usually 
specified for all good work. It consists, as its name implies, of 
three layers of material, and is described as " render, float and 
set " on walls and " lath, plaster, float and set," or " lath, lay, 
float and set," on lathwprk. This makes a strong, straight, sanitary 
coating for walls and ceilings. The process for "three coat" work 
is as follows: For the first coat a layer of well-haired coarse stuff, 
about J in. thick, is put on with the laying trowel. This is termed 
" pricking up " in London, and in America " scratch coating." It 
should be laid on diagonally, each trowelful overlapping the previous 
one. When on laths the stuff should be plastic enough to be 
worked through the spaces between the laths to form a key, yet 
so firm as not to drop off. The surface while still soft is scratched 
with a lath to give a key for the next coat, which is known as the 
second or " floating coat," and is J to f in. thick. In Scotland 
this part of the process is termed " straightening " and in America 
" browning," and is performed when the first coat is dry, so as to 
form a straight surface to receive the finishing coat. Four operations 
are involved in laying the second coat, namely, forming the screeds; 
filling in the spaces between the screeds; scouring the surface; 
keying the face for finishing. Wall screeds are plumbed and ceiling 
screeds levelled. Screeds are narrow strips of plastering, carefully 
plumbed and levelled, so as to form a guide upon which the floating 
rule is run, thus securing a perfectly horizontal or vertical surface, 
or, in the case of circular work, a uniform curve. 

The " filling in," or " flanking," consists of laying the spaces 
between the screeds with coarse stuff, which is brought flush with 
the level of the screeds with the floating rule. 

The " scouring " of the floating coat is of great importance, for 
it consolidates the material, and, besides hardening it, prevents 
it from cracking. It is done by the plasterer with a hand float 
which he applies vigorously with a rapid circular motion, at the 
same time sprinkling the work with water from a stock brush in 
the other hand. Any small holes or inequalities are filled up as 
he proceeds. The whole surface should be uniformly scoured two 
or three times, with an interval between each operation of from 
six to twenty-four hours. This process leaves the plaster with a 
close-grained and fairly smooth surface, offering little or no key 
to the coat which is to follow. To obtain proper cohesion, howevel, 
a roughened face is necessary, and this is obtained by " keying " 
the surface with a wire brush or nail float, that is, a hand float with 
the point of a nail sticking through and projecting about Jin.; 
sometimes a point is put at each corner of the float. After the 
floating is finished to the walls and ceiling, the next part of internal 
plastering is the running of the cornice, followed by the finishing of 
the ceiling and walls. 

The third and final coat is the " setting coat," which should be 
about i in. thick. In Scotland it is termed the " finishing," and in 
America the " hard finish " or " putty coat." Considerable skill is 
required at this juncture to bring the work to a perfectly true finish, 
uniform in colour and texture. Setting stuff should not be applied 
until the floating is quite firm and nearly dry, but it must not be 
too dry or the moisture will be drawn from the setting stuff. 

The coarse stuff applied as the first coat is composed of sand and 
lime, usually in proportions approximating to two to one, with 
hair mixed into it in quantities of about a pound to two or three 
cubic feet of mortar. It should be mixed with clean water to such 
a consistency that a quantity picked up on the point of a trowel 
holds well together and does not drop. 

Floating stuff is of finer texture than that used for " pricking 
up," and is used in a softer state, enabling it to be worked well 
into the keying of the first coat. A smaller proportion of hair 
is also used. 

Fine stuff mixed with sand is used for the setting coat. Fine 



7 86 



PLATA, RIO DE LA 



stuff, or lime putty, is pure lime which has been slaked and then 
mixed with water to a semi-fluid consistency, and allowed to stand 
until it has developed into a soft paste. For use in setting it is 
mixed with fine washed sand in the ratio of one to three. 

For cornices and for setting when the second coat is not allowed 
time to dry properly, a special compound must be used. This is 
often " gauged stuff, composed of three or four parts of lime 
putty and one part of plaster of Paris, mixed up in small quantities 
immediately before use. The plaster in the material causes it to set 
rapidly, but if it is present in too large a proportion the work will 
crack in setting. 

The hard cements used for plastering, such as Parian, Keene s, 
and Martin's, are laid generally in two coats, the first of cement 
and sand J to J in. in thickness, the second or setting coat of neat 
cement about i in. thick. These and similar cements have gypsum as 
a base, to which a certain proportion of another substance, such as 
alum, borax or carbonate of soda, is added, and the whole baked or 
calcined at a low temperature. The plaster they contain causes 
them to set quickly with a very hard smooth surface, which may 
be painted or papered within a few hours of its being finished. 

The by-laws made by the London County Council under 31 of 
the London Council (General Powers) Act 1890 set forth the 
description and quality of the substances of which plastering is 
to be made for use in buildings erected under its jurisdiction. 

Plain, or unenriched, mouldings are formed with a running 
mould of zinc cut to the required profile. Enrichments may be 
added after the main outline moulding is set, and are 
MoaUings. cast in mO ulds made of gelatine or plaster of paris. 
For a cornice moulding two running rules are usual, one on the wall, 
the other on the ceiling, upon which the mould is worked to and fro 
by one workman, while another man roughly lays on the plaster 
to the shape of the moulding. The mitres at the angles are finished 
off with joint rules made of sheet steel of various lengths, three or 
four inches wide, and about one-eighth inch thick, witn one end cut 
to an angle of about 30. In some cases the steel plate is let into a 
" stock or handle of hardwood. 

Cracks in plastering may be caused by settlement of the building, 
and by the use of inferior materials or by bad workmanship, but 
c . apart from these causes, and taking the materials and 
labour as being of the best, cracks may yet ensue by 
the too fast drying of the work, caused through the laying of plaster 
on dry walls which suck from the composition the moisture required 
to enable it to set, by the application of external heat or the heat 
of the sun, by the laying of a coat upon one which has not properly 
set, the cracking in this case being caused by unequal contraction, 
or by the use of too small a proportion of sand. 

For partitions and ceilings, plaster slabs are now in very general 
use when work has to be finished quickly. For ceilings they require 
Slabs. simply to be nailed to the joists, the joints being made 
with plaster, and the whole finished with a thin setting 
coat. In some cases, with fire-proof floors, for instance, the slabs 
are hung up with wire hangers so as to allow a space of several 
inches between the soffit of the concrete floor and the ceiling. For 
partitions the slabs frequently have the edges tongued and grooved 
to form a better connexion; often, too, they are holed through 
vertically, so that, when grouted in with semi-fluid plaster, the whole 
partition is bound together, as it were, with plaster dowels. Where 
very great strength is required the work may be reinforced by 
small iron rods through the slabs. This forms a very strong and 
rigid partition which is at the same time fire-resisting and of light 
weight, and when finished measures only from two to four inches 
thick. The slabs may be obtained either with a keyed surface, 
which requires finishing with a setting coat when the partition 
or ceiling is in position, or a smooth finished face, which may 
be papered or painted immediately the joints have been carefully 
made. Partitions are also formed with one or other of the forms 
of metal lathing previously referred to, fixed to iron uprights and 
plastered on both sides. So strong is the result that partitions 
of this class only two or three inches thick were used for temporary 
cells for prisoners at Newgate Gaol during the rebuilding of the 
new sessions house in the Old Bailey, London. 

Fibrous plaster is given by plasterers the suggestive name " stick 
and rag," and this is a rough description of the material, for it is 
composed of plaster laid upon a backing of canvas 
stretched on wood. It is much used for mouldings, 
circular and enriched casings to ^columns and girders 
and ornamental work, which, being worked in the shop and then 
nailed or otherwise fixed in position, saves the delay often attendant 
upon the working of ornament in position. 

Desachy, a French modeller, took out in 1856 a patent for 
" producing architectural mouldings, ornaments and other works 
of art, with surfaces of plaster," with the aid of plaster, glue, wood, 
wire, and canvas or other woven fabric. The modern use of this 
material may be said to have started then, but the use of fibrous 
plaster was known and practised by the Egyptians long before the 
Christian era; for ancient coffins and mummies still preserved 
prove that linen stiffened with plaster was used for decorating coffins 
and making masks. Cennino Cennini, writing in 1437, says that 
fine linen soaked in glue and plaster and laid on wood was used for 
forming grounds for painting. Canvas and mortar were in general 



Fibrous 
Plaster. 



use in Great Britain up to the middle of the last century. This 
work is also much used for temporary work, such as exhibition 
buildings. 

The principal books of reference on the subject are: W. Millar. 
Plastering, Plain and Decorative; G. R. Burnell, Limes, Cements. 
Mortars and Mastics; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction, 
Part III. " Building Materials "; the works on architecture ol 
Robert and James Adam. (J. BT.) 

PLATA, RIO DE LA, or RIVER PLATE, a funnel-shaped 
estuary, on the east side of South America, extending W.N.W. 
from the sea about 170 m. The discovery of the South Sea 
by Balboa, then governor of Castilla del Oro, of which Darien 
formed a part, created a lively desire to learn something of its 
coast-line, and the year following (in 1514), the Spanish monarch 
concluded a navigation contract with Juan Diaz de Solis, then 
Piloto Mayor, to search for a strait connecting the Atlantic 
with the newly found ocean, explore the coasts of the latter and 
communicate with Pedrarias de Avila, the new governor of 
Castilla del Oro; and, if it were found to be an island, to report 
to the superior authorities. of Cuba. De Solis set sail from the 
port of Lepe on the 8th of October 1515, reached the Bay of 
Rio de Janeiro on the ist of January 1516, and continuing 
southward to lat. 35 entered the great estuary now known as 
the Plata, which, for a short period of time, was called the de 
Solis and the Mar Duke. Ascending it to the vicinity of the 
island of Martin Garcia, near the mouth of the Parana river, 
de Solis was ambushed and killed in the early part of 1516 by 
Guarani Indians while attempting to capture some of them. 
In the first months of 1520 Magellan explored the Rio de la 
Plata, and afterwards, in the same year, discovered and 
navigated the straits which bear his name. This discovery led 
to the voyage of Sebastian Cabot, who fitted out an expedition in 
1 526 to reach the Spice Islands by the Magellan route. Owing, 
however, to shortness of provisions and the insubordination of 
his men Cabot abandoned his proposed voyage to the Moluccas, 
and, ascending the Mar Dulce, discovered the Parand river 
and reached a point on the Paraguay near the site of the present 
city of Asuncion. Here he met many Guarani Indians wearing 
silver ornaments, probably obtained in trade across the Gran 
Chaco, from the frontier of the Inca Empire. In exchange for 
beads and trinkets Cabot acquired many of these ornaments 
and sent them to Spain as evidence of the richness of the 
country in precious metals and the great importance of his 
discoveries. The receipt of these silver baubles caused the name 
of Rio de la Plata to be applied to the third (perhaps the second) 
greatest river of the Western Continent. 

The extreme breadth of the river at its mouth is 138 m. It 
narrows quickly to 57 m. at Montevideo, and at its head, where 
it receives the united Parana and Uruguay rivers, its width 
is about 25 m. Its northern or Uruguayan shore is somewhat 
elevated and rocky, while the southern or Buenos Airean one 
is very low. The whole estuary is very shallow, and in no place 
above Montevideo exceeds 36 ft. in depth when the river is low. 
The bottom generally consists of enormous banks of sand 
covered with from 10 to 20 ft. of water, and there is a continuous 
and intricate channel, of about 22 ft. depth only, to within 14 m. 
of the port of Buenos Aires. The remaining distance has a 
depth of 1 8 ft. in the uncertain channel. The Plata is simply 
the estuarine receptacle of two mighty streams, the Uruguay 
and Parana, which drain the Plata basin. This has an area 
of 1,198,000 sq. m., or over two and one-half times that of the 
Pacific slope of the Andes, and comprises the most fertile, 
healthiest and best part of Brazil, a large portion of the Argentine 
Republic, the whole of Paraguay and south-eastern Bolivia, and 
most of Uruguay. 

The Uruguay river has a length of about looo m. Many small 
streams from the western slope of the Brazilian Serra do Mar 
unite, in about 27 45' S., to form this river, which then rAe 
flows W.N.W., serving as the boundary between the Vru][ia y 
states of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, and 
as far as 52 W., near which it receives a considerable Affluents. 
tributary from the north, called the Pepiri-guazu. 
Between 27 58' and 35 34' S. three important tributaries join it 
from the east the Ipui-guazu, the Ibicui and the Negro, the last 
being its main affluent. 



PLATA, RIO DE LA 



787 



The Pepiri-guazu was one of the limits between the possessions 
of Portugal and Spain. Its lower course is about 250 ft. wide, 
but higher up it narrows to about 30 ft., and runs with great violence 
between high wooded banks. It is navigable for canoes for about 
70 m. above its mouth, as far as its first fall. The Rio Negro has a 
delta of several large islands at its confluence with the Uruguay 
Its head-waters are in the southern part of Rio Grande do Sul, 
but the main river belongs entirely to the state of Uruguay, which 
it cuts midway in its course from north-east to south-west. Its 
lower reaches are navigable for craft of moderate draught. 

From the time the Uruguay leaves the coast range of Brazil it 
runs for a long distance through a beautiful, open, hilly country, 
Course ^ ut afterwards enters a forest belt of high lands. At 

fthe the river Pepiri-guazu it turns suddenly to the south- 

iirumiav west, and continues this course to its junction with the 
Paran4 and Plata. Near Fray Bentos, 61 m. before 
reaching the Plata, it forms a great lake, about 56 m. long and 
from 4 to 6 m. wide. At Punta Gorda, where it debouches into 
the Plata, it is only I m. to I J m. wide, but is 90 ft. deep. From the 
Pepiri-guazii junction its banks are high and covered with forest 
as far down as 27 30' S., where the river is 2300 ft. wide and from 
10 to 40 ft. deep. The Uruguay is much obstructed by rocky 
barriers. Four miles below its confluence with the Pepiri-guazii 
it has a cataract, about 8 m. long, with a total fall of 26 ft. at low 
water. The river near the Pepiri-guazii is 1550 ft. wide, but about 
ij m. before reaching the cataract its width is reduced to 600 ft. 
Along the cataract it is closed in between high precipitous walls 
of black rock only 70 ft. apart. Above Punta Gorda, 212 m., is the 
Salto Grande, which has a length of 15 m. of rapids, the greatest 
single fall being 12 ft., and the difference of level for the entire length 
of the reefs 25 ft. These cross the river diagonally, and during floods 
all, excepting a length of ij m. of them, are submerged. Nine miles 
below the Salto Grande is the Salto Chico, which bars navigation 
during six months of the year, but in flood-time may be passed in 
craft drawing 5 ft. of water. The Uruguay can be navigated at all 
seasons by vessels of 4^ ft. draught as far up as the Salto Chico, 
and of 14 ft. up to Paysandii for a greater part of the year. Fray 
Bentos may be reached all the year round by any vessel that can 
ascend the Parana. Above the navigable lower river there is launch 
and canoe navigation for many hundreds of miles upon the main 
artery and its branches, between the rapids which are met with from 
time to time. The Uruguay has its annual floods, due to the rains 
in its upper basin. They begin at the end of July and continue to 
November, attaining their maximum during September and October. 
At the narrow places the river rises as high as 30 ft., but its average 
rise is 16 ft. It flows almost for its entire course over a rocky bed, 
generally of red sandstone, at times very coarse and then again 
of extremely fine composition. Except in floods, it is a clear-water 
stream, and even at Us highest level carries comparatively little 
silt. 

The Parana (the " Mother of the Sea " in Guarani) drains a vast 
area of southern Brazil. It is formed by the union of the Rio 
Grande and Paranahyba, and is about 1600 m. long 
from its extreme source in Goyaz to its junction with 
the Paraguay, and thence 600 more to the Plata estuary .' 
Its average width for the latter length is from 
I to 3 m. Its Rio Grande branch descends from the 
slope of the Serra da Mantiqueira, in the region where the^orographic 
system of Brazil culminates near the peak of Itatiaia-assii, almost in 
sight of Rio de Janeiro. It is about 680 m. long, but only navigable 
in the stretches between the many reefs, falls and rapids which 
interrupt its regular flow. Among its numerous affluents the 
principal one is the Rio das Mortes, rising in the Serra Mantiqueira. 
It is 180 m. long, with two sections, of a total of 120 m., which are 
navigable for launches. The main branch of the Parana, the 
Paranahyba, rises in about 15 30' S., on the southern slopes of the 
Pyrenees Mountains. It drains a little-known region of Goyaz and 
western Minas Geraes, lying upon the immediate southern water- 
shed of Brazil. 

Besides these rivers, the Parana has many long and powerful 
affluents from the Brazilian states of Sao Paulo and Parana. Most 
of them, although obstructed by rapids, are navigable for launches 
and canoes. Among the eastern tributaries are the Tie'td, the 
Parana-panema, formerly known as the Anemby, and the Iguazii. 

The Tiete, over 700 m. long, rises in the Serra Paranapicaba 
and flows in a north-west direction. Its course is broken by fifty- 
four rapids, and the lower river by two falls, the Avanhandava, 
44 ft. drop, and the Itapura, 65 ft. 

The Parana-panema is about 600 m. long, and rises in a ramifica- 
tion of the Serra Paranapicaba which overlooks the Atlantic Ocean. 
Its general course is north-west. It is navigable for a distance ot 
only about 30 m. above its mouth, and for its whole course it has 
so many obstructions that it is useless for commercial purposes. 

The Iguazii, also called the Rio Grande de Curutiba, has its sources 
on the slopes of the Serra do Mar of Brazil, and flows nearly west, 
through thick forests, along the line of 26 S. Its navigation is 
difficult even for small craft, as it is full of reefs, rapids and cataracts. 
Sixteen miles above its mouth is the magnificent Salto del Iguazu, 
sometimes called the Victoria Fall, round which canoes have to be 
transported 37 m. before quiet water is reached again. 1 he width 



The 
Parana 
and its 

Affluents. 



of the falls, measured along their crest or edge, is 2 J m. ; part of the 
river takes two leaps of about 100 ft. each, but a portion of it plunges 
down the whole depth in unbroken mass. Its mouth is about 
800 ft. wide, and the depth in mid-river 40 ft. 

The Parana, at a point 28 m. above the mouth of the Tifite, is 
interrupted by the falls of Urubuponga, but below these it has 
unobstructed navigation for about 400 m., as far down _ 

as the falls of Guaira, in 24 3' S., where the river forms 
a lake 4i m. long and 2j m. wide, preparatory to Paraam 

breaching the Serra de Mbaracayu, which there disputes 
its right of way. It has torn a deep gorge through the mountains 
for a length of about 2 m., where it is divided into several channels, 
filled with rapids and cataracts. It finally gathers its waters into 
a single volume, to plunge with frightful velocity through a long 
canon only about 200 ft. wide. From these so-called falls of Guaira, 
or " Sete Quedas," as far as its confluence with the Paraguay river, 
the Parana has carved a narrow bed through an immense cap of 
red sandstone, along which it sometimes flows with great rapidity, 
occasionally being interrupted by dangerous narrows and rapids, 
where the banks in some places close in to a width of 450 to 600 ft., 
although the average is from 1200 to 1600 ft. At the south-east 
angle of Paraguay the Parana is prevented from continuing its 
natural southern course to the river Uruguay by the highlands 
which cross the Argentine province of Misiones, and connect those of 
Rio Grande do Sul with the Caa-guazii range of Paraguay. Here, 
therefore, it is turned westwards ; but before escaping Irom its great 
sandstone bed it is obstructed by several reefs, notably at the rapids 
of Apipe, which are the last before it joins the placid Paraguay, 
130 m. farther on. From the Apipe rapids there is a vast triangular 
space at the south-western corner of Paraguay but little above 
sea-level, consisting of low, sandy ground and morasses, at times 
flooded by the Paraguay river. This district, united to the equally 
enormous area occupied by the Ybera lagoon and its surrounding 
morasses, in the northern part of the Argentine province of Cor- 
rientes, was probably the delta of the Parana river when it emptied 
into the ancient Pampean Sea. 

The river Paraguay, the main affluent of the ParanS, rises in 
Matto Grosso, in the vicinity of the town of Diamantino, about 
14 24' S. It flows south-westwards, as far as Villa . 
Maria, along the foot of the high plateau which divides 
it from the Cuyaba River to the east, and then, turning 
southwards, soon reaches the morass expansion of Xarayes, which 
it traverses for about 100 m. A few miles below Villa Maria it 
receives an affluent from the north-west, the Jaura, which has its 
source nearly in contact with the head-waters of the Guapore 
branch of the river Madeira. The Cuyaba, which is known as the 
Sao Lourengo for 90 m. above its confluence with the Paraguay, 
has its sources in 13 45' S., almost in touch with those of the 
Tapajos branch of the Amazon. Above the town of Cuyaba it is 
from 150 to 400 ft. wide, and may be navigated up stream by canoes 
for 150 m. ; but there are many rapids. The town may be reached 
from the Paraguay River, at low water, by craft drawing 18 in. 
According to the observations of Clauss, Cuyaba is only 660 ft. above 
sea-level. From the junction of the Sao Lourengo (or Cuyaba) with 
the river Paraguay, the latter, now a great stream, moves sluggishly 
southwards, spreading its waters, in the rainy season, for hundreds 
of miles to the right and left, as far south as 20", turning vast swamps 
into great lakes in fact, temporarily restoring the region, for 
thousands of square miles, to its ancient lacustrine condition. 

On the west side of the upper Paraguay, between about 17" 30' 
and 19 S., are several large, shallow lagunas or lakes which receive 
the drainage of the southern slopes of the Chiquitos 
sierras, but represent mainly the south-west overflow 



of the vast morass of Xarayas. The principal of these Paraguay 
lakes, naming them from north to south, are the Uberaba, 
the Gaiba, Mandiore and the " Bahia " de Caceres. The Uberaba 
is the largest. The northern division of the lake belongs entirely 
to Brazil, but the southern one, about two-thirds of its area, is 
bisected from north to south by the boundary line between Brazil 
and Bolivia, according to the treaty of 1867. It is in great 
part surrounded by high ground and hills, but its southern coast 
is swampy and flooded during the rainy season. The west shore is 
historic. Here, in 1543, the conquistador, Martinez de Irala, 
founded the " Puerto de los Reyes," with the idea that it might 
become the port for Peru ; and from Lake Gaiba several expeditions, 
in Spanish colonial days, penetrated 500 m. across the Chaco to the 
frontier of the empire of the Incas. At the Puerto de los Reyes 
Bolivia laid out a town in December 1900, in the forlorn hope that 
the " Port " may serve as an outlet for that commercially suffocated 
country, there being no other equally good accessible point for 
Bolivia on the Paraguay River. 

South of the Sao Lourencp, the first river of importance which 
enters the Paraguay from the east is the Taquary, about 19 S. 
It rises in the Serra Cayapo, on the southern extension 
of the Matto Grosso table-land. South of this stream 
about 50 m. a considerable river, the Mondego, with 
many branches, draining a great area of extreme south- 
ern Matto Grosso, also flows into the Paraguay; and still farther 
south, near 21, is the Apa tributary, which forms the boundary 
between Paraguay and Brazilian Matto Grosso. 



Affluents 
of the 



y88 



PLATA, RIO DE LA 



The Pilcomayo is of more importance from its length than from 
its volume. It rises among the Bolivian Andes north of Potosi 
and north-west of Sucre, races down the mountains to 
their base, crosses the Chaco plains, and pours into the 
Pilcomayo. fjver Paraguay near Asuncion. Nor does it receive any 
branch of importance until it reaches about 21 S., where it is joined 
from the south-west by the river Pelaya, upon which Tupiza, the 
most southerly city of Bolivia, is situated. The Pelaya rises upon 
the lofty inter-Andean plateau, and, taking an easterly course, saws 
its way across the inland Andean range, turns northwards and then 
eastwards to unite with the Pilcomayo, which it is said at least to 
equal in volume. Just below the junction is the fall of Guara- 
petendi, 23 ft. high. From this point to the mouth of the Pilcomayo 
the distance in a straight line is 480 m., although by the curves of 
the river, which is extremely tortuous, it is about double that dis- 
tance. According to Storm, who quotes Captain Baldrich, the river 
bifurcates at 21 51' S., but again becomes a single stream at 23 43', 
the right channel being the greater in volume. It is probable 
that between 23 and 24 S. it throws E.S.E. three great arms 
to the river Paraguay, the upper portions of which have yet 
.to be explored, but the lower parts have been examined for 100 to 
200 m. up from the Paraguay. Enumerating from north to south, 
they are called the Esperanza, the Montelindo and the Maci. From 
1 80 to 200 m. above its mouth the Pilcomayo filters through a vast 
swamp about loo m. in diameter, through which there is no principal 
channel. This swamp, or perhaps shallow lagoon, is probably partly 
drained by the river Confuso, which reaches the Paraguay between 
the Pilcomayo and Maca. A northern branch of the Pilcomayo, 
the Fontana, the junction being at 24 56' S., is probably also a 
drainage outlet of the same great swamp. 

For the first 100 m. below the fall of Guarapetendi the Pilcomayo 
is from 600 to 1000 ft. wide, but it so distributes its waters through 
its many bifurcations, and loses so much from infiltration and in 
swamps, and by evaporation from the numerous lagoons it forms 
on either side of its course, that its channel is greatly contracted 
before it reaches the Paraguay. From Sucre to the Andean margin 
of the Chaco, a distance of about 350 m. by the river, the fall is at 
least 8000 ft. a sufficient indication that its upper course is useless 
for purposes of navigation. 

The missionaries in 1556 first reported the existence of the Pilco- 
mayo, which for a long period of time was known as the Araguay. 
In 1721 Patino and Rodriguez partially explored it, and since then 
numerous attempts have been made to test its navigability, all of 
which have been failures; and several of them have ended in disaster 
and loss of life, so that the Pilcomayo now has a sinister reputation. 
The Bermejo river flows parallel to the Pilcomayo, and enters 
the Paraguay a few miles above the junction of this with the Parana. 
Its numerous sources are on the eastern frontage of the 
inland Andes, between the Bolivian town of Tarija 
Bermejo. an j tne Argentine city of Jujuy. Its most northerly 
tributary is the San Lorenzo, which, after being augmented by several 
small streams, takes the name of Rio de Tarija. This running 
east, and then taking a general south-easterly course, joins the 
Bermejo in 22 50' S. at a point called the Juntas de San Antonio. 
Thence, flying southwards, the Bermejo finally, in 23 50' S., receives 
its main affluent, the San Francisco, from the south-west. The 
latter has its source in about 22 30' S., and, under the name of Rio 
Grande, runs directly southwards, in a deep mountain valley, as far 
as Jujuy. It then turns eastwards for 50 m., and is joined by 
the La'vayen from the south-west. These two streams form the 
San Francisco, which, from their junction, runs north-eastwards 
to the Bermejo. The average width of the San Francisco is about 
400 ft. ; it is seldom over 2 ft. deep, and has many shoals and sand- 
banks. From its junction with the latter stream the Bermejo flows 
south-eastwards to the Paraguay with an average width in its main 
channel of about 650 ft., although narrowing at times to 160 and 
even 100. In its course, however, it bifurcates and ramifies into 
many channels, forming enormous islands, and frequently leaves 
old beds for new ones. 

Since the exploration of the Bermejo by Patino in 1721, it has 
often been examined from its sources to its mouth, with a view to 
ascertain its navigability. Captain Page in 1854 and 1859 found 
it impracticable to ascend it over 135 m. in the dry season, with a 
little steamer drawing 23 in. of water; but in flood-time, in December 
1871, he succeeded, in 60 <S<tys, in reaching a point 720 m. from its 
mouth, in the steamer " Alpha," 53 ft. long and 30 in. draught. He 
afterwards penetrated another 100 m. up stream. The round voyage 
took a year, owing to the swift currents, shoals, quicksands, snags 
and fallen trees. 

TheSalado, about 250 m. south-west of and approximately parallel 
to the Bermejo, is the only great tributary which the Parana receives 
from the west below its confluence with the Paraguay. 
Its extreme head-waters are in the Argentine province 
Salado. o { s a i tai an( j th ev c l ra in a much broken Andean region 

lying between 24 and 26 30' south. The most westerly sources are 
the rivers Santa Maria and Calchaqui, which unite near the town of 
San Carlos and form the river Guachipas. Having received the 
Arias, the Guachipas runs north-eastwards about 50 m., and then it 
changes its name to the Juramento, which is retained until the river 
reaches the Chaco plains at the base of the foot-hills of the Andes. 



South- 
easterly 
Course of 
Parana. 



Here it becomes the Salado, a name it preserves for the remainder 
of its course. It joins the Parana near Santa F6 in 31 39' south 
and 60 41' west. Explorers of the Salado, inclusive of Captain Page 
in 1855, claim that its lower half is navigable, but the many efforts 
which have been made to utilize it as a commercial route have all 
resulted in failure. 

As the Pilcomayo, the Bermejo and the Salado wander about the 
country, ever in search of new channels, they erode and tear away 
great quantities of the Pampean material, dissolve it into silt, and 
pour it into the Paraguay and Parana rivers. The engineer Pelleschi 
estimates that " the soil annually subtracted from the territory of 
the Chaco by the Bermejo alone equals 6,400,000 cubic yards." 

South of its confluence with the river Paraguay, the Parana 
washes the western foot of a series of sandstone Bluffs for 30 miles. 
Thence for 240 m. the bordering hills are about 80 
ft. high, but at Goya the country is almost on a level 
with the river. Near the boundary-line between 
Corrientes and Entre Rios the banks are very low on 
both sides of the river, and continue so for nearly 
100 m. ; but farther down, for 150 m., the left bank is margined, 
as far as Diamante, by a range of hills from 125 to 160 ft. 
high, at times boldly escarped. At Diamante they trend inland, 
south-eastwards, for about 50 m., and probably once bordered an 
ancient channel of the river. From 31 30' south to the head of the 
Plata estuary the western bank of the Parana is a precipitous bluff 
of reddish clay, varying from 25 to 75 ft. above mean river level. 
It is being gradually undermined, and tumbles into the water 
in great blocks, adding to the immense volume of silt which the river 
carries. According to Ramon Lista, " the lowest level of the 
Parana is in October and November, and, save an occasional freshet, 
it remains stationary until the beginning of summer, when its waters 
begin to rise, reaching their maximum about the middle of February 
in the lower part of their course." The difference between low and 
high river is generally about 12 ft., depending upon the varying 
quantity of rains in Brazil and the melting of the Andean snows. 
Below its junction with the Paraguay the Parani has an average 
current of 2 1 m. an hour, and the river varies in width from I to 3 m., 
at low water; but in floods it seems almost a continuous lake, broad- 
ening to 10 and 30 m. and burying many of its numerous islands 
and marginal swamps under a vast sheet of water, and obliterating 
its many parallel lateral channels and intricate systems of connecting 
canals. 

In the middle Parani, from the mouth of the Iguazu to the mouth 
of the Paraguay river, there are many islands, some of them large, 
rocky and high above the river. From Paraguay to 
the city of Rosario, islands are numerous, many of 
them of great area ; and again below Rosario they soon Parana. 
increase in number and size until the Plata estuary is reached. 
In flood-time the upper portion of the trees being out of water, they 
have the appearance of floating forests. Then the river often makes 
wild work with its banks, and builds up or sweeps away entire islands, 
leaving deep channels instead. Mouchez in 1857, searching for two 
jslands the position of which he had fixed in the previous year, found 
in their place 25 and 32 ft. of water. The lower delta of the Parana 
'does not share in these phenomena; its islands and main channels 
appear more fixed. This probably is due to the less elevation at- 
tained by the waters in flood-time, and the numerous branches which 
distribute them into the Plata estuary. This must have extended, 
in a very recent geological period, inland from its present head to 
at least 32 S. ; but the enormous quantity of silt which the Parana 
receives from its Paraguay affluent, and from the tributaries which 
reach it from the Andes, has filled this length of about 220 m. with 
these muddy islands, which rest upon a sandy bed of great depth. 

The frontage of the Parani delta is 40 m. across, almost in a 
straight line from north to south. Through this the river finds 
its way to the Plata by eleven outlets, large and small, . 

the two principal ones being the Parana-guazii and the wT c 

Parani de las Palmas. Deltfl - 

The mean flow of the Mississippi river at New Orleans is 675*000 
cub. ft. per second, and its flood maximum about 1,000,000 ft. 
The minimum of the Plata past Buenos Aires is 534,000, the maxi- 
mum 2,145,000. It may therefore be fairly assumed that the 
yearly discharge of the great North American river is not superior, 
and may be inferior, to that of the Plata. 

The Parani is navigable at all times as far up as the Sao Lourenco 
river by craft drawing 3 ft. of water, and to within a few miles 
of Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, by vessels drawing 9 ft. 
The city of Parani may always be reached with a draught of 12 
and Rosario with 15 ft. of water. 

The commercial (development of the Plata basin may be con- 
veniently illustrated by statistics for the year 1822, which marks 
the beginning of independent rule in its republics; for 
1854, when the steamboat and the railway first began Commerce. 
to play a part in this quarter of the world; and in 1898 and 1899, 
as indicating approximately the state of affairs at the end of the igth 
century. In Buenos Aires, for example, the foreign trade (entered 
and cleared) in 1822 aggregated 107,170 tons; in 1854, 342,463 tons; 
and in 1899, 5,046,847 tons. The coasting and river trade of the 
same port increased from 150,741 tons in 1854 to 3,695,088 tons in 
1899. But taking into account all the Argentine ports, except 



PLATAEA PLATE 



those which lie to the south of the Plata, there was for the six years 
ending with 1 899 an annual average of 14,000,000 tons for the oversea- 
commerce and 11,000,000 tons for the river and coasting trade 
On the other, or northern, bank of the stream the chief port is Monte 
video; and its foreign commerce increased from an aggregate o 
50,000 tons m 1822 to 150,000 tons in 1854 and to 4,069,870 tons in 
1898, the river and coasting trade having increased from 50,000 tons 
to 1823 to 150,000 tons in 1854 and to 3,915,421 tons in 1898. The 
total foreign trade of the Plata valley thus increased from over 
157,000 tons in 1822 to nearly 18,100,000 tons in 1898-1899 
Its growth since the opening of the 2Oth century has been phenomenal 
and promises to become gigantic. The Andes on the west, the in- 
tenor of bouth America on the north, great rivers, and the Brazilian 
mountains on the east of the Plata basin are obstacles which compel 
the rich and varied products of at least 1,500,000 sq. m. of fertile 
country to seek access to the ocean by a single avenue the Plata 
estuarv - (G. E. C.) 

PLATAEA, or PLATAEAE, an ancient Greek city of Boeotia, 
situated close under Mt Cithaeron, near the passes leading 
from Peloponnesus and Attica to Thebes, and separated from 
the latter city's territory by the river Asopus. Though one 
of the smallest Boeotian towns, it stubbornly resisted the 
centralizing policy of Thebes. In 519 B.C. it invoked Sparta's 
help against its powerful neighbour, but was referred by king 
Cleomenes to Athens (for the date, see Crete's History of Greece, 
ed. 1907, p. 82, note 4). The Athenians secured Plataea's inde- 
pendence, and thus secured its enduring friendship. In 490 
the Plataeans sent their full levy to the assistance of the 
Athenians at Marathon, and during the invasion of Xerxes they 
joined eagerly in the national defence. At Artemisium they 
volunteered to man several Athenian ships, and subsequently 
abandoned their town to be burnt by Xerxes. In 479 they 
fought against the Persians under Mardonius in the decisive 
battle which bears the name of the city. In this campaign the 
Persian commander, retiring from Attica before the combined 
Peloponnesian and Athenian levy, had encamped in the Asopus 
plain in order to give battle on ground suited to his numerous 
cavalry. The Greeks under the Spartan regent Pausanias at 
first did not venture beyond the spurs of Cithaeron, but, encour- 
aged by successful skirmishing, advanced towards the river and 
attempted a flanking movement so as to cut Mardonius off from 
his base at Thebes. The operation miscarried, and in their 
exposed condition the Greeks were severely harassed by the 
enemy's horse, which also blocked the Cithaeron passes against 
their supply columns. Pausanias thereupon ordered a night 
retreat to the hilly ground near Plataea, but the movement was 
badly executed; for whereas the Peloponnesians in the centre 
retired beyond their proper station, the Spartans and Athenians 
on the wings were still in the plain at daybreak. The Persians 
immediately fell upon these isolated contingents, but the Spartan 
infantry bore the brunt of the attack with admirable steadiness, 
and both wings ultimately rolled back their opponents upon 
the camp. When this was stormed the enemy's resistance 
collapsed, and Mardonius's army was almost annihilated. This 
great victory was celebrated by annual sacrifices and a Festival 
of Liberation (Eleutheria) in every fourth year at Plataea, whose 
territory moreover was declared inviolate. 

In spite of this guarantee Plataea was attacked by Thebes 
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431) and formally 
besieged by the Peloponnesians (429-27). The garrison after 
capitulating was put to death, and the city razed by the Thebans. 
The remaining Plataeans received a qualified franchise in Athens, 
and in 421 were settled on the territory of Scione. Expelled 
by Lysander in 404 they returned to Athens, until in 387 Sparta 
restored them in their native town as a check upon Thebes. 
The city was again destroyed by Thebes in 373, and the inhabi- 
tants once more became citizens of Athens. Plataea was 
rebuilt by Philip and Alexander of Macedon, and during the rest 
of antiquity enjoyed a safe but obscure existence. It continued 
to flourish in Byzantine and Prankish times. The walls of the 
town, which at various periods occupied different portions of 
_the triangular ledge on which it stood, remain partly visible. 
'Recent excavations have discovered the Heraeum; but the 
temple of Athena the Warlike, built from the Persian spoils and 
adorned by the most famous artists, has not been identified. 



7 8 9 

AUTHORITIES. Strabo p. 411; Pausanias ix 1-4; Herodotus 
vi. 108, vm. I, ix. 25-85; Plutarch, Aristides, 11-21; Thucydides 
";, I-l6 ' 71-78, iii. 20-24, 52-68; Isocrates, Plataicus; G.B.Grundy, 
The Topography of the Battle of Plataea (London, 1894) and Great 
Persian War (London, 1901), ch. xi.; W. Woodhouse in Journal of 
Hellenic Studies (1898), pp. 33-59; H. B. Wright, The Campaign 
of Plataea (New Haven, 1904); R. W. Macan, Herodotus, vii.-uc. 
(London, 1908), appendix; W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, 
ch. xvi., pp. 323-367 (London, 1835); Amer. Journ. of Archaeo- 
logy, 1890, pp. 445-475; 1891, pp. 390-405; B. V. Head, Hisloria 
numorum, p. 294 (Oxford, 1887). (M. O. B. C.) 

PLATE. The word " plate " (connected with Gr. wXoTfa, flat, 
Late Lat. plata = lamina, and Span, plata, silver), in the sense 
to which it is restricted in the following article, is employed to 
denote works in silver cr gold which belong to any class other 
than those of personal ornaments or coins. 1 As implying a 
thin sheet of metal, the term has come to be used in various 
technical connexions, and has been transferred by analogy to 
other materials (e.g. glass). A " plate," as the common name 
for the table utensil (of whatever material), derives its usage 
partly from the metal prototype and partly from an etymological 
connexion with French plat, dish, Latin plattus, flat. (See also 
PEWTER; SHEFFIELD PLATE; METAL- WORK.) 

On account of the ease with which gold can be worked and 
the pure state in which it is generally found, it is probable that 
this was the first metal used by man; and it is certain that, in 
some countries at least, he attained to the most marvellous 
skill in its manipulation at a time when the other arts were in 
a very elementary condition. As an instance of this we may 
mention a sword of the bronze age, found in a barrow near 
Stonehenge, and placed in the museum at Devizes. 2 The hilt 
of this sword is covered with the most microscopically minute 
gold mosaic. A simple design is formed by fixing tesserae, or 
rather pins, of red and yellow gold into the wooden core of the 
handle. Incredible as it may appear, there are more than two 
thousand of these gold tesserae to the square inch. The use of 
silver appears to belong to a rather later period, probably because, 
though a widely spread metal in almost all parts of the world, 
it is usually found in a less pure state than gold, and requires 
some skill to smelt and refine it. Though both these precious 
metals were largely and skilfully used by prehistoric races, they 
were generally employed as personal ornaments or decorations 
tor weapons. Except in Scandinavian countries, but little that 
can be called "plate " has been discovered in the' early barrows 
of the prehistoric period in western Europe. 

Ancient Egypt. An enormous amount of the precious metals 
was annually brought as tribute to the Egyptian kings; accord- 
ng to Diodorus, who quotes the authority of Hecataeus, the 
yearly produce of the royal gold and silver mines amounted to 
32 millions of minae that is, about 133 millions sterling of 
modern money. Though this estimate is probably an exaggera- 
tion, the amount must have been very great. The gold chiefly 
came from the Nubian mines in the western desert in the Wadi 
Alaki and the neighbouring valleys. A map of these mines, 
dating from the time of Rameses II. (1300 B.C.), has been pre- 
served. Silver was not mined in Egypt itself, and came mostly 
rom Asia Minor even at the earliest period. Then gold was 
comparatively common, silver a great rarity. Later, gold 
appears to have been relatively more abundant than silver, 
and the difference in value between them was very much less 
than it is now. . 

In the language of the hieroglyphs silver is called " white 

;old," and gold is the generic name for money unlike most 

anguages, in which silver usually has this special meaning 

a fact which points strongly to the priority of the use of gold, 

which archaeological discoveries have rendered very probable. 

Among the treasures of the " royal tombs " at Abydos, dating 

o the 1st and Ilnd Dynasties, much gold was found, but no 

1 In medieval English the term " a plate " was occasionally 
used in the sense of a silver vessel. A curious survival of this use 
>f the word still exists at Queen's College, Oxford, where the 
servants may yet be heard asking at the buttery for so many 
" plates of beer," that is, silver tankards. 

1 Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire (1840). 



790 



PLATE 



silver. On the walls of one of the tombs at Beni Hassan there 
is an interesting representation of a gold- and silver-smith's 
workshop, showing the various processes employed weighing, 
melting, or soldering with the blow-pipe, refining the metal, 
and polishing the almost finished bowl or vase. Owing to the 
Egyptian practice of burying with their dead personal ornaments 
and jewelry, rather than other possessions less intimately 
connected with the person of the deceased, but few specimens 
of either gold or silver plate have survived to our times, whereas 
the amount of gold jewelry that has been discovered is very 
large, and shows the highest degree of skill in working the 
precious metals. We can, however, form some notion of what 
the larger works, such as plates and vases in gold and silver, 
were like from the frequent representations of them in mural 
sculpture and paintings. In many cases they were extremely 
elaborate and fanciful in shape, formed with the bodies or heads 
of griffins, horses, and other animals real or imaginary. Others 
are simple and graceful in outline, enriched with delicate surface 
ornament of leaves, wave and guilloche patterns, hieroglyphs, 
or sacred animals. Fig. i shows a 

-r-. * t\ ^-. gold vase of the time of Tethmosis 

& Yl \ / V$ (Thothmes) III. (Dynasty XVIII., 

about 1500 B.C.), taken from a wall- 
painting in one of the tombs at 
Thebes. The figure on its side is the 
hieroglyph for " gold." Others appear 
to have been very large and massive, 
with human figures in silver or gold 
supporting a great bowl or crater of 
the same metal. Vases of this type 
were, of course, manufactured in Egypt 
itself, but many of those represented in 
- G ld Va se, from the Theban tombs were tribute, mostly 




Fl< 



, 
wall-paintings at Thebes. of Phoenidan workmansnip . Already 

as early as the time of Tethmosis IJL, when, as we know, the 
Phoenician cities had already existed for centuries, we find the 
ships of Arvad, of Byblos and of Tyre well known in the har- 
bours of the Delta, and even bringing tribute of foreign vases 
to the river quays of Thebes itself. We cannot doubt that 
much of the precious plate of gold and silver used by the Egyp- 
tians at this time and specifically described as foreign tribute was 
made in Egyptian or egyptizing style by Phoenician artists. 
But plate of really foreign type as well as origin was also brought 
to Egypt at this time by the Phoenician " Kefti ships " from 
Kefti, the island of Crete, where the " Minoan " culture of 
Cnossos and Phaestus was now at its apogee. Ambassadors 
from Kefti also brought gold and silver vases as presents for 
the Egyptian king, and on the walls of the tomb of Senmut, 
Queen Hatshepsut's architect, at Thebes, we see a Keftian 
carrying a vase of gold and silver which is the duplicate of an 
actual vase discovered at Cnossos by Dr Arthur Evans. The 
art of the " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " goldsmiths exercised 
considerable influence upon that of the Egyptians; under the 
XXth Dynasty, about 1150 B.C., we find depicted on the tomb 
of Rameses III. golden stirrup-vases (Biigelkannen) of the well- 
known Mycenaean type, and in that of Imadua, an officer of 
Rameses IX., golden vases imitating the ancient Cretan shape 
of the cups of Vaphio. In fact, it is more than probable that 
the Egyptians and Phoenicians manufactured plate of " Minoan " 
and " Mycenaean " types long after the ancient culture of 
Crete and the Aegean had come to an end. In the time of 
Rameses III., about 1300 B.C., a clearly defined Asiatic influ- 
ence appears in the decoration of some of the gold plate. 
A gold basket represented in the tomb of this king at Thebes, 
has on its side a relief of the sacred tree between two beasts, 
an Asiatic idea. 

The chief existing specimens of Egyptian plate are five silver 
phialae (bowls), found at the ancient Thmuis in the Delta, 
and now in the Cairo Museum (Nos. 482-486 in the catalogue). 
These are modelled in the form of a lotus blossom, most graceful 
in design, but are apparently not earlier than the 4th century 
B.C. Of the splendid toreutic art of a thousand years before, 



of which we gain an idea from the wall-paintings mentioned 
above, but few actual specimens have survived. The Louvre 
possesses a fine gold patera, 6| in. across, with figures of fishes 
within a lotus border in repousse work; an inscription on the rim 
shows it to have belonged to Thutii, an officer of Tethmosis III. 
(Mem. sac. ant. de France, xxiv. 1858). Thutii's bowl is a 
typical specimen of the Egyptian plate of the XVIIIth Dynasty, 
and its design is precisely that of the hundreds of blue glazed 
faience bowls which were made at the time, and of which some 
perfect specimens and many fragments (especially from Deir 
el-Bahri) are in our museums. These were imitated from metal 
originals, just as most of the early Cretan pottery vessels were. 

A splendid bronze bowl, which shows us what some of the 
finer gold and silver plate was like, was found in the tomb of 
Hetaai, a dignitary of the XVIIIth Dynasty, at Thebes a few 
years ago, and is now in the Cairo Museum (No. 3553 in von 
Bissing's catalogue). The engraved decoration, representing 
birds and animals in the papyrus-marshes, is very fine and 
evidently of native Egyptian work. The silver bowl at Berlin, 
said by di Cesnola to have come from Athienou in Cyprus, is 
certainly of XVIIIth Dynasty date, but, though purely Egyptian 
in style, more probably of Phoenician than Egyptian work- 
manship. 

Assyrian and Phoenician Plate. The art of making gold and 
silver plate, whether it originated in Egypt and passed thence to 
Crete or not, was evidently on its own ground in Egypt and in 
Minoan Crete. In Asia it was an exotic art, introduced from 
Egypt through the Phoenicians. In fact, it may be doubted 
whether any of the bronze imitations of plate found in Assyria 
are of Assyrian manufacture; they are probably Phoenician 
imports. The British Museum possesses a fine collection of 
these bowls, mostly found in the palace at Nimrud, and so dating 
from the Qth and 8th centuries (reigns of Assur-nazir-pal to 
Sargon) . Though they are made of bronze, and only occasionally 
ornamented with a few silver studs, they are evidently the 
production of artists who were accustomed to work in the precious 
metals, some of them in fact being almost identical in form and 
design with the silver phialae found at Curium and elsewhere in 
Cyprus. They are ornamented in a very delicate and minute 
manner, partly by incised lines, and partly by the repousse 
process, finally completed by chasing. Their designs consist 
of a central geometrical pattern, with one or more concentric 




FIG. 2. Silver Bowl, about 7 in. in diameter, found in a tomb in 
Cyprus, with repousse reliefs of Egyptian and Assyrian style. 

bands round it of figures of gods and men, with various animals 
and plants, such as antelopes amid papyri, which are derived 
from the Egyptian designs of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Often 
there is a strange admixture of Assyrian and Egyptian style. 



PLATE 



Bulls, for instance, are usually represented as with a single 
mighty horn, curving to the front (in the style of the ancient 
Babylonian seals), rather than with both horns showing, in 
Egyptian fashion. When figures of gods and men are shown, 
the principal groups are purely Assyrian imitations of Assyrian 
temple-reliefs, in fact such as the sacred tree between the 
two attendant beasts, or the king engaged in combat and van- 
quishing a lion single-handed; while mingled with these are 
figures and groups purely Egyptian in style, such as the hawk- 
headed deity, or a king slaying a whole crowd of captives at 
one blow. Occasionally one sees traces of the ancient Mycenaean 
influence, or perhaps rather of the young Ionian art which had 
now arisen out of the ashes of that of Mycenae. These Phoeni- 
cian imitative designs are still good imitations. But a century 
or so later we meet with them again on the silver bowls and 
dishes from Cyprus, in which the imitations have become bad. 
The same mixture of subjects was still in vogue, but confusion 
has been superadded to mixture, and we find kings in Assyrian 
robes and Egyptian wigs slaying Syrian dragons with Egyptian 
wings, and so on. Fig. 2 gives a silver dish from Curium con- 
taining examples of the above-mentioned subjects. It is a 
characteristic specimen of this mixed Phoenician art, of which 
di Cesnola seems to have collected a remarkable number of 
examples. In addition to the numerous silver phialae some were 
found, with similar decoration, made of pure gold. To the 
same period as these bowls from Cyprus belong the similar 
specimens of Phoenician plate from Etruscan graves at Praeneste 
and Cervetri in Italy. Those from the Regulini-Galassi tomb 
can hardly be earlier than the 6th century, so that this peculiar 
Mischkunst of the later type may well be dated to the yth-sth 
centuries. 

REFERENCES. Von Bissing, " Metallgefasse " Cairo Museum 
Catalogue (1901); " Eine Bronzeschale mykenischer Zeit," Jahrb. 
Inst. (1898); L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus; Layard, Nineveh, &c. 

(H. R. H.) 

Prehistoric Greece: " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " Periods. 
In the early history of the goldsmith's art no period is more 
important than that of the Greek Bronze age, the period of 
the prehistoric civilization which we call " Minoan " and 
" Mycenaean," which antedated the classical civilization of 
Greece by many centuries, and was in fact contemporary and 
probably coeval with the ancient culture of Egypt. In Greece 
during this, her first, period of civilization, metal- work was 
extensively used, perhaps more extensively than it ever was in 
the history of later Greek art. So generally was metal used for 
vases that even as early as the " Middle Minoan " period of 
Cretan art (some 2000 years B.C.) the pottery forms are obvious 
imitations of metal-work. The art of the metal-worker domi- 
nated and influenced that of the potter, a circumstance rarely 
noted in Egypt, where, in all probability, the toreutic art was 
never so'much patronized as in Minoan Greece, although beautiful 
specimens of plate were produced by Egyptian and Phoenician 
artists. Also but few of these have come down to us, and we 
are forced to rely upon pictured representations for much of our 
knowledge of them. It is otherwise in early Greece. We 
possess in our museums unrivalled treasures of ancient toreutic 
art in the precious metals from Greece, which date from about 
2500 to 1400 B.C., and as far as mass and weight of gold are 
concerned are rivalled only by the Scythian finds. These are 
the well-known results of the excavations of Schliemann at 
Troy and Mycenae and of others elsewhere. They do not by 
any means suffer in point of additional interest from the fact 
that they were made and used by the most ancient Greeks, 
the men of the Heroic age, probably before the Greek language 
was spoken in Greece. 

The most ancient of these " treasures " is that discovered 
by Schliemann in 1873 buried, apparently in the remains of a 
box, deep in the fortification wall of Hissarlik the ancient Troy. 
It consists of vases and dishes of gold and silver, and of long 
tongue-shaped ingots of silver. In consonance with the early 
date (perhaps about 2500 B.C.) to which they are probably to be 
assigned (Schliemann ascribes them to the second Trojan city) 
these objects are all of simple type, some of the vases being 



791 



unornamented jugs with tubular suspension-handles on the 
sides. Here we have metal imitating stonework, as, later, 
pottery imitates metal. These are of silver. A unique form 
in gold is a boat-shaped cup with handles at the sides (Plate I., 
fig- 23), at Berlin, which weighs 600 grammes. One vase is 
of electrum (one part of silver to four of gold). 

A treasure of much the same date (the second " Early Minoan " 
period, about 2500 B.C. or before) was discovered in May 1908 
in graves on the island of Mochlos, off the coast of Crete, 
by R. B. Seager. This is, however, of funerary character, 
like part of the treasures discovered in the shaft-graves of 
Mycenae, and, while including diadems, golden flowers, olive 
branches, chains, and so forth, for the adornment of the 
dead, does not include much gold used by the deceased during 
life. 

The much later Mycenaean treasures include both funerary 
objects of thin gold and objects of plate that had actually been 
used. Among the former should be especially noted the breast- 
plates, diadems and masks which were placed on the bodies of 
the chieftains whom Schliemann, great in faith as in works, 
honestly believed to be Agamemnon and his court (and he may 
not have been very far wrong). Among the latter we may 
mention the small flat objects of gold plate, little sphinxes and 
octopuses modelled in relief, small temples with doves, roundels 
with spiral designs, and so on, which were ornaments for clothing, 
and the golden plate decorations of weapon-handles. The 
great cast-silver bull's head with the gold rosette on its forehead 
may perhaps have been regarded simply as a beautiful object 
of price, and buried with its owner. Similar protomae of bulls 
(of gold or silver) were brought by Minoan ambassadors as 
presents to the Egyptian court in the reign of Thothmes III. 
Gold and silver vases were found both in the shaft-graves, in 
the treasure-pit close by, and in chamber tombs at Mycenae. 
The most usual shape in the shaft-tombs is that well known to 
us from the vases of Vaphio, described below; among other 
types may be mentioned specially the Seiras d/i^nKuireXXov with 
doves feeding above its handles (Plate I., fig. 21 ; from a restored 
reproduction) Boial dl 7re\<i5s a.^4>ls (/caoroi' -xpvaticu. 
vefjLfdovro; the golden jug with spiral decoration from the 
fourth grave; and the cup with lions of Egyptian appearance 
chasing each other round its bowl, found in grave 5. The 
fragment of a silver vase with a scene in high relief of slingers 
and bowmen defending their town against besiegers from grave 4 
(Plate I., fig. 22), is an object unrivalled in ancient art. On this, 
as on the bull's head, we have gold overlaid on silver (with an 
intermediate plating of copper); on a silver cup from the same 
grave we find gold inlay, and on another silver cup, from a 
chamber-tomb, enamel and gold inlaid. How the Minoan 
goldsmith could combine silver with gold and the two with bronze 
we see on the marvellous inlaid dagger-blades from Mycenae, 
with their pictures in many-coloured metals of lion-hunts, 
cats chasing birds, and so forth, which show that he was perhaps 
the greatest master of all time in this art. 

We speak of him as " Minoan," because most of the metal 
objects found at Mycenae are, if not of actual Minoan workman- 
ship and imported from Crete, at any rate designed in accord- 
ance with the Minoan taste of the " Great Palace Period " 
(Late Minoan i. and ii.) at Cnossus. They are only " Mycenaean " 
in the sense that they were found at Mycenae. Of the art of 
the gold vase maker in the Mycenaean period properly speaking 
(Late Minoan iii.) we obtain an idea from the pictures of golden 
Bugelkannen with incised designs of zigzags, &c., represented 
on the walls of the tomb of Rameses III. at Egyptian Thebes. 
The objects from the Mycenaean shaft-graves are much older 
than this, as are also those from the next treasure we shall 
mention, that from Aegina, now in the British Museum. The 
gold cups and other objects of this treasure, with their fine but 
simple decoration, are certainly to be ascribed to the best 
Minoan period, although when first published Dr A. J. Evans 
was inclined to assign them to so late a date as c. A.D. 800. 
They aie surely some seven hundred years older, having no 
characteristic of the decadent " sub-Mycenaean " period, as 



792 



PLATE 



Dr Evans would doubtless now agree. These objects were 
probably found in a tomb. 

Dr Evans's excavations at Cnossus, those of the Italians 
at Phaestos and Hagia Triada and those of the British school 
at Palaikastro have not produced any very striking examples of 
the Minoan goldsmith's art in his own country, though splendid 
bronze bowls and vases have been found, which give us a good 
idea of what the plate must have been like, as do also the gilt 
steatite imitations of plate mentioned below. One of the bronze 
vases from Cnossus exactly resembles one of gold and silver 
which was brought to Egypt by the ambassadors in Queen 
Hatshepsut's time (fresco in the tomb of Senmut). But we 
possess a fine silver cup (of the Middle Minoan period) from the 
American excavations at Gournia, and two examples of the 
finest Minoan gold plate, which were discovered outside Crete, in 
the famous " Vaphio cups," with their embossed representations 
of bull-netting, which have been illustrated so often as triumphs 
of ancient art (Plate I., figs. 24, 25). These are of Cretan work- 
manship, though found in Laconia, and are no doubt contem- 
porary with the vases of black 'steatite with reliefs showing a 
harvest-home procession, gladiatorial combats, and a king 
receiving or bidding farewell to a warrior with his armed 
followers, which have been found by the Italians at Hagia 
Triada in Crete. These were originally overlaid with gold leaf, 
and are undoubtedly imitations in a cheap material of golden 
embossed vases of the same style as those found at Vaphio. 

Next in order of time came the objects of gold and silver 
plate found by the expedition of the British Museum at Enkomi 
in Cyprus, which perhaps represent a somewhat later phase of 
Minoan art, but certainly cannot now any longer be regarded 
as belonging to the very late period to which they were at first 
assigned. One silver vase found at Enkomi is of the " Vaphio " 
shape, which first appears in Cretan pottery as early as the 
Middle Minoan period, contemporary with the Xllth Egyptian 
Dynasty (c. 2000 B.C.), and even then is clearly an imitation 
of a metal original. Slightly modified, this type remained 
late in use, as we find it represented among other golden vases 
on the walls of the tomb of Imisib or Imadua, an Egyptian 
official of the time of Rameses IX. (c. noo B.C.) at Thebes. 
But some, at least, of the Enkomi finds must be earlier than this. 

The Egyptian representations of Minoan vases of gold and 
silver in the tomb of Senmut at Thebes (c. 1500 B.C.) and of 
later Mycenaean golden Bilgelkannen in that of Rameses III. 
(c. 1150 B.C.) have been mentioned already. During the age of 
Mycenaean and sub- Mycenaean decadence the art of the Greek 
goldsmith necessarily passed through a period of eclipse, to 
arise again, with the other arts, in rich and luxurious Ionia 
probably. The Homeric poems preserved for later days a 
traditional echo of the glorious works of the metal-workers of 
the Heroic age. 

REFERENCES. Troy and Mycenae: Schuchhardt, Schliemann's 
Excavations; Tsountas-Manatt, The Mycenaean Age, passim. 
Vaphio: Tsountas-Manatt, Aigina; A. J. Evans in Journ. Hell. 
Stud., xiii. 195-226. Cnossus: Evans, Ann. Sch. Ath. (1901- 
1907). Hagia Triada: Savignoni, Pernier and others, Rendiconti 
della R. Accademia dei Lincei . (Rome, 1902-1906); Gournia: Mrs 
Boyd Hawes, Gournia (Philadelphia, 1908), pi. c. ; Mochlos (un- 
published). For Egyptian references see Hall, Ann. Sch. Ath. 
(1904), " Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea " (1905) ; " The Keftiu- 
fresco in the Tomb of Senmut." (H. R. H.) 

Etruscan Plate. The Etruscans were specially renowned for 
their skill in working all the metals, and above all in their gold 
work. Large quantities of exquisite gold jewelry have been found 
in Etruscan tombs, including, in addition to smaller objects, 
sceptres, wreaths of olive, and plates decorated with filigree- 
work and animal figures, which were used as personal ornaments 
(breastplates, girdles, diadems, &c.). In the Museo Kircheriano 
in Rome is a magnificent specimen of the last form of ornament; 
it is covered with nearly a hundred little statuettes of lions 
arranged in parallel rows; and the Vatican (Museo Gregoriano) 
possesses a very fine collection of similar objects from the 
" Regulini-Galassi " tomb at Caere. Little, however, that can 
be classed under the head of plate has yet been found. 



Hellenic Plate. The period of " geometrical " art which 
followed the Mycenaean age was one of decline in material pros- 
perity and artistic skill. We possess some specimens of the 
work then produced in the precious metals in the gold diadems 
placed on the head of corpses interred at Athens (Archaologische 
Zeitung, 1884, pis. viii., ix.; cf. Athenische Mittheilungen, 1896, 




FIG. 3. Silver Cantharus from Rhodes, with gold mounts. 
Possibly the form of the Homeric divas 



p. 367; and G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I' art dans 
I'antiqmle, vii. 245). The period of Oriental influence is 
represented by the finds of gold ornaments made at Camirus in 
Rhodes (see GREEK ART, fig. n). Fig. 3 shows a silver cup, with 
gold mounts, also found at Camirus, apparently a work of the 
same early date. A remarkable find of gold objects was made 
in 1882 at Vettersfelde in Brandenburg; the principal piece 
was a gold fish (see GREEK ART, fig. 10) with ornaments in relief. 
These objects recall by their style early Ionic art, but were 
probably produced in one of the Black Sea colonies, since similar 
objects have been found, together with later work, in Crimean 
graves (see below) , and exchanged for the amber of the Baltic 
coasts. Croesus especially encouraged the art, and paid enor- 
mous sums for silver vases and cups to the most renowned 
artists of his time, such as Glaucus and Theodorus the Samian. 
The British Museum possesses a fine specimen of archaic 
Greek plate, found at Agrigentum in Sicily. This is a gold 
phiale or bowl, about 5 in. across, with central boss or 




FIG. 4. Archaic Gold Phiale, found at Agrigentum, now in the 
British Museum. It is shown in section below. It is 5 in. in 
diameter. 

omphalos ($10X17 tita6n<t>a\os) which seems once to have con- 
tained a large jewel. Round the inside of the bowl are six figures 
of oxen repoussS in relief, and at one side a crescent, formed 
by punched dots. A delicate twisted moulding surrounds the 
edge; the workmanship of the whole is very skilful (see fig. 4). 

Pliny (N. H. xxxiii. 154 sqq.) gives a brief valuable account 
of the art of silver chasing (caelatura, Gr. TopevTiKij). 

In the best times of Greek art the chief works in gold and 
silver seem to have been dedicated to religious purposes, and to 
have been seldom used for the ostentation of private individuals. 
Vessels for the use of the temples, tripods in gold or silver 



PLATE 



PLATE I. 



21 




22 




25 



FIG. 21. Golden Aexos &ii4>iK{nrc\\m> from Mycenae (Late Minoan i. ; about 1600 B.C.). 

FIG. 22. Fragment of a Silver Vase with Relief Design, showing the Defence of a City ; from Mycenae (Late Minoan i.). 

FIG. 23. Golden Cup from Troy (Early Minoan iii. ; 2500 B.C. or earlier). 

FIG. 24, 25. Gold Cups of Vaphio (Late Minoan i.). 

xxi. , 92 . GREEK PLATE OF THE BRONZE AGE (PREHISTORIC PERIOD). 



PLATE II. 



PLATE 




Photo, Bills 6* Sounders^ by permission of Corpus Christi College. 

FIG. 26. GOLD CHALICE AND PATEN OF BISHOP FOXE. 




Photo. Southwark Photo Eng. Co. 

FIG. 27. SALT OF THE VINTNERS' COMPANY 
(ELIZABETHAN). 





From Jackson, History of English Plate, by permission of C. J. Jackson, F.S.A. 

FIG. 29. GOLD CUP AND COVER, CHARLES II. 




From Gardner, Old Silverwork, by permission of 13. T. Batsford- 

FIG. 30. TUDOR CUP. 




By permission ol Cricklon Bros. 

FIG. 28. BRAIKENBRIDGE MAZER BOWL. 



By permission o\ the Royal Irish Academy. 

FIG. 31. ARDAGH CHALICE. 



PLATE 



793 



of the richest work, and statues of the gods were the chief objects 
on which the precious metals were lavished. 1 

The gold used by the Greeks probably came from Asia Minor 
or Egypt, while the mines of Laurium, in the mountains which 
form the promontory of Sunium in Attica, supplied an abundant 
amount of silver for many centuries. According to Pliny, 



of Ulysses and Diomedes carrying off the Palladium. Enormous 
prices were given by wealthy Romans for ancient silver plate 
made by distinguished Greek artists; according to Pliny, the 
last-mentioned cup, which weighed 2 oz., was sold for 10,000 
denarii (330). It is worthy of note that a large number of 
the artists named by Pliny were natives of Asia Minor; and 




FIG. 5. Greek Silver Vase, 4th 

Pheidias was the first sculptor who produced works of great merit 
in the precious metals; he mentions a number of other Greek 
artists who were celebrated for this class of work, but does not 
give their dates. The chief of these were Mentor and Mys (both 
of the 5th century B.C.), Acragas, Boethus, the sculptors Myron 




FIG. 6. Silver Crater, found in Ithaca. (3! in. high.) 

and Stratonicus, as well as the well-known Praxiteles and Scopas. 
In Pliny's time many works in gold and silver by these artists 
still existed in Rhodes and elsewhere. Among later workers 
he specially mentions Zopyrus, who made two silver cups, 
embossed with the scene of the judgment of Orestes by the 
Areopagite court, 2 and Pytheas, who made a bowl with reliefs 

1 The gold eagles on the sacred omphalos at Delphi were notable 
examples of this; see Pindar, Pyth. iv. 4. 

! It has been thought that a silver cup in the Corsim collection 



century B.C., from South Russia. 
it is very probable that the Asiatic school of silversmiths 
had at least as much influence on Roman caelatura as that 
of Alexandria, whose importance has been overrated by 
Schreiber. 

The finest extant examples of Greek plate are those found in 
the tumuli of south Russia, especially in the neighbourhood of 
Kertch, the ancient Panticapaeum. Fig. 5 shows a silver vase 
found in 1862 at Nikopol in the tomb of a native Scythian 
prince. The native horse-tamers of the steppes are represented 
on the shoulder with wonderful naturalism, and the work is 
beyond doubt that of an Athenian artist of the 4th century B.C. 
Splendid examples of goldwork were found in the tumulus of 
Kuloba, about 6 kilometres from Kertch, which was excavated 
in 1830 and found to be the burial-place of a Scythian prince 
and his wife. The jewelry and plate found in this tomb, which 
were clearly of Greek origin, comprised (amongst other objects) 
an electrum vase 13 cm. high, representing Scythians in their 
native costume, one of whom is extracting a neighbour's tooth, 
another binding up a wound, a third stringing a bow, besides 
several silver vases and two gold medallions with reproductions 
of the head of the Athena Parthenos of Pheidias. In these 
Crimean tombs are often found golden crowns in the form of 
oak leaves, some of which belong to late Roman times. The 
finest extant example of a gold wreath, however, is that discovered 
at Armento in south Italy and preserved in the Antiquarium at 
Munich; it bears an inscription of the 4th century B.C., showing 
that it was dedicated by a certain Kreithonios. In 1812 Dr 
Lee discovered at Ithaca a beautiful crater, 3! in. high (see 
fig. 6), and a phiale or patera, 9^ in. across, both of silver, re- 
pousse and chased, with very rich and graceful patterns of leaves 
and flowers picked out with gilding. 3 These are probably not 
later than the 5th century B.C. Many silver mirror-cases, with 
repoussi figure-subjects in high relief, have been found at various 
places; as, for instance, one with a beautiful seated figure of 
Aphrodite found at Tarentum and now in the British Museum. 4 

at Rome (Michaelis, Das carsinische Silbergefdss, 1859; cf. W. 
Amelung, in Romische Mitteilungen, 1906, pp. 289 sqq.) may re- 
produce the design of Zopyrus. 

3 See Archaeologia, xxxiii. 36-54. 

4 Ibid, xxxiv. 265-272. 



794 



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The Victoria and Albert Museum contains an exquisite little 
silver vase, found in the baths of Apollo at Vicarello in 

Italy (fig. 7), enriched with a 
band in low relief of storks devour- 
ing serpents executed with gem- 
like minuteness and finish 
probably not later than the 3rd 
century B.C. The British Museum 
has a little vase of similar form 
and almost equal beauty, though 
perhaps later in date; it is 
decorated with bands of vine 
branches in a graceful flowing 
pattern, and is partly gilt. 

Graeco-Roman Plate. During 
, the last century of the Republic 
the growing luxury and osten- 
tation of the wealthy Romans 
found expression in the collection 
of elaborate specimens of plate. 

The works of the old Greek 
masters were the most highly 
prized, but contemporary artists, 
FIG. 7. Greek Silver Vase, such as Pasiteles, also attained 
5 in. high, c. 3rd century distinction in this branch of 
B.C. The ornamental band is , 

shown belowin piano. (Victoria art - Amongst the numerous 
and Albert Museum.) finds of silver plate made in 

modern times we may distinguish 

(o) temple treasures made of up of votive offerings, such as the 
treasure of Bernay in France (dep. Eure), discovered in 1830 
and preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles, which belonged to 
the shrine of Mercurius Canetonnensis; (6) private collections. 





FIG. 8. Silver Crater, 15! in. high, from the Hildesheim find. 
(Berlin Museum.) 

The most famous of these are the Hildesheim treasure, in the 
Berlin Museum, discovered in 1869, which has been thought 
(without adequate reason) to have formed part of the 
campaigning equipment of a Roman military commander, 
and the Bosco Reale treasure, found in 1895 in a villa near 
Pompeii, whence its owner was endeavouring to remove it 
when buried by the eruption of Vesuvius. These collections 
contain pieces of various dates. The Bernay treasure, in part 
belonging to the 2nd century A.D., contains oenochoai (ewers) 
with mythological subjects in relief inspired by classical Greek 
models the theft of the Palladium was the subject of a 
famous cup of Pytheas, mentioned by Pliny which must 
belong to the early imperial period. The Hildesheim treasure, 
again, contains two barbaric vases, without feet or handles, 
together with such fine pieces as the crater figured (fig. 8), 



whose decoration recalls that of the Ara Pacis Augustae 
(see ROMAN ART), and a cylix with a seated figure of 
Athena in high relief, soldered on to the centre of the 
bowl, which appears to be of Greek workmanship. Such 
detachable figures were termed emblemala; in the Bosco 
Reale treasure is a cup with such a bust, typifying the province 
of Africa. Great value was also set upon crustae, i.e. bands 
of repousse work forming an outer covering to a smooth silver 
cup (cf. the Rothschild vases, ROMAN ART). Such works 
commonly have Latin inscriptions incised on the foot giving 
the weight of the piece, the cup and emblema being weighed 
separately. The artistic value of Roman plate is discussed 
under ROMAN ART. 

Among later specimens of Roman plate the most remarkable 
is the gold patera, nearly 10 in. in diameter, found at Rennes 
in 1777, and now in the Paris Bibliotheque a work of the most 
marvellous delicacy and high finish almost gem-like in its 
minuteness of detail. Though not earlier than about 210 AS)., 
a slight clumsiness in the proportion of its embossed figures 
is the only visible sign of decadence. The outer rim is set with 
sixteen fine gold coins aurei of various members of the Antonine 
family from Hadrian to Geta. The central emblema or medallion 
represents the drinking contest between Bacchus and Hercules, 
and round this medallion is a band of repousse figures showing 
the triumphal procession of Bacchus after winning the contest. 
He sits triumphant in his leopard-drawn car, while Hercules is 
led along, helplessly intoxicated, supported by bacchanals. 
A long line of nymphs, fauns and satyrs complete the circular 
band. 

Late Roman plate is also represented by a series of large 
silver dishes, to which the aame missorium is often, though 
perhaps wrongly, applied. These were used for presentations 
by emperois (whose portraits they sometimes bear) and distin- 
guished officials. Three are preserved in the Cabinet des 
M6dailles of the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris the " shield 
of Scipio," found in the Rhone near Avignon, about 26 in. 
in diameter, with a relief representing the restoration of Briseis 
to Achilles; 1 the /'shield of Hannibal,'' 1 chiefly remarkable for 




FIG. 9. Shield of Theodosius. 

its size (it is 72 cms. in diameter and weighs 10 kilogrammes); 
and a third, decorated with a group of Hercules and the Nemean 
lion. 3 Other well-known examples of this form of art are the 

1 Cf. S. Reinach in Gazette des beaux-arts (1896). 

2 Cf. E. Babelon, in Bulletin de la societe des antiquaires de la 
France (1890), p. 228. 

8 Cf. E. Piot, in Gazette archtologique (1886). 



PLATE 



<l shield of Theodosius " at Madrid (fig. 9), which represents 
the emperor seated between Valentinian II. and Arcadius 1 ; 
the " shield of Valentinian " at Geneva 2 ; the " shield of Aspar " 
at Florence 3 ; and a fine dish found at Aquileia, now at 
Vienna. 4 

The British Museum contains some fine specimens of late 
Roman silver work, found on the Esquiline in 1793 (cf. Visconti, 
Una Supelletltte d'argento, Rome, 1825; the objects are published 
and described in Mr Dalton's Catalogue of the Early Christian 
Antiquities in the British Museum, pp. 61 sqq., pis. xiii.-xx.). 
The most remarkable of these are: (i.) a silver casket decorated 
in repousse, with the inscription SECONDE ET PROJECTA 
VIVATIS IN CRISTO, doubtless a wedding gift to a couple 
bearing the names of Secundus and Projecta, whose portraits 
appear in a medallion on the centre of the lid; (ii.) four statuettes 
representing personified cities Rome, Constantinople, Antioch 
and Alexandria (cf. P. Gardiner in /. H. S., 1888, ix. 77 sqq.). 
This treasure appears to belong in the main to the $th century 
A.D., though some minor pieces may be earlier. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A general account will be found in Smith's 
Dictionary of Antiquities, 3rd ed., s.v. " Caelatura " (without illus- 
trations), and in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites, 
under the same heading (with several cuts). The passages in 
ancient writers which refer to the art will be found in Oberbeck's 
Antike Schriftquellen Nos. 2167-2205; Pliny's account is most 
conveniently studied in K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers, The Elder 
Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, pp. 2 sqq. The finds made 
in southern Russia were published in the Antiquites du Bosphore 
cimmerien (St Petersburg, 1854); the Comptes rendus de la com- 
mission imferiale (St Petersburg, 1859 sqq.); and the Recueil 
des antiquites de la Scythie (1866-1873). The first of these works, 
which is very rare, has been repubhshed on a reduced scale by 
M. Salomon Reinach, in his Bibliotheque des monuments figures 
(Paris, 1892) with notes; and all the more important objects are 
figured in Antiquites de la Russie meridionale, by Kondakoff, 
Tolstoy and Reinach (Paris, 1891-1892). For Graeco-Roman 
plate the most important works are Heron de Villefosse's publica- 
tion of the Bosco Reale treasure in the Monuments Piot, vol. v. (cf. 
the articles by the same author and M. Thedenat on " Les Tresors 
de vaisselle d argent trouves en Gaule," Gazette archeologique, 1883- 
1884), and Der hildesheimer Silberfund, by E. Pernice and F. Winter 
(Berlin, 1901). Reference should also be made to T. Schreiber, 
" Die alexandrinische Toreutik," (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. 
der Wissenschaften, 1894, vol. xiv.), whose theories are somewhat 
exaggerated; and A. Odobescu, Le Tresor de Petrossa (1889-1900), 
which deals with a find of barbaric plate and jewelry made in 
Rumania, but gives much information on the history of the art. 
For early Greek work, see R. Schneider, " Goldtypen des griechischen 
Ostens,' Berichte der sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1891, 
p. 2cu.), and A. Furtwangler, Der Goldfund von Vettersfelde (1883). 
For Etruscan metal- work, see J. Martha, L'Art etrusque, ch. xvii. 
An interesting popular account of ancient work in precious 
metals will be found in E. T. Cook's Popular Handbook to the 
Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum, pp. 569 sqq. 

(H. S. J.) 

Oriental, African Plate, &c. Some very curious pieces of plate, 
both in gold and in silver, have been found in northern India in 
which country the goldsmith's art is of great antiquity; 6 these 
appear to be of native workmanship, but the subjects with 
which they are embossed, and the modelling of the figures, 
show that they were produced under late Roman influence, or 
in some cases possibly even Greek influence in a highly degraded 
state, handed down from the time of Alexander's Indian con- 
quests. A fine gold casket (Buddhist relic) said to date from 
about 50 B.C. is worthy of note. 6 In the British Museum are 
an Indian silver dish (srd-4th century A.D.) 7 and an earlier one, 
ascribed to c. A.D. 200. 

Under the Sassanian kings of Persia (from the 3rd to 6th 
centuries) very massive and richly decorated gold vases, bowls, 

1 Cf. E. Hiibner, Die antiken Bildwerke in Madrid, pp. 213 sqq. 

2 A. Odobescu, Le Tresor de Petrossa, pp. 153 sqq., fig. 68. 

3 D. Bracci, Dissertazione sopra un clipeo votivo (Lucca, 1771)- 

4 See R. v. Schneider, Album auserlesenster Gegenstande der 
Antikensammlung des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses (1895); and cf. 
Verhandlungen der 42 Versammlung deutscher Philologen (1893), 
pp. 297 sqq. 

5 Sir G. Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India (1880). 
* Wilson's Arcana antiqua (1841). 

1 Archaeologia, Iv. 534. 



795 



and bottles were made (fig. 10). Those which still exist show 
a curious mingling of ancient Assyrian art with that of Rome 
in its decline. Reliefs re- 
presenting winged lions, 
or the sacred treebetween 
its attendant beasts, 
alternate with subjects 
from Roman mythology, 
such as the rape of 
Ganymede; but all are 
treated alike with much 
originality, and in a 
highly decorative man- 
ner. A fine example of 
Persian work of the early 
igth century (dated 1817) 
is the circular gold dish, 
richly enamelled, which 
is in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum, where 
a large collection of 
Oriental plate may be 
studied. Here may be 
seen a gold rose-water 
sprinkler of gold, en- 
tirely covered with richly 




FIG. 10. Sassanian Gold Bottle, about 
10 in. high. In the Vienna Museum. 



enamelled flowers, Mogul work, I7th century; fine Burmese 
gold work found in A.D. 1484-1485 in a Buddhist temple, 
Rangoon ; remarkable gold ornaments of the Burmese 
regalia; and a large elephant howdah, from the Punjab, made 
of silver, parcel gilt, the top covered with silver plates of large 
repousse foliage. Tibetan craftsmen work is represented by 
numerous vessels for sacred and domestic purposes, mostly of 
metal, partially mounted in silver, which display the skill of the 
Tibetans in the ipth century. Of the skill of the Hindus as 
goldsmiths, abundant evidence is afforded by the Ramayana 
and Mahabharata, though very little of their ancient gold and 
silver work has survived. In India the people of the Cash- 
mere valley have long been famous for their natural superiority 
as craftsmen, as was Lucknow for its utensils of gold and silver, 
much of it richly enamelled in the i8th and igth centuries. 
Chanda in the Central Provinces was once celebrated for its 
skilled goldsmiths, and the plate of Cutch and Gujarat in the 
Bombay Presidency has enjoyed a well-deserved reputation. 
The uncontaminated indigenous designs of the Sind goldsmiths' 
work call for special notice. Indian plate, as is quite natural, 
has often been influenced by European designs: for instance, 
the beautiful gold and silver work of Cutch is Dutch in origin, 
while the ornate throne of wood covered with plates of gold, 
early ipth century, used by Ranjit Singh (at South Kensington) 
also displays European influence. Much of the Siamese decora- 
tive plate of the i8th and igth centuries is of silver-gilt and 
nielloed. In the Rijks museum, Amsterdam, is a collection of 
silver dishes, boxes of gold and silver, jewelry, &c., all of 
excellent workmanship, from Lombok. African goldsmiths' 
work is represented in the British Museum by the gold orna- 
ments from Ashanti, where there are also some gold ornaments 
from graves in Central America and Colombia. Ancient Abys- 
sinian work can be studied at the Victoria and Albert Museum 
in the gold chalice, gold crown of the Abuna of Abyssinia, 
another more ornate crown of silver-gilt, a fine shield with 
silver-gilt filigree, and other objects. 

The gold and silver work of Russia resembles in style that of 
Byzantium at an early period. Shrines and other magnificent 
pieces of plate in the treasury of the cathedral at Moscow (see 
Weltmann, Le Trisor de Moscou, 1861), though executed at 
the end of the isth and i6th century, are similar in design to 
Byzantine work of the nth or I2th century, and even since 
then but little change or development of style has taken 
place. 

The caliphs of Bagdad, the sultans of Egypt, and other 
Moslem rulers were once famed for their rich stores of plate, 



79 6 



PLATE 



which -was probably of extreme beauty both in design and work- 
manship. Little or nothing of this Moslem plate now remains, 
and it is only possible to judge of its style and magnificence from 
the fine works in brass and other less valuable metals which have 
survived to our time. 

Towards the end of the loth century the Rhine valley became 
the centre of a school of goldsmiths, who produced splendid 
examples of their work a mixture of Byzantine art with their 
own original designs. The book-covers, portable altars and other 
objects, preserved at Trier and Aix-la-Chapelle, are notable 
examples produced at that centre. The magnificent book-cover 
from Echternach, now at Gotha, is of the school of Trier. 

Early Medieval Plate. The Gothic, Gaulish and other 
semi-barbarian peoples, who in the 6th century were masters of 
Spain, France and parts of central Europe, produced great 
quantities of work in the precious metals, especially gold, often of 
great magnificence of design and not without some skill in work- 
manship. The Merovingians encouraged the art of the gold- 
smith by spending immense sums of money on plate and jewelry, 
though only two examples of their great wealth in church 
vessels have survived the gold chalice and paten of Gourdon, 
now at Paris. Fine examples of Carlovingian work, which was 
mainly wrought in the monasteries in the north of the Prankish 
dominions and on the Rhine, may be studied in the covers for 
the Gospels, in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. In 1837 
a large number of pieces of very massive gold plate were found 
at Petrossa in Rumania; much of this find was unfortunately 
broken up and melted, but a considerable portion was saved, 
and is now in the museum at Bucharest. These magnificent 
objects are all of solid gold, and consist of large dishes, vases, 
ewers, baskets of open work, and personal 
ornaments (fig. n). Some of them show a 
strong Roman influence in their design, 
others are more purely barbaric in style. 
To the first of these classes belongs a very 
fine phiale or patera, 10 in. in diameter. In 
the centre is a seated statuette of a goddess, 
holding a cup, while all round, in high relief, 
are standing figures of various male and 
female deities, purely Roman in style. 
Though the execution is somewhat clumsy, 
there is much reminiscence of classical grace 
in the attitudes and drapery of these figures. 
A large basket and other pieces, made of 
square bars of gold arranged so as to form 
an open pattern of stiff geometrical design, 
have nothing in common with the vessels in 
which Roman influence is apparent, and can 
hardly be the work of the same school of 
goldsmiths. 1 The date of this Petrossa treasure 
is supposed to be the 6th century. The 
celebrated Gourdon gold cup and tray now 
ii. Gold preserved in Paris belong to about the 
Ewer, 15 in. high, same date. They are very rich and magni- 
from the Petrossa fi cen t 7 quite free from any survival of classic 
influence, and in style resemble the Merovin- 
gian gold work which was found in the tomb of Childeric I. 
The cup is 3 in. high, shaped like a miniature two-handled 
chalice; its companion oblong tray or plate has a large cross in 
high relief in the centre. They are elaborately ornamented 
with inlaid work of turquoises and garnets, and delicate 
filigree patterns in gold, soldered on. 

In the 6th century Byzantium was the chief centre for the 
production of large and magnificent works in the precious 
metals. The religious fervour and the great wealth of Justinian 
and his successors filled the churches of Byzantium, not only 
with enormous quantities of gold and silver chalices, shrines, 
and other smaller pieces of ecclesiastical plate, but even large 
altars, with tall pillared baldacchini over them, fonts, massive 
candelabra, statues, and high screens, all made of the precious 
metals. The wealth and artistic splendour with which St Peter's 
1 Soden Smith, Treasure of Petrossa (1869). 




FIG. 



in Rome and St Sophia in Constantinople were enriched is now 
almost inconceivable. To read the mere inventories of these 
treasures dazzles the imagination such as that given in the 
Liber pontificalis of Anastasius Bibliothecarius, which includes 
the long list of treasures given by Constantine to St Peter's 
before he transferred his seat of empire to Byzantium (330), and 
the scarcely less wonderful list of gold and silver plate presented 
to the same basilica by Pope Symmachus (498-514).* 

Some early Byzantine plate of the 6th century is in the British 
Museum; an inscribed paten of the loth and nth centuries is in 
Halberstadt Cathedral in Germany, and numerous ecclesiastical 
vessels are in the Treasury of St Mark's, Venice. 

Early in the medieval period France and other Western 
countries were but little behind Italy and Byzantium in their 
production of massive works, both secular and religious, in the 
precious metals. At this time every cathedral or abbey church 
in Germany, France and even England began to accumulate 
rich treasures of every kind in gold and silver, enriched with 
jewels and enamel; but few specimens, however, still exist of 
the work of this early period. The most notable are Charle- 
magne's regalia 3 and other treasures at Aix-la-Chapelle, a few 
preserved at St Peter's in Rome, and the remarkable set of 
ecclesiastical utensils which still exist in the cathedral of Monza 
near Milan the gift of Queen Theodelinda in the early part of 
the 7th century. 4 The treasure of Nagy-Szent-Miklos, consist- 
ing of several vessels of gold, of Hungarian origin (Sth-gth 
century), is in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. 

The existing examples of magnificent early work in the precious 
metals mostly belong to a somewhat later period. The chief 
are the gold and silver altar in Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, of the 
9th century; the " Pala d'Oro," or gold retable, in St Mark's at 
Venice, begun in the loth century; the silver altar-front in 
St Domenico's Church at Palermo; the shrine of silver-gilt (with 
later additions) in the church of St Simeon at Zara, Dalmatia, 
by Francesco di Antonio of Sesto near Milan, 1380; and the 
gold altar-frontal given by the emperor Henry II. and his wife 
Cunigunde, at the beginning of the nth century, to the cathedral 
at Basel. The last is about 4 ft. high by 6 ft. long, repousse in 
high relief, with figures of Christ, the three archangels, and St 
Benedict, standing under an arcade of round arches; it is now 
in the Musee Cluny in Paris. 5 A similar gold frontal, of equal 
splendour, was that made for the archbishop of Sens in 999. 
This was melted down by Louis XV. in 1760, but fortunately 
a drawing of it was preserved, and is published by Du Sommerard 
(Album, gth series, pi. xiii.). Reliquaries of great splendour 
were made of the precious metals, one of the most notable being 
that containing the skulls of the three kings in Cologne Cathedral. 
This shrine, which resembles in form a building of two storeys, 
was wrought in the izth century. The covers of the Textus 
in the Victoria and Albert Museum are highly important 
examples of goldsmiths' work; they are of gold and silver, 
decorated with enamel and set with stones, probably dating 
from the izth century. 

Celtic. The skill in metal-working of the Celtic people in 
the British Islands, especially in Ireland, in Pagan and Christian 
times, is well known, and need hardly be emphasized here. 
While much has perished, much happily remains in proof of their 
extraordinary skill in working gold and silver, particularly in 
jewelry. The most remarkable specimen of their technical skill 
and artistic perception is the famous Ardagh chalice of the 9th- 
ioth century (in the museum at Dublin) (Plate II., fig. 31), 
which is composed chiefly of silver, with enrichments of gold and 
gilt bronze, and with exquisite enamels. The interlaced ornament 
is a feature of Celtic work, and may further be studied in the 
celebrated Tara brooch, with its seventy-six varieties of designs 
as well as in other exquisite examples of jewelry. Further 
evidence of Celtic skill is forthcoming in the shrines for the 
sacred bells in Ireland, not to mention other ecclesiastical 

2 See D'Agincourt, Histoire de I'art (1823). 

3 Bock, Die Kleinodien des heil. romischen Retches (1864). 

4 Arch. Jour, xiv. 8. 

6 Archaeologia, xxx. 144-148. 



PLATE 



797 



ornaments. These are of great beauty, and the silver shrine 
of the bell of St Patrick (1091-1105) displays the interlaced 
scroll ornament in a striking degree. With the introduction 
of Gothic art into Britain the special characteristics of Christian 
Celtic art in Ireland gradually died out. 

Anglo-Saxon. Judged by the examples of Anglo-Saxon 
jewelry discovered, the Anglo-Saxon craftsmen brought their 
art to a high state of perfection, though hardly equal in merit to 
the Celtic. A large quantity of their metal-work is of bronze, 
frequently enriched with gold and enamel. Happily, there is 
preserved one priceless specimen of the goldsmith's art of this 
period namely, the famous Alfred jewel of gold, now in the 
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, with a portrait, believed to be of 
Alfred the Great, in cloisonne enamel. Another notable speci- 
men is the Ethelwulf ring in the British Museum. Though 
ecclesiastical vessels, doubtless of the precious metals, appear 
in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts, the only piece of plate 
of that time at present known is the plain silver cup of the latter 
part of the gth century, found with gold and silver jewelry and 
pennies at Trewhiddle in Cornwall, which is now in the British 
Museum. 1 There is, however, an important example of metal- 
work embellished with silver plates namely, the portable altar 
of St Cuthbert at Durham. 

A most valuable description of the various methods of work 
practised by gold- and silversmiths in the nth and I2th cen- 
turies is given by the monk Theophilus in his Diversarum artium 
schcdula (Hendrie's ed., 1847). He minutely describes every 
possible process that could be employed in making and orna- 
menting elaborate pieces of ecclesiastical plate such as smelting, 
refining, hammering, chasing and repousse work, soldering, 
casting (by the " cire perdue " process), wire-drawing, gilding with 
mercury amalgam, and the apph'cation of niello, enamel and gems. 

The silversmith of those days, as in classical times, was not 
only a thorough artist with a complete sense of beauty and fitness 
in his work, but he was also a craftsman of the most varied 
fertility of resource, and made himself thoroughly responsible 
for every part of his work and every stage through which it 
passed a most striking contrast to the modern subdivision 
of labour, and eagerness to produce a show of neatness without 
regard to real excellence of work, which is the curse of all igth- 
century handicrafts, and one of the main reasons why our 
modern productions are in the main neither works of true art 
nor objects of real lasting utility. 

Italian Plate. Before the latter part of the isth century, 
large pieces of silver work were made more for ecclesiastical 
use than for the gratification of private luxury. The great 
silver shrine in Orvieto Cathedral, made to contain the blood- 
stained corporal of the famous Bolsena miracle, is one of the 
chief of these. It is a very large and elaborate work in solid 
silver, made to imitate the west front of a cathedral, and decor- 
ated in the most sumptuous way with figures cast and chased in 
relief, and a wonderful series of miniature-like pictures embossed 
in low relief and covered with translucent enamels of various 
brilliant colours. This splendid piece of silver work was executed 
about 1338 by Ugolino da Siena, one of whose other works, a 
fine reliquary, is also at Orvieto. The other most important 
pieces of silver work in Italy are the frontal and retable of St 
James in the cathedral at Pistoia 2 and the altar of San Giovanni 
at Florence. On these two works were employed a whole 
series of the chief Tuscan artists of the I4th and isth centuries, 
many of whom, though of great reputation in other branches of 
art, such as painting, sculpture on a large scale, and architecture, 
did not disdain to devote their utmost skill and years of labour, 
to work which we now as a rule consign to craftsmen of the very 
smallest capacity. The following celebrated artists were 
employed upon the altar at Florence: Antonio Pollaiuolo, 
Michelozzo, Verrocchio, as well as less prominent artificers, Betto 
Geri, Leonardo di Ser Giovanni and Betto di Francesco Betti. 

Among the distinguished names of Florentines who during 

1 Victoria History of Cornwall, i. 375. 

2 E. Alfred Jones, " The Altar of Pistoia, The Reliquary (January, 
906), pp. 19-28. 



the space of one century only, the isth, worked in gold and 
silver, the following may be given to suggest the high rank 
which this class of work took among the arts: Brunelleschi, 
Ghiberti, Donatello, Luca della Robbia, the two Pollaiuoli, 
Verrocchio, Michelozzo, Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Lorenzo di 
Credi, Baccio Baldini and Francia. The cities of Italy which 
chiefly excelled in this religious and beautiful class of silver 
work during the i4th and isth centuries were Florence, Siena, 
Arezzo, Pisa, Pistoia, Bologna, where there are fine 14th-century 
silver reliquaries executed by Jacopo Roseto da Bologna for 
the heads of St Dominic and St Petronio in the church of St 
Stefano, Perugia, where Paolo Vanni, Roscetto and others 
worked in the I4th and early isth centuries, and Rome. 

Owing to the demoralization and increase of luxury which 
grew in Italy with such startling rapidity during the early years 
of the i6th century, the wealth and artistic skill which in the 
previous centuries had been mainly devoted to religious objects 
were diverted into a different channel, and became for the most 
part absorbed in the production of magnificent pieces of plate 
vases, ewers, dishes, and the like of large size, and decorated 
in the most lavish way with the fanciful and over-luxuriant 
forms of ornament introduced by the already declining taste of 
the Renaissance. This demand created a new school of metal- 
workers, among whom Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571) was per- 
haps the ablest and certainly the most prominent. His graphic 
autobiography makes him one of the foremost and most vivid 
figures of the wonderful i6th century, in which often the most 
bestial self-indulgence was mingled with the keenest enthusiasm 
for art. The large salt-cellar made for Francis I., now at 
Vienna, is the only piece of plate which can be definitely assigned 
to Cellini. The splendid Farnese casket, with crystal plaques 
engraved by Giovanni di Bernard!, in the Naples Museum, has 
been wrongly attributed to Cellini. His influence on the design 
of plate was very great, not only in Italy and France, but also 
in Germany. 3 During the i7th century fine pieces of plate 
were produced in Italy, many of them still retaining some of the 
grace and refinement of the earlier Renaissance. 

The papal treasure, containing priceless examples of the 
goldsmith's art, was almost entirely depleted by Pius VI. to pay 
the indemnity demanded by Napoleon. The tiara of Julius II. 
by Caradosso, and the 
splendid morse of Clement 
VII. by Benvenuto Cellini, 
coloured drawings of 
which are preserved in 
the Print Room, British 
Museum, are among the 
objects then destroyed. 

A valuable source of study 
of Italian plate (now de- 
stroyed) is contained in the 
three volumes of drawings, 
executed between 1755 and 
1764, by Grauenbroch, in 
the Museo Correr at Venice. 

Germany. From very 
early times Germany was 
specially famed for its 
works in the precious 
metals, mostly for eccle- 
siastical use. In the 1 5th 
century a large quantity 
of secular plate was pro- 
duced of beautiful design 

and skilful workmanship. 

Tall covered cups on FIG. 12. Silver Beaker, decorated 
stems, modelled with a with open work, filled in with trans- 
' , , .!, lucent enamels. German or Flemish, 

series of bosses something of the h century . (s . K. M .) 

like a pineapple, beakers 

and tankards, enriched with Gothic cresting and foliage, are 

"See Eugene Plon/ Benvenuto Cellini, sa vie, &c. (1883); also 
Cellini's own work, Dell' Oreficeria (1568). 




79 8 



PLATE 



among the most important pieces of plate. During the i6th 
century Augsburg and Nuremberg, long celebrated for their 
silver work, developed a school of craftsmen whose splendid 
productions have often been ascribed to the great Cellini 
himself. In the first decade of the i6th century, Paul Milliner, 
a Nuremberg goldsmith, furnished Frederick the Wise with 
several silver-gilt reliquaries for his collection at Wittenberg. 
Later in the same century came the Jamnitzer family of 
Nuremberg, chief among them being Wentzel Jamnitzer, 
one of whose masterpieces, an enamelled silver centre-piece, 
belongs to the baroness James de Rothschild of Paris. 
Mathaeus Wallbaum of Augsburg was another celebrated 
goldsmith of the i6th century. His chief works are 
religious ornaments of ebony mounted in silver, and the Pom- 
merscher Kunstschrank in the Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin. 
But the chief German goldsmith of the i6th century was Anton 
Eisenhoit 1 of Warburg, who wrought the fine crucifix (1589), 
the chalice and other ecclesiastical vessels which belong to the 
Furstenberg family. Other notable craftsmen of this period 
were Hans Petzolt and Melchior Bayr, the latter having made 
the silver altar (with scenes from the Life of Christ after Diirer) 




FIG. 13. Silver Cup, 8 J in. high, 
usually attributed to Jamnitzer, 
but more probably by Paul Flint. 
Made at Nuremberg about the mid- 
dle of the 1 6th century. (S. K. M.) 



FIG. 14. Ewer by Francois 
Briot, about 10 in. high. 
Middle of i6th century. 



for the king of Poland, which is in the Sigismund chapel in Cracow 
Cathedral. 2 Jakob Mores, the elder, of Hamburg, was employed 
by the royal house of Denmark. A large number of his original 
designs for plate are in the public art library at Berlin. Jakob 
Mores, the younger, executed the silver altar at Frederiksborg 
in the iyth century. In Germany the traditions of earlier 
Gothic art were less rapidly broken with, and many purely 
Gothic forms survived there till the end of the i6th century, 
and Gothic decorative features even later. In the first half of 
the 1 7th century, though the technical skill of the German silver- 
smiths reached a high standard of merit, there was some falling 
off in the execution and in the purity of outline in their designs. 
Germany is richer in secular plate than any other country. 
The remarkable royal collections of plate in the green vaults 
at Dresden, Gotha and Munich, as well as public museums in 
Germany, including the treasure of LUneburg at Berlin, afford 
excellent opportunities for the study of the German goldsmith's 
art, the remarkable chalice, izth century, of St Gothard's 
church, Hildesheim; the celebrated Kaiserbecher of Osnabriick 

1 Lessing, Die Silber-Arbeiten von Anton Eisenhoit (1880). 

2 Illustrated by Ordzywolski, in Renesaus w Polsce, pis. 11-12. 



of the I3th century; the cup given by the emperor Frederick III. 
and Mathias Corvinus to Vienna in 1462, and the splendid ewer 
of Goslar, 1477, are notable specimens of early German work. 
In England the only public collections of German plate worthy 
of notice are the " Waddesdon " in the British Museum, and the 
Victoria and Albert Museum. Prior to its dispersal among 
his five daughters, the late baron Carl von Rothschild's collection 
at Frankfort-on-Main was the most extensive private collection 
in existence. The Gutmann collection, acquired by Mr J. Pier- 
pont Morgan, contains many rare pieces, as does that of the 
baronesses Alphonse and Salomon de Rothschild in Paris. 

Many of the most beautiful vessels of crystal, agate, &c., 
formerly attributed to Italian artists, were carved and engraved 
and set in beautiful enamelled gold and silver mounts, in southern 
Germany in the i6th and i7th centuries. At the end of 
the 1 7th and the beginning of the i8th centuries household plate 
and other ornaments were frequently decorated with painted 
enamels, mostly originating from Augsburg. Dinglinger of 
Dresden and his school at about this time exercised considerable 
influence in the production of ornaments in pearl and other 
materials, elaborately carved, mounted and enamelled. 

Several specimens exist of the models of cups required of 
candidates for the rank of master-craftsmen in the second half 
of the 1 6th century. One of these, at the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, is believed to have been wrought by Martin Rehlein 
of Nuremberg in I572-I573. 3 

Many of the famous 15th and i6th century artists such as 
Martin Schon, Israel von Mecken, Aldegrever, Altdorfer, 
Brosamer, Peter Flotner, the Behams, Hopfer and Hans Holbein 
the younger, supplied the silversmiths with designs for plate. 
Several of Holbein's original designs, including one for the gold 
cup probably wrought by his friend, John of Antwerp, for Queen 
Jane Seymour, are in the Print Room, British Museum, where 
there is also an original design for a table fountain by the cele- 
brated artist, Albrecht Diirer. Virgil Sou's of Nuremberg 
(1514-1562) was especially fertile in designing plate, and he 
executed a large series of etchings of designs for vases, cups, 
ewers, tazze, &c. 4 Many of the German silver ewers and basins 
resemble those made in pewter at the end of the i6th century by 
Francois Briot and Gaspar Enderlein, who migrated from 
Switzerland to Germany. 

Switzerland. This country produced several silversmiths 
whose work in the main follows that of the German school. 
The three historical beakers in the national library at Zurich 
were made in that city from money sent out as gifts from 
England by the three English bishops, Jewel of Salisbury, Horn 
of Winchester, and Parkhurst of Norwich, in appreciation of the 
hospitality afforded them during their exile at Zurich, in the 
reign of Queen Mary I. 6 Important plate was wrought at 
Berne, Rappersweil and other Swiss towns. 

Russia. In no country is the ecclesiastical and secular plate 
of greater interest than in Russia, where so many different 
influences have been at work in its designs and decoration 
Byzantine, Oriental, Gothic, Renaissance, &c. The " golden 
age " of ecclesiastical art was undoubtedly the I7th century, 
when the churches and monasteries were being enriched with 
many priceless ornaments in the precious metals. Enamels of 
great richness which had been introduced there by Hungarian 
artists niello and precious stones were employed in the decora- 
tion. A drinking -cup or bowl exclusively Russian in form and 
character, known as bratina, was largely made (see the fine one 
of gold, enamelled and set with precious stones, in the royal 
collection at Vienna), as was a smaller bowl, called czarka, with 
a single handle. Another secular vessel, peculiarly Russian, 
is the kovsh, a pointed or boat -shaped bowl with a long handle. 
Much of the domestic plate after Peter the Great's time was 
influenced by that of western countries, particularly Germany. 

Poland. Though not without a character of its own, the 

3 See Rosenberg in Kunst und Gewerbe (1885). 

4 See twenty-one facsimiles of these etchings published by 
J. Rimell (London, 1862). 

6 Keller, " Three Silver Cups at Zurich," Arch. Journ. xvi. 158. 



PLATE 



799 



ecclesiastical plate of Poland * came under the influence both 
of Germany and Hungary. Many of the sacred vessels of late 
medieval times are decorated with enamels and niello. In the 
1 7th century ecclesiastical vessels encrusted with corals are 
met with, such as those given by Michael Wisniowiecki, king of 
Poland, to the church of Czeustochowa. A magnificent lyth- 
century chalice of gold, beautifully enamelled, given by the 
bishop of Plock and Breslau, son of Sigismund III., is in Plock 
cathedral. Many important pieces of plate still exist in churches 
in Poland, though a Polish origin is not claimed for them; for 
instance, the loth-century chalice at Trzemeszno, where there 
is also another chalice of about the same period. The cathedral 
of Cracow contains many priceless examples, such as the 14th- 
century gold cross given by Casimir the Great; the gold crucifix 
of Mathias Corvinus, and the gold reliquary, i6th century, of 
St Stanislas, bishop of Cracow. 

France. France, like England, has suffered grievous losses 
in its plate, though it can show a larger array of medieval 
church vessels than can England. The chief specimens of 
medieval plate are the gth-century casket and the seated 
statuette of St Foy (loth century) in the treasure of Conques; 
the cross of Laon (c. 1200) in the Louvre; the ciborium (early 
I3th century) in the treasury of Sens; the cross of the same 
period in Amiens Cathedral; the caskets of St Taurin (c. 1250); 
the reliquary of St Epine, given by St Louis; the virgin of the 
abbey of Roncevaux (Navarre, I4th century); and the virgin 
given by Queen Jeanne d'Evreux to St Denis in 1339. One of 
the most cherished possessions of the British Museum is the 
celebrated gold and enamel cup of the kings of England, French 
work of the I4th century. No doubt the visit to .Paris of Cellini 
exercised a great influence in the goldsmith's art there, though, 
unfortunately, no examples have survived. The extravagances 
of Louis XIV. and his court led to the destruction of all the royal 
plate of France, as did the Revolution of 1 789 of vast quantities 
of domestic plate. It was not until the early part of the i8th 
century that any signs of revival are visible in the art of the 
silversmith. Chief among the Paris goldsmiths of that time are 
Claude Ballin the younger, Thomas Germain, and, later in the 
century, Francois Thomas Germain, who made the royal plate 
of Portugal and several pieces for the court of Russia. 

The Low Countries. Flemish silversmiths of the late medieval 
period were as skilful as they were in the Renaissance. So 
little Flemish plate remains that pictures of the Flemish school 
are recommended as the chief sources of study of ecclesiastical 
vessels. A fine covered silver beaker, decorated with open 
work and translucent enamel in the South Kensington Museum, 
and another covered with figures and foliage in niello, in the 
print room of the British Museum, are notable examples of 
Flemish work of the i$th century. A large triptych, I3th 
century, is in the Rothschild bequest to the Louvre. Ornate 
rosewater ewers and basins, which came in with the Renaissance, 
such as the important pair dated 1535 in the Louvre, were 
made at Antwerp and other places. 

The Utrecht silversmith, Paul van Vianen (early I7th century) 
wrought many fine pieces of plate, including the silver bas-reliefs 
in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam, where there are five fine 
bas-reliefs in silver by the Belgian silversmith, Mathias Melin. 
Two other members of the same family, Adam and Christian 
van Vianen, were also prominent silversmiths of this time. 
An earlier Dutch silversmith, Christian van Vianen of Utrecht, 
made the vessels for the altar of St George's Chapel, Windsor, 
for Henry VIII. 

Two important pieces of Dutch plate are the covered tazza- 
shaped cup of William the Silent, date about 1573, belonging 
to the earl of Yarborough, 2 and another large cup of the same 
form (1595), known as the "Breda cup," in the possession of 
the Hohenlohe family. Considerable quantities of plate were 
produced at Amsterdam (where Johann Lutma the elder d. 
1669 was a well-known silversmith), Haarlem, the Hague and 
many other places. The numerous 17th-century Dutch pictures 

1 Pozczdziecke and Rastawiecki, Polish Silver Work (1953-1869). 
1 Archaeologia, lix. 83. 



of still-life and other subjects afford opportunities for the study 
of tazze, beakers and other domestic vessels in silver. Hendrik 
Janssens, a Dutch engraver of about 1640, executed many designs 
for goldsmiths and jewellers. 

Spain and Portugal. Spanish plate was largely influenced 
in the middle ages by that of France and Flanders and the art 
of the Moors. But little medieval plate exists in Spain, most of 
it having been destroyed at the time when a taste for more 
elaborate ornaments sprang up as a result of the introduction of 
fresh wealth from the colonies in the New World. The following 
examples may be singled out: a cross of wood, covered with gold 
filigree work, set with stones (A.D. 808), in Oviedo Cathedral, 
where there is also a larger cross of wood and gold, dating from 
later in the same century. A Moorish casket of wood covered 
with thin silver plates is in Gerona Cathedral. The reliquary of 
Alphonso III. and his queen (A.D. 866-896 covered with 
embossed silver plates of the symbols of the evangelists ; the i ith- 
century chalice at Silos; chalices of the I3th and early i4th 
centuries in the cathedrals of Santiago and Toledo; and Don 
Martin's great armchair, of wood covered with elaborate silver- 
gilt plates, in Barcelona cathedral. The Spanish monstrances 
of the isth century are noticeable because of the Flemish 
influence displayed, while those of the early part of the i6th 
century, such as that by the celebrated silversmith, Enrique 
Arfe, in the cathedral of Cordova, is remarkable for its ornate 
character. The latter's grandson, Juan de Arfe y Villafane 
(who wrote De varia conmensuracion, 1585, on silverwork and 
other arts) became a chief maker of these magnificent mon- 
strances; for instance, the celebrated example in Seville cathedral. 
He was associated with Pacheco in executing statues. About 
the 1 5th century Barcelona became famed as a centre for the 
silversmith's art, and the Libras de pasantia, or silversmiths' 
examination books, still preserved in that city, contain a large 
number of designs for jewel-work. Seville likewise had an 
important gild of silversmiths, as did the following cities: Toledo, 
Valladolid, Burgos, Cordova and Salamanca. The celebrated 
family of Becerril wrought fine plate at Cuenca in the i6th 
century. Many chalices and some domestic plate of the i6th 
and early i?th centuries are embellished with small enamelled 
disks, some of which show Saracenic influence in details. The 
Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a fine collection of 
Spanish goldsmith's work. 

Portuguese plate displays in its Gothic features a very florid 
style, in imitation of that adopted by architects in the reign of 
Don Manuel (1495-1521). A typical example of this extrava- 
gance of Gothic motives may be seen in the monstrance of Belem, 
which was made from gold brought from the East by Vasco da 
Gama. 

Austria and Hungary. Austrian plate is, like that of Switzer- 
land, largely based on German models. The ecclesiastical plate 
of Hungary in the isth and i6th centuries is celebrated for its 
enamelled work of a flowered design enclosed in filigree wire 
introduced from Italy. This enamelled decoration was con- 
tinued in the I7th century, but without the filigree wire, and it 
is then described as " Transylvanian." Much of the secular 
plate of the i6th and i7th centuries in north and east Hungary 
is influenced by German plate, while that in Transylvania is 
frequently inspired by Oriental designs. 

English. There is strong evidence of the importance attached 
to English medieval plate by Continental peoples, as there was 
to the magnificent English illuminated MSS., and, later, to the 
embroidered vestments, opus anglicanum. But, unfortunately, 
the ruthless destruction of plate during the Wars of the Roses, 
the Reformation and the Great Rebellion has spared but few 
medieval pieces to which we can point. Under the name of 
Protestantism every ecclesiastical vessel with a device savouring 
of " popish superstition " was instantly destroyed. The inven- 
tories of the great cathedrals and religious houses plainly reveal 
their marvellous wealth in gold and silver vessels. 

Norfolk is richer than any other county in pre-Refonnation 
chalices and patens. 3 The well-known " Gloucester " candlestick, 
3 Norfolk Arch. xii. 85. 



8oo 



PLATE 



though composed of inferior metal, is an illustration of the 
fine plate wrought in England in the izth century, while 
the ancient anointing spoon of the sovereigns of England at the 
Tower of London is an historical relic of the end of the I2th 
century (with the bowl altered for Charles II.). The earl of 
Carysfort is the fortunate possessor of a silver-gilt censer of 
about 1375 and an incense ship, of about 1400, found in Whittle- 
sea Mere in 1850, and formerly belonging to Ramsey Abbey. 1 
Only one pre-Reformation English gold chalice has survived, 
which with its paten and a silver crosier was given to Corpus 
Christi College, Oxford, by its founder, Bishop Foxe (Plate II., 
fig. 26). Both bear the London date-letter for 1507-1508. 
Another historical relic which has come down to the present day, 
though in a restored form, is the gold ampulla of about the end 
of the I4th century in the Tower of London. The universities 
of Oxford and Cambridge, though sadly depleted of their plate, 
can still show some notable pieces. The earliest example at 
each is a drinking horn, both of the I4th century, at Queen's 
College, Oxford, and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Other 
notable horns are the Pusey horn 2 ; the celebrated Bruce horn 
with the seals of John of Gaunt attached, and one at Christ's 
Hospital. 

Mazer bowls, made of wood mounted in silver and even in 
gold, and frequently engraved with scriptural and other inscrip- 
tions (see Plate II., fig. 28), were popular drinking vessels in 
England in medieval times. Many of these have survived, the 
earliest specimen being one of Edward II. at Harbledown 
hospital. They ceased to be made after the reign of Elizabeth 
(Archaeologia, i. 120). Medieval coco-nut cups, mounted in 
silver, are of frequent occurrence in England, the best known 
examples being in the possession of the colleges at Oxford and 
Cambridge and several of the city companies. As has been men- 
tioned before, but few examples of early plate exist; the following 
is a brief list of some of the most notable pieces, other than those 
previously enumerated: the " Sokborn " cup (c. 1450), and the 
" Anathema " cup (1481-1482) at Pembroke College, Cambridge; 
the Leigh cup (1499) at Mercers' Hall; the ivory and silver cup 
(1525-1526) of the duke of Norfolk; the pastoral staff (c. 1367) at 
New College, Oxford; the Richmond cup (c. 1510) at Armourers' 
Hall; the " election cup " (c. 1520) at Winchester College; and 
the Foundress' plate, consisting of a fine covered cup (1435-1440), 
two salts (c. 1500), a beaker and cover (1507-1508), and a salt 
(1507-1508) at Christ's College, Cambridge. Of Elizabeth's reign, 
the finest examples are probably the salt of the Vintners' Com- 
pany (Plate II., fig. 27), and the rosewater dish and ewer of the 
duke of Rutland. Stoneware jugs, as the well-known example 

(1581) from West Mailing, Kent, 
and Chinese porcelain vessels 
were elaborately mounted in 
Elizabethan times, a goodly pro- 
portion of the former having 
been done by goldsmiths at 
Exeter. 

The Celtic races of both 
England and Ireland appear to 
have possessed great wealth in 
gold and silver, but especially 
the former. It seems, however, 
to have been mostly used in the 
manufacture of personal orna- 
ments, such as torques, fibulae 
and the like. A magnificent 

high, with embossed gold band ; suit of gold armour, repoussl 
found in a grave in the east with simple patterns of lines and 

dots ' ^. * ^ears ago 
at Mold m Flintshire, and is 
now in the British Museum. 3 
The amount of old jewelry found in Ireland during the past 
century has been enormous; but, owing to the unfortunate 
law of " treasure-trove," by far the greater part was immediately 

1 Illustrated in Old Cambridge Plate, pp. 102-103. 

Ibid. 




FlG. 15. Silver Cup, 4f in. 



of the Iron Age. 



1 Archaeologia, iii. 3, xii. 377. 



. xxvi. 422. 



melted down by the finders. Little of this period that can 
be called plate has been discovered in the British Isles unlike 
Denmark and other Scandinavian countries, where the excava- 
tion of tombs has in many cases yielded rich results in the way 
of massive cups, bowls, ladles and horns of solid gold, mostly 
decorated with simple designs of spirals, concentric circles, or 
interlaced grotesques. Others are of silver, parcel-gilt, and 
some have figure subjects in low relief (fig. 15). In like 
manner, during the Saxon period, though gold and silver 
jewelry was common, yet little plate appears to have been 
made, with the exception of shrines, altar-frontals and vessels 
for ecclesiastical use, of which every important church in 
England must have possessed a magnificent stock. With 
regard to English secular plate, though but few early examples 
still exist, we know from various records, such as wills and 
inventories, that the I4th century was one in which every 
rich lord or burgher prided himself on his fine and massive 
collection of silver vessels; on festive occasions this was dis- 
played, not only on the dinner-table, but also on sideboards, 
arranged with tiers of steps, one above the other, so as to show 
off to advantage the weighty silver vases, flagons and dishes 
with which it was loaded. The central object on every rich 
man's table was the " nef " a large silver casket, usually (as 
the name suggests) in the form of a ship, and arranged 
to contain the host's napkin, goblet, spoon and knife, with 
an assortment of spices and salt. No old English " nefs " 
are now known. Great sums were often spent on this large 
and elaborate piece of plate, e.g. one made for the duke of 
Anjou in the I4th century weighed 348 marks of gold. 
The English silversmiths of this period were highly 
skilled in their art, and produced objects of great beauty 
both in design and workmanship. One of the finest 
specimens of Edward III.'s plate which 
still exists is a silver cup belonging to 
the mayor and corporation of King's 
Lynn. It is graceful and chalice-like in 





FIG. 16. Silver Cup, with 
translucent enamels. Probably 
English work of the I4th 
century. 



FIG. 17. Silver -gilt 
Salt-cellar, 145 in. high. 
Given to New College, 
Oxford, in 1493. 



form, skilfully chased, and decorated in a very rich and elaborate 
way with coloured translucent enamels (fig. 16) of ladies and 
youths, several with hawks on their wrists. Silver salt-cellars 
were among the most elaborate pieces of plate produced during 
the 1 5th century. Several colleges at Oxford and Cambridge 
still possess fine specimens of these (fig. 17); a favourite shape 
was a kind of hour-glass form richly ornamented, made between 
about 1480 and 1525. 



PLATE 



801 



But few existing specimens of English plate are older than 
the beginning of the isth century. Among the few that remain 
the principalare chalices such as the two large silver-gilt 
ones found in the coffin of an archbishop of York, now used 
for holy communion in the cathedral, and a fine silver chalice 
from the church of Berwick St James, Wilts, now in the British 
Museum. Both this and the York chalices are devoid of orna- 
ment, and, judging from their shape, appear to be of the first 
half of the i3th century, which is the date of the fine medieval 
chalice and paten found near Dolgelly some years ago (the latter 
now believed in some quarters to be of German origin). Several 
Tudor cups are in existence: the celebrated one of 1521 (Plate II., 
fig- 3)> an earlier one, 1500; two covered ones of about 1510 
and 1512 at Sandwich and Wymeswold, respectively; one (1515) 
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and the Bodkin cup (1525) 
of the Corporation of Portsmouth. A very early beaker (1496) 
is in a private collection, as is also a small Tudor bowl (1525-1526). 
The earliest known chalices of silver include the Gourdon chalice 
and paten, the St Gozlin chalice at Nancy (loth century); the 
12th-century specimen in the abbey of Wilten in Tirol. 

It is interesting to note the various changes of form through 
which the ecclesiastical chalice passed from early Christian times 
Chalices, t'" tne l6tn century. It was at first an ordinary 
secular cup with two handles, classical in form and 
of large capacity, because the laity as well as the clergy 
received the wine. The double handles were of practical use 
in passing the cup round like a modern " loving cup." The first 
alteration was the omission of the handles, so that it took the 
form of a large hemispherical bowl, with a round foot, and a 
knop for security in holding it. For some centuries it appears 
to have been the custom for the priest to hold the chalice, while 
the communicant sucked the wine through a silver tube or " fistula." 
Some of the most magnificent early examples of this form of chalice 
have the bowl mounted in bands, set with jewels, and enriched 
with minute filigree work a design which appears to have been 
taken from those cups, such as the four magnificent examples in 
the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, which have their bowl cut out 
of crystal, onyx or some other precious stone. 1 The finest examples 
of this class are the Ardagh chalice, now in the Dublin Museum, 
and the chalice of St Remigius, in Reims 
cathedral; both are most magnificent speci- 
mens of the taste and skill of roth to nth 
century goldsmiths. In the I2th and I3th 
centuries the design becomes simpler; there 
is a distinct shaft, extending above and below 
the knop; and on the foot is marked a cross, 
not found in the earlier ones, to show which 
side the priest is to hold towards himself at 
celebration. The next alteration in the 
form of chalice, which occurred in the I4th 
century, was to make the foot not circular 
in plan but polygonal or lobed, so that the 
cup might not roll when laid on its side to 
drain, after it had been rinsed out. This 
FlG. 18. Elizabethan form lasted in most countries till about 1500, 
'Chalice. an( i * n England till the. Reformation. Then 

the bowl, which in the previous two or 

three centuries had been slowly reduced in size, owing to the 
gradually introduced practice of refusing the wine to the laity, 
was suddenly made more capacious, and the form was altered to 
the shape shown in fig. 18, in order that the Protestant " com- 
munion cup " might bear no resemblance to the old Catholic " mass- 
ing chalice." This was ordered to be done in 1562 (see Arch. 
Journ. xxv. 44-53). The best account of the evolution in the form 
of English medieval chalices and patens is by W. H. St John 
Hope and T. M. Fallow, in Archoeologia, vol. xliii. 

Secular plate during the isth and i6th centuries was fre- 
quently similar in style to that made in Germany, though the 
English silversmiths of the latter century never quite equalled 
the skill or artistic talent of the great Nuremberg and Augsburg 
silver- workers. In the i yth century, during the reigns of James I. 
and Charles I., many fine pieces of plate, especially tall cups 
and tankards, were made of very graceful form and decoration. 
The greater part of this, and all earlier plate, especially the fine 
collections belonging to the universities, were melted down 
during the Civil War. In Charles II. 's reign returning prosperity 
and the increase of luxury in England caused the production 
of many magnificent pieces of plate, often on a large scale, such 
as toilet services, wine-coolers, and even fire-dogs and other 
furniture. These are very florid in their ornament, much of it 
1 See De Fleury, La Messe (Paris, 1882), &c. 




under Dutch influence, and mostly have lost the beautiful forms 
of the century before (fig. 19 and Plate II., fig. 29). In the early 
part of the i8th century the. designs of English plate were to 
some extent influenced by the introduction of French ornaments 
by the large band of French silversmiths who sought refuge in 
England after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Chief 
among these Frenchmen (though probably not a refugee him- 
self) was Paul Lamerie, who produced a large number of notable 
specimens, the largest of which is a fine wine-cooler in the Winter 
Palace, St Petersburg. Through the greater part of the reign 
of George III. English plate is more remarkable for its plain 
solidity than for artistic merit. With the advent, however, of 
the talented architects, the brothers Adam, came a taste for 
plate with classical characteristics. The South Kensington 
Museum has a small, though fine, collection of plate, varying 




FIG. 19. Covered Cup of Solid Gold, 6 in. high, c. 1660-1670. 
Given to Exeter College, Oxford, by George Hall, Bishop of Chester. 

in date from 1770 to 1788, in the Adam style. Many of Flax- 
man's designs were produced in plate, among the most important 
being the " Shield of Achilles," in silver-gilt, at Windsor Castle. 
Thomas Stothard, the painter, executed several designs for gold- 
smith's work for Rundell and- Bridge. 

The Assay of Gold and Silver Plate. The primitive method of 
testing the purity of the metal was by marking a streak with it 
on the touchstone, and comparing the colour 
of the mark with that made by various pieces 
of gold or silver of known degrees of purity. 
Assay by cupellation is now employed for 
silver: a piece of the silver to be tested is 
melted with some lead in a cupel or bone- 
ash crucible; the lead is oxidized, and 
rapidly sinks into the bone-ash, carrying 
with it any other impurities which are 
present. The residue of pure silver is then 
weighed, and by its loss shows how much 
alloy it contained. Gold is now tested by 
an elaborate chemical process by which the 
trial bit is dissolved in acid, and then 
thrown down in the form of precipitate, 
which can be examined by a careful quan- 
titative analysis (see ASSAYING). 

The standard of purity required in the 
time of Edward I. was, for gold, that it 
should be of the " Paris touch," i.e. 
Before then 22 carats was the standard. 




FlG. 20. Silver 
Vase, II in. high, 
dated 1772. De- 
signed by the 
brothers Adam. 



J carats out of 24. 
Silver was to be " of 
the sterling alloy," viz. n oz. 2 dwt. to the pound. Except for 
a time during the i6th century this standard of silver has been 
kept up, and is still required by law. 

Hall-marks on Silver. In the I3th century the Engh'sh Gild 
of Gold- and Silver-smiths had grown into'great importance, and 
had acquired monopolies and many special privileges. In order 
to keep the standard up to the required purity the system of 
requiring each article to be stamped with certain marks was 
introduced by royal command. The first of these was the 

xxi. 26 



802 



PLATE 



king's mark a leopard's or lion's head crowned. This was 
introduced in 1300 by Edward I. (29 Edw. I. stat. 3, c. 30). 
The second, the maker's mark, was instituted in 1363 (37 Edw. 
III. c. 7). This might be any badge or initial chosen by the 
master silversmith himself. The third was the Year letter or 
assayer's mark; this was an alphabet, one letter being used 
for a year, counting from the day of the annual election of the 
warden of the Goldsmiths' Company. When one alphabet was 
exhausted another with differently shaped letters was begun. 
The earliest existing piece of plate which has the three marks is 
the chalice (with paten, 1479-1480), at Nettlecombe, Somerset. 
Other marks, subsequently introduced, were the lion passant, 
first used in 1544; the lion's head erased; and a full-length figure 
of Britannia, used only between 1697 and 1719-1720; and, lastly, 
the portrait of the reigning sovereign, which was used from 1784 
to 1890, when the duty on gold and silver plate ceased. In 
addition to these general hall-marks, the plate made in various 
provincial towns had certain special assay and hall-marks. 

The best work on hall-marked plate and the marks themselves, 
with the history of the Goldsmiths' Company, is C. J. Jackson's 
English Goldsmiths and their Marks (1^05). where will be found 
illustrations of the marks found on plate wrought in. Scotland and 
Ireland, and at English provincial gilds York, Norwich, Exeter, 
Chester, Lincoln, Newcastle, Birmingham, Sheffield and other 
places. E. Alfred Jones's book, Old English Gold Plate (1907), 
illustrates and describes gold plate only. 

Modern Plate in the. East. Though little plate of real artistic 
merit is now made in Europe, in the East among the Moslem 
and Hindu races there still survive some real taste in design and 
skill in execution. Delhi, Benares, Lucknow, Cutch and other 
places in India and Kashmir still produce a quantity of beautiful 
silver and gold work chiefly ewers, basins, rose-water sprinklers, 
salvers, coffee-pots and the like. These are of graceful form, 
covered with rich repousse work, or more often with very delicate 
chased patterns. Their style in the main is Moslem, but some 
combine an Arab form with native Indian surface decoration. 
This class of work is not a revival, but has been practised and 
handed down by unbroken tradition, and with little or no 
change in style from the i6th century or even earlier. 1 The 
silversmiths of Persia, Damascus and other Eastern places are 
still skilful, and retain some good tradition in their designs. 
They are, however, more occupied in the production of personal 
ornaments than in making larger works of silver or gold. 

AUTHORITIES. Scandinavian and Celtic Plate. Worsaae, Pri- 
meval Antiquities of Denmark (1849); Afbildninger fra de Kongelige 
Museum (1854); " Industrial Arts of Denmark," S.K.M. Hand- 
book (1882); Atlas de I'archeologie du nord (1857); Anderson, 
Mindelblade fra de danske kongers Samling (1867); Danmarks, 
Norges, og Sverigs historic (1867); Madsen, Afbildninger af danske 
Oldsager (1868-1876); Montelius, Antiquites suedoises (1873-1875); 
Stralsund, Der Goldschmuck von Hiddensoe (1881); Hildebrand, 
" Industrial Arts of Scandinavia," S.K.M. (1882); Reeves, Shrine 
of St Patrick's Bell (1850) ; Wilde, Catalogue of Antiquities of Gold, 
Royal Irish Academy (1862); Margaret Stokes, Early Christian 
Art in Ireland (1875); J. Romilly Allen, Celtic Art in Pagan and 
Christian Times (1904). 

Danish. C. Nyrop, Meddelelser and dansk Guldesmedekunst 
(1884); Bernhard Olsen, De kjobenhavnske Guldsmedes Marker fra 
Tiden for Aaret, 1800 (1892). 

Italian. L. Caglieri, Compendia delle vile dei santi orefici ed argen- 
tieri (1727); // Santuario delle reliquie ossia il tesoro della basilica 
di S. Antonio di Padova (1851); " Stanziamenti e contratti per opere 
di oreficeria (XIV.-XV. cent.)," Perugia: R.Commissione Giornale, 
i. 333, iii. 206, 225 (1872-1874); Filangieri, Documenti per la storia, 
le arte e le Industrie delle provincie napoletane (1883-1891); Antonio 
Pasini, II Tesoro di San Marco, Venezia (2 vols., 1885-1886); 
" Orfevres et 1'orfevrerie en Savoie," Chambery: Soc. savoisienne 
memoires, xxiv,. 329 (1886); A. Guarneri, Esposizione di Palermo. 
Catalogo della collezione di antica oreficeria ed argenteria (1891); 
L. Fumi, // Santuario del SS. Corporate nel duomo di Orvieto (1896) ; 
Congresso eucaristico ed esposizione di arte sacra antica in Orvieto 
(1897); Congresso eucaristico di Venezia (1898); A. Cocchi, Les 
Anciens reliquaires de Santa Maria del Fiore et de San Giovanni de 
Florence (1903); O. H. Giglioli, Pistoia, nelle sue opere d'arte (1904); 
Catalogo generate della mostra d'arte antica abruzzese in Chieti 
(1905) ; E. Manceri, Notizie di Sicilia, arte viii. 388 (1905) ; P. Pic- 
cirilh, Oreficeria medievale aquilana: due cimeli nel Victoria and 
Albert Museum di Londra (1905) ; F. Ferrari, L'Oreficeria in Aquila 



1 See Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India (1880), p. 144. 



(1906); S. J. A. Churchill, "The Goldsmiths of Rome under the 
Papal Authority," with valuable bibliography, Papers of British 
School at Rome, vol. iv. (1907); Catalogo della mostra d'antica arte 
Umbra (Perugia, 1907) ; Corrado Ricci, // Palazzo pubblico di Siena 
e la mostra d' antica arte senese. 

Russian, &c. A. P. Sonzoff, an illustrated book on some Russian 
plate (1857-1858); A. Maskell, Russian Art and Art Objects in 
Russia (1884); C. de Linas, Les Origines de 1'orfevrerie cloisonne; 
Viollet-le-Duc, Art russe; Antiquities of the Russian Empire. 

Austrian and Hungarian. B. Czobor and I. Szalay, Die histori- 
schen Denkmdler Ungarns (1897-1901); E. Radisics and J. Szendrei,. 
Treasure of Hungarian Art (Hung.) (Budapest, 1897-1901); J. 
Mihalik, History of Goldsmiths' work at Kassa " (Hung.), in 
vol. xxi. of Archaeological Proceedings of Hungarian Academy (1899) ; 
" Zur Geschichte der Wiener Gold- und Silberschmiedekunst," by 

E. Leisching, in Kunst und Kunsthandwerk, vii. 343 (1904); " Alt 
Troppauer Goldschmiedekunst," by E. W. Braun, in Z'eitschrift fur 
Geschichte ... oesterreichisch Schlesiens, \. 24 (1905); J. Hampel, 
Alterthiimer des fruhen Mittelalters in Ungarn (Brunswick, 1907) ; 
Katalog der Ausslellung von alt-oesterreichischen Goldschmiede- 
arbeiten (Kaiser Franz Josef Museum in Troppau) ; A. Ilg, Wiener 
Schmiedewerk. 

German, &c. Manuscripts (W. Jamnitzer), " Ein gar kunstlicher 
und wolgetzierter Schreibtisch sampt allerhant kunstlichen silbern 
und vergulten newerfunden Instrumenten " (1585), col. drawings; 
Sibmacher, Ent-uriirfe fur Goldschmiede (1879); R. Bergau, Wentzel 
Jamnitzer (1880); Erzeugnisse der Silber-Schmiede Kunst aus dem 
16 bis 18 Jahrh. (1883); Luthmer, Der Schatz des Freiherrn K. von 
Rothschild (2 yols., 1883-1885); Luthmer and Schuermann, Gross- 
herzoglich-hessische Silberkammer (1884); C. A. von Drach, Altere 
Silberarbeiten in den kgl. Sammlungen zu Cassel (1888); Marc 
Rosenberg, Der Goldschmiede Merkzeichen (1890); J. H. Hefner- 
Alteneck, Deutsche Goldschmiede-werke des 16. Jahrh. (1890); Marc 
Rosenberg, 17 Blatt aus dem grossherzoglich sdchsischen Silberschatz 
im Schlosse zu Weimar (1891); Die Kunstkammer im grossherzog- 
lichen Residenzschlosse zu Karlsruhe (1892); Siebzehn Blatt aus dem 
herzoglich Anhaltischen Silberschatz im Schlosse zu Dessau (1895); 

F. Sarre, Die berliner Goldschmiede Zunft (1895); P. Seidel, 
" Deux ceuvres de Wenzel Jamnitzer," Der Silber- und Goldschatz 
der Hohenzollern im kgl. Schlosse zu Berlin (1895); Gaz. des beaux 
arts, 3 S. xx. 221 (1898); Eugen von Nottbeck und W. Neumann, 
Geschichte u. Kunstdenkmaler der Stadt Reval (1899); Bernhard 
Olsen, De hamburgske Guldsmede Jakob Mores d. oeldres og d. 
yngres Arbejder for de danske Konger Frederik II. og Christian IV. 
(1903), (Die Arbeiten der hamburgischen Goldschmiede Jacob Mores, 
Vater und Sohn, filr die danischen Konige Frederick II. und 
Christian IV.); J. Sembritzki, Verzeichniss in Memel vorhandener. 



zeichen und Werke (1905); E. Hintze, Die breslauer Goldschmiede 
(1906) ; E. Alfred Jones, " The gold and silver plate of W. D. von 
Raitenau, prince-archbishop of Salzburg, in the Pitti Palace," 
Connoisseur, xviii. 20 (1907) ; " The Plate of the Emperor of 
Germany," Connoisseur, nos. 51 and 54; Illustrated Catalogue of 
Early German Art (Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1908); Richard 
Graul, Leipziger Gold- und Silber schmiedearbeiten des Mittelalters 
(1908); A. Weiss, Das Handwerk der Goldschmiede zu Augsburg bis 
1681; E. von Schauss, Die Schatzkammer des bayerischen Konigs- 
hauses; " Duke of Portland's Gold Cup," Archeologia, lix. 233. 

French, Burgundian, &c. J. C. Delafosse, Nouvelle iconologie 
historique, fol. (1771); E. Aubert, Tresor de I'abbaye de Saint- 
Maurice d'Agaune (1872); Mely, Le Tresor de Chartres (1886); L. 
Palustre et X. Barbier-de Montault, Le Tresor de Treves (1886); 
J. D'Arbaumont et L. Marchant, Le Tresor de la Sainte-Chapelle de 
Dijon d'apres ses anciens inventaires (1887); C. G. Bapst, Etudes 
sur 1'orfevrerie franfaise au XVIII" siecle, le Germain, orfevres- 
sculpteurs du Roy (1887); Album de I'exposition de I'art ancien au 
pays de Liege: orfevrerie religieuse (1888); Catalogue raisonne des 
pieces d'orfev rerie franc, aise composant la collection du marquis da 
Foz (d Lisbonne) (1889); L' Orfevrerie fran^aise d lacour de Portugal 
au XVIII'. siecle (1892); E. Mtintz, Histoire de I'art pendant la 
Renaissance (1891); W. Cripps, Old French Plate (1893); H. Havard, 
Histoire de 1'orfevrerie franfaise (1896); Inventaire de I' orfevrerie 
et des ioyaux de Louis I. (1903); E. Molinier, Un Monument d' orfev- 
rerie franfaise du XIII', siecle, Soc. des antiq. de France, p. .477 
(1904) ; F. Pasquier, " Objets pr<kieux de la maison de Foix au quinzi- 
6me siecle," Soci6tes des beaux arts, Memoires (1904) ; L. de Farcy, 
" Croix de la Roche-Foulques," Revue de I'art Chretien, p. 337 
(1905) ; J. J. Marquet de Vasselot, Catalogue raisonne de la collection 
Martin Le Roy (1906); Histoire de I'art, ii. 988-999 (with biblio- 
graphy), edited by Andr<5 Michel (1907), &c.; A. Lefranc, 50 planches 
d'ancienne orfevrerie empire. 

Low Countries. Van Loon, Histoire metallique des Pays-Bas 
(Hague, 1732-1737); Schaepkens, Tresor de I'art ancien en Belgique 
(1846); Tentoonstellung Amsterdam (illustrations), (1877); for marks 
on Dutch plate, see Nederlandsche Kunstbode (1879); Exposition 
retrospective d'objets d'art en or et en argent, Amsterdam (1880); 
Roddaz, L 'Art ancien a'V exposition nationale beige (1882) ; Leewarden- 
Provincial Friesch Genootschap (1902); Catalogue of the Exhibition 



PLATE 



803 



at Bruges (1903); Catalogue of the Exhibition at Liege (1905)- I 
Helbig, L'Art Mosan. 

Spanish. Riano, Industrial Arts in Spain (1879); Davillier, 
L'Orfevrerie en Espagne (1879); Museo espanol de antiguedades 
(1879); Jose Villaamil y Castro (on Spanish chalices), Boletin de 
la sociedad espanola de excursiones (April, 1893); El Tesoro de la 
catedral de Santiago; H. P. Mitchell, Catalogue of the Silversmiths' 
Work in the Wyndham Cook Art Collection (1905); L. Williams, 
Arts and Crafts of Older Spain (1907); Don Enrique de Leguina 
Baron de la Vega de Hoz, La Plata espanola; Gestoso, Diccionario 
de artifices sevillanos. 

American. J. H. Buck, Old Plate (1903); American Silver 
(Boston, 1906) ; Colonial Silverware of the l?th and i8th centuries 
(1907) ; E. Alfred Jones, " Old American Silver Plate," Connoisseur 
(December, 1908). 

English. H. Shaw, Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages 
(1843); Decorative Arts of the Middle Ages (1851); Bray, Life of 
Stothard (1851); Catalogue of the Antiquities and Works of Art 
exhibited at Ironmongers' Hall (1861); Catalogue of the Exhibition 
of Objects of Art, South Kensington (1862); W. Cripps, College 
and Corporation Plate (1881); Old English Plate (gth ed., 1906); 
R. S. Ferguson, The Old Church Plate of the Diocese of Carlisle 
(1882); Atkinson and Foster, Old Cambridge Plate (1883); W. A. 
Scott Robertson, Church Plate in Kent (1886); R. C. Hope, Church 
Plate in Rutland (1887); J. E. Nightingale, The Church Plate of 
Dorset (1889); The Church Plate of Wilts (1891); A Trollope, The 
Church 'Plate of Leicestershire (1890); F. G. Hilton Price, Handbook 
of London Bankers, with some account of the Early Goldsmiths (1890- 
1891); H. D. Ellis, The Silver Plate of the Armourers' Company 
(1892); The Silver Plate of the Merchant Taylors' Company (1892); 
" The Plate of Christ's Hospital," Trans, of the London and Middlesex 
Arch. Soc. (1902, new series, vol. i., pt. 4) ; Sir J. Watney, The Plate 
of the Mercers' Company (1892); Rev. T. Burns, Old Scottish Com- 
munion Plate (1892); J. Starkie Gardner, English Enamels (1894); 
Old Silver Work, chiefly English, l$th to i8th centuries (1902); 
" Charles II. Silver at Welbeck," Burlington Mag. vol. vii. nos. 25 
and 26; " Silver Plate of the Duke of Newcastle," Burlington Mag. 
vol. viii. no. 32; " Silver Plate of the Duke of Rutland," Burlington 
Mag. vols., viii. and ix. nos. 36 and 37; C. A. Markham, The Church 
Plate of the County of Northampton (1894) ; Handbook to Foreign Hall- 
marks (1898) ; E. H. Freshfield, The Communion Plate of the Churches 
in the City of London (1894); The Communion Plate of the County of 
London (1895); The Communion Plate of Middlesex (1897); The 
Communion Plate of Essex (1899); Sir W. Prideaux, Memorials of 
the Goldsmiths' Company (1896); L. Jewitt and W. H. St John 
Hope, The Corporation Plate, &c., of England and Wales (1895); 
W. Chaffers, Gilda Aurifabrorum (1896); Hall Marks on Gold and 
Silver Plate (1905); Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia (1897); 
Haslewood, Church Plate of Suffolk (1897); G. E. Halliday, Llandaff 
Church Plate (1901); A. Butler, "The Old English Silver of the 
Innholders' Company," Connoisseur (1901), i. 236; " The Old English 
Silver of the Skinners' Company," Connoisseur (1903), v. 201, vi. 33; 
Percy McQuoid, " The Plate of Winchester College," Burlington 
Mag. (1903) ii. 149; " Evolution in English Plate," Burlington Mag. 
(1903) i. 167, 359; The History of English Furniture (1904, &c.); 
Stanhope and Moffatt, The Church Plate of the County of Hereford, 
(1903); Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities, 
British Museum (1903) ; General Guide to the Art Collections (Gold 
and Silver), Science and Art Museum, Dublin (1903); Montague 
Howard, Old London Silver (1903); E. Radford, " The Church Plate 
of St Lawrence Jewry," Connoisseur (1904), viii. 72; H. F. N. 
Jourdain, History of the Mess Plate of the 88th Regiment (1904) ; 
T. M. Fallow, " Yorkshire Plate and Goldsmiths," Journal of Arch. 
Inst. of Great Britain (1904), Ixi. 74; J. T. Evans, The Church 
Plate of Pembrokeshire (1905); The Church Plate of Gloucestershire 
(1906) ; The Church Plate of Carmarthenshire (1908) ; C. H. 
Ashdown, Notes on the Corporation Plate and Insignia of the City 
of St Alban (1905) ; H. C. Casley, " An Ipswich Worker of Eliza- 
bethan Church Plate," Suffolk Inst. of Arch, and Nat. Hist. 
(1905) vol. xii. pt. 2; F. Guy Laking, The Furniture of Windsor 
Castle (1905); H. C. Moffatt, Old Oxford Plate (1906); J. W. 
Caldicott, The Values of Old English Silver and Sheffield Plate 
(1906) ; E. Alfred Jones, " The Old Silver Sacramental Vessels 
of English Nonconformity," Mag. of Fine Arts (1906), i. 28q, 371; 
The Church Plate of the Diocese of Bangor (1906); The Old Church 
Plate of the Isle of Man (1907); The Old Silver Sacramental 
Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England (1907) ; Old 
English Gold Plate (1907) ; Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de Roths- 
child's Collection of Plate (1907) ; Two Illustrated Catalogues of J. 
Pierpont Morgan's Collection of Plate (1907-1908) ; " Old Plate 
at the Dublin Exhibition, 1907," Connoisseur (Dec. 1907) ; 
" English Plate at the Church Congress, Great Yarmouth," Bur- 
lington Mag. vol. xii. no. 57 (Dec. 1907); The Old Plate at the 
Tower of London (1908) ; " The Civic Plate, Regalia, &c., of the Norfolk 
Boroughs," Memorials of Old Norfolk (1908); The Old English Plate 
of the Czar of Russia (1909) ; The Old Plate of the Cambridge Colleges 
(1909); "Some Old Plate in the possession of Lord Mostyn," 
Burlington Mag. ; " The Plate of Jesus College, Oxford," Y Cymm- 
rodor, vol. xvii.; Guide to the Medieval Room, British Museum 
(1907) ; Nelson Dawson, Goldsmiths' and Silversmiths' Work (1907); 



T. S. Ball, Chester Church Plate (1908); R. H. Cocks, Concerning 
some Treasures of the Vintners' Company; Hope and Fallow, " English 
Medieval Chalices and Patens," Arch. Journal, xliii. 140; C. I. 
Jackson, "The Spoon and its History," Archaeologia, vol. liii. ; 
G. R. French, " The Plate of the Vintners' Company," London 
and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. iii. ; " The Plate of the Mercers' 
Company," London and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. iv. ; 
J. G. Nichols, " The Plate of the Stationers' Company," London 
and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. ii.; Article on Drinking and 
other Horns," in Chester Arch. Soc. Journal, new series, vol. xi.; 
Somerset Arch. Soc. xlv. 2; Oxfordshire Arch. Soc. Proc. vols. 
xxvi., xxiv. ; Norfolk Archaeology. 

Designs, &c. J. Giardini, 100 Designs for Silversmiths' Work, 
(pub. in Rome, 1750) ; A. W. Pugin, Designs for Gold- and Silversmiths, 
(1836); Andronet du Cerceau, Ornemens d'orfevrerie propres pour 
flanquer et emailler: nouveau livre d'ornemens d'orfevrerie (pub. 
'Paris, c. 1660, London, 1888); H. Bouchot, Cent modeles inedits 
de 'I'orfevrerie franc,aise des // et 18 siecles executes par les orfevres- 
sculpteurs royaux Nic. de Launay, J. J. Roettiers, T. Germain, 
F. T. Germain et reproduits d'apres les dessins originaux de la 
bibliotheque not. (1888); Le Cabinet des estampes de la bibliotheque 
nationale (1895); Reproductions of Paul Flindt's designs for gold- 
smiths' work, published 1888; Reproductions d'anciennes gravures 
d'orfevrerie hollandaise (1892-1900); Collection of illustrations 
entitled Die Schatzkammer des Bayer-Konigshauses (1902). For 
an account of the original drawings for silversmiths' work in the 
museum at Basle see Jahrbucher der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen 
( I 95); Illustrated reproductions of goldsmiths' designs by the 
Dutch silversmith, Adam Vianen; Etienne Delaune (1519-1583), 
Reproductions of his goldsmiths' ornaments, Paris; J. F. Forty, 
Oeuvres d'orfevrerie' a I'usage des eglises; J. C. Reiff (18 Jahrh.), 
4 Blatt sehr schone Zierrathen fur Goldschmiede, &c. ; Giardini, 
Promptuarium artis argenlariae (Rome, 1750); Holbein, Original 
Designs for Plate, in the Print Room, British Museum, and in the 
Bodleian at Oxford (the South Kensington Museum also has a fine 
collection of original 16th-century designs in pen and ink); Viane, 
Models of Silver Vases, &c. (Utrecht, 1 7th cent.) ; Loie, Brasiers. . . 
et autres ouvrages de orfevrerie, and Nouveaux dessins de gueridons, 
&c. (Paris, n.d.); Maria, Livre de dessins de jouaitterie, &c. (Paris, 
n.d.); Portefeuille d'ornement (Paris, 1841). 

MISCELLANEOUS. Hertfelder, Basilica SS. Udalrici et Afrae 
(Augsburg, 1627); Masson, Neue Vorrisse von Sachen die auf allerlei 
Goldsmidts Arbeit, &c. (Augsburg, 1710) ; Christyn, Delices des Pays- 
Bas (1769), vol. iii. ;Frisi, Memorie della chiesa Monzese (1774-1780); 
Shaw, Ancient Plate from Oxford (1837) ; Du Sommerard, Les Arts au 
moyen age (1838-1848); Kratz, Der Dom zu Hildesheim (1840); 
Richardson, Old English Mansions and their Plate (1841-1848); 
Drawings and Sketches of Elizabethan Plate (London, n.d.); Tarb5, 
Tresors des eglises de Reims (1843); Smith, " Specimens of College 
Plate," Cam. Ant. Soc. (1845) ; Cahierand Martin, Melanges d'archeo- 
logie (1847-1856); Filimoroff, Plate, Jewellery, &c., in the Musee 
d'Armures at St Petersburg (Moscow, 1849); Schotel, La Coupe de 
van Nispen (1850); H. Emanuel, Catalogue of the Principal Works 
of Art in Gold, Silver and Jewels shown at the International Exhibition 
(1851); King, Metal Work of the Middle Ages (1852); Becker and 
Hefner- Alteneck, Kunstwerke und Gerdtschaften (Frankfort, 1852- 
'857); Fleury, Tresor de la cathedrale de Laon (1855); Heider, 
Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmale (1856-1860); Der Altaraufsatz zu 
Klosterneuburg (1860) ; Aus'm Weerth, Kunstdenkmaler des chrisllichen 
Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden (Leipzig, 1857-1860); Texier, 
Dictionnaire d'orfevrerie (1857); Bock, Das heilige Koln (1858); Der 
Reliquienschatz . . . zu Aachen (1860); Der Kronleuchter Kaisers 
Barbarossa zu Aachen (1864); Die Kleinodien des heil. romischen 
Reiches (1864); Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire du mobilier (1858- 
1875); Darcel, articles in Gaz. des beaux-arts, "L'Orfevrerie du 
moyen-age " (1859) iv. 224, " La Collection Soltykoff " (1861) 
Ix. 212, " Les Tresors de Cologne " (1861) xxiii. 98, " Les Tresors de 
la cathedrale de Reims" (1881) xxiii. 98; Way, "Gold Crowns 
from Toledo, and St Fillan's Crozier," in Arch. Journ. (1859), 
vol. xvi., and "Ancient Ornaments," ibid. vol. iii.; F. W. Fair- 
holt, Illustrated Catalogue of Lord Londesborough' s Collection of 
Plate (1860); De Lasteyrie, Tresor de Guarrazar (Paris, 1860); His- 
toire de I'orfevrerie (1875); Coussemaker, Orfevrerie du XIII' siecle 
(Paris, 1861); Linas, Orfevrerie merovingienne (1864); Labarte, 
Histoire des arts au moyen-age (1864-1866); Baldus, Recueil d'orne- 
ments (Paris, 1866), Quarterly Review, cxli. 353; Strada, Entwurfe 
fur Prachtgefdsse in Silber und Gold (Vienna, 1869); Zeitschrift des 
Kunst-Gewerbe-Vereins zu Munchen (1871); La Croix* Arts in the 
Middle Ages (1870); Keller, Autotypes of Italian Designs for Plate 
(London, 1871); Aubert, Tresor de I'abbaye d'Agaune (Paris, 1872); 
Kulmer, Die Kunst des Gold-Arbeiters, &c. (Weimar, 1872); Schorn, 
Kunst und Gewerbe (1874, seq.) ; Fabre, Tresor . . . des dues de Savoie 
(1875); Jacquemart, Histoire du mobilier (1876); Hirth, Formen- 
schatz der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1877, seq.); Danko, Graner Dom- 
schdtze (1880); Luthmer, Goldschmuck der Renaissance (Berlin, 
1 880) ; Wheatley and Delamotte, A rt Work in Gold and Silver ( 1 882) ; 
A. Heyden, Das Tafelsilber und Silberarbeiten ihrer kgl. Hoheiten des 
Prinzen u. der Prinzessin Wilhelm v. Preussen, Festgeschenk zu 
hochstderen Vermdhlung am 27. Februar 1881 dargebracht von preus- 
sischen Stadten (1883-1884) , J. and C. Je\dels,Catalogue of Collection 



804 



PLATEAU PLATEN-HALLERMUND 



of Plate, i6th-i8th Centuries (1883); Greco and Emanuel, Arts of the 
Goldsmith and Jeweller (1883); I. F. Sick, Notice sur les oumages en 
or et argent des rots de Denmark (1884); Julius Lessing, " Der Silber 
Altar in Riigenwalde," Konig. preuss. Kunstsammlungen Jahrbuch 
(1885), vi. 58; Gold und Silber (1907); C. Pulsky, E. Radisics and E. 
Molinier, Chefs-d'oeuvre d'orfevrerie ayant figure d I' exposition de Buda- 
pest (2 vols., 1886); R. von Kulmer, Handbuch fur Gold u. Silber- 
arbeiter u. Juweliere (1887); E. Molinier, " Le Tresor de Saint Marc 
a Venise," Gaz. des beaux-arts, 2nd series, vols. xxxv., xxxvii., xxxviii., 
3rd series, vol. i. (l 887-1 889) ; Le Tresor de la cathedrale de Coire (i 895) ; 
Catalogue of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild's collection of Objects of Art 
(1902) ; A. Darcel, " Les Collections Spitzer," Gaz. des beaux-arts, 2nd 
series, xxxviii. 225 (1888); L. Gmelin, Alte Handzeichnungen nach 
dem verlorenen Kirchenschatz der St-Michaels-Hofkirche zu Miinchen 
(1888); A. Ilg, Kunsthistorisches Hofmuseum, &c. (1891); Arbeiten 
der Goldschmiede- u. Steinschlifftechnik (1895); Kunsthistorische 
Sammlungen des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses: A rbeiten der Goldschmiede- 
und Steinschlifftechnik (1895); E. Marchal, La Sculpture et les chefs- 
d'oeuvre de I'orfevrerie beiges (1895); B. Czobor, Les Insignes royaux 
de Hongrie (1896); W. Froehner, Collections de chateau de Goluchow: 
I'orfevrerie (1897); R. Hausmann, Der Silberschatz der St Nickolai- 
kirche zu Reval (1899); Warner Silfersparres nya grafiska aktiebolag 
(Stockholm, 1900); F. R. Martin, Schwedische konigliche Geschenke 
an russische Zaren, 1647-1699 (1900); Danische Silberschatze aus 
der Zeit Christians IV. aufbewahrt in der kaiserlichen Schatzkammer 
zu Moskau (1900); J. Starkie Gardner, Catalogue of the Collection of 
Silversmiths' work of European Origin (Burlington Fine Arts Club, 
1901); A. Pit, Het goud en zilverwerk in net Nederlandsch Museum, 
&c. (1901); Kaiserliche Ermitage, St Petersburg, Fuhrer durch die 
Peter-GaUerie (1901); Illustrated Catalogue of the Waddesdon Bequest, 
British Museum (1902) ; H. L. Tilly, The Silver Work of Burma (1902) ; 
P. Eudel, L'Orfevrerie algerienne et tunisienne (1902) ; H. Barth, 
Das Geschmiede (1903); H. Wilson, Silverwork and Jewellery (1903); 
H. P. Mitchell, " A Medieval Silver Chalice from Iceland," Burlington 
Mag. (1903) ii. 70, 357; E. Ducharne and P. Vialettes, Manuel 
de I'orfevre: la garantie du litre des ouvrages d'or et d 'argent (1904); 
W. Stengel, Formalikonographie (Detailaufnahmen) der Gefdsse auf 
den Bildern der Anbetung der Konige (1904); " Le Mus6e Willet- 
Holthuysen: I'orfevrerie et 1'argenterie," Art flamand er hollandais 
(1905), iv. 29; O. M. Dalton, Treasure of the Oxus (1905); H. H. 
Cunynghame, European Enamels (1906); Rosenberg, Geschichte der 
Goldschmiedekunst auf technischer Grundlage, Abteilung: Niello 
(1907); ibid. Abteilung: Aushangebogen (1908); Nelson Dawson, 
Goldsmiths' and Silversmiths' Work (1907) ; " Ecclesiastical Gold- 
smiths' Work in the Coast Townsof Istria and Dalmatia," The Builder, 
xciii. nos. 3384 and 3385; L. Forrer, Dictionary of Medallists, &c. 
(in progress), 8 vols. ; T. Olrik, Drikkehorn (wassail horns), in progress; 
Thieme and Becker, Allgemeines Lexikon der bildenden Kunstler von 
der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. (E. A. J.) 

PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883), 
Belgian physicist, was born at Brussels on the i4th of October 
1801, and died on the isth of September 1883 at Ghent, where he 
had been professor of physics from 1835. He was a pupil 
and friend of L. A. J. Quetelet, who had much influence on the 
early part of his career. The more original investigations of 
Plateau refer chiefly to portions of one or other of two branches 
of science physiological optics and molecular forces. We owe 
to him the " stroboscopic " method of studying the motion of a 
vibrating body, by looking at it through equidistant radial slits 
in a revolving disk. In 1829 he imprudently gazed at the 
midday sun for 20 seconds, with the view of studying the after 
effects. The result was blindness for some days, succeeded by 
a temporary recovery; but for the next fourteen years his sight 
gradually deteriorated, and in 1843 he became permanently 
blind. This calamity did not interrupt his scientific activity. 
Aided by his wife and son, and afterwards by his son-in-law 
G. L. van der Mensbrugghe, he continued to the end of his life his 
researches on vision directing the course of the experiments 
which they made for him, and interpreting the bearing of the 
results. He also published a valuable analytical catalogue of 
all the more important memoirs which had been written, from 
the earliest times to the end of the i8th century, on his favourite 
theme of subjective visual phenomena. But even more extra- 
ordinary were this blind man's investigations about molecular 
forces, embracing hundreds of novel experiments whose results 
he saw only with others' eyes. These form the subject of his 
great work Statique experimental et theorique des liquides soumis 
aux seules forces moleculaires (2 vols., 1873), a valuable contribu- 
tion to our knowledge of capillary phenomena. His son, Felix 
Auguste Joseph Plateau (b. 1841), became professor of zoology 
and comparative anatomy at Ghent in 1870. 



PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of 
wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat), in physical geography, an 
elevated region of level or gently undulating land-surface, the 
term being synonymous with " table-land." The most clearly 
defined plateaus have steep flanks in contrast with their level 
summits, but the term does not necessarily connote a steep 
ascent from the surrounding country. Indeed, it is applied to 
such diverse forms as the high-lying plains encircled by the 
higher elevations of the Andes, and to those of the west of North 
America, which rise almost imperceptibly from the low central 
plains. A plateau may have its origin either in the upheaval 
of strata which preserve their original horizontal position during 
the process, or in the prolonged denudation of an originally broken 
surface. The two forms are distinguished respectively as Plateaus 
of Deposition and Plateaus of Erosion. 

PLATED WARE, articles chiefly intended for table use 
consisting of an inferior metal or alloy covered by one of the 
precious metals, with the object of giving them the appearance 
of gold or silver. Before the introduction of electro-plating the 
method employed for silver-plating (the invention of which in 
1742 is associated with the name of Thomas Bolsover, of 
Sheffield) was to fuse or burn together, by a flux of borax, a 
thin sheet of silver on each side of an ingot of base metal, gener- 
ally copper, or German silver, which is an alloy of copper. The 
silver plates were firmly wired to the ingot, which was then 
placed in a heated furnace and brought nearly to the fusing- 
point of the silver. The artisan knew the exact moment to 
withdraw the ingot. When cold it was rolled down to a 
sheet, and from such sheets " silver-plated " articles were made. 
Articles like dish-covers were originally only silver-plated on 
one side, and after being worked into shape were tinned inside 
with pure tin. In Birmingham bar-copper was the base metal 
used; when bare of silver this showed blood-red. The Sheffield 
manufacturers, on the other hand, used shot-copper mixed with 
brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) in the proportion of 4 or 6 to i. 
In this way they got rid of the redness of the copper and rendered 
it harder, and their product is the " old Sheffield plate " (q.v.) 
that has become famous all over the world. This method of 
plating rapidly declined with the introduction of the newer 
process of electro-plating (q.v.), by which it has been superseded. 
Plating with nickel is extensively used for bedsteads and other 
articles of upholstery, and for various parts of bicycles, steam- 
ships, railway carriages, &c. Steel sheets are also plated with 
nickel for cooking purposes, and iron is plated with brass. 

PLATEN-HALLERMUND, AUGUST, GRAF VON (1796- 
1835), German poet and dramatist, was born on the 24th of 
October 1796 at Ansbach, the son of the Oberforstmeister in the 
little principality of that name. The latter, together with other 
Franconian principalities, having shortly after his birth become 
incorporated with Bavaria, he entered the school of cadets 
(Kadeltenhaus) in Munich, where he showed early promise of 
poetical talent. In 1810 he passed into the royal school of pages 
(konigliche Pagerie), and in 1814 was appointed lieutenant in the 
regiment of Bavarian life-guards. With it he took part in the 
short campaign in France of 1815, being in bivouac for several 
months near Mannheim and in the department of the Yonne. 
He saw no fighting, however, and returned home with his regi- 
ment towards the close of the same year. Possessed of an 
intense desire for study, and finding garrison life distasteful and 
irksome, he obtained a long leave of absence, and after a tour in 
Switzerland and the Bavarian Alps, entered the university of 
Wurzburg in 1818 as a student of philosophy and philology. In 
the following year he migrated to that of Erlangen, where he 
sat at the feet of F. W. J. von Schelling, and became one of his 
most enthusiastic admirers. As a result of his Oriental studies 
he published a little volume of poems Ghaselen (1821), each 
consisting of ten to twenty verses, in which he imitates the style 
of Ruckert'-Lyrische Blatter (1821); Spiegel der Hasis (1822); 
Vermischte Schriften (1822); and Neue Ghaselen (1823). These 
productions attracted the attention of eminent men of letters, 
among them Goethe, both by reason of their contents, which 
breathe the spirit of the East, and also of the purity and elegance 



PLATERSPIEL PLATINUM 



805 



of their form and diction. Though he was at first influenced 
by the school of Romanticism, and particularly by Spanish 
models, yet the plays written during his university life at 
Erlangen, Der gldserne Panto/el, Der Schatz des Rhampsinit, 
Berengar, Treue urn Treue, Der Turm mil sieben Pforten, show a 
clearness of plot and expression foreign to the Romantic style. 
His antagonism to the literature of his day became more and 
more pronounced, and he vented his indignation at the want 
of' art shown by the later Romanticists, the inanity of the 
lyricists, and the bad taste of the so-called fate tragedies 
(Schicksalstragodien), in the witty " Aristophanic " comedies 
Die -oerhangnisvolle Gabel (1826) and Der romantische Oedipus 
(1828). 

The want of interest, amounting even to hostility, with which 
Platen's enthusiasm for the purity and dignity of poetry was 
received in many literary circles in Germany increased the 
poet's indignation and disgust. In 1826 he visited Italy, which 
he henceforth made his home, living at Florence, Rome and 
Naples. His means were slender, but, though frequently 
necessitous, he felt happy in the life he had chosen, that of a 
" wandering rhapsodist." Der romantische Oedipus earned for 
him the bitter enmity of Karl Immermann and Heinrich Heine, 
and in the literary feud which ensued Heine launched the most 
baseless calumnies at the poet, which had the effect of prejudicing 
public opinion against . him. But he retained many stanch 
admirers, who delighted in the purity of the subject matter of 
his productions and their beauty of form and diction. In 
Naples, where he formed the friendship of August Kopisch, the 
poet and painter, were written his last drama Die Liga von 
Cambrai (1833) and the delightful epic fairy-tale Die Abbassiden 
(1830; 1834), besides numerous lyrical poems, odes and ballads. 
He also essayed historical work in a fragment, Geschichten des 
Konigreichs Neapel (1838), without, however, achieving any 
marked success. In 1832 his father died, and after an absence 
of eight years Platen returned to Germany tor a while, and in 
the winter of 1832-1833 lived at Munich, where he revised the first 
complete edition of his poems, Gedichle (1833). In the summer 
of 1834 he returned to Italy, and, after living in Florence and 
Naples, proceeded in 1835 to Sicily. Dread of the cholera, 
which was at that time very prevalent, induced him to move 
from place to place, and in November of that year he was 
taken ill at Syracuse, where he died on the 5th of December 
1835. Like Heine himself, Platen failed in the drama, but his 
odes and sonnets, to which must be added his Polenlieder 
(1831), in which he gives vent to his warm sympathy for the 
Poles in their rising against the rule of the Tsar, are in language 
and metre so artistically finished as to rank among the best 
classical poems of modern times. 

Platen's Gesammelte Werke were first published in one volume in 
1819 and have been frequently reprinted; a convenient edition 
is that edited by K. Goedeke in Cotta's Bibliothek der Welthteratur 
(4 vols., 1882). His Tagebuch (1796-1825), was published in its 
entirety by G. von Laubmann and L. von Schemer (2 vols., 1896- 
1900). See J. Minckwitz, Graf Platen als Mensch und Dichter 
(18-58)- P Besson, Platen, etude biographique et litteraire (1894); 
O Greulich, Platens Literaturkomodien (1901); A. Fries, Platen- 
Forschungen (1903); and R. Unger, Platen in seinem Verhaltms zu 
Goethe (1903). 

PLATERSPIEL, BLATERPFEIFE, a medieval simplified bagpipe, 
consisting of an insufflation tube, a bladder and a chaunter; 
the double reed in its socket at the top of the chaunter 
being concealed within the bladder. In the platerspiel we 
recognise the early medieval chorus, a word which in medieval 
Latin was frequently used also for the bagpipe. In the earlier 
forms of platerspiels of which we possess illustrations, such as 
the well-known example of the i3th century reproduced by 
Martin Gerbert from a MS. at St Blasius, the bladder is unusually 
large, and the cbaunter has, instead of a bell, the grotesque 
head of an animal .with gaping jaws. At first the chaunter 
was a straight conical tube terminating in a bell, as in the 
bagpipe. The later instruments have a pipe of larger calibre 
more or less curved and bent back as in the cromorne. One o 
these appears in the 13th-century Spanish MS., known as the 



'anligas de Santa Maria 1 in the Escurial, together with a 
laterspiel having two pipes, a chaunter and a drone side by 
ide. Another is figured by Virdung (1511). 

There was practically no technical difference between the bent 
^laterspiel and the cromorne, the only distinction being the form 
ind size of the air-chamber in which the reed was set in vibration 
>y the compressed air forced into it through the insufflation tube 
>r the raised slit respectively of the two instruments. The earlier 
orm of platerspiel is found at the end of the I5th century, in the 
magnificent Book of Hours, known as the Sforza Book 1 (Brit. Mus.). 
An interesting allusion to the platerspiel occurs in an old English 
>allad. 3 Eight shepherds were playing on various instruments: 
' the fyrst ned ane drone bagpipe, the next hed ane pipe maid 
of ane bleddir and of ane reid, the thrid playit on ane trump, &c.," 
rom which it is evident that the platerspiel retained its individu- 
ality and did not become merged in the bagpipe. (K. S.) 

PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan), a word now 
generally confined to a raised flat structure or stage, temporary 
or permanent, erected in a building or in the open air, from which 
speeches, addresses, lectures, &c., can be delivered at a public 
or other meeting. Similar structures of wood, brick or stone, 
are used in railway stations at such a level above the rails as to 
enable passengers to have easy access to the carriages; and in 
brtification the word is used of the raised level surface on which 
juns are mounted. The earlier uses of the word, such as for a 
Diane geometrical figure, the ground plan of a building, and 
iguratively, for a plan, design, scheme, &c., are now obsolete, 
[n a figurative sense the term is applied to a common basis on 
which members of a political party may agree, and especially 
in the United States to the declaration made by a party at a 
national or state convention. 

PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 195-0 (O=i6)], a 
metallic chemical element. The name, derived from plalina, the 
diminutive of Span, plata (silver), was first given to a mineral, 
pla.tinum ore or native platinum, originally discovered in 
South America, from the resemblance to silver. Russia 
furnishes about 95% of the world's annual supply of platinum. 

Native platinum occurs usually in small metallic scales or 
flat grains, sometimes in the form of irregular nuggets, and 
occasionally, though rarely, in small crystals belonging to the 
cubic system. Grains of platinum have been found embedded, 
with cbromite, in serpentine derived from an olivine-rock, the 
metal having probably separated out from an original basic 
magma. It is said to occur also in veins in syenitic and other 
rocks. Usually, however, platinum is found in detrital deposits, 
especially in auriferous sands, where it is associated with osmiri- 
dium (known also as iridosmine), chromite, magnetite, corundum, 
zircon, &c. The platinum has a steel grey or silver-white colour 
and a metallic lustre; is often magnetic, sometimes with polarity; 
has a hardness of about 4-5 and a specific gravity varying with 
its composition from 14 to 19. Native platinum usually con- 
tains more or less iron and copper, often gold, and invariably a 
small proportion of some of the allied metals indium, osmium, 
ruthenium, rhodium and palladium. From the associated 
metals it was named by J. F. L. Hausmann polyxene (Gr. iro\vs, 
many, and ew>s, a guest), whilst from its occurrence as a white 
metal in auriferous alluvia it is sometimes known to miners as 
" white gold." 

Plalina del Pinto was the name by which native platinum 
was first introduced into Europe from South America about 
the middle of the i8th century. Although it appears to have 
been known locally much earlier, the attention of scientific men in 
Europe was first directed to it by Antonio de Ulloa y Garcia de. 
La Torre, a Spaniard who joined a French scientific expedition 
to Peru in 1735, and published in 1748 an account of his 
journey, in which he refers to platinum, though not under that 
name, as occurring with gold in New Granada (now Colombia). 
Sir William Watson, an English physicist, had, however, in 
1741 received some grains of the mineral, probably from the 

1 Reproduced by J. F. Riano, in Studies of Early Spanish Music 
(London, 1887). 

2 See facsimile edited by Dr George Warner, pi. xxvm. fol. 51. 

3 See F. J. Furnivall, Captain Cox, his ballads and Books, or 
Robert Laneh'am's Letter A.D. 1575 (London, 1871), clx. 86. 



8o6 



PLATINUM 



same locality, though brought by way of Jamaica; and it was 
he who first described it in 1750 as a new metal. 

Native platinum was discovered in 1819 in the gold washings 
of Verkhniy-Isetsk, in the Urals, but it was not until 1822 that 
its true nature was recognized. The chief Russian localities 
are in the districts of Nizhne Tagilsk and Goroblagodatsk, 
where it is found in shallow drift deposits, containing pebbles of 
serpentine, which represent the original matrix. The Iset 
district has acquired importance in recent years. Although the 
platinum-bearing gravels usually contain a very small propor- 
tion of the metal, the average in 1895 being only 15 dwt. to the 
ton, rich discoveries have occasionally been made in the history 
of the workings, and nuggets of exceptional size have been 
unearthed. The largest recorded specimens are one of 310 oz. 
from Nizhne Tagilsk, and another of 72^ oz. from the Goro- 
blagodatsk district. 

In 1831 platinum ore was recognized in the gold-bearing 
deposits of Borneo, where it had previously been regarded as 
worthless, being known to the natives as mas kodok (frog gold). 
Although recorded from various parts of the island, its occur- 
rence seems to be definitely known only in Tanah-Laut, in the 
south-east of Borneo. In Australia platinum ore has been found 
near Fifield (near Condobolin), New South Wales; whilst in New 
Zealand it occurs in sands and gravels in the Thames gold-field, 
the Takaka River and the Gorge River flowing into Awarua 
' Bay. Many localities in North America have yielded platinum, 
generally in beach sands or in auriferous alluvia, and in some 
cases the deposits are of commercial importance. The metal is 
found in Alaska, British Columbia, Oregon (Douglas county) and 
California (Butte county, Trinity county, Del Norte county). 
It has been recorded also from the states of New York and North 
Carolina. In a nickeliferous sulphide ore worked at Sudbury, 
in Ontario, platinum has been discovered in the form of an 
arsenide (Pt As 2 ), which has been called sperrylite by H. L. Wells, 
who analysed it in 1889, and named it after F. L. Sperry, of 
Sudbury. It belongs to the pyrites group, and is interesting 
as being the only known mineral in which platinum occurs in 
combination except as alloy. 

Native platinum seems to be a mineral of rather wide distri- 
bution, but in very sparse quantity. The sands of the Rhine, 
derived from Alpine rocks, have been found to contain plati- 
num in the proportion of 0-0004%. It has also been found in 
the sands of the Ivalo River in Lapland; it is recorded from 
Rb'ros in Norway; and it was detected by W. Mallet in some of 
the gold-sands of the streams in Co. Wicklow, Ireland. 

The table shows the official amount (in ounces Troy) of 
platinum produced in Russia for certain years, the actual amounts 
are much larger: 



Year. 


Amount. 


Year. 


Amount. 


1890 

1895 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 


116,640 

141,757 
163,060 
203,257 
197,024 
192,976 


1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 


161,950 
167,950 
185,492 
172,758 
157,005 



(Rothwell's Mineral Industry, 1908.) 
Platinum is largely used for the manufacture of chemical 
apparatus, incandescent lamps, thermo-couples; in the manu- 
facture of sulphuric acid by the contact process, in photography, 
and in jewelry. The price of the metal has risen considerably, 
not so much on account of the restricted supply, but chiefly 
because the sources of supply have passed into the hands of a 
few individuals. The following data show the fluctuations in 
the average price of platinum ingot per once Troy: 
s. d. s. d. 

1874-1898: I 5 2 tO 2 2 O 

1899-1905: 3 13 6 4 'O 4 

1906: 4 15 2 7 19 8 

1907: 700,, 6 18 8 

1908: 526 (average) price. 

Platinum may be extracted from its ore by both wet and dry 

processes. In the latter method, due to H. Sainte-Claire-Devillc 

and H. J. Debray, the ore is smelted in a furnace constructed of 

two blocks of lime, and the metallic button so obtained is 



re-melted in a reverberatpry furnace with galena or litharge, the 
lead platinum alloy being then cupeled, and the platinum 
used into an ingot by re-smelting in a lime furnace (see 
Dingler's Polytech. Journ. 1859, 153, p. 38; 1859, 154, p. 383, 
1862, 165, p. 205). The platinum so obtained is not pure. In 
Wollaston's wet method the ore is dissolved in aqua regia, the 
osniiridium, ruthenium and rhodium being left unattacked, and 
the platinum precipitated as ammonium platinochloride by adding 
ammonium chloride in the presence of an excess of acid. The 
double chloride is then washed, dried and ignited, leaving a residue 
of metal. G. Matthey (Chem. News, 1879, 39, p. 175) obtains pure 
platinum from the commercial metal by fusing the latter with a 
large excess of lead. The lead alloy is then treated with a dilute 
nitric acid and the insoluble portion taken up in dilute aqua regia. 
From the solution so obtained lead is precipitated as sulphate, 
and platinum and rhodium as double ammonium chlorides. The 
rhodium ammonium chloride is converted by fusing with potassium 
and ammonium bisulphates into rhodium sulphate, which is then 
removed by extraction with water, when a residue of finely divided 
platinum remains. The German firm of Heraus (in Hanover) 
heat the raw ore with aqua regia and water under pressure, 
evaporate the solution to dryness, and heat the residue to 125 C. 
A clear aqueous extract of the residue is then acidified with hydro- 
chloric, acid and precipitated with ammonium chloride. The 
double chloride is ignited and the finely divided platinum so 
obtained is fused in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe. 

Platinum is a greyish-white metal which is exceedingly 
malleable and ductile; the addition of a small quantity of 
iridium hardens it and diminishes its ductility very considerably. 
Its specific gravity is 20-85 to 21-71, and its mean specific heat 
from o to 100 C. is 0-0323 (J. Violle, Camples rendus, 1877, 85, 
P- 543); W. P. White (Amer. Journ. Sci., 1909, iv. 28, p. 334) 
gives the general formula S t = 0-03 198+3 -4Xio~ 6 <. S, being 
the specific heat at <C. Its temperature of fusion is in the 
neighbourhood of 1700 to i8ooC., various intermediate values 
having been obtained by different investigators (see J. A. 
Harker, Chem. News, 1905, 91, p. 262 ; C. Fery and C. Cheneveau, 
Comptes rendus, 1909, 148, p. 401; also C. W. Waidner and G. H. 
Burgess, ibid., 1909, 148, p. 1177). Its latent heat of fusion is 
27-18 calories (Violle, loc. cit). The metal has been obtained 
in the crystalline condition by distillation in the electric furnace, 
or by decomposing its fluoride at a red heat (H. Moissan). 
Platinum, like palladium, absorbs large quantities of hydrogen 
and other gases, the occluded gas then becoming more "active"; 
for this reason platinum is used largely as a catalytic agent. 
Several forms of platinum, other than the massive form, may be 
obtained. Spongy platinum is produced when ammonium 
platinochloride is ignited; platinum black on the reduction 
of acid solutions of platinum salts; and colloidal platinum by 
passing an electric arc between two platinum wires under the 
surface of pure water (G. Bredig, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1901, 37, 
pp. i, 323). Platinum is practically unoxidizable ; it combines 
directly with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, silicon, boron, and 
fluorine, and with almost all other metals. It is practically 
unattacked by all acids, dissolving only in aqua regia or in 
mixtures which generate chlorine. When fused with alkaline 
hydroxides in the presence of air it forms platinates. It is 
readily attacked by fused nitrates, and by potassium cyanide 
and ferrocyanide. All the platinum compounds when heated 
strongly decompose, and leave a residue of the metal. Of 
platinum salts, in the true sense of the word, none exist; there 
is no carbonate, nitrate, sulphate, &c; halide salts, however, 
are known, but are obtained in an indirect manner. 

Platinum monoxide, PtO, obtained by heating the corresponding 
hydrate, is a dark-coloured powder which is easily reduced to the 
metal (L. Wohler, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 3475). The hydrated form, 
PtO-2H 2 O, is obtained impure by precipitating the dichloride with 
caustic soda, or by adding caustic soda to a boiling solution of 
potassium platinous chloride, K 2 PtCl 4 , the precipitate being rapidly 
washed and dried in vacua (L. Wohler, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1904, 40, 
p. 423). It is a black powder; when freshly prepared it is soluble 
in concentrated acids, but when dried it is insoluble. It is an acidic 
oxide, the dioxide being both acidic and basic. It behaves as a 
strong oxidizing and reducing agent. C. Engler and L. Wohler 
(Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1901, 29, p. i) have shown that platinum 
black, containing occluded oxygen, is soluble in dilute hydro- 
chloric acid and also liberates iodine from potassium iodide, and 
that the ratio between the amount of platinum dissolved and the 
amount of oxygen occluded agrees with the formation of a compound 
corresponding to the formula PtO. Platinum dioxide (platinic 



PLATINUM 



807 



oxide), PtO 2 '4H 2 p, is obtained by adding an excess of caustic soda 
solution to a boiling solution of chlorplatinic acid, the hot solution 
being diluted and neutralized with acetic acid. It loses its water 
of hydration when heated, finally decomposing into platinum and 
oxygen. When freshly prepared it is soluble in dilute acids. Other 
hydrated forms of composition, PtO 2 -3H 2 O and PtO 2 -2H 2 O, have been 
described (E. Prost, Bull. soc. chim., 1886, 46, p. 156; H. Topsoe, 
Ber., 1870, 3, p. 462). The tetrahydrate may be considered as an 
acid, H 2 Pt(OH)e, for salts are known (namely the platinates) corre- 
sponding to it, those of the alkali metals being soluble in water, 
and possessing an alkaline reaction (M. Blondel, Ann. chim. phys., 
1905 [viii.], 6, p. 81). A similar set of chlorine-holding compounds 
is also known, the chlorine replacing one or more hydroxyl groups 
and giving rise to complexes of composition, H 2 [PtCl 6 (OH)], 
H 2 [PtCl 4 (OH) 2 ], H 2 [PtCl 2 (OH)J and H 2 [PtCl(OH) 6 ]. The platinic 
salts (derived from PtO 2 ) are yellow or brown solids, which are 
readily reduced to the metallic condition. They give with sulphu- 
retted hydrogen a dark brown precipitate, soluble in excess of 
ammonium sulphide. Potassium iodide gives a brown solution 
with gradual formation of a precipitate. They form characteristic 
precipitates with potassium and ammonium chlorides. The 
platinous salts are brown or colourless solids which, with sulphu- 
retted hydrogen, give a dark brown precipitate of platinum sulphide, 
and with potassium iodide a gradual precipitation of platinic 
iodide, PtI 2 . Platinum trioxide, PtOj, is obtained as K 2 O-3PtO 3 , by 
electrolysing a solution of platinic hydroxide in potash, this 
compound with acetic acid giving the oxide as a brown, easily 
decomposable powder (L. Wohler and F. Martin, Ber., 1909, 42, 
P- 3326). 

Platinum bichloride, PtCU, is obtained by heating chlorplatinic 
acid to 300-350 C. (J. J. Berzelius), or, mixed with more or less 
platinic chlorine, by passing chlorine over spongy platinum at a 
temperature of 250 C. (P. Schutzenberger, Comptes rendus, 1870, 
70, pp. 1134, 1287). It may also be obtained by the decomposition 
of the compound HCl-PtCl 2 -2H 2 O (see below) at 100 C., this method 
giving a very pure product (L. F. Nilson, Journ. prak. Chem., 1877 
{2), 15, p. 260). It is a brown or greyish green coloured solid, which 
is soluble in hydrochloric acid. It decomposes into its constituent 
elements when heated. It combines with many chlorides to form 
characteristic double salts. Platinum bichloride combines with 
carbon monoxide, yielding compounds of composition, PtCl 2 .CO, 
PtCl 2 -2CO, 2PtCl 2 -3CO (P. Schutzenberger, Ann. chim. phys., 1870 
(4), 21, p. 350). Hydrogen platinochloride or chlorplatinous acid, 
H 2 PtCl4, is only known in solution, and as such is obtained when 
platinum bichloride is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, or by decom- 
posing the barium salt with sulphuric acid, or the silver salt with 
hydrochloric acid. Its salts, the platinochlorides or chlorplatinites, 
are obtained by reducing the chlorplatinates or directly from the 
acid itself. They are mostly soluble in water giving red solutions. 
They are readily oxidized, and nascent hydrogen reduces them 
to metallic platinum. Potassium platinochloride or chlorplatinite, 
KoPtCh, is prepared by reducing hydrogen platinichloride with 
sulphur dioxide, or potassium platinichloride with potassium oxalate 
in the presence of iridium (Klason, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1360); or by 
adding potassium chloride to a solution of platinum bichloride in 
hydrochloric acid. It crystallizes in dark red prisms, is readily 
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. The solution of the 
free acid when concentrated in vacua leaves a residue of 
HCl.PtCl 2 .2H 2 O. When the free acid is reduced by alcohol, or 
when ethylene is passed into a solution of platinum bichloride in 
hydrochloric acid, PtCU-Cjr^ is obtained as a brown amorphous 
mass which decomposes when heated. When the bichloride is 
heated in a current of carbon monoxide, a sublimate of platino- 
monocarbonyl dichloride, PtCl 2 CO, dicarbonyl dichloride,PtCl 2 (CO) 2 , 
and tricarbonyl tetrachloride, Pt 2 CU(CO) 3 , is obtained. The first 
forms bright yellow needles and the second white acicular crystals. 
The bichloride also combines with phosgene to form PtCl 2 .2COCl 2 . 

Platinic chloride, PtCU, is obtained when chlorplatinic acid is 
heated in a current of dry hydrochloric acid gas to 165 C. (W. 
Pullinger, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1892, 61, p. 422) or in a current of dry 
chlorine at 275 C. (A. Rosenheim and W. Lowenstamm, Zeit. 
anorg. Chem., 1903, 37, p. 394). It forms a reddish brown crystalline 
mass which is very hygroscopic. Numerous hydrates are known. 
The chloride is characterized by the readiness with which it forms 
double salts with the metallic chlorides and with the hydrochlorides 
of most organic bases. Chlorplatinic acid, H 2 PtCl6-6H 2 O, is obtained 
by dissolving platinum in aqua regia containing an excess of hydro- 
chloric acid, or by the action of chlorine (dissolved in hydrochloric 
acid) on platinum sponge. It crystallizes in needles, which are very 
deliquescent and dissolve easily in water. It melts in its own water 
of crystallization at 70 C., and when heated in vacua to 100 C. it 
leaves a residue of composition HCl.PtCl4.2H 2 O. The potassium and 
ammonium salts and the salts it forms with organic bases are char- 
acterized by their exceedingly small solubility in water. The aqueous 
solution of the acid reddens litmus and decomposes the metallic car- 
bonates. Its salts may be prepared by the direct action of the acid 
on the metallic hydroxides or carbonates, and are usually of an 
orange or yellow colour and are mostly soluble in water. Potassium 
chlorplatinate, K 2 PtCle, is obtained, in the form of a yellow crystal- 
line precipitate, when a concentrated solution of a potassium salt 



is added to a solution of chlorplatinic acid. It crystallizes in 
pctahedra which are scarcely soluble in water, and practically 
insoluble in absolute alcohol. It decomposes at a red heat into 
platinum, chlorine and potassium chloride. The corresponding 
sodium salt, Na 2 PtCle.6H 2 O, is much more soluble in water and in 
alcohol. The ammonium salt, (NH^PtCle, resembles the potas- 
sium salt in its solubility in water and in alcohol. Corresponding 
bromo- and iodo- compounds are known. Platinum bifluoride and 
tetrafluoride, PtF 2 and PtF, were obtained simultaneously by H. 
Moissan (Ann. chim. phys., 1894 (6), 24, p. 282) by the action of 
fluorine on platinum at 500-600 C. They may be separated by 
taking advantage of their different solubilities in water. 

Platinum monosulphide, PtS, is obtained by the direct union of 
platinum and sulphur ; by heating ammonium chlorplatinate with sul 
phur; or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on the chlorplati- 
nites. It is a dark coloured powder which is almost insoluble in 
aqua regia. It decomposes when heated strongly leaving a residue 
of metallic platinum, the same reduction taking place at com- 
paratively low temperatures when it is heated in a current of 
hydrogen. Platinic sulphide, PtSj, is formed when the chlor- 
platinates are heated with sulphuretted hydrogen to 60 C. The 
precipitate must be rapidly washed and dried in vacua, since it 
oxidizes rapidly on exposure to air. It is a black powder, which 
when heated strongly in air decomposes and leaves a residue of 
platinum, but if heated in absence of air leaves a residue of the 
monosulphide. It is scarcely affected by acids and is little soluble 
in solutions of the alkaline sulphides. Sulphides of composition 
Pt 2 S 3 and PtsSe have been described (R. Schneider, Pogg. Ann., 
1869, 138, p. 604; 1873, 148, p. 633; 1873, 149, p. 381). A salt 
of composition, Pt(OH)4.H 2 S04.H 2 O, has been prepared by M. 
Blondel (Ann. chim. phys., 1905, (8), 6, p. 81) by the solution of the 
hydrate H 2 Pt(OH) 6 , i.e. PtO 2 -4H 2 O, in dilute sulphuric acid (1:1) 
at O C. On the addition of cold concentrated sulphuric acid to 
the solution so obtained, the above salt is precipitated in the form 
of minute needles, which readily decompose in the presence of 
water. A platinum sulphate, Pt(SO 4 ) 2 .2H 2 O, has been obtained 
by L. Stuchlik (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 2913) by the action of sulphuric 
acid (s.g. 1-84) on platinum under the influence of an alternating 
current. A crystalline precipitate is obtained, which is soluble 
in water and is very hygroscopic. 

The platinonitrites of composition M 2 Pt(NO 2 )4 are mostly obtained 
by double decomposition from the potassium salt, which is formed 
by adding a warm aqueous solution of potassium nitrite to 
one of potassium chlorplatinate. They are mostly colourless or 
pale yellow solids which are more or less soluble in water (L. F. 
Nilson, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1722). The corresponding platino-oxalajtes 
M 2 Pt(C 2 O 4 ) 2 were first obtained by J. W. Dobereiner (Pogg. Ann., 
1833, 104, p. 180) and their constitution was determined by H. G. 
Soderbaum (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 567 R; Zeit. anorg. Client., 1894, 6, 
p. 45). The sodium salt, from which the others are obtained by 
double decomposition, is formed by adding a warm solution of oxalic 
acid to sodium platinate. On recrystallization from alkaline 
solutions the salts are obtained in yellow or orange crystals (see 
M. Vezes, Bull. soc. chim., 1898 (3), 19, p. 875). These salts are 
scarcely soluble in water and decompose explosively when suddenly 
heated. The free acid is obtained by decomposing the silver salt 
with hydrochloric acid, the indigo blue solution so obtained on 
concentration in vacua yielding a red crystalline mass, which dis- 
solves in water with an indigo blue colour, changing to yellow on 
dilution. 

Platinum cyanide, Pt(CN) 2 , is formed by the addition of mercuric 
cyanide to a solution of a chlorplatinite, or by the decomposition 
of mercury or ammonium platinocyanide by heat. It is an amor- 
phous powder which is insoluble in water, acids or alkalis, but is 
soluble in a solution of hydrocyanic acid. It burns when heated. 
The platinocyanides are derived from the acid H 2 Pt(CN)e, 
which is formed by the decomposition of the mercury or copper- 
salt with sulphuretted hydrogen, or of the barium salt with 
sulphuric acid. It crystallizes from water in cinnabar-red prisms 
which contain five molecules of water of crystallization; in the 
anhydrous condition it is of a yellowish green colour. It decom- 
poses carbonates. Its salts, which are characterized by the property 
of polychroism, may be prepared by the usjial methods, or by the 
solution of metallic platinum in the alkaline cyanides or alkaline 
earth cyanides under the influence of an alternating current (A. 
Brochet and J. Petit, Ann. chim. phys., 1904 (8), 3, p. 460; M. 
Berthelot, Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 1130). Those of the 
alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. Many combine 
with the halogen elements to form complex salts of the type 
M 2 Pt(CN) 4 .Cl 2 . x H 2 O. By the decomposition of the barium salts 
of this type, addition products of the free acid, of composition 
H 2 Pt(CN)4.Cl 2 .4H 2 O and H 2 Pt(CN) 4 .Br 2 , have been obtained (C. 
Blomstrand, Ber., 1869, 2, p. 202). They are deliquescent solids 
which are exceedingly soluble in water. Potassium platinocyanide, 
K 2 Pt(CN)4-3H 2 O, is obtained by dissolving platinum bichloride 
in potassium cyanide; by heating potassium ferrocyanide with 
spongy platinum; or by heating ammonium chlorplatinate with 
potassium cyanide. It crystallizes in needles which effloresce readily. 
The dry salt is exceedingly hygroscopic and is very soluble in 
water. When boiled with aqua regia it forms the chlorine addition 



8o8 



PLATO 



product, K a Pt(CN)i.Cl 2 .2H 2 O. It combines directly with iodine. 
Barium platinocyanide, BaPt(CN)4.4H 2 O, is prepared by the action 
of t baryta water on the copper salt; by dissolving platinum in 
barium cyanide under the influence of an alternating current; by 
the addition of barium cyanide to platinum bichloride; or by the 
simultaneous action of hydrocyanic and sulphurous acids on a 
mixture of baryta and chlorplatinic acid (P. Bergsoe, Zeit. anorg. 
Chem., 1899, 19, p. 318). It crystallizes in yellow monoclimc 
prisms and is soluble in hot water. It is employed for the manu- 
facture of fluorescent screens used for the detection of X-rays. 

The platinum salts combine with ammonia to form numerous 
derivatives which can be considered as salts of characteristic bases. 
The first compound of this type was isolated in 1828 by Magnus, 
who obtained a green salt by the action of ammonia on platinum 
bichloride. Two series of these salts are known, one in which the 
metal corresponds to bivalent platinum, the other in which it 
corresponds to tetravalent platinum. The general formulae of 
the groups in each series are shown below, the method of classi- 
fication being that due to Werner. 



Divalent (platinous) Salts. 


Tetravalent (platinic) Salts. 


Tetrammine salts[Pt(NH 3 )4]X 2 
Triammine [Pt(NH 3 ) 3 X]X 
Diammine [Pt(NH 3 ) 2 X 2 ] 
Monammine [Pt(NH 3 )X 3 ]R 


Hexammine salts[Pt(NH 3 ) 6 ]X 4 
Tetrammine [Pt(NH 3 ) 4 X 2 ]X 2 
Triammine [Pt(NH 3 ) 3 X 3 ]X 
Diammine [Pt(NH 3 ) 2 X 4 ] 
Monammine [Pt(NH 3 )X 6 ]R 



In the above table X represents a monovalent acid radical and 
R a monovalent basic radical. For methods of preparation of 
salts of these series see P. T. Cleve, Bull. soc. chim. 1867 et seq.; 
S. M. Jorgensen, Journ. prak. Chem. 1877 et seq.; C.W. Blomstrand, 
Ber. 1871 et seq.; and A. Werner, Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1893 et seq. 
A very complete account of the method of classification and 
the general theory of the metal ammonia compounds is given 
by A. Werner, Ber. 1907, 40, p. 15. 

Platinum also forms a series of complex phosphorus compounds. 
At 250 finely divided platinum and phosphorus pentachloride 
combine to form Ptda.PCls, as dark claret-coloured crystals. With 
chlorine this substance gives PtCl 3 .PCl 4 as a yellow powder, and 
with water it yields phosphoplatinic acid, PtCl 2 .P(OH) 3 , which 
may be obtained as orange-red deliquescent prisms. 

The atomic weight of platinum was determined by K. Seubert 
(Ann. 1888, 207, p. l; Ber. 1888, 21, p. 2179) by analyses of 
ammonium and potassium platinochlorides, the value 194-86 being 
obtained. 

PLATO, the great Athenian philosopher, was born in 427 B.C., 
and lived to the age of eighty. His literary activity may be 
roughly said to have extended over the first half of the 4th 
century B.C. His father's name was Ariston, said to have 
been a descendant of Codrus; and his mother's family, which 
claimed descent from Solon, included Critias, one of the thirty 
tyrants, and other well-known Athenians of the early 4th cen- 
tury B.C. That throughout his early manhood he was the 
devoted friend of Socrates, that in middle life he taught those 
who resorted to him in the grove named Academus, near the 
Cephisus, and there founded the first great philosophical 
school, that (with alleged interruptions) he continued to pre- 
side over the Academy until his death, are matters of estab- 
lished fact. It is said by Aristotle that he was at one time 
intimate with Cratylus the Heraclitean. Beyond this we have 
no authentic record of his outward life. That his name was at 
first Aristocles, and was changed to Plato because of the breadth 
of his shoulders or of his style or of his forehead, that he wrestled 
well, 1 that he wrote poetry 2 which he burnt on hearing Socrates, 
fought in three great battles, 3 that he had a thin voice, 
that (as is told of other Greek philosophers) he travelled to 
Cyrene and conversed with priests in Egypt, are statements 
of Diogenes Laertius, which rest on more or less uncertain tradi- 
tion. The express assertion which this author attributes to 
Hermodorus that after the death of Socrates Plato and other 
Socratics took refuge with Euclides in Megara, has a somewhat 
stronger claim to authenticity. But the fact cannot be regarded 
as certain, still less the elaborate inferences which have been 
drawn from it. The romantic legend of Plato's journeys to 
Sicily, and of his relations there with the younger Dionysius and 
the princely but unfortunate Dion, had obtained some degree 

1 See Laws, vii. 814 c. 

1 Some epigrams in the Anthology are attributed to him. 
3 This is told on the authority of Aristoxenus. But Plato cannot 
have been at Delium. 






of consistency before the age of Cicero, and at an unknown but 
probably early time was worked up into the so-called Epistles 
of Plato, now all but universally discredited. Nor is there 
sufficient ground for supposing, as some have done, that an 
authentic tradition is perceptible behind the myth. 

The later years of the Peloponnesian War witnessed much 
mental disturbance and restlessness at Athens. More than 
at any time since the age of Cleisthenes, the city 
was divided, and a man's foes were often men 
of his own tribe or deme. Contention in the law- 
courts and rivalries in the assembly had for many men a more 
absorbing interest than questions of peace and war. Hereditary 
traditions had relaxed their hold, and political principles were 
not yet formulated. Yet there was not less scope on this 
account for personal ambition, while the progress of democracy, 
the necessity of conciliating the people, and the apportionment of 
public offices by lot had a distracting and, to reflecting persons, 
often a discouraging effect. For those amongst whom Plato was 
brought up this effect was aggravated by the sequel of the 
oligarchical revolution, while, on the other hand, for some years 
after the restoration of the democracy, a new stimulus had been 
imparted, which, though of short duration, was universally felt. 

These events appear in two ways to have encouraged the 
diffusion of ideas. The ambitious seem to have welcomed them 
as a means of influence, while those who turned from public life 
were the more stimulated to speculative disputation. However 
this may have been, it is manifest that before the beginning of 
the 4th century B.C. the intellectual atmosphere was already 
charged with a new force, which although essentially one may be 
differently described, according to the mode of its development, as 
(i) rhetorical and (2) theoretical and " sophistical." This last 
word indicates the channel through which the current influences 
were mostly derived. A new want, in the shape both of inter- 
ested and of disinterested curiosity, had insensibly created a new 
profession. Men of various fatherlands, some native Athenians, 
but more from other parts of Hellas, 4 had set themselves to 
supplement the deficiencies of ordinary education, and to train 
men for the requirements of civic life. More or less consciously 
they based their teachings on the philosophical dogmas of an 
earlier time, when the speculations of Xenophanes, Heraclitus 
or Parmenides had interested only a few " wise men." Those 
great thoughts were now to be expounded, so that " even 
cobblers might understand." 6 The self-appointed teachers 
found a rich field and abundant harvest among the wealthier 
youth, to the chagrin of the old-fashioned Athenian, who sighed 
with Aristophanes for the good old days when men knew less and 
listened to their elders and obeyed the customs of their fathers. 
And such distrust was not wholly unfounded. For, amidst 
much that was graceful and improving, these novel questionings 
had an influence that, besides being unsettling, was aimless and 
unreal. A later criticism may discern in them the two great 
tendencies of naturalism and humanism. But it may be doubted 
if the sophist was himself aware of the direction of his own 
thoughts. For, although Prodicus or Hippias could debate a 
thesis and moralize with effect, they do not appear to have been 
capable of speculative reasoning. What passed for such was often 
either verbal quibbling or the pushing to an extreme of some 
isolated abstract notion. That prudens quaeslio which is 
dimidium scientiae had not yet been put. And yet the hour for 
putting it concerning human life was fully come. For the sea 
on which men were drifting was profoundly troubled, and would 
not sink back into its former calm. Conservative reaction was 
not less hopeless than the dreams of theorists were mischievously 
wild. In random talk, with gay, irresponsible energy, the 
youth were debating problems which have exercised great minds 
in Europe through all after time. 

Men's thoughts had begun to be thus disturbed and eager when 
Socrates (q.v.) arose. To understand him is the most necessary 
preliminary to the study of Plato. There is no reason to doubt 

4 It had been the policy of Pericles to invite distinguished 
foreigners to Athens. 
6 Theaet. 1 80 D. 



PLATO 



809 



the general truth of the assertion, which Plato attributes to 
him in the Apologia, that he felt a divine vocation to examine 
Socrates himself by questioning other men. He was really 
doing for Athenians, whether they would or no, 
what the sophist professed to do for his adherents, and what 
such men as Protagoras and Prodicus had actually done in part. 
One obvious difference was that he would take no fee. But 
there was another and more deep-lying difference, which dis- 
tinguished him not only from the contemporary sophists but 
from the thinkers of the previous age. This was the Socratic 
attitude of inquiry. The sceptical movement had confused 
men's notions as to the value of ethical ideas. 1 If " right is 
one thing in Athens and another in Sparta, why strive to follow 
right rather than expediency? The laws put restraint on nature, 
which is prior to them. Then why submit to law? " And the 
ingenuities of rhetoric had stirred much unmeaning disputation. 
Every case seemed capable of being argued in opposite ways. 
Even on the great question of the ultimate constitution of things, 
the conflicting theories of absolute immutability and eternal 
change appeared to be equally irrefragable and equally 
untenable. Men's minds had been confused by contradictory 
voices one crying " All is motion," another " All is rest " ; 
one " The absolute is unattainable," another " The relative 
alone is real " ; some upholding a vague sentiment of traditional 
right, while some declared for arbitrary convention and some for 
the law " of nature." Some held that virtue was spontaneous, 
some that it was due to training, and some paradoxically denied 
that either vice or falsehood had any meaning. The faith of 
Socrates, whether instinctive or inspired, remained untroubled by 
these jarring tones. He did not ask " Is virtue a reality? " 
or " Is goodness a delusion? " But, with perfect confidence 
that there was an answer, he asked himself and others " What is 
it?" (ri iffri); or, more particularly, as Xenophon testifies, 
"What is a state? What is a statesman? What is just? 
What is unjust? What is government? What is it to be a 
ruler of men ? " In this form of question, however simple, the 
originality of Socrates is typified; and by means of it he laid 
the first stone, not only of the fabric of ethical philosophy, 
but of scientific method, at least in ethics, logic and psychology. 
Socrates never doubted that if men once knew what was best, 
they would also do it. They erred, he thought, from not seeing 
the good, and not because they would not follow it if seen. 
This is expressed in the Socratic dicta: " Vice is ignorance," 
" Virtue is knowledge." This lifelong work of Socrates, in 
which the germs of ethics, psychology and logic were contained, 
was idealized, developed, dramatized first embodied and then 
extended beyond its original scope in the writings of Plato, 
which may be described as the literary outcome of the profound 
impression made by Socrates upon his greatest follower. These 
writings (in pursuance of the importance given by Socrates to 
conversation) are all cast in the form of imaginary dialogue. 
But in those which are presumably the latest in order of compo- 
sition this imaginative form interferes but little with the direct 
expression of the philosopher's own thoughts. The many- 
coloured veil at first inseparable from the features is gradually 
worn thinner, and at last becomes almost imperceptible. 

Plato's philosophy, as embodied in his dialogues, has at once 
an intellectual and a mystical aspect; and both are dominated 
Plato's by a pervading ethical motive. In obeying the 
Dialogues. Socratic impulse, his speculative genius absorbed and 
harmonized the various conceptions which were present in con- 
temporary thought, bringing them out of their dogmatic isolation 
into living correlation with one another, and with the b'fe and 
experience of mankind. His poetical feeling and imagination, 
taking advantage of Pythagorean and Orphic suggestions, 
surrounded his abstract reasonings with a halo of mythology 
which made them more fascinating, but also more difficult for 
the prosaic intellect to comprehend. Convinced through the 
conversations of Socrates that truth and good exist and that 
they are inseparable, persuaded of the unity of virtue and of its 
dependence upon knowledge, he set forth upon a course of inquiry, 
1 See Caird, Hegel, p. 168. 



in which he could not rest until the discrepancies of ordinary 
thinking were not only exposed but accounted for, and resolved 
in relation to a comprehensive theory. In this " pathway 
towards reality," from the consideration of particular virtues 
he passed to the contemplation of virtue in general, and thence 
to the nature of universals, and to the unity of knowledge and 
being. Rising still higher on the road of generalization, he dis- 
cussed the problem of unity and diversity, the one and the many. 
But in these lofty speculations the facts of human experience 
were not lost to view. The one, the good, the true, is otherwise 
regarded by him as the moral ideal, and this is examined as 
realized both in the individual and in the state. Thus ethical 
and political speculations are combined. And as the method 
of inquiry is developed, the leading principles both of logic and of 
psychology become progressively more distinct and clear. 
Notwithstanding his high estimate of mathematical principles, 
to him the type of exactness and certitude, Plato contributed 
little directly to physical science. Though he speaks with 
sympathy and respect of Hippocrates, he had no vocation for 
the patient inductive observation of natural processes, through 
which the Coan physicians, though they obtained few lasting 
results, yet founded a branch of science that was destined to be 
beneficently fruitful. And he turned scornfully aside from the 
Atomists, Leucippus and Democritus, whose first principle, the 
basis of so much in modern physics, appeared to him to be tainted 
with materialism. Yet his discursive thought, as in later years 
he held high intercourse with Archytas and other contemporary 
minds, could not fail, unlike his master's, to include a theory 
of the Cosmos in its purview. In this regard, however, the 
poet-philosopher brought imagination to the aid of reason, thus 
creating a new mythology, of which the Timaeus is the most 
conspicuous example. 

Amidst great diversity, both of subject and of treatment,. 
Plato's dialogues are pervaded by two dominant motives, a 
passion for human improvement and a persistent faith in the 
power and supremacy of mind. What is commonly known as 
his doctrine of Ideas is only one phase in a continuous progress 
towards the realization of a system of philosophy in which the 
supreme factor is reason guiding will. But the objectivity, 
which from the first was characteristic of all Greek thinking, and 
his own power of poetic presentation, obscured for a time, even 
for Plato himself, the essential spirituality of his conceptions, and 
at one time even threatened to arrest them at a stage in which the 
universal was divorced from the particular, the permanent from 
the transient, being from becoming, and in which the first princi- 
ples of reality were isolated from one another as well as from the 
actual world. Gradually the veil was lifted, and the relation 
between the senses and the intellect, phenomena and general 
laws, the active and the contemplative powers, came to be more 
clearly conceived. The true nature of abstraction and general- 
ization, and of predication and inference, began to be discerned, 
and speculation was verified through experience. The ideas were 
seen as categories, or forms of thought, under which the infinite 
variety of natural processes might be comprised. And thus the 
dialogues present, as in a series of dissolving views, a sort of 
model or compendium of the history of philosophy. Plato's 
system is nowhere distinctly formulated, nor are the views put 
forward in his dialogues always consistent with each other, but 
much especially of his later thought is systematized, and as it 
were crystallized in the treatises of Aristotle; by whom the point 
of view which Plato had approached, but not finally attained, 
was made the starting-point for more precise metaphysical 
determinations and carried into concrete theories having the 
stamp of a more rigid logical method. The departments of ethics 
and politics, of dialectic and of psychology, of physics and meta- 
physics, thus came to be more clearly distinguished, but some- 
thing was lost of the unity and intensity of spiritual insight 
which had vitalized these various elements, and fused them in a 
dynamic harmony. 

The student of philosophy, whatever may be the modern 
system to which he is most inclined, sensational, intuitional, 
conceptional, transcendental, will find his account in returning, 

xxi. 26 a 



8io 



PLATO 



to this well-spring of European thought, in which all previous 
movements are absorbed, and from which all subsequent lines 
of reflection may be said to diverge. As was observed by Jowett 
{Si Paul, 1855), " the germs of all ideas, even of most Christian 
ones, are to be found in Plato." 

Two great forces are persistent in Plato: the love of truth and 
zeal for human improvement. In the period culminating with 
Historical the Republic, these two motives, the speculative and 
influence the practical, are combined in one harmonious 
oii'ijto. working. In the succeeding period, without ex- 
cluding one another, they operate with alternate intensity. In 
the varied outcome of his long literary career, the metaphysical 
" doctrine of ideas " which has been associated with Plato's 
name underwent many important changes. But pervading all 
these there is the same constant belief in the supremacy of 
reason and the identity of truth and good. From that abiding 
root spring forth a multitude of thoughts concerning the mind 
and human things turning chiefly on the principles of psycho- 
logy, education and political reform thoughts which, although 
unverified, and often needing correction from experience, still 
constitute Plato the most fruitful of philosophical writers. While 
general ideas are powerful for good or ill, while abstractions are 
necessary to science, while mankind are apt to crave after 
perfection, and ideals, either in art or life, have an acknowledged 
value, so long the renown of Plato will continue. " All philo- 
sophic truth is Plato rightly divined ; all philosophic error is Plato 
misunderstood " is the verdict of one of the keenest of modern 
metaphysicians. 1 

Plato's followers, however, have seldom kept the proportions 
of his teaching. The diverse elements of his doctrine have 
survived the spirit that informed them. The pythagorizing 
mysticism of the Timoeus has been more prized than the subtle 
and clear thinking of the Theaetetus. Logical inquiries have been 
hardened into a barren ontology. Semi-mythical statements have 
been construed literally and mystic fancies perpetuated without 
the genuine thought which underlay them. A part (and not the 
essential part) of his philosophy has been treated as the whole. 
But the influence of Plato has extended far beyond the limits of 
the Platonic schools. The debt of Aristotle to his master has 
never yet been fully estimated. Zeno, Chrysippus, Epicurus 
borrowed from Plato more than they knew. The moral ideal of 
Plutarch and that of the Roman Stoics, which have both so 
deeply affected the modern world, could not have existed without 
him. Neopythagoreanism was really a crude Neoplatonism. 
And the Sceptics availed themselves of weapons either forged by 
Plato or borrowed by him from the Sophists. A wholly distinct 
line of infiltration is suggested by the mention of Philo and the 
Alexandrian school (cf. section in Arabian Philosophy, ii. 26bc, 
gth edition), and of Clement and Origen, while Gnostic heresies 
and even Talmudic mysticism betray perversions of the same 
influence. The effect of Hellenic thought on Christian theology 
and on the life of Christendom is a subject for a volume, and has 
been pointed out in part by E. Zeller and others (cf. NEO- 
PLATONISM). Yet when Plotinus in the 3rd century (after 
hearing Ammonius), amidst the revival of religious paganism, 
founded a new spiritualistic philosophy upon the study of Plato 
and Aristotle combined, this return to the fountain head had 
all the effect of novelty. And for more than two centuries, from 
Plotinus to Proclus, the great effort to base life anew on the 
Platonic wisdom was continued. But it was rather the ghost 
than the spirit of Plato that was so " unsphered." Instead of 
striving to reform the world, the Neoplatonist sought after a 
retired and cloistered virtue. Instead of vitalizing science with 
fresh thought, he lost hold of all reality in the contemplation of 
infinite unity. He had skill in dealing with abstractions, but laid 
a feeble hold upon the actual world. 

" Hermes Trismegistus " and " Dionysius Areopagita " are 
names that mark the continuation of this influence into the 
middle ages. The pseudo-Dionysius was translated by Erigena 
in the gth century. 

Two more " Platonic" revivals have to be recorded at 

1 Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics, p. 169 ( i. prop. vi. 12). 



Florence in the isth and at Cambridge in the 17th century. 
Both were enthusiastic and both uncritical. The translation 
of the dialogues into Latin by Marsilio Ficino was the most 
lasting effect of the former movement, which was tinged with 
the unscientific ardour of the Renaissance. The preference still 
accorded to the Timaeus is a fair indication of the tendency to 
bring fumum ex fulgore which probably marred the discussions 
of the Florentine Academy concerning the " chief good." The 
new humanism had also a sentimental cast, which was alien from 
Plato. Yet the effect of this spirit on art and literature was 
very great, and may be clearly traced not only in Italian but in 
English poetry.. 

The " Cambridge Platonists " have been described by Principal 
Tulloch in his important work on Rational Theology in England 
in the ijth century, and again by Professor J. A. Stewart in the 
concluding chapter of his volume on the Myths of Plato. Therr 
views were mainly due to a reaction from the philosophy of 
Hobbes, and were at first suggested as much by Plotinus as by 
Plato. It is curious to find that, just as Socrates and Ammonius 
(the teacher of Plotinus) left no writings, so Whichcote, the 
founder of this school, worked chiefly through conversation 
and preaching. His pupils exercised a considerable influence for 
good, especially on English theology; and in aspiration if not in 
thought they derived something from Plato, but they seem to 
have been incapable of separating his meaning from that of his 
interpreters, and Cudworth, their most consistent writer, was at 
once more systematic and less scientific than the Athenian 
philosopher. The translations of Sydenham and Taylor in the 
1 8th century and the beginning of the igth are proofs of the 
continued influence of Platonism in England. 

The critical study of Plato begins from Schleiermacher, who 
did good work as an interpreter, and tried to arrange the dialogues 
in the order of composition. His attempt, which, critical 
like many efforts of constructive criticism, went far History. 
beyond possibility, was vitiated by the ground-fallacy of sup- 
posing that Plato had from the first a complete system in his 
mind which he partially and gradually revealed in writing. At 
a considerably later time Karl Friedrich Hermann, to whom all 
students of Plato are indebted, renewed the same endeavour on 
the far more plausible assumption that the dialogues faithfully 
reflect the growth of Plato's mind. But he also was too sanguine, 
and exaggerated the possibility of tracing a connexion between 
the outward events of Plato's life and the progress of his thoughts. 
This great question of the order of the dialogues, which has been 
debated by numberless writers, is one which only admits of an 
approximate solution. Much confusion, however, has been 
obviated by the hypothesis (first hinted at by Ueberweg, and 
since supported by Lewis Campbell and others) that the Sophistes 
and Politicus, whose genuineness had been called in question by 
Joseph Socher, are really intermediate between the Republic and 
the Laws. The allocation of these dialogues, not only on grounds 
of metaphysical criticism, but also on philological and other 
evidence of a more tangible kind, supplies a point of view from 
which it becomes possible to trace with confidence the general 
outlines of Plato's literary and philosophical development. 
Reflecting at first in various aspects the impressions received 
from Socrates, he is gradually touched with an inspiration which 
becomes his own, and which seeks utterance in half-poetical 
forms. Then first the ethical and by and by the metaphysical 
interest becomes predominant. And for a while this last is all 
absorbing, as he confronts the central problems which his own 
thoughts have raised. But, again, the hard-won acquisitions 
of this dialectical movement must be fused anew with imagi- 
nation and applied to life. And in a final effort to use his 
intellectual wealth for the subvention of human need the great 
spirit passed away. 

It may not be amiss to recapitulate the steps through which 
the above position respecting the order of the dialogues has 
become established. Lovers of Hegel had observed 
that the point reached in the Sophistes in defining Dla i ogues-l 
" not being " was dialectically in advance of the 
Republic. But Kantian interpreters might obviously have said 



PLATO 



811 



the same of the Parmenides: and Grote as a consistent utilitarian 
looked upon the Protagoras as the most mature production of 
Plato's genius. It seemed desirable to find some criterion that 
was not bound up with philosophical points of view. Dr 
Thompson, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, had 
vindicated the genuineness of the Sophistes against the objections 
of Socher, but had not accounted for the peculiarities of language, 
which that acute critic had perceived. By comparing those 
peculiarities with the style of the Laws, Plato's latest work, and 
with that of the Timaeus and Critias, which presupposed the 
Republic, Lewis Campbell argued in 1867 that the Sophistes and 
Politicus, with the Philebus, were in chronological sequence 
intermediate between the Republic and the Laws. Thus a 
further defence of their authenticity was at the same time 
a long step towards the solution of the problem which Schleier- 
macher had proposed. Many years afterwards the more 
detailed stylistic investigations of W. Dittenberger, Constantin 
Ritter and others arrived independently at the same conclusion. 
It was vehemently supported by W. Lutoslawski in his work on 
Plato's Logic, and has been frankly accepted with ample acknow- 
ledgments by the high authority of Dr Theodor Gomperz (see 
especially the Notes to his Greek Thinkers, iii. 310, 315 of 
English translation). 

THE WORKS OF PLATO 

The Platonic dialogues are not merely the embodiment of the 
mind of Socrates and of the reflections of Plato. They are the 
portraiture of the highest intellectual life of Hellas in the time 
of Plato a life but distantly related to military and political 
events, and scarcely interrupted by them v Athens appears as 
the centre of the excitable Hellenic mind, profoundly stirred by 
the arrival of great sophists, and keenly alive to the questions of 
Socrates, although in the pages of Plato, even more than in 
reality, he only " whispers with a few striplings in a corner." 
For, in the Platonic grouping, the agora, which was the chief 
scene of action for the real Socrates, retires into the background, 
and he is principally seen consorting with his chosen companions, 
who are also friends of Plato, and with the acquaintances whom 
he makes through them. The scene is narrowed (for the Academy 
was remote from the bustle of resort, and Plato judged the Hellenic 
world securely from the vantage-ground of partial retirement) 
but the figures are distinct and full of life. In reading the dia- 
logues we not only breathe the most refined intellectual atmo- 
sphere, but are also present witnesses of the urbanity, the freedom, 
the playfulness, the generous warmth of the " best society " in 
Athens. For Plato has a numerous repertory of dramatis 
personae, who stand in various relations to his chief character 
the impetuous Chaerephon, Apollodorus the inseparable weak 
brother, old Crito the true-hearted, Phaedo the beloved disciple, 
Simmias and Cebes, who have been with Philolaus, the graceful 
and ingenuous Phaedrus, the petulant Philebus, Theaetetus of 
the philosophic nature, who is cut off in his prime, and the 
incorrigible Alcibiades; then Plato's own kinsmen Glaucon the 
irrepressible in politics, in quarrel and in love; Adeimantus, solid 
and grave; Critias in his phase of amateur philosopher, and hot as 
what he afterwards became; Charmides, not in fiery manhood, 
but in his first bloom of diffident youth; and many others who 
appear as mere acquaintances, but have an interest of their own 
the accomplished Agathon, the gay Aristophanes, Eryxi- 
machus the all-worthy physician; Meno, light of spirit; Callias, 
entertainer of sophists; Callicles the wilful man of the world; 
Cephalus the aged father of Lysias; and Nicias the honoured 
soldier. All these appear, not as some of them do on the page of 
history, in sanguinary contention or fierce rivalry, but as peaceful 
Athenians, in momentary contact with Socrates, whose electric 
touch now benumbs and now exhilarates, and sometimes goads 
to frenzy of love or anger. Still more distantly related to him, 
as it were standing in an outer circle, are the imposing forms of 
Gorgias and Protagoras, surrounded with the lesser lights of 
Hippias, Prodicus and Polus. Thrasymachus, Euthydemus, 
Dionysodorus hang round like comic masks, adding piquancy 
to the design. The adversaries Anytus and Meletus are allowed 



to appear for a moment, but soon vanish. The older philosophers, 
though Socrates turned away from them, also make their entrance 
on the Platonic stage. Parmenides with his magnificent depth 
is made to converse with the imaginary Socrates, who is still 
quite young. A stranger from Elea plays an important part in 
some later dialogues, and Timaeus the Pythagorean is introduced 
discoursing of the creation of the world. In these dialogues- 
Socrates is mostly silent; in the Philebus he has lost himself in 
Plato; and in the twelve books of the Laws, where an unnamed 
Athenian is the chief speaker, even the Platonic Socrates finally 
disappears. 

Now, in evolving his philosophy from the Socratic basis, 
Plato works along three main lines the ethical and political, 
the metaphysical or scientific, and the mystical. All three are 
often intimately blended, as in the close of Rep., bk. vi., and even 
where one element is uppermost the others are not wholly 
suppressed. But this distinction, like that sometimes made in 
modern philosophy between the good, the true and the beautiful, 
is one which, if not unduly pressed, may be usefully borne in 
mind. 

Having noted this once for all, we pass to the more detailed 
consideration of the several dialogues. 

I. Laches, Charmides, Lysis. In this first group Socrates is 
dealing tentatively with single ethical notions. The result in 
each case is a confession of ignorance, but the subject has been so 
handled as to point the way to more fruitful discussions in the 
future. And suggestions are casually thrown out which antici- 
pate some of the most far-reaching of Plato's subsequent 
contemplations. 

The Laches is a vigorous sketch, in which the characters of the 
soldier, the aged citizen, and the prudent general are well 
preserved; and Socrates is seen conversing with his 
elders, although with reference to the treatment of 
the young. The question raised is the definition of courage; 
and the humour of the piece consists in showing that three men, 
all of whom are unquestionably brave, are unable to give an 
account of bravery, or to decide whether courage is an animal 
instinct or a mental accomplishment. 

Similarly, in the dialogue which bears his name, the temperate 
Charmides, of whom all testify that (as Aristophanes has it), 1 he 
" fills up the gracious mould of modesty," is hopelessly charmldes 
embarrassed when challenged by the Socratic method 
to put in words his conception of the modesty or temperance 
which he possesses, and which, as Socrates assures him, is a 
priceless gift. The Charmides contains some hints of Platonic 
notions, such as that of knowledge as self-consciousness, and of 
virtue as " doing one's own business." 

The graceful little dialogue which bears the name of Lysis 
ends, like the two former, with a confession of failure. Socrates, 
Lysis and Menexenus are all friends, and think 
highly of friendship, yet after many efforts they 
are unable to tell " what friendship is." Yet some^ of the sug- 
gestions which are here laid aside are afterwards allowed to 
reappear. The notion that " what is neither good nor evil loves 
the good because of the presence of evil " is expanded and 
emphasized in the Symposium. And the conception of an ideal 
object of friendship, an turret <t>l\ov (though rejected as in the 
criticism of Aristotle by the characteristic reductio ad infinitum), 
is destined to have a wider scope in the history of Platonism. 

II. Protagoras, lo, Meno. The previous dialogues have 
marked the distinction between unconscious and conscious 
morality, and have also brought out the Socratic tendency to 
identify virtue with the knowledge of good. Now, the more 
strongly it is felt that knowledge is inseparable from virtue the 
more strange and doubtful appears such unconscious excellence 
as that of Laches, Charmides or Lysis. Hence arises the 
further paradox of Socrates: " Virtue is not taught, and that 
which is commonly regarded as virtue springs up spontaneously 
or is received unconsciously by a kind of inspiration." 

Protagoras, in the dialogue named after him, is the professor 
of popular, unscientific, self-complacent excellence; while 

1 Nub., 995, TTJS aiSoCs fii\\(is rS-yaXju' AvaTrXrjtjai. 



Lysis. 



812 



PLATO 



Socrates appears in his life-long search after the ideal knowledge 
of the best. The two men are naturally at cross purposes. 
Protagoras P r tagoras contends that virtue is taught by himself 
and others more or less successfully, and is not one 
but many. Socrates disputes the possibility of teaching virtue 
(since all men equally profess it, and even statesmen fail to give 
it to their sons), but affirms that, if it can be taught, virtue is not 
many, but one. The discussion, as in the former dialogues, ends 
inconclusively. But in the course of it Plato vividly sets forth 
the natural opposition between the empiric and scientific points 
of view, between a conventional and an intellectual standard. 
He does fuh 1 justice to the thesis of Protagoras, and it is not to be 
supposed that he was contented to remain in the attitude which 
he has here attributed to Socrates. In his ideal state, where the 
earlier training of the best citizens is a refinement on the actual 
Hellenic education, he has to some extent reconciled the con- 
ceptions which are here dramatically opposed. 

The preparations for the encounter and the description of it 
include many life-like touches such as the eagerness of the 
young Athenian gentleman to hear the sophist, though he would 
be ashamed to be thought a sophist himself; the confusion into 
which the house of Callias has been thrown by the crowd of 
strangers and by the self-importance of rival professors; the 
graceful dignity of the man who has been forty years a teacher, 
the graphic description of the whole scene, the characteristic 
speeches of Prodicus and Hippias (from which some critics have 
elicited a theory of their doctrines), and the continued irony with 
which Socrates bears them all in hand and soothes the great man 
after disconcerting him. 

In the argument there are two points which chiefly deserve notice, 
(l) Protagoras, in accordance with his relative view of things 
(which Plato afterwards criticized in the Theoetetus), claims not 
to teach men principles but to improve them in those virtues which 
Providence has given in some measure to all civilized men. (2) 
Socrates in postulating a scientific principle, which he expressly 
reserves for future consideration, would have it tested by the power 
of calculating the amount of pleasure. Grote dwells with some 
complacency on the " utilitarianism " of Socrates in the Protagoras. 
And it is true that a principle of utility is here] opposed to con- 
ventional sentiment. But this opposition is intended to prepare 
the way for the wider and deeper contrast between an arbitrary 
and a scientific standard, or between impressions and conceptions 
or ideas. And when Plato (in the Gorgias and Philebus) endeavours 
to define the art of measurement, which is here anticipated, it is 
not wonderful that differences here unthought of should come into 
view, or that the pleasant should be again contradistinguished 
from the good. In all three dialogues he is equally asserting the 
supremacy of reason. 

On the first vision of that transcendental knowledge 1 which is 
to be the key at once to truth and good, philosophy is apt to lose 
her balance, and to look with scorn upon " the trivial round, the 
common task," and the respectable commonplaces of "ordinary 
thinking." Yet, as Socrates is reminded by Protagoras, this 
unconscious wisdom also has a value. And Plato, who, when 
most ideal, ever strives to keep touch with experience, is fully 
convinced of the reality of this lower truth, of this unphilosophic 
virtue. But he is long puzzled how to conceive of it. For, if 
knowledge is all in all, what are we to make of wisdom and goodness 
in those who do not know? Protagoras had boldly spoken of 
honour and right as a direct gift from Zeus, and Socrates, in the 
lo and Meno, is represented as adopting an hypothesis of inspiration 
in order to account for these unaccredited graces of the soul. 

Socrates has observed that rhapsodists and even poets have no 
definite knowledge of the things which they so powerfully repre- 
sent (cf. Apol. 22; Phaed., 245 A.; Rep. iii. 398 A). 
He brings the rhapsode lo to admit this, and to 
conclude that he is the inspired medium of a magnetic influence. 
The Muse is the chief magnet, and the poet is the first of a series 
of magnetic rings. Then follow the rhapsode and the actor, who 
are rings of inferior power, and the last ring is the hearer or 
spectator. 

The Meno raises again the more serious question, Can virtue be 
taught? Socrates here states explicitly the paradox with which 
the Protagoras ended. " Virtue is knowledge; 
therefore virtue can be taught. But virtue is not 
taught. Therefore (in the highest sense) there can be no virtue." 
And he repeats several of his former reasons that Athenian 
1 Phaed. 82 B; Rep. x. 619 C. 



to. 



Meao. 



statesmen failed to teach their sons, and that the education given 
by sophists is unsatisfying. (The sophists are here denounced 
by Anytus, who is angered by Socrates's ironical praise of them.) 
But the paradox is softened in two ways: (i) the absence of 
knowledge does not preclude inquiry, and (2) though virtue 
cannot be taught, yet there is a sense in which virtue exists. 

1. Meno begins in gaiety of heart to define virtue, but is soon 
" benumbed " by the "torpedo" shock of Socrates, and asks 
" How can one inquire about that which he does not know?" Socrates 
meets this " eristic " difficulty with the doctrine of reminiscence 
(ivaiivrtaa). All knowledge is latent in the mind from birth 
and through kindred (or association of) ideas much may be re- 
covered, if only a beginning is made. Pindar and other poets 
have said that the soul is immortal and that she has. passed through 
many previous sta'tes. 2 And Socrates now gives a practical illus- 
tration of the truth that knowledge is evolved from ignorance. 
He elicits, from a Greek slave of Meno's, the demonstration of a 
geometrical theorem. 3 About the middle of the process he turns 
to Meno and observes that the slave (who has made a false start) 
is now becoming conscious of ignorance. He then gradually draws 
from the man, by leading questions, the positive proof. 

2. Though virtue is not yet defined, it may be affirmed " hypo- 
thetically " that, if virtue is knowledge, virtue can be taught. 
And experience leads us to admit two phases of virtue the one a 
mode of life based on scientific principle, which hitherto is an ideal 
only; the other sporadic, springing of itself, yet of divine origin, 
relying upon true opinion, which it is, however, unable to make 
fast through demonstration of the cause or reason. But if there 
were a virtuous man who could teach virtue he would stand amongst 
his fellows like Teiresias amongst the shades. 4 

This mystical account of ordinary morality is in keeping with 
the semi-mythical defence of the process of inquiry that all know- 
ledge is implicit in the mind from birth. 

III. Euthyphro, Apologia, Crito, Phaedo. There is no ground 
for supposing that these four dialogues were written consecu- 
tively, or that they belong strictly to the same period of Plato's 
industry. But they are linked together for the reader by their 
common reference to the trial and death of Socrates; no one of 
them has been proved to be in the author's earliest or latest 
manner; and they may therefore fitly end the series of dialogues 
in which the personal traits of the historic Socrates are most 
apparent, and Plato's own peculiar doctrines are as yet but 
partially disclosed. 

The little dialogue known by the name of Euthyphro might 
have been classed with the Laches, Charmides and Lysis, as 
dealing inconclusively with a single notion. But, _ u<ft ft 
although slight and tentative in form, it has an under- " yl> 
tone of deeper significance, in keeping with the gravity of the 
occasion. Plato implies that Socrates had thought more deeply 
on the nature of piety than his accusers had, and also that 
his piety was of a higher mood than that of -ordinary religious 
men. 

Euthyphro is a soothsayer, well-disposed to Socrates, but not 
one of his particular friends. They meet at the door of the king 
Archon, whither Socrates has been summoned for the " precog- 
nition" (dpA/tpwis) preliminary to his trial. Both men are inter- 
ested in cases of alleged impiety. For Euthyphro's business is to. 
impeach his father, who has inadvertently caused the death of a cri- 
minal labourer. The prophet feels the duty of purging the stain 
of blood to be more imperative the nearer home. Socrates is struck 
by the strong opinion thus evinced respecting the nature of piety 
and detains Euthyphro at the entrance of the court, that he may 
learn from so clear an authority " what piety is," and so be for- 
tified against Meletus. He leads his respondent from point to 
point, until the doubt is raised whether God loves holiness be- 
cause it is holy, or it is holy because loved by God. Does God 
will what is righteous, or is that righteous which is willed by God? 
Here they find themselves wandering round and round. Socrates 
proves himself an involuntary Daedalus who makes opinions move, 
while he seeks for one which he can " bind fast with reason." 

" The holy is a portion of the just." But what portion? " Due 
service of the gods by prayer and sacrifice." But how does this 
affect the gods? " It pleases them." Again we are found to be 
reasoning in a circle. 

" Thus far has Socrates proceeded in placing religion on a moral 
foundation. He is seeking to realize the harmony of religion and 



2 The origin of this traditional belief is very obscure. The Greeks 
themselves were apt to associate it with Pythagoras and with the 
" Orphic " mysteries. 

3 Eucl. i. 47 (the case where the triangle is isosceles). 

4 Horn. Odyss. x. 495, (fit? ireirvvaliai., rai bl aKial iuaaouaiv. 



PLATO 



813 



morality, which the great poets Aeschylus, Sophocles and Pindar 
had unconsciously anticipated, and which is the universal want of 
all men. To this the soothsayer adds the ceremonial element, 
' attending upon the gods.' When further interrogated by So- 
crates as to the nature of this ' attention to the gods,' he replies that 
piety is an affair of business, a science of giving and asking and the 
like. Socrates points out the anthropomorphism of these notions. 
But when we expect him to go on and show that the true service 
of the gods is the service of the spirit and co-operation with them 
in all things true and good, he stops short ; this was a lesson which 
the soothsayer could not have been made to understand, and which 
everyone must learn for himself." l 

In Plato's Apology the fate of Socrates is no longer the subject 

of mere allusions, such as the rage of Anytus at the end of the 

Meno, and the scene and occasion of the Euthyphro. 

He is now seen face to face with his accusers, and with 

his countrymen who are condemning him to death. 

What most aggravated his danger (after life-long impunity) is 
thus stated by James Riddell, in the introduction to his edition 
of the dialogue: "The emei/ceta" (clemency) "of the restored 
people did not last long, and was naturally succeeded by a sensi- 
tive and fanatical zeal for their revived political institutions. 
Inquiry into the foundations of civil society was obviously 
rather perilous for the inquirer at such a time. Socrates knew 
the full extent of his danger. But, according to Xenophon 
(Mem. iv. c. 8, 14), he prepared no defence, alleging that his 
whole life had been a preparation for that hour." 

The tone of the Platonic Apology is in full accordance with that 
saying; but it is too elaborate a work of art to be taken literally as 
a report of what was actually said. Jowett well compares it to 
" those speeches of Thucydides in which he has embodied his 
conception of the lofty character and policy of the great Pericles." 
Yet " it is significant that Plato is said to have been present at 
the defence, as he is also said to have been absent at the last 
scene of the Phaedo. Some of the topics may have been actually 
used by Socrates, and the recollection of his very words may have 
rung in the ears of his disciple." 

The Platonic Apology is in three parts: (i) before conviction, 
(2) after conviction and before sentence, (3) after the sentence. 

I. Socrates cares not for acquittal. But he does care to ex- 
plain his life. And he selects those aspects of it which there is 
hope of making his audience understand. That he partly suc- 
ceeded in this is shown by the large number of those (220 out of 
500) who voted for his acquittal. 

a. His answer to Meletus, as least important, is reserved for the 
middle of his speech. He addresses himself first to " other accusers " 
comic poets and the rest, who have prejudiced his reputation by 
falsely identifying him with the physical philosophers and the 
sophists. But what then is the strange pursuit which has given to 
Socrates the name of wise? It is the practice of cross-examining, 
to which he was first impelled by the oracle at Delphi, and which 
he has followed ever since as a religious mission. The god said 
" Socrates is wise," when he was conscious of no wisdom great or 
small. So he went in search of some one wiser than himself, but 
could find none, though he found many who had conceit of wis- 
dom. And he inferred that the god must mean " He is wisest who, 
like Socrates, is most aware of his own ignorance." This unceasing 
quest has left him in great poverty, and has made him enemies, 
who are represented by Anytus, Meletus and Lycon. And their 
enmity is further embittered by the pleasure which young men 
take in seeing pretence unmasked, and in imitating the process of 
refutation. Hence has arisen the false charge that Socrates is a 
corrupter of youth. 

6. Here he turns to Meletus. " If I corrupt the youth, who does 
them good?" Mel. " The laws, the judges, the audience, the 
Athenians generally " (cf. Protagoras and Meno). " Strange, that 
here only should be one to corrupt and many to improve; or 
that any one should be so infatuated as to wish to have bad 
neighbours." Mel. " Socrates is an atheist. He believes the sun 
to be a stone." " You are accusing Anaxagoras. I have said that 
I knew nothing of such theories. And you accuse me of introduc- 
ing novel notions about divine things. How can I believe in divine 
things (Sai^ovia) and not in divine beings (Halports) ? and how 
in divine beings, if not in gods who are their authors?" 

c. That is a sufficient answer for his present accuser. He re- 
turns to the general long-standing defamation, which may well be 
his death, as slander has often been and again will be the death of 
many a man. 

Yet if spared he will continue the same course of life, in spite of 
the danger. As at Potidaea and Delium he faced death where the 
Athenians posted him, so now he will remain at the post where he 



1 Jowett. 



is stationed by the god. For to fear death is to assume pretended 
knowledge. 

One thing is certain. A worse man cannot harm a better. But 
if the Athenians kill Socrates they will harm themselves. For 
they will lose the stimulus of his exhortations and his poverty 
is a sufficient witness that he was sincere. Not that he would 
engage in politics. If he had done that he would have perished long 
before, 2 as he nearly did for his independent vote after the battle 
of Arginusae, and for disobeying the murderous command of the 
Thirty Tyrants. 

But have not Socrates's disciples, Alcibiades, Critias, Charmides, 
proved bad citizens? He has no disciples. Any one, bad or good, 
may come and hear him, and the talk which is his life-work is not 
unamusing. But why are no witnesses brought to substantiate 
this charge ? There are elder friends of his companions, who 
would be angry if he had used his influence for harm. But these 
men's confidence in Socrates is unshaken. 

He will not appeal ad misericordiam. That would be a disgrace 
for one who (rightly or not) has been reputed wise, and to admit 
such an appeal in any case is a violation of the juror's oath. 

Socrates has told the Athenians the whole truth, so far as a 
mixed audience of them could receive it. Elaboration and subtlety 
could have no place in addressing the Heliastic court, nor could that 
universal truth towards which he was leading men be made intelli- 
gible to a new audience while the clepsydra was running. But 
his tone and attitude must have made a strong appeal to the better 
nature of his hearers. With Meletus he " played rather than fought," 
but he has shown clearly that he has no fear of death, that he chooses 
to obey God rather than man, and that for very love of the Athenians 
he will not be swayed by their desires. 

2. One convicted on a capital charge had the right of pleading 
before sentence in mitigation of the penalty proposed by his 
accuser. Socrates was convicted by fewer votes than he himself 
anticipated. The indictment of Meletus was ineffectual, and if it 
had not been for the speeches of Anytus and Lycon the defendant 
would have been triumphantly .acquitted. Could he but have 
conversed with his judges more than once, he might have removed 
their prejudices. In no spirit of bravado, therefore, but in simple 
justice to himself, he meets the claim of Meletus that he shall be 
punished with death by the counterclaim that he shall be main- 
tained in the prytaneum as a public benefactor. He cannot ask 
that death, which may be a good, shall be commuted for imprison- 
ment or exile, which are certainly evils. A fine would be no evil: 
but he has no money he can offer a mina. Here Plato and others 
interpose, and with their friendly help he offers thirty minae. 

3. He is sentenced to death, and the public business of the court 
is ended. But while the record is being entered and the magis- 
trates are thus occupied, Socrates is imagined as addressing (a) the 
majority, and (V) the njinority in the court. 

a. To those who have condemned him he speaks in a prophetic 
tone. " For the sake of depriving an old man of the last dregs of 
life they have given Athens a bad name. He would not run away, 
and so death has overtaken him. But his accusers are overtaken 
by unrighteousness, and must reap the fruits of it. 

" Nor will the Athenians find the desired relief. Other reprovers, 
whom Socrates has hitherto restrained, will now arise, not in a 
friendly but in a hostile spirit. The only way for the citizens to 
escape reproof is to reform their lives." 

6. To the minority, who would have acquitted him, he speaks 
with gentle solemnity. " Let them know to their comfort that the 
divine voice has not once checked him throughout that day. This 
indicates that death is not an evil. And reason shows that death 
is either a long untroubled sleep, or removal to a better world, 
where there are no unjust judges. 

" No evil can happen to a good man either in life or after death. 
Wherefore Socrates will not be angry with his condemners, who have 
done him no harm, although they meant him anything but good. 
He will only ask of them to do to the sons of Socrates as Socrates 
has done to them." 

Is the love of truth consistent with civic duties? Is the 
philosopher a good citizen? are questions which are sure to arise 
where the truth involves practical improvement. Cfjtg 
In the Apology Socrates appears as an intrepid 
reformer; the Crito gives an impressive picture of him as a loyal 
and law-abiding Athenian. 

Execution had been delayed during the annual mission to Delos 
(during which no one could be put to death). But the returning 
vessel had just been reported as descried from Sunium. At early 
dawn Crito, the oldest friend of Socrates, obtained access to his cell, 
and found him sleeping peacefully. Presently he awoke, and Crito 
told him of the approach of the fatal ship. Socrates replies by 
telling his dream. A fair form stood over him and said, 

" The third day hence to Phthia shalt thou come " 
And it would seem that the day after to-morrow will really be the 
day for going home. 

2 Cf. Gorg. 521 ; Rep. vi. 496. 



PLATO 



Crito then reveals his plan for an escape. And Socrates argues 
the question in the old familiar way. " Crito 's zeal is excellent, 
and most men would think his object right. But the few who 
think soundly say that it is wrong to return evil for evil. The 
laws of Athens (through the fault of men) are doing Socrates harm. 
But ought he therefore to infringe the law ? Might not the laws of 
his country plead with him and say: ' You owe to us your birth 
and breeding; and when grown up you voluntarily submitted to 
us. For you might have gone elsewhere. But you preferred us 
to all other laws, and have been the most constant resident in 
Athens. Even at the last you accepted death rather than exile. 
If you now break your covenant you will ruin your friends and 
will be rejected by all well-ordered cities. You might be received 
in Thessaly, but could only live there by cringing to foreigners for 
food. Where in that case will be your talk about virtue? You 
would not take your sons thither And your friends would be 
equally kind to them if you were dead. Think not of life and children 
first and of justice afterwards, but think of justice first, that you 
may be justified in the world below.' " 

Crito admits these arguments to be unanswerable. 

The Meno referred to the immortality and pre-existence of the 
soul as a traditional doctrine, and it was there associated with 
the possibility of inquiry. In the Phaedo Plato 
undertakes to substantiate this belief and base it 
anew by narrating the last hours of Socrates, who is represented 
as calmly discussing the question with his friends when his own 
death was immediately at hand. The argument turns chiefly 
on the eternity of knowledge, and is far from satisfying. For, 
granting that eternity of knowledge involves eternity of mind, 
does the eternity of mind assure continued being to the indivi- 
dual? 1 Yet no unprejudiced reader of the Phaedo can doubt 
that Plato, at the time of writing it, sincerely believed in a 
conscious personal existence after death. The words of Socrates, 
when he declares his hope of going to be with other friends, are 
absolutely unambiguous, and his reply to Crito's question, 
" How shall we bury you ?" has a convincing force beyond all 
dialectic: " I cannot persuade Crito that I here am Socrates 
I who am now reasoning and ordering discourse. He imagines 
Socrates to be that other, whom he will see by and by, a corpse." 
This and similar touches not only stamp the Phaedo as a marvel 
of art, but are indisputable evidence of the writer's profound 
belief. They may be inventions, but they have nothing " my- 
thical " about them, any more than the charge of Socrates to his 
friends, that they would best fulfil his wishes by attending to 
their own lives. 

The narrative, to be appreciated, must be read in full. But a 
short abstract of the argument may be given here. 

I. Death is merely the separation of soul and body. And this 
is the very consummation at which philosophy aims. The body 
hinders thought. The mind attains to truth by retiring into her- 
self. Through no bodily sense does she perceive justice, beauty, 
goodness and other ideas. The philosopher has a life-long quarrel 
with bodily desires, and he should welcome the release of his soul. 
Thus he alone can have true courage, even as temperance and all 
the virtues are real in him alone. 

But does the soul exist after death? 

a. An old tradition tells of many successive births, the soul 
departing to Hades and returning again, so that the living are 
born from the dead. And if the dead had no existence, this could 
not be, since from nothing nothing can arise. Moreover, experi- 
ence shows that opposite states come from their opposites, and that 
such a process is always reciprocal. Death certainly succeeds to 
life. Then life must succeed to death. And that which undergoes 
these changes must exist through all. If the dead came from the 
living, and not the living from the dead, the universe would ulti- 
mately be consumed in death. 

This presumption is confirmed by the doctrine (here attributed 
to Socrates, cf. Meno) that knowledge comes from recollection. 
What is recollected must be previously known. Now we have 
never since birth had intuition of the absolute equality of which 
(through association) we are reminded by the sight of things approxi- 
mately equal. And we cannot have seen it at the moment of birth, 
for at what other moment can we have forgotten it? Therefore, 
if ideals be not vain, our souls must have existed before birth, and, 
according to the doctrine of opposites above stated, will have 
continued existence after death. 

b. To charm away the fears of the " child within," Socrates adds, 
as further considerations : 

1 In the Timaeus immortality is made to rest on the goodwill of 
God, because " only an evil being would wish to dissolve that which 
is harmonious and happy " (Tim. 41 A). 



1. The soul is uncompounded, incorporeal, invisible, and there- 
fore indissoluble and immutable. 

ii. The soul commands, the body serves; therefore the soul is 
akin to the divine. 

iii. Yet even the body holds together long after death, and the 
bones are all but indestructible. 

The soul, if pure, departs to the invisible world, but, if tainted 
by communion with the body, she lingers hovering near the earth, 
and is afterwards born into the likeness of some lower form. That 
which true philosophy has purified alone rises ultimately to the 
gods. The lesson is impressively applied. 

2. A pause ensues; and Simmias and Cebes are invited to express 
their doubts. For, as the swan dies singing, Socrates would die 
discoursing. 

a. Simmias desires not to rest short of demonstration, though 
he is willing to make the highest attainable probability the guide 
of life. 

If the soul is th'e harmony of the body, what becomes of her 
" when the lute is broken" ? 

b. Cebes compares the body to a garment which the soul keeps 
weaving at. The garment in which the weaver dies outlasts him. 
So the soul may have woven and worn many bodies in one lifetime, 
yet may perish and leave a body behind. Or even supposing her 
to have many lives, does even this hypothesis exempt her from 
ultimate decay? 

Socrates warns his friends against losing faith in inquiry. 
Theories, like men, are disappointing; yet we should be neither 
misanthropists nor misologists. Then he answers his two friends. 

a i. The soul is acknowledged to be prior to the body. But 
no harmony is prior to the elements which are harmonized. 

ii. The soul has virtue and vice, i.e. harmony and discord. Is. 
there harmony of harmony ? Cf. Rep. x. 609. 

in. All soul is equally soul, but all harmony is not equally har- 
monious. 

iv. If the soul were the harmony of the body they would be 
agreed; but, as has been already shown, they are perpetually 
quarrelling. 

v. The soul is not conditioned by the bodily elements, but has, 
the power of controlling them. 

b. Cebes has raised the wide question whether the soul is inde- 
pendent of generation and corruption. Socrates owns that he him- 
self (i.e. Plato ?) had once been fascinated by natural philosophy, 
and had sought to give a physical account of everything. Then, 
hearing out of Anaxagoras that mind was the disposer of all, he had 
hoped to learn not only how things were, but also why. But he 
found Anaxagoras forsaking his own first principle and jumbling 
causes with conditions. (" The cause why Socrates sits here is not 
a certain disposition of joints and sinews, but that he has thought 
best to undergo his sentence else the joints and sinews would 
have been ere this, by Crito's advice, on the way to Thessaly.") 
Physical science never thinks of a power which orders everything 
for good, but expects to find another Atlas to sustain the world 
more strong and lasting than the reason of the best. 

Socrates had turned from such philosophers and found for him- 
self a way, not to gaze directly on the universal reason, but to- 
seek an image of it in the world of mind, wherein are reflected 
the ideas, as, for example, the idea of beauty, through partaking of 
which beautiful things are beautiful. Assuming the existence of 
the ideas, he felt his way from hypothesis to hypothesis. 

Now the participation of objects in ideas is in some cases essential 
and inseparable. Snow is essentially cold, fire hot, three odd, two- 
even. And things thus essentially opposite are inclusive of each 
other's attributes. (When it was said above that opposites come 
from opposites, not opposite things were meant, but opposite states 
or conditions of one thing). Snow cannot admit heat, nor fire cold; 
for they are inseparable vehicles of heat and cold respectively. 
The soul is the inseparable vehicle of life, and therefore, by parity 
of reasoning, the soul cannot admit of death, but is immortal and 
imperishable. 

3. What follows is in the true sense mythological, and is admitted 
by Socrates to be uncertain: " Howbeit, since the soul is proved 
to bejimmortal, men ought to charm their spirits with such tales." 

The earth, a globe self-balanced in the midst of space, has many 
mansions for the soul,* some higher and brighter, some lower and 
darker than our present habitation. We who dwell about the 
Mediterranean Sea are like frogs at the bottom of a pool. In some 
higher place, under the true heaven, our souls may dwell hereafter, 
and see not only colours and forms in their ideal purity but truth 
and justice as they are. 

In the Phaedo, more than elsewhere, Plato preaches with- 
drawal from the world. The Delian solemnity is to Socratea 

1 Cf. Milton, // Penseroso, 88-92 

" To unsphere 

The spirit of Plato, to unfold 
What worlds or what vast regions hold 
The immortal mind that hath forsook 
Her mansion in this fleshly nook." 



PLATO 



815 



and his friends a period of " retreat," in which their eyes are 
turned from earthly things to dwell on the eternal. The theory 
of ideas here assumes its most transcendental aspect, and it is 
from portions of this dialogue and of the Phaedrus and Timaeus 
that the popular conception of Platonism has been principally 
derived. But to understand Plato rightly it is not enough to 
study isolated passages which happen to charm the imagi- 
nation; nor should single expressions be interpreted without 
regard to the manner in which he presents the truth else- 
where. 

It has already been shown (i) that Socratic inquiry implied a 
standard of truth and good, undiscovered but endlessly dis- 
coverable, and to be approached inductively; and (2) that in 
Plato this implicit assumption becomes explicit, in the identifi- 
cation of virtue with knowledge (Lack., Charm.) as an art of 
measurement (Protag.), and in the vision (towards the end of the 
Lysis) of an absolute object of desire. The Socratic " self- 
knowledge " has been developed (Charm.) into a science of mind 
or consciousness, apart from which no physical studies can be 
fruitful. (3) Co-ordinate with these theoretical tendencies there 
has appeared in Plato the determination not to break with 
experience. In the Phaedo, a long step is made in the direction 
of pure idealism. The ordinary virtue, which in the Protagoras 
and Meno was questioned but not condemned, is here rejected as 
unreal, and the task proposed to the philosopher is less to under- 
stand the world than to escape from it. The universal has 
assumed the form of the ideal, which is supposed, as elsewhere in 
Plato, to include mathematical as well as moral notions. The 
only function of perception is to awaken in us some reminiscence 
of this ideal. By following the clue thus given, and by searching 
for clearer images of truth in the world of mind, we may hope to 
be emancipated from sensation, and to lay hold upon the sole 
object of pure reason. 

It is obvious that when he wrote the Phaedo Plato conceived 
of universals as objective entities rather than as forms of thought. 
The notion of " ideal colours " (though occurring in the myth) is 
an indication of his ontological mood. Yet even here the e'iSr; 
are not consistently hypostatized. The notion of " what is 
best " has a distinctly practical side, and the " knowledge 
through reminiscence " is in one aspect a process of reflection on 
experience, turning on the laws of association. 1 It is also said 
that objects " partake " of the ideas, and some concrete natures 
are regarded as embodiments or vehicles of some of them. Still 
if regarded as a whole, notwithstanding the scientific attitude of 
Socrates, the Phaedo is rather a meditation than an inquiry a 
study of the soul as self -existent, and of the mind and truth as 
coeternal. 

IV. Symposium, Phaedrus, Cratylus. Socrates is again 
imagined as in the fullness of life. But the real Socrates is be- 
coming more and more inextricably blended with Platonic 
thought and fancy. In the Apology there is a distinct echo of the 
voice of Socrates; the Phaedo gives many personal traits of him; 
but the dialogues which are now to follow are replete with original 
invention, based in part, no doubt, on personal recollections. 

The Symposium admits both of comparison and of contrast 

with the Phaedo. Both dialogues are mystical, both are 

spiritual, but the spirituality in either is of a different 

Symposium. , . , 

order. That is here immanent which was there 
transcendent; the beautiful takes the place of the good. The 
world is not now to be annihilated, but rather transfigured, until 
particular objects are lost in universal light. Instead of flying 
from the region of growth and decay, the mind, through inter- 
course with beauty, is now the active cause of production. Yet 
the life of contemplation is still the highest life, and philosophy 
the truest 



The leading conception of the Symposium has been anticipated 
in the Lysis, where it was said that " the indifferent loves the good, 
because of the presence of evil." 

The banqueters (including Socrates), who are met to celebrate 
the tragic victory of Agathon, happen not to be disposed for hard 
drinking. They send away the flute-girl and entertain each other 
with the praise of Love. Phaedrus tells how Love inspires to 

1 Cf. Theaet. 184-186. 



honourable deeds, and how Alcestis and Achilles died for Love. 
Pausanias rhetorically distinguishes the earthly from the heavenly 
Love. The physician Eryximachus, admitting the distinction, 
yet holds that Love pervades all nature, and that art consists in 
following the higher Love in each particular sphere. So Empedocles 
had spoken of Love as overcoming previous discord. For opposites 
cannot, as Heraclitus fancied, coexist. Aristophanes, in a comic 
myth, describes the origin of Love as an imperfect creature's longing 
for completion. The original double human beings were growing 
impious, and Zeus split them in twain, ever since which act the 
bereaved halves wander in search of one another. Agathon speaks, 
or rather sings, of Love and his works. He is the youngest, not the 
eldest of gods, living and moving delicately wherever bloom is 
and in the hearts of men the author of all virtue and of all good 
works, obeyed by gods, fair and causing all things fair, making men 
to be of one mind at feasts pilot, defender, saviour, in whose 
footsteps all should follow, chanting strains of love. 

Socrates will not attempt to rival the poet, and begins by stipu- 
lating that he may tell the truth. He accepts the distinction 
between Love and his works, but points out that, since desire 
implies want, and the desire of Love is toward beauty, Love, as 
wanting beauty, is not beautiful. So much being established in 
the Socratic manner, he proceeds to unfold the mystery once 
revealed to him by Diotima, the Mantinean wise woman. Love 
is neither beautiful nor ugly, neither wise nor foolish, neither god 
nor mortal. Between gods and mortals is the world of mediating 
spirits (TdSturfviov). And Love is a great spirit, child of Resource 
(the son of Prudence) and Poverty the beggar maid, who conceived 
him at the birthday feast of Aphrodite. He is far from living 
" delicately," but is ragged and shoeless, always in difficulties, 
yet always brimming with invention, a mighty hunter after wisdom 
and all things fair; sometimes " all full with feasting " on them, 
the next moment " clean starved " for lack; never absolutely 
knowing nor quite ignorant. That is to say, he is a " philosopher." 
For knowledge is the most beautiful thing, and love is of the beau- 
tiful. 

But what does love desire of the beautiful? The possession is 
enough. But there is one kind of love called " being in love " 
which desires beauty for a peculiar end. The lover is seeking, not 
his " other half," but possession of the beautiful and birth in beauty. 
For there is a season of puberty both in body and mind, when 
human nature longs to create, and it cannot, save in presence of 
beauty. This yearning is the earnest of immortality. Even in 
the bird's devotion to its mate and to its young there is a craving 
after continued being. In individual lives there is a flux, not 
only of the body, but in the mind. Nay the sciences themselves 
also come and go (here the contrast to the Phaedo is at its height). 
But in mortal things the shadow of continuity is succession. 

The love of fame is a somewhat brighter image of immortality 
than the love of offspring. Creative souls would bring into being 
not children of their body, but good deeds. And such a one is 
readiest to fall in love with a fair mind in a fair body, and then is 
filled with enthusiasm and begets noble thoughts. Homer, Hesiod, 
Lycurgus, Solon, were such genial minds. But they stopped at 
the threshold (cf. Pro/., Meno), and saw not the higher mysteries, 
which are reserved for those who rise from noble actions, institu- 
tions, laws, to universal beauty. The true order is to advance from 
one to all fair forms, then to fair practices, fair thoughts, and 
lastly to the single thought of absolute beauty. In that com- 
munion only, beholding beauty with the eye of the mind, one shall 
bring forth realities and become the friend of God and be immortal, 
if mortal man may. 

Alcibiades here breaks in and is vociferously welcomed. He is 
crowning Agathon, when, on perceiving Socrates, he declares that 
he will crown him too. Then he announces himself king of the 
feast, and insists upon hard drinking (though this will make no 
difference to Socrates). Eryximachus demands from the newcomer 
a speech in praise of love. But Alcibiades will praise no one else when 
Socrates is near. And with the freedom of one who is deep in wine 
he proceeds with his strange encomium of " this Marsyas." " In 
face and outward bearing he is like a Satyr or Silenus, and by his 
voice he charms more powerfully than they do by their pipings. 
The eloquence of Pericles has no effect in comparison with his. 
His words alone move Alcibiades to shame, and fascinate him until 
he stops his ears and runs from him." " I often wish him dead. 
Yet that would break my heart. He brings me to my wit's end." 
" And, as carved Sileni are made to encase images of gods, so this 
Silenus-mask entreasures things divine. He affects ignorance and 
susceptibility to beauty. Thus he mocks mankind. But he cares 
nothing for outward shows, and his temperance (trwfrpoavvri) is 
wonderful." To prove this Alcibiades reveals his own heart-secret 
(He is not ashamed to speak it amongst others who have felt the 
pang which Socrates inflicts). And he makes it abundantly mani- 
fest that in their widely rumoured intercourse (cf. Protag. init.) 
Socrates had never cared for anything but what was best for his 
younger friend. Alcibiades then relates as an eyewitness the 
endurance showri by Socrates at Potidaea, his strange persistence 
in solitary meditation standing absorbed in thought for a day 
and a night together and his intrepid conduct in the retreat from 
Delium (cf. Laches). " The talk of Socrates is of pack-asses and 



8i6 



PLATO 



Phaedrus. 



cobblers, and he is ever saying the same things in the same words; 
but one who lifts the mask and looks within will find that no other 
words have meaning." Alcibiades ends by warning his companions 
against the wiles of Socrates. 

Some raillery follows, and they are invaded by another band of 
revellers, who compel them to drink still more deeply. The soberly 
inclined (led by Eryximachus) slink off, and Aristodemus, the 
reporter of the scene, only remembers further that when he awoke 
at cock-crow Socrates was still conversing with Agathon and 
Aristophanes, and showing them that tragedy and comedy were 
essentially one. He talked them both asleep, and at daybreak went 
about his usual business. 

The philosopher of the Symposium is in the world and yet not 
of it, apparently yielding but really overcoming. In the 
Phaedo the soul was exhorted to " live upon her servant's loss," 
as in Shakespeare's most religious sonnet; this dialogue tells of a 
" soul within sense " in the spirit of some more recent poetry. 
By force of imagination rather than of reason, the reconciliation 
of becoming (-yeiwij) with being (ovaia), of the temporal with 
the eternal, is anticipated. But through the bright haze of 
fancy and behind the mask of irony, Socrates still appears the 
same strong, pure, upright and beneficent human being as in the 
Apology, Crito and Phaedo. 

The impassioned contemplation of the beautiful is again 
imagined as the beginning of philosophy. But the " limitless 
ocean of beauty " is replaced by a world of supra- 
mundane forms, beheld by unembodied souls, and 
remembered here on earth through enthusiasm, proceeding by 
dialectic from multiform impressions to one rational conception, 
and .distinguishing the " lines and veins " of truth. The Phaedrus 
records Plato's highest " hour of insight," when he willed the 
various tasks hereafter to be fulfilled. In it he soars to a pitch 
of contemplation from whence he takes a comprehensive and 
keen-eyed survey of the country to' be explored, marking off the 
blind alleys and paths that lead astray, laying down the main 
roads and chief branches, and taking note of the erroneous 
wanderings of others. Reversing the vulgar adage, he flies that 
he may walk. 

The transcendent aspiration of the Phaedo and the mystic 
glow of the Symposium are here combined with the notion of a 
scientific process. No longer asking, as in the Protagoras, Is 
virtue one or many? Plato rises to the conception of a scientific 
one and many, to be contemplated through dialectic no barren 
abstraction, but a method of classification according to nature. 
This method is to be applied especially to psychology, not 
merely with a speculative, but also with a practical aim. For the 
" birth in beauty " of the Symposium is here developed into an 
art of education, of which the true rhetoric is but the means, and 
true statesmanship an accidental outcome. 

Like all imaginative critics, Plato falls to some extent under 
the influence of that which he criticizes. The art of rhetoric 
which he so often travestied had a lasting effect upon his style. 
Readers of his latest works are often reminded of the mock 
grandiloquence of the Phaedrus. But in this dialogue the poetical 
side of his genius is at the height. Not only can he express or 
imitate anything, and produce any effect at will, but he is 
standing behind his creation and disposing it with the most 
perfect mastery, preserving unity amidst profuse variety, and 
giving harmony to a wildness bordering on the grotesque. 

The person of Socrates is here deliberately modified. He 
no longer (as in the Symposium) teaches positive wisdom under 
the pretence of repeating what he has heard, but is himself 
caught by an exceptional inspiration, which is accounted for by 
the unusual circumstance of his finding himself in the country 
and alone with Phaedrus. He has been hitherto a stranger to the 
woods and fields, which would tempt him away from studying 
himself through intercourse with men. But by the promise of 
discourse especially of talk with Phaedrus he may be drawn 
anywhither. 

Phaedrus has been charmed by a discourse of Lysias, which after 
some coy excuses he consents to read. 

It is a frigid erotic diatribe, in which one not in love pleads for 
preference over the lover. Socrates hints at criticism, and is chal- 
lenged to produce something better on the same theme. 

i. Distinguishing deske from true opinion, he defines love as 



desire prevailing against truth, and then expatiates on the harmful 
tendencies of love as so defined. But he becomes alarmed at his 
own unwonted eloquence, and is about to remove, when the " divine 
token " warns him that he must first recite a " palinode " in praise 
of love. For no divine power can be the cause of evil. 

2. Love is madness; but there is a noble madness, as is shown 
by soothsayers (called /jAwtij from pabcyuu). And of the higher 
madness there are four kinds. 

To explain this it is necessary to understand psychology. The 
soul is self-existent and self-moving, and therefore eternal. And 
her form is like a pair of winged steeds with their charioteer. In 
divine souls both steeds are good, but in human souls one of them is 
bad. Now before entering the body the soul lost her wings, which in 
her unembodied state were nourished by beauty, wisdom, goodness, 
and all that is divine. For at the festival of souls, in which they 
visit the heaven that is above the heavens, the unruly steed caused 
the charioteer to see imperfectly. So the soul cast her feathers 
and fell down and passed into the human form. And, according 
to the comparative clearness or dimness of that first vision, her 
earthly lot is varied from that of a philosopher or artist down 
through nine grades (including woman) to that of a tyrant. On 
her conduct in this state of probation depends her condition when 
again born into the world. And only in ten thousand years can 
she return to her pristine state, except through a life of philosophy 
(cf. Phaedo) or of pure and noble love (cf. Symposium).- 

The mind of the philosopher alone has wings. He is ever being 
initiated into perfect mysteries, and his soul alone becomes complete. 
But the vulgar deem him mad and rebuke him; they do not see 
that he is inspired. 

This divine madness (the fourth kind of those above mentioned) 
is kindled through the renewed vision of beauty. For wisdom is 
not seen; her loveliness would have been transporting if she had 
a visible form. The struggle of the higher passion with the lower 
is then described with extraordinary vividness, under the image 
of the two steeds. When the higher impulse triumphs the issue 
is a philosophic friendship, at once passionate and absolutely pure. 

3. From his " palinode " Socrates returns to Lysias, who is 
advised to leave speech-writing for philosophy. 

a. Phaedrus remarks that the speech-writer is despised by the 
politician. Socrates replies that speech-writing and politics are 
one concern. The real difference is between those who base their 
teaching on philosophy and those who are content with rules of 
art. For example, if the first speech of Socrates is compared with 
that of Lysias, the one is found to distinguish and define, the other 
not; the one observes order in discourse, the other " begins where 
he should end," and his utterance is like a disordered chain. A 
speech should be an organic whole, a " creature haying hands and 
feet." So in the " palinode " there was a classification of the kinds 
of madness, which led the way to " a possibly true though partly 
erring myth." This approximation to truth in the midst of much 
that was playful was due to the observance of two principles, 
generalization and division (avvayayij, Sialptais). Whoever sees the 
one and many in nature, him Socrates follows and walks in his 
footsteps, as if he were a god. In comparison of dialectic, as thus 
conceived, the frigid rules of Lysias, Thrasymachus, Theodoras, 
Evenus, Tisias, Gorgias, Polus and Protagoras are futile and absurd. 

b. Another condition of teaching (or true rhetoric) is the science 
of mind. Whether the soul be one or many, complex or multiform, 
and if multiform what are its parts and kinds, are questions which 
the teacher must have already solved. And he must likewise have 
classified all arguments and know them in their various applic- 
ability to divers souls. An art of speaking that should fulfil this 
condition is non-existent. Yet how can even verisimilitude be 
attained without knowledge of truth? 

c. The art of writing is kindred to the art of speech. But 
Socrates maintains that oral teaching through the living contact of 
mind with mind has many advantages over written composition, 
which is, comparatively speaking, a dead thing. Men may write for 
amusement or to record the intercourse that has been. But the 
serious occupation of the true thinker and teacher is the com- 
munication of truth through vital converse with others like-minded 
the creation of " thoughts that breathe " in spirits conscious 
of their value. 

In conclusion, a friendly hint is given to Isocrates that he may do 
better than Lysias if he will but turn his attention to philosophy. 

The Phaedrus anticipates much that Plato afterwards slowly 
elaborated, and retains some things which he at last eliminated, 
(i) The presence of movement or impulse in the highest region 
is an aspect of truth which reappears in the Sophistes and other 
later dialogues. It has been thought strange that it should be 
found so early as in the Phaedrus. But does not this remark 
imply an unwarrantable assumption, viz. that Plato's idealism 
took its departure from the being of Parmenides ? Is it not 
rather the fact that his own theory was formulated before the 
Megarian ascendancy led him to examine the Eleatic doctrine, 
and that it was by a tendency from the first inherent in Platonism 
that that doctrine was modified in his final teaching? (2) The 



PLATO 



817 



outlines of method which are thrown out at white heat in the 
Phaedrus are a preparation for th more sober treatment of 
the ideas in the dialectical dialogues. In these, however, the 
conception of classification is somewhat altered through contact 
with Eleaticism. (3) The Phaedrus aims, not merely at realizing 
universals, but at grasping them in and through particulars. 
This is an ideal of knowledge which was " lost as soon as seen," 
but one which in some of his latest dialogues, such as the Politicus 
and Philebus, Plato agajn endeavoured to work out. (4) The 
Phaedrus contains the elements of that true psychlogy into 
which the ontological theory of the ideas is gradually transmuted 
in Plato's more advanced writings, when the difficulties of his 
ideal doctrine in its cruder forms have been clearly felt and under- 
stood. (5) Plato here appears as a professor of education 
preferring oral intercourse to authorship. In this paradox he at 
once exalts the work of Socrates and avows his own vocation as a 
teacher. The passage throws an interesting light upon the form 
of dialogue in which his works are cast. But it is not to be sup- 
posed that he remained long unconscious of the influence he was 
destined to wield by writing. In executing a great task like the 
Republic, he practically diverged from the untenable view 
asserted here; and in the Laws he recommends his longest and 
least dramatic work as a suitable basis for the education of the 
future. (6) It must always appear strange, even to those most 
familiar with the conditions of Hellenic life, that in portraying 
the idealizing power of passionate love Plato should have taken 
his departure from unnatural feeling. 

On this subject he has sung his own " palinode " in the Laws, 
which he intended as his final legacy to mankind. 1 Not that he 
ceased to exalt genius and originality above mere talent, or to 
demand for philosophy the service of the heart as well as the head 
nor yet that friendship was less valued by him in later years. 
All this remained unchanged. And in the Republic the passion 
of love is still distantly referred to as the symbol of ideal aspira- 
tion. But a time came when he had learned to frown on the 
aberration of feeling which in the Symposium and Phaedrus he 
appears to regard as the legitimate stimulus of intellectual 
enthusiasm. And already in the Theaetetus not love but wonder 
is described as the only beginning of philosophy. 

While calling attention to this change of sentiment, it is right 
to add that Platonic love in the " erotic " dialogues of Plato is 
very different from what has often been so named, and that 
nothing even in the noble passage of the Laws above referred to 
casts the slightest shadow of blame on the Socrates of the 
Symposium. Such changes are, amongst other things, a ground 
for caution in comparing the two steeds of the Phaedrus with 
the spirit (0u/u6s) and desire (eirttfuyiua) of the Republic and 
Timaeus. The Phaedrus, in common with these dialogues, 
asserts the existence of higher and lower impulses in human 
nature, but there is no sufficient ground for supposing that when 
Plato wrote the Phaedrus he would have denned them precisely 
as they are defined in the Republic. 

The Cratylus is full of curious interest as marking the highest 
point reached by the " science of language " in antiquity; but, 
Cf t i as this dialogue " hardly derives any light from 
Plato's other writings," 2 so neither does it reflect 
much light on them. It deals slightly with the contrast between 
Heracliteanism and Eleaticism, the importance of dialectic, the 
difficulty about the existence of falsehood, and ends with a brief 
allusion to the doctrine of ideas but these topics are all more 
fully discussed elsewhere. 

Three persons maintain different views respecting the nature and 
origin of language. 

Hermogenes affirms that language is conventional, Cratylus (the 
Heraclitean) that it is natural. Socrates, mediating between these 
sophistical extremes, declares that language, like other institutions, 
is rational, and therefore (i) is based on nature, but (2) modified 
by convention. 

In his dialectical treatment of the subject, Socrates displays a 
tissue of wild etymologies in reliance on the " inspiration " of 
Euthyphro. Presently a distinction appears between primary and 

1 Laws viii. 836. 

2 Jowett who has, notwithstanding, thrown much light on the 
Cratylus in his brilliant introduction. 



secondary words. Many primary words convey the notion of 
movement and change. It follows that the legislator or word-maker 
held Heraclitean views. Socrates thus far presses on Hermogenes 
the view of Cratylus. Then turning to Cratylus he asks if there are 
no false names. ' False language," Cratylus argues, " is impossible." 
Socrates shows that a true image may be inadequate, so that we 
have >a right to criticize the work of the word-maker. And the 
facts indicate an element of meaningless convention. Nor was the 
original word-maker consistently Heraclitean. For some important 
words point not to motion but to rest. 

But the question returns Are we sure that the theory of nature 
which the word-maker held was true? This difficulty cannot 
be touched by verbal arguments. In seeking to resolve it we must 
consider, not words, but things. If there is a true beauty and a 
true good, which are immutable, and if these are accessible to 
knowledge, that world of truth can have nothing to do with flux 
and change. 

V. Gorgias, Republic. In the Symposium and Phaedrus 
Plato largely redeems the promise implied in the Phaedo, where 
Socrates tells his friends to look among themselves for a charmer 
who may soothe away the fear of death. But he was pledged also 
to a sterner duty by the warning of Socrates to the Athenians, 
in the Apology, that after he was gone there would arise 
others for their reproof more harsh than he had been. To this 
graver task, which he had but partially fulfilled with the light 
satire upon Lysias or the gentle message to Isocrates, the philo- 
sopher now directs his powers, by holding up the mirror of what 
ought to be against what is, the principles of truth and right 
against the practice of men. For the good has more than one 
aspect. The beautiful or noble when realized in action becomes 
the just. And to the question, What is just? are closely 
allied those other questions of Socrates What is a state? What 
is it to be a statesman? 

In the Gorgias Plato asserts the absolute supremacy. of justice 
through the dramatic portraiture of Socrates in his opposition 
to the world; in the Republic he strives at greater length to define 
the nature of justice through the imaginary creation of an ideal 
community. 

In the Gorgias the Platonic Socrates appears in direct antagon- 
ism with the Athenian world. The shadow of his fate is impend- 
ing. Chaerephon (who is still alive) understands ; 
him, but to the other interlocutors, Gorgias, Polus, 
Callicles, he appears perversely paradoxical. Yet he effectively 
dominates them all. And to the reader of the dialogue this 
image of " Socrates contra mundum " is hardly less impressive 
than that other image of Socrates confronting death. 

i. Gorgias asserts that rhetoric is an art concerned with justice, 
and that persuasion is the secret of power. 

a. Socrates, after suggesting some ironical doubts, declares his 
opinion that rhetoric is no art, but a knack of pleasing, or in other 
words " the counterfeit of a subsection of statesmanship." This 
oracular definition rouses the interest of Gorgias, and Socrates 
proceeds with the following " generalization and division ": 



Management of 
I 



Soul. 

I 



Body. 
I 




Legis- 
lation. 



3 

Juris- 
prudence. 



Pretended. 



Sophistic. Rhetoric. Gymnastic. Medicine. Cosmetic. 






Flattery. 

Flattery influences men through pleasure without knowledge. 
And the rhetor is a kind of confectioner, who can with difficulty 
be distinguished from the sophist. 

b. Rhetoric, then, is not an art. And persuasion is not the 
secret of power. Here Socrates maintains against Polus the three 
paradoxes : 

The tyrant does what he chooses but not what he wishes; 

It is less evil to suffer wrong than to do wrong; 

It is better for the wrongdoer to be punished than to escape 
punishment. 

The only use of rhetoric, therefore, is for self-accusation, and (if 
it is ever permissible to do harm) to prevent the punishment of 
one's enemy. 

2. Callicles here loses patience and breaks in. He propounds 
his theory, which is based on the opposition of nature and custom. 



8i8 



PLATO 



" There is no natural right but the right of the stronger. And 
natural nobility is to have strong passions and power to gratify 
them. The lawful 

is a word that cowards use, 
Devised at first to keep the strong in awe." 

Socrates entangles him in an argument in which it is proved that 
pleasure is different from good, and that there are good and bad 
pleasures. 

Now the question is whether the life of philosophy, or the life 
which Callicles defends, is conducive to good. And it has been 
shown that rhetoric is one of a class of pursuits which minister to 
pleasure without discriminating what is good. 

Callicles again becomes impatient. Did not Themistocles, 
Cimon, Pericles labour for their country's good? Socrates then 
renews his demonstration, proving that if the just man is wronged 
the evil lies with the wrongdoer, not with him, and that it is 
worst for the wrongdoer if he escape. And for avoidance of this 
greatest evil not rhetoric avails anything, nor any of the arts 
which save life (seeing that life may be used well or ill), nor even 
:such an art of politics as Themistocles, Cimon, or Pericles knew, 
but another science of politics which Socrates alone of the Athenians 
practises. The pursuit of it may well endanger him; but his 
strength lies in having done no wrong. For in the world to come 
he can present his soul faultless before her judge. Not the show 
of justice but the reality will avail him there. 

This truth is enforced by an impressive myth. And Callicles is 
invited to leave the life which relies on rhetoric and to follow 
Socrates in practising the life of philosophic virtue. 

The value of justice has been shown. But what is justice? 

Is the life upheld by Socrates sufficiently definite for practical 

guidance? The views of Callicles have been over- 

Repuhlic. . - 

borne; but have they been thoroughly examined r 
Socrates claims to be the only politician. But how can that 
.deserve the name of policy which results in doing nothing? 
These and cognate questions may well have haunted Plato when 
he planned the Republic, the greatest of his works. For that 
which lay deepest in him was not mere speculative interest or 
poetic fervour, but the practical enthusiasm of a reformer. 
The example of Socrates had fired him with an ideal of wisdom, 
courage, temperance and righteousness, which under various 
guises, both abstract and concrete, has appeared and reappeared 
in the preceding dialogues. But the more vividly he conceived 
of this ideal life, the more keenly he felt its isolation in the present 
world that of the restored Athenian democracy. For to a Greek 
mind above all others life was nothing without the social environ- 
ment, and justice, of all virtues, could least be realized apart from 
a community. Hence it became necessary to imagine a form of 
society in which the ideal man might find himself at home, a state 
to which the philosopher might stand in harmonious relationship, 
no longer as an alien sojourner, but as a native citizen, not 
standing aloof in lonely contemplation, but acting with the 
full consent of other men and ruling in the right of wisdom. 
Plato did not regard his own republic as a barren dream. He 
believed that sooner or later in the course of time a state essen- 
tially resembling his ideal commonwealth would come into being. 
Still more firmly was he convinced that until then mankind would 
not attain their highest possible development. To ignore this 
real aspect of his most serious work is to lose much of the 
.author's meaning. Yet it is hardly less erroneous to interpret a 
great imaginative creation au pied de la lettre, as if examining a 
piece of actual legislation. Even in his Laws, a far more prosaic 
writing, Plato himself repeatedly protests against such criticism. 
In his most aspiring flights he is well aware of the difference 
between the imaginary and actual embodiment of an ideal,? 
although as a literary artist he gives to his creations, whether in 
anticipation or retrospect, an air of sober reality and matter-of- 
fact. He is more in earnest about principles than about details, 
.and if questioned would probably be found more confident with 
regard to moral than to political truth. He may have been 
wholly unconscious of the inconsistencies of his scheme, but it 
Tvould not have greatly disconcerted him to have discovered 
them, or to have been told that this or that arrangement would 
not " work." He would have trusted the correction of his own 
rough draft to the philosopher-kings of the future. 

The Republic falls naturally into five portions, M Bk. i. is 
preliminary, raising the main question about justice. (2) Bks. ii., 



1 See especially Rep. v. 472 ; Legg. \. 746. 



Hi., iv. contain the outlines of the perfect state, including the 
education of the " guardians," and leading up to the definition of 
justice (a) in the state, and (b) in the individual. (3) Bks. v., 
vi., vii. (which to some critics present the appearance of an after- 
thought or excrescence on the original design) contain the cardinal 
provisions (l) of communism (for the guardians only), (2) that 
philosophers shall be kings, (3) of higher education for the rulers 
(viz. the philosopher-kings). This third provision occupies bks. 
vi. and vii. (which have again, as some think, the appearance of 
an outgrowth from bk. v.). (4) Bks. viii. and ix., resuming the 
general subject from bk. iv., present the reverse of the medal by 
showing the declension of the state and individual through four 
stages, until in the life of tyranny is found the image of ideal 
injustice, as that of justice was found in the life of the perfect state. 
(5) Bk. x. forms a concluding chapter, in which several of the 
foregoing enactments are reviewed, and the work ends, like the 
Gorgias, with a vision of judgment. 

Thus the main outlines of the scheme are contained in bks. ii., 
iii., iv., viii., ix. And yet bks. v., vi., vii. form the central portion, 
a sort of inner kernel, and are of the highest significance. 

In speculating about the composition of the Republic (as is 
the fashion of some interpreters) it is important to bear, in mind 
the general character of Plato's writings. 

" The conception of unity," says Jowett, 2 " really applies in 
very different degrees to different kinds of art to a statue, for 
example, far more than to any kind of literary composition, and 
to some species of literature far more than to others. Nor does the 
dialogue appear to be a style of composition in which the require- 
ment of unity is most stringent; nor should the idea of unity derived 
from one sort of art be hastily transferred to another. . . . Plato 
subjects himself to no rule of this sort. Like every great artist 
he gives unity of form to the different and apparently distracting 
topics which he brings together. He works freely, and is not to 
be supposed to have arranged every part of the dialogue before 
he begins to write. He fastens or weaves together the frame of 
his discourse loosely and imperfectly, and which is the warp and 
which the woof cannot always be determined." 

It should be added, that as Dialectic was still a " world not 
realized," and he was continually conscious of using imperfect 
methods, he was not solicitous to bind himself to any one method, 
or to watch carefully over the logical coherence of his work. 
" Sailing with the wind of his argument," he often tacks and 
veers, changing his method with his subject-matter, much as a 
poet might adopt a change of rhythm. Absorbed as he is in 
each new phase of his subject, all that precedes is cancelled for 
the time. And much of what is to come is deliberately kept 
out of view, because ideas of high importance are reserved 
for the place where their introduction will have most effect. 
Another cause of apparent inconsequence jn Plato is what he 
himself would call the use of hypothesis. He works less deduc- 
tively and more from masses of generalized experience than 
Platonists have been ready to admit. And in the Republic he 
is as much engaged with the criticism of an actual as with the 
projection of an ideal condition of society. If we knew more of 
the working of Attic institutions as he observed them, we should 
often understand him better. 

These general considerations should be weighed against 
the inequalities which have led some critics to suppose that 
the " first sketch of the state" in bks. ii.-iv. is much earlier than 
the more exalted views of bks. v.-vii. 3 If in these later books new 
conditions for choosing the future rulers are allowed to emerge, 
if in discussing the higher intellectual virtues the simple psycho- 
logy of bk. iv. is lost sight of (it reappears in the Timaeus), if 
the " knowledge of the expedient " at first required falls far 
short of the conception of knowledge afterwards attained, all 
this is quite in keeping with Plato's manner elsewhere, and may 
be sufficiently accounted for by artistic and dialectical reserve. 
It can hardly be an altogether fortuitous circumstance that the 
culminating crisis, the third and highest " wave " of difficulty 
the declaration that philosophers must be kings and kings 
philosophers comes in precisely at the central point of the 
whole long work. 

The great principle of the political supremacy of mind, though 
thus held back through half the dialogue, really dominates the 
whole. It may be read between the lines all through, even in 
the institution of gymnastic and the appraisement of the cardinal 

1 Introd. to the Phaedrus. 

Krohn, Der platonische Stoat (Halle, 1876). 



PLATO 



819 



virtues. It is a genuine development of Socratic thought. 
And it is this more than any other single feature which gives the 
Republic a prophetic significance as "an attempt towards 
anticipating the work of future generations." 1 

Other aspects of the great dialogue, the Dorian framework, 
so inevitable in the reaction from Ionian life, the traces of 
Pythagorean influence, the estimate of oligarchy and democracy, 
the characters of the interlocutors in their bearing on the exposition, 
have been fully treated by receAt writers, and for brevity's sake 
are here passed over. 

There are other points, however, which must not be omitted, 
because they are more intimately related to the general develop- 
ment of Plato's thoughts. 

1. The question debated by Proclus has been raised before and 
since, whether the proper subject of the Republic is justice or the 
state. The doubt would be more suggestive if put in a somewhat 
different form: Is Plato more interested in the state or the indi- 
vidual? That he is in earnest about both, and that in his view 
of them they are inseparable, is an obvious answer. And it is 
almost a truism to say that political relations were prior to ethical 
in the mind of a Greek. Yet if in some passages the political 
analogy reacts on moral notions (as in the definition of temperance) , 
in others the state is spoken of in language borrowed from individual 
life. And it remains questionable whether the ethics or the politics 
of the Republic are less complete. On the whole Plato himself 
seems to be conscious that the ideal derived from the life-work of 
Socrates could be more readily stamped on individual lives than 
on communities of men (see especially Rep. vii. 528 A, ix. 592). 

2. The analogy of the individual is often used to enforce the 
requirement of political unity and simplicity (see especially v. 462 C). 
This is also to be referred, however, to Plato's general tendency 
to strain after abstractions. He had not yet reached a point 
of view from which he could look steadily on particulars in the 
light of universal principles. He recurs often to experience, but 
is soon carried off again into the abstract region which to him seemed 
higher and purer. 2 " It has been said that Plato flies as well as 
walks, but this hardly expresses the Whole truth, for he flies and 
walks at the same time, and is in the air and on firm ground in 
successive instants " (Jowett). Plato's scheme of communism 
had been suggested to him partly by Dorian institutions and partly 
by the Pythagorean rule. But it was further commended by the 
general consideration that the state is a higher and more abstract 
unity than the family. The lower obligation must give way to 
the higher; the universal must overrule the particular bond. 

3. Similarly it may be argued that, while the subordination of 
music to state discipline, and the importance attached to rhythm 
and harmony in education, had likewise a connexion with Sparta 
and the Pythagoreans severally, Plato's deliberate attitude towards 
poetry and art could hardly be other than it is. Philosophy, 
while still engaged in generalization, could not assign to the imagina- 
tion its proper function. " Aesthetik " could not enter into her 
purview. For a moment, in the Symposium, the ancient quarrel 
of poetry and philosophy had seemed to be melted in a dominant 
tone, but this was only a fond anticipation. Plato, if man ever 
did so, had felt the siren charm, but he is now embarked on a more 
severe endeavour, and, until the supreme unity of truth and good 
is grasped, vagrant fancy must be subdued and silent. 

4. In the early education of the guardians a place is found for 
the unconscious virtue acquired through habit, which the Prota- 
goras and Me.no stumbled over and the Phaedo treated with disdain. 
In the ideal state, however, this lower excellence is no longer a 
wild plant, springing of itself through some uncoyenantcd grace 
of inspiration, but cultivated through an education which has 
been purified by philosophy so as to be in harmony with -reason. 
But if Plato were cross-questioned as to the intrinsic value of habits 
so induced as a preservative for his pupils against temptation, 
he would have replied, " I do not pretend to have removed all 
difficulties from their path. Enough of evil still surrounds them 
to test their moral strength. I have but cleared the well-springs 
of the noxious weeds that have been fatal to so many, in order 
that they may have little to unlearn, and be exposed only to such 
dangers as are inevitable." 

5. It is a singular fact, and worth the attention of those who 
look for system in Plato, that the definition of justice here so 
laboriously wrought out, viz. the right division of labour between 
the three classes in the state and between the three corresponding 
faculties in the individual soul, is nowhere else repeated or appliea, 
although the tripartite division of the soul recurs in the Timaeus, 
and the notion of justice is of great importance to the arguments 
of the Politicus and the Laws. 

6. Before leaving the Republic, it is important to mark the 
stage which has now been reached by Plato's doctrine of ideas. 
The statements of the Republic on this subject are by no means 
everywhere consistent. 



1 Grote. 



2 See, for example, the admission of luxury and the after-purifi- 
cation through " music," bks. ii., iii. 



a. Towards the end of bk. v. philosophers are defined as lovers 
of the whole, who recognize the unity of justice, goodness, beauty, 
each in itself, as distinguished from the many just or good or beautiful 
things. The former are said to be objects of knowledge, the latter 
of opinion, which is intermediate between knowledge and ignorance. 
Knowledge is of being, ignorance of the non-existent, opinion of 
that which is and is not. 

b. In bk. vi. there is a more elaborate statement, implying a 
more advanced point of view. The " contemplation of all time 
and all existence ' is a riper conception than " the love of each thing 
as a whole." Ignorance and nonentity have now disappeared, 
and the scale is graduated from the most evanescent impression of 
sense to the highest reach of absolute knowledge. And in the 
highest region there is again a gradation, rising to the form of good, 
and descending from it to the true forms of all things. In the 
application of this scheme to the theory of education in bk. vii. 
there are still further refinements. The psychological analysis 
becomes more subtle, and more stress is laid on the connexion of 
ideas. 

c. The doctrine reverts to a cruder aspect in bk. x., where we 
are told of an ideal bed, which is one only and the pattern of all the 
many actual beds. 

d. A yet different phase of idealism presents itself in bk. ix. 
(sub fin.';, in the mention of a " pattern of the perfect state laid 
up in heaven which the philosopher is to make his rule of life. 

What is said above concerning Plato's mode of composition has 
some bearing on these inconsistencies of expression. And that 
bks. vi., vii., as being the most important, were finished last is a 
not untenable hypothesis. But that Plato, in preparing the way 
for what he had in contemplation, should content himself with 
provisional expressions which he had himself outgrown, or that 
in a casual illustration (as in bk. x.) he should go back to a crude 
or even childish form of his own theory, is equally conceivable and 
in accordance with his manner elsewhere. Socrates in the Parme- 
nides confessedly wavers on this very point. And there are " ideas " 
of the four elements in the Timaeus. 

VI. Euthydemus, Partnenid.es, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, 
Philebus (the dialectical dialogues) . Even in the most advanced 
metaphysics of the Republic there is a hyperbolical, trans- 
cendental tendency, from which Plato ultimately to some extent 
worked himself free. But it was not in conversation with " dear 
Glaucon," or " between the lines " of an ethico-political writing, 
that this partial emancipation could be effectually attained. We 
have now to consider a series of dialogues, probably intended 
for a narrower circle of readerSj in which Plato grapples directly 
with the central difficulties of his own theory of knowing and 
being. It is not necessary to assume that all of these are later 
than the Republic. The position of the Euthydemus and Par- 
menides in the order of composition is very uncertain. The 
Theaetetus has points of affinity with the Republic. The Sophist, 
Politicus and Philebus are in a later style. But, on account of 
their cognate subject-matter, these six dialogues may be con- 
veniently classed together in a group by themselves. And the 
right place for such a group is intermediate between the Republic 
and the Laws. 

The unity of the object of definition, the identity of virtue 
and knowledge, the existence of an absolute good, which would 
be universally followed if universally known, and of a standard 
of truth which is implied in the confession of -ignorance, were 
postulates underlying the Socratic process, which in so far made 
no claim to be a " philosophy without assumptions." These 
postulates, when once apprehended, drew Plato on to speculate 
concerning the nature, the object and the method of knowledge. 
Now, so far as we have hitherto followed him, his speculation 
has either been associated with ethical inquiry, or has been 
projected in a poetical and semi-mythical form. In the Phaedrus 
however, the vision of ideas was expressly conjoined with an 
outline of psychology and'a foreshadowing of scientific method. 
And, while the opposition of ideas to phenomena and of know- 
ledge to opinion has been repeatedly assumed, it has also been 
implied that there is a way between them, and that the truth 
can only be approached by man through interrogation of experi- 
ence. For it is nowhere supposed that the human inquirer is 
from the first in a position to deduce facts from ideas. Much 
rather, the light of the ideas is one which fitfully breaks in upon 
experience as men struggle towards the universal. 

But it is not less true that the metaphysical aspirations from 
which Socrates had seemed to recall men's thoughts had been 
reawakened in consequence of the impulse which Socrates 



820 



PLATO 



himself had given.' From asking, Is virtue one? Can virtue 
be taught? Plato passes on to ask, What is unity? What 
are knowledge and being? From criticizing imperfect modes of 
teaching virtue, he has begun to speculate about the right and 
wrong uses of the intellect, and from dramatic portraits of the 
individual Protagoras or Gorgias goes on to the ideal delineation 
of the sophist. He has entered upon the " longer way," and is 
no longer contented with mere " hypotheses." With this 
demand for scientific precision his conception of the ideas them- 
selves is modified, and he strives anew to conceive of them in 
relation to one another, to the mind, and to the world. As the 
balance of ethical truth was restored by admitting an uncon- 
scious (or inspired) conformity to reason, so now a fresh attempt 
is made on the intellectual side to bridge the gMlf between sense 
and knowledge. 

This endeavour involves, not only an expansion of the method 
of Socrates, but an examination of the earlier philosophies from 
which Socrates had turned away. Their influence on Plato has 
been traceable in the preceding dialogues, though, except in the 
case of Pythagoreanism (Gorg., Phaed., Rep.) it has been mostly 
indirect and casual. But in these dialectical dialogues he mani- 
fests his serious conviction .that the contemporary fallacies which 
formed the chief hindrance to inquiry were deeply rooted in 
forms of thought created by earlier thinkers, above all by 
Heraclitus and Parmenides. To the exclusiveness of their first 
principles as held by their followers Plato attributed the 
barrennesss and impracticable unreality of many discussions, 
which put shadow-fighting and controversy in the place of real 
investigation, and led men to think that truth was unattainable. 
He therefore enters into conversation, as it were, with the great 
minds of former times, and in the spirit of Socrates compels 
each of them to yield up his secret, and to acknowledge a supple- 
mental truth. To this effort he may very probably have been 
stimulated by the dialectical activity of his Socratic friends at 
Megara, whose logical tastes had drawn them towards Eleaticism. 
But, unlike them, while strengthening his metaphysical theory, 
he was also led to give to his political speculations a more 
practical turn. 

The Euthydemus is a treatise " De Sophisticis Elenchis " in 
the form of a farce, and may serve to introduce the five other 
Butbvdemus d i alo g ues > as tne encounter with Thrasymachus 
*' introduces the serious part of the Republic. Under 
the mask of mockery there is more of concentrated thought, and 
also more of bitterness, in this dialogue than in the Protagoras or 
the Gorgias. 

A sample of educational dialectic in which Socrates draws out 
of young Cleinias the admissions (i) that a philosophy is needed, 
(2) that the highest philosophy is a science of kingcraft, which 
remains for the present undefined is contrasted with a series 
of ridiculous sophisms, propounded by Dionysodorus and his 
brother Euthydemus, in which absolute and relative notions, 
whether affirmative or negative, object and subject, universal 
and particular, substance and attribute, action and modality, 
are capriciously confused. Crito, to whom Socrates narrates the 
scene, is moved to contempt. But Socrates warns him not on 
this account to despair of philosophy. In conclusion, Isocrates, 
or some one else, who prematurely mixes up philosophy with 
practical politics, is cautioned against spoiling two good things. 

Such puzzles as How can I learn either what I know or what 
I do not know? 1 How can things become what they are not? 
How is falsehood or denial possible? although treated jocularly 
here, will be found returning afterwards to " trouble the mind's 
eye." 

Plato appears in the same act to have become aware of his 
affinity with Parmenides, and to have been led to reconsider the 
foundations of his own doctrine. The one being 
of Parmenides was a more abstract notion than 
justice, beauty or the good. And the Zenonian method had 
more pretension to exactness than the Socratic. But it remained 
barren, because contented to repeat its own first essays in 
the destructive analysis of experience, without rising to the 

1 Cf. Meno. 



Parmenides. 



examination of its own first principles. For this higher criticism, 
of which he himself also stood in need, Plato looks up from 
the disciples to the master Parmenides. The appeal to him 
is put into the mouth of Socrates, as a very young man, who has 
framed for himself a theory of ideas, and would gladly see the 
Zenonian process applied to the notions of sameness, difference, 
likeness, unlikeness, unity and being. 

Parmenides, whom Plato treats with tender reverence not 
unmixed with irony, proposes to the youth a series of questions 
which reveal the crudity of the doctrine of ei5?j. (i) Are there 
ideas of trivial things? 2 (2) How do things '"partake" of 
them? (3) Must not idealism proceed in infinitum? (4) If 
ideas are thoughts, do they and their participants think ? (5) 
If they are patterns, and things resemble them, must there not 
be a pattern of the resemblance, and so on in infinitum ? (6) If 
absolute, are they thinkable by man ? 

These difficulties are real, 'and yet to deny ideas is to destroy 
philosophy. (As the paradoxical doubts in the Protagoras do 
not shake the faith of Socrates in the existence of good, so neither 
does Plato here intend for a moment to derogate from the belief 
in the existence of the One and the True.) 

Parmenides advises Socrates to arm himself for the further pur- 
suit of truth (i) by the higher application and (2) by the extension 
or completion of the Zenonian method, (i) The method is to be 
applied to abstractions. (2) It is not enough to show the inferences 
which may be drawn from the admission of an hypothesis, but 
account must also be taken of the inferences which follow from 
its rejection. 

Parmenides exemplifies his suggestion by examining his own first 
principle in conversation with a youth who, while a contemporary 
of Socrates, is a namesake of Plato's pupil Aristotle. 3 Not content 
with the affirmative and negative hypotheses, he pursues either 
along two lines , according as either term of the proposition is 
emphasized, and this not only as regards the hypothesis of unity, 
but also as applied to the alternative hypothesis of plurality. The 
result, as in the Protagoras, is purely destructive, and the dialogue 
ends abruptly without a word of reply from Socrates. 

The second part of the Parmenides may be regarded as an 
experiment in which Plato " assays to go " in Eleatic armour. 
Yet the strange web is " shot " with colours of original thought. 
The mode of conceiving time and becoming, and the vision of 
nothingness towards the end, may be noted as especially 
Platonic. These passages may be regarded in the same light as 
the wise words of Protagoras or the sober truths which occur 
amidst the wild fancies of the Cratylus. They should not mislead 
the interpreter into a search for recondite meanings. 

The Zenonian method has been carried out to the utmost in 
application to the highest subject, and has led the mind into a 
maze of contradiction. It remains to call in question 
the method itself, and the notion of absolute identity 
and difference on which it hinges, and so to lay anew the foun- 
dation-stone of thought. Before this can be attempted, how- 
ever, another set of difficulties have to be met, and another set 
of philosophers examined. For the current scepticism had 
undermined the conception of knowledge as well as that of being, 
and the fame of Heraclitus was hardly second to that of Par- 
menides. Protagoras appeared in a former dialogue as the 
champion of ordinary morality; he is now made the exponent 
of ordinary thinking. His saying " Man the measure " is shown 
to rest on the unstable basis of the Heraclitean flux. By an 
elaborate criticism of both theories knowledge is at last separated 
from the relativity of sense; but the subsequent attempt to 
distinguish on abstract grounds between true and false opinion, 
and to define knowledge as true opinion with a reason (cf. 
Meno), proves ineffectual. Plato still shows traces of Megarian 
influence. But the disjunctive method of the Parmenides is 
not resumed. The indirect proofs are so arranged as to exhibit 
the skill of Socrates in " bringing to the birth " the germs of 
thought in a richly endowed and " pregnant " young mind. 
Theaetetus is the embodiment of the philosophic nature des- 
cribed in Rep. bk. vi., and has already been trained by Theodorus 
of Cyrene in geometry and the other preparatory sciences of 

2 Cf. Rep. x. 597- 

' Cf. the younger Socrates of the Politicus. It would be 
precarious to draw any inference from this minute fact. 



PLATO 



821 



Rep. bk. vii. It is in conversation with Theodoras that Socrates 
impressively contrasts the lives of the lawyer and the philosopher. 
The Theaetetus marks a great advance in clearness of metaphysical 
and psychological expression. See for example the passage 
(184-186) in which the independent function of the mind is 
asserted, and ideas are shown to be the truth of experience. 
There is also a distinct approach towards a critical and historical 
method in philosophy, while the perfection of style continues 
unimpaired, and the person of Socrates is as vividly represented 
as in any dialogue. 

Notwithstanding the persistence of an indirect and negative 
method, the spirit of this dialogue also is the reverse of sceptical. 
" Socrates must assume the reality of knowledge or deny himself " 
(197 A). Perhaps in no metaphysical writing is the balance more 
firmly held between experience, imagination and reflection. 
Plato would seem to have made a compact with himself to abstain 
rigidly from snatching at the golden fruit that has so often eluded 
his grasp, and to content himself with laboriously " cutting 
steps " towards the summit that was still unsealed. 

With Plato, as with other inventive writers, a time seems to 

have arrived when he desired to connect successive works in a 

series. Thus in planning the Sophistes he linked it to 

the Theaetetus (which had been written without any 

such intention), and projected a whole tetralogy of dialectical 

dialogues, Theaetetus, Sophistes, Politicus, Philosophus, of which 

the last piece seems never to have been written. 

After an interval, of which our only measure is a change of 
style, the philosopher returns to the great central question of 
knowledge and being. The obstacle in his path, on which he has 
often played with light satire, dramatic portraiture and indirect 
allusion, is now to be made the object of a seriously planned 
attack. He has made his approaches, and the enemy's fortress 
is to be forthwith sapped and overthrown. This hostile position 
is not merely the " Sophistik " which, as some tell us, is an 
invention of the Germans, and as Plato himself declares is only 
.the reflection or embodiment of the average mind, 1 but the 
fallacy of fallacies, the prime falsehood (irpGirov \j/tv5os) of all 
contemporary thought. This is nothing else than the crude 
absoluteness of affirmation and negation which was ridiculed in 
the Euthydemus, and has been elsewhere mentioned as the first 
principle of the art of controversy. 2 For dramatic purposes 
this general error is personified. And the word " sophist," 
which had somehow become the bete noire of the Platonic school, 
thus for the first time fixedly acquires the significance which has 
since clung to the name. That Plato himself would not adhere 
pedantically to the connotation here implied is shown by the 
admission, at the opening of the dialogue, that amongst other 
disguises under which the philosopher walks the earth the sophist 
is one. 

In the Sophistes, as in the farmenides, a new method is intro- 
duced, and again by an Eleatic teacher. This method is repeated 
with improvements in the Politicus, and once more referred to 
in the Philebus. It bears a strong resemblance to the " syna- 
goge " and " diaeresis " of the Phaedrus, but is applied by the 
" friend from Elea " with a degree of pedantry which Socrates 
nowhere betrays. And the two methods, although kindred, 
have probably come through different channels the classifi- 
cations of the Phaedrus being Plato's own generalization of the 
Socratic process, while the dichotomies of the Sophistes and 
Politicus are a caricature of Socrates cast in the Megarian mould. 
Plato seems to have regarded this method as an implement which 
might be used with advantage only when the cardinal principles 
on which it turned had been fully criticized. 

1. After various attempts to " catch the sophist," he is defined 
as the maker of an unreal likeness of truth. Here the difficulty 
begins for the definition implies the existence of the unreal, i.e. 
of not-being. In our extremity it is necessary to " lay hands on 
our father Parmenides." 

2. The contradictions attendant on the notion of being, 
whether as held by Parmenides or his opponents or by the " less 
exact " thinkers who came after them, are then examined, and in 
an extremely subtle and suggestive passage (246-249) an attempt 



1 Rep. vi. 493. 



is made to mediate between idealism and materialism. The result 
is that while consummate being is exempt from change it cannot 
be devoid of life and motion. " Like children, ' Give us both,' 
say we." 

3. This leads up to the main question: (a) are different notions 
incommunicable, or (b) are all ideas indiscriminately communicable, 
or (c) is there communion of some kinds and not of others? The 
last view s alone tenable, and is confirmed by experience. And 
of the true combination and separation of kinds the philosopher 
is judge. 

4. Then it is asked (in order to " bind the sophist ") whether 
being is predicable of not-being. 

Five chief kinds (or categories) are now examined, viz. being, 
rest, motion, sameness, difference. Rest and motion are mutually 
incommunicable, but difference is no less universal than being itself. 
For everything is " other " than the rest, i.e. is not. Thus positive 
and negative not only coexist but are coextensive. 

5. And, in spite of Parmenides, we have discovered the existence, 
and also the nature, of not-being. It follows that the mere pursuit 
of contradictions is childish and useless and wholly incompatible 
with a philosophic spirit. 

Negation, falsity, contradiction, are three notions which Plato 
from his height of abstraction does not hold apart. His position 
is the converse of the Spinozistic saying, " Omnis determinatio 
est negatio." According to him, every negative implies an 
affirmative. And his main point is that true negation is cor- 
relative to true affirmation, much as he hag said in the Phaedrus 
that the dialectician separates kinds according to the " lines and 
veins of nature." The Sophistes is a standing protest against 
the error of marring the finely-graduated lineaments of truth, 
and so destroying the vitality of thought. 

The idealists whom the Eleatic stranger treats so gently have 
been identified with the Megarians. But may not Plato be 
reflecting on a Megarian influence operating within the Academy? 

Here, as partly already in the Parmenides and Theaetetus, the 
ideas assume the nature of categories, and being is the sum of 
positive attributes, while negation, as the shadow of affirmation, 
is likewise finally comprehended in the totality of being. 

The remark made incidentally, but with intense emphasis, 
that the universe lives and moves " according to God," l is an 
indication of the religious tone which reappears increasingly in 
the Politicus, Philebus, Timaeus and Laws. 

In passing on to consider the statesman, true and false, the 
Eleatic stranger does not forget the lesson which has just been 
learned. While continuing his method of dicho- 
tomies, he is careful to look on both sides of each 
alternative, and he no longer insists on dividing 
between this and not-this when another mode of classification 
is more natural. A rule not hitherto applied is now brought 
forward, the rule of proportion or right measure (TO IJXTPMV), 
as distinguished from arbitrary limitations. Nor is formal 
logical treatment any longer felt to be adequate to the subject 
in hand, but an elaborate myth is introduced. On the ethico- 
political' side also a change has come over Plato. As he has 
stripped his ideas of transcendental imagery, so in reconsidering 
his philosopher-king he turns away from the smiling optimism of 
the Republic and looks for a scientific statesmanship that 'shall 
lay a strong grasp upon the actual world. He also feels more 
bitterly towards the demagogues and other rulers of Hellas. 
The author of the Politicus must have had some great quarrel 
with mankind. But so far as they will receive it he is still intent 
on doing them good. 

1. The king is first defined as a herdsman of men, who as " slow 
bipeds " are distinguished from the pig and the ape. But the king 
is not all in all to his | charges, as the herdsman is. The above 
definition confuses human with divine rule. 

2. Now the universe is like a top, which God first winds in one 
direction and then leaves to spin the other way. In the former 
or divine cycle all was spontaneous, and mankind who had all 
things in common, were under the immediate care of gods. They 
were happy, if they used their leisure in interrogating nature. But 
in this reign of Zeus it is far otherwise. Men have to order their 
own ways and try to imitate in some far-off manner the ail-but 
forgotten divine rule. 

3. Therefore in our7present definition the term " superintendent 
must be substituted for " herdsman." 

What special kind of superintendence is true statesmanship? 

1 Soph. 265 D. 



822 



PLATO 



4. By way of an example, the art of weaving is denned. The 
example shows that kingcraft has first to be separated from other 
kindred arts, both causal and co-operative. Nine categories are 
adduced which exhaust social functions. Eight are eliminated, 
and the ninth, the class of ministers, remains. Of these (a) slaves, 
(6) hirelings, (c) traders, (d) officials, (e) priests are again parted off, 
although the last are only with difficulty separated from the king, 
when (f) a strange medley of monstrous creatures come into view. 
Some are fierce like lions, some crafty like the fox, and some have 
mixed natures like centaurs and satyrs. These are the actual rulers 
of mankind, more sophistical and juggling than the sophist himself. 
And they too must be separated from the true king. 

5. The familiar tripartite distinction of monarchy, oligarchy, 
democracy, is doubled by introducing into each the distinction 
involved in the presence or absence of wealth, and in the observance 
or non-observance of law. But no one of the six carries in itself a 
scientific principle. 

The true government is the rule, not of many, but of one or of 
a few. " And they may govern, whether poor or rich, by free-will 
or compulsion, and either with or without law, so long as they 
govern scientifically." 

6. The respondent, a youthful namesake of Socrates, is shocked 
at the remark that the true ruler may govern without law. 

This leads to a discussion of the nature of law, which is compared 
to the prescription left by a physician. If present, he might 
dispense with his own rule. So the presence of a competent ruler 
is better than the sovereignty of law, which makes no allowance 
for nature or circumstance, but tyrannically forces its own way. 
Imagine medicine, navigation, &c., similarly conducted by time- 
honoured prescription, with penalties for innovation; what would 
become of civilization? Yet if law is disregarded by rulers who 
are unscientific and warped by self-interest, this leads to far worse 
evils. For the laws are based on some experience and wisdom. 
Hence, in the continued absence of the true ruler, the best course, 
though only second best, is the strict observance of law. And he 
who so rules in humble imitation of the scientific governor may be 
truly called a king, although if the divine lawgiver were to appear 
his living will would supersede the law. 

7. As it is, though cities survive many evils, yet many are ship- 
wrecked because of the ignorance of those at the helm. The order 
of badness in the actual states is 



1. Constitutional monarchy. 

2. Constitutional oligarchy. 

I 3. Law-abiding democracy. 

' 4. Law-breaking democracy. 

5. Law-defying oligarchy. 

6. Tyranny. 

8. It remains to separate from the true ruler those who co-operate 
with him as subordinates, the general, the judge, the orator. His 
own peculiar function is an art of weaving strength (the warp) with 
gentleness (the woof), when education has prepared them and 
this (i) by administration, (2) by marriage. 

The four preceding dialogues have shown (i) the gradual 
transformation of the Platonic ideas (while still objective) into 
forms of thought, (2) the tendency to group them into series of 
categories, (3) a corresponding advance in psychological classifi- 
cation, (4) an increasing importance given to method, (5) the 
inclination to inquire into processes (ytviaeis) as well as into the 
nature of being. 

Meanwhile Plato's approach to the Eleatics, though in the 
way of criticism, has brought into prominence the notions of 
Phil b s urutv > being, sameness, difference, and has left some- 
what in abeyance the idea of good. To this " highest 
of all studies " Plato now returns, equipped with his improved 
instruments, and ready to forge new ones in the same laboratory, 
or in some other, should occasion serve. His converse with 
Parmenides ended in his assertion of an element of difference 
pervading all things in other words, of an indeterminate element 
underlying all determinations. This brings him again into 
relation with the Pythagoreans, who had similarly asserted the 
combination of finite and infinite in the universe. Taking 
advantage of their help, he gains a more advanced (but still ideal) 
conception of the concrete harmony of things, and approaches 
the definition of that which in the Republic he but shadowed 
forth. With this most serious inquiry there is combined (as in 
the Sophistes and Politicus) an ironical and controversial use of 
dialectic, by which the juggler and false pretender (who is in this 
case the goddess of pleasure), after claiming the highest place, is 
thrust down to the lowest. 

It must be admitted that the style of the Philebus is far from 
brilliant, or even clear. In the effort of connecting abstractions 



Plato's movement is more laboured than in his first glad realiza- 
tion of them. 

Instead of attempting here to follow the windings of the 
dialogue, it must suffice to state the main result. Neither 
pleasure nor knowledge is the highest good, and the good eludes 
definition; but the shrine, or habitation, of the good is a complex 
life of which the elements are, in order of merit: (i) measure, 
the cause of all right mixture; (2) (a) beauty, the effect, and (b) 
reality, the inseparable condition; (3) intellect; (4) science, art 
and right opinion; (5) pure pleasure unaccompanied with pain. 
" Not all the animal kingdom shall induce us to put pleasure 
first." 

The Philebus introduces us to the interior of the Academy in 
the lifetime of the master. More than any other of the dialogues 
it recalls Aristotle's description of Plato's teaching. But, while 
his followers seem early to have fallen under the dominance of 
the latest phase of his doctrine, Plato himself, even in the 
Philebus, is still detached from any servitude to the creations 
of his own mind. He manipulates them as the medium for 
expressing his fresh thoughts, but they are not yet crystallized 
into a system. 

" I will remind you," Socrates, " of what has been omitted," 
says Protarchus at the conclusion of this dialogue. The last 
(presumably) of Plato's metaphysical writings thus fitly ends 
with a confession of incompleteness. But if, as Renan says, 
" the most fatal error is to believe that one serves one's country 
by calumniating those who founded it," neither is it for the 
interest of science to ignore these imperfect anticipations. By 
methods elaborated in the course of centuries, and. far more sure 
than any which Plato had at his command, mankind have gained 
an extent of knowledge which he dreamt not of. 1 But the Greek 
metaphysician is none the less a pioneer of knowledge, 2 while 
the special sciences of ethics and psychology had been carried 
from infancy to adolescence in a single lifetime. 

VII. Timaeus, Critias [H ermocrates]. As the Sophistes and 
Politicus were written in continuation of the Theaetetus, so, at 
some uncertain time, Plato conceived the design of writing a 
great trilogy, for which the ideal state depicted in the Republic 
should be the point of departure. The grand outline there 
sketched by Socrates was now to be filled up by Critias and 
Hermocrates. The form set up by reasoning should be made 
alive, the " airy burghers " should be seen " making history." 
As a prelude to this magnificent celebration, Timaeus, the 
Pythagorean philosopher, who is present at the Panathenaea, 
is invited to discourse of the origin of all things, and to bring 
down the glorious theme to the creation of man. What should 
have followed this, but is only commenced in the fragment of 
the Crilias, would have been the story, not of a fall, but of the 
triumph of reason in humanity. 

In the Philebus (59 A, cf. 62 D) Plato speaks with a touch 
of contempt of the life-long investigation of nature, as being 
concerned only with this visible universe, and immersed in the 
study of phenomena, whether past, present or to come, which 
admit of no stability and therefore of no certainty. " These 
things have no absolute first principle, and can never be the 
objects of reason and true science." 

Yet even this lower knowledge is there admitted as an element 
of that life which is the habitation of the good. And there are 
not wanting signs in his later dialogues that Plato's imagination 
had again been strongly drawn towards those physical studies 
which, as the Phaedo shows, had fascinated him in youth. That 
nature and the world proceed " according to God and not 
according to chance " is the belief of the Eleatic stranger, to 
which he perceives that Theaetetus will be irresistibly drawn as 
he grows older (Soph. 265 D). In the midst of dialectical 
abstractions, the processes of actual production (veveo-eis) have 
been increasingly borne in mind. And the myth in the Politicus 
turns on cosmological conceptions which, although differing 
from those in the Timaeus, and more accordant with Plato's 
bitterest mood, yet throw a new light on the deeper current of 
1 See, however, Polit. 272 C, D. 
* See Jowett, Introd. to the Timaeus. 



PLATO 



823 



his thoughts. In the same passage (272 C) there occurs the first 
clear anticipation of an interrogatio naturae. 

The impulse in this new direction, if not originated, was 
manifestly reinforced, through closer intercourse with the 
Pythagorean school. And the choice of Timaeus the Pytha- 
gorean as chief speaker is an acknowledgment of this obvious 
tendency. If in the course of the dialogue there occur ideas 
apparently borrowed from the Atomists, whom Plato persist- 
ently ignored, this fact ought probably to be referred to some 
early reaction of Atomic on Pythagorean doctrine. It is import- 
ant to observe, however, that not only the Timaeus, but the 
unfinished whole of which it forms the introduction, is pro- 
fessedly an imaginative creation. For the legend of prehistoric 
Athens and of Atlantis, whereof Critias was to relate what 
belonged to internal policy and Hermocrates the conduct of the 
war, would have been no other than a prose poem, a " mytho- 
logical lie," conceived in the spirit of the Republic, and in the 
form of a fictitious narrative. And, therefore, when Timaeus 
professes to give only a probable account of shadowy truths, 
he must be taken at his word, and not criticized in too exacting 
a spirit. His descriptions have much the same relation to the 
natural philosophy of Plato's time that Milton's cosmology 
has to the serious investigations of Galileo or Copernicus except 
that all physical speculation hitherto partook in some measure 
of this half-mythological character, and that Plato's mind, 
although working in an unfamiliar region, is still that of a 
speculative philosopher. 

As Parmenides, after demonstrating the nonentity of growth 
and decay, was yet impelled to give some account of this non- 
existent and unintelligible phenomenal world, so 
Plato, although warned off by Socrates, must needs 
attempt to give a probable and comprehensive description of 
the visible universe and its creation. In doing so he acknow- 
ledges an imperfect truth in theories which his dialectic had 
previously set aside. In examining the earlier philosophers 
he has already transgressed the limits prescribed by Socrates, 
and the effort to connect ideas has made him more and more 
conscious of the gap between the ideal and the actual. He 
cannot rest until he has done his utmost to fill up the chasm 
calling in the help of imagination where reason fails him. His 
dominant thought is still that of a deduction from the " reason 
of the best," as in the Phaedo, or " the idea of good," as in the 
Republic. But both his abstract idealism and his absolute 
optimism were by this time considerably modified, and, although 
not confounding " causes with conditions," as he once accused 
Anaxagoras of doing, he yet assigns more scope to " second 
causes " than he would then have been willing to attribute to 
them. This partly comes of ripening experience and a deepening 
sense of the persistency of evil, and partly from the feeling 
which seems to have grown upon him in later life of the distance 
between God and man. 

Timaeus begins by assuming (i) that the universe being corporeal 
is caused and had a beginning, and (2) that its mysterious author 
made it after an everlasting pattern. Yet, being bodily and visible, 
it can only be made the subject, humanly speaking, of probable 
discourse. Thus much being premised, he proceeds to unfold 
(a) the work of mind in creation, (b) the effects of necessity, including 
the general and specific attributes of bodies, (c) the principles of 
physiology, and (d) an outline .of pathology and medicine. _ 

To give a full account of such a comprehensive treatise is beyond 
our scope, and the Timaeus, however great and interesting, has been 
well described as an out-building of the great fabric of original 
Platonism. A very few scattered observations are all that there is 
space for here. 

a. i. In the mythology of the Timaeus some of the conceptions 
which attained logical clearness in the Sophist and Philebus resume 
an ontological form. Thus, in compounding the soul-stuff of the 
universe, the father of all takes of the continuous and discrete and 
fuses them into an essence (the composite being of the Philebus). 
Again he takes of the same and other (cf. the Sophist), over- 
coming their inherent repugnance by his sovereign act. 

2. The notion of an economy or reservation in Plato has been 
often exaggerated and misapplied. But it is difficult to acquit 
him of intentional obscurity in speaking of the creation of the Earth. 
It is clear, though Plato does not say so, that she is meant to have 
been created together with the Heaven and together with Time, 
and so before the other " gods within the heaven," i.e. the sun and 



moon and five planets, and it is a plausible supposition that she is 
the " artificer of day and night," by interposing her bulk to the 
sun's rays. If the word tiXXoMtiT) in p. 40 implies motion (as 
Aristotle thought 1 ), it cannot be, as Grote supposed, a motion con- 
sentaneous with that of the outer sphere, but either some far slower 
motion, perhaps assumed in order to account for the shifting of the 
seasons, or an equal retrograde motion which is supposed to neutral- 
ize in her case the " motion of the same." She clings to the centre, 
as her^natural abode. And the diurnal motion of the heavens 
is due not to any mechanical force but to the soul of the world 
extending from the centre to the poles and comprehending all. 

3. Immortality is in the Timaeus dependent on the will of the 
Eternal. And the sublime idea of eternity is here first formulated. 

4. The phenomena of vision and hearing are included among the 
works of reason, because the final cause of these higher senses is 
to give men perception of number, through contemplation of the 
measures of time. 

b. I. It has been commonly said that the four elements of the 
Timaeus are geometrical figures, without content. This is not true. 
For what purpose does Plato introduce, " besides the archetype and 
the created form, a third kind, dim and hard to conceive, a sort of 
limbec or matrix of creation," if not to fill up the triangles which 
are elements of elements, and to be the vehicle of the forms com- 
pounded of them ? It has been supposed that this " nurse of 
generation " is identical with " space, ' and it cannot be said that 
they are clearly kept apart by Plato. But he had a distinct nomen- 
clature for either, and, although gravity is explained away (so that 
his molecules, unlike Clerk Maxwell's, may be called imponderable), 
yet extension, or the property of filling space, is sufficiently implied. 

2. The difference of size in the triangles and varying sharpness 
of their outlines are ingenious though inadequate expedients, adopted 
in order to account for qualitative difference and physical change. 

3. In criticizing the illusory notion of " up and down," Plato, 
apparently for the first time, broaches the conception of antipodes. 

4. More distinctly than in the Philebus, bodily pleasure is ex- 
plained by " a sudden and sensible return to nature ' (cf. Ar. Rhet. 
i. n, i ; N.E., yii. 10). 

5. Natural philosophers are warned against experimenting on the 
mixture of colours, which is a divine process and forbidden to man 
(Tim. 68D). (Ancient science was at a loss for a theory of colours.) 

c. l. Plato tends more and more in his later writings to account 
for moral evil by physical conditions, thus arriving at the Socratic 
principle of the involuntariness of vice by a different road. 

Hence in the Timaeus not the body only is made by the inferior 
gods, but they also create the lower and mortal parts of the human 
soul: the principle of anger which is planted in the breast, within 
hearing of reason, and that of appetite which is lodged below the 
diaphragm like an animal tied in a stall, with the stomach for a 
crib and the liver for a " soothsaying " looking-glass to soothe or 
terrify it when tempted to break loose. 

2. The brain-pan was left bare of protecting flesh " because the 
sons of God who framed us deliberately chose for us a precarious 
life with capability of reason, in preference to a long secure existence 
with obstruction of thought." 

3. The nails are a rudimentary provision for the lower animals, 
into which degenerate souls were afterwards to be transformed. 

4. Vegetables have sensation but not motion. 

5. By way of illustrating the very curious account here given of 
respiration, it is asserted that what is commonly thought to be 
the attraction of the magnet is really due to rotatory motion and 
displacement: a remarkable anticipation (Tim. 8oc). 

6. When the original particles wear out, and the bonds of soul 
and body in the marrow give way, the soul escapes delightedly and 
flies away. This is the painless death of natural decay. 

d. I. The dependence of mental disease on bodily conditions is 
more fully recognized in the Timaeus than elsewhere in Plato 
(contrast the Charmides, for example). 

2. He has also changed his mind about the treatment of disease, 
and shows more respect for regimen and diet than in the Republic. 
Diseases are a kind of second nature, and should be treated 
accordingly. 

3. It is also a remark in contrast with the Republic, that over- 
study leads to head complications, which physicians ascribe to 
chill and find intractable. 

Lastly, it is one of the strange irregularities in the composition 
of the Timaeus that the creation of woman and the relation of 
the sexes 2 to each other are subjects reserved to the end, because 
this is the place given to the lower animals, and woman (cf. the 
Phaedrus) is the first transmigration from the form of man. This 
order is probably not to be attributed to Plato's own thought, but 
to some peculiarity of Pythagorean or Orphic tradition. 

VIII. The Laws. The two series of dialogues, the dialectical 
and the imaginative Sophistes, Politicus, Philosophus 
Timaeus, Critias, Hermocrates were left incomplete. For 
Plato had concentrated his declining powers, in the evening of 

1 Aristotle, however uses eiXOTjuin;, a different word. 

2 There is an anticipation of microscopic observation in the words 
dipara uirA <rM"fpori;Tos xaJ A6iairXa<7Tci fcjia = spermatozoa. 



824 



PLATO 



Laws. 



his life, l upon a different task. He was resolved to leave behind 
him, if he could so far overcome the infirmities of age, 2 a code 
of laws, conceived in a spirit of concession, and such as he still 
hoped that some Hellenic state might sanction. The motive 
for this great work may be gathered from the Politicus. The 
physician in departing is to give a written prescription, adapted 
as far as possible to the condition of those from whom he goes 
away. This is the second-best course, in the absence of the 
philosopher-king. And, as the Hellenic world will not listen 
to Plato's heroic remedy, he accommodates his counsel to their 
preconceptions. He returns once more from abstract 
discussions to study the application of ideas to life, 
and though, by the conditions of the problem, his course is 
" nearer earth and less in light," this long writing, which is said 
to have been posthumous, 3 has a peculiar interest. The ripeness 
of accumulated experience and the mellowness of wise contem- 
plation make up for the loss of prophetic insight and poetic 
charm. 

The form of dialogue is still retained, and an aged Athenian 
is imagined as discoursing of legislation with the Lacedaemonian 
Megillus and the Cretan Cleinias, who has in view the foundation 
of a new colony, and is on his way with his two companions 
from Cnossus to the temple and oracle of Zeus. 

Plato now aims at moderating between Dorian and Ionian 
law, freely criticizing both, and refining on them from a higher 
point of view. " The praise of obedience, the authority assigned 
to elders, the prohibition of dowries, the enforcement of marriage, 
the common meals, the distribution and inalienability of land, 
the institutioa of the Crypteia, the freedom of bequest to a 
favourite son, the dislike of city walls all reflect the custom of 
Sparta." ..." The use of the lot, the scrutiny of magistrates, 
the monthly courses of the council, the pardon of the forgiven 
homicide, most of the regulations about testaments and the 
guardianship of orphans, the degrees of consanguinity recognized 
by law, correspond to Athenian laws and customs " (Jowett). 

The philosopher's own thoughts come out most strongly in 
the " preludes " to the laws, 4 and in the regulations concerning 
education, marriage and the punishment of impiety (i.e. ist, 
atheism; 2nd, denial of providence; 3rd and worst, immoral 
superstition). The difficulty which is met in the Politicus by 
the abandonment of the world for a time, and in the Timaeus 
by the lieutenancy of lower gods, here leads to the hypothesis 
of an evil soul. The priority of mind (often before asserted) 
and the increased importance attached to numbers are the chief 
indications of Plato's latest thoughts about the intelligible 
world. But it must be remembered that the higher education 
(answering to Rep. vi., vii.) is expressly reserved. 6 Had Plato 
written his own Epinomis, the proportions of the whole work 
(not then " acephalous ") might have been vastly changed. 

The severity of the penalties attached to the three forms of 
heresy, especially to the third and worst of them, has led to the 
remark that Plato, after asserting " liberty of prophesying," 
had become intolerant and bigoted in his old age (Grote). But 
the idea of toleration in the modern sense was never distinctly 
present to the mind of any ancient philosopher. And, if in the 
Laws the lines of thought have in one way hardened, there are 
other ways in which experience has softened them. Plato's 
" second-best " constitution contains a provision, which was 
not admissible in the " perfect state," for possible changes and 
readaptations in the future. The power of self-reformation is 
hedged round indeed with extreme precautions; and no young 
or middle-aged citizen is ever to hear a word said in depreciation 
of any jot or tittle of the existing law. But that it should be 
provided, however guardedly, that select commissioners, after 



' " Sweats TOV fliov, Legg. vi. 770 A. 
* tv . . . 7ijpa)S iTrwpaTUiuv yt roaovrov, Legg. vi. 752 A. 

3 Published by Philippus the Opuntian. 

4 See especially iv. 716 seq.; v. 727 seq.; 735 seq.; vi. 766; vii. 
773 seq-. 777. 794. 803 seq., 81 1, 817 ; viii. 835 seq. ; ix. 875; x. 887 seq. 
897 seq., 904 seq. 

6 Legg. xii. 968 E. (Ath.) " I am willing to share with you the 
danger of stating to you my views about education and nurture, 
which is the question coming to the surface again." 



travelling far and wide, should bring back of the fruit of their 
observations for the consideration of the nocturnal council, and 
that a power of constitutionally amending the laws should thus 
be admitted into the state, is sufficiently remarkable, when the 
would-be finality of ancient legislation is considered. Plato 
even comes near to the reflexion that "constitutions are not 
made, but grow " (iv. 709 A). 

Plato in the Laws desists finally from impersonating Socrates. 
But he is in some ways nearer to bis master in spirit than when 
he composed the Phaedrus. The sympathy with common life, 
the acceptance of Greek religion, the deepening humanity, are 
no less essentially Socratic than the love of truth which breathes 
in every page. And some particular aspects of Socratism 
reappear, such as the question about courage 6 and that concer- 
ning the unity of virtue. 7 

Doubtful and Spurious Works. Of the dialogues forming 
part of the " Platonic canon," and not included in the preceding 
survey, the Lesser Hippias, First Alcibiades and Menexenus are 
the most Platonic, though probably not Plato's. The Greater 
Hippias and the Clitophon are also admitted to have some 
plausibility. The Second- Alcibiades (on Prayer), the Hipparchus 
(touching on Peisistratus and Homer), Minos (" de lege"), 
Epinomis, Erastae, Theages, are generally condemned, though 
most of them are very early forgeries or academic exercises. 8 
And the Axiochus (though sometimes prized for its subject, 
"the contempt of death "), the De justo, De virtute, Demodocus, 
Sisyphus, Eryxias\ (a not-uninteresting treatise on the use of 
money), together with the so-called Definitions, were rejected 
in ancient times, and are marked as spurious in the MSS. 

EDITIONS. (i) Complete: Aldine, Yen., 1513; H Stephanus, 
3 vols. (1578), with Latin version by Serranus (i.e. De Serre, the real 
editor), (the paging of this edition is preserved for convenience of 
reference on the margins of most subsequent editions) ; G- Stallbaum, 
(12 vols., 1821-1825); G. Stallbaum, the text in I vol. (1850); C. F. 
Hermann (6 vols., 1851-1853); Immanuel Bekker (1816-1823); 
the Zurich edition by Baiter, Orelli and Winkelmann (1830-1842); 
Hirschig and Schneider, in Didot's series (1856-1873); M. von 
Schanz, with critical notes (1875-1887) ; J. Burnet (Oxford, 1902). (2) 
Partial : L. F. Heindorf , Lysis, Cnarmides, Hippias Major, Phaedrus, 
Gorgias, Theaetetus, Cratylus, Parmenides, Euthydemus, Phaedo, 
Sophist, Protagoras; Philebus, C. Badham, E. Poste (1861), R. G. 
Bury; Apologia, J. Riddell (with Digest of Platonic Idioms) (1861); 
Protagoras, Wayte (1854) 1871; Theaetetus, L. Campbell (1861) 1883, 
B. Kennedy; Sophist and Politicus, L. Campbell (1867); Phaedo, 
W. Geddes, Archer Hind ; Timaeus, Archer Hind (1888) ; Parmenides, 
Waddell (1894); Meno, J. Adam, Seymer Thompson; A pologia, Crito, 
Meno, St G. Stock; Euthydemus, Gifford; Phaedrus, Gorgias, W. H. 
Thompson ; Symposium, Euthydemus, Laches, C. Badham ; Par- 
menides, Stallbaum, Maguire, Waddell ; Leges, F. Ast (1814), C. 
Ritter (Commentary) (1896); Republic, Jowett and Campbell (1894), 
J. Adam (1902). 

TRANSLATIONS. Latin: A Latin version of the Timaeus by 
Chalcidius existed in the middle ages and was known to Dante. 
It was printed at Paris in 1520 (Teubner, 1876). The complete 
rendering by Marsiglio Ficino (1496) formed the basis of other Latin 
translations, such as that of Serranus (supra), which accompanied 
the edition of Stephanus. It was printed in the Basel edition of 
1534. English: (i) Complete: Sydenham and Taylor (1804); 
Jowett (1871-1892). (2) Partial: Republic, Davies and Vaughan, 
Jowett (in a separate volume; 3rd ed., 2 vols., 1908); Philebus, 
E. Poste; Georgias, Cope; Timaeus, Archer Hind (in his edition); 
Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Church, Jowett (reprinted from the complete 
translation with preface by E. Caird); Theaetetus, Paley, Kennedy; 
German: Schleiermacher (1817-1828), J. H. Muller (1850-1866); 
French: V. Cousin (13 vols., 1822-1840). Italian: Bonghi. 

DISSERTATIONS. English: F. Schleiermacher's Introductions, 
translated by W. Dobson (1836); Ed. Zeller's Plato and the Older 
Academy, translated by F. Alleyne, &c. (1876); B. Jowett's Intro- 
ductions, in his complete translation, final edition (1892) ; G. Grote, 
Plato and the other Companions of Socrates (1865) ; F. C. Conybeare 
on an Armenian version (1891); W. Pater, Plato ahd Platonism 
(1893); R- L. Nettleship, Lectures on the Republic, &c. (1898) 
(cf. also his essay in Hellenica, 1880); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 
vols. ii. and iii. in Eng. trans. (1905); W. Lutoslawski, Plato's Logic, 
&c. ; L. Campbell on Plato's Republic in Murray's " Home and School 
Series " (1902); L. Campbell, Religion in Greek Literature (London, 
1898) ; J. A. Stewart, The Myths of Plato (1905) ; A. E. Taylor, Plato 
(1908); J. A. Stewart, Plato's Doctrine of Ideas (1909). German: 



6 Cf . Laches. ' Cf . Protagoras. 

8 According to Schaarschmidt, only nine dialogues are genuine 
Protag., Phaedr., Symp., Apol., Crito, Phaedo, Rep., Tim., Leges. 



PLATO PLATTSBURG 



825 



C. F. Hermann, Geschichte und System, &c. (1839) ; A. Boeckh, Unter- 
suchunj>en (1852); Ed. Zeller, Geschichte der gr. Philosophic; Fr. 
Cberweg, Untersuchungen (1861); S. Ribbing, Genetische Darstellung 
( 1 863) ; Fr. Susemihl, Genetische Entwicklung ( 1 855-1 898) ; E. Albert!, 
Geist und Ordnung (1864); C. Schaarschmidt, Die Sammlung der 
platonischen Schriften (1866); M. Vermehren, Plat. Studien (1870); 

D. Peipers, Untersuchungen uber das System Platans. Teil i., ".Die 
Erkenntnisstheorie " (Leipzig, 1874) ; O. Apelt, Beitrage zur Geschichte 
der griechischen Philosophien; L. Spengel, Isocrates und Platan 
(1863); A. Krohn, Die platonische Frage (1878); E. Teichmiiller, 
Literarische Fehder (1881) ; H. Bonitz, Platonische Studien (especially 
valuable) (1886); E. Pfleiderer, Socrates und Platan (1896); H. 
Windenband, Platan (1900) ; C. Ritter, Untersuchungen ; Th. Gomperz, 
Platonische A ufsatze : Griechische Denker, vol. ii. ; P. Natorp, PL Ideen- 
lehre (1903)'; C. Ritter, Platan: sein Leben, seine Schriften, seine 
Lehre (1909), vol. i.; and Neue Untersuchungen (1910). Other refer- 
ences will be -found in the volumes named. French: V. Cousin; 
T. H. Martin, Etudes'sur la Times (1841). Italian : Felice Tocco. 

DICTIONARIES AND INDICES. Mitchell's Index to Plato; F. Ast, 
Lexicon platonicum ; E. Abbott, Index to Plato (English, 1875). 

ON THE MSS. See especially Bekker's edition; Gaisford's Lec- 
tiones platonicae (1820); M. Schanz's edition with critical notes; 
Jowctt and Campbell's Republic, vol. ii. ; J. Burnett's Oxford 
edition. The important Codex Clarkianus in the Bodleian library 
has been reproduced in facsimile, with a preface by T. W. Allen 
(1898-1899). (L. C.) 

PLATO, Athenian comic poet of the Old Comedy, flourished 
between 428-389 B.C. According to Sui'das, he was the author 
of thirty comedies. Some of these deal with political matters. 
Such were the Cleophon and Hyperbolus, directed against the 
well-known demagogues, and the Symmachia, referring to a 
coalition formed by Nicias, Alcibiades and Phaeax to get rid 
of Hyperbolus by ostracism. His later plays treat the vices 
and failings of mankind in the spirit of burlesque and parody. 
Such were the Sophislae, akin to the Clouds of Aristophanes; 
the Cinesias, an attack on a contemporary poet; the Festivals, 
satirizing the useless expenditure and extravagance common on 
such occasions; mythological subjects Adonis, Europe, lo, 
the Ants (on the Aeginetan legend of the change of ants into 
men); Phaon, the story of the Lesbian ferryman, who was 
presented by Aphrodite with a marvellous ointment, the use of 
which made women madly in love with him. 

See T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880); A. 
Meineke, Poetarum comicorum graecorum fragmenta (1855). 

PLATON, LEVSHIN (1737-1812), Russian divine, was born at 
Chashnikovo near Moscow, and educated in the academy of 
that city. In 1763 the empress Catherine II. invited him to 
instruct her son Paul in theology, and he became one of the 
court chaplains. Three years afterwards Platon was appointed 
archimandrite of the monastery of the Trinity (Troitskaya 
Lavra) near Moscow, in 1770 archbishop of Tver, and in 1787 
archbishop of Moscow and metropolitan. He died in 1812, one 
of his last acts having been to write an encouraging letter to 
the emperor Alexander I/ in view of the French invasion. 
Platon was a brilliant and learned man, and the author of several 
works which enjoyed a high reputation in their time, including 
A Short History of the Russian Church, which has been translated 
into English. 

PLATONIC LOVE, a term commonly applied to an affectionate 
relation between a man and a woman into which the sexual 
element does not enter. The term in English goes back as far 
as Sir William Davenant's Platonic Lovers (1636). It is derived 
from the conception, in Plato's Symposium, of the love of the 
idea of good which lies at the root of all virtue and truth. 
Amor platonicus was used, e.g. by Marsilio Ficino (isth century), 
as a synonym for amor socraticus, referring to the affection 
which subsisted between Socrates and his pupils. 

PLATOON (Fr. peloton, from Fr. pelote, a ball or pellet; cf. 
Ger. Haufe, heap), a small group of soldiers. In the early 
1 7th century it was a definite tactical unit of infantry, corre- 
sponding to the modern section or half company. In the i8th 
century the battalion, irrespective of its organization into 
companies, was told off on parade into six, eight or ten platoons 
of equal strength. " Platoon fire " was the systematic and 
regulated fire of platoon volleys, the platoons firing one after 
the other. Hence a " platoon " sometimes means a volley. 



The fire of a long line of infantry was as a rule conducted on the 
same principles, each battalion of the front line employing 
platoon fire, which is often picturesquely described as a " rolling 
platoon fire," or " rolling volleys." The word is obsolete in 
the British army, but is used in the United States, and, in various 
forms, in the armies of France and other Latin nations. 

PLATT, THOMAS COLLIER (1833-1910), American politician, 
was born in Owego, Tioga county, New York, on the 1 5th of July 
1833. He studied in 1849-1852 at Yale, from which he received 
the honorary degree of A.M. in 1876. He made money in lumber- 
ing out West, and returning to O\*ego became a banker and 
railway director. He helped to organize its Republican party in 
Tioga county, and in 1873-1877 was a representative in Congress. 
In 1877 he was chairman of the state Republican Convention at 
Rochester. On the i8th of January 1881 he was elected United 
States senator, but resigned, with his colleague, Roscoe Conkling, 
on the i6th of May following, chiefly because President Garfield, 
in spite of their protest, had appointed as collector of the port 
of New York, Judge William H. Robertson, a political opponent. 
Within ten years he became the acknowledged Republican 
" boss " of the state, and he again served in the United States 
Senate from 1897 to 1909. But his power waned steadily after 
about 1903. He died in New York City on the 6th of March 
1910. 

PLATTE (so named, from the French, because of its shallow- 
ness), or NEBRASKA, a river system of Colorado, Wyoming and 
Nebraska, tributary to the Missouri river, which it enters 
immediately north of Plattsmouth, Nebraska, 18 m. below 
Omaha, in about 41 3' N. lat. Including the North Platte it 
is about 900 m. long from its headwaters, with a drainage 
basin for the entire system of 90,000 sq. m. The Platte proper 
is formed by the junction of the North Platte and the South 
Platte, sometimes called the North and South Forks of the 
Platte, immediately below the city of North Platte in Lincoln 
county, Nebraska. The North Platte and South Platte rise 
respectively in North Park and South Park in Colorado. The 
tributaries of the main stream all flow in from the north; the 
most important being the Loup, which empties immediately 
east of Columbus in Platte county, and the Elkhorn, which 
joins the Platte in Douglas county, due west of Omaha. 

See J. C. Stevens, Surface Water Supply of Nebraska (Washington, 
1909). 

PLATTNER, KARL FRIEDRICH (1800-1858), German 
metallurgical chemist, was born at Kleinwaltersdorf, near 
Freiberg in Saxony, on the 2nd of January, 1800. His father, 
though only a poor working miner, found the means to have 
him educated first at the Bergschule and then at the Berg- 
akademie of Freiberg, and after he had completed his courses 
there in 1820 he obtained .employment, chiefly as assayer, in 
connexion with the royal mines and metal works. Having taken 
up the idea of quantitative mouth-blowpipe assaying, which was 
then almost unknown except that E. Harkort (1797-1835) in 
1827, while a student in Freiberg Academy, had worked out a 
blowpipe assay for silver he succeeded in devising trustworthy 
methods for all the ordinary useful metals; in particular his 
modes of assaying for nickel and cobalt quickly found favour with 
metallurgists. He also devoted himself to the improvement 
of qualitative blowpipe analysis, and summed up his experience 
in a treatise Die Probierkunst mil dem Ldthrohr (1835), which 
became a standard authority. In 1840 he was made chief 
of the royal department of assaying. Two years later he was 
deputed to complete a course of lectures on metallurgy at the 
Bergakademie in place of W. A. Lampadius (1772-1842), whom 
he subsequently succeeded as professor. He died at Freiberg 
on the 22nd of January 1858. 

In addition to many memoirs on metallurgical subjects he also 
published Die metallurgischen Rostprocesse theoretisch betrachtet 
(1856), and posthumously Vorlesungen uber allgemeine Huttenkunde 
(1860). 

PLATTSBURG, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of 
Clinton county, New York, U.S.A., situated on the west shore 
of Lake Champlain, at the mouth of the Saranac river, 168 m. 



826 



PLATTSMOUTH PLATYELMIA 



(by rail) N.N.E. of Albany. Pop. (1890), 7010; (1900), 8434, 
of whom 1053 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 11,138. It 
is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway, and has steamer 
connexions with lake ports. Its situation in the region of lakes 
and mountains and its delightful climate have made it a summer 
resort. Among its institutions are the Samuel F. Vilas Home 
(for aged and infirm women); the Home for the Friendless of 
Northern New York (1874), for the care of homeless children; 
the Plattsburg State Normal and Training School, the D'You- 
ville Academy for girls (founded in 1860, chartered in 1871), 
under the direction of the Grey Nuns; the College St Pierre 
(Roman Catholic, 1903), and the Champlain Valley Hospital. 
The barracks, about a mile away, is an important military post. 
Cliff Haven, 2 m. south, is the seat of the Catholic summer 
school. Plattsburg has a fine harbour and is the port of entry 
of the Champlain customs district; in 1909 its exports were 
valued at $15,169,502 and its imports at $8,167,527. Among 
the city's manufactures are lumber, wood pulp, paper, shirts, 
sewing-machines and automobiles. The total value of the 
factory products in 1905 was $1,056,702. 

Plattsburg was incorporated as a village in 1795, and derived 
its name from Zephaniah Platt (1740-1807), who had led a 
colony of settlers to this place from Long Island; it became a 
city in 1902. About Valcour Island (5 m. south-east of Platts- 
burg) , on the 1 1 th of October 1 7 76, a British fleet under Captain 
Thomas Pringle and an American flotilla under Benedict Arnold 
engaged in the first conflict between American and British 
fleets, the British being victorious. On the outbreak of the 
War of 1812 the village became the headquarters of the American 
army on the northern frontier. On the nth of September 
1814, in Plattsburg (or Cumberland) Bay, Captain George 
Downie, commanding a British flotilla, was defeated by an 
American flotilla commanded by Commodore Thomas Mac- 
donough, losing his life in the engagement (see CHAMPLAIN, 
LAKE). 

PLATTSMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, 
Nebraska, U.S.A., situated in the valley and on the bluffs of 
the Missouri river near the mouth of the Platte. Pop. (1900), 
4964, of whom 979 were foreign-born. It is served by the 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Missouri Pacific railway 
systems. There are railway car-shops, and a considerable trade 
is done in grain and cattle. A trading-post licensed by the 
United States government was opened here in 1853, and a town 
platted in 1854. Plattsmouth was first incorporated as a city 
in 1855, being one of the oldest settlements and cities of the 
state. 

PLATYELMIA, a phylum of the animal kingdom which 
comprises three classes, the Planarians, Trematodes (q.v.) and 
Cestodes. It is the group of animals in which the act of creeping 
has first become habitual. In association with this movement 
in a definite direction the body has become vermiform and 
bilaterally symmetrical. One end of the body, through contact, 
during locomotion, with fresh tracts of medium and other forms 
of stimuli, has become more specialized than the rest, and here 
the nervous system and sense-organs are more densely aggregated 
than elsewhere, forming a means of controlling locomotion and 
of correlating the activities of the inner organs with the varying 
stimuli that impinge upon the body. The form and habits of 
the group vary widely. The Planarians are free-living animals, 
the Trematodes are parasitic upon and within animals, and the 
Cestodes are wholly endoparasitic. 

Structure. The chief features which Platyelmia possess in common 
are the following. The body is not metamerically segmented and is 
composed of a muscular tunic covered externally by a more or less 
modified cellular layer. Within this muscular tube lies a parenchy- 
matous tissue which may be uniform (Cestodes) or differentiated into a 
central or digestive, and a peripheral portion (some Turbellaria), or 
finally the central portion becomes tubular and forms the digestive 
sac (Trematodes), while the peripheral portion is separated from it 
by a space lined in some forms by a flattened epithelium (most 
Planarians). It is characteristic of the group that the mouth should 
be the only means of ingress to and egress from the digestive sac and 
that no true perivisceral space or coelom exists in the sense in which 
these terms are used in higher Invertebrates. The peripheral paren- 



chyma gives rise to protonephridia, that is to coiled tubes commenc- 
ing in pyriform cells containing a flame-like bundle of cilia and 
provided with branched outgrowths, and communicating with the 
exterior by long convoluted canals which open at the surface of the 
body. These protonephridia are the excretory organs. The nervous 
system, though centralized at one end of the body, contains diffused 
nerve-cells in the course of its tracts, which are disposed in two or 
more longitudinal bundles interconnected by transverse bands. 
The Platyelmia are hermaphrodite and the reproductive organs are 
complex. The male organs consist of paired testes communicating 
by delicate canals with a protrusible penis. This organ is generally 
single but sometimes paired and occasionally multiple. It is fre- 
quently armed with spines, hooks or stylets, and is further compli- 
cated by the addition of a nutritive secretion (the prostate gland) 
which may open at its base or pass separately by a special duct ta 
the exterior. There is some reason to believe that this complicated 
and variable apparatus is used for stabbing the body of another 
animal and that beginning as a weapon for catching prey it has 
become modified for hypodermic impregnation and only gradually 
adapted for insertion into the bursa copulatrix. The female organs 
are no less complex. They consist of solid or tubular ovaries which 
may be single, double or multiple. In the majority of Platyelmia 
the primitive ovary becomes divided into fertile and sterile portions, 
i.e. into distinct ovarian and vitellarian regions. The yolk prepared 
by the latter is conducted by one or more specialized ducts to the 
oviduct and the point of union is distinguished by the opening of 
a " shell-gland " which secretes a membrane around the conjoined 
mass of ovum and yolk. From this junction there proceeds an 
oviduct or " uterus " (paired or single) which before opening to the 
exterior expands to form a muscular protrusible pouch the bursa 
copulatrix. Frequently also from this junction of the ovaria and 
the vitellaria a median tube is given oft which either opens to the 
exterior or into the intestine, in the latter case it appears to serve as 
means of conveying superfluous yolk to the gut, where it may serve 
as food. 

Inter-relationships. The inter-relationships of the three members 
of the Platyelmia are of a more doubtful nature than is the unity 
of the phylum. The Turbellaria undoubtedly form the most primi- 
tive division, as is shown by their free-living habits, ciliation and 
sense-organs. The Trematodes are somewhat modified in accord- 
ance with their ecto- or endoparasitic life, but they exhibit such a 
close similarity of structure with the Turbellaria that their origin 
from Planarians can hardly be doubted, and indeed the Temnocepha- 
loidea (see PLANARIANS) form an almost ideal annectant group link- 
ing the ectoparasitic Trematodes and Rhabdocoel Planarians. The 
Cestodes, however, are connected by no such intermediate forms 
with the other Platyelmia. Their adaptations to parasitic life in 
vertebrate animals appear to have involved such modifications of 
structure and development that their affinities are quite problemati- 
cal. The entire absence of any trace of a distinct alimentary tract, 
the loss of true regenerative power, the peculiar gametic segmenta- 
tion of the body into hundreds of " proglottides " budded off from. 




par 



(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission of 
Macmillan & Co., Ltd.) 

FIG. -I. Free-swimming Larva (Miiller's Larva) of a Pqlyclad 
Planarian to illustrate the trochosphere-hypothesis of the origin of 
Platyelmia. The larva is seen in optical section, and its dis- 
tinguishing feature is the ciliated lobed band (vl, si, dl), which 
corresponds to the pre-oral ciliated band of a trochosphere-larva. 
It is here drawn out into eight processes, of which six are shown, 
their continuity being expressed by the dotted line. 

br, Brain. mg, Stomach. 

dr, Glands. n, Nerves. 

ep, Epidermis. ph, Pharynx. 

mo, Mouth. par, Parenchyma. 



PLATYPUS 



827 



one extremity, and the absence of any morphologically distinct 
anterior extremity, are adaptations to the wholly parasitic life of this 
class. Their structure is similar to that of Trematodes, from which 
in the opinion of most zoologists they have been derived. 

Affinities. As the Turbellaria (Planarians) are the most primitive 
division of the Platyelmia, the problem of the affinities of this phylum 
resolves itself into that of the relationships of the Turbellaria. With 
regard to the origin of this class two divergent views are still held. 
On the one hand the Turbellaria are considered to be an offshoot 
of the early Coelomate stock, on the other they are held to be 
descendants of a simpler two-layered stock. The former hypothesis 
with its variants may be called the Trochosphere-hypothesis, the 
latter the Gastraea-hypothesis. The Trochosphere-hypothesis (2), 
(3) is based chiefly on the occurrence in certain Polyclad Turbellaria, 
of a larval form (Miiller's larva) which is comparable to a certain 
stage (pro-trochula) in the development of the Trochosphere-larya. 
This Trochosphere is the characteristic larva of Mollusca, Annelida 




TS 



(After Abbott, Tokyo Zool. Society's Annot. ZoologicaeJapanensis, iv. 4, 2 and 3.) 
FIG. 2. Dorsal view of Coeloplana to illustrate the similarity between 
Ctenophora and Turbellaria (X ij). The branched intestine 
(G) is drawn on one side of the animal only; it opens to the 
exterior by means of a pharynx (not shown). The mouth is 
shown by the line surrounding the otolith (OT) in the centre. The 
mouth is ventral, the otolith dorsal. The two branched tentacles 
(TB) are seen partially extruded from their sheaths (TS); when 
fully extended they exceed the diameter of the animal five or six 
times. The short tentacles (T) are drawn on one side only. 
Coeloplana has been found in shallow water in the Red Sea and 
on the coast of Japan. Ctenophora possess two similar long 
branched tentacles, a ventral mouth and dorsal otolith. 

and some Gephyrea ; and the Rotif era appear to remain throughout 
life as modified Trochospheres. It is a top-shaped, free-swimming 
organism provided with a preoral band of cilia, an apical sense- 
organ, a simple gut, protonephridia and schizocoele. The impor- 
tance of this resemblance between the Polyclad larva and the Trocho- 
sphere-larva of higher invertebrates is increased if the widely adopted 




VEp 



V E-ll 

(After F. E. Schultze, K&l.Prcuss. Akad.der Wissmschafl, Berlin, 1801.) 

PIG 3. Trichoplax adhaerens, an organism considered, on thi 

Gastraea-hypothesis, to be closely allied to the progenitors of th. 

Platyelmia. (The recent work by Krumbach [Zooloe. Anzeige 

1907, xxxi. 450], serves to show that Trichoplax is the planula 

larva of a Hydromedusa.) 
A a small specimen drawn from life (X 20). The spherica 

granules (G) are probably gland-secretions; the dark bodies (/ 

are probably xanthellae, i.e. algal cells living in association with 

the animal. 

B, a specimen undergoing fission (X 20). 

C, part of a vertical section (X 500). 

D Ep The dorsal epidermis. V.Ep, Ventral epidermis. Th 

G, Refringent corpuscles. hair-like processes are 

PC, Parenchymatous cells. cilia. 



aew (held on other grounds) that the Polyclads are the most primi- 
ive of the Turbellaria, is soundly based. The grounds for this, 
new are the radial symmetry of several Polyclads and the supposed 
>rigin of gonads and excretory flame-cells from the walls of gut, the 
>ccurrence of nematocysts in Anonymus, one of the most radially 
obstructed Polyclads, and lastly the presence of two peculiar 
inimals Ctenoplana and Coeloplana, which suggests a transition from 
Ztenophora to Polyclads. At the present time, however, none of 
hese grounds can be said to possess so much force as they did some 
fears ago (4). The argument has come to rest on the agreement 
Between the cell-lineage of Polyclads and that of certain Mollusca 
ind Annelids. This resemblance is considered by Hubrecht (5) 
o give reason for concluding that the Polyclads are an offshoot, and 
Dossibly a degenerate offshoot, from the early Coelomate stock. 

The Gastraea-hypothesis is founded on quite other considerations. 
n effect (6) it traces the Turbellaria to small two-layered organisms 
pnsisting of an outer ciliated epidermis and a central syncytial 
issue. Such an organism is found in the peculiar Trichoplax, 
,ohmannieUa, &c. The early stages of most animals pass through 
uch a stage, which is known as a " planula." From such begin- 
lings the evolution of the Turbellaria leads first through the Acoelous 
orms in which the central syncytium is partly differentiated 
nto digestive, muscular and skeletotrophic tissue, then to the 
more specialized Rhabdocoela, and so through the Alloeocoela 
o the Triclads and finally to the Polyclads. The careful study of 
:he development of one Acoelous form and of certain Rhabdocoels 
las strengthened this hypothesis by showing that no definite enterpn 
or gut is at first laid down, but that certain embryonic syncytial 
tracts become digestive tracts, others excretory, others again muscu- 
ar. The study of Rhabdocoels (7) has led to the important discovery 
;hat the rudiment of the gonads and that of the pharynx are the 
irst organs to appear, and that the alimentary sac arises inde- 
pendently of them. This segregation of the germ cells and their 
ndependence of the intestinal sac is an indication that the origin of 
;hese cells is not coelomic nor enteric, and until we possess further 
nformation as to the evolution of the complex genitalia of the higher 
Turbellaria we cannot hope to understand the presence of such 
modified structures in animals of an otherwise low grade or 



organization. 

LITERATURE. Recent discussions of the affinities of the Platy- 
elmia will be found in (I) A. Sedgwick, Textbook of Zoology (1898),!. 
212; (2) Hatschek, Lehrbuch der Zoologie (1891), pp. 316-326; (3) 
A. Lang, Die Trophocoel-Theorie (Jena, 1903); (4) E. Ray Lankester, 
Treatise on Zoology (1900), pt. ii. Introduction and ch. vii. pp. 15- 
19; (5) A. A. W. Hubrecht, Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissen- 
schaft (1905), pp. 151-176; (6) Von Graff, Die Acoela, p. 519 (Leipzig, 
1891). For the development of Rhabdocoelida see (7) Bresslau, 
Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie (1904), vol. 76. 

(F. W. GA.) 

PLATYPUS. The duck-billed platypus (Platypus anatinus) 
was the name assigned to one of the most remarkable of known 
animals by George Shaw (1751-1813), who had the good fortune 
to introduce it to the notice of the scientific world in the 
Naturalist's Miscellany (vol. x., 1799). In the following year it 
was independently described by Blumenbach (Voigts Magazin, 
ii. 205) under the name of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. Shaw's 
generic name, although having priority to that of Blumenbach, 
could not be retained, as it had been used at a still earlier time 
(1793) by Herbst for a genus of Coleoptera. Ornithorhynchus 
(Gr. opvis, opvidos, bird, and AITXOS, bill) is therefore now 
universally adopted as the scientific designation, although 
duck-billed platypus (Gr. irXaTus, flat, and irofrs, foot) may be 
conveniently retained as a vernacular appellation. By the 
colonists it is called " water-mole," but its affinities with the 
true moles are of the slightest and most superficial description. 
The anatomical differences by which the platypus, and its 
only allies the echidnas, are separated from all other mammals, 
so as to form a distinct sub-class, are described in the article 
MONOTREMATA, where also will be found the main distinctive 
characters of the two existing representatives of the group. It 
is there stated that the early stages of the development of the 
young are not yet fully known. Sir R. Owen, and later E. B. 
Poulton, showed that the ovum of the platypus was large 
compared with that of other mammals, whilst W. H. Caldwell 
showed that it was filled with yolk, and finally established the 
fact that Platypus as well as Echidna is oviparous. Two eggs 
are produced at a time, each measuring about three-fourths of 
an inch in its long and half an inch in its short axis, and enclosed 
in a strong, flexible, white shell. 

The platypus is pretty generally distributed in situations 
suitable to its aquatic habits throughout the island of Tasmania 
and the southern and eastern portions of Australia. 



828 



PLAUEN PLAUTUS 



The length of the animal when full grown is from 1 8 to 20 in. 
from the extremity of the beak to the end of the tail, the male 
being slightly larger than the female. The fur is short, dense 
and rather soft to the touch, and composed of an extremely 
fine and close under-fur, and of longer hairs which project 
beyond this, each of which is very slender at the base, and 
expanded, flattened and glossy towards the free end. The 
general colour is deep brown, but paler on the under parts. The 
tail is short, broad and depressed, and covered with coarse hairs, 
which in old animals generally become worn off from the under 




(From Gould's Mammals of Australia.) 

Platypus. 

surface. There are no true teeth in the adult, although the 
young possess a set which are shed after being worn down by 
friction with food and sand, their purposes being afterward 
served by horny prominences, two on each side of each jaw 
those in the front narrow, longitudinal, sharp-edged ridges, and 
those behind broad, flattened and molariform. The upper 
surface of the lateral edges of the mandible has also a number of 
parallel fine transverse ridges, like those on the bill of a duck. 
In the cheeks are tolerably capacious pouches, which appear to be 
used as receptacles for food. 

The limbs are strong and short, each with five well-developed 
toes provided with strong claws. In the fore feet the web not 
only fills the interspaces between the toes, but extends consider- 
ably beyond the ends of the long, broad and somewhat flattened 
nails, giving great expanse to the foot when used for swimming, 
though capable of being folded back on the palm when the 
animal is burrowing or walking on the land. On the hind foot 
the nails are long, curved and pointed, and the web extends 
only to their base. On the heel of the male is a strong, curved 
sharply pointed, movable horny spur, directed upwards and 
backwards, attached by its expanded base to the accessory bone 
of the tarsus. This spur, which attains the length of nearly an 
inch, is traversed by a minute canal, terminating in a fine longi- 
tudinal slit near the point, and connected at its base with the 
duct of a large gland situated at the back part of the thigh. 
The whole apparatus is so exactly analogous in structure to the 
poison-gland and tooth of a venomous snake as to suggest a 
similar function, and there is now evidence that it employs this 
organ as an offensive weapon. 

The platypus is aquatic in its habits, passing most of its time 
in the water or close to the margin of lakes and streams, swim- 
ming and diving with the greatest ease, and forming for the 
purpose of sleeping and breeding deep burrows in the banks, 
which generally have two orifices, one just above the water 
level, concealed among long grass and leaves, and the other 
below the surface. The passage at first runs obliquely upwards 
in the bank, sometimes to a distance of as much as 50 ft., and 



expands at its termination into a cavity, the floor of which is 
lined with dried grass and leaves, and in which, it is said, the 
eggs are laid ' and the young brought up. Their food consists 
of aquatic insects, small crustaceans and worms, which are 
caught under water, the sand and small stones at the bottom 
being turned over with their bills to find them. They appear 
at first to deposit what they have thus collected in their cheek 
pouches, and when these are filled they rise to the surface and 
quietly triturate their meal with the horny teeth before swallow- 
ing it. Swimming is effected chiefly by the action of the broad 
forepaws, the hind feet and tail taking little share in locomotion 
in the water. When asleep they roll themselves into a ball, as 
shown in the figure. In their native haunts they are extremely 
timid and wary, and very difficult to approach, being rarely 
seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr A. B. Crowther, 
who supplemented the often quoted" observations of Dr George 
Bennett upon the habits of these animals in confinement, 
states: " They soon become very tame in captivity; in a few days 
the young ones appeared to recognize a call, swimming rapidly 
to the hand paddling the water; and it is curious to see their 
attempts to procure a worm enclosed in the hand, which they 
greedily take when offered to them. I have noticed that they 
appear to be able to smell whether or not a worm is contained 
in the closed hand to which they swim, for they desisted from 
their efforts if an empty fist was offered." (W. H. F. ; H. Sc.) 

PLAUEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on 
the Weisse Elster, 60 m. south of Leipzig, on the railway to Hof 
and Munich and at the junction of lines to Eger and Gera. Pop. 
(1890), 47,007; (1900), 73,891; (1905), 105,383. It was formerly 
the capital of Vogtland, or Voigtland, a territory governed by 
the imperial vogt, or bailiff, and this name still clings in popular 
speech to the hilly district in which the town lies. Of its three 
Evangelical churches the most prominent is the fine Gothic 
church of St John, with twin spires, which was restored in 1886. 
Other buildings of note are the town hall, dating from about 
1550; and the old castle of Hradschin, now used as a law court. 
Plauen is now the chief place in Germany for the manufacture 
of embroidered white goods of all kinds, for the finishing of wove'n 
cotton fabrics, known as Plauen goods, and for the making of lace. 

Plauen was probably founded by the Slavs. First mentioned 
in 1122, it passed under the authority of Bohemia in 1327 and 
came to Saxony in 1466, remaining permanently united with the 
electorate since 1569. The manufacture of white goods was 
introduced by Swabian, or Swiss, immigrants about 1570. The 
advance in its material prosperity has been especially rapid since 
the incorporation of Saxony in the German Zollverein. 

See Fiedler, Die Stadt Plauen im Vogtland (Plauen, 1874); and 
Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Stadt Plauen (Plauen, 1876); Metzner, 
Fuhrer durch Plauen (1903); and the publications of the Alter- 
tumsverein zu Plauen (1875 seq.). 

PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; 
cf. Asia. Prol. n), the great comic dramatist of ancient Rome, 
was born at Sarsina in Umbria according to the testimony of 
Festus, who calls him Umber Sarsinas, and Jerome. The date 
of his death was 184 B.C. (Cicero, Brutus, xv. 60). The date 
of his birth depends upon an inference based on the statement 
of Cicero (De senectute, xiv. 50) that he was an old man when he 
wrote his Truculentus and Pseudolus. The latter play was 

1 Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the eggs are 
extruded or hatched within the body. At a scientific meeting of 
the Zoological Society of London, on the I7th of December 1901, 
Mr Oldfield Thomas read a letter from Mr G. Metcalfe, who had 
lived many years in a region inhabited by these animals. He had 
made special inquiries of the authorities of the Sydney, Melbourne, 
Brisbane and Hobart museums, and published questions in the 
newspapers, but no evidence has reached him that the eggs of 
Ornithorhyncus have ever been obtained except by the dissection of 
the mother. Mr Thomas laid stress on what had been advanced 
on the other side by Mr Caldwell (Philosophical Transactions, 
clxxviii. 463), Professor Spencer (Nature, xxxi. 132) and Mr J. 
Douglas Ogilby (Catalogue of Australian Mammals, p. i, Sydney, 
1902), but expressed the hope " that further inquiries might be 
made by naturalists in Australia as to the actual finding of such 
eggs in the burrows, so that this most interesting point might 
be finally settled." 



PLAUTUS 



829 



produced in 191 B.C.; hence we get 254-251 B.C. as the approxi- 
mate date of his birth. The only record that we possess as to 
his life is that contained in Aulus Gellius iii. 3, 14 (based on 
Varro), the historical character of which is doubted by Leo 
(Plautinische Forschungen, p. 60, sqq.). According to this 
statement he left his native town at an early age and settled at 
Rome, where he got employment in a theatre, though it is not 
clear in what capacity. The words of Gellius in operis artificum 
scaenicorum, are interpreted by F. Marx as indicating that 
Plautus was a member of the theatrical staff of Livius Andro- 
nicus. At Rome he saved a little money, and embarked on 
some mercantile enterprise, probably abroad. Having lost his 
money he returned to Rome penniless, and was driven to support 
himself by manual labour in a mill (cum . . . ad circumagendas 
molas quae trusatiles appellantur operam pistori locasset) ; and in 
this pistrinum he wrote three of his plays (the Saturio, the 
Addictus and another). The main body of his works belongs, 
so far as can be ascertained from the scanty evidence which we 
have, to the latter half of his life; 206 B.C. is the approximate 
date of the Miles gloriosus; cf. line 211 seq., quoi bini cuf lodes 
. . . occubant (present tense), which alludes to the imprisonment 
of Naevius, an event which cannot be proved to be earlier than 
206 B.C. The defects of construction and the absence of " can- 
tica " in the Miles also point to this as one of his early plays. 
On the other hand it is hardly likely that all his comedies (which 
greatly exceeded in number the extant twenty) were produced 
during the last twenty years of his life. Radermacher assigns 
the Asinaria to a date as early as 212 B.C. Of the extant plays 
the Cistellaria and the Stichus must be associated with the 
Miles as comparatively early works; for the former was clearly 
produced before (though not long before) the conclusion of the 
Second Punic War, see 1. 201 seq.; and the Stichus is proved by 
its didascalia to have been produced in 200 B.C. The Pseudolus 
and the Truculentus fall within the last seven years of his life. 
The dates of the rest of the extant plays, here given in alpha- 
betical order, are quite uncertain, namely, Amphitruo, Aulularia, 
Bacchides, Captivi, Casina, Curculio, Epidicus, Menaechmi, 
M creator (probably later than the Rudens, as shown by F. Marx), 
M ostellaria, Persa, Poenulus, Rudens; Trinummus (later than 
194 B.C.; cf. nom aediles in 1. 990). Of the Vidularia we possess 
only the fragments contained in the Codex Ambrosianus. 

The plays of Plautus are all based on Greek originals. 1 To 
what extent he is dependent on these originals, and how far he 
departed from them, we shall perhaps never know exactly. But 
such evidence as we have points to a pretty close imitation on 
the part of the Roman poet: there are passages in which he 
does not hesitate to take over from his originals allusions which 
can hardly have been intelligible to a Roman audience, e.g. the 
reference to Stratonicus, a musician of the time of Alexander 
the Great (Rudens, 932); and in the delineation of character 
we have no reason to suppose that he improved on his models 
(cf. Aul. Cell. ii. 23). Even the prologues, which later 
researches have shown to be in the main by the hand of Plautus 
himself, though certain passages were clearly added at a later 
date, e.g. Cas. prol. 5-20, may in most cases have formed part 
of the Greek original. Plautus must therefore be regarded as 
primarily a translator or adapter, so far as our present knowledge 
goes. Where he varies his plot on lines of his own by amalga- 
mating the plots of two distinct Greek comedies (e.g. in the Miles 
and the Poenulus) the result is generally not happy; and the 
romanization of the plays by way -of allusions to towns in Italy, 
to the streets, gates and markets of Rome, to Roman magistrates 
and their duties, to Roman laws and the business of Roman 
law-courts, banks, comitia and senate, &c., involves the poet 
in all the difficulties of attempting to blend two different civiliza- 
tions. The inconsistency of his attitude is shown by his use, 
side by side, of the contemptuous expressions barbarus (applied 
to the Romans) and pergraecari (applied to the Greeks). In 
some passages the poet seems to take delight in casting dramatic 
illusion to the winds (e.g. Pseudolus, 720; Poenulus, 550). 

1 See further P. E. Legrand, Daos: tableau de la comedie grecque 
pendant la periode dite nouvelle (IQIO). 



But as a translator Plautus is nothing less than masterly. 
His command of the art is such that his plays read like original 
works, and it may be at least said that some of his characters 
stand out so vividly from his canvas that they have ever since 
served as representatives of certain types of humanity, e.g. Euclio 
in the Aulularia, the model of Moliere's miser. Alliteration, asso 4 
nance, plays upon words and happy coinages of new terms, give 
his plays a charm of their own. " To read Plautus is to be once 
for all disabused of the impression that Latin is a dry and unin- 
teresting language " (Skutsch, in Die Cultur der Gegemvarl; 
1905). It is a mistake to regard the Latin of Plautus as 
" vulgar " Latin. It is essentially a literary idiom, based in 
the main upon the language of intercourse of the cultivated 
Roman society of the day (cf. Cic. De orators, iii. 12, 45); 
though from the lips of slaves and other low persons in the 
plays we no doubt hear expressions which, while they are quite 
in keeping with the characters to whom they are allotted, would 
have shocked the ears of polite society in the 2nd century B.C. 

The characters in his plays are the stock characters of the new 
comedy of Athens, and they remind us also of the standing figures 
of the Fabulae atellanae (Maccus, Bucco, Dossennus, &c.). 
We may miss the finer insight into human nature and the delicate 
touch in drawing character which Terence presents to us in his 
reproductions of Menander, but there is wonderful life and vigour 
and considerable variety in the Plautine embodiments of these 
different types. And the careful reader will take note of 
occasional touches of serious thought, as in the enumeration of 
the ten deadly political sins (Persa, 555 seq.) and allusions to 
ethical philosophy (Pseud. 972 seq.; Stick. 124; Trin. 305 sqq., 
320 sqq., 363 seq., 447; Rud. 767, 1235-1248, &c.). Virtue is 
often held up for admiration, and vice painted in revolting 
colours or derided. The plots of Plautus also are more varied 
than those of Terence. We have from him one mythological 
burlesque, the Amphitruo, and several plays dealing with 
domestic subjects like the Captivi, Cistellaria, Rudens, Stichus 
and Trinummus; but most of his plays depend for their main 
interest on intrigue, such as the Pseudolus, Bacchides, Mostel- 
laria. In the Menaechmi and, as a subordinate incident, in the 
Amphitruo we have a " comedy of errors." 

In one respect Plautus must be regarded as distinctly original, 
viz. in his development of the lyrical element in his plays. The 
new comedy of Greece was probably limited for the most part 
to scenes written in the metres of dialogue; it remained for 
Plautus, as Leo has shown, to enliven his plays with cantica 
modelled on the contemporary lyric verse of Greece or Magna 
Graecia, which was in its turn a development of the dramatic 
lyrics of Euripides. A new light has been thrown on the 
irapaKKavaldvpov of the Curculio (147-155) by the discovery of 
the Alexandrian erotic fragment published by Grenfell and 
Hunt (Oxford, 1896). The lyrical metres of Plautus are wonder- 
fully varied, and the textual critic does well not to attempt to 
limit the possibilities of original metrical combinations and 
developments in the Roman comedian. Recent investigation 
has considerably extended the list of his numeri innumeri. 

Plautus was a general favourite in the days of republican 
Rome. Cicero, though he found fault with the iambics of the 
Latin comedians generally as abiecti, " prosaic " (Orator, Iv. 
184), admired Plautus as elegans, urbanus, ingeniosus, facetus 
(De offic. i. 29, 104). To the fastidious critics of the Augustan 
age, such as Horace, he seemed rude (cf. Ars Poetica, 270-274), 
just as Addison declared Spenser to be no longer fitted to please 
" a cultivated age." In another passage (Epist. ii. i, 170-176) 
Horace accuses him of clumsiness in the construction of his plays 
and the drawing of his characters, and indifference to everything 
excepting immediate success: gestit enim nummum in locidos 
demittere, post hoc securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo. That 
there are many inconsistencies and signs of carelessness in his 
work has been proved in detail by Langen. But that he found 
many admirers, even in the Augustan age, Horace himself bears 
witness (ibid. 1. 58), where he says that Plautus was regarded as 
a second Epicharmus: Plautus ad exemplar Siculi proper are 
Epicharmi a passage which is important as suggesting that 



8 3 o 



PLAY 



Plautus was under some obligation to the Sicilian representatives 
of the old Dorian comedy; cf. Varro's statement (in Priscian 
ix. 32), deinde ad Siculos se applicant. It is possible that 
Plautus may have been working on the lines of the old comedy 
in the tell-tale names which he is so fond of inventing for his 
Characters, such as Polymachaeroplagides (Pseud. 988), Pyrgo- 
polinices (Mil. 56), Thensaurochrysonicochrysides (Capt. 285) 
names which stand in remarkable contrast to the more 
commonplace Greek names employed by Terence. 

In the middle ages Plautus was little regarded, and twelve 
of his plays (Bacchides-Trucidentus) disappeared from view 
until they were discovered (in the MS. called D) by Nicholas 
of Treves in the year 1429. Apparently some early archetype 
had been divided into two volumes, of which only the first 
(containing eight plays, Amphilruo-Epidicus) had escaped 
oblivion or destruction. After the revival of learning Plautus 
was reinstated, and took rank as one of the great dramatists 
of antiquity; cf. Shakespeare, Hamlet, i. ii. 420, where Polonius 
says, " The best actors in the world . . . Seneca cannot be 
too heavy nor Plautus too light." 

MANUSCRIPTS. The chief MSS. of Plautus belong to two families, 
which are proved by the errors which they have in common to be 
descended from a single source (Sicker, " Novae quaestiones plau- 
tinae," in Philologus suppl. xi. 2; 1908) : (i.) that represented by the 
fragmentary palimpsest of the Ambrosian Library at Milan (A, 
4th century A.D.), discovered in 1815 by Cardinal Mai and now acces- 
sible in the Apograph of Studemund, edited by Seyffert (1889) ; (ii.) 
that represented by the Palatine MSS. (P, ioth-!2th century), 
viz. B, now in the Vatican, containing all the twenty plays preceded 
by the spurious Querolus; C, now at Heidelberg, containing the last 
twelve plays, i.e. Bacchides-Truculentus ; D, now in the Vatican, 
containing the Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulularia, half of the Captivi 
and the last twelve plays: to the same family belong the following 
less important MSS.: E (at Milan), V (at Leiden), J (in the British 
Museum), O (in the Vatican). 

EDITIONS. The editio princeps, based mainly on a transcript of 
D, was printed at Venice, 1472 : the first scientific text, based on 
B, C and D, was that of Camerarius, completed 1552, in whose 
steps followed Lambinus (with a commentary which is still useful), 
1576; Taubmann, 1605-1621; Pareus (a meritorious edition), 1619 
and 1623; Guyet, edited by Marolles, 1658; Gronovius (the 
Vulgate '), 1664-1684; then, after the lapse of more than a century, 
came the editions of Bothe, 1809-1811; Naudet, 1830; and Weise, 
1837-1848. A new era began with the great critical edition of 
certain plays by Ritschl, 1848-1854, in which a collation of A was 
used; a revised and completed form of this work was commenced 
by Ritschl himself and continued by his disciples Goetz, Loewe and 
Schoell, 1871-1894: and of this an entirely rewritten editio minor 
by Goetz and Schoell appeared in 1893-1896 (continued by a 2nd 
d. of Fasciculus ii. in 1904), which is still the most useful of modern 
editions for a critical study of the text, exhibiting, as it does, the MS. 
tradition with only such emendations as are securely established 
by the results of modern investigation. The other modern editions 
of the text are those of Fleckeisen (containing ten plays, excellent 
for his time), 1859; Ussing (with a commentary), 1875-1887, 2nd ed. 
of vol. iii. 1888; Leo (a very important work), 1895-1896; Lindsay, 
1904-1905. Among modern editions of separate plays with commen- 
taries the following are probably the most useful: Amphitruo by 
Palmer, 1890, and Havet, 1895; Asinaria by Gray, 1894; Aulularia 
by Wagner, 1866 and 1876; Captivi by Brix, 6th ed., revised by 
Niemeyer, 1910; an English edition of this work by Sonnenschein 
(with introduction on prosody), 1880; same play by Lindsay (with 
metrical introduction), 1900; Epidicus by Gray, 1893; Menaechmi 
by Brix, 4th ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1891; Miles gloriosus by 
Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1886; by Brix, 3rd ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1901 ; 
by Tyrrell, 3rd ed., 1894; Mostellaria by Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1883; by 
Sonnenschein, 2nd ed., 1907; Pseudolus by Lorenz, 1876; Rudens 
by Sonnenschein, 1891, editio minor (with a metrical appendix) 
1901 ; Trinummus (with a metrical introduction) by Brix, 5th ed., 
revised by Niemeyer, 1907; by Gray, 1897; Truculentus by Speneel 
and Studemund, 1898. 

CRITICISM. Good characterizations of Plautus, from the literary 
point of view, are given by Sellar in his Roman Poets of the Republic, 
and Wight Duff, in his Literary History of Rome (1909). A summary 
of recent critical works bearing on the text and interpretation is 
given by Seyffert in his admirable reports (in Bursian's Jahres- 
benchte liber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft), 
883-1885, 1886-1889, 1890-1894, continued by Lindsay, 1895- 
1906. Important contributions to textual criticism are contained 
in Ritschl Parerga (1845), Neue plautinische Excurse (1869), and his 
collected Opuscula philologica; Studemund, Studio, in priscos 
scriptores latinos (vol. i. 1873, vol. ii. 1891); Langen, Beitrage 
(1877) and Plautinische Studien (1886); Leo, Plautinische Forsch- 
ungen (1895); Lindsay, Codex Turnebi (1898). Bentley's Plautine 
Emendations were published by Sonnenschein partly in his edition 



of the Captivi (1880), partly in the Anecdota oxoniensia series 
(1883). 

METRE AND PROSODY. The most important treatises (apart 
from those mentioned under " Editions ") are Muller, Plautinische 
Prosodie (1869); Spengel, Reformvorschliige zur Metrik der lyrischen 
Versarten(l882);Klotz,Grundzugealtr6mischerMetrik(i89o);Skutsch 
Forschungen zur laleinischen Grammatik und Metrik (1892) lamben- 
kurzung und Synizese (Satura Viadrina) (1896), continued by the 
author in a work called Fepas (1903) ; Leo, Die plautinischen Cantica 
und, die heUemstische Lynk (1897); Maurenbrecher, Hiatus und 
Verschleifung im alien Latein (1899); Ahlberg, De proceleusmaticis 
(1900), De correptione iambica plautina (1901); Jacobsohn Ouaesti- 
ones plautinae (1904); Radford, on the " Recession of the Latin 
Accent (in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1904), " Studies in Latin Accent 
and Metric (in Trans. Amer. Phil. Assoc., 1904), " Plautine 
symzesis (ibid., 1905, continued in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1906) (a 
work on cognate subjects is promised by Exon); Sudhaus, Der 
Aufbau der plautinischen Cantica (1909). 

SYNTAX. The most recent works bearing on Old Latin syntax 
are Sjogren, Zum Gebrauch des Futurums im Altlateinischen (1906)- 
Lindsay, Syntax of Plautus (1907) ; Sonnenschein, The Unity of the 
Latin Subjunctive (1910). A work by H. Thomas, entitled A 
catalogue raisonne of the Subjunctive in Plautus, in support of the 
theory o) the unity of origin of the Latin Subjunctive, is announced as 
in preparation. 

LEXICA. The only completed lexicon ' (apart from the Indices 
of Naudet, 1832, and Weise, 1838) is that of Pareus (2nd ed., 1634) 
New lexica have been begun by Waltzing (1900; apparently not to 
be continued) and Lodge (1901 ; in progress). The latter work 
when completed, will be indispensable. 

TRANSLATIONS AND ADAPTATIONS. A comprehensive view of 
the influence of Plautus on modern literatures is given by Reinhard- 
stoettner, Spatere Bearbeitungen plautinischer Lustspiele (1886) 
Many adaptations for the Italian stage were produced between the 
years 1486 and 1550, the earliest (the Menaechmi) under the direction 
of Lrcole I., duke of Ferrara. From Italy the practice spread to 
trance, Spam, England and other countries. 

Of English plays, the interlude called Jack Juggler (between 1547 

the lost play called 



, 

and 1553; was based on the Amphitruo, and e os pay cae 
the Historie of Error (acted in 1577) was probably . based on the 
Menae-chmi; Nicholas Udall's Ralph Royster Doyster, the first English 
comedy (acted before 1551, first printed 1566), is founded on the 
Mites gloriosus; Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors (about 1591) is an 
adaptation of the Menaechmi; and his Falstaff may be regarded 
as an idealized reproduction or development of the braggart soldier 
of Plautus and Terence a type of character which reappears in 
other forms not only in English literature (e.g. in Shakespeare's 
Parolles and Ben Jonson's Captain Bobadil) but also in most of the 
literatures of modern Europe. Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew 
has been influenced in several respects (including the names Tranio 
and Grumio) by the Mostellaria. Ben Jonson produced a skilful 
amalgamation of the Aulularia and the Captivi in his early play 
The Case is Altered (written before 1599). Thomas Hey wood 
adapted the Amphitruo in his Silver Age (1613), the Rudens in his 
Captives (licensed 1624), and the Mostellaria in his English Traveller 
(1633). Dryden's Amphitryon or the two Sosias (1-690) is based partly 
on the Amphitruo, partly on Moliere's adaptation thereof; Fielding's 
Miser (acted 1732) on Moliere's L'Avare rather than on the A ulularia, 
and his Intriguing Chambermaid (acted 1733) on Regnard's Le Retour 
tmprevu rather than on the Mostellaria. There was no English 
translation, strictly so called, of any play of Plautus in the i6th or 
i ?th century, except that of the Menaechmi by W. W. (probably 
William Warner), first printed in 1595, which Shakespeare may 
possibly have used (in MS.) for his Comedy of Errors. A translation 
of the whole of Plautus in " familiar blank verse " by Bonnell Thorn- 
ton and others appeared in 1767 (2nd ed., 1769-1774). Five plays 
have been translated in the metres of the original by Sugden (1893). 

(E. A. So.) 

PLAY, a word of which the primary meaning is that of free 
or active movement or exercise. The O. Eng. plegan or plcgian, 
from which comes the substantive plega, play, is apparently 
cognate with Ger. pflegen, to take care or charge of, and Pflege, 
care, and the connexion in sense is to be found in the primary 
meaning, that of exercise or active movement. In its primary 
meaning " play " is used of the rapid changing movement of 
light and colour, and also figuratively of thought or fancy, and 
specifically of the free movement of parts of a mechanism on 
each other, of a joint or limb, &c. To play a musical instrument 
is to move the fingers upon it, and until the i8th century the 
verb was intransitive, and " on " or " upon " was always used 
with the name of the instrument. The very general use of the 
word for sport, game or amusement, is an early and easy develop- 
ment from the meaning of active movement or exercise as a 
recreation after work; that of a dramatic performance (see 
DRAMA) is very early; the New English Dictionary quotes from 
King Alfred's Orosius (c. 893). 



PLAY A PLEADING 



831 



The primitive play instinct or play impulse in man has been much 
discussed in recent years by psychologists in connexion with child- 
study (see CHILD), and with the expression of the emotions (see 
J. Sully, On Laughter, 1902, &c. ; also AESTHETICS). See generally 
Carl Groos, The Play of Animals (1898) and The Play of Man 
(1901); and Baldwin's Diet, of Philosophy, s.v. 

PLAYA (a Spanish word meaning " shore "), the name applied 
in America to a level plain formed of the deposits of a river 
which has no outlet to the sea or a lake. If at seasons of high 
water a river floods any area and temporarily converts it into a 
lake, which subsequently dries up in hot weather, the tract thus 
left dry is called a playa. The barren Black Rock Desert in 
north-western Nevada, about too m. in length by 15 in breadth, 
is typical. 

PLAYFAIR, JOHN (1748-1819), Scottish mathematician and 
physicist, was born at Benvie, Forfarshire, where his father was 
parish minister, on the loth of March 1748. He was educated 
at home until the age of fourteen, when he entered the university 
of St Andrews. In 1766, when only eighteen, he was candidate 
for the chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, 
and, although he was unsuccessful, his claims were admitted 
to be high. Six years later he made application for the chair 
of natural philosophy in his own university, but again without 
success, and in 1773 he was offered and accepted the living of 
the united parishes of Liff and Benvie, vacant by the death of 
his father. He continued, however, to carry on his mathematical 
and physical studies, and in 1782 he resigned his charge in order 
to become the tutor of Ferguson of Raith. By this arrangement 
he was able to be frequently in Edinburgh, and to cultivate the 
literary and scientific society for which it was at that time 
specially distinguished; and through Maskelyne, whose acquain- 
tance he had first made in the course of the celebrated Schiehallion 
experiments in 1774, he also gained access to the scientific circles 
of London. In 1785 when Dugald Stewart succeeded Ferguson 
in the Edinburgh chair of moral philosophy, Playfair succeeded 
the former in that of mathematics. In 1802 he published his 
celebrated volume entitled Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory 
of the Earth. To its publication the influence exerted by James 
Hutton on the progress of geological knowledge is largely due. 
In 1805 he exchanged the chair of mathematics for that of 
natural philosophy in succession to Dr John Robison, whom also 
he succeeded as general secretary to the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh. He took a prominent part, on the Liberal side, 
in the ecclesiastical controversy which arose in connexion with 
Leslie's appointment to the post he had vacated, and published 
a satirical Letter (1806) which was greatly admired by his friends. 
He was elected F.R.S. in 1807. He died in Edinburgh on the 
20th of July 1819. 

A collected edition of Playfair's works, with a memoir by James 
G. Playfair, appeared at Edinburgh in 4 vols. 8vo. His writings 
include a number of essays contributed to the Edinburgh Review 
from 1804 onwards, various papers in the Phil. Trans, (including his 
earliest publication, " On the Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities," 
1779, and an " Account of the Lithological Survey of Schehallion," 
1811) and in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 
(" On the Causes which affect the Accuracy of Barometrical 
Measurements," &c.), alsp the articles "Aepinus" and "Physical 
Astronomy," and a "Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical 
and Physical Science since the Revival of Learning in Europe," in 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Supplement to fourth, fifth and 
sixth editions). His Elements of Geometry first appeared in 1795 
and have passed through many editions; his Outlines of Natural 
Philosophy (2 vols., 1812-1816) consist of the propositions and 
formulae which were the basis of his class lectures. Playfair's con- 
tributions to pure mathematics were not considerable, his paper 
" On the Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities," that " On the 
Causes which affect the Accuracy of Barometrical Measurements," 
and his Elements of Geometry, all already referred to, being the 
most important. His lives of Matthew Stewart, Hutton, Robison, 
many of his reviews, and above all his " Dissertation " are of the 
utmost value. 

PLAYFAIR, LYON PLAYFAIR, ist BARON (1818-1898), was 
born at Chunar, Bengal province, on the 2ist of May 1818. He 
was sent to Europe by his father at an early age, and received 
his first education at St Andrews. Subsequently he studied 
medicine at Glasgow and Edinburgh. A short visit to India 
(in 1837-1838) was followed by his return to Europe to study 



chemistry, which had always attracted him. This he did at 
University College, London, and afterwards under Liebig at 
Giessen, where he took his doctor's degree. At Liebig's request, 
Playfair translated into English the former's work on the 
Chemistry of Agriculture, and represented Liebig at a meeting 
of the British Association at Glasgow. The outcome of his 
studies was his engagement in 1841 as chemical manager of the 
Primrose print-works at Clitheroe, a post which he held for rather 
more than a year. In 1843 he was elected honorary professor 
of chemistry to the Royal Institution of Manchester, and soon 
afterwards was appointed a member of the Royal Commission 
on the Health of Towns, a body whose investigations may be 
said to have laid the foundations of modern sanitation. In 
1846 he was appointed chemist to the geological survey, and 
thenceforward was constantly employed by the public depart- 
ments in matters of sanitary and chemical inspection. The 
opportunity of his life came with the 1851 Exhibition, of which 
he was one of the special commissioners. For his services in this 
connexion he was made C.B., and his work had the additional 
advantage of bringing him into close personal relations with 
the Prince Consort, who appointed him gentleman usher in his 
household. From 1856 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry 
at Edinburgh University. In 1868 he was elected to represent 
the universities of Edinburgh and St Andrews in parliament, 
and retained his seat till 1885, from which date until 1892 he 
sat as member for Leeds. In 1873 he was made postmaster- 
general, and in the following year, after the dissolution of 
parliament, was applied to by the incoming Tory government 
to preside over a commission to inquire into the working of the 
civil service. Its report established a completely new system, 
which has ever since been officially known as the " Playfair 
scheme." The return of Mr Gladstone to power in 1880 afforded 
opportunity for Playfair to resume his interrupted parliamentary 
career, and from that time until 1883 he acted as chairman of 
committees during a period when the obstructive tactics of the 
Irish party were at their height. On his retirement from the 
post he was made K.C.B. In 1892 he was created Baron Playfair 
of St Andrews, and a little later was appointed lord-in-waiting 
to the queen. In 1895 he was given the G.C.B. In spite of 
failing health the last years of his life were full of activity, one 
of his latest public acts being his suggestion that Queen Victoria's 
Diamond Jubilee of 1897 should be commemorated by the 
completion of the South Kensington Museum. He died in 
London, after a short illness, on the 2gth of May 1898, and was 
buried at St Andrews. He was three times married. He was 
the author of a number of papers on scientific and social topics, 
a selection from which he published in 1889 under the title of 
Subjects of Social Welfare. 

A memoir by Sir Wemyss Reid was published in 1899. 

PLEADING (Fr. plaider, plaidoyer), the term applied in 
English law to the preparation of the statement of the facts on 
which either party to a criminal prosecution or a civil action 
founds his claim to a decision in his favour on the questions 
involved in the proceeding; and also to the document in which 
these statements are embodied. The term " pleadings " is used 
for the collected whole of the statements of both parties; the 
term "pleading" for each separate part of the pleadings. The 
term " plea " (placitum, plaid) 1 is now applied in England oftenest 
to the defence made by an accused person. To " plead " is to 
make a pleading or plea. 2 

All systems of law agree in making it necessary to bring the 
grounds of a claim or defence before the court in a more or less 
definite and technical form. 

Roman System. In Roman law the action passed through three 
stages (see ACTION), and the manner of pleading changed with the 
action. In the earliest historical period, that of the legis actiones, 
the pleadings were verbal, and made in court by the parties them- 
selves, the proceedings imitating as far as possible the natural 



1 In Scots and ecclesiastical law the word " plea " is used as to 
the statements of both parties to a cause. 

2 In French law plaider and plaidoyer are still applied to the 
oral arguments of counsel, and in English popular speech " to 
plead " has much the same sense. 



8 3 2 



PLEADING 



conduct of persons who had been disputing, but who suffered their 
quarrel to be appeased (Maine, Ancient Law, ch. x.). The use of 
technical language in pleading at an early date came to be regarded 
as so important that, as Gaius tells us, the party who made even the 
most trifling mistake would lose his suit. This excessive reverence 
for formality is a universal characteristic of archaic law. In the 
second period, that of the procedure by formulae, the issue which 
the judex decided was made up by the praetor in writing from the 
statements of the parties, before him. The formula was a short 
summary of the facts in dispute in technical language, with instruc- 
tions to the judex, and corresponded to what would now be called 
the submission or terms of reference to an arbitrator chosen by the 
parties. The part of the formula which contained the plaintiff's 
claim was called the intentio. Any equitable defence included in 
the formula was set up by means of an exceptio, which was either 
peremptory, denying the right of the plaintiff to recover at all, 
or dilatory, denying only that the action could be brought at the 
time or by the particular plaintiff. The plaintiff might meet the 
exceptio by a replicatio, the defendant on his side might set up a 
duplicatip, and the plaintiff might traverse the duplicatio by a 
triplicatio. The parties might proceed even further, but beyond 
this point the pleadings had no special names. Actions bonae 
fidei implied every exceptio that could be set up; in other actions 
the exceptio must be specially pleaded. From the formula the 
judex derived his whole authority, and he was liable to an action 
for exceeding it. He could not amend the formula: that could 
only be done by the praetor. In the third period the formula 
did not exist, the plaintiff's claim appeared in the summons 
(libellus conventionis), and the defendant might take any defence 
that he pleased, all actions being placed on the footing of actions 
bonae fidei. The issue to be tried was determined by the judge 
from the oral statements of the parties. 

English System. The English system of pleading seems to 
have drawn largely from, if it was hot directly based upon, the 
Roman. Bracton (temp. Henry III.) uses many of the Roman 
technical terms. Pleading was oral as late as the reign of 
Henry VIII., but in the reign of Edward III. pleadings began to 
be drawn up in writing, perhaps at first more for the purpose of 
entry on the court records than for the instruction of the court 
(see 2 Reeves, History of English Law, p. 398). The French 
language was used until 1362, after which English was used for 
oral pleading, but Latin for enrolment, except for a short period 
during the Commonwealth. Latin was the language of written 
pleadings at common law until 1731. The period of the Roman 
formula has its analogue in the period of the original writ in 
England. 1 The writ was at first a formal commission from the 
Crown to a judicial officer to do justice between the parties, the 
claim being made by a count (conte, narrative). The issue of 
the writ was part of the prerogative of the Crown, unlimited 
until the Provisions of Oxford (1258) forbade the issue of fresh 
writs except " writs of course " (de cursu) without the consent 
of the council. Gradually the writ came to absorb the count 
and included the plaintiff's claim and sometimes the nature of 
his evidence. The defendant pleaded to the writ. The writ 
became the universal form of instituting proceedings in the 
king's court, irrespective of the method of trial which followed, 
and probably grew fixed in form about the reign of Henry II. 
(see Bigelow, History of Procedure, ch. iv.). At a later date the 
writ again tended to approach its earlier form and to split into 
two parts the writ of summons and the declaration or plaintiff's 
claim. The writ of summons was addressed to the defendant, 
and not, as the original writ, to a judicial officer. The pleadings 
became the act of the party, differing in this from Roman law, 
in which they were a judicial act. The writs became precedents 
for the forms of action, which, like the writs, were limited in 
number. The plaintiff's declaration was a substantial repetition 
of the writ. In the writ, as in the formula, the slightest failure 
in form was as a rule fatal. " The assigning of a writ of a par- 
ticular frame and scope to each particular cause of action, the 
appropriating process of one kind to one action and of a different 
kind to another, these and the like distinctions rendered pro- 
ceedings very nice and complex, and made the conduct of an 
action a matter of considerable difficulty " (i Reeves, Hist, of 
English Law, p. 147). Fines were levied for mistakes in pleading, 
non-liability to which was sometimes granted by charter as a 

1 The original writ was so called to distinguish it from the judicial 
writ, which was a part of the process of the court. The judicial 
writs still exist, e.g. writs of certiorari or fieri facias. 



special privilege to favoured towns. In both Roman and English 
law fictions, equity and legislation came to mitigate the rigour 
of the law. In England this result was largely attained by the 
framing of the action of trespass on the case under the powers 
of the Statute of Westminster the Second (1285), and by the 
extension of the action of assumpsit to non-feasance. The 
difficulties and technicalities of the common law system were 
met by elaboration of what is known as " special pleading," 2 which 
became an art of the utmost nicety, depending on numerous 
rules, some of them highly technical (see Coke upon Littleton, 
P- 33) Those who made it their business to frame pleadings 
were called special pleaders. They were not necessarily members 
of the bar, but might be licensed to practise under the bar. , At 
one time it was usual to practise for a time as a special pleader 
before call to the bar. Such licences are now rarely sought, 
and the Law List of 1906 contained only one name of a special 
pleader who was not a barrister. The art became necessary 
because of the absolute particularity with which claims must 
be framed, and the narrowness of the powers of amendment 
possessed by the courts. The result was that substantive law 
was smothered in procedure, and the practical questions at issue 
were of less moment than the phraseology in which they were 
to be stated. As an extreme instance, a learned judge in the 
1 9th century challenged a pleading for putting the year without 
adding A.D., on the ground that " non conslat that A.C. might 
not be intended." 

Some of the difficulties as to amendment were removed by 
the statutes of Jeofails (j'aifailli) beginning in 1340. But until 
the igth century the courts of common law and equity worked 
side by side in Westminster Hall, administering each their own 
system without due regard to the other; and even in so simple 
a matter as the right of a defendant to set off against a claim on 
him a debt due to him from the plaintiff required statutory 
provision. Many of the defects and technicalities of the common 
law system were removed by the Common Law Procedure Acts 
and the general rules of practice made thereunder. Wide powers 
of amendment were given, and the parties were allowed to raise 
and try claims which theretofore could have been dealt with 
only in courts of equity. In the court of chancery the pleadings 
used were bill (or in certain public matters an information by 
the attorney-general) , answer and replication. 3 Demurrers were 
used, or " exceptions " could be taken to the bill or answer. 
They differed from the common law forms by being much more 
diffuse, by pleading matters of evidence, and in that the answer 
was on oath. Beyond the replication chancery proceedings did 
not go, the place of further pleadings being supplied by amend- 
ment. Exceptions might be taken to the bill or answer on various 
grounds. Equity pleadings were signed by counsel. On the 
creation of the divorce court the pleadings authorized were 
(and still are) as follows: petition (which must be verified by 
oath), answer (which is so verified if it goes beyond a mere denial) 
and reply; and a special pleading called "act on petition" 
(derived from the ecclesiastical courts) with answer thereto, 
generally used for the determination of some preliminary 
question in the suit, e.g. the domicile of the husband. In the 
court of admiralty the pleadings used were petition, answer, 
reply and conclusion. In the probate court the common law 
terms were used (declaration, plea and replication), but the 
procedure was not the same as in the common law courts. 

Under the old common law system 4 as modified in the igth 
century the pleadings in use were as follows : 

I. Declaration, made up of one or more cqunts (contes), or modes 
of framing the plaintiff's claim so as to state his grievances in fact 
in a form suggesting the appropriate remedy at law, and concluding 
by demand for a plea. The counts were spoken of as common or 
special according as the facts of the case allowed the use of common 

2 The ingenuity of the pleader showing itself chiefly in framing 
special as opposed to general pleas, the term " special pleading " 
grew to be used for the whole proceedings of which it was the 
most important part. 

3 In Chancery the " English Bill," so called from its being in 
the English language, had existed, according to G. Spence, as 
early as the reign of Henry V. (Equitable Jurisdiction, i. 348). 

4 Bullen and Leake, Precedents of Pleading (3rd ed., 1868). 



PLEADING 



833 



forms or required special statement. The declaration corresponds 
to the Roman formula and intentio. 

2. Plea by the defendant to the counts of the declaration. The 
plea corresponds to the Roman exceptio. 

3. Replication by the plaintiff to the plea. In this pleading the 
plaintiff usually took issue upon the statements in the defence; 
but he might do what was termed " new assign," e.g. complain of 
acts in excess of a justification alleged in the plea. 

4. Rejoinder by the defendant to the replication, answering to 
the Roman duplicatio. 

5. Surrejoinder by the plaintiff to the rejoinder, answering to 
the Roman triplicatio. 

6. Rebutter by the defendant to the surrejoinder. 

7. Surrebutter by the plaintiff to the rebutter. 

Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 were rarely necessary, as the parties usually 
came to a definite issue on the facts in the replication, and the last 
of them is only kept in legal memory because Lord Wensleydale 
(the last and best versed of the old common law pleaders) was 
nicknamed Chief Baron Surrebutter. At any stage of the plead- 
ings after (i), the party might instead of pleading to the preceding 
document demur, t.e. admit the facts as therein stated and contend 
that assuming the truth of those facts the document was insufficient 
in law to found a claim or a defence as the case might be. De- 
murrers (q.v.) were general or special according as they went to 
the substance of the claim or plea or to a mere defect in the mode 
of statement. When the pleadings had reached a stage at which 
the parties were in flat contradiction on matters of fact, they con- 
cluded by joinder of issue, upon which the record was made up 
and the action was ripe for trial. 

Pleas fell into the following classes : 

1. In abatement, also described as temporary or dilatory (terms 
of Roman law), directed either to the jurisdiction of the court 
or to the abatement or defeat of the action for defects of form. 

2. In bar, also described as peremptory, which answered the 
alleged cause of action by denying facts stated in the declaration 
which were material, or by confessing their truth, but stating new 
matter of fact which destroyed their legal effect. 

Some of these were by way of justification or excuse, e.g. by setting 
up the truth of matter alleged to be defamatory, or legal warrant 
for an arrest complained of as illegal; others were by way of 
discharge, e.g. of an alleged debt by payment. 

Pleas in denial were known (a) as general traverses or general 
issues, when they denied in a general and appropriate form one 
or more of the facts alleged (e.g. " never indebted " to a claim in 
assumpsit or " not guilty " to a claim for tort) ; (6) as specific 
traverses of separate and material allegations in the declaration, 
setting out with particularity the facts relied on. 

It was permissible to plead alternatively, i.e. to set up a number 
of different answers to the facts on which the claim was based. 
As a general rule a plea must be " issuable," i.e. must put the merits 
of the cause in issue on the facts or the law, so that the decision of 
judge and jury thereon would put an end to the action upon the 
merits. 

All the above forms of pleading, except in matrimonial causes, 
were abolished by the Judicature Acts, and a new system was 
set up by these acts and the rules of the Supreme Court. Under 
this system the pleadings proper are " statement of claim," 
" defence," " reply," and, if need be, " rejoinder." 

When pleadings are allowed they must contain, and contain 
only, a statement in a summary form of the material facts on 
which the party pleading relies for his claim or defence, as the 
case may be, but not the evidence by which they are to be proved; 
and must, when necessary, be divided into paragraphs, numbered 
consecutively. Dates, sums and numbers are expressed in 
figures and not in words. Signature of counsel is not necessary; 
but where pleadings have been settled by counsel or a special 
pleader they are to be signed by him, and if not so settled they 
are to be signed by the solicitor or by the party if he sues or 
defends in person (O. 19, r. 4).' There has been a growing dis- 
position to dispense with formal pleadings in the simpler kinds 
of action. A plaintiff is allowed to proceed to trial without 
pleadings if the writ of summons is endorsed in a manner sufficient 
to indicate the nature of his claim and the relief or remedy which 
he seeks (O. i8a), and contains a notice of his intention. In 
no case is a statement of claim other than that endorsed on the 
writ necessary unless the defendant on appearance asks for one, 
and his right to insist has been cut down by the provisions 
presently, to be stated. In commercial cases a statement by 
the parties to the points of law and fact which they propose to 
raise is substituted for ordinary pleadings. In cases where 

1 Before the Judicature Acts equity pleadings were signed by 
counsel, but common law pleadings were not. 
XXI. 27 



the demand is for a liquidated sum certain, or to recover land 
from a tenant on expiration of his term or its forfeiture for non- 
payment of rent, the statement of claim must be endorsed on 
the writ; and in all other cases no statement of claim beyond 
that on the writ may be delivered except under order of the 
master or judge at chambers (Ords. i8a and 30). A statement 
of defence may not be delivered except under order made on the 
summons for directions (which must be taken out immediately 
after the appearance of the defendant in answer to the writ), 
nor a reply without special leave. The result of the present 
practice is to substitute " particulars," i.e. specific statement 
of the details which the parties intend to prove, for the more 
general terms in which pleadings were formerly framed. 

Besides the rules applicable to all pleadings, there are certain rules 
specially relating to statements of claim, with reference to the 
nature of the causes of action which may be included and the relief 
which may be claimed (O. 20). As to the defence proper, there 
are also special rules intended to prevent evasive, inadequate or 
unnecessary contradiction of the plaintiff's statements (O. 19, 20). 
The defendant is allowed to " set off " against the claim sums 
due to him from the plaintiff or to raise by way of counter-claim 
any right or claim against the plaintiff or a third party, whether 
" sounding " as damages or not. The counter-claim is in substance 
a conjoined action in which the defendant is plaintiff and the plaintiff 
or third party affected may put in a defence to it. Except in such 
a case the reply and subsequent pleadings are now seldom permitted. 
Both the parties and the court or a judge have large powers of 
amending the pleadings both before and at the trial. Issues are 
in certain cases settled by the court or a judge. Demurrers are 
abolished, and a party is now entitled to raise by his pleading 
any point of law. Where decision of a point of law would put an 
end to the action steps may be taken for obtaining such decision 
so as to obviate the necessity of trying the issues of fact raised 
on the pleadings. Forms of pleading are given in Appendices C, 
D and E to the Supreme Court Rules. In all actions such ground 
of defence or reply as if not raised would be likely to take the 
opposite party by surprise, or would raise issues of fact not arising 
out of the preceding pleadings, must be specially pleaded. Such 
are compulsory pilotage, fraud, the Statute of Limitations, the 
Statute of Frauds and the Gaming Act. The Supreme Court 
Rules do not apply to proceedings in Crown suits or in the Crown 
side of the king's bench division. In actions for damages by 
collision between ships each party must as a general rule file a 
sealed document called a preliminary act containing details as to 
the time and place of collision, the speed, tide, lights, &c. The 
case may be tried on the preliminary act without pleadings, but 
if there are pleadings the act may not be unsealed until they are 
completed and certain consents given. The document was peculiar 
to the court of admiralty, but may now be used in all divisions 
of the High Court (O. 19, r. 28). The High Court system of plead- 
ings has been adopted in the chancery courts of the counties palatine 
of Lancaster and Durham. The place of the " record " is supplied 
by copies of the pleadings delivered for the use of the judge and of 
the officer entering the judgment (O. 36, r. 30 ; O. 41 , r. I). 

In the county courts proceedings are commenced by a plaint, 
followed by an ordinary or default summons. No " pleadings "are 
necessary, but the defendant is precluded from setting county 
up certain special defences such as set-off or infancy, 
or statutory defences, without the consent of the 
plaintiff, unless he has given timely notice in writing of his intention 
to set up the special defence. This system is made workable by 
insisting on the insertion of adequate details or particulars of the 
nature of the claim in the plaint. But in cases where a special 
defence is not required considerable inconvenience is caused by 
uncertainty as to the line of defence. 

In some of the local civil courts of record which have survived 
the creation of the county courts, the pleadings are still in the 
form recognized by the Common Law Procedure Acts. i a f er ) or 
This is the case in the Mayor's Court of London. In ^oca/ 
others (e.g. the Liverpool Court of Passage and the Courts of 
Salford Hundred Court) the system of the Judicature Record. 
Acts has been adopted with or without official sanction. 
The policy of the lord chancellor and the treasury has been to 
refuse reform of procedure to all but the most used of these local 
courts so as to extinguish them in favour of the county courts. 

In the ecclesiastical courts the statements of the parties are 
called generally pleas. The statement of the plaintiff in civil 
suits is called a libel; of the promoter in criminal suits 
articles. Every subsequent plea is called an allegation. 
To the responsive allegation of the defendant the pro- 
moter may plead a counter-allegation. The cause is concluded 
when the parties renounce any further allegation. There exists 
in addition a more short and summary mode of pleading called 
an act on petition. 

In Roman criminal procedure the indictment (inscriplio or 



834 



PLEASURE PLEBS 



Criminal. 



libellus occusationis) was usually in writing, and contained a 
formal statement of the offence. In some cases oral accu- 
sations were allowed. The pleading of the accused 
seems to have been informal. In English criminal 
cases the expression " pleadings " is limited to those tried on in- 
dictment or information before a jury. In matters dealt with by 
justices of the peace there are informations sometimes in writing, 
but they are never regarded as " pleadings." English criminal 
pleading has been less affected by legislation than civil pleading, 
and retains more of what is called the common law system. 
Cases in which the Crown was a party early became known as 
" pleas of the Crown " (placita coronae), as distinguished from 
"common pleas" (communia placita), or pleas between subject 
and subject that is to say, ordinary civil actions. Pleas of the 
Crown originally included all matters in which the Crown was 
concerned, such as exchequer cases, franchises and liberties, 
but gradually became confined to criminal matters, strictly to 
the greater crimes triable only in the king's courts. In criminal 
pleading the Crown states the case in an indictment or information. 
The answer of the accused is a plea, which must be pleaded by 
the accused in person, except in certain cases of misdemeanour 
tried in the High Court (Crown Office Rules, 1906). The plea, 
according to Blackstone, is either to the jurisdiction, a demurrer, 
in abatement, special in bar, or the general issue. The last is 
the only plea that often occurs in practice; it consists in the 
answer (usually oral) of " guilty " or " not guilty " to the 
charge. A demurrer is strictly not a plea at all, but an objection 
on legal grounds. Pleas to the jurisdiction or in abatement 
do not go to the merits of the case, but allege that the court has 
no jurisdiction to try the particular offence, or that there is a 
misnomer or some other technical ground for stay of proceedings. 
The powers of amendment given in 1851 (14 & 15 Viet. c. 100) 
and the procedure by motion in arrest of judgment have rendered 
these pleas of no practical importance. The special pleas in 
bar are autrefois convict or aulrefois acquit (alleging a previous 
conviction or aquittal for the same crime) and pardon (see 
PARDON). The plea of autrefois attaint has fallen out of use 
since the abolition of attainder by the Forfeitures Act 1870. 
There are also special pleas of justification to indictments' for 
defamatory libel under the Libel Act 1843; and to indictments 
for non-repair of highways and bridges the accused may plead 
that the liability to repair falls upon another person. These 
special pleas are usually, and in some cases must be, in writing. 
When there is a special plea in writing the Crown puts in a 
replication in writing. 

Ireland. The practice as to civil and criminal pleading in Ireland 
is substantially the same as in England, though to some extent 
based on different statutes and rules of court. 

Scotland. In Scotland an action in the Court of Session begins 
by a summons on the part of the pursuer, to which is annexed a 
condescendence, containing the allegations in fact on which the action 
is founded. The pleas in law, or statement of the legal rule or rules 
relied upon (introduced by the Court of Session Act 1825), are 
subjoined to the condescendence. The term libel is also used (as 
in Roman law) as a general term to express the claim of the pursuer 
or the accusation of the prosecutor. The statement of the de- 
fender, including his pleas in law, is called his defences. They are 
either dilatory or peremptory. There is no formal joinder of issue, 
as in England, but the same end is attained by adjustment of the 
pleadings and the closing of the record. Large powers of amend- 
ment and revisal are given by the Court of Session Act 1868. In 
the sheriff court pleadings are very similar to those in the Court 
of Session. They are commenced by a petition, which includes a 
condescendence and a note of the pursuer's pleas in law. The 
defender may upon notice lodge defences. The procedure is now 
governed by the Sheriff Courts Scotland Act 1876. The term 
' pleas of the Crown " is confined in Scotland to four offences 
murder, rape, robbery and fire-raising. The criminal procedure 
of Scotland was simplified and amended in 1887. The old pro- 
cedure by criminal letters has been abolished, and prosecutions 
for the public interest whether in the high 'court of justiciary or 
before the sheriff with a jury are by indictment in the name of His 
Majesty's advocate. The Scots indictment differs from the English 
in not being found by a grand jury, except in cases of high treason, 
and resembles rather the ex officio information of English law. 
Until 1887 it was in the form of a syllogism, the major proposition 
stating the nature of the crime, the minor the actual offence com- 
mitted and that it constitutes the crime named in the major, the 



conclusion that on conviction of the panel he ought to suffer punish- 
ment. Under the present practice it is in the second person 
addressed to the accused, and follows the forms scheduled to the 
act of 1887, which also makes specific provisions for simplification, 
and if need be for amendment (s. 70). A copy of the indictment 
with a list of the witnesses and the productions must be served on 
the accused. There are two sittings (diets) to deal with the in- 
dictment. At the first, hold before the sheriff, the accused (termed 
the panel) may plead guilty or raise preliminary objections to the 
relevancy of the indictment, &c., or otherwise (such as want of 
jurisdiction or res judicata); or without taking such objections, 
or after they are overruled, may plead not guilty. The second 
diet is the diet of trial. If the trial is before the sheriff his rulings 
at the first diet are final, if before the court of justiciary his rulings 
may be reviewed. At the second diet, besides his plea of not 
guilty, the panel may rely on certain special defences, e.g. insanity 
or alibi, but only if his special and written plea was tendered and 
recorded at the first diet or the delay explained, and he cannot call 
evidence in support of these pleas except on written notice specify- 
ing the names of the witnesses and the documents not included in 
the prosecutor's lists (s. 36). (See Macdonald, Criminal Law oj 
Scotland.) 

British Dominions Beyond Seas. In most of the Australian 
states, and in Ontario and New Zealand, civil pleadings are governed 
by rules adopted from the English Judicature Acts. In New South 
Wales a system based on the Common Law Procedure Acts is 
retained. Civil pleadings in India are regulated by the Civil 
Procedure Code. Indictments, except in India, are based on the 
English system as modified by the criminal codes or other legisla- 
tion of the colony. Indictments in India are regulated by the 
Criminal Procedure Code of 1898. 

United States. In the United States two systems of pjeading 
in civil procedure exist side by side. Up to 1848 the pleading did 
not materially differ from that in use in England at the same date. 
But in 1848 the New York legislature made a radical change in 
the system, and the example of New York has been followed by 
many states. The New York Civil Code of 1848 established a 
uniform procedure called the civil action, applicable indifferently 
to common law and equity. The pleadings are called complaint, 
answer (which includes counterclaim) and reply. The demurrer 
also is still used. In some states which follow this procedure the 
complaint bears the name of petition. In inferior courts, such as 
courts of justices of the peace, the pleadings are more simple, and 
in many cases oral. In states which do not adopt the amended 
procedure the pleading is much the same as it was in the days of 
Blackstone, and the old double jurisdiction of common law and 
equity still remains. Criminal pleading is on the lines of the common 
law system of England. (W. F. C.) 

PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; 
Gr. T}bovi]), a term used loosely in ordinary language as practically 
synonymous with " enjoyment." As such it is applied equally 
to what are known as the " higher " or " intellectual " pleasures, 
and to purely " sensual," " animal " or " lower " pleasures. 
The conditions under which a man is pleased are the subject 
both or psychological and of ethical investigation. In general 
it may be said that pleasure and pain follow respectively upon 
the success of the failure of some effort, mental or physical (see 
PSYCHOLOGY) ; they may also attend upon purely passive sensa- 
tions, e.g. a warm sun, a heavy shower, or upon associations with 
previous states of mind (i.e. a man may enjoy a sensation which 
is intrinsically painful, if it has pleasant associations). Recogni- 
tion of the fact that mankind seeks pleasure and avoids pain has 
led some moralists to the conclusion that all human conduct 
is actuated by hedonic considerations: this is the direct antithesis 
to ethical theories which maintain an absolute criterion of right 
and wrong (see HEDONISM; ETHICS). Aristotle took a middle 
view, holding that pleasure, though not the end of virtuous action 
yet necessarily follows upon it (tTri'ytvofifv&v TI reXos). 

PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscilum, a decree of the plebs), a term 
borrowed from the French for a vote of all the electors in a 
country taken on some specific question (see also REFERENDUM). 
The most familiar exi nple of the use of the plebiscite in French 
history was in 1852, when the coup d'etat of 1851 was confirmed 
and the title of emperor was given to Napoleon III. In Roman 
constitutional law the plebiscitum was a decree enacted in the 
assembly of the plebs, the comitia tributa, presided over by a 
plebeian magistrate. 

PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. ir\?idos), 
the " multitude," or unprivileged class in the early Roman state. 
For the origin and history of this order see PATRICIANS and 
NOBILITY. Its disqualifications were originally based on 



PLEDGE PLEISTOCENE 



835 



descent; but after the political equalization of the two orders 
the name was applied to the lower classes of the population with- 
out reference to their descent. Under the empire the word is 
regularly used of the city proletariate, or of the commons as 
distinct from knights and senators. 

PLEDGE, 1 or PAWN, in law " a bailment of personal property 
as a security for some debt or engagement " (Story on Bailments, 
286). The term is also used to denote the property which 
constitutes the security. Pledge is the pignus of Roman law, 
from which most of the modern law on the subject is derived. 
It differs from hypothec and from the more usual kind of mort- 
gage in that the pledge is in the possession of the pledgee; it 
also differs from mortgage in being confined to personal property. 
A mortgage of personal property in most cases takes the name 
and form of a bill of sale. The chief difference bet ween Roman 
and English law is that certain things, e.g. wearing apparel, 
furniture and instruments of tillage, could not be pledged in 
Roman law, while there is no such restriction in English law. 
In the case of a pledge, a special property passes to the pledgee, 
sufficient to enable him to maintain an action against a wrong- 
doer, but the general property, that is the property subject to 
the pledge, remains in the pledger. As the pledge is for the 
benefit of both parties, the pledgee is bound to exercise only 
ordinary care over the pledge. The pledgee has the right of 
selling the pledge if the pledger make default in payment at 
the stipulated time. No right is acquired by the wrongful sale 
of a pledge except in the case of property passing by delivery, 
such as money or negotiable securities. In the case of a wrongful 
sale by a pledgee, the pledger cannot recover the value of the 
pledge without a tender of the amount due. 

The law of Scotland as to pledge generally agrees with that of 
England, as does also that of the United States. The main differ- 
ence is that in Scotland and in Louisiana a pledge cannot be sold 
unless with judicial authority. In some of the American states 
the common law as it existed apart from the Factors' Acts is still 
followed; in others the factor has more or less restricted power to 
give a title by pledge. 

See also FACTOR and PAWNBROKING. 

PLEHVE, VIATSCHESLAF KONSTANTINOVICH (1846-1904), 
Russian statesman, was born of Lithuanian stock in 1846. He 
was educated at Warsaw and studied law at the university in 
St Petersburg before he entered the bureaucracy in the depart- 
ment of justice, in which he rose rapidly to be assistant solicitor- 
general in Warsaw, then solicitor-general in St Petersburg, and 
in 1 88 1 director of the state police. As assistant to the minister 
of the interior he attracted the attention of Alexander III. by 
the skill he showed in investigating the circumstances of the 
assassination of Alexander II. He received the title of secretary 
of state in 1894, became a member of the council of the empire, 
and in 1902 succeeded Sipiaguine as minister of the interior. 
Plehve carried out the " russification " of the alien provinces 
within the Russian Empire, and earned bitter hatred in Poland, 
in Lithuania and especially in Finland. He despoiled the 
Armenian Church, and was credited with being accessory to the 
Kishinev massacres. His logical mind and determined support 
of the autocratic principle gained the tsar's entire confidence. 
He opposed commercial development on ordinary European 
lines on the ground that it involved the existence both of a 
dangerous proletariat and of a prosperous middle class equally 
inimical to autocracy. He was thus a determined opponent 
of M. de Witte's policy. An attempt was made on his life early 
in 1904, and he was assassinated on the 28th of July of the same 
year by a bomb thrown under his carriage as he was on his way 
to Peterhof to make his report to the tsar^he assassin, Sasonov, 
was a member of the fighting organiaation of the socialist 
revolutionary party. 

PLEIAD (Gr. HXetas), in Greek literature, the name given 
(by analogy from PLEIADES, below) by the Alexandrian critics 
to seven tragic poets who flourished during the reign of Ptolemy 

1 The word " pledge " is adapted from the O. Fr. plege, mod. 
pleige, security, hostage, Med. Lat. plivium. This is a formation 
form Med. Lat. plevire or plebire, to undertake or engage for some- 
one, cf. " replevin "; it is now considered to be a word of Teutonic 
origin and connected with Ger. pfiegen and " plight." 



Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). In French literature, in addition 
to the Pleiad of Charlemagne, there were two famous groups of 
the kind. The first, during the reign of Henri III. (1574-1589), 
the chief member of which was Pierre de Ronsard, sought to 
improve the French language and literature by enthusiastic 
imitation of the classics; the second, under Louis XIII. (1610- 
1643), consisted of authors who excelled in the composition of 
Latin verse. 

PLEIADES, in Greek mythology, the seven daughters of Atlas 
and Pleione, and sisters of the Hyades. Owing to their grief 
at the death of their sisters or at the sufferings of their father, 
they were changed into stars. In another account, the Pleiades 
and their mother met the hunter Orion in Boeotia, and the sight 
of them inflamed his passion. For five years he pursued them 
through the woods, until Zeus translated them all Pleione and 
her daughters, Orion, and his dog to the sky. The Pleiades 
rose in the middle of May and set at the end of October, and their 
connexion with spring and autumn explains the legend. As 
bringers of the fertilizing rains of spring, which have their origin 
in the west, they are the daughters of Atlas; as the forerunners 
of the storms of autumn, they are represented as being driven 
onward by Orion in pursuit. The word is probably connected 
with ir\e'uav, either in the sense of " many in number," since 
the stars formed a close group, resembling a bunch of grapes 
(hence sometimes called Corpus), or as " more in number " than 
their sisters. Others derive the name from TrXeo' (to sail), 
because navigation began at the time of their rising. They are 
probably alluded to in Homer (Odyssey, xii. 62) as the dcves 
(irf\da8es) who brought ambrosia from the west to Zeus. One 
of these doves was always lost during the passage of the Planctae 
(wandering rocks), referring to the fact that one of the seven 
Pleiades was always invisible. This was Merope, who hid her 
light from shame at having had intercourse with a mortal, 
Sisyphus. All the Pleiades became the ancestresses of divine 
or heroic families. They were called Vergiliae (probably con- 
nected with ver, spring) by the Romans. 

See Hesiod, Works and Days, 383; Apollodorus iii. to; Diod. 
Sic. iii. 60; Theocritus xiii. 25; Hyginus, Astronom. ii. 21; Ovid, 
Fasti, iv. 169, v. 599. 

PLEIADES, ATLANTIDES or VERGILIAE, in astronomy, a 
group of stars situated in the constellation Taurus. They are 
supposed to be referred to in the Old Testament (Job. ix. 9, 
xxxviii. 31). This group is particularly rich in bright stars, and 
is full of nebulosity, but there are fewer faint stars than in equal 
areas of the surrounding sky; the central star is Alcyone (3rd 
magnitude) ; Pleione and Atlas are also of the 3rd magnitude. 

PLEISTOCENE, in geology, the epoch which succeeded the 
Pliocene; it is the last of the Tertiary periods, and hence the 
lower subdivision of the quaternary or modern era. The name 
was introduced by Sir C. Lyell in 1839 (from Gr. ir\e?(?Tov, 
most, and KCU.VOS, recent), the rocks of this period containing 
a higher percentage of living forms than the youngest of the 
Tertiary formations. By many writers " Pleistocene " has been 
regarded as synonymous with " Glacial Period " or the 
" Diluvium " of some geologists. In the northern hemisphere 
the protracted period of glaciation, with its predominating 
influence upon modern topography and faunal distribution, was 
undoubtedly the outstanding feature of the time. The pheno- 
mena of the Glacial period (?..), which was by no means strictly 
limited to the northern latitudes, are dealt with under that head, 
but there are certain other characteristics of the Pleistocene 
period which bear no direct relationship to glaciation, and these 
will be dealt with here. 

The gradual inception of colder conditions in the northern 
hemisphere which lead up to the more extreme conditions of 
glaciation clearly began in the latter part of the Pliocene period, 
and the effects of this cooling are seen not only in northern 
Europe and America but as far south as the Mediterranean. 
The result of this is that there is a certain indefiniteness as to 
the exact base line to be adopted for the Pleistocene formations; 
thus the Forest Bed of Cromer and certain beds in Sicily and 
Italy are by some authors placed in this period and by others 



8 3 6 



PLEONASM PLESIOSAURUS 



in the Pliocene (g.v.). Again it is clear that in parts of northern 
Europe, Siberia and North America, the conditions character- 
istic of a glacial period are still existent; even in Scotland and 
Norway the last traces of glacial action are remarkably fresh, 
and the last remnants of great glacial centres still linger in the 
Alps and other lofty southern mountains. Many of the formations 
of this period can be shown by their fossil contents to belong 
to early quaternary time, but since so many of these deposits 
are strictly local in character, and since the fauna and flora 
present in any one spot have been determined by local geo- 
graphical conditions which have assisted or retarded the 
migration of certain forms, it is a matter of extreme difficulty 
one may say impossibility to reduce the Pleistocene formations 
to any generally applicable chronological order. For similar 
reasons it is impossible to define strictly the upper limit of the 
formations of this period, and to say where the Pleistocene ends 
and where the Recent or Holocene period begins. 

The composition and distribution of the Pleistocene fauna, and 
flora present many points of extreme interest. The feature of great- 
est importance is that man existed somewhere and in some con- 
dition before and in this period; but no really satisfactory proof 
has so far been forthcoming which will set back his first appear- 
ance before the beginning of the glacial period (Pithecanthropus 
crectus found by E. Dubois in Java is regarded as of Pliocene age). 
The presence of the remains of man or of his works might reason- 
ably be taken as a criterion of the Pleistocene age of a deposit 
if we omit the remains of historical time. But here again it has to 
be borne in mind that historical time is continually being set back 
by archaeological research, and further, the difficulty of employing 
artefacs of stone as chronological indicators is shown by the fact 
that even at the present day implements of stone are still in use, 
and that different local races of early men must have been in 
diverse stages of development in Pleistocene as in later ages. It 
is, therefore, only with the utmost caution that chronological 
subdivisions of the period, such as those mentioned below, based 
upon the form and degree of finish of stone implements, can be 
used in anything but local correlations unless the evidence is 
supported by satisfactory fossils. 

Next to the appearance of man the most striking characteristic 
of the land fauna was the existence of numerous large-bodied mam- 
mals; Elephas antiquus, for instance, attained a more excessive 
bulk than any other proboscidean either before or since, the woolly 
rhinoceros, the great hippopotamus, the cave bear, cave lion and 
giant deer were all larger than their living representatives. No 
less striking is the disappearance of these large forms together 
with highly specialized creatures such as Machaerodus within the 
same period, through the action of the same causes which had re- 
moved the bulky and specialized reptiles of an earlier geological 
period. The Pleistocene mammalia of Europe include Elephas 
antiquus, E. primogenius (mammoth), R. antiquitatis (tichorhinus) 
(the woolly rhinoceros), R. mercki (especially in Silesia), R. lepto- 
rhinus (south-east Europe), Elasmotherium (Silesia and south 
Russia), Hippopotamus major. Bos primigenius (aurochs, extinct 
in historical time), Bison priscus, Btson europaeus (still living in 
the Caucasus and Lithuania), Bos (Bubalus) pallasi (north Europe), 
camels in south Russia and Rumania, Equus fossilis and varieties, 
Cervus (Megaceros) giganteus ( = hibernicus) (the great Irish "elk" 
and its varieties); Cervus elaphus, C. aleus, Rangifer tarandus and 
R. groenlandicus (reindeer), Capreolus caprea, Capra ibex. Saiga 
tatarica, Ovibos moschalus, Felis spelaeus, Hyaena spelaea, Ursus 
spelaeus, badger, weasel, glutton, hare, lemming (Myodes torquatus 
and M. lemmus), Spermophilus, Alactaga, Arctomys, Castor fiber, 
Lagomys, Trogonthenum. In North America there were numerous 
mammals common to Europe and North Asia, including the musk- 
ox, mammoth and horse; the mastodon held on into this period 
in America but not in Europe ; there were also lamas, tapirs, camels 
(Camelus auchenia), Machaerodus, Mylodon, Procyon, Alces. In 
South America there was at first a very characteristic endemic 
fauna including Megatherium, Mylodon, Grypotherium, Lestodon, 
Toxodon, Typolherium, Glyptodon, Macrauchenia, Capybara, Rhea, 
to which were added later, Mastodon, Machaerodus, Lama and other 
North American forms. In Australia a very distinct assemblage 
of large marsupials and monotremes lived in the Pleistocene period ; 
including Phascolus, Diprolodon, Thylacoleo, Nototherium and a 
large extinct Echidna; placental mammals were not then known 
in this region. In Madagascar the Aepiornis, Megaladapis, and 
certain extinct lemuroid creatures have left their remains. 

The advance and retreat of glacial conditions in northern latitudes 
had a marked influence upon animal and plant life, and was the 
means of determining the present distribution of many of the living 
mammalia and plants; some were driven permanently southward^ 
some northern forms still live isolated on the higher mountain 
regions, others like the reindeer and musk-ox returned northward 
as soon as the conditions permitted. The apparently curious 
admixture of what are now often regarded as tropical or sub-tropical 



forms (lion, hyena, rhinoceros and elephants) with cold-temperate 
or arctic genera, presents no real difficulty, since their distribution 
was doubtless merely a matter of food supply; and some of these, 
like the woolly rhinoceros and mammcth, were provided with a 
thick hairy pelt. 

Although in the main the arrangement of land and sea was little 
different from that which obtains at the present time, one or two 
features existed in the Pleistocene period which had a considerable 
influence on faunal migration. For instance, the absence of the 
Bering Straits permitted free communication between Europe 
and North America, and the absence of the Straits of Dover allowed 
a similar interchange between Great Britain and France; while 
an extension of the sea in the Caspian region and of the Arctic 
Sea in northern Russia acted as a bar to free passage between 
Europe and Asia in those regions. 

The formations of Pleistocene age, other than those of direct 
glacial origin, include deposits on the floors of caves in limestone 
and dolomitic rocks, calcareous sinter (travertine or tufa) formed 
by springs, ancient river and lake alluvial and lacustrine terraces, 
elevated marine beaches, submerged forests, ancient lake deposits 
and peat beds, laterite, loess and sand dunes. 

Some of the prevalent styles of classifying the deposits of the 
glacial formations of this period are mentioned in the article 
GLACIAL PERIOD. The following subdivisions are often employed by 
European geologists: a younger division, Reindeer time = Magda- 
l^nien 1 stage; a middle division, Mammoth time = Salutreen* 
stage; and an older division, Elephas antiquus time = Chellden* 
stage. While some authors include all the above in the " glacial 
period," others would place the Magdale'nien in a post-glacial 
division. The terms Magdal6nien, &c., are really archaeological, 
based upon the characters of the implements found in the deposits, 
and like the similar terms " eolithic " and " palaeolithic "they are 
of little value in geological chronology unless they are supported 
by palaeontological evidence. 

See E. Geinitz, Das Quartar von nord Europa (Stuttgart, 1904), 
with very full references; T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, 
Geology, vol. iii. (New York, 1906), for references to American 
authorities. (J. A. H.) 

PLEONASM (Gr. TrXeovacr^s, from irXtwdfeu', to abound or 
be superfluous, ir\iov, comparative of iro\vs, many, great, large), 
redundancy or superfluity in speaking or writing, hence an 
unnecessary work or phrase. The word, more usually in the 
Latin form " pleonasmus," is used in pathology of an abnormal 
growth or formation. 

PLESIOSAURUS, an extinct marine reptile belonging to the 
Order Sauropterygia, which characterized the Mesozoic period 
and had an almost world- wide distribution (see REPTILES). 
The animal is best known by nearly complete skeletons from 
the Lias of England and Germany. It was named Plesiosaurus 
(Gr. more-lizard) by W. D. Conybeare in 1821, to indicate that 
it was much more nearly a normal reptile than the strange 




(From a memoir by Professor W. Dames in the Abhatidlungtn der kg. preuss. 
Akad. d. Wus.) 

Plesiosaurus guilelmi-imperatoris, restored. 

Ichthyosaurus, which had been found in the same Liassic forma- 
tion a few years previously. It has a small head, a long and 
slender neck, a round body, a very short tail, and two pairs 
of large, elongated paddles. The snout is short, but the gape 
of the mouth is wide, and the jaws are provided with a series 
of conical teeth in sockets, much like those of the living gavial 

1 Magdale'nien from the caves of Madelaine, Perigord. 
1 Salutre', Bourgogne. 

' Chelles, near Paris. Other subordinate stages are the Mou- 
st6rien from Moustier, Dordogne, and AcheuKSen, Saint Acheul. 



PLEURISY 



837 



of Indian rivers. The neck, though long and slender, must have 
been rather stiff, because the bodies of the vertebrae are nearly 
flat-ended, while they bear short ribs: it could not have been 
bent in the swan-fashion represented in many restorations. The 
other vertebrae are similarly almost flat-ended and firmly united, 
but there is no sacrum. The ribs are single-headed, and in the 
middle of the trunk, between the supports of the paired limbs, 
they meet a dense plastron of abdominal ribs. The short tail 
is straight and rapidly tapering, but one specimen in Berlin 
suggests that it was provided with a rhomboidal flap of skin in 
a vertical plane. The bones in the ventral wall of the body which 
support the paired limbs are remarkably expanded, and those 
of the pectoral arch have often been compared with the corre- 
sponding bones of turtles. The limbs are elongated paddles, 
with five complete digits, of which the constituent bones 
(phalanges) are unusually numerous. The only traces of skin 
hitherto discovered suggest that it was smooth. The reptile 
must have been almost exclusively aquatic, feeding on cuttle- 
fishes, fishes and other animal prey. It propelled itself chiefly 
by the paddles, scarcely by the tail. 

The typical species is Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus, from the 
Lower Lias of Lyrne Regis, which attains a length of about three 
metres. Other species from the same formation seem to have 
measured five to six metres in length, and there are species of 
allied genera from the Upper Lias which are probably still 
larger. A fine large skeleton from the Upper Lias of Wurttem- 
berg, now in the Berlin Museum, is named Plesiosaurus guilelmi- 
imperatoris (see figure above). Cryptoclidus, known by complete 
skeletons from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, differs very 
little from Plesiosaurus. The Cretaceous Cimoliosaurus, found 
in North and South America, Europe and New Zealand, is also 
very similar. The fossilized contents of the stomach in some 
of the later Plesiosaurs show that these reptiles swallowed stones 
for digestive purposes like the existing crocodiles. 

REFERENCES. R. Owen, Fossil Replilia of the Liassic Formations, 
pt. iii. (Monogr. Palaeont. Soc., 1865); W. Dames, paper in Abhandl. 
k. preuss. Akad. Wiis. (1895), P- ! (A. S. Wo.) 

PLEURISY, or PLEURITIS (Gr. irXeOpa=ribs), inflammation 
of the pleura, caused by invasion by certain specific micro- 
organisms. (See RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Pathology.) Secondary 
pleurisies may occur from extension of inflammation from 
neighbouring organs. 

The morbid changes which the pleura undergoes when inflamed 
consist of three chief conditions or stages of progress, (i) In- 
flammatory congestion and infiltration of the pleura, which may 
spread to the tissues of the lung on the one hand, and to those 
of the chest wall on the other. (2) Exudation of lymph on the 
pleural surfaces. This lymph is of variable consistence, some- 
times composed of thin and easily separated pellicles, or of 
extensive thick masses or strata, or again showing itself in the 
form of a tough membrane. It is of greyish-yellow colour, and 
microscopically consists mainly of coagulated fibrin along with 
epithelial cells and red and white blood corpuscles. Its presence 
causes roughening of the two pleural surfaces, which, slightly 
separated in health, may now be brought into contact by bands 
of lymph extending between them. These bands may break 
up or may become organized by the development of new blood 
vessels, and adhering permanently may obliterate throughout 
a greater or less space the pleural sac, and interfere to some extent 
with the free play of the lungs. (3) Effusion of fluid into the 
pleural cavity. This fluid may vary in its characters. 

The chief varieties of pleurisy are classified according to the 
variety of the effusion, should effusion take place, (i) Some 
pleurisies do not reach the stage of effusion, the inflammation 
terminating in the exudation of lymph. This is termed dry 
pleurisy. (2) Fibrinous or plastic pleurisy. In this variety 
the pleura is covered by a thick layer of granular, fibrinous 
material. Fibrinous pleurisy is usually secondary to acute 
diseases of the lung such as pneumonia, cancer, abscess or 
tuberculosis. (3) Sero-fibrinous pleurisy. This is the most 
common variety, and produces the condition commonly known 
as pleurisy with effusion. The amount may vary from an 



almost inappreciable quantity to a gallon or more. When 
large in quantity it may fill to distension the pleural sac, bulge 
out the thoracic wall externally, and compress the lung, which 
may in such cases have all its air displaced and be reduced to a 
mere fraction of its natural bulk. Other organs, such as the 
heart and liver, may in consequence of the presence of the fluid 
be shifted away from their normal position. In favourable cases 
the fluid is absorbed more or less completely and the pleural 
surfaces again may unite by adhesions; or, all traces of inflamma- 
tory products having disappeared, the pleura may be restored 
to its normal condition. When the fluid is not speedily absorbed 
it may remain long in the cavity and compress the lung to such a 
degree as to render it incapable of re-expansion as the effusion 
passes slowly away. The consequence is that the chest wall 
falls in, the ribs become approximated, the shoulder is lowered, 
the spine becomes curved and internal organs permanently 
displaced, while the affected side scarcely moves in respiration. 
Sometimes the unabsorbed fluid becomes purulent, and an 
empyema is the result. 

The symptoms of pleurisy vary; the onset is sometimes 
obscure but usually well marked. It may be ushered in by 
rigors, fever and a sharp pain in the side, especially on breathing. 
Pain is felt in the side or breast, of a severe cutting character, 
referred usually to the neighbourhood of the nipple, but it may 
be also at some distance from the affected part, such as through 
the middle of the body or in the abdominal or iliac regions. On 
auscultation the physician recognizes sooner or later " friction," 
a superficial rough rubbing sound, occurring only with the 
respiratory acts and ceasing when the breath is held. It is due 
to the coming together during respiration of the two pleural 
surfaces which are roughened by the exuded lymph. The pain 
is greatest at the outset, and tends to abate as the effusion 
takes place. A dry cough is almost always present, which is 
particularly distressing owing to the increased pain the effort 
excites. At the outset there may be dyspnoea, due to fever and 
pain; later it may result from compression of the lung. 

On physical examination of the chest the following are among 
the chief points observed: (i) On inspection there is more or 
less bulging of the side affected, should effusion be present, 
obliteration of the intercostal spaces, and sometimes elevation 
of the shoulder. (2) On palpation with the hand applied to the 
side there is diminished expansion of one-half of the thorax, 
and the normal vocal fremitus is abolished. Should the effusion 
be on the right side and copious, the liver may be felt to have 
been pushed downwards, and the heart somewhat displaced to 
the left; while if the effusion be on the left side the heart is dis- 
placed to the right. (3) On percussion there is absolute dullness 
over the seat of the effusion. If the fluid does not fill the pleural 
sac the floating lung may yield a hyper-resonant note. (4) On 
auscultation the natural breath sound is inaudible over the 
effusion. Should the latter be only partial the breathing is 
clear and somewhat harsh, with or without friction, and the 
voice sound is aegophonic. Posteriorly there may be heard 
tubular breathing with aegophony: These various physical 
signs render it impossible to mistake the disease for other 
maladies the symptoms of which may bear a resemblance to it, 
such as pleurodynia. 

The absorption or removal of the fluid is marked by the 
disappearance or diminution of the above-mentioned physical 
signs, except that of percussion dullness, which may last a long 
time, and is probably due in part to the thickened pleura. 
Friction may again be heard as the fluid passes away and the 
two pleural surfaces come together. The displaced organs are 
restored to their position, and the compressed lung re-expanded. 
Frequently this expansion is only partial. 

In most instances the termination is favourable, the acute 
symptoms subsiding and the fluid (if not drawn off) becoming 
absorbed, sometimes after reaccumulation. On the other hand 
it may remain long without undergoing much change, and thus 
a condition of chronic pleurisy becomes established. 

Pleurisy may exist in a latent form, the patient going about 
for weeks with a large accumulation of fluid in his thorax, the 



8 3 8 



PLEURO-PNEUMONIA PLEVNA 



ordinary acute symptoms never having been present in any 
marked degree. Cases of this sort are often protracted, and 
their results unsatisfactory as regards complete recovery. 

In the treatment of early pleurisy, pain may be relieved by 
a hypodermic of morphia or the application of leeches. A 
purgative is essential. Fixation of the affected side of the thorax 
by strapping with adhesive plaster gives great relief. The ice- 
bag is useful in the early stages, as in pneumonia. The open-air 
treatment of cases is recommended, as the majority of the cases 
are of tuberculous origin. When effusion has taken place, 
counter irritation and the exhibition of iodide of potassium are 
useful. Dry diet and saline purgatives have been well spoken 
of. The most satisfactory method of treatment is early and 
if necessary repeated aspiration of the fluid. The operation 
(thoracentesis) was practised by ancient physicians, but was 
revived in modern times by Armand Trousseau (1801-1867) 
in France and Henry I. Bowditch (1808-1892) in America; by 
the latter an excellent instrument was devised for emptying 
the chest, which, however, has been displaced in practice by the 
still more convenient aspirator. The chest is punctured in the 
lateral or posterior regions, and in most cases the greater portion 
or all of the fluid may be safely drawn off. In many instances 
not only is the removal of distressing symptoms speedy and 
complete, but the lung is relieved from pressure in time to 
enable it to resume its normal function. 

In cases of chronic pleurisy after the failure of repeated 
aspirations, Samuel West reports well of free incision and drain- 
age. He has reported cases of recovery of effusion, fifteen or 
eighteen months standing. Sir James Barr has advocated the 
treatment of these cases by the withdrawal of the fluid and the 
substitution of sterilized air and solution of supra-renal extract; 
others have introduced physiological salt solution or formalin 
solution into the cavity, after the removal of the fluid. Vaquez 
injects nitrogen into the cavity and reports a number of cases 
in which it prevented recurrence. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, or LUNG-PLAGUE, a contagious disease 
peculiar to cattle, generally affecting the lungs and the lining 
membrane of the chest, producing a particular form of lobar 
or lobular pleuro-pneumonia, and, in the majority of cases, 
transmitted by the living diseased animal, or, exceptionally, 
by mediate contagion. It cannot be communicated to animals 
other than those of the bovine race. Inoculation of healthy 
cattle with the fluid from the diseased lungs produces, after a 
certain interval, characteristic changes at the seat of inoculation, 
and though it does not develop the lung lesions always observed 
in natural infection, yet there is a local anatomical similarity 
or identity. Though numerous investigations have been made, 
the nature of the infective agent remains doubtful. In 1888 
Arloing, of Lyons, described various bacilli obtained from the 
lesions, but the pathogenic organism of lung-plague has not been 
discovered. 

The earliest notices of this disease testify that it first prevailed 
in central Europe, and in the i8th century it was present in 
certain parts of southern Germany, Switzerland and France, 
and had also appeared in upper Italy. Though Valentine 
described an epizooty occurring among cattle in 1693 in Hesse, 
doubts have been entertained as to whether it was this malady. 
It was not until 1769 that it was definitely described as prevailing 
in Franche-Comte by the name of " murie." From that date 
down to 1789 it appears to have remained more or less limited 
to the Swiss mountains, the Jura, Dauphine and Vosges, Pied- 
mont and upper Silesia; it showed itself in Champagne and 
Bourbonnais about the time of the Revolution, when its spread 
was greatly accelerated by the wars that followed. In the igth 
century its diffusion was accurately determined. It invaded 
Prussia in 1802, and soon spread over north Germany. It was 
first described as existing in Russia in 1824; it reached Belgium 
in 1827, Holland in 1833, the United Kingdom in 1841, Sweden 
in 1847, Denmark in 1848, Finland in 1850, South Africa in 
1854, the United States Brooklyn in 1843, New Jersey in 1847, 
Brooklyn again in 1850 and Boston in 1850; it was also carried 
to Melbourne in 1858, and to New South Wales in 1860; New 



Zealand and Tasmania received it in 1864, but it was eradicated 
in both countries by the sanitary measures adopted. It was 
carried to Asia Minor, and made its presence felt at Damascus. 
It prevails in various parts of China, India, Africa and Australia, 
and until quite recently it existed in every country in Europe, 
except Scandinavia, Holland, Spain and Portugal. In Great 
Britain cases occurred in 1897. 

Symptoms. The malady lasts from two to three weeks to 
as many months, the chief symptoms being fever, diminished 
appetite, a short cough of a peculiar and pathognomonic charac- 
ter, with quickened breathing and pulse, and physical indications 
of lung and chest disease. Towards the end there is great 
debility and emaciation, death generally ensuing after hectic 
fever has set in. Complete recovery is rare. 

The pathological changes are generally limited to the chest 
and its contents, and consist in a peculiar marbled-like appear- 
ance of the lungs on section, and fibrinous deposits on the pleural 
membrane, with oftentimes great effusion into the cavity of 
the thorax. 

Willems of Hasselt (Belgium) in 1852 introduced and practised 
inoculation as a protective measure for this scourge, employing 
for this purpose the lymph obtained from a diseased lung. Since 
that time inoculation has been extensively resorted to, not only 
in Europe, but also in Australia and South Africa, and its pro- 
tective value has been generally recognized. When properly 
performed, and when certain precautions are adopted, it would 
appear to confer temporary immunity from the disease. The 
usual seat of inoculation is the extremity of the tail, the virus 
being introduced beneath the skin by means of a syringe or a 
worsted thread impregnated with the lymph. Protection against 
infection can also be secured by subcutaneous or intravenous 
injection of a Culture of Arloing's pneumo-bacillus on Martin's 
bouillon, and by intravenous injection of the lymph from a 
diseased lung, or from a subcutaneous lesion produced in a calf 
by previous inoculation. 

PLEVNA (Bulgarian Pleven), the chief town of the department 
of Plevna, Bulgaria; 85 m. N.E. of Sofia, on the Tutchinitza, 
an affluent of Vid, which flows north into the Danube and on 
the Sofia- Varna railway (opened in 1899). Pop. (1906), 21,208. 
A branch line, 25 m. long, connects Plevna with Samovit on 
the Danube, where a port has been formed. After the events 
of 1877, it was almost entirely forsaken by the Turks, and most 
of the mosques have gone to ruin; but, peopled now mainly by 
Bulgarians, it has quite recovered its prosperity, and has a large 
commerce in cattle and wine. 

Battles of 1877. Plevna, prior to the Russo-Turkish War of 
1877 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS) a small and unknown town 
without fortifications became celebrated throughout the world 
as the scene of Osman Pasha's victories and his five months' 
defence of the entrenched camp which he constructed around 
the town, a defence which upset the Russians' plans and induced 
them to devote their whole energies to its capture. Osman 
Pasha left Widin on the i3th of July with a column consisting 
of 19 battalions, 6 squadrons and 9 batteries, a total of 12,000 
men and 54 guns. Hearing that he was too late to relieve 
Nikopol, he pushed on to Plevna, where there was a garrison 
of 3 battalions and 4 guns, under Atouf Pasha. 

Passing through Plevna on the afternoon of the igth of July 
he at once took up a position, previously selected by Atouf 
Pasha, on the hills covering the town to the north and east. 
The column had been joined en route by 3 battalions from the 
banks of the Danube, so that Osman's command now consisted 
of 25 battalions. He was none too soon. General Schilder- 
Schuldner, commanding the 5th division of the The First 
IX. corps, which had just captured Nikopol, had Battle of 
been prdered to occupy Plevna, and his guns were plevna - 
already in action. The Turkish batteries came into action 
as soon as they arrived and returned the fire. A desultory 
artillery duel was carried on till nightfall, but no attack was made 
by the Russians on the igth. Osman distributed his troops 
in three sections: on the Janik Bair, facing north, were 13 
battalions and 4 batteries, with advanced posts of 2 battalions 



PLEVNA 



839 



and i battery each, at Opanetz and Bukova, facing east and 
north-east, 5 battalions and 10 guns were posted on the eastern 
end of the Janik Bair; to the hills south of the Bulgareni road 
4 battalions and 2 batteries were allotted, and on either side 
of the road, under cover, in rear of them, most of the cavalry 
was placed. The remaining troops formed a general reserve, 
which was posted on the hill just east of the town. The hills 
to the north and east of Plevna were perfectly bare. The Turks 
had covered the 115 m. from Widin in seven days, in trying 
heat, and were exhausted, but a few trenches were thrown up. 
On the 2oth of July at 5 a.m., having made no preliminary 
reconnaissance, the Russian commander brought his guns into 
action, and, after a short bombardment, advanced his infantry 



sent a force of 6 battalions and i battery under Rifaat 
Pasha to occupy Lovcha (Lovatz), where they entrenched 
themselves. 

The Plevna garrison now numbered 20,000 (35 battalions, 
8 squadrons, 57 guns and 400 mounted irregulars), who were 
organized in two wings with a general reserve. Adil Pasha 
commanded the left wing consisting of 12 battalions, 3 batteries 
and 2 squadrons, and held the ground from the Vid bridge 
to Grivitza, Hassan Sabri Pasha commanded the right wing, 
of equal strength, covering from Grivitza to the south. The 
remainder, as general reserve, was posted on the crest and slopes 
of the hill east of the town, with one battalion in Plevna itself. 
The west front was not fortified till October. Trenches were 



PLEVNA 

Scale, 1:115,000 
English Miles 



rarkithlntrenchments.September,7th.,J877. 

Additional Turkish Intrenctiments, December. }Oth.,J877.....l^t 

TurXttti Camps *hown thus- 



Green Hills 




Emtry Walke/sc. 



in four separate columns. On the north flank they pressed 
into Bukova, and also succeeded in driving back the Turkish 
right wing; but in both cases Turkish reinforcements arrived 
and with vigorous counter-attacks pressed back the Russians, 
with the result that by noon they were in full retreat, having 
lost 2800 men out of a total of 8000. The Turks lost 2000. 
Osman made no attempt to reap the fruits of his victory by 
pursuit. He at once drew up plans for the fortification of 
the position, and the troops were employed night and day 
constructing redoubts and entrenchments. A plentiful supply 
of tools and daily convoys of stores reached Plevna from 
Orchanie, and on the 24th of July Osman's strength was 
increased by 14 battalions and a battery from Sofia. In order 
to secure his line of communications, on the 2sth of July he 



4 ft. deep and the redoubts had a command of 10 to 16 ft., 
with parapets about 14 ft. thick. In addition to the trenches 
to the flanks, there were in some cases two lines of trench to the 
front, thus giving three tiers of fire. 

In accordance with orders from the Russian headquarters 
at Tirnova, a fresh attack was made by General Krudener on 
the 30th of July. He had been reinforced by three brigades 
of infantry and one of cavalry under General Shakovskoi, and 
his force numbered over 30,000 with 176 guns. After a 
preliminary cannonade the infantry advanced at 3 p.m., as 
before in widely spread columns. The columns second 
attacking from the north and north-east were Battle ot 
repulsed with heavy loss. Shakovskoi advancing pleyna - 
from Radischevo, his left flank safeguarded by Skobelev from 



840 



PLEYEL PLIGHT 



the neighbourhood of Krishin, temporarily occupied two redoubts, 
but a heavy counter-stroke by the Turkish reserves forced him 
back with severe Joss. The Russians retreated, the northern 
column to Tristenik and Karagakh, the southern to Poradim. 
Their losses amounted to 730x5, while the Turkish losses 
exceeded 2000. Had the Turkish garrison of Lovcha been 
called in, the result would have been still more disastrous to 
the Russians. 

The victory was decisive, but Osman again failed to pursue. 
His troops were elated by success, the moral of the enemy 
severely shaken, the undefended Russian bridge over the Danube 
was within 40 m. of him, but he lost his opportunity, and 
contented himself with strengthening his defensive works. It 
is said that he was tied down to Plevna by orders from 
Constantinople. 

The Russians now concentrated all their available forces 
against Plevna and called in the aid of the Rumanians. By 
the end of August they had assembled a force of 74,000 infantry, 
10,000 cavalry and 440 guns, including 24 siege guns, about 
100,000 men in all. On the 3Oth of August Osman moved out 
of Plevna with all his cavalry, 3 batteries of artillery and 19 
battalions of infantry, and on the 3ist attacked the Russians 
about Pelishat. He returned to Plevna the same evening. 
The Turks lost 1300 and the Russians 1000 men. The Russians 
determined to occupy Lovcha, and so cut Osman's communi- 
cations before again attacking Plevna. After three days' 
fighting this was accomplished by Skobelev, acting under 
Imeretinski, with a force of 20,000 men, on the 3rd of September. 
Osman moved out to the relief of the garrison that day with a 
strong column, but, finding he was too late, returned to Plevna 
on the 6th. The survivors from Lovcha were re-formed into 
3 battalions, including which Osman had been reinforced by 
13 battalions, 25 batteries of artillery and n squadrons of 
cavalry. His strength was now 30,000, with 72 guns, 46 
battalions, 19 squadrons and 12 batteries. This force was 
organized in 4 approximately equal commands, the northern, 
south-eastern and southern, and a general reserve. 

The Russians moved to their preliminary positions on the 
night of September 6th~7th. Their plan was for the Rumanians, 
Third the IX. and IV. corps and Imeretinski's column to 
Battle of attack the north-east, south-east and south fronts 
Plevna. simultaneously. An artillery bombardment began 
at 6 a.m. on the 7th of September, was carried on till 3 p.m. on 
the nth, when the infantry advanced. The Rumanians took 
one Grivitza redoubt; Skobelev occupied two redoubts on the 
south front, but the centre attack on the Radishevo front failed. 
On the 1 2th the Turks recaptured the southern redoubts, the 
Rumanians remained in possession of the Grivitza redoubt, 
but the Russian losses already amounted to 18,000 and they 
withdrew, and entrenched themselves on a line Verbitza- 
Radishevo, with cavalry on either flank to the Vid. The Turkish 
losses totalled 5000, of which only a few hundred were caused by 
the artillery fire of the first few days. There was no question of 
pursuit. The Russians were greatly superior in numbers and the 
Turks were completely exhausted. 

Several causes contributed to the Russian defeat. The 
Russian bombardment, at ranges beyond the powers of their 
guns and lacking the co-operation of the infantry to give them 
a target, had been useless. No reconnaissance had been made 
of the position. The infantry attacks were not simultaneous, 
and were beaten in detail, besides which, they were spread over 
the whole of a strongly fortified front in equal strength, instead 
of being pressed home at definite points. The lack of unity of 
command, in that the commander-in-chief interfered with the 
dispositions and conduct of the operations as arranged by 
the commander of the Plevna forces also militated against the 
Russian success. 

This was the last open-force attack on Osman's lines. 
investment General Todleben, the defender of Sevastopol, was now 
end Fail entrusted with the conduct of the siege, and he de- 
uipievna. termined to complete the investment, which was 
accomplished by the 24th of October, Osman's request to retire 



from Plevna having been refused by Constantinople. Supplies 
eventually gave out and a sortie on the night of the 9th-ioth 
of December failed, with the result that he and his army 
capitulated. 

Plevna is a striking example of the futility of the purely 
passive defence, which is doomed to failure however tenaciously 
carried out. Osman Pasha repelled three Russian attacks and 
practically held the whole Russian army. It remained for the 
other Turkish forces in the field to take the offensive and by a 
vigorous counterstroke to reap the fruits of his successes. 
Victories which are not followed up are useless. War without 
strategy is mere butchery. The position of Plevna, threatening 
the Russian bridge and communications, was strategically 
important, but there was no necessity for the Russians to attack 
the position. On the eastern flank was an army stronger than 
Osman's and the fortress of Rustchuk was nearer the bridge than 
Plevna, but they did not consider it necessary to attack them. 
They might have contained Osman's force as they did the army 
under Mehemet Ali, and either awaited his attack or attacked 
when he evacuated the position. They failed to realize the 
resisting force of improvised fortifications and the strength 
conferred by extensive and well-placed entrenchments, and 
despising theii adversary made direct frontal attacks on a well- 
fortified position, instead of aiming at a flank or the rear. The 
part played by Plevna in the war was due in the first place to the 
imaginary importance set by the Russians on its capture, and 
later to their faulty procedure in attack on the one hand, and to 
the skill evinced by the Turks in fortifying and defending the 
position on the other. (J. H. V. C.) 

See W. V. Herbert, The Defence of Plevna, 1877 (London, 1895); 
F. V. Greene, The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey 
(London, 1880); General Kuropatkin (Ger. trans, by Krahmer), 
Kritische Ruckblicke auf den russisch-turkischen Krieg; Mouzaffer 
Pacha and Talaat Bey, Defense de Plevna; Krahmer's German 
translation of the Russian Official History; General H. Langlois, 
Lessons of Two Recent Wars (Eng. trans., War Office, 1910) ; Th. 
von Trotha, Kampf um Plewna (Berlin, 1878); Vacaresco (Ger. 
trans.), Rumaniens Antheil am Kriege, 1877-1878 (Leipzig, 1888). 

PLEYEL, IGNAZ JOSEPH (1757-1831), Austrian musician, 
was born at Ruppersthal, near Vienna, on the ist of June 1757, 
the twenty-fourth son of a poor village schoolmaster. He 
studied the pianoforte under Van Hal (known in England as 
Vanhall), and in 1772 learned composition from Haydn, who 
became his dearest friend. He was appointed temporary mattre 
de chapelle at Strasburg in 1783, receiving a permanent appoint- 
ment to the office in 1789. In 1791 he paid a successful visit to 
London. He narrowly escaped the guillotine on returning to 
Strasburg, and was only saved by the existence of a cantata 
which he had written, and in which the inspiration could fairly 
be claimed to be on the side of liberty; so that he was permitted 
to remain until 1795, when he migrated to Paris. Here he opened 
a large music shop, published the first complete edition of Haydn's 
quartets, and founded, in 1807, the pianoforte manufactory 
which still bears his name. The latter years of his life were 
spent in agricultural pursuits. The July revolution of 1830 
inflicted upon him a severe shock, and on the I4th of November 
1831 he died in Paris. 

MARIA PLEYEL, nee Moke (1811-1875), the wife of his eldest 
son, Camille, was one of the most accomplished pianists of her 
time. 

PLIGHT, an homonymous word now used chiefly with two 
meanings, (i) pledge, and (2) condition or state. The first 
appears more generally in the verbal form, " to plight one's 
troth," &c., and the second with a direct or impld sense of 
misfortune. The derivations of the two words show they are 
quite distinct in origin. The O. Eng. plihl meant danger or risk, 
hence risk of obligation (cf. Ger. Pflicht, Du. plicht, care, duty). 
The root pleh- or pleg- is probably also to be seen in the much 
disputed word " pledge." The M. Eng. plit or plyt, on the other 
hand, is an adaptation of 0. Fr. ploit, fold, and therefore a doublet 
of " plait," but appears in the I4th century with the neutraj 
sense of condition or state in general. 



PLIMER, A. PLINY, THE ELDER 



841 



PLIMER, ANDREW (c. 1763-1837), English miniature 
painter, was the son of a clock-maker at Wellington. Disliking 
his father's business, he and his brother Nathaniel joined a 
party of gypsies and wandered about with them, eventually 
reaching London, where he presented himself to Mrs Cosway in 
1781 and was engaged by her as studio boy. His skill in painting 
was quickly detected by Cosway, who sent him to a friend to 
learn drawing, and then received him into his own studio, 
where he remained until 1785, when he set up for himself in 
Great Maddox Street. It was of this artist that Cosway said 
" Andrew will be my Elisha," adding with characteristic vanity, 
" if I am not constrained to carry my mantle up to Paradise with 
me." Plimer married Joanna Louisa Knight, whose sister, 
Mary Ann, was his pupil and a well-known artist. He had five 
children, only one of whom, Louisa, married. He exhibited 
many times in the Royal Academy, resided for a while in Exeter, 
travelled a good deal through England, and died at Brighton and 
was buried at Hove. His miniatures are of great brilliance and 
in considerable demand among collectors. They are to be dis- 
tinguished by the peculiar wiry treatment of the hair and by 
the large full expressive eyes Plimer invariably gave to his female 
sitters, eyes resembling those of his own wife and daughters. 

See Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer, by G. C. Williamson (London, 
1903). (G. C. W.) 

PLIMER, NATHANIEL (1757-*;. 1822), English miniature 
painter, was the brother of Andrew Plimer (q.v.). He worked for 
a while with Henry Bone the enameller, eventually entering 
Cosway's studio. He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 
1787 until 1815, when he is lost sight of, although he is said to 
have lived until 1822. He had four daughters, one of whom 
married the painter, Andrew Geddes, and left children. He 
exhibited twenty-six works, and many of his smaller portraits 
are of extreme beauty. 

See Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer, by G. C. Williamson (London, 
1903). (G. C. W.) 

PLIMSOLL, SAMUEL (1824-1898), British politician and 
social reformer, was born at Bristol on the loth of February 1824. 
Leaving school at an early age, he became a clerk, and rose to be 
manager of a brewery in Yorkshire. In 1853 he endeavoured to 
set up a business of his own in London as a coal merchant. The 
venture proved a. failure, and Plimsollwas reduced to destitution. 
He has himself related how for a time he lived in a common 
lodging-house on 73. g|d. a week. Through this experience he 
learnt to sympathize with the struggles of the poor; and when the 
success of his enterprise placed him in possession of a competence, 
he resolved to devote his leisure to the amelioration of their 
lot. His efforts were directed more especially against what were 
known as " coffin-ships " unseaworthy and overloaded vessels, 
often heavily insured, in which unscrupulous owners were allowed 
t)y the law to risk the lives of their crews. Plimsoll entered 
parliament as Liberal member for Derby in 1868, and endeavoured 
In vain to pass a bill dealing with the subject. In 1872 he 
published a work entitled Our Seamen, which made a great im- 
pression throughout the country. Accordingly, on PlimsolFs 
motion in 1873, a royal commission was appointed, and in 1875 
a government bill was introduced, which Plimsoll, though regard- 
ing it as inadequate, resolved to accept. On the 22nd of July, 
the premier, Disraeli, announced that the bill would be dropped. 
Plimsoll lost his self-control, applied the term " villains " to 
members of the house, and shook his fist in the Speaker's face. 
Disraeli moved that he be reprimanded, but on the suggestion 
of Lord Hartington agreed to adjourn the matter for a week to 
allow Plimsoll time for reflection. Eventually Plimsoll made an 
apology. The country, however, shared his view that the bill had 
been stifled by the pressure of the shipowners, and the popular 
agitation forced the government to pass a bill, which in the 
following year was amended into the Merchant Shipping Act. 
This gave stringent powers of inspection to the Board of Trade. 
The mark that indicates the limit to which a ship may be loaded 
is generally known as Plimsoll's mark. Plimsoll was re-elected 
for Derby at the general election of 1880 by a great majority, but 



gave up his seat to Sir W. Harcourt, in the belief that the latter, 
as home secretary, could advance the sailors' interests more 
effectively than any private member. Though offered a seat by 
some thirty constituencies, he did not re-enter the house, and 
subsequently became estranged from the Liberal leaders by what 
he regarded as their breach of faith in neglecting the question of 
shipping reform. He held for some years the presidency of the 
Sailors' and Firemen's Union, raised a further agitation, marred 
by obvious exaggeration, about the horrors of the cattle-ships. 
Later he visited the United States with the object, in which he 
did good service, of securing the adoption of a less bitter tone 
towards England in the historical textbooks used in American 
schools. He died at Folkestone on the 3rd of June 1898. 

PLINLIMMON (Plynlimmon, Pumplumon, Pttmlumon, 
Penlumon: Pumlumon is the name used locally: pump 
means five: lumon, chimney, flag or beacon; pen, head), a 
mountain of Wales of the height of 2463 ft., equidistant 
(about 10 m.) from Machynlleth and Llanidloes. Much 
inferior in elevation to Snowdon or Cader Idris, Plinlim- 
mon is certainly the most dangerous of the Welsh hills 
because of its quaking bogs. The scenery is comparatively poor, 
consisting chiefly of sheep-downs (in Montgomeryshire) and 
barren turbaries (in Cardiganshire). If the name means " five- 
beacons," only three of these are high, with a carnedd (stone-pile, 
probably a military or other landmark, rather than the legendary 
barrow or tomb) on each of the three. Plinlimmon is notable 
as the source of five streams three small: the Rheidol, the 
Llyfnant and the Clywedog; and two larger and famous: the 
Wye (Gwy) and the Severn (Hafren). 

The morasses of Plinlimmon saw many a struggle, notably the 
war to the knife between Owen Cyfeilog (fl. c. goo), prince of 
Powys, and Hywel ab Cadogan. Here also Owen Glendower 
unfurled the banner of Welsh independence; from here, in 1401, 
he harassed the country, sacking Montgomery, burning Welshpool, 
and destroying Cwm Hlr (long " combe," or valley) abbey, of 
which some columns are said to be now in Llanidloes old church. 
On the side of Plinlimmon, some 2 m. from the Steddfagurig inn, 
is Blaen Gwy (the point of the Wye), the course of the streamlet 
being traceable up to Pont-rhyd-galed (the hard ford bridge), 
some 4 m. distant from the inn. Near this bridge are numerous 
barrows and cairns, on the right from Aberystwyth. There are 
slate quarries, with lead and copper mines. Machynlleth (per- 
haps Maglona in Roman times) has Owen Glendower's " senate 
house " (1402), and is known as the scene of Glendower's at- 
tempted assassination by Dafydd Gam. Llyn pen rhaiadr (the 
waterfall-head pool), or Pistyll y llyn (pool spout), is some 6 m. 
south of Machynlleth. Llanidloes has a trade in Plinlimmon 
slates and minerals besides flannel and wool manufactures. 

PLINTH (Gr. irXIctfos, a square tile), the term in architecture 
given to the lower mouldings of a podium, pedestal or skirting; 
also to any rectangular block on which a statue or vase is placed, 
and in the Classic Orders to the square block of moderate height, 
under the base mouldings of the column or pedestal. 

PLINY, THE ELDER. Gaius Plinius Secundus (c. A.D. 23-79), 
the author of the Naturalis historia, was the son of a Roman 
eqties by the daughter of the senator Gaius Caecilius of Novum 
Comum. He was born at Comum, not (as is sometimes supposed) 
at Verona: it is only as a native of Gallia Transpadana that he 
calls Catullus of Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, 
not his municeps, or fellow-townsman (Praef. i). Before A.D. 
35 (N. H. xxxvii. 81) his father took him to Rome, where he 
was educated under his father's friend, the poet and military 
commander, P. Pomponius Secundus, who inspired him with a 
lifelong love of learning. Two centuries after the death of the 
Gracchi Pliny saw some of their autograph writings in his 
preceptor's library (xiii. 83), and he afterwards wrote that 
preceptor's Life. He makes mention of the grammarians and 
rhetoricians, Remmius Palaemon and Arellius Fuscus (xiv. 49, 
xxxiii. 152), and he may have been instructed by them. In 
Rome he studied botany in the garden of the aged Antonius 
Castor (xxv. 9), and saw the fine old lotus-trees in the grounds 
that had once belonged to Crassus (xvii. 5). He also viewed the 



842 



PLINY, THE ELDER 



vast structure raised by Caligula (xxxvi. in), and probably 
witnessed the triumph of Claudius over Britain (iii. 119; A.D. 
44). Under the influence of Seneca he became a keen student of 
philosophy and rhetoric, and began practising as an advocate. 
He saw military service under Corbulo in Lower Germany 
(A.D. 47), taking part in the Roman conquest of the Chauci and 
the construction of the canal between the Maas and the Rhine 
(xvi. 2 and 5). As a young commander of cavalry (praefectus 
aloe} he wrote in his winter-quarters a work on the use of missiles 
on horseback (de jaculalione equestri), with some account of the 
points of a good horse (viii. 162). In Gaul and Spain he learnt 
the meanings of a number of Celtic words (xxx. 40). He took 
note of sites associated with the Roman invasion of Germany, 
and, amid the scenes of the victories of Drusus, he had a dream 
in which the victor enjoined him to transmit his exploits to 
posterity (Plin. Epp. iii. 5, 4). The dream prompted Pliny to 
begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans 
and the Germans. He probably accompanied his father's 
friend, Pomponius, on an expedition against the Chatti 
(A.D. 50), and visited Germany for a third time (57) as a comrade 
of the future emperor, Titus (Praef. 3). Under Nero he lived 
mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and the 
neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, which was sent to Rome by 
the staff of Corbulo in A.D. 58 (vi. 40). He also saw the building 
of Nero's "golden house" after the fire of 64 (xxxvi. in). 
Meanwhile he was completing the twenty books of his History 
of tlie German Wars, the only authority expressly quoted in the 
first six books of the Annals of Tacitus (i. 69), and probably one 
of the principal authorities for the Germania. It was superseded 
by the writings of Tacitus, and, early in the sth century, Sym- 
machus had little hope of finding a copy (Epp. xiv. 8). He also 
devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe 
subjects of grammar and rhetoric. A detailed work on rhetoric, 
entitled Studiosus, was followed by eight books, Dubii sermonis 
(A.D. 67). Under his friend Vespasian he returned to the 
service of the state, serving as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis 
(70) and Hispania Tarraconensis (73), and also visiting the 
Provincia Belgica (74). During his stay in Spain he became 
familiar with the agriculture and the mines of the country, 
besides paying a visit to Africa (vii. 37). On his return to Italy 
he accepted office under Vespasian, whom he used to visit before 
daybreak for instructions before proceeding to his official duties, 
after the discharge of which he devoted all the rest of his time to 
study (Plin. Epp. iii. 5, 9). He completed a History of his Times 
in thirty-one books, possibly extending from the reign of Nero 
to that of Vespasian, and deliberately reserved it for publication 
after his decease (N. H., Praef. 20). It is quoted by Tacitus 
(Ann. xiii. 20, xv. 53; Hist. iii. 29), and is one of the authorities 
(followed by Suetonius and Plutarch. He also virtually com- 
pleted his great work, the Naturalis historia. The work had 
been planned under the rule of Nero. The materials collected 
for this purpose filled rather less than 160 volumes in A.D. 23, 
when Larcius Licinus, the praetorian legate of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, vainly offered to purchase them for a sum equivalent 
to more than 3200. He dedicated the work to Titus in A.D. 77. 
Soon afterwards he received from Vespasian the appointment of 
praefect of the Roman fleet at Misenum. On the 24th of August 
A.D. 79 he was stationed at Misenum, at the time of the great 
eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed Pompeii and Hercu- 
laneum. A desire to observe the phenomenon from a nearer 
point of view, and also to rescue some of his friends, from their 
perilous position on the shore of the Bay of Naples, led to his 
launching his galleys and crossing the bay to Stabiae (Castella- 
mare), where he perished, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. The 
story of his last hours is told in an interesting letter addressed 
twenty-seven years afterwards to Tacitus by the Elder Pliny's 
nephew and heir, the Younger Pliny (Epp. vi. 16), who also sends 
to another correspondent an account of his uncle's writings and 
his manner of life (iii. 5) : 

" He began to work long before daybreak. ... He read nothing 
without making extracts; he used even to say that there was no 
book so bad as not to contain something of value. In the country 



it was only the time when he was actually in his bath that was 
exempted from study. When travelling, as though freed from 
every other care, he devoted himself to study alone. ... In 
short, he deemed all time wasted that was not employed in study." 

The only fruit of all this unwearied industry that has survived 
to our own times is the Naturalis historia, a work which in its 
present form consists of thirty-seven books, the first book 
including a characteristic preface and tables of contents, as well 
as lists of authorities, which were originally prefixed to each of 
the books separately. The contents of the remaining books 
are as follows: ii., mathematical and physical description of 
the world; iii.-vi., geography and ethnography; vii., anthro- 
pology and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xxvii., 
botany, including agriculture, horticulture and materia medica; 
xxviii.-xxxii., medical zoology; xxxiii.-xxxvii. , mineralogy, 
especially in its application to life and art, including chasing in 
silver (xxxiii. 154-157)1 statuary in bronze (xxxiv.), painting 
(xxxv. 15-149), modelling (151-158), and sculpture in marble 
(xxxvi.). 

He apparently published the first ten books himself in A.D. 77, 
and was engaged on revising and enlarging the rest during the 
two remaining years of his life. The work was probably pub- 
lished with little, if any, revision by the author's nephew, who, 
when telling the story of a tame dolphin, and describing the 
floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake, thirty years later 
(viii. 20, ix. 33), has apparently forgotten that both are to be 
found in his uncle's work (ii. 209, ix. 26). He describes the 
Naturalis historia, as a Naturae historia, and characterizes it as 
a " work that is learned and full of matter, and as varied as 
nature herself." The absence of the author's final revision may 
partly account for many repetitions, and for some contradic- 
tions, for mistakes in passages borrowed from Greek authors, 
and for the insertion of marginal additions at wrong places in the 
text. 

In the preface the author claims to have stated 20,000 facts 
gathered from some 2000 books and from loo select authors. The 
extant lists of his authorities amount to many more than 400, 
including 146 of Roman and 327 of Greek and other sources of 
information. The lists, as a general rule, follow the order of the 
subject matter of each book. This has been clearly shown in 
Heinrich Brunn's Disputatio (Bonn, 1856). 

Pliny's principal authority is Varro. In the geographical books 
Varro is supplemented by the topographical commentaries of 
Agrippa which were completed by the emperor Augustus; for his 
zoology he relies largely on Aristotle and on Juba, the scholarly 
Mauretanian king, studiorum claritate memorabilior quam regno 
(v. 16). Juba is also his principal guide in botany. Theophrastus 
is also named in his Indices. In the History of Art the original 
Greek authorities are Duris of Samos (born c. 340 B.C.), Xeno- 
crates of Sicyon (fl. 280), and Antigonous of Carystus (born c. 295 
B.C.). The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris (xxxiv. 
61, Lysippum Sicyonium Duris negat ullius fuisse discipulum, &c.); 
the notices of the successive developments of art, and the list of 
workers in bronze and painters, to Xenocrates; and a large amount 
of miscellaneous information to Antigonus. The last two autho- 
rities are named in connexion with Parrhasius (xxxv. 68, hanc ei 
gloriam concessere Antigonus et Xenocrates, qui de pictura scripsere), 
while Antigonus is named in the Indices of xxxiii.-xxxiv. as a writer 
on the " toreutic " art. Greek epigrams contribute their share 
in Pliny's descriptions of pictures and statues. One of the minor 
authorities for books xxxiv.-xxxv. is Heliodorus (fl. ISO B.C.), the 
author of a work on the monuments of Athens. In the Indices to 
xxxiii.-xxxvi. an important place is assigned to Pasiteles of Naples 
(fl. 88 B.C.), the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of 
art xxxvi. 40), probably incorporating the substance of the earlier 
Greek treatises; but Pliny's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by 
Kalkmann.who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of Apollo- 
dorus, as well as a current catalogue of artists. Pliny's knowledge 
of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro, whom 
he often quotes (e.g. xxxiv. 56, xxxv. 113, 156, xxxvi. 17, 39, 41). 
Varro probably dealt with the history of art in connexion with 
architecture, which was included in his Disciplinae. For a number 
of items relating to works of art near the coast of Asia Minor, and 
in the adjacent islands, Pliny was indebted to the general, states- 
man, orator and historian, Gaius Licinius Mucianus, who died before 
A.D. 77. Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian 
in the Temple of Peace and in his other galleries (xxxiv. 84), but 
much of his information as to the position of such works in Rome 
is due to books, and not to personal observation. The main merit 
of his account of ancient art, the only classical work of its kind, 
is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost text- 
books of Xenocrates and on the biographies of Duris and Antigonus. 



PLINY, THE ELDER 



843 



He shows no special aptitude for art criticism ; in several passages, 
however, he gives proof of independent observation (xxxiv. 38, 
46, 63, xxxv. 17, 20, 116 seq.). He prefers the marble Laocoon in 
the palace of Titus to all the pictures and bronzes in the world 
(xxxvi. 37) ; in the temple near the Flamim'an Circus he admires 
the Ares and the Aphrodite of Scopas, " which would suffice to 
give renown to any other spot." " At Rome indeed (he adds) the 
works of art are legion ; besides, one effaces another from the memory 
and, however beautiful they may be, we are distracted by the 
overpowering claims of duty and business; for to admire art we 
need leisure and profound stillness " (ibid. 26-27). 

Like many of the finest spirits under the early empire, Pliny 
was an adherent to the Stoics. He was acquainted with their 
noblest representative, Thrasea Paetus, and he also came under 
the influence of Seneca. The Stoics were given to the study of 
nature, while their moral teaching was agreeable to one who, in 
his literary work, was unselfishly eager to benefit and to instruct 
his contemporaries (Praef. 16, xxviii. 2, xxix. i). He was also 
influenced by the Epicurean and the Academic and the revived 
Pythagorean schools. But his view of nature and of God is 
essentially Stoic. It was only (he declares) the weakness of 
humanity that had embodied the Being of God in many human 
forms endued with human faults and vices (ii. 148). The 
Godhead was really one; it was the soul of the eternal world, 
displaying its beneficence on the earth, as well as in the sun and 
stars (ii. 1 2 seq. , 1 54 seq. ) . The existence of a divine Providence was 
uncertain (ii. 19), but the belief inits existence and in thepunish- 
ment of wrong-doing was salutary (ii. 26); and the reward of 
virtue consisted in the elevation to Godhead of those who 
resembled God in doing good to man (ii. 18, Deus est mortali 
juvare morlalem, el haec ad aeternam gloriam via). It was wrong 
to inquire into the future and do violence to nature by resorting 
to magical arts (ii. 114, xxx. 3); but the significance of prodigies 
and portents is not denied (ii. 92, 199, 232). Pliny's view of life 
is gloomy; he regards the human race as plunged in ruin and in 
misery (ii. 24, vii. 130). Against luxury and moral corruption 
he indulges in declamations, which are so frequent that (like 
those of Seneca) they at last pall upon the reader; and his 
rhetorical flourishes against practically useful inventions (such 
as the art of navigation) are wanting in good sense and good 
taste (xix. 6). 

With the proud national spirit of a Roman he combines an 
admiration of the virtues by which the republic had attained its 
greatness (xvi. 14, xxvii. 3, xxxvii. 201). He does not suppress 
historical facts unfavourable to Rome (xxxiv. 139), and while 
he honours eminent members of distinguished Roman houses, 
he is free from Livy's undue partiality for the aristo- 
cracy. The agricultural classes and the old landlords of 
the equestrian order (Cincinnatus, Curius Dentatus, Serranus 
and the Elder Cato) are to him the pillars of the state; and he 
bitterly laments the decline of agriculture in Italy (xviii. 21 and 
35, latij "undia perdidere Italiam). Accordingly, for the early 
history of Rome, he prefers following the prae-Augustan, writers; 
but he regards the imperial power as indispensable for the govern- 
ment of the empire, and he hails the salutaris exortus Vespasiani 
(xxxiii. 51). At the conclusion of his literary labours, as the 
only Roman who had ever taken for his theme the whole realm 
of nature, he prays for the blessing of the universal mother on his 
completed work. 

In literature he assigns the highest place to Homer and to 
Cicero (xvii. 37 seq.); and the next to Virgil. He takes a keen 
interest in nature, and in the natural sciences, studying them in a 
way that was then new in Rome, while the small esteem in which 
studies of this kind were held does not deter him from endeavour- 
ing to be of service to his fellow countrymen (xxii. 15). The 
scheme of his great work is vast and comprehensive, being 
nothing short of an encyclopaedia of learning and of art so far 
as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from it. 
With a view to this work he studied the original authorities on 
each subject and was most assiduous in making excerpts from 
their pages. His indices auctorum are, in some cases, the authori- 
ties which he has actually consulted (though in this respect they 
are not exhaustive) ; in other cases, they represent the principal 
writers on the subject, whose names are borrowed second-hand 



for his immediate authorities. He frankly acknowledges his 
obligations to all his predecessors in a phrase that deserves to be 
proverbial (Praef. 21, plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos 
profeceris). He had neither the temperament for original 
investigation, nor the leisure necessary for the purpose. It is 
obvious that one who spent all his time in reading and in writing, 
and in making excerpts from his predecessors, had none left for 
mature and independent thought, or for patient experimental 
observation of the phenomena of nature. But it must not be 
forgotten that it was his scientific curiosity as to the phenomena 
of the eruption cf Vesuvius that brought his life of unwearied 
study to a premature end; and any criticism of his faults of omis- 
sion is disarmed by the candour of the confession in his preface: 
nee dubitamus multa esse quae et nos praeterierint; homines 
enim sumus et occupati qfficiis. 

His style betrays the unhealthy influence of Seneca. It aims 
less at clearness and vividness than at epigrammatic point. It 
abounds not only in antitheses, but also in questions and excla- 
mations, tropes and metaphors, and other mannerisms of the 
silver age. The rhythmical and artistic form of the sentence is 
sacrificed to a passion for emphasis that delights in deferring the 
point to the close of the period. The structure of the sentence is 
also apt to be loose and straggling. There is an excessive use of 
the ablative absolute, and ablative phrases are often appended 
in a kind of vague " apposition " to express the author's own 
opinion of an immediately previous statement, e.g. xxxv. So, 
dixit (Apelles) . . . uno se praestare, quod manum de tabula sciret 
tollere, memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam. 

About the middle of the 3rd century an abstract of the 
geographical portions of Pliny's work was produced by Solinus; 
and, early in the 4th, the medical passages were collected in the 
Medicina Plinii. Early in the 8th we find Bede in possession of 
an excellent MS. of the whole work. In the gth Alcuin sends to 
Charles the Great for a copy of the earlier books (Epp. 103, Jaffe); 
and Dicuil gathers extracts from the pages of Pliny for his own 
Mensura orbis terrae (c. 825). Pliny's work was held in high 
esteem in the middle ages. The number of extant MSS. is about 
200; but the best of the more ancient MSS., that at Bamberg, 
contains only books xxxii. xxxvii. Robert of Cricklade, prior 
of St Frideswide at Oxford, dedicated to Henry II. a Defloratio 
consisting of nine books of selections taken from one of the MSS. 
of this class, which has been recently recognized as sometimes 
supplying us with the only evidence for the true text. Among the 
later MSS. the codex Vesonlinus, formerly at Besangon (nth century), 
has been divided into three portions, now in Rome, Paris and 
Leiden respectively, while there is also a transcript of the whole 
of this MS. at Leiden. 

In modern times the work has been the theme of a generous 
appreciation in several pages of Humboldt's Cosmos (ii. 195-199, 
E. T., 1848). Jacob Grimm, in the first paragraph of c. 37 of his 
Deutsche Mythologie, writing with his own fellow-countrymen in 
view, has commended Pliny for condescending, in the midst of his 
survey of the sciences of botany and zoology, to tell of the folk- 
lore of plants and animals, and has even praised him for the pains 
that he bestowed on his styie. It may be added that a special 
interest attaches to his account of the manufacture of the papyrus 
(xiii. 68-83), and of the different kinds of purple dye (ix. 130), 
while his description of the notes of the nightingale is an elaborate 
example of his occasional felicity of phrase (xxix. 81 seq.). Most 
of the recent research on Pliny has been concentrated on the 
investigation of his authorities, especially those which he followed 
in his chapters on the history of art the only ancient account 
of that subject which has survived. 

A carnelian inscribed with the letters C. PLIN. has been re- 
produced by Cades (v. 211) from the original in the Vannutelli 
collection. It represents an ancient Roman with an almost com- 
pletely bald forehead and a double chin; and is almost certainly 
a portrait, not of Pliny the Elder, but of Pompey the Great. Seated 
statues of both the Plinies, clad in the garb of scholars of the year 
1500, maybe seen in the niches on either side of the main entrance 
to the cathedral church of Como. The elder Pliny's anecdotes of 
Greek artists supplied Vasari with the subjects of the frescoes 
which still adorn the interior of his former home at Arezzo. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editions by Hermolaus Barbarus (Rome, 
1492); Dalecampius (Lyons, 1587); Gronovius (Leiden, 1669); 
Hardouin (Paris, 1685); Franz (Leipzig, 1778-1791); Sillig, with 
index by O. Schneider (Gotha, 1853-1855); L. von Jan (Leipzig, 
1854-1865); D. Detlefsen (Berlin, 1866-1873), and critical edition 
of the geographical books (Berlin, 1905); Mayhoff (Leipzig, 1906- 
); Eng. trans., Philemon Holland (London, 1601); French, 
Littr6 (1855); Chrestomathia Pliniana, L. Urlichs, with excellent 
Einleitung (Berlin, 1857); The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History 



844 



PLINY, THE YOUNGER 



of Art, trans, by K. Jex Blake, with commentary, and historical 
introduction by E. Sellers (London, 1896). On Pliny's supposed 
portrait, see Bernoulli, Rom. Ikonogr. i. 288; on the Defloratio 
Pliniana of Robert of Cricklade, K. Ruck, in 5. Ber. of Munich 
Acad., May 3, 1902, pp. 195-285 (1903). On Pliny's Authorities, 
see especially F. Miinzer, Beitrage zur Quellenkritik (Berlin, 1897) 
and Detlefsen, Quellen und Forschungen zur alien Gesch. und Geog. 
(1904 and 1908); on his Religion, Vorhauser (Innsbruck, 1860); 
his Cosmology, Friese (Breslau, 1862) ; his Botany, Brosig (Gaudenz, 
1883); Sprengel (Marburg, 1890, and in Rhein. Mus., 1891); Renjes 
(Rostock, 1893); Abert (Burghausen, 1896); and Stadler (Munich, 
1891); his Mineralogy, Nies (Mainz, 1884); his History of Art, O. 
Jahn, in Sachsische Berichte (Leipzig, 1850); A. Brieger (Greifswald, 
1857); Wustmann, Rhein. Mus. (1867); H. Brunn (Bonn, 1856, 
and Munich, 1875); Th. Schreiber (Leipzig, 1872, and in Rhein. 
Mus.,l8j6) ; Furtwangler, in Fleckeisen's Jahrb., Suppi.(l877)vo\. ix. ; 
Blumner, in Rhein. Mus. (1877); L. Urlichs (Wurzburg, 1878); 
Oehmichen (Erlangen, 1880); Dalstein (Metz, 1885); H. Voigt 
(Halle, 1887); H. L. Urlichs (Wurzburg, 1887); Holwerda, in 
Mnemos. (1889); F. Miinzer, in Hermes (1895, and Berlin, 1897); 
Kalkmann (Berlin, 1898). 

The fragments of the eight books, Dubii sermonis, have been 
collected by J. W. Beck (Leipzig, 1894). For further bibliographical 
details, see Mayor, Lat. Lit. (1875), 136-138; and Schanz, Rom. Liu. 
(Munich, 1901), 490-494. (J. E. S.*) 

PLINY, THE YOUNGER, Publius Caecilius Secundus, later 
known as Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (A.D. c. 6i-c. 113), 
Latin author of the Letters and the Panegyric on Trajan, was the 
second son of Lucius Caecilius Cilo, by Plinia, the sister of the 
Elder Pliny. He was born at Novum Comum, the modern Como, 
the date of his birth being approximately determined by the 
fact that he was in his i8th year at the death of his uncle in 
August A.D. 79 (Epp. vi. 20, 5)- Having lost his father at an 
early age, he owed much to his mother and to his guardian, 
Verginius Rufus, who had twice filled the office of consul and 
had twice refused the purple (ii. i, 8). He owed still more to his 
uncle. When the Elder Pliny was summoned to Rome by 
Vespasian in A.D. 72, he was probably accompanied by his nephew, 
who there went through the usual course of education in Roman 
literature and in Greek, and at the age of fourteen composed a 
" Greek tragedy " (vii. 4, 2). He afterwards studied philosophy 
and rhetoric under Nicetes Sacerdos and Quintilian (vi. 6, 3, 
ii. 14, 9), and modelled his own oratorical style on that of Demos- 
thenes, Cicero and Calvus (i. 2). The Elder Pliny inspired his 
nephew with something of his own indomitable industry; and in 
August 79, when the author of the Historia naturalislost his 
life in the famous eruption of Vesuvius, it was the sister of the 
Elder and the mother of the Younger Pliny who first descried 
the signs of the approaching visitation, and, some twenty-seven 
years later, it was the Younger Pliny who wrote a graphic account 
of the last hours of his uncle, in a letter addressed to the historian 
Tacitus (vi. 16). By his will the Elder Pliny had made his 
nephew his adopted son, and the latter now assumed the nomen 
and praenomen of his adoptive father. 

A year later he made his first public appearance as an advocate 
(v. 8, 8), and soon afterwards became a member of the board of 
decemviri stlitibus judicandis, which was associated with the 
praetor in the presidency of the centumviral court. Early in 
the reign of Domitian he served as a military tribune in Syria 
(A.D. 8 1 or 82), devoting part of his leisure to the study of philo- 
sophy under the Stoic Euphrates (i. 10, 2). On returning to 
Rome he was nominated to the honorary office of sevir equitum 
romanorum, and was actively engaged as a pleader before the 
cenlumviri, the chancery court of Rome (vi. 12, 2). 

His official career began in A.D. 89, when he was nominated by 
Domitian as one of the twenty quaestors. He thus became a 
member of the senate for the rest of his life. In December 91 
he was made tribune, and, during his tenure of that office, with- 
drew from practice at the bar (i. 23). Early in 93 he was 
appointed praetor (iii. ii, 2), and, in his year of office, was one of 
the counsel for the impeachment of Baebius Massa, the pro- 
curator of Hispania Baetica (iii. 4, vi. 29, vii. 33). During the 
latest and darkest years of Domitian he deemed it prudent to 
withdraw from public affairs, but his financial abilities were 
recognized by his nomination in 94 or 9 5 to the praefeclura aerarii 
militaris (ix. 13, n). 

On the death of Domitian and the accession of Nerva he 



delivered a speech (subsequently published) in prosecution of 
Publicius Certus, who had been foremost in the attack on 
Helvidius Priscus (ix. 13). Early in 98 he was promoted to the 
position of praefect of the public treasury in the temple of 
Saturn. After the accession of Trajan in the same year, Pliny 
was associated with Tacitus in the impeachment of Marius 
Priscus for his maladministration of the province of Africa 
(ii. n). The trial was held under the presidency of the emperor, 
who had already nominated him consul suffectus for part of 
the year A.D. 100. The formal oration of thanks for this nomi- 
nation, described by Pliny himself as his gratiarum aclio (iii. 
13, i and 18, i), is called in the MSS. the Panegyricus Trajano 
diclus. 

The following year was marked by the death of Silius Italicus 
and Martial, who are gracefully commemorated in two of his 
Letters (iii. 7 and 21). It is probable that in 103-104 he was 
promoted to a place in the college of Augurs, vacated by his 
friend Frontinus (iv. 8), and that in 105 he was appointed 
curator of the river Tiber (v. 14, 2). In the same year he 
employed part of his leisure in producing a volume of hendeca- 
syllabic verse (iv. 14, v. 10). He usually spent the winter at his 
seaside villa on the Latian coast near Laurentum, and the 
summer at one of his country houses, either among the Tuscan 
hills, near Tifernum, or on the lake of Como, or at Tusculum, 
Tibur or Praeneste. 

It was probably in 104, and again in 106, that he was retained 
for the defence of a governor of Bithynia, thus becoming familiar 
with the affairs of a province which needed a thorough re- 
organization. Accordingly, about in, he was selected by 
Trajan as governor of Bithynia, under the special title of " legate 
propraetor with consular power." He reached Bithynia in 
September, held office for fifteen months or more, and probably 
died in 113. 

His health was far from robust. He speaks of his delicate 
frame (gracilitas mea) ; and he was apt to suffer from weakness of 
the eyes (vii. 21) and of the throat or chest (ii. n, 15). Frugal 
and abstemious in his diet (i. 15; iii. i and 12), studious and 
methodical in his habits (i. 6, v. 18, ix. 36 and 40), he took a 
quiet delight in some of the gentler forms of outdoor recreation. 
We are startled to find him telling Tacitus of his interest in 
hunting the wild boar, but he is careful to add that, while the 
beaters were at work, he sat beside the nets and was busily 
taking notes, thus combining the cult of Minerva with that of 
Diana (i. 6). He also tells the historian that, when his uncle left 
Misenum to take a nearer view of the eruption of Vesuvius, 
he preferred to stay behind, making an abstract of a book of 
Livy (vi. 20, 5). 

Among his friends were Tacitus and Suetonius, as well as 
Frontinus, Martial and Silius Italicus; and the Stoics, Musonius 
and Helvidius Priscus. He was thrice married; on the death 
of his second wife without issue, Trajan conferred on him the 
jus trium liberorum (A.D. 98), and, before 105, he found athird 
wife in the accomplished and amiable Calpurnia (iv. 19). He 
was generous in his private and his public benefactions (i. 19, 2, 
ii. 4, 2, vi. 32). At his Tuscan villa near Tifernum Tiberinum 
(iv. i, 4), the modern Citta di Castello, he set up a temple at his 
own expense and adorned it with statues of Nerva and Trajan 
(x. 8). In his lifetime he founded and endowed a library at his 
native place (i. 8, v. 7), and, besides promoting local education 
(iv. 13), established an institute for the maintenance and 
instruction of the sons and daughters of free-born parents (vii. 
1 8). By his will he left a large sum for the building and the 
perpetual repair of public baths, and the interest of a still larger 
sum for the benefit of one hundred freedmen of the testator and, 
ultimately, for an annual banquet. 

On a marble slab that once adorned the public baths at Comum, 
his distinctions were recorded in a long inscription, which was 
afterwards removed to Milan. It was there broken into six 
square pieces, four of which were built into a tomb within 
the great church of Sant' Ambrogio. Of these four fragments 
only one survives, but with the aid of transcripts of the other 
three made by Cyriacus of Ancona in 1442, the whole was 



PLINY, THE YOUNGER 



845 



restored by Mommsen [C.I.L. v. 5262]. It is to the following 
effect: 

Gaius Plinius Caecilius <Secundus> , son of Lucius, of the Ufentine 
tribe ; <consul ;> augur ; legate-propraetor of the province of Pontus 
and Bithynia, with consular power, by decree of the senate sent 
into the said province by the emperor Nerva Trajan <Augustus, 
Germanicus, Dacicus, pater patriae> curator of the bed and banks 
of the Tiber and of the <sewers of the city> ; praefectof the Treasury 
of Saturn; praefect of the Treasury of War; <praetor> , tribune of 
the plebs; emperor's quaestor, sevir of the <Roman> knights; 
military tribune of the <third> Gallic legion ; <decemyir> for the ad- 
judication of <suits> ; provided by will for the erection of baths at 
a cost of . . . , adding for the furnishing of the same 300,000 
sesterces (2400) and furthermore, for maintenance, 200,000 
sesterces (1600) ; likewise, for the support of one hundred of his 
own freedmen <he bequeathed> to the township 1,866,666 sesterces 
(c. 15.000), the eventual accretions <whereof> he devised to the 
townsfolk for a pub'.ic entertainment; . . . <likewise, in his life- 
time> he gave for the support of sons and daughters of the towns- 
folk <5oo,ooo> sesterces (4000) ; <likewise a library, and> , for the 
maintenance of the library, 100,000 sesterces (800). 

With the exception of two mediocre sets of verses, quoted by 
himself (vii. 4 and 9), his poems have perished. His speeches 
were apt to be prolix, and he defended their prolixity on principle 
(i. 20). He was apparently the first to make a practice of reciting 
his speeches before a gathering of his friends before finally 
publishing them (iii. 18). The only speech that has survived is 
the Panegyric on Trajan, first delivered by Pliny in the emperor's 
presence, next recited to the orator's friends for the space of 
three days, and ultimately published in an expanded form (Epp. 
iii. 18). It is unduly florid and redundant in style, but it supplies 
us with the fullest account of the emperor's antecedents, and of 
his policy during the first two years and a half of his rule. 

It describes his entering Rome on foot, amid the rejoicings of 
the citizens; his liberality towards his soldiers and to the citizens 
of Rome, a liberality that was extended even to persons under eleven 
years of age; his charities for the maintenance of the children of 
the poor; his remission of succession-duties in cases where the 
property was small or the heirs members of the testator's family; 
his establishment of free trade in corn between the various parts 
of the empire; his abandonment of vexatious and petty prosecu- 
tions for " high treason " ; his punishment of informers; his abolition 
of pantomimes; his repairs of public buildings and his extension 
and embellishment of the Circus Maximus. The speech was dis- 
covered by Aurispa at Mainz in 1432, as part of a collection of 
Panegyrici; and was first printed by Fr. Puteolanus at Milan 
about fifty years later. 

Besides the Panegyric, we possess the nine books of Pliny's 
Letters, and a separate book containing his Correipondence with 

Trajan. 

In the first letter of the first book Pliny states that he has 
collected certain of his letters without regard to chronological 
order (non servalo temporis ordine). Pliny's learned biographer, 
the Dutch scholar, Jean Masson (1709), wrongly assumed that this 
statement referred to the whole of the collection. He inferred 
that all the nine books were published simultaneously; and he 
also held that Pliny was governor of Bithynia in A.D. 103-105. 
It was afterwards maintained by Mommsen (1868) that the books 
were in strictly chronological order, that the letters in each book 
were in general arranged in order of date, that all of them were 
later than the death of Domitian (September 96), that the several 
books were probably published in the following order: i. (97); 
ii. (100); iii. (101-102); iv. (105); v. and vi. (106); vii. (107); viii. 
(108); and ix. (not later than 109); and, lastly, that Pliny was 
governor of Bithynia from A.D. 111-112 to 113. The letter which 
is probably the earliest (ii. 20) has since been assigned to the last 
part of the reign of Domitian, and it has been suggested by Professor 
Merrill that the nine books were published in three groups: i.-ii. 
(97 or 98); iii.-vi.(io6); vii.-ix. (108 or 109). 

In his Letters Pliny presents us with a picture of the varied 
interests of a cultivated Roman gentleman. The etiquette of 
the imperial circle, scenes from the law-courts and the recitation- 
room, the reunions of dilettanti and philosophers, the busy life 
of the capital or of the municipal town, the recreations of the 
seaside and of the country all these he brings vividly before 
our eyes. He elaborately describes his Laurentine and his 
Tuscan villa, and frankly tells us how he spends the day at each 
(ii. 17, v. 6, ix. 36 and 40) -,'expatiates on his verses and his speeches, 
his holiday-tasks in Umbria (vii. 9, ix. 10), and his happy 
memories of the Lake of Como (i. 6). He gives an enthusiastic 
account of a statuette of Corinthian bronze he has recently 
purchased (iii. 6). He is interested in providing a teacher of 



rhetoric for the place of his birth (iv. 13); he exults in the devo- 
tion of his wife, Calpurnia (vi. 19); towards his servants he is an 
indulgent master (viii. 16) ; he intercedes on behalf of the freed- 
man of a friend (ix. 21), and, when a freedman of his own is in 
delicate health, sends him first to Egypt and afterwards to the 
Riviera (v. 19). He consults Suetonius on the interpretation of 
dreams (i. 18) ; he presents another of his correspondents with a 
batch of ghost-stories (vii. 27) or a marvellous tale about a tame 
dolphin on the north coast of Africa (ix. 33). He discourses on 
the beauties of the Clitumnus (viii. 8) and the floating islands of 
the Vadimonian lake (viii. 20). He describes an eruption of 
Vesuvius in connexion with the last days of the Elder Pliny 
(vi. 16 and 20), giving elsewhere an account of his manner of 
life and a h'st of his writings (iii. 5). He laments the death of 
Silius Italicus (iii. 7), of Martial (iii. 21), and of Verginius Rufus 
(ii. i), and of others less known to fame. He takes as his 
models Cicero and Tacitus (vii. 20), whose name is so often (to 
his delight) associated with his own (ix. 23). He rejoices to 
learn that his writings are read at Lyons (ix. n). He complains 
of the inanity of circus-races (ix. 6), of the decay of interest in 
public recitations (i. 13), of bad taste in matters of hospitality 
(ii. 6), and of the way in which time is frittered away in the 
social duties of Rome (i. 9). He lays down the principles that 
should guide a Roman governor in Greece (viii. 24) ; he maintains 
the cause of the oppressed provinces of Spain and Africa; and he 
exposes the iniquities of the informer Regulus, the only living 
man whom he attacks in his Letters, going so far as to denounce 
him as omnium bipedum nequissimus (i. 5, 14).' 

The Letters are models of graceful thought and refined expres- 
sion, each of them dealing with a single topic and generally 
ending with an epigrammatic point. They were imitated by 
Symmachus (Macrobius v. i, 7) and by Apollinaris Sidonius 
(Epp. ix. i, i). In the middle ages they were known to Ratherius 
of Verona (roth century), who quotes a passage from i. 5, 16 
(Migne, cxxxvi. p. 391). Selections were included in a volume of 
Flores compiled at Verona in 1329; and a MS. of bks. i.-vii. and ix. 
was discovered by Guarino at Venice in 1419. These books were 
printed in the editio princeps (Venice, 1471). Part of bk. viii. 
appeared for the first time at the end of the next edition (Rome, 
c. 1474). The whole of bk. viii. was first published in its proper 
place by Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1508). 

Pliny's Correspondence with Trajan supplies us with many 
interesting details as to the government of Bithynia, and as to 
the relations between the governor and the central authority. 
It reflects the greatest credit on the strict and almost punctilious 
conscientiousness of the governor, and on the assiduity and the 
high principle which animated the emperor. 

On reaching the province, Pliny celebrates the emperor's birth- 
day, and proceeds to examine the finances of Prusa. His request 
for a surveyor to check the outlay on the public works is refused 
on the ground that the emperor has hardly enough surveyors for 
the works he is carrying on in Rome. He asks the emperor to 
sanction the repair of the ancient baths at Prusa, the building of 
an aqueduct at Nicomedia and a theatre at Nicaea, and the covering 
in of a stream that has become a public nuisance at Amastris. 
When he consults the emperor as to the baths at Claudiopolis, 
the emperor sensibly replies: " You, who are on the spot, will be 
best able to decide " (40). When Pliny hesitates about a small 
affair relating to Dio Chrysostom (the Bithynian friend of Nerva 
and Trajan), the emperor betrays a not unnatural impatience in 
his response: potuisti non ftaerere, mi Secunde carissime (82). 
Pliny also asks for a decision on the status and maintenance of 
deserted children (65), and on the custom of distributing public 
doles on the occasion of interesting events in the life of a private 
citizen. The emperor agrees that the custom might lead to 
" political factions," and should therefore be strictly controlled 
(117). Owing to a destructive fire at Nicomedia, Pliny suggests 
the formation of a volunteer fire-brigade, limited to 150 members. 
The emperor is afraid that the fire-brigade might become a 
" political club," and cautiously contents himself with approving 
the provision of a fire-engine (34). 

Trajan's fear of factions and clubs in these two last cases has 
sometimes been connected with the question of his attitude towards 
the Christians in Bithynia. Pliny (Epp. 96) states that he had never 
taken part in formal trials of Christians, and was therefore un- 
familiar with precedents as to the extent of the investigation, 
and as to the degree of punishment. He felt that a distinction 
might be drawn between adults and those of tender years ; and that 



8 4 6 



PLIOCENE 



allowance might be made for any one who recanted. There was 
also the question whether any one should be punished simply for 
bearing the name of Christian or only if he was found guilty of 
" crimes associated with that name.' Hitherto, in the case of 
those who were brought before him, he had asked them three dis- 
tinct times whether they were Christians, and, if they persisted in 
the admission, had ordered them to be taken to execution. What- 
ever might be the real character of their profession, he held that 
such obstinate persistence ought to be punished. There were 
others no less " demented," who, being Roman citizens, would be 
sent to Rome for trial. Soon, as the natural consequence of these 
proceedings, a variety of cases had come under his notice. He had 
received an anonymous statement giving a list of accused persons. 
Some of them, who denied that they had ever been Christians, 
had consented to pray to the gods, to adore the image of the 
emperor, and to blaspheme Christ; these he had dismissed. Others 
admitted that they were Christians, but presently denied it, adding 
that they had ceased to be Christians for some years. All of these 
worshipped images of the gods and of the emperor, and blasphemed 
Christ. They averred that the sum and substance of their " fault " 
was that they had been accustomed to meet on a fixed day before 
daylight to sing in turns a hymn to Christ as God, and to bind 
themselves by a solemn oath (sacramenlo) to abstain from theft 
or robbery, and from adultery, perjury and dishonesty; after which 
they were wont to separate and to meet again for a common meal. 
This, however, they had ceased to do as soon as Pliny had pub- 
lished a decree against collegia, in accordance with the emperor's 
edict. To ascertain the truth, he had also put to the torture two 
maid-servants described as deaconesses, but had discovered nothing 
beyond a perverse and extravagant superstition. He had accord- 
ingly put off the formal trial with a view to consulting the emperor. 
The question appeared to be worthy of such a consultation, es- 
pecially in view of the number of persons of all ages and ranks, 
and of both sexes, who were imperilled. The contagion had spread 
through towns and villages and the open country, but it might 
still be stayed. Temples that had been wellnigh deserted were 
already beginning to be frequented, rites long intermitted were 
being renewed, and the trade in fodder for sacrificial victims was 
reviving. It might be inferred from this, how large a number 
might be reclaimed, if only room were granted tor repentance. 

Trajan in his reply (Epp. 97) expresses approval of Pliny's course 
of action in the case of the Christians brought before him. It was 
impossible (he adds) to lay down any uniform or definite rule. 
The persons in question were not to be hunted out, but if they were 
reported and were found guilty, they were to be punished. If, 
however, any one denied that he was a Christian, and ratified his 
denial by worshipping the gods ot Rome, he was to receive pardon. 
But no attention was to be paid to anonymous charges. It would 
be a bad precedent and unworthy of the spirit of the age. 

The view that the Christians were punished for being members 
of a collegium or sodalitas (once held by E. G. Hardy, and still 
maintained by Professor Merrill) is hard to reconcile with Pliny's 
own statement that the Christians had promptly obeyed the 
emperor's decree against collegia ( 7). Further reasons against 
this view have been urged by Ramsay, who sums up his main 
results as follows: (i) There was no express law or formal edict 
against the Christians. (2) They were not prosecuted or 
punished for contravening any formal law of a wider character. 
(3) They were judged and condemned by Pliny (with Trajan's 
full approval) by virtue of the imperium delegated to him, and in 
accordance with the instructions issued to governors of provinces 
to search out and punish sacrilegious persons. (4) They had 
already been classed as outlaws, and the name of Christian in 
itself entailed condemnation. (5) This treatment was a settled 
principle of imperial policy, not established by the capricious 
action of a single emperor. (6) While Trajan felt bound to carry 
out the established principle his personal view was to some 
extent opposed to it. (7) A definite form of procedure had been 
established. (8) This procedure was followed by Pliny (W. M. 
Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, p. 223). 

It has been well observed by E. G. Hardy that the "double 
aspect of Trajan's rescript, which, while it theoretically con- 
demned the Christians, practically gave them a certain security," 
explains "the different views which have since been taken of 
it ; but by most of the church writers, and perhaps on the whole 
with justice, it has been regarded as favourable and as rather 
discouraging persecution than legalizing it " (Pliny's Corre- 
spondence with Trajan, 63, 210-217). 

AUTHORITIES. The correspondence with Trajan was apparently 
preserved in a single Paris MS. ; Epp. 41-121 were first printed by 
Avantius of Verona (1502); and Epp. 1-40 by Aldus Manutius 
(1508). The original MS. has vanished; but the " copy " supplied 



to the printers of the Aldine text was discovered by Mr. E. G. 
Hardy in the Bodleian in 1888. The two letters on the Christians 
were known to Tertullian (Apol. c. 2). The attacks on the genuine- 
ness of the whole or part of the collection have been refuted by 
Wilde (Leiden, 1889). 

For a critical edition of text, see H. Keil (Leipzig, 1870), with 
full index of names by Mommsen; for plain text, Keil (1853), &c., 
C. F. W. Miiller (1903); the best annotated editions are those of 
Gesner and Schaefer (1805) and G. E. Gierig (1796-1806); of the 
Letters alone, G. Kortte (1734), and the less trustworthy edition 
of M. Doring (1843); of bks. i. and ii., Cowan (1889); of iii., 
Mayor (1880, with Life by G. H. Rendall); of vi., Duff (1906); 
of the Panegyricus, C. G. Schwarz (1846); of the Correspondence 
with Trajan, E. G. Hardy (1889); of Selected Letters, E. T. Merrill 
(1903); best Eng. trans, by J. D. Lewis (1879). 

On Pliny's life, see the works by J. Masson (Amsterdam, 1709) ; 
H. Schontag (Hof, 1876); and Giesen (Bonn, 1885). On the 
chronology of the letters, &c., Mommsen, in Hermes, iii. 31-114 
(1868; trans, into French by Morel, 1873); criticized by Stobbe 
(PhUologus, 1870); Gemoll (Halle, 1872); C. Peter (Fhilologus, 
1873); Asbach (Rhein. Mus., 1881); and Schultz (Berlin, 1899). 
For style, the works of H. Holstein (1862-1869); K. Kraut (1872); 
J. P. Lagergren (1872); and Morillot (Grenoble, 1888). On the 
villas, Burn's Rome and the Campagna (1871), 411-415; Aitchison, 
in the Builder (Feb. 8, 1890); Winnefeld, in Jahrb. des arch. Inst. 
(1891), pp. 201-217; and Magoun, in Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc. 
(1895). 

See also bibliography in Hiibner and Mayor's Lai. Lit. (1875), 
pp. 147-149; and in Schanz. Rom. Lit. 444-449. 

For recent literature on Pliny and the Christians, see C. F. Arnold, 
Studien (Konigsberg, 1887); Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, ii. 7 
(ed. 1889) ; Neumann, Der romische Staat und die allgemeine Kirche 
(1890) vol. i.; Mommsen, in tiist. Zeitschrift (1890) ; W. M. Ramsay, 
The Church in the Roman Empire (ed. 1893), ch. 10, pp. 196-225; 
and E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (1894), 
reprinted in Studies in Roman History (1906), pp. 1-162; with the 
literature quoted in these works and in Schanz, Ram. Lit. 641. 

(J. E. S.*) 

PLIOCENE (from the Gr. irXeiov, m">re, and KO.IVOS, recent), in 
geology, the name given by Sir C. Lyell to the formations above 
the Miocene and below the Pleistocene (Newer Pliocene) strata. 
During this period the great land masses of the earth were rapidly 
approaching to the configuration which they exhibit at the present 
day. The marine Pliocene deposits are limited to comparatively 
few areas; in Europe, in the beginning of the period, the sea 
washed the shores of East Anglia and parts of the south coast 
of England; it extended well into Belgium and Holland and just 
touched here and there on the northern and north-western coasts 
of France; it sent an arm some distance up the valley of the 




Pliocene Period 

Hypothetical continental outlines 

after W.D. Malthewi 



Guadalquivir and formed small bays on several points of the 
southern coast of France; and up the Rhone basin a considerable 
gulf reached as far as Lyons. Early in the period the sea 
covered much of Italy and Sicily; but the eastward extension 
of the ancient Mediterranean in south-east Europe, through 
the Danube basin, the Aral, north Caucasian and Caspian 
regions, continued to suffer the process of conversion to 
lagoons and large lakes which had begun in the Miocene. 



PLIOCENE 



847 



Generally all over the world the majority of Pliocene for- 
mations are non-marine, and the limited and local nature 
of the elevations since the inception of the period has 
exposed to view only the shallow marginal marine deposits. 
The principal exception to the last statement is to be found in the 
Pliocene of Italy and Sicily, where a continuous crustal depres- 
sion permitted the accumulation of great thicknesses of material, 
which later on, towards the close of the period, were elevated 
some thousands of feet. With these deformatory movements 
are associated the Italian volcanoes; Etna certainly began its 
career beneath the sea, for its older tuffs are found interstratified 
with marine beds, and possibly some of the others had a similar 
origin. At the same time volcanic outbursts, some apparently 
comparable to that of Martinique in recent times, were taking 
place in central France, while far away in southern Sumatra 
thousands of feet of submarine tuffs were being thrown out and 
deposited, and great lava flows were being erupted in Australasia. 

Considerable differences of opinion are exhibited among 
geologists as to the lower limits of the Pliocene formations; 
this is partly to be accounted for by the absence of widely-spread 
marine deposits, and partly by the comparatively short time- 
differences between one deposit and another, and hence the 
similarity of the faunas of contiguous strata-groups in local 
vertical series of beds. Following A. de Lapparent (Traite de 
geologic, 5th ed., 1906), we shall regard the Pliocene as divisible 
into three stages: an upper Sicilian stage, a middle Astian stage, 
and a lower Plaisancian stage. Other writers, however, have 
selected a different nomenclature, which often involves a 
different grouping of the formations; thus E. Kayser in his 
Formationskunde (3rd ed., 1908) distinguishes three stages under 
the names Arnian (upper), Astian (middle) and Messinian 
(lower) = Zanclean. The lower stage, however, includes the 
Pontian, Epplesheim, Pikermi and other formations which are 
here placed in the Miocene. This stage has been referred to a 
so-called Mio- Pliocene inter-period. 

The Pliocene rocks of Britain now occupy but a small area in 
Norfolk, Suffolk and part of Essex; but from the presence of 
small outlying patches in Cornwall (St Erth and St Agnes), 
Dorsetshire (Dewlish) and Kent (Lenham), it is evident that 
the Pliocene Sea covered a considerable part of southern England. 
Moreover, these patches show by their present altitude above 
the sea that the Downs of Kent must have been elevated more 
than 850 ft., and the west coast of Cornwall 400 ft. since Pliocene 
times. The Pliocene rocks rest with strong unconformity upon 
the older strata in Britain. In the eastern counties the shelly, 
sandy beds are called " Crag"; this name has come into very 
general use for all the members of the series, and it is frequently 
employed as a synonym for Pliocene. 

The English Pliocene strata are classified by the Geological Survey 
of England and Wales as follows : 

Yoldia (Leda) myalis bed (provisionally placed here). 

Forest-bed group and Dewlish gravels with Elephas 
meridionalis. 

Weybourne crag (and Chillesford clay?). 

Chillesford crag. 

Norwich crag and Scrobicularia crag. 

Red crag of Butley. 

. Red crag of Walton, Newbourn and Oakley, 
r St Erth and St Agnes beds. 

Coralline crag. 
Plin' ,P 1 Lenham beds (Diestian). 

Box-stones and phosphatic beds with derived early 
I Pliocene and other fossils. 

The box-stones are rounded pieces of brown earthy sandstone 
containing casts of fossils; the phosphatic beds contain the phos- 
phatized bones of whale, deer, mastodon, pig, tapir, rhinoceros, &c., 
and have been worked as a source of manure. These basal con- 
glomerate deposits underlie the red crag and sometimes the coralline 
crag. The last-named formation, known also as the " white " or 
" Suffolk crag," or as the " Bryozoan crag" (it was the presence of 
Bryozoa which led to the name coralline), is essentially a shell bank, 
which was accumulated at a depth of from 20 to 40 fathoms. It is 
best exposed near Aldeburgh and Gedgrave in Suffolk. The Red 
Crags are sandy, marine, shallow-water deposits, with an abundant 
fauna ; they vary rapidly from point to point, and in general the more 
southern localities are richer in southern (older) forms than those 
farther north. The Norwich crag (fluvio-marine or mammaliferous 



Newer 
Pliocene 



Older 



crag) is not always very clearly marked off from the Red Crags. 
Marine fresh-water and land shells are found in these beds, together 
with many mammalian remains, including Elephas antiquus, Masto- 
don arvernensis, Equus stenonis, Cervus carnutorum, and dolphins, 
cod and other fish. The Forest-Bed group or Cromer forest-bed is 
exposed beneath the boulder clay cliffs of the Norfolk coast ; it con- 
tains transported stumps of trees and many plants still familiar 
in Britain, many living fresh-water and estuarine molluscs and a 
large number of mammals, many of which are extinct (Ma-haerodus, 
Canis lupus, Ursus spelaeus. Hyaena crocuta, Hippopotamus amphi- 
bia.!, Rhinoceros etruscus, Elephas antiquus and E. meridionalis. 
Bison bonasus, Ovibos moschatus, numerous species of deer, Equus 
caballus and E. stenonis, Castor fiber, Talpa europaea and many 
others). The only record of Pliocene remains in the northern part 
of England consists of a few teeth of Elephas meridionalis found in a 
fissure in the limestone at Dove Holes, Derbyshire. 

The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and Holland and the northern 
extremity of France are closely related with those of Britain, though 
as a whole they are very much thicker. The older marine beds may 
be traced from Lenham across the Channel at Calais and through 
Cassel to Diest. The newer marine Pliocene runs in a parallel belt 
to the north of the older beds through Antwerp. Belgian geologists 
have divided the local Pliocqne into the following groups (from above 
downwards): Poederlian, Scaldisian, Casterlian, Diestian. F. W. 
Harmer (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1898 and 1900) proposed the 
following scheme for the Pliocene of Britain and the Low 
Countries: 

Cromerian = Forest-bed of Cromer. 

(Iceno-Cromerian = Chillesford beds and Weybourne crag. 

Icenian = marine crag of Norwich. 

Amstelian = Red Crag, comprising the Newbournian and But- 
leyan sub-stages. 

Waltonian = Walton crag and Poederlian and Scaldisian. 

Gedgravian = Coralline crag and Casterlian. 

Lenhamian = Diestian. 

In addition to the deposits just mentioned in French Flanders, 
the early Pliocene sea has left numerous small patches of marls and 
sands in Brittany and Normandy. In southern France marine sands, 
gravels and marls of Plaisancian and Astian ages occur in the de- 
pression of Roussillon, followed by Sicilian marls and gravels. In 
Languedoc (Montpellier, Nimes, B6ziers) marine marls and sands 
are followed by calcareous conglomerate (40 metres) or by marls and 
lignite; gravels and loams constitute the uppermost beds. In the 
Rhone basin the earliest deposits are the Congeria beds of Bollene 
(Vaucluse) ; this brackish formation differs from the beds of the 
same name in Vienna, but resembles those of Italy and Rumania. 
Then followed a marine invasion (groupe de Saint-Aries) ; these beds 
are now found at considerable elevations increasing northward 
and westward. The later formations in this area are fluviatile or 
lacustrine in origin, with remarkable torrential gravel deposits at 
several horizons. The marine Pliocene of the maritime Alps, 
consisting of blue and yellow clays and limestone, are now elevated 
170 metres above the sea, and even up to 350 m. in the neighbourhood 
of Nice. In central France no marine beds are found, but many 
interesting and in some cases highly fossiliferous deposits occur in 
association with volcanic rocks, such as the lower conglomerate and 
upper trachytic breccia of Perrier (Issoire), the fine tuffs (cinentes) 
with plants of Cantal, the lignitiferous sandstones beneath the basalt 
of C6zallier, the diatomite of Ceyssac, &c. In Italy, Pliocene rocks 
form the low ranges of hills on both sides of the Apennines, hence 
the term " sub-Apennine " given to these rocks by A. d'Orbigny. 
They are marine marls and sands; the blue marls which crop out 
near Rome at the base of Mt Mario and Mt Vatican with the succeed- 
ing sands and gravels; the conglomerate followed by deep-sea marls 
of Calabria, and the marls, sands, limestones and blue clay of Sicily, 
all belong to the Plaisancian stage. To the next stage belong the 
yellow sands full of massive fossils, including the conglomerate of 
Castrovillari in Calabria and the white marls of the Val d'Arno. 
In the final (Sicilian) stage fluvio-lacustrine sands and gravels are 
found in Italy, except in Calabria and in Sicily where thick marine 
beds were formed. In Switzerland some of the deposits of Nageifluh 
and Deckenschotter, glacial plateau gravels, belong to the Sicilian 
stage. In south-eastern Europe a great series of sands and marls 
with lignites, termed the Paludina beds, rests directly upon the 
Pontian formation. From their great development in the Levant, 
they have been given the rank of a " Levantine stage " by F. von 
Hochstetter; they are found in Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, 
Rumania, Bulgaria, southern Russia, the Cyclades, and the Caspian 
region. On the north coast of Africa marine and brackish sands and 
marls occur in Morocco, Algeria and Egypt; and the " rifts " of the 
Red Sea and Suez have been assigned to this period. 

In North America marine Pliocene is found fringing the coasts- of 
California and .the Gulf of Mexico. In the latter region marine 
marls, clays anolimestones are best developed in Florida and can be 
traced into the Carolinas and Virginia ; they have been classed as the 
Lafayette group (with lignites), the Florida group, and the Caloo- 
shatchis stage. On the Pacific coast the marine beds have attained 
great thicknesses, notably in the Merced series of San Francisco. In 
the San Luis Obispo region the non-marine Paso Robles beds, said to 
be 1000 ft. thick, belong to this period. Other local formations of 



848 



PLOCK 



marine origin in California are those of San Diego and Wild Cat. 
In the Rocky Mountains are large lacustrine formations of consider- 
able thickness, and certain conglomerates in Wyoming and Bishop 
Mountain are assigned to this age. The sands and clays with 
gypsum of Entre Rios in South America contain fossils of the 
Atlantic type. 

Lignitiferous shale with petroleum and great thickness of volcanic 
tuffs have been found in southern Sumatra. In New South Wales 
Pliocene river terraces and alluvial deposits are covered by Mid- 
Pliocene lavas and from these " deep leads " or buried river beds 
much gold has been obtained. In Victoria great basaltic and dole- 
ritic flows have filled up the Pliocene river valleys, and marine beds 
have been found at elevations of 1000 ft. above present sea-level. 
Very similar deposits and volcanic rock, belonging to the Wanganui 
system of F. W. Hutton, are found in New Zealand. 



See C. Reid, " The Pliocene Deposits of Britain " (Mem. Geol. 
Survey, 1890) ; E. T. Newton, " The Vertebrates of the Pliocene 
Deposits of Britain " (Mem. Geol. Survey, 1891) (both contain a 
bibliography): C. Reid, Origin of the British Flora (1899); and 
" Geological Literature " (Geol. Soc. London Annual, since 1803). 

0- A. H.) 

PLOCK, or PLOTSK, a government of Russian Poland, on the 
right bank of the Vistula, having the Prussian provinces of 
West and East Prussia on the N. and the Polish governments 
of Lomza on the E. and Warsaw on the S. Its area is 4160 sq. m. 
Its flat surface, 350 to 500 ft. above the sea-level, rises gently 
towards the north, where it merges into the Baltic coast-ridge 
of the Prussian lake district. Only a few hills reach 600 ft. above 



TABLE OF PLIOCENE FORMATIONS. 



Stages. 


England. 


Belgium 
and 
Holland. 


Rhone Basin. 


Languedoc 
and 
Roussillon. 


Italy. 


Eastern 
Europe. 


Other Countries. 


Sicilian. 


Cromer Forest 
Bed. 
Fluvio-marine 
Norwich 
crag. 
Red crag of 
Suffolk. 


Clays of 
Campine. 
Amstehan. 


Marls of St 
Cosme. 
Gravels of 
Chagny. 
Conglomerates 
of 
Chambaran. 
Sands of Tre- 
voux and 
Mollon. 
Travertine of 
Meximieux. 


Durfort beds 
with Elephas 
meridionalis. 


Sands of Val d'Arno. 
Limestones of Paler- 
mo and clays with 
northern mollusca. 


Upper 
Paludina 
(Vivipara) 
beds. 


Marine beds of 
Entre Rios. 
Volcanic tuffs of 
S. Sumatra. 


Astian. 


Base of Red 
crag. 


Poederlian. 
Scaldisian 
sands with 
Trophon 
antiquum. 


Conglomerates 
of Montpellier 
and Fourres. 
Sands of Rous- 
sillon with 
M a s t o d o n 
arvernensis. 


Marls of Val d'Arno 
with Mastodon 
arvernensis. 
Yellow sands of Asti, 
Plaisantin, Monte 
Maria and Tuscany. 
Conglomerates of 
Castro villari. 


Middle 
Paludina 
beds. 


Petroleum-bearing 
beds of Sumatra. 
Marine sands of 
Moghara and 
Mokatta. 


Plaisancian. 


Coralline crag. 
Lenham beds. 


Sands with 
Isocardia 
car. 
Diestian 
sandstones. 


Marine marls 
of Bresse, 
Hauterives. 
Congeria beds 
of Bollene. 


Yellow sands of 
Montpellier. 
Blue marls of 
Millas. 


Blue marls of Pia- 
cenza, Bologna, 
and Vatican. 


Lower 
Paludina 
beds. 


Marine beds of 
Florida. 
Lacustrine beds of 
Rocky Moun- 
tains. 



Life of the Pliocene Period. Sir C. Lyell defined the Pliocene strata 
as those which contained from 36-95% of living marine molluscs. 
This rule can no longer be strictly applied to the widely scattered 
marine deposits, and it is of course inapplicable to the very numerous 
formations of lacustrine and fluviatile origin. On the whole the 
marine organisms are very like their living representatives, and 
there is often practically no specific difference; Nassa, Valuta, 
Chenopus, Dentalium, Fusus, Area, Pecten, Pectunculus, Panopoea, 
Cyprina and Mactra may be mentioned among the marine genera; 
Congeria (Dreyssensia), Auricula, Paludina, Melanopsis and Helix 
are found in the lacustrine deposits. One of the most interesting 
facts exposed by the study of the mollusca is the gradual lowering 
of the temperature of Europe during the period. In Britain the 
early Pliocene was, if anything, warmer than at present, but the 
percentage of northern forms ascends steadily through the higher 
beds, and finally arctic forms, such as Buccinum groenlandicum, 
Trichopteris borealis, Mya truncata, Cyprina islandica, &c., appear 
on the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, and some of the northern 
species even reached the Mediterranean (Sicily) at the close of the 
period. The flora exhibits the same gradual change, the large palms 
and camphor trees disappeared from Europe, the sabal palm lin- 
gered in Languedoc, and Chamerops humilis lived about Marseilles 
until the end ; the sequoias and bamboos held on for some time, and 
the aspect of the vegetation in mid-Pliocene times was not unlike 
that of Portugal, Algeria and Japan of to-day. Not a few species 
that dwelt in Pliocene Europe are found in the forests of America. 
The flora of the Cromer forest beds is very like that of the same dis- 
trict at the present time. The mammals of the British Pliocene 
show a curious blending of northern and southern forms; they 
include Machaerodus (the sabre-toothed lion), hyenas, dogs, fox, 
wolf, glutton, marten, bears, Ursus arvernensis and the grizzly and 
cave bear, seals, whales, dolphins, bisons, musk ox, gazelle, the red 
deer and many others now extinct, the roebuck, pigs and wild boar, 
hippopotamus, hipparion and horse (Equus caballus and E. stenonis), 
several species of rhinoceros, tapir, hyrax, elephants (Elephas 
meridionalis and E. antiquus), several mastodons, squirrel, beaver, 
hare, mice, voles, &c. The mastodon disappeared from Europe 
before the close of the period, but lived much l<4fcer in America. 
No generally accepted fossil man has been foundin the Pliocene; 
Pithecanthropus erectus, found by E. Dubois in Java, is the nearest 
to the human type. Monkeys, Macacus and Semnopithecus, occur 
in the Pliocene of Europe. At this time the Pliocene mammals of 
North America were able to migrate into South America, and a few 
of the southern forms travelled northwards. 



the sea, while the broad valley of the Vistula has an elevation 
of only 130 to 150 ft. In the west (district of Lipno) broad 
terraces, covered with forests, small lakes and ponds, and very 
poor in vegetation, descend from the Baltic lake-district towards 
the plains of Plock; and in the central district of Mlawa extensive 
marshes fill the upper basin of the.Wkra. The Vistula borders 
the government on the south, almost all the way from Warsaw 
to Thorn, receiving the Skrwa and Wkra. The Drweca, or 
Drewenz, flows along the north-west boundary, while several 
small tributaries of the Narew drain the north-eastern district 
of Ciechanow. Peat-bogs, used for fuel, and marshes containing 
bog-iron, fill many depressions in the north, while the more 
elevated parts of the plains are covered with fertile clays, or a 
kind of " black earth." Lacustrine post-Glacial deposits fill 
all the depressions of the thick sheet of boulder clay, with 
Scandinavian erratic boulders, which extends everywhere over 
the Tertiary sands and marls these last containing masses of 
silicated wood and lignite. Layers of gypsum are found in the 
hills beside the Vistula. 

The estimated population in 1906 was 619,000. About one- 
third are Jews and 36,000 Germans. The government is divided 
into seven districts, of which the chief towns are Plock, Ciechanow, 
Lipno, Mlawa, Prasnysz, Rypin and Sierpc. Agriculture is the 
chief industry. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, wheat 
and potatoes; beetroot is cultivated for sugar, especially on the 
large estates of the west, where modern machinery is used. 
Gardening and bee-keeping are extensively practised. In the 
north the property is much divided, and. the landholders, very 
numerous in Ciechanow, are far from prosperous. The forests 
have been lavishly cut, but Plock is still one of the best wooded 
governments (20%) in Poland. Other occupations are provided 
by shipping on the Vistula, mining and various domestic indus- 
tries, such as the fabrication of wooden cars, sledges and wheels, 
and textile industry. The manufactures include flour-mills, 
saw-mills, sugar factories, distilleries, tanneries, breweries, 



PLOCK PLOTINUS 



849 



agricultural implement works, match factories and ironworks. 
There is some export trade, especially in the Lipno district; 
but its development is hampered by lack of communications, 
the best being those offered by the Vistula. The railway from 
Warsaw to Danzig, via Ciechanow and Mlawa, serves the 
eastern part of the government. 

After the second dismemberment of Poland in 1793, what is 
now the government of Plock became part of Prussia. It fell 
under Russian dominion after the treaty of Vienna (1815), and, 
in the division of that time into five provinces, extended over 
the western part of the present government of Lomza, which was 
created in 1864 from the Ostrolenka and Pultusk districts of 
Plock, together with parts of the province of Augustowo. 

PLOCK, or PLOTSK, a town of Russia, capital of the govern- 
ment of the same name, on the right bank of the Vistula, 67 m. 
by the Vistula W.N.W. of Warsaw. Pop. 27,073. It has a 
cathedral, dating from the izth century, but restored in 1903, 
which contains tombs of Polish dukes and of Kings Ladislaus 
and Boleslav (of the nth and 1 2th centuries). There is consider- 
able navigation on the Vistula, grain, flour, wool and beetroot 
being exported, while coal, petroleum, salt and fish are imported. 

PLOEN, a town of Germany, in Schleswig-Holstein, beautifully 
situated between two lakes, the large and the small Ploener-See, 
20 m. S. from Kiel by the railway to Eutin and Lubeck. Pop. 
(1905), 3735. It has a palace built about 1630 and now converted 
into a cadet school, a gymnasium and a biological station. 
Tobacco, soap, soda, beer and furniture are manufactured, and 
there is a considerable trade in timber and grain. The lakes 
afford good fishing, and are navigated in summer by steamboats. 

Ploen is mentioned as early as the nth century as a Wendish 
settlement, and a fortified place. It passed in 1559 to Duke 
John the Younger, founder of the line of Holstein-Sonderburg, 
on the extinction of which, in 1761, it fell to Denmark, and 
in 1867, with Schleswig-Holstein, to Prussia. The sons of the 
emperor William II, received their early education here. 

See H. Eggers, Schloss und Stadt Ploen (Kiel, 1877), and J. C. 
Kinder, Urkundenbuch zur Chronik der Stadt Ploen (Plon, 1890). 

PLOENNIES, LUISE VON (1803-1872), German poet, was born 
at Hanau on the 7th of November 1803, the daughter of the 
naturalist Philipp Achilles Leisler. In 1824 she married the 
physician August von Ploennies in Darmstadt. After his death 
in 1847 she resided for some years in Belgium, then at Jugenheim 
on the Bergstrasse, but finally at Darmstadt, where she died on 
the 22nd of January 1872. Between 1844 and 1870 she published 
several volumes of verse, being particularly happy in eclectic 
love songs, patriotic poems and descriptions of scenery. She 
also wrote two biblical dramas, Maria Magdalena (1870) and 
David (1873). 

As a translator from the English, Luise von Ploennies published 
two collections of poems, Britannia (1843) and Englische Lyriker 
des iQten Jahrhunderts (1863, 3rd ed., 1867). 

PLOERMEL, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Morbihan, 36 m. N.N.E. of Vannes 
by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 2492; commune, 5424. The Renais- 
sance church of St Armel (i6th century) is remarkable for the 
delicate carving of the north facade and for fine stained glass. 
It also possesses statues of John II. and John III., dukes of 
Brittany, which were transferred to the church from their tomb 
in an ancient Carmelite monastery founded in 1273 and destroyed 
by the Protestants in 1592 and again at the Revolution. The 
lower ecclesiastical seminary has an apartment in which the 
Estates of Brittany held several meetings. Remains of ramparts 
of the isth century and some houses of the i6th century are also 
of interest. Farm-implements are manufactured, slate quarries 
are worked in the neighbourhood, and there is trade in cattle, 
wool, hemp, cloth, &c. Ploermel (Plou Armel, people of Armel) 
owes its name to Armel, a hermit who lived in the district in the 
6th century. 

PLOESCI (Ploescit), the capital of the department of Prahova, 
Rumania; at the southern entrance of a valley among the Carpa- 
thian foothills, through which flows the river Prahova; and at the 
junction of railways to Buzeu, Bucharest and Hermannstadt in 



Transylvania. Pop. (1900), 42,687. As the name Ploesci 
(pluviena, rainy) implies, the climate is moist. The surrounding 
hills are rich in petroleum, salt and lignite. There are cardboard 
factories, roperies, tanneries and oil mills. Ploesci possesses 
schools of commerce and of arts and crafts, several banks, and 
many synagogues and churches, including the Orthodox church 
of St Mary, built in 1740 by Matthew Bassarab. 

PLOMBIERES, a town of eastern France, in the departmei 
of Vosges, on a branch line of the Eastern railway, 17 m. S. 61 
Epinal by road. Pop. (1906), 1882. The town is situated at 
a height of 1410 ft. in a picturesque valley watered by the 
Augronne. It is well known for its mineral springs, containing 
sodium sulphate and silicic acid, varying from 66 to 166 F. 
Plombieres has a handsome modern church and a statue of the 
painter Louis Francais, born in the town in 1814. The waters 
were utilized by the Romans and during the middle ages. In 
later times Montaigne, Richelieu, Stanislas, duke of Lorraine 
and Voltaire were among the distinguished people who visited 
the place. Napoleon III. built the most important of the bathing 
establishments and made other improvements. 

PLOT, ROBERT (1640-1696), English naturalist and anti- 
quary, was born at Borden in Kent in 1640. He was educated 
at Wye, and at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. 
in 1661, and proceeded to M.A. (1664) and D.C.L. (1671). He 
was distinguished for his folio work The Natural History of 
Oxfordshire (1677), in which various fossils, as well as other 
objects of interest, were figured and described. It was regarded 
as a model for many subsequent works. In 1677 Plot was 
elected F.R.S., and he was secretary for the Royal Society from 
1682 to 1684. He was appointed in 1683 the first keeper of the 
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and in the same year he became 
professor of chemistry. In 1686 he wrote The Natural History 
of Staffordshire. Two years later he became historiographer- 
royal. He died on the 3Oth of April 1696. 

PLOT, a term originally meaning a space of ground used for a 
specific purpose, especially as a building site, formerly in frequent 
usage in the sense of a plan, a surveyed space of ground; hence 
the literary sense of a plan or design. The word is of doubtful 
origin; there is a collateral form " plat," which appears in the 
1 6th century, according to the New English Dictionary, under 
the influence of " plat, " flat place, surface (Fr. plat, Late Lat. 
plallus, probably from Gr. TrXorus, broad). Skeat (Etym. 
Diet.) refers " plot," in the sense of a space of ground, to the 
O. Eng. plaec, Mid. Eng. pleck, later platch, patch. " Plot," in 
the sense of plan, scheme, would then be identical with " plot," 
a conspiracy, which may be a shortened form of " complot," 
a French word, also of doubtful origin, meaning in the 
1 2th century " a compact body of men "; in the i4th century 
" conspiracy." 

PLOTINUS (A.D. 204-270), the most important representative 
of Neoplatonism, was born of Roman parents at Lycopolis in 
Egypt. At Alexandria he attended the lectures of Ammonius 
Saccas (q.v.), the founder of the system, until 242, when he joined 
the Persian expedition of Gordian III., with the object of 
studying Persian and Indian philosophy on the spot. After 
the assassination of Gordian in 244, Plotinus was obliged to 
take refuge in Antioch, whence he made his way to Rome and 
set up as a teacher there. He soon attracted a large number of 
pupils, the most distinguished of whom were Amelius, Eusto- 
chius and Porphyry. The emperor Galh'enus and his wife 
Salonina were also his enthusiastic admirers, and favoured his 
idea of founding a Platonic Commonwealth (Platonopolis) in 
Campania (cf. Bishop Berkeley's scheme for the Bermuda 
islands), but the opposition of Gallienus's counsellors and the 
death of Plotinus prevented the plan from being carried out. 
Plotinus's wide popularity was due partly to the lucidity of his 
teaching, but perhaps even more to his strong personality. 
Assent developed into veneration; he was considered to be 
divinely inspired, and generally credited with miraculous 
powers. In spite of ill-health, he continued to teach and write 
until his death, which took place on the estate of one of his 
friends near Minturnae in Campania. a ^ 



850 



PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING 



Under Ammonius Plotinus became imbued with the eclectic 
spirit of the Alexandrian school. Having accepted the Platonic 
metaphysical doctrine, he applied to it the Neo-Pythagorean 
principles and the Oriental doctrine of Emanation (?..). The 
results of this introspective mysticism were collected by him in 
a scries of fifty-four (originally forty-eight) treatises, arranged 
in six " Enneads," which constitute the most authoritative 
exposition of Neoplatonism. This arrangement is probably 
due to Porphyry, to whose editorial care they were consigned. 
There was also another ancient edition by Eustochius, but all 
the existing MSS. are based on Porphyry's edition. 

The Enneades of Plotinus were first made known in the Latin 
translation of Marsilio Ficino (Florence, 1492) which was reprinted 
at Basel in 1580, with the Greek text of Petrus Perna. Later editions 
by Creuzer and Moser (" Didot Series," 1855), A. Kirchhoff (1856), 
H. F. Mttller (1878-1880), R. Volkraann (1883-1884). There is an 
English translation of selected portions by Thomas Taylor, re-edited 
in Bonn's Philosophical Library (1895, with introduction and biblio- 
graphy by G. R. S. Mead). 

On Plotinus generally see article in Sui'das; Eunapius vitae 
sophistarum ; and above all the Vita Plotini by his pupil Porphyry. 
Among modern works, see the treatises on the school of Alexandria 
by J. F. Simon, i. (1845), and E. Vacherot (1846) ; A. Richter, Ueber 
Leben und Geistesentwicklung des Plotin (Halle, 1864-1867); T. 
Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (1901) ; A. Drews, Plotin und der Unter- 
gang der antiken Weltanschauung (1907) ; E. Caird, Evolution of 
Theology in. the Greek Philosophers (1904), ii. 210-257; Rufus M. 
Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). A detailed account 
of Plotinus's philosophical system and an estimate of its importance 
will be found in the article NEOPLATONISM, the works above referred 
to, and the histories of philosophy. For his list of categories, see 
CATEGORIES; also LOGOS; MYSTICISM; MAGIC. 

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. To enable the soil to grow 
good crops the upper layer must be pulverized and weathered. 
This operation, performed in the garden by means of the spade, 
is carried on in the field on a larger scale by the plough, 1 which 
breaks the soil and by inverting the furrow-slice, exposes fresh 
surfaces to the disintegrating influence of air, rain and frost. 

The first recorded form of plough is found on the monuments 
of Egypt, where it consists simply of a wooden wedge tipped with 
iron and fastened to a handle projecting backwards and a beam, 
pulled by men or oxen, projecting forwards. Many references 
to the plough are found in the Old Testament, notably that in 
i Sam. xiii. 20: " All the Israelites went down to the Philistines 
to sharpen every man his share and his coulter." Descriptions 
of ploughs found in Hesiod's Works and Days and in Virgil's 
Georgia i. 169-175, show little development in the implement. 
The same may be said of the Anglo-Saxon ploughs. These are 
shown with coulter and share and also with wheels, which had 
in earlier times been fitted to ploughs by the Greeks and also 
by the natives of Cis-Alpine Gaul (Pliny, Hist. nat. 18, 18). A 
mattock with which to break the clods is often found represented 
in Anglo-Saxon drawings as subsidiary to the plough. All these 
types of plough are virtually hoes pulled through the ground, 
breaking but not inverting the soil. In the first half of the i8th 
century a plough with a short convex mould-board of wood 
was introduced from the Netherlands into England and, as 
improved at Rotherham in Yorkshire, became known as the 
Rotherham plough and enjoyed considerable vogue. At this 
period ploughs were made almost wholly of wood, the mould- 
board being cased with plates of iron. Small, of Berwickshire, 
brought out a plough in which beam and handle were of wrought 

1 The O. Eng. form is plan, which is usually found in the sense 
of " plough-land," a unit for the assessment of land (see HIDE), 
the regular O. Eng. word for the implement being sulh, still found 
in some dialects in the form siM. It appears in many Teutonic 
languages, cf. Du. ploeg, Ger. Pflug, Swed. plog, Dan. plov. The 
Slavonic forms, such as Russ. or Pol. plug, are borrowed from the 
German. It does not appear in Gothic, where the word used is 
hoha. The ultimate origin of " plough " is unknown. Max-Muller 
(Science of Language, i. 296) connects the word with the Indo- 
European root meaning " to float," seen in the Gr. TT\OTOV, a boat or 
ship; the same word would be applied to the ship " ploughing " 
through the waves, and to the implement " ploughing " through 
the earth. A Celtic origin has been suggested, connecting the word 
with Gael, ploe, stump of a tree, as forming the original plough. 
The form " plow " was common in English until the beginning of 
the i8th century, and is usual in America. 



iron, the mould-board of cast iron. The shares, when made of 
the same material, required constant sharpening; this necessity 
was removed by the device, patented by Robert Ransome in 
1803, of chilling and so hardening the under-surface of the share; 
the upper surface, which is soft, then wears away more quickly 
than the chilled part, whereby a sharp edge is always assured. 
Nowadays the mould-board is of steel with a chilled and polished 
surface to give greater wearing qualities and to reduce friction." 
In the latter part of the igth century there were numerous 
improvements but no fundamental alterations in the construction 
of the ordinary plough. 

The working parts of the plough are the coulter, the share, 
and the breast or mould-board. These are carried on the beam, 
to which are attached the handles or tilts at the back, and the 
hake or clevis and draught-chain at the front. The hake is 
notched so that, by moving the draught -chain higher or lower 
thereon, the plough is caused to go more or less deeply into the 
ground. It may also be adjusted to suit the height of the 
horses used. The hake moves laterally on a quadrant and it is 
thus possible to give the plough a tendency to left or right by 
moving the hake in the reverse direction. A frame is bolted 
to the beam and this carries the breast or mould-board to the 
fore-end of which the share is fitted. The side-cap, a plate of 




Newcastle Plough. 

iron fixed to the land-side of the frame, is intended to keep the 
edge of the unploughed soil vertical and prevent it from falling 
into the furrow. A piece of iron called the slade is bolted to the 
bottom of the frame, and this, running along the sole of the fur- 
row, acts as a base to the whole implement. The coulter (either 
knife or disk) and sometimes a skim-coulter (or jointer) are 
attached adjustably to the beam, so as to act in the front of 
the share. 

The coulter is a knife or revolving disk which is fixed so that 
its point clears the point of the share. The skim-coulter is 
shaped like a miniature plough, substituted for or fixed in front 
of the coulter; it is used chiefly on lea land, to pare off the 
surface of the soil together with the vegetation thereon, and turn 
it into the previous furrow, where it is immediately buried by the 
fuirow slice. Two wheels of unequal height are commonly 
fitted to the front of the beam. By means of them the depth 
and width of the furrow are regulated, whereas in the case of 
" swing " or iKheelless ploughs these points depend chiefly on the 
skill of the ploughman. In the wheeled plough some of the 
weight and downward pull due to its action on the ground is 
taken by the wheels; the sliding friction is thus to some extent 
converted into a rolling friction, and the draught is correspond- 
ingly diminished. 

In operation the coulter makes a perpendicular cut separating 
the furrow-slice which is divided from the " sole " of the furrow 




Crested Furrow. Rectangular Furrow, 

by the share and then inverted by the curve of the breast as the 
plough moves forward. The process is indicated in the illustra- 
tion of different types of furrow. The form of a furrow is 



PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING 



851 



regulated by the shape and width of the share, working in 
combination with a proper shaped breast. A " crested " 
furrow is obtained by the use of a share, the wing of which is 
set at a higher altitude than the point, but this type of furrow 




Wide Broken Furrow. 

is less generally found than the " rectangular " form obtained 
by a level-edged share, which leaves a flat bottom. 

During the greater part of the igth century the ideal of plough- 
ing was to preserve the furrow-slice unbroken, and this object 
was attained by the use of long mould-boards which turned the 




Digging Plough. 

slices gently and gradually, laying them over against one another 
at an angle of 45, thus providing drainage at the bottom of the 
furrow, and exposing the greatest possible surface to the influ- 
ences of the weather. Subsequently the digging plough came 
into vogue; the share being wider, a wider furrow is cut, while 
the slice is inverted by a short concave mould-board with a 
sharp turn which at the same time breaks up and pulverizes 
the soil after the fashion of a spade. Except on extremely 
heavy soils or on shallow soils with a subsoil which it is unwise 
to bring upon the surface, the modern tendency is in favour of 
the digging plough. 

A ploughed field is divided into lands or sections of equal 
width separated by furrows. On light easy draining land 22 yds. 
is the usual width; on the heaviest lands it may be as little as 
S yds., and in the latter case the furrows will act as drains into 
which the water flows from the intervening ridges. 1 

Certain important variations of the ordinary plough demand 
consideration. The one-way plough lays the furrows alter- 




Turnwrest Plough, 
nately to its left and right, so that they all slope in the same 
direction. This is found advantageous on hill-sides where the 
work is easier if all the furrows are turned downhill; or from 
another point of view the furrows may be all laid uphill so as to 
1 Methods of the " setting-out " of land to be ploughed together 
with a full discussion of other technical details relating to ploughing 
will be found in ch. vii. of W. J. Maiden's Workman's Technical 
Instructor (London, 1905). 



counteract the tendency for the soil to work down the slope. 
One-way ploughs also leave the land level and dispense with the 
wide open furrows between the ridges which are left by the 
ordinary plough. They are made on different principles. One 
type comprises two separate ploughs, one right hand and one 
left, which revolve on the beam, one working, while the other 
stands vertically above it. In another the mould-board and 




Balance Plough. 

share are shaped so that they can be swung on a swivel under 
the beam when the latter is lifted. A third type is made on 
the " balance " principle, two plough beams with mould-boards 
being placed at right angles to one another, so that while the 
right-hand plough is at work the left-hand is elevated above the 
ground. 

Double-furrow or multiple ploughs are a combination of two 
or more ploughs arranged in echelon so as to plough two or more 
furrows. The weight of these implements necessitates some 
provision for turning them at the headlands, and this is supplied 
either by a bowl wheel, enabling the plough to be turned on 
one side, or by a pair of wheels cranked so that they can be raised 
by a lever when the plough is working. The double-furrow 




Riding Plough. 

plough was known as early as the I7th century, but, till the 
introduction of the latter device by Ransome in 1873, cannot be 
said to have been in successful use. 

The " sulky " or riding plough is little known in the United 
Kingdom, but on the larger arable tracts of other countries 
where quick work is essential and the character of the surface 
permits, it is in general use. In this form of plough the frame 
is mounted on three wheels, one of which runs on the land, 
and the other two in the furrow. The furrow wheels are placed 
on inclined axles, the plough beam being carried on swing links, 
operated by a hand lever when it is necessary to raise the plough 
out of the furrow. The land wheel and the forward furrow wheel 
are adjustable vertically with reference to the frame, for the 
purpose of controlling the action of the plough. 

In the disk plough, which is built both as a riding and a walking 
plough, the essential feature is the substitution of a concave- 



852 



PLOVER 



convex disk, pivoted on the plough beam, for the mould-board 
and share of the ordinary plough. This disk is carried on an 
axle inclined to the line of draught, and also to a vertical plane. 
As the machine is drawn forward the disk revolves and cuts 
deeply into the ground, and by reason of its inclination crowds 
the earth outwards and thus turns a furrow. A scraper is 




Multiple Disk Plough. 

provided to keep the disk clean and prevent sticking. The 
controlling levers and draught arrangements are similar to those in 
the ' ' sulky ' ' plough. The advantage of this plough over the ordi- 
nary form is in the absence of sliding friction, and in the mellow 
and porous condition in which it leaves the bottom of the furrow. 

Disk ploughs are unsuitable for heavy sticky soils and for 
stony land, but may be used with effect on stubbles and on land in 
a dry hard state. Perhaps their most common use is in 
ploughing on a large scale in conjunction with steam power. 

Steam is employed as motive power when it is necessary to 
plough large areas in a short time. In the United Kingdom 
steam ploughing is generally carried on on the double-engine 
system (introduced by Messrs John Fowler about 1865), in which 
case two sets of ploughs are arranged on the one-way balance 
principle, so that while one set is at work the other is carried 
clear of the ground. In this arrangement, a pair of locomotive 
engines, each having a plain winding drum fixed underneath 
the boiler, are placed opposite to each other at the ends of the 
field to be operated upon; the rope of each of the engines is 
attached to the plough, or other tillage implement, which is 
drawn to and fro betwixt them by each working in turn. While 
the engine in gear is coiling in its rope and drawing the plough 
towards itself, the rope of the other engine is paid out with 
merely so much drag on it as to keep it from kinking or getting 
ravelled on the drum. 

In the United States and elsewhere engines drawing behind 
them a number of ploughs, arranged in echelon and taking perhaps 



The sub-soil plough has the beam and body but not the 
mould-board of an ordinary plough. Following in the furrow 
of an ordinary plough it breaks through the sub-soil to a depth 
of several inches, making it porous and penetrable by plant roots. 

Gripping and draining ploughs are employed in opening the 
grips and trenches necessary both in surface and underground 
drainage. 

See Davidson and Chase, Farm Motors and Farm Machinery articles 
in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture (New York, 
1907) and Standard Encyclopaedia (London, 1908), &c. 

PLOVER, a bird whose name (Fr. pluvier, O. Fr. plovier) 
doubtless has its origin in the Latin pluvia, rain (as witness the 
German equivalent Regenp/eifer, rain-fifer). P. Belon (1555) 
says that the name Pluvier is bestowed " pour ce qu'on le prend 
mieux en temps pluvieux qu'en nulle autre saison," which is not 
in accordance with modern observation, for in rainy weather 
plovers are wilder and harder to approach than in fine. Others 
have thought it is from the spotted (as though with rain-drops) 
upper plumage of two of the commonest species of plovers, to 
which the name especially belongs the Charadrius pluvialis 
of Linnaeus, or golden plover, and the Squatarola helvetica of 
recent ornithologists, or grey plover. Both these birds are 
very similar in general appearance, but the latter is the larger 
and has an aborted hind-toe on each foot. 1 Its axillary feathers 
are also black, while in the golden plover they are pure white. 
The grey plover is a bird of almost circumpclar range, breeding 
in the far north of America, Asia and eastern Europe, frequenting 
in spring and autumn the coasts of the more temperate parts 
of each continent, and generally retiring farther southward 
in winter examples not unfrequently reaching Cape Colony, 
Ceylon, Australia and even Tasmania. Charadrius pluvialis 
has a much narrower distribution, though where it occurs it is 
much more numerous. Its breeding quarters do not extend 
farther than from Iceland to western Siberia, but include the 
more elevated tracts in the British Islands, whence in autumn 
it spreads itself, often in immense flocks, over the cultivated 
districts if the fields be sufficiently open. Here some will remain 
so long as the absence of frost or snow permits, but the majority 
make for the Mediterranean basin, or the countries beyond, in 
which to winter; and stragglers find their way to the southern 
extremity of Africa. Two other cognate forms, C. virginicus 
and C. fulvus, respectively represent C. pluvialis in America 
and eastern Asia, where they are also known by the same 
English name. The discrimination of these two birds from one 
another requires a very acute eye, 2 but both are easily distin- 
guished from their European ally by their smaller size, their 
greyish-brown axillary feathers, and their proportionally longer 




American Steam Plough. 



30 ft. at a time, are frequently seen. On smaller areas petrol 
motors with one or more ploughs attached are sometimes used. 

There is a large variety of ploughs which differ in their purpose 
from the ordinary plough. 

The ridging plough is an implement with a mould-board on 
each side, terminating in front in a flat point, and used for 
moulding up potatoes, and for throwing up the ridge on which 
to plant roots. 



and more slender legs. All, however and the same is the case 
with the grey plover undergo precisely the same seasonal 

1 But for this really unimportant distinction both birds could 
doubtless have been kept by ornithologists in the same genus, for 
they agree in most other structural characters. 

1 Schlegel (Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 53) states that in some 
examples it seems impossible to determine the form to which they 
belong; but ordinarily American specimens are rather larger and 
stouter, and have shorter toes than those from Asia. 



PLUCK PLUCKER 



853 



change of colour, greatly altering their appearance and equally 
affecting both sexes. In spring or early summer nearly the 
whole of the lower plumage from the chin to the vent, which 
during winter has been nearly pure white, becomes deep black. 
A corresponding alteration is at the same season observable in 
the upper plumage. 

Though the birds just spoken of are those most emphatically 
entitled to be called plovers, the group of ringed plovers (see 
KILLDEER and LAPWING), with its allies, has, according to usage, 
hardly less claim to the name, which is also extended to some 
other more distant forms that can here have only the briefest 
notice. Among them one of the most remarkable is the " Zick- 
zack " (so-called from its cry) the rpoxtiuK of Herodotus (see 
HUMMING-BIRD), the Pluvianus or Hyas aegyptius of ornitholo- 
gists, celebrated for the services it is said to render to the croco- 
dile a small bird whose plumage of delicate lavender and cream 
colour is relieved by markings of black and white. This belongs 
to the small family Glareolidae, of which the members best 
known are the coursers, Cursorius, with some eight or ten 
species inhabiting the deserts of Africa and India, while one, 
C. gatticus, occasionally strays to Europe and even to England. 
Allied to them are the curious pratincoles (q.v.), also peculiar to 
the Old World, while the genera Thinocoris and Attagis form an 
outlying group peculiar to South America, that is by some 
systematists regarded as a separate family Thinocoridae, near 
which are often placed the singular Sheathbills (?..). By most 
authorities the Stone-curlews (see CURLEW) , the Oyster-catchers 
(q.v.) and Turnstones (q.v .) are also regarded as belonging to the 
family Charadriidae, and some would add the Avocets (Recurvi- 
rostra) and Stilts (q.v.), among which the Cavalier, or Crab-plover, 
Dramas ardeola a form that has been bandied about from one 
family and even order to another should possibly find its 
resting-place. It frequents the sandy shores of the Indian 
Ocean and Bay of Bengal from Natal to Aden, and thence to 
Ceylon, the Malabar coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar 
Islands a white and black bird, mounted on long legs, with 
webbed feet, and a bill so shaped as to have made some of the 
best ornithologists lodge it among the Terns (q.v.). 

Though the various forms here spoken of as plovers are almost 
certainly closely allied, they must be regarded as constituting 
a very indefinite group, for hardly any strong line of demarcation 
can be drawn between them and the Sandpipers and Snipes (q.v.). 
United, however, with both of the latter under the name of 
Limicolae, after the method approved by the most recent 
systematists, the whole form an assemblage the compactness of 
which no observant ornithologist can hesitate to admit, even if 
he be uncertain of the exact kinship. 

For " plovers' eggs " see LAPWING. (A. N.) 

PLUCK, to pull or pick off something, as flowers from a plant, 
feathers from a bird. The word in O. Eng. is pluccian or ploccian 
and is represented by numerous forms in Teutonic languages, 
cf. Ger. pfliicken, Du. plukken, Dan. plakke, &c. In sense and 
form a plausible identification has been found with Ital. piluc- 
care, to pick grapes, hair, feathers, cf. Fr. eplucher, pick. These 
romanic words are to be referred to Lat. pilus, hair, which has 
also given " peruke " or " periwig " and " plush." Difficulties 
of phonology, history and chronology, however, seem to show 
that this close similarity is only a coincidence. " Pluck," in the 
sense of courage, was originally a slang word of the prize-ring, 
and Sir W. Scott (Journal, Sept. 4, 1827) speaks of the " want 
of that article blackguardly called pluck." In butcher's parlance 
the " pluck " of an animal is the heart, liver and lungs, probably 
so called from their being " plucked " or pulled out of the carcase 
immediately after slaughtering. The heart being the typical 
seat of courage, the transference is obvious. In university 
colloquial or slang use, " to pluck " is to refuse to pass a candi- 
date on examination; the more usual colloquial word is now " to 
plough." At the granting of degrees at Oxford objection to a 
candidate could be taken for other reasons than failure at 
examination, and the person thus challenging drew the atten- 
tion of the proctor in congregation by " plucking " a piece of 
black silk attached to the back of his gown. 



PLUCKER, JULIUS (1801-1868), German mathematician and 
physicist, was born at Elberfeld on the i6th of June 1801. 
After being educated at Diisseldorf and at the universities of 
Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin he went in 1823 to Paris, where 
he came under the influence of the great school of French 
geometers, whose founder, Gaspard Monge, was only recently 
dead. In 1825 he was received as Privatdozent at Bonn, 
and after three years he was made professor extraordinary 
The title of his " habilitationsschrift," Generalem analyseos 
applicationem ad ea quae geometriae altioris et mechanicae basis el 
fundamenta sunt e serie Tayloria deducit Julius Plucker (Bonn, 
1824), indicated the course of his future researches. The mathe- 
matical influence of Monge had two sides represented respec- 
tively by his two great works, the Geometric descriptive and the 
Application de I' analyse a la geomitrie. Plucker aimed at fur- 
nishing modern geometry with suitable analytical methods 
so as to give it an independent analytical development. In 
this effort he was as successful as were his great contempor- 
aries Poncelet and J. Steiner in cultivating geometry in its 
purely synthetic form. From his lectures and researches at 
Bonn sprang his first great work, Analytisch-geometrische 
Entwickelungen (vol. i., 1828; vol. ii., 1831). 

In the first volume of this treatise Plucker introduced for the 
first time the method of abridged notation which has become one 
of the characteristic features of modern analytical geometry 
(see GEOMETRY, ANALYTICAL). In the first volume of the 
Entwickelungen he applied the method of abridged notation to 
the straight line, circle and conic sections, and he subsequently 
used it with great effect in many of his researches, notably in 
his theory of cubic curves. In the second volume of the Ent- 
wickelungen he clearly established on a firm and independent 
basis the great principle of duality. 

Another subject of importance ' which Plucker took up in the 
Entwickelungen was the curious paradox noticed by L. Euler and 
G. Cramer, that, when a certain number of the intersections of two 
algebraical curves are given, the rest are thereby determined. Ger- 
gonne had shown that when a number of the intersections of two 
curves of the (p+)th degree lie on a curve of the th degree the rest 
lie on a curve of the gth degree. Plucker finally (Cergonne Ann., 
18281829) showed how many points must be taken on a curve 
of any degree so that curves of tne same degree (infinite in number) 
may be drawn through them, and proved that all the points, beyond 
the given ones, in which these curves intersect the given one are 
fixed by the original choice. Later, simultaneously with C. G. J. 
Jacobi, he extended these results to curves and surfaces of unequal 
order. Allied to the matter just mentioned was Pliicker's discovery 
of the six equations connecting the numbers of singularities in alge- 
braical curves (see CURVE). Plucker communicated his formulae in 
the first place to Crelle's Journal (1834), vol. xii., and gave a further 
extension and complete account of his theory in his Theorie der 
algebraischen Cunen (1839). 

In 1833 Plucker left Bonn for Berlin, where he occupied a 
post in the Friedrich Wilhelm's Gymnasium. He was then 
called in 1834 as ordinary professor of mathematics to Halle. 
While there he published his System der analylischen Geometric, 
auf neue Betrachtungsweisen gegrundet, und insbesondere eine 
ausfiihrliche Theorie der Cunen dritter Ordnung enthallend 
(Berlin, 1835). In this work he introduced the use of linear 
functions in place of the ordinary co-ordinates; he also made the 
fullest use of the principles of collincation and reciprocity. 
His discussion of curves of the third order turned mainly on 
the nature of their asymptotes, and depended on the fact that 
the equation to every such curve can be put into the form 
pqr-\-fj.s=o. He gives a complete enumeration of them, 
including two hundred and nineteen species. In 1836 Pliicker 
returned to Bonn as ordinary professor of mathematics. Here 
he published his Theorie der algebraischen Curven, which formed 
a continuation of the System der analylischen Geometrie. The 
work falls into two parts, which treat of the asymptotes and 
singularities of algebraical curves respectively; and extensive 
use is made of the method of counting constants which plays 
so large a part in modern geometrical researches. 

From this time Pliicker's geometrical researches practically 
ceased, only to be resumed towards the end of his life. It is 
true that he published in 1846 his System der Geometrie des 



PLUM 



Raumes in never analytischer Bekandlungsweise, but this 
contains merely a more systematic and polished rendering of his 
earlier results. In 1847 he was made professor of physics at 
Bonn; and from that time his scientific activity took a new and 
astonishing turn. 

His first physical memoir, published in Poggendorjfs Annalen 
(1847), vol. Ixxii., contains his great discovery of magnecrystallic 
action. Then followed a long series of researches, mostly 
published in the same journal, on the properties of magnetic 
and diamagnetic bodies, establishing results which are now part 
and parcel of our magnetic knowledge. In 1858 (Fogg. Ann. 
vol. ciii.) he published the first of his classical researches on the 
action of the magnet on the electric discharge in rarefied gases. 

Plucker, first by himself and afterwards in conjunction with 
J. W. Hittorf, made many important discoveries in the spectro- 
scopy of gases. He was the first to use the vacuum tube with 
the capillary part now called a Geissler's tube, by means of which 
the luminous intensity of feeble electric discharges was raised 
sufficiently to allow of spectroscopic investigation. He antici- 
pated R. W. Y. Bunsen and G. Kirchhoff in announcing that the 
lines of the spectrum were characteristic of the chemical sub- 
stance which emitted them, and in indicating the value of this 
discovery in chemical analysis. According to Hittorf he was 
the first who saw the three lines of the hydrogen spectrum, 
which a few months after his death were recognized in the spec- 
trum of the solar protuberances, and thus solved one of the 
mysteries of modern astronomy. 

Hittorf tells us that Pliicker never attained great manual 
dexterity as an experimenter. He had always, however, very 
clear conceptions as to what was wanted, and possessed in a high 
degree the power of putting others in possession of his ideas 
and rendering them enthusiastic in carrying them into practice. 
Thus he was able to secure from the Sayner Hutte in 1846 the 
great electromagnet which he turned to such use in his magnetic 
researches; thus he attached to his service his former pupil the 
skilful mechanic Fessel; and thus he discovered and fully availed 
himself of the ability of the great glass-blower Geissler. 

Induced by the encouragement of his mathematical friends in 
England, Plucker in 1865 returned to the field in which he first 
became famous, and adorned it by one more great achievement 
the invention of what is now called " line geometry." His 
first memoir on the subject was published in the Philosophical 
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. It became the 
source of a large literature in which the new science was de- 
veloped. Plucker himself worked out the theory of complexes 
of the first and second order, introducing in his investigation of 
the latter the famous complex surfaces of which he caused those 
models to be constructed which are now so well known to the 
student of the higher mathematics. He was engaged in bringing 
out a large work embodying the results of his researches in line 
geometry when he died on the 22nd of May 1868. The work was 
so far advanced that his pupil and assistant Felix Klein was 
able to complete and publish it (see GEOMETRY, LINE). Among 
the very numerous honours bestowed on Plucker by the various 
scientific societies of Europe was the Copley medal, awarded to 
him by the Royal Society two years before his death. 

See R. F. A. Clebsch's obituary notice (Abh. d. kon. Ges. d. Wiss. z. 
GiMingen, 1871, vol. xvi.), to which is appended an aporeciation of 
Pliicker's physical researches by Hittorf, and a list of Plucker's 
works by F. Klein. See also C. I. Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik 
in Deutschland, p. 282, and Pliicker's life by A. Dronke (Bonn, 1871). 

PLUM, the English name both for certain kinds of tree and 
also generally for their fruit. The plum tree belongs to the 
genus Prunus, natural order Rosaceae. Cultivated plums are 
supposed to have originated from one or other of the species 
P. domestica (wild plum) or P. insititia (bullace). The young 
shoots of P. domestica are glabrous, and the fruit oblong; in 
P. insititia the young shoots are pubescent, and the fruit 
more or less globose. A third species, the common sloe or 
blackthorn, P. spinosa, has stout spines; its flowers expand 
before the leaves; and its fruit is very rough to the taste, in 
which particulars it differs from the two preceding. These 



distinctions, however, are not maintained with much constancy. 
P. domestica is a native of Anatolia and the Caucasus, and is con- 
sidered to be the only species naturalized in Europe. P. insititia 
is wild in southern Europe, in Armenia, and along the shores of 
the Caspian. In the Swiss lake-dwellings stones of the P. 
insititia as well as of P. spinosa have been found, but not those 
of P. domestica. Nevertheless, the Romans cultivated large 
numbers of plums. The cultivated forms are extremely numer- 
ous, some of the groups, such as the greengages, the damsons 
and the egg plums being very distinct, and sometimes reproduc- 
ing themselves from seed. The colour of the fruit varies from 
green to deep purple, the size from that of a small cherry to 
that of a hen's egg; the form is oblong acute or obtuse at both 
ends, or globular; the stones or kernels vary in like manner; and 
the flavour, season of ripening and duration are all subject to 
variation. From its hardihood the plum is one of the most 
valuable fruit trees, as it is not particular as to soil, and the 
crop is less likely to be destroyed by spring frosts. Prunes 
and French plums are merely plums dried in the sun. Their 
preparation is carried on on a large scale in Bosnia and Servia, 
as well as in Spain, Portugal and southern France. 

Plums are propagated chiefly by budding on stocks of the 
Mussel, Brussels, St Julien and Pear plums. The damson, 
wine-sour and other varieties, planted as standards, are generally 
increased by suckers. For planting against walls, trees which 
have been trained for two years in the nursery are preferred, 
but maiden trees can be very successfully introduced, and by 
liberal treatment may be speedily got to a fruiting state. Any 
good well-drained loamy soil is suitable for plums, that of 
medium quality as to lightness being decidedly preferable. 
Walls with an east or west aspect are generally allowed to 
them. The horizontal mode of training and the fan or half-fan 
forms are commonly followed; where there is sufficient height 
probably the fan system is the best. The shoots should be laid 
in nearly or quite at full length. The fruit is produced on small 
spurs on branches at least two years old, and the same spurs 
continue fruitful for several years. Standard plum trees should 
be planted 25 ft. apart each way, and dwarfs 15 or 20 ft. The 
latter are now largely grown for market purposes, being more 
easily supported when carrying heavy crops, fruiting earlier, 
and the fruit being gathered more easily from the dwarf bush 
than from standard trees. 

The following is a selection of good varieties of plums, with 
their times of ripening: 

Dessert Plums. 

Early Green-gage . . e. July Transparent Gage . . b. Sept. 

Early Transparent Gage b. Aug. Jefferson ..... b. Sept. 

Denniston's Superb . b. Aug. Kirke's ...... m. Sept. 

Oullin's Golden . . . m. Aug. Coe's GoldenDrop . . e. Sept. 

Green-gage .. 
M'Laughlin's . 
Angelina Burdett 



m.e.Aug. Reine Claude de Bavay \ f ' ? 






b. Oct. 

Nov 



Early Prolific . . 
Belle de Louvain 
Belgian Purple . 

Czar 

Pershore .... 
Prince Englebert 
Mitchelsons' . . 



e. Aug. Ickworth Imperatrice 

b. Sept. Late Rivers . . . . j ^ 

Culinary Plums. 

e. July Victoria ...... Sept. 

Aug. White Magnum Bonum Sept. 

m. Aug. Pond's Seedling . . . m. Sept. 

e. Aug. Diamond ..... m. Sept. 

e. Aug. Monarch ..... e. Sept. 

e. Aug. Grand Duke .... Oct. 

b. Sept. Wyedale ..... e. Oct. 



Diseases. The Plum is subject to several diseases of fungal 
origin. A widespread disease known as pocket-plums or bladder- 
plums is due to an ascomycetous fungus, Exoascus pruni, the 
mycelium of which lives parasiticaily in the tissues of the host plant, 
passes into the ovary of the flower and causes the characteristic 
malformation of the fruit which becomes a deformed, sometimes 
curved or flattened, wrinkled dry structure, with a hollow occupying 
the place of the stone; the bladder plums are yellow at first, subse- 
quently dingy red. The reproductive spores are borne in sacs (asci) 
which form a dense layer on the surface, appearing like a bloom in 
July; they are scattered by the wind and propagate the disease. 
The only remedy is to cut off and burn the diseased branches. 

Plum-leaf blister is caused by Polystigma rubrum, a pyrenomy- 
cetous fungus which forms thick fleshy reddish patches on the leaves. 



PLUMBAGO PLUMBING 



855 



The- reproductive spores are formed in embedded flesh-shaped recep- 
tacles (perithecia) and scattered after the leaves have fallen. The 

spots are not often so numerous 
as to do much harm to the leaves, 
but where the disease is serious 
diseased leaves should be collected 
and burned. Sloes and bird- 
cherries should be removed from 
the neighbourhood of plum-trees, 
as the various disease-producing 
insects and fungi live also on these 
species. The branches are some- 
times attacked by weevils (Rhyn- 
cites) and the larvae of various 
moths, and saw-flies (chiefly Erio- 
campa) feed on the leaves, and 
young branches and leaves are 
sometimes invaded by Aphides. 
Leaf-feeding beetles and larvae of 
moths are best got rid of by 
shaking the branches and collecting 
the insects. Slug-worms or saw-fly 
larvae require treatment by wash- 
ing with soapsuds, tobacco and 
lime-water or hellebore solution, 
and Aphides by syringing from 
below and removing all surplus 
young twigs. 




(After Sadebeck. From Strasburger's 
Lehrbuch drr Bolanik, by permission 
of Gustav Fischer.) 

Taphrina Pruni. Transverse 
section through the epidermis 
of an infected plum. Four 
ripe asci, di, a 2 , with eiht 
spores a 3 , a t , with yeast-like 
conidia abstricted from the 
spores (X 600). 

st, Stalk-cells of the asci. 

m. Filaments of the mycelium 
cut transversely. 

cut, Cuticle. 

ep, Epidermis. 



PLUMBAGO (from Lat. plum- 
bum, lead), a name frequently 
applied to graphite (q.v.), in 
allusion to its remote resem- 
blance to lead, whence it is 
popularly called " black-lead." 
It was formerly held in repute 
in medicine, but is now regarded as having no medicinal 
properties of any value. 

PLUMBAGO DRAWINGS. What we should now speak of as 
pencil drawings were in the i7th and i8th centuries usually 
known as drawings " in plumbago," and there is a group of 
artists whose work is remarkable for their exquisite portraits 
drawn with finely pointed pieces of graphite and upon vellum. 
In some books of reference they are grouped as engravers, and 
as such Horace Walpole describes several of them. There is no 
doubt that many of their fine pencil drawings were prepared for 
the purpose cf engraving, but this is not likely to have been 
the case with all, and we have evidence of certain commissions 
executed, by Forster for example, when the portrait was not 
required for the preparation of a plate. One of the earliest of 
this group of workers was Simon Van de Pass (i595?-i647), 
and in all probability his pencil drawings were either for repro- 
duction on silver tablets or counters or for engraved plates. 
A very few pencil portraits by Abraham Blooteling, the Dutch 
engraver, have been preserved, which appear to have been first 
sketches, from which plates were afterwards engraved. They 
are of exceedingly delicate workmanship, and one in the present 
writer's collection is signed and dated. By] David Loggan 
(1635-1700), a pupil of Van de Pass, there also remain a few 
portraits, as a rule drawn on vellum and executed with the 
utmost dexterity and with marvellous minuteness, the lines 
expressing the intricacies of a lace ruffle or the curls of a wig 
being perfectly rendered. It is evident that these were not 
always prepared for engraving, because there is one representing 
Charles II., set in a beautiful gold snuff box, which was given by 
the king to the duchess of Portsmouth and now belongs to the 
duke of Richmond, and a similar portrait of Cromwell in the 
possession of Lord Verulam, while several others belong to Lord 
Caledon, and there are no engravings corresponding to these. 
On the other hand, a large drawing by Loggan in the writer's 
collection, representing Charles II., is the sketch for the finished 
engraving and bears a declaration to that effect. An artist 
who is better known to the general collector is William Faithorne 
(1616-1691). He was the pupil of Sir Robert Peake, the 
engraver, but derived much of his skill from the time he spent 
with Nanteuil, whose involved minute style he closely followed, 
triumphing over technical difficulties with great success. There 
are important drawings by him in the Bodleian, at Welbeck 



Abbey and at Montagu House, and two fine portraits in the 
British Museum. Thomas Forster (fl. 1695-1712) was one of 
the greatest draughtsmen in this particular form of portraiture. 
His drawings are both on vellum and on paper, as a rule on 
vellum. Of the details of his life very little is known. He 
engraved a few prints, but they are of the utmost rarity. His 
finest portraits are executed with very great refinement and 
delicacy, the modelling of the face being quite wonderful. It is 
in fact one of the marvels of this type of portraiture how such 
exquisite lines could have been drawn with the roughly cut 
pieces of graphite which were at the disposal of the artists. In 
some instances in Forster's work the lines representing the 
modelling of the face are so fine as to be quite indistinguishable 
without the aid of a glass. His work can be studied at Welbeck 
Abbey, in the Holburne Museum at Bath, in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum and elsewhere. Two other Englishmen should 
be referred to, Robert and George White, father and son. The 
former (1645-1704) was a pupil of Loggan and a prolific engraver, 
and most of his drawings, executed on vellum, were for the 
purpose of engraving. George White (c. 1684-1732) was taught 
by his father, and finished some of his father's plates. His own 
pencil drawings are of even finer execution than those of Robert 
White. These three men, Forster and the two Whites, carefully 
signed their drawings and dated them. By Robert White there 
are remarkable portraits of Bunyan and Sir Matthew Hale in 
the British Museum, and his own portrait at Welbeck; and by 
him and his son there are other drawings in private collections, 
depicting Sir Godfrey Kneller, Archbishop Tennyson and others. 
The two Fabers (i66o?-i72i and i695?-i7s6) were from 
Holland, the elder having been born at the Hague, as he himself 
states on his portrait which was in Vertue's collection. In 
addition to the portraits these two men usually added beautiful 
drawn inscriptions, often found within circles around the por- 
traits and occasionally extending to many lines below them. 
The son was the greater artist and a famous mezzotinter. The 
portrait painter Jonathan Richardson (1665-1745) executed 
many fine drawings in pencil, examples of which can be seen in 
the British Museum. One of the best of these plumbago 
draughtsmen was a Scotsman, whose work is of the utmost 
rarity, David Paton, who worked in 1670. The chief of his 
drawings belong to the earl of Dysart and are at Ham House, 
and two examples of his portraiture are in the possession of the 
Dalzell family. Of Paton's history nothing is known save that 
he was a Catholic who worked for more than one Dominican 
house, a devoted adherent of the Stuart cause, and was attached 
to the court of Charles II., when the king was in Scotland. At 
that time he drew his remarkable portrait of the king now at 
Ham House. There are drawings of the same character as his, 
the work of George Glover (d. 1618) and Thomas Cecill (fl. 1630), 
but they are of extraordinary rarity and were evidently first 
studies for engravings. Of Glover's work the only signed 
example known is in the writer's collection. A Swiss artist, 
Joseph Werner (b. 1637) or Waerner, drew well in pencil, 
adopting brown paper as the material upon which his best 
drawings were done, and in some cases heightening them with 
touches of white paint. The most notable of his portraits is 
one which is in the collection at Welbeck Abbey. 

The earlier miniature painters also drew in this manner, notably 
Hilliard in preparing designs for jewels and seals, and Isaac and 
Peter Oliver in portraits. By Isaac Oliver there is a fine drawing in 
Lord Derby's collection; and one by Peter, a marvellous likeness 
cf Sir Bevil Grenville, in that of the writer. The later men, Hone, 
Grimaldi, Lens and Downman, also drew finely in plumbago. Other 
notable exponents of this delightful art were Thomas Worlidge 
(1700-1766), F. Steele (c. 1714), W. Robins (c. 1730), G. A. Wolff- 
gang (1692-1775), George Vertue the engraver (1684-1756), Johann 
Zoffany (1733-1810), and the Swede, Charles Bancks (c. 1748), who 
resided in England for some years. (G. C. W.) 

PLUMBING, properly working in lead (Lat. plumbum), now a 
term embracing all work not only in lead, but also in tin, zinc 
and other metals, connected with the installation, fitting, 
repairing, soldering, &c., of pipes for water, gas, drainage, on 
cisterns, roofs and the like in any building, i.e. the general work 
of a plumber. (See BUILDING and SEWERAGE.) 



856 



PLUMPTRE PLUNKET, BARON 



PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES (1821-1891), English divine 
and scholar, was born in London on the 6th of August 1821. 
A scholar of University College, Oxford, he graduated with a 
double-first class in 1844, and in the same year he was elected 
fellow of Brasenose College. He was ordained in 1847, and 
shortly afterwards appointed chaplain, and then professor of 
pastoral theology, at King's College, London. In 1863 he was 
given a prebendal stall at St Paul's, and from 1869 to 1874 he 
was a member of the committee appointed by Convocation 
to revise the authorized version of the Old Testament. He 
was Boyle lecturer in 1866-1867 (" Christ and Christendom "), 
and Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford 1872-1874. 
After successively holding the livings of Pluckley and Brickley 
in Kent, he was installed in 1 88 1 as dean of Wells. He died on 
the ist of February 1891. 

Plumptre was a man of great versatility and attained high repu- 
tation as a translator of the plays of Sophocles (1865) and Aeschylus 
(1868), and of the Divina commedia of Dante (1886). In verse his 
main achievements were Lazarus (1864), and Master and Scholar 
(1866). Among his many theological works may be mentioned 
An Exposition of the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia (1877), 
The Spirits in Prison (1884), " The Book of Proverbs " (which he 
annotated in the Speaker's Commentary), the " Synoptic Gospels, 
Acts, and II. Corinthians," in Bishop Ellicott's New Testament 
Commentary, and Life of Bishop Ken (1888). 

PLUNDER, to rob, to pillage, especially in war. The word 
came into English usage directly from Ger. plundern (derived 
from a substantive Plunder meaning " household stuff," bed- 
clothes, clothing, &c.), particularly with reference to the pillaging 
of the Thirty ^Years' War. Thomas May (History" of the Long 
Parliament, 1647; quoted in the New English Dictionary) says: 
" Many Tounes and Villages he (Prince Rupert) plundered, 
which is to say robb'd, for at that time first was the word plunder 
used in England, being borne in Germany." The New English 
Dictionary's earliest quotation is from the Swedish Intelligencer 

(1632). r 

PLUNKET, OLIVER (1629-1681), Irish Roman Catholic 
divine, was born at Loughcrew, Co. Meath. He was edu- 
cated privately and at Rome, whither he went with Father 
Scarampi in 1645. From 1657 to 1669 he was professor of 
theology at the College of the Propaganda, enjoyed the friend- 
ship of the historian, Pallavicini, and acted as representative 
of Irish ecclesiastical affairs at Rome. Pope Clement IX. 
appointed him to the archbishopric of Armagh and primacy of 
Ireland in July 1669, and in November he was consecrated at 
Ghent, reaching Ireland in March 1670. Lord Berkeley of 
Stratton, the viceroy, showed him much kindness and allowed 
him to establish a Jesuit school in Dublin. Plunket showed 
amazing diligence in furthering the cause of his Church. He 
was in very straitened circumstances, the revenue of his see 
being only 62 in good years. The repressive measures following 
on the Test Act bore hardly upon him, and in December 1678 he 
was imprisoned in Dublin Castle for six weeks. Accused of a 
share in the Irish branch of the " Popish Plot," he was brought 
to London, and in June 1681 arraigned in the King's Bench, 
charged with conspiring to bring a French army to Carlingford. 
He made a good defence, but on the absurdest of evidence the 
jury convicted him of treason, and on the ist of July he was 
hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn. 

PLUNKET, WILLIAM CONYNGHAM PLUNKET, IST BARON 
(1764-1854), Irish lawyer, orator and statesman, was born in 
the county of Fermanagh in July I764. 1 He was educated first 
by his father, a Presbyterian minister of considerable ability 
and reputation, and in 1779 he became a student of Trinity 
College, Dublin. He was conspicuous as the acknowledged 
leader of the Historical Society, the debating club of Trinity 
College, then full of young men of remarkable promise. Having 
entered Lincoln's Inn in 1784, Plunket was called to the Irish 
bar in 1787. He gradually obtained a considerable practice 
in equity; and was made a king's counsel in 1797. 

1 The Irish Plunkets are distinguished by the spelling of the name 
from the Plunketts of the families of the barons Dunsany (cr. 1439) 
and the earls of Fingall (cr. 1628), though the earlier members of 
these houses are often given the spelling of Plunket. 



In 1798 he entered the Irish parliament as member for Charle- 
mont. He was an anti- Jacobin Whig of the school of Burke, 
not ungracefully filled with a fervent Irish patriotism. But he 
was a sincere admirer of the constitutional government of 
England as established in 1688; he even justified the ascendancy 
it had given to the Established Church, although he thought 
that the time had arrived for extending toleration to Roman 
Catholics and dissenters. To transfer it to Ireland as thus 
modified, and under an independent legislature, was the only 
reform he sought for his country; he opposed the union because 
he thought it incompatible with this object. 

When Plunket entered the Irish parliament, the Irish Whig 
party was almost extinct, and Pitt was feeling his way to 
accomplish the union. In this he was seconded ably by Lord 
Castlereagh, by the panic caused by a wild insurrection, and by 
the secession of Grattan from politics. When, however, the 
measure was brought forward, among the ablest and fiercest of 
its adversaries was Plunket, whose powers as a great orator 
were now universally recognized. His speeches raised him 
immediately to the front rank of his party; and when Grattan 
re-entered the moribund senate he took his seat next to 
Plunket, thus significantly recognizing the place the latter had 
attained. 

After the union Plunket returned to the practice of his 
profession, and became at once a leader of the equity bar. In 
1803, after Emmet's rebellion, he was selected as one of the 
Crown lawyers to prosecute the unfortunate enthusiast, and at 
the trial, in summing up the evidence, delivered a speech of 
remarkable power, which shows his characteristic dislike of 
revolutionary outbursts. For this speech he was exposed to 
much unmerited obloquy, and more especially to the abuse of 
Cobbett, against whom he brought a successful action for 
damages. In 1803, in Pitt's second administration, he became 
solicitor-general, and hi 1805 attorney-general for Ireland; and 
he continued in office when Lord Grenville came into power in 
1806. Plunket held a seat in the Imperial parliament during 
this period, and there made several able speeches in favour of 
Catholic emancipation, and of continuing the war with France; 
but when the Grenville cabinet was dissolved he returned 
once more to professional life. 

In 1812, having amassed a considerable fortune, he re-entered 
parliament as member for Trinity College, and identified himself 
with the Grenville or anti-Gallican Whigs. He was soon acknow- 
ledged as one of the first orators, if not the first, of the House of 
Commons. His reverence for the English constitution in church 
and state, his steady advocacy of the war with Napoleon, and 
his antipathy to anything like democracy made him popular 
with the Tory party. In 1822 Plunket was once more attorney-, 
general for Ireland, with Lord Wellesley as lord-lieutenant. 
One of his first official acts was to prosecute for the " bottle 
riot," an attempt on his part to put down the Orange faction 
in Ireland. He strenuously opposed the Catholic Association, 
which about this time, under the guidance of O'Connell, began 
its agitation. In 1825 he made a powerful speech against it; 
thus the curious spectacle was seen of the ablest champion of 
an oppressed church doing all in his power to check its efforts to 
emancipate itself. 

In 1827 Plunket was made master of the rolls in England; 
but, owing to the professional jealousy of the bar, who regarded 
an Irishman as an intruder, he resigned in a few days. Soon 
afterwards he became chief justice of the common pleas in 
Ireland, and was then created a peer of the United Kingdom. 
In 1830 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland, and held 
the office, with an interval of a few months only, until 1841, 
when he finally retired from public life. He died on the 4th of 
January 1854, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the bishop of 
Tuam (1792-1866) as 2nd baron. The 4th baron (1828-1897) 
was bishop of Meath and afterwards archbishop of Dublin and 
primate of Ireland, and an active ecclesiastical statesman; and 
his younger brother David Plunket (b. 1838), solicitor-general 
for Ireland in 1875-1877, and first commissioner of works in the 
Unionist administration of 1885-1892, was in 1895 created Baron 



PLUNKETT PLUTARCH 



Rathmore. William Lee Plunket, sth baron (b. 1864), was 
governor of New Zealand from 1904 to 1910. 

PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE CURZON (1854- ), Irish 
politician, third son of Edward, i6th baron Dunsany, was born 
on the 24th of October 1854, and was educated at Eton and 
University College, Oxford, of which college he became honorary 
fellow in 1909. He spent ten years (1879-1889) ranching in 
Montana, U.S.A., where, together with a substantial fortune, 
he acquired experience that proved invaluable in the work 
of agricultural education, improvement and development, to 
which he devoted himself on his return to Ireland in 1889. At 
first Plunkett resolved to hold himself aloof from party politics, 
and he set himself to bring together men of all political views 
for the promotion of the material prosperity of the Irish people. 
In 1894 he founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society, 
which accomplished a work of incalculable importance by 
introducing co-operation among Irish farmers, and by proving 
to the latter the benefits obtainable through more economical 
and efficient management. But already in 1892 he had felt 
compelled to abandon his non-political attitude, and he entered 
parliament as Unionist member for south Dublin (county). 
Continuing, however, his policy of conciliation, Plunkett sug- 
gested in August 1895 that a few prominent persons of various 
political opinions should meet to discuss and frame a scheme of 
practical legislation. The outcome of this proposal was the forma- 
tion of the " Recess Committee " with Plunkett as chairman, 
which included men of such divergent views as the earl of Mayo, 
Mr John Redmond, The O'Conor Don and Mr Thomas Sinclair. 
In July 1896 the Recess Committee issued a report, of which 
Plunkett was the author, containing valuable accounts of the 
systems of state aid to agriculture and of technical instruction 
in foreign countries. This report, and the growing influence 
of Plunkett, who became a member of the Irish Privy Council 
in 1897, led to the passing of an act in 1899 which established a 
department of agriculture and technical instruction in Ireland, 
of which the chief secretary was to be president ex officio. Plun- 
kett was appointed vice-president, a position which gave him 
control of the department's operations. It was intended that 
the vice-president should be responsible for the department in 
the House of Commons, but at the general election of 1900 
Plunkett lost his seat. An extensively signed memorial, sup- 
ported by 'the Agricultural Council, prayed that he might not 
be removed from office, and at the government's request he 
continued to direct the policy of the department without a seat 
in parliament. He was created K.C.V.O. in 1903. 

On the accession of the Liberal party to power in 1906, Sir 
Horace Plunkett was requested by Mr Bryce, the new chief 
secretary, to remain at the head of the department he had 
created. But, having sat in the House of Commons as a Unionist, 
Plunkett had incurred the hostility of the Nationalist party, 
whose resentment had been further excited by the bold statement 
of certain unpalatable truths in his book, Ireland in the New 
Century (1004), in which he described the economic condition 
and needs of the country and the nature of the agricultural 
improvement schemes he had inaugurated. A determined 
effort was therefore made by the Nationalists to drive from 
office the man who had probably done more than any one else 
of his generation to benefit the Irish people; and in moving a 
resolution in the House of Commons with this object in 1907, 
a. Nationalist declared that his party " took their stand on the 
principle that the industrial revival could only go hand in hand 
with the national movement." The government gave way, 
and in the summer of 1907 Sir Horace Plunkett retired from 
office. Since the year 1900 a grant of about 4 had been 
made annually by the Department of Agriculture to the Irish 
Agricultural Organization Society; but the new vice-president, 
Mr T. W. Russell, who had been himself previously a member 
of the Unionist administration, withdrew in 1907 this modest 
support of an association with which Sir Horace Plunkett 
was so closely identified, and of which he continued to be the 
guiding spirit. In addition to the publication mentioned, 
.Sir Horace Plunkett published Noblesse Oblige: An Irish 



Rendering (1908), and Rural Life Problems of the United Slates 
(1910). 

See Sir Horace Plunkett, Ireland in the New Century (London, 
1904) ; Report of the Committee of Inquiry: Department of Agriculture 
and Technical Instruction (Ireland), (Cd. 3572) (1907). 

PLURALISM (Lat. plus, plures, many, several), a term used 
generally in the sense of plurality (see below), and in philosophy 
for any theory which postulates more than one absolutely dis- 
tinct being or principle of being, opposed to monism. Plural- 
istic systems are based on the difficulty of reconciling with the 
monistic principle the principles of variety and freewill. The 
chief difficulty which besets any such view is that if the elements 
are absolutely independent, the cosmos disappears and we are 
left with chaos: if, on the other hand, there is interrelation 
(as in Lotze's system), the elements are not ultimate 'in any 
intelligible sense. 

PLURALITY (O. Fr. pluralite, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural 
number), in a general sense, a word denoting more than one; 
applied particularly to the holding of two or more offices by 
the same person (called then a pluralist). In ecclesiastical law, 
plurality or the holding of more than one benefice or preferment 
was always discountenanced, and is now prohibited in England 
by the Pluralities Act 1838, as amended by the Pluralities Act 
1850 and the Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885. By the 
latter act a provision was made that two benefices might be 
held together, by dispensation of the archbishop on the recom- 
mendation of the bishop, if the churches be within four miles 
of each other, and if the annual value of one does not exceed 
200 (see BENEFICE). It was formerly a practice to evade 
enactments against plurality by means of commendams, i.e. by 
committing or commending a benefice to a holder of other 
benefices until an incumbent should be provided for it. Com- 
mendams were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners 
Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, 18). See also Coltv. Bishop 
of Coventry, 1613, Hob. 140 seq., where much learning on the 
subject will be found. 

In elections, particularly where there are three or more 
candidates, and no one candidate receives an absolute majority 
of votes, the excess of votes polled by the first candidate over 
the second is often termed plurality, especially in the United 
States. 

PLUSH (Fr. peluche), a textile fabric having a cut nap or pile 
the same as fustian or velvet. Originally the pile of plush 
consisted of mohair or worsted yarn, but now silk by itself or 
with a cotton backing is used for plush, the distinction from 
velvet being found in the longer and less dense pile of plush. 
The material is largely used for upholstery and furniture 
purposes, and is also much employed in dress and millinery. 

PLUTARCH (Gr. HXoiirapxos) (c. A.D. 46-120), Greek bio- 
grapher and miscellaneous writer, was born at Chaeronea in 
Boeotia. After having been trained in philosophy at Athens he 
travelled and stayed some time at Rome, where he lectured on philo- 
sophy and undertook the education of Hadrian. 1 Trajan bestowed 
consular rank upon him, and Hadrian appointed him procurator 
of Greece. He died in his native town, where he was archon 
and priest of the Pythian Apollo. In the Consolation to his 
Wife on the loss of his young daughter, he tells us ( 2) that they 
had brought up four sons besides, one of whom was called by the 
name of Plutarch's brother, Lamprias. We learn incidentally 
from this treatise ( 10) that the writer had been initiated in 
the secret mysteries of Dionysus, which held that the soul was 
imperishable. He seems to have been an independent thinker 
rather than an adherent of any particular school of philosophy. 
His vast acquaintance with the literature of his time is every- 
where apparent. 

The celebrity of Plutarch, or at least his popularity, is mainly 
founded on his forty-six Parallel Lives. He is thought to have 
written this work in his later years after his return to Chaeronea. 
His knowledge of Latin and of Roman history he must have 
partly derived from some years' residence in Rome and other 

1 There seems no authority for this statement earlier than the 
middle ages. 



858 



PLUTARCH 



parts of Italy, 1 though he says he was too much engaged in 
lecturing (doubtless in Greek, on philosophy) to turn his attention 
much to Roman literature during that period. 

Plutarch's design in writing the Parallel Lives for this is 
the title which he gives them in dedicating Theseus and Romulus 
to Sosius Senecio appears to have been the publication, in 
successive books, of authentic biographies in pairs, taking 
together a Greek and a Roman. In the introduction to the 
Theseus he speaks of having already issued his Lycurgus and 
Numa, viewing them, no doubt, as bearing a resemblance to 
each other in their legislative character. Theseus and Romulus 
are compared as the legendary founders of states. In the 
opening sentence of the life of Alexander he says that " in this 
book he has written the lives of Alexander and Caesar " (Julius), 
and in his Demosthenes, where he again ( i) mentions his friend 
Sosius, he calls the life of this orator and Cicero the fifth book. 2 
It may therefore fairly be inferred that Plutarch's original idea 
was simply to set a Greek warrior, statesman, orator or legislator 
side by side with some noted Roman celebrated for the same 
qualities, or working under similar conditions. Nearly all the 
lives are in pairs; but the series concluded with single biographies 
of Artaxerxes, Aratus (of Sicyon), Galba and Otho. In the life 
of Aratus, not Sosius Senecio, but one Polycrates, is addressed. 

The Lives are works of great learning and research, long lists 
of authorities are given, and they must for this very reason, 
as well as from their considerable length, have taken many years 
in compilation. It is true that many of the lives, especially of 
Romans, do not show such an extent of research. But Plutarch 
must have had access to a great store of books, and his diligence 
as an historian cannot be questioned, if his accuracy is in some 
points impeached. From the historian's point of view the 
weakness of the biographies is that their interest is primarily 
ethical. The author's sympathy with Doric characters and 
institutions is very evident; he delights to record the exploits, 
the maxims and virtues of Spartan kings and generals. 
This feeling is the key to his apparently unfair and virulent 
attack on Herodotus, who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have 
exaggerated the prowess and the foresight of the Athenian 
leaders. 

The voluminous and varied writings of Plutarch exclusive 
of the Lives are known under the common term Opera moralia. 
These consist of above sixty essays, some of them long and 
many of them rather difficult, some too of very doubtful genuine- 
ness. Their literary value is greatly enhanced by the large 
number of citations from lost Greek poems, especially verses of 
the dramatists, among whom Euripides holds by far the first 
place. The principal treatises in the Opera moralia are the 
following: 

On the Education of Children (regarded as spurious by some) 
recommends (i) good birth, and sobriety in the father; (2) good 
disposition and good training are alike necessary for virtue; (3) 
a mother ought to nurse her own offspring, on the analogy of all 
animals; (4) the paedogogus must be honest and trustworthy; (5) 
all the advantages of life and fortune must be held secondary to 
education; (6) mere mob-oratory is no part of a good education; 
(7) philosophy should form the principal study, but not to the 
exclusion of the other sciences; (8) gymnastics are to be practised; 
(9) kindness and advice are better than blows; (10) over-pressure 
in learning is to be avoided, and plenty of relaxation is to be allowed ; 

(11) self-control, and not least over the tongue, is to be learned; 

(12) the grown-up youth should be under the eye and advice of his 
father, and all bad company avoided, flatterers included 1(13) fathers 
should not be too harsh and exacting, but remember that they were 
themselves once young; (14) marriage is recommended, and without 
disparity of rank; (15) above all, a father should be an example of 
virtue to a son. 

How a Young Man ought to Hear Poetry is largely made up of 
quotations from Homer and the tragic poets. The points of the 
essay are the moral effects of poetry as combining the true with the 
false, the praises of virtue and heroism with a mythology depraved 
and unworthy of gods, i 9tol TI. bpSxri <j>au\ov, oiiK tialv 6eoi (2l). 

1 Demosth. 2. Plutarch's orthography of Roman words and 
names is important as bearing on the question of pronunciation. 
A curious example (De fortun. Rom. 5) is Virtutis et honoris, 
written OfoproDris rt nal 'Ovwpa. The Volsci are O&oXouiraji, ibid. 

* It is quite evident that the original order of the books has been 
altered in the series of Lives as we now have them. 



On the Right Way of Hearing (irepj TOV iutoiiuv) advocates the 
listening in silence to what is being said, and not giving a precipitate 
reply to statements which may yet receive some addition or modifica- 
tion from the speaker ( 4). The hearer is warned not to give too 
much weight to the style, manner or tone of the speaker ( 7), not 
to be either too apathetic or too prone to praise, not to be impatient 
if he finds his faults reproved by the lecturer ( 16). He concludes 
with the maxim, " to hear rightly is the beginning of living rightly," 
and perhaps he has in view throughout his own profession as a 
lecturer. 

How a Flatterer may be Distinguished from a Friend is a rather 
long and uninteresting treatise. The ancient writers are full of 
warnings against flatterers, who do not seem to exercise much 
influence in modern society. The really dangerous flatterer ( 4) 
is not the parasite, but the pretender to a disinterested friendship 
one who affects similar tastes, and so insinuates himself into your 
confidence. Your accomplished flatterer does not always praise, 
but flatters by act, as when he occupies a good seat at a public 
meeting for the express purpose of resigning it to his patron ( 15). 
A true friend, on the contrary, speaks freely on proper occasions. 
A good part of the essay turns on irappriala, the honest expression 
of opinion. The citations, which are fairly numerous, are mostly 
from Homer. 

How one may be Conscious of Progress in Goodness is addressed to 
Sosius Senecio, who was consul in the last years of Nerva, and more 
than once (99, 102, 107) under Trajan. If, says Plutarch, a man 
could become suddenly wise instead of foolish, he could not be 
ignorant of the change; but it is otherwise with moral or mental 
processes. Gradual advance in virtue is like steady sailing over a 
wide sea, and can only be measured by the time taken and the forces 
applied ( 3). Zeno tested advance by dreams ( 12); if no excess 
or immorality presented itself to the imagination of the sleeper, his 
mind had been purged by reason and philosophy. When we love 
the truly good, and adapt ourselves to their looks and manners, 
and this even with the loss of worldly prosperity, then we are really 
getting on in goodness ourselves ( 15). Lastly, the avoidance of 
little sins is an evidence of a scrupulous conscience ( 17). 

How to get Benefit out of Enemies argues that, as primitive man 
had savage animals to fight against, but learnt to make use of their 
skins for clothing and their flesh for food, so we are bound to turn 
even our enemies to some good purpose. One service they do to 
us is to make us live warily against plots; another is, they induce us 
to live honestly, so as to vex our rivals not by scolding them, but 
by making them secretly jealous of us ( 4). Again, finding fault 
leads us to consider if we are ourselves faultless, and to be found 
fault with by a foe is likely to be plain truth speaking, lumwriw 
tarl irapd rCiv ixBpuv rf/v AXi^iac ( 6). Jealousies and strifes, so 
natural to man, arc diverted from our friends by being legitimately 
expended on our enemies ( 10). 

On Having Many Friends, On Chance, On Virtue and Vice, are 
three short essays, the first advocating the concentration of one's 
affections on a few who are worthy (roils &.ioos <t>i\ias Siw/ceic, 4), 
rather than diluting them, as it were, on the many; the second 
pleads that intelligence, <j>p&ini<ns, not mere luck, is the ruling 
principle of all success; the third shows that virtue and vice are 
but other names for happiness and misery. All these are inter- 
spersed with citations from the poets, several of them unknown 
from other sources. 

A longer treatise, well and clearly written, and not less valuable 
for its many quotations, is the Consolation addressed to Apollonius 
(considered spurious by some) on the early death of his " generally 
beloved and religious and dutiful son." Equality of mind both in 
prosperity and in adversity is recommended ( 4), since there are 
" ups and downs " (ityos nai TajreiroTijs) in life, as there are storms 
and calms on the sea, and good and bad seasons on the earth. That 
man is born to reverses he illustrates by citing fifteen fine verses from 
Menander ( 5). The uselessness of indulging in grief is pointed out, 
death being a debt to all and not to be regarded as an evil ( 10-12), 
Plato's doctrine is cited ( 13) that the body is a burden and an 
impediment to the soul. Death may be annihilation, and therefore 
the dead are in the same category as the unborn ( 15). The lament- 
ing a death because it is untimely or premature has something of 
selfishness in it ( 19), besides that it only means that one has arrived 
sooner than another at the end of a common journey. If a death 
is more grievous because it is untimely, a new-born infant's death 
would be the most grievous of all ( 23). One who has died early 
may have been spared many woes rather than have been deprived 
of many blessings; and, after all, to die is but to pay a debt due to 
the gods when they ask for it ( 28). Examples are given of fortitude 
and resignation under such affliction ( 33). If, says the author 
in conclusion, there is a heaven for the good hereafter, be sure that 
such a son will have a place in it. The author has borrowed from the 
IlepJ irevdovs of Grantor. 

Precepts about Health commences as a dialogue, and extends to 
some length as a lecture. It is technical and difficult throughout, 
and contains but little that falls in with modern ideas. Milk, he 
says, should be taken for food rather than for drink, and wine 
should not be indulged in after hard work or mental effort, for it 
does but tend to increase the bodily disturbance ( 17). Better 
than purges or emetics is a temperate diet, which induces the bodily 



PLUTARCH 



859 



functions to act of themselves ( 20). Another wise saying is that 
idleness does not conduce to health (abb' AX7j9 ian TO /uaXXov irtia!inu> 
Tom Ttavxiav fi7"Tos) (2i),and yet another that a man should learn 
by experience his bodily capabilities without always consulting a 
physician ( 26). 

Advice to the Married is addressed to his newly wedded friends 
Pollianus and Eurydice. It is simply and plainly written, and 
consists chiefly of short maxims and anecdotes, with but few citations 
from the poets. 

The Banquet o/ the Seven Wise Men (considered spurious by some) 
is a longer treatise, one of the several " Symposia " or imaginary 
conversations that have come down to us. It is supposed to be 
given by Periander in the public banqueting-room (laTia.Topi.ov) 
near the harbour of Corinth (Lechaeum) on the occasion of a sacrifice 
to Aphrodite. The whole party consisted of " more than twice 
seven," the friends of the principal guests being also present. Like 
Plato's Symposium this treatise takes the form of a narrative of what 
was said and done, the narrator being one Diccles, a friend of Perian- 
der, who professes to give Nicarchus a correct account as having 
been present. The dinner was simple, and in contrast with the 
usual splendour of " tyrants " ( 4). The conversation turns on 
various topics; Solon is credited with the remarkable opinion that 
" a king or tyrant is most likely to become celebrated it he makes a 
democracy out of a monarchy" ( 7). There is much playful banter 
throughout, but neither the wit nor the wisdom seems of a very high 
standard. Solon delivers a speech on food being a necessity rather 
than a pleasure of life ( 16), and oneGorgus, a brother of the host, 
comes in to relate how he has just shaken hands with Arion, brought 
across the sea on the back of a dolphin ( 18), which brings on a dis- 
cussion about the habits of that creature. Among the speakers are 
Aesop, Anacharsis, Thales, Chilo, Cleobulus and one Chersias, a poet. 

A short essay On Superstition contains a good many quotations 
from the poets. It opens with the wise remark that ignorance about 
the gods, which makes the obstinate man an atheist, also begets 
credulity in weak and pliant minds. The atheist fears nothing 
because he believes nothing; the superstitious man believes there 
are gods, but that they are unfriendly to him ($ 2). A man who 
fears the gods is never free from fear, whatever he may do or what- 
ever may befall him. He extends his fears beyond his death, and 
believes in the " gates of hell," and its fires, in the darkness, the 
ghosts, the infernal judges, and what not ( 4). The atheist does not 
believe in the gods; the superstitious man wishes he did not, but 
fears to disbelieve (11). On the whole, this is a most interesting 
treatise. 

On Isis and Osiris is a rather long treatise on Egyptian symbolism , 
interesting chiefly to students of Egyptology. It gives an exposition 
of the strange myths and superstitions of this ancient solar cult, 
including a full account of the great antagonist of Osiris, Typhpn, 
or the Egyptian Satan. Plutarch thus lays down the Zoroastrian 
theory of good and bad agencies ( 45): " If nothing can happen 
without cause, and good cannot furnish cause for evil, it follows that 
the nature of evil, as of good, must have an origin and principle of 
its own." 

On the_ Cessation of Oracles is a dialogue, discussing the reasons 
why divine inspiration seemed to be withdrawn from the old seats 
of prophetic lore. The real reason of their decline in popularity 
is probably very simple; when the Greek cities became Roman 
provinces the fashion of consulting oracles fell off, as unsuited to 
the more practical influences of Roman thought and Roman politics. 
The question is discussed whether there are such intermediate 
beings as daemons, who according to Plato communicate the will 
of the gods to men, and the prayers and vows of men to the gods. 

The possibility of a plurality of worlds is entertained, and of the 
planets being more or less composed of the essence of the five 
elements, fire, ether, earth, air and water ( 37). The whole treatise 
is metaphysical, but it concludes with remarks on the exhalations 
at Delphi having different effects on different people and at different 
times. The ancient notion doubtless was that the vapour was the 
breath of some mysterious being sent up from the under-world. 

On the Pythian Responses, why no longer given in Verse, is also a 
dialogue, the first part of which is occupied mainly with conver- 
sation and anecdotes about the statues and other offerings at Delphi. 
It is rather an amusing essay, and may be regarded as a kind of 
appendix to the last. The theory propounded ( 24) is that verse 
was the older vehicle of philosophy, history and religion, but that 
plain prose has become the later fashion, and therefore that oracles 
are now generally delivered " in the same form as laws speak to 
citizens, kings reply to their subjects, and scholars hear their teachers 
speak." Discredit, too, was brought on the verse-oracle by the 
facility with which it was employed by impostors ( 25). Moreover, 
verse is better suited to ambiguity, and oracles nowadays have less 
need to be ambiguous ( 88). 

On the E at Delphi is an inquiry why that letter or symbol was 
written on or in the Delphic temple. Some thought it represented 
the number five, others that it introduced the inquiry of oracle- 
seekers, // sp-and-so vyas to be done ; while one of the speakers, Am- 
monius, decides that it means El, " thou art," an address to Apollo 
containing the predication of existence ( 17). 

On the Face of the Moon's Disk is a long and curious if somewhat 
trifling speculation, yet not without interest from its calculations 



of the sizes and the distance from earth of the sun and moon ( 10), 
and from the contrast between ancient lunar theories and modern 
mathematics. The cause of the moon's light, its peculiar colour, 
the possibility of its being inhabited and many kindred questions 
are discussed in this dialogue, the beginning and end of which are 
alike abrupt. Some of the " guesses at truth " are very near the 
mark, as when it is suggested ( 21-22) that the moon, like the 
earth, contains deep recesses into which the sun's light does not 
descend, and the appearance of the " face " is nothing but the 
shadows of streams or of deep ravines. 

On the Late Vengeance of the Deity is a dialogue consequent on a 
supposed lecture by Epicurus. An objection is raised to the 
ordinary dealings of providence, that long-delayed punishment 
encourages the sinner and disappoints the injured, the reply to 
which is ( 5) that the god sets man an example to avoid hasty 
and precipitate resentment, and that he is willing to give time for 
repentance ( 6). Moreover, he may wish to await the birth of 
good progeny from erring parents ( 7). Another fine reflection is 
that sin has its own punishment in causing misery to the sinner, 
and thus the longer the life the greater is the share of misery ( 9). 
The essay concludes with a long story about one Thespesius, and 
the treatment which he saw, during a trance, of the souls in the other 
world. 

On Fate (probably spurious) discusses the law of chance as against 
the overruling of providence. This treatise ends abruptly; the point 
of the argument is that both fate and providence have their due 
influence in mundane affairs ( 9), and that all things are constituted 
for the best. 

On the Genius of Socrates is a long essay, and, like so many of the 
rest, in the form of a dialogue. The experiences of one Timarchus, 
and his supernatural visions in the cave of Trophonius, are related 
at length in the Platonic style ( 22), and the true nature of the 
oaiiiovts is revealed to him. They are the souls of the just, who 
still retain regard for human affairs and assist the good in their 
efforts after virtue ( 28). The dialogue ends with an interesting 
narrative of the concealment of Pelopidas and some of the Theban 
conspirators against the Spartans in the house of Charon. 

On Exile is a fine essay, rendered the more interesting from its 
numerous quotations from the poets, including several from the 
Phoenissae. Man is not a plant that grows only in one soil; he 
belongs to heaven rather than to earth, and wherever he goes there 
are the same sun, the same seasons, the same providence, the same 
laws of virtue and justice ( 5). There is no discredit in being driven 
from one's country; Apollo himself was banished from heaven and 
condemned to live for a time on earth ( 18). 

The Consolation to his Wife, on the early death of their only 
daughter Timoxena ( 7), is a feeling and sensible exhortation to 
moderate her grief. 

Nine books of Symposiaca extend to a great length, discussing 
inquiries (vpofl\fina.Ta.) on a vast number of subjects. The general 
treatment of these, in which great literary knowledge is displayed, 
is not unlike the style of Athenaeus. 

The Amorous Man is a dialogue of some length, describing a con- 
versation on the nature of love held at Helicon, pending a quin- 
quennial feast of the Thespians, who specially worshipped that deity 
along with the Muses. It is amply illustrated by poetical quotations. 
In 24 mention is made of the emperor Vespasian. It is followed 
by a short treatise entitled Love Stories, giving a few narratives of 
sensational adventures of lovers. 

Short Sayings (inro<t>8ky para) , dedicated to Trajan, extend to a 
great length, and are divided into three parts: (i) of kings and 
commanders (including many Roman); (2) of Spartans; (3) of 
Spartan women (a short treatise on Spartan institutions being 
interposed between the last two). The names of the authors are 
added, and to some of them a large number of maxims are attributed. 

A rather long treatise On the Virtues of Women contains a series 
of narratives of noble deeds done by the sex in times of danger 
and trouble, especially from " tyrants." Many of the stories are 
interesting, and the style is easy and good. 

Another long and learned work tears the rather obscure title 
Ke<t>a\aiuv Karaypa^. It is generally known as Quaestiones Ro- 
manae and Graecae, in two parts. In the former, which contains 
one hundred and thirteen headings, the inquiry (on some matter 
political, religious or antiquarian) always commences with Sia rl, 
usually followed by iroTtpov, with alternative explanations. In the 
Greek Questions the form of inquiry is more often ris or TICM, not 
followed by irbrtpov. This treatise is of great interest and import- 
ance to classical archaeology, though the inquiries seem occasionally 
trifling, and sometimes the answers are clearly wrong. 

Parallels (spurious) are a series of similar incidents which occurred 
respectively to Greeks and Romans, the Greek standing first and the 
Roman counterpart following. Many of the characters are mytho- 
logical, though Plutarch regards them as historical. 

On the Fortune of the Romans discusses whether, on the whole, 
good luck or valour had more influence in giving the Romans the 
supremacy. This is followed by two discourses on the same 
question as applicable to the career of Alexander the Great, and 
Whether the Athenians were more renowned for War or for Wisdom^ 
The conclusion is ( 7) that it was not so much by the fame of their 
poets as by the deeds of their heroes that Athens became renowned. 



86o 



PLUTARCH PLUTO 



Gryllus is a most amusing dialogue, in which Circe, Odysseus and 
a talking pig take part. Odysseus wishes that all the human beings 
that have been changed by the sorceress into bestial forms should 
be restored; but the pig argues that in moral virtues, such as true 
bravery, chastity, temperance and general simplicity of life and 
contentment, animals are very far superior to man. 

Whether Land Animals or Water Animals are the Cleverer is a 
rather long dialogue on the intelligence of ants, bees, elephants, 
spiders, dogs, &c., on the one hand, and the crocodile, the dolphin, 
the tunny and many kinds of fish, on the other. This is a good 
essay, much in the style of Aristotle's History of Animals. 

On Flesh-eating, in two orations, discusses the origin of the 
practice, viz. necessity, and makes a touching appeal to man not 
to destroy life for mere gluttony ( 4). This is a short but very 
sensible and interesting argument. Questions on Plato are ten in 
number, each heading subdivided into several speculative replies. 
The subjects are for the most part metaphysical; the essay is not 
long, but it concerns Platonists only. Whether Water or Fire is 
more Useful is also short ; after discussing the uses of both elements 
it decides in favour of the latter, since nothing can exceed in im- 
portance the warmth of life and the light of the sun. On Primary 
Cold is a physical speculation on the true nature and origin of 
the quality antithetical to heat. Physical Reasons {Quaestiones 
Naturales) are replies to inquiries as to why certain facts or pheno- 
mena occur, e.g. " Why is salt the only flavour not in fruits ? " 
" Why do fishing-nets rot in winter more than in summer ? " " Why 
does pouring oil on the sea produce a calm ? " On the Opinions 
accepted by the Philosophers (spurious), in five books, is a valuable 
compendium of the views of the Ionic school and the Stoics on the 
phenomena of the universe and of life. On the Ill-nature of Herodotus 
is a well-known critique of the historian for his unfairness, not only 
to the Boeotians and Lacedaemonians, but to the Corinthians and 
other Greek states. It is easy to say that this essay " neither 
requires nor merits refutation "; but Plutarch knew history, and he 
writes like one who thoroughly understands the charges which 
he brings against the historian. The Lives of the Ten Orators from 
Antiphon to Dinarchus (now considered spurious) are biographies 
of various lengths, compiled, doubtless, from materials now lost. 

Two rather long essays, Should a Man engage in Politics -when he 
is no longer Young, and Precepts for Governing(iro\iTi.K.a. vapayye\iiara), 
are interspersed with valuable quotations. In favour of the 
former view the administrations of Pericles, of Agesilaus, of 
Augustus, are cited (2), and the preference of older men for the 
pleasures of doing good over the pleasures of the senses ( 5). In the 
latter, the true use of eloquence is discussed, and a contrast drawn 
between the brilliant and risky and the slow and safe policy (| 10). 
The choice of friends, and the caution against enmities, the dangers 
of love, of gain and of ambition, with many topics of the like kind, 
are sensibly advanced and illustrated by examples. 

(F. A. P.; J. M. M.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1572); other 
complete editions by I. J. Reiske (1774-1782), J. G. Hutten (1791- 
1804), T. Dohner and F. Dubner (1846-1855). Of the Lives, there 
are editions by A. Coray (1809-1814), C. Sintenis (1839-1846; ed. 
min., 1874-1881), and of many separate lives by Siefert-Blass, 
Sintenis^Fuhr, Holden, Hardy and others. There are many English 
translations, of which the most popular is that by John and William 
Langhorne; also the old French version by Jacques Amyot (1559) 
from which Sir Thomas North's (1579) was made, newly edited 
by G. Wyndham (1895) ; many of the Roman lives have been trans- 
lated, with notes, by George Long. The Moralia has been edited 
by D. Wyttenbach (1795-1830), and G. N. Bernardakes (1888-1896). 
The old English translation by Philemon Holland (1603) has been 
revised by C. W. King and A. R. Shilleto in Bohn's Classical Library 
(1882-1888), and a later translation by various hands (London, 
1684-1694), edited by W. W. Goodwin with introduction by R. W. 
Emerson, has been republished at Cambridge, Massachusetts (1874- 
1878). Mention may also be made of P. Holland's Romane Questions, 
edited with introductory dissertations by F. B. Jevons (1892) ; Roman 
Problems, with essay on " Roman Worship and Belief," by G. C. 
Allen (1904); De la Musique, ed. H. Weil and Th. Reinach (1900); 
J. Oakesmith, The Religion of Plutarch as expounded in his Ethics 
(1902); Archbishop Trench, A Popular Introduction to Plutarch 
(1873); O. Gr6ard,> la Morale de Plutarque (1866); R. Volkmann, 
Leben, Schriften und Philosophie des Plutarch (1869). The earlier 
literature of Plutarch is very extensive, for which W. Engelmann, 
Scriptores graeci (1881), may be consulted. 

PLUTARCH, of Athens (c. 350-430), Greek philosopher, 
head of the Neoplatonist school at Athens at the beginning 
of the sth century, was the son of Nestorius and father of 
Hierius and Asclepigenia, who were his colleagues in the school. 
The origin of Neoplatonism in Athens is not known, but Plutarch 
and his followers (the " Platonic Succession ") claim to be the 
disciples of lamblichus, and through him of Porphyry and 
Plotinus. Plutarch's main principle was that the study of 
Aristotle must precede that of Plato, and that the student should 
be taught to realize primarily the fundamental points of agree- 



ment between them. With this object he wrote a commentary 
on the De anima which was the most important contribution 
to Aristotelian literature since the time of Alexander of Aphro- 
disias. His example was followed by Syrianus and others of 
the school. This critical spirit reached its greatest height in 
Proclus, the ablest exponent of this latter-day syncretism. 
Plutarch was versed in all the theurgic traditions of the school, 
and believed in the possibility of attaining to communion with 
the Deity by the medium of the theurgic rites. Unlike the Alex- 
andrists and the early Renaissance writers, he maintained 
that the soul which is bound up in the body by the ties of imagina- 
tion and sensation does not perish with the corporeal media of 
sensation. In psychology, while believing that Reason is the 
basis and foundation of all consciousness, he interposed between 
sensation and thought the faculty of Imagination, which, as 
distinct from both, is the activity of the soul under the stimulus 
of unceasing sensation. In other words, it provides the raw 
material for the operation of Reason. Reason is present in 
children as an inoperative potentiality, in adults as working 
upon the data of sensation and imagination, and, in its pure 
activity, it is the transcendental or pure intelligence of God. 

See Marinus, Vita Prodi, 6, 12; Zeller's History of Greek Philo- 
sophy; Bouillet, Enneades de Plotin, ii. 667-668; Windelband, 
History of Philosophy (trans. J. H. Tufts, p. 225). 



PLUTO (nXouTcov), in Greek mythology, the god of the 
lower world. His oldest name was Hades, Aides or Aidoneus, 
" the Unseen." He was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother 
of Zeus and Poseidon. Having deposed Cronus, the brothers cast 
lots for the kingdoms of the heaven, the sea, and the infernal 
regions. The last, afterwards known as Hades from their 
ruler, fell to Pluto. Here he ruled with his wife Persephone 
over the other powers below and over the dead. He is stern 
and pitiless, deaf to prayer or flattery, and sacrifice to him is of 
no avail; only the music of Orpheus prevailed upon him to restore 
his wife Eurydice. His helmet, given him by the Cyclopes 
after their release from Tartarus, rendered him invisible (like 
the Tarn or Nebelkappe of German mythology). He is hated 
and feared by gods and men, who, afraid to utter his name, 
both in daily life and on solemn occasions make use of euphe- 
mistic epithets: Polydectes (the receiver of many), Clymenus (the 
Illustrious), Eubulus (the giver of good counsel). Later, owing 
to his connexion with Persephone and under the influence of 
the Eleusinian mysteries, the idea of his character underwent 
a radical change. Instead of the life-hating god of death, he 
became a beneficent god, the bestower of grain, minerals, and 
other blessings produced in the depths of the earth. In this 
aspect he was called Pluto, the " giver of wealth " (a name that 
first occurs in the Attic poets of the 5th century), and at most 
of the centres of his cult he was so worshipped; at Elis alone he 
was Hades, the god of the dead. The plants sacred to him 
were the cypress and narcissus; black victims were sacrificed to 
him, not white, like those offered to the other gods. In art he 
was represented like Zeus and Poseidon; his features are gloomy, 
his hair falls over his forehead; his attributes are a sceptre and 
Cerberus; he carries the key of the world below (cf. the epithet 
iruAdprjjs, " keeper of the gate "), and is frequently in company 
with Persephone. He is sometimes represented as an agri- 
cultural god, carrying a cornu copiae and a two-pronged fork. 
Amongst the Romans Hades was usually called Dis pater (the 
" wealthy father ") and Orcus, although the name Pluto is 
often used. Orcus, however, was rather the actual slayer, the 
angel of death, while Father Dis was the ruler of the dead. 
The Etruscan god of death was represented as a savage old man 
with wings and a hammer; at the gladiatorial games of Rome a 
man masked after this fashion removed the corpses from the 
arena. In Romanesque folk-lore Orcus (possibly English " ogre," 
q.v.) has passed into a forest-elf, a black, hairy, man-eating 
monster, upon whose house children lost in the woods are apt 
to stumble, and who sometimes shows himself kindly and 
helpful. 

The " house of Hades " was a dreadful abode deep down in the 
earth, and the god was invoked by rapping on the ground. According 



PLUTOCRACY PLYMOUTH 



861 



to another view, the realm of Hades was beyond the ocean in 
the far west, which to the Greek was always the region of darkness 
and death, as the east of light and life. This is the view of Hades 
presented in the Odyssey. Besides this gloomy region, we find in 
another passage of the Odyssey (iv. 561 seq.) a picture of Elysium, 
a happy land at the ends of the earth, where rain and snow fall 
not, but the cool west wind blows and men live at ease. After 
Homer this happy land, the abode of the good after death, was 
known as the Isles of the Blest (q.v.). 1 But in the oldest Greek 
mythology the " house of Hades " was simply the home of the dead, 
good and bad alike, who led a, dim and shadowy reflection of life 
on earth. 

See article " Hades," in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; Preller- 
Robert, G'iechische Mythologie (1894); L. Farnell, Cults of tlie Creek 
States, vol. iii., who regards Hades as an evolution from Zeus and 
his counterpart; according to J. E. Harrison, in Classical Review 
(Feb. 1908), Hades is the under-world sun. 

PLUTOCRACY (Gr. xXovroKparta, from TrXoDros, wealth, 
and Kparos, power), government or power exercised by the 
possessors of wealth, power obtained by the mere possession 
of riches; hence a body or ruling class whose influence is due only 
to their money. 

PLUTO MONKEY, a guenon, Cercopilhecus (Mono) leucampyx, 
nearly allied to the MONA (q.v.), which takes its name from the 
black fur of the under-parts, passing into blackish grey on the 
head and back. The violet-coloured face, which has no beard, 
is fringed by large bushy whiskers and surmounted by a white 
band above the brows. The range of the species extends from 
the Congo and Angola to Nyasaland. (See PRIMATES.) 

PLUTUS, in Greek mythology, son of lasion and Demeter, 
the personification of wealth (irXoOros). According to Aristo- 
phanes, he was blinded by Zeus because he distributed his gifts 
without regard to merit. At Thebes there was a statue of For- 
tune holding the child Plutus in her arms; at Athens he was 
similarly represented in the arms of Peace; at Thespiae he was 
represented standing beside Athena the Worker. Elsewhere 
he was represented as a boy with a cornu copiae. He is the subject 
of one of the extant comedies of Aristophanes, the Plutus. 

PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF, a title first borne by Charles 
(1657-1680), an illegitimate son of the English king Charles II. 
by Catharine Pegge, who was created earl in 1675. The title 
became extinct on his death in October 1680. In 1682 Thomas 
Windsor Hickman-Windsor, 7th Baron Windsor de Stanwell 
(c. 1627-1687), who had fought for Charles I. at Naseby, was 
created earl of Plymouth. His father was Dixie Hickman of 
Kew, Surrey, and his mother, Elizabeth, was a sister of Thomas 
Windsor, 6th Baron Windsor de Stanwell (1596-1641); having 
inherited the estates of his uncle and taken the additional name 
of Windsor, the abeyance of the barony of Windsor de Stanwell 
was terminated in his favour and he became the 7th baron. 
From 1661-1663 he was nominally governor of Jamaica. His 
grandson Other (1679-1725) was the and earl, and the earldom 
became extinct when Henry, the 8th earl, died in December 
1843. Called again out of abeyance, the barony of Windsor 
came in 1855 to Harriet, a daughter of Other Archer, the 6th 
earl (1709-1833), and the wife of Robert Henry Clive (1789-1854), 
a younger son of Edward Clive, ist earl of Powis. She was 
succeeded in 1869 by her grandson, Robert George Windsor- 
Clive, who became the I4th Baron Windsor. After serving as 
paymaster-general in 1891-1892 and first commissioner of works 
from 1902-1905, Lord Windsor was created earl of Plymouth in 
1905. 

'The Samoan Islanders unite the two conceptions: the entrance 
to their spirit-land is at the westernmost point of the westernmost 
island, where the ghosts descend by two holes into the under-world. 
Long ago the inhabitants of the French coast of the English Channel 
believed that the souls of the dead were ferried across to Britain, 
and there are still traces of this belief in the folk-lore of Brittany 
(Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 64; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,_ 11. 
694). In classical mythology the underground Hades prevailed 
over the western. It was an Etruscan custom at the foundation 
of a city to dig a deep hole in the earth and close it with a stone 
on three days in the year this stone was removed and the ghosts 
were then supposed to ascend from the lower world. In Asia Minor 
caves filled with mephitic vapours or containing hot springs were 
known as Plutonia or Charonia. The most famous entrances to 
the under-world were at Taenarum in Laconia, Heraclea on the 
Euxine, and at the Lake Avernus in Italy. 



PLYMOUTH, a municipal county (1888, extended 1896) 
and parliamentary borough and seaport of Devonshire, England, 
231 m. W.S.W. of London. Pop. (1910), 126,266. It lies at 
the head of Plymouth Sound, stretching westward from the 
river Plym towards the mouth of the Tamar, from which it is 
separated by the township of East Stonehouse and the borough 
of Devonport, the two later constituting with it the " Three 
Towns." The prince of Wales is lord high steward of the 
borough, which is divided into 14 wards, under a mayor, 
14 aldermen and 42 councillors. The parliamentary borough, 
returning two members, is not coextensive with the municipal 
borough, part of the latter being in the Tavistock (county) division 
of Devon. The water frontage of the Three Towns consists 
of Plymouth Sound, with its inlets, in order from east to west, 
the Catwater, Sutton Pool, Mill Bay, Stonehouse Pool and the 
Hamoaze. The Catwater and Hamoaze are flanked on the east 
and west respectively by high ground, on which are built forts 
that command the harbour and its approaches. On the western 
side of the entrance to Catwater is the Citadel, founded in the 
reign of Henry VIII. and rebuilt by Charles II. The adjacent 
Hoe extends along the northern edge of the Sound, and from it 
can be obtained a splendid view, embracing the rugged Staddon 
Heights on the east and the wooded slopes of Mount Edgcumbe on 
the west. To the north is seen the town of Plymouth rising up 
to the hills known as Mannamead. On the site of an old Trinity 
House obelisk landmark is Smeaton's lighthouse tower, removed 
from its original position on the Eddystone Reef in 1884. It 
is now used as a wind-recording station in connexion with 
the adjoining Meteorological Observatory. On the Hoe there 
stands the striking Drake statue by Sir Edgar Boehm, and the 
Armada Memorial, while at the north-east end is an obelisk 
monument to the memory of troops engaged in the South African 
War. A municipal bowling-green recalls a probable early 
use of the Hoe. Adjacent to the Citadel, at its south-west angle, 
is the Marine Biological Station, and, further west, projects the 
Promenade Pier. In the Sound is Drake's (formerly St Nicholas's) 
Island, now strongly fortified, at one time the property of the 
corporation, and serving in Stuart times as a place of imprison- 
ment of certain Plymouth Baptist ministers. Few evidences, 
however, of the antiquity of the town remain. Below, and to 
the north-east of the Citadel, is the Barbican with its " May- 
flower " commemoration stone, a large fish-buying trade being 
done on the adjacent quay, near which is the Custom House. 
From the Barbican winding streets lead past the old Guildhall 
(1800) which contained the municipal library, pending its 
removal to more commodious quarters in the new museum, 
opposite the technical and art schools, situated in the most 
northern part of the town. At a short distance west stands 
the new Guildhall, with the enlarged post office, central police 
station, law courts and municipal buildings in close proximity. 
Opened in 1874, the Guildhall is built in a bold, rather exotic, 
Early Pointed French style. The tower at the south-west end 
is 190 ft. high, and the building is ornamented with a series of 
coloured windows relating to events in the history of Plymouth 
or commemorating men and families connected with the town. 
The large hall contains a fine organ. In the mayor's parlour 
is a contemporary portrait of Sir Francis Drake and some 
interesting prints of the town of Plymouth. 

Near the eastern entrance to Guildhall Square is St Andrews, 
the mother church of Plymouth, erected on the site of a chapel 
dedicated to the Virgin. The church is typical of the Devon- 
shire Perpendicular style of 1480-1520, but, though large, pre- 
sents few features of artistic or archaeological interest. It 
underwent complete restoration in 1874. The burying-ground 
on the north side has been levelled, and on it erected a stone 
monument. The church, furnished with one of the finest 
organs in the west of England, contains the tombs of a son of 
Admiral Vernon, of Sir John Skelton (a former governor of 
the Citadel), and of Charles Mathews the comedian, as well as 
portions of the bodies of Frobisher and Drake. Here Katherine 
of Aragon returned thanks for a safe voyage from Spain to 
Plymouth. In 1640 a second parish was formed with Charles 



862 



PLYMOUTH 



Church (1658) at its head, the last-named being popularly known 
as New Church, in contradistinction to St Andrews or " Old 
Church." The New Church is an interesting specimen of 
Stuart " debased " Gothic architecture. South of Andrews 
church is the site of a Franciscan Friary with some early 15th- 
century remains. Near the church are a few old houses scattered 
along the crooked little streets going down to the water. These 
houses date from Elizabethan times, but are not of any unusual 
interest. The Citadel (now used as army headquarters and 



PLYMOUTH 

and Environs 



name Head 

E N G LI S H OH A N N E 




barracks) is a fine specimen of 17th-century military architec- 
ture. It is an irregular bastioned pentagon in trace. It pos- 
sesses a fine florid classical gateway. In the centre stands a 
dignified Jacobean house, once the residence of the governor 
of Plymouth. 

Plymouth is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric founded 
in 1851, the cathedral, in Wyndham Street, being completed in 
1858 through the efforts of Bishop Vaughan, who was the second 
occupant of the see (until 1902). The building is in the Early 
English style, and adjoining are the bishop's house and the 
convent of Notre Dame. In the immediate vicinity is the only 
Presbyterian church in the Three Towns. Noteworthy among 
the many Nonconformist places of worship are the Baptist 
chapel (George Street), with its tablet recording the imprison- 
ment of ministers on Drake's Island; Sherwell (Congregational) 
on the Tavistock Road, the most ornate in its style of architec- 
ture; the Wesleyan Methodist chapel in the main thoroughfare 
of the residential suburb of Mutley, unique among Methodist 
edifices in the town in respect of its fine spire. All the principal 
religious bodies have places for worship or for assembly in the 
town, and the borough has given, in popular speech, the name of 
" Plymouth Brethren " to one body. 

In addition to the Plymouth College (for boys), there are several 
educational institutions administered by the borough council, 
comprising a science, art and technical school, a mixed secondary 
school replacing the corporation grammar school of Elizabethan 



foundation, and intermediate day and evening school and numerous 
primary departments. The philanthropic institutions include the 
enlarged South Devon and East Cornwall hospital, eye infirm- 
ary, homoeopathic hospital, blind institution and female orphan 
asylum. 

The public recreation grounds, other than the Hoe, are few and 
small; Hartley Reservoir Grounds at the northern extremity of 
the town commands extensive moorland views; the Freedom Park, 
by its plain, unfinished monument, recalls the siege of Plymouth 
by the Royalists in 1646, and the Beaumont Park contains the tem- 
porary home of the nucleus for a museum and art gallery. The 
Victoria Park, reclaimed from a part of 
Stonehouse Creek, is under the joint ad- 
ministration of Plymouth, Stonehouse and 
Devonport. 

The township of East Stonehouse, 
having Plymouth on the east, is separ- 
ated from Devonport on the west by the 
Stonehouse Pool Creek, which is crossed 
by a toll-bridge and thoroughfare known 
locally as the " Half-penny Gate Bridge." 
A manor of the Mount Edgcumbe family, 
East Stonehouse, is an urban district, in 
the administrative county of Devon, 
with a council of 15 members, but is 
united for parliamentary purposes with 
Devonport, with which it returns two 
members. Within the boundaries of 
Stonehouse are the Royal Naval Hos- 
pital (1762), the Royal Marine Barracks 
(1795) in Durnford Street, and the 
Royal William Victualling Yard (1825), 
the last-named having frontage on the 
Hamoaze, which separates the Devon 
from the Cornish portion of the Stonehouse 
manor. 

The Stanehus(e) of Domesday Book 
ultimately passed into the hands of the 
Valletorts, whose hamlet of West Stone- 
house stood on the Cornish side of the 
Tamar, for (to quote Carew's Survey) 
" certaine old ruines yet remaining con- 
firm the neighbours' report that near 
the water's side, there stood once a 
towne called West stone house until the 
?rench (1350?) by fire and sword over- 
threw it." 

St George's (1798) is the oldest of 
" the three parishes of Stonehouse, and on 
the site of the present church stood the chapel of St George, 
in which, during the years 1681-1682, worshipped, in addition 
to the English congregation, one composed, as at Plymouth, 
of Huguenots who fled from France at the Revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes. 

Facing the Sound are Stone Hall and the Winter Villa. The 
former, occupied by the lords of the manor before the building 
of Mount Edgcumbe House, was originally a castellated building, 
and the latter was built primarily as an alternative residence 
for a countess of Mount Edgcumbe. A link with the past is the 
Mill Bridge Causeway, over what was the " Dead Lake," now 
a road, which, at the head of Stonehouse Creek, is the second 
approach to the Stoke Damerel portion of Devonport. Built 
in 1525, it possesses a toll-gate house at which payment from 
vehicles is still demanded. 

In addition to the Victualling Yard, with its naval ordnance 
department, repairing shops and armoury, the Barracks, accom- 
modating some 1500 men, and the Naval Hospital of 24 acres, 
abutting on the Creek, there are within the boundaries a theatre 
seating over 2000 persons, the Devonport Corporation Electricity 
Works, a clothing factory and part of the Great Western Railway 
Docks. The stationary character of the township which from 
its situation is incapable of expansion is seen from the statistics 
of population:(i88i), 15,041; (1901), 15,108; (1910), 15,111. 

The "Port of Plymouth" in 1311 embraced Plympton, 
Modbury and Newton Ferrers, and received a customs grant 



PLYMOUTH 



863 



from Richard II. In 1435 sixty-five cargoes were imported, 
and in the reign of Elizabeth it rose to be the foremost port in 
England. The i8th century saw a great development of trade 
with Virginia and the West Indies, resulting in the establishment 
of a sugar-refining industry that was maintained until a recent 
date. 

In 1 749 the " town's water " was carried to the Barbican to 
supply shipping. The port of Plymouth, as at present constituted, 
embraces " the waters of Plymouth Sound and the Hamoaze, 
including all bays, creeks, lakes, pools, ponds and rivers as far 
as the tide flows within or to the northward of a straight line 
drawn across the entrance of Plymouth Sound from Penlee 
Point on the west to the Shagstone on the east." The chief 
water area within the limits of the port is the Sound with its 
inlets, the Catwater (200 acres), Button Pool, Mill Bay, Stone- 
house Pool and the Hamoaze. The Sound itself covers an area 
of 4500 acres and is sheltered from south-west gales by the 
breakwater completed in 1841 at a cost of i| million sterling. 
It lies 23 m. south of the Hoe, and is nearly a mile long, 360 ft. 
wide at the base and 45 ft. at the top. Its cants bend inwards 
at angles of 120; at the western end is a lighthouse and at the 
eastern extremity is a pyramidal beacon with a cage capable 
of accommodating several men. 

The town is served by the Great Western and the London & 
South-Western railways. The former company has a main line 
entering from the west through Devonport and going east to Exeter, 
having Dartmoor on the west; the latter company has a terminal 
station in the eastern quarter of the town, and its route to Exeter 
is by way of the Tamar valley, and the western and northern 
moorland districts. 

The industries of Plymouth include soap manufacture, prepara- 
tion of artificial manure and sulphuric acid and paper staining. 
The water supply, inaugurated by Drake in 1590, and drawn from 
the Dartmoor watershed, is the most important municipal under- 
taking. The service of electricity both for lighting and tramway 
traction is in the hands of the town, but the gasworks belong to 
a private company. 

Plymouth, the Suton of Domesday, was afterwards divided 
into the town of Sutton Prior, the hamlet of Sutton Valletort 
and the tithing of Sutton Ralph, the greater part belonging to 
the priory of Plympton. The market, established about 1253, 
became in 1311 town property, with the mayor as clerk of the 
market. In 1292 the town first returned members to parliament. 
In the i4th century it was frequently the port of embarcation 
and of disembarcation in connexion with expeditions to France, 
and suffered considerably at the hands of the French. In 1412 
the inhabitants petitioned for a charter, which, after strenuous 
opposition from the priors of Plympton, was granted by Henry 
VI. in 1439. In the discovery of the New World it played a 
part of great importance. Cockeram, a native of the town, 
sailed with John Cabot in 1497. Sir John Hawkins and 
his father William were also natives, the former being port 
admiral and (in 1571) M.P. From Plymouth in 1577 Drake 
set out on his voyage round the world; in 1581 he became 
mayor and represented the borough in parliament during 
1592-1593. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (M.P. 1571) sailed on his 
second colonizing expedition to America in 1583 from the port, 
and hither Drake brought the remnant of Raleigh's Virginian 
colony. Plymouth supplied seven ships against the Armada, and 
it was in the Sound that the English fleet awaited the sighting 
of the Spaniards. A stone on a quay at the Barbican records 
the fact that this was the last port touched by the Pilgrim 
Fathers on their voyage to America. 

During the Civil War Plymouth was closely invested by the 
Royalists, whose great defeat is commemorated by the monu- 
ment at Freedom Park. It was the only town in the west 
that never fell into their hands. It early declared for William 
of Orange, in whose reign the neighbouring dockyard was 
begun. 

AUTHORITIES. Histories of Plymouth by Jewitt and Worth; 
Wright's Plymouth with its Surroundings and Story of Plymouth; 
Whitfeld, Plymouth and Devonport, in times of War and Peace; 
Municipal Records (Plymouth Corporation); Worth, "Notes on 
Early History of Stonehouse " (Plymouth Instil. Proc.). 

(H. G. DE W.) 



PLYMOUTH, a township and the county-seat of Plymouth 
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the south-eastern part of 
the state, on Plymouth Bay, about 37 m. S.E. of Boston. Pop. 
(1905) 11,119; (1910) 12,141. It is served by the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford railway, by inter-urban electric lines and 
in summer by steamers to Boston. The harbour is well sheltered 
but generally shallow; it has been considerably improved by 
the United States government and also by the state, which 
in 1909 was making a channel 18 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide from 
deep water to one of the township's wharves. The township 
has an area of 107-3 S 1- m -> is *8 m. long on the water front and 
is from 5 to 9 m. wide. Plymouth is a popular resort for visitors, 
having, in addition to its wealth of historic associations and 
a healthy summer climate, thousands of acres of hilly woodland 
and numerous lakes and ponds well stocked with fish. Morton 
Park contains 200 acres of woodland bordering the shores of 
Billington Sea (a freshwater lake). 

Few, if any, other places in America contain so many interest- 
ing landmarks as Plymouth. The famous Plymouth Rock, 
a granite boulder on which the Pilgrims are said to have landed 
from the shallop of the " Mayflower," lies on the harbour shore 
near the site of the first houses built on Leyden Street, and is 
now sheltered by a granite canopy. Rising above the Rock is 
Co'e's Hill, where during their first winter in America the 
Pilgrims buried half their number, levelling the graves and sowing 
grain over them in the spring in order to conceal their misfor- 
tunes from the Indians. Some human bones found on this hill 
when the town waterworks were built in 1855 have been placed 
in a chamber in the top of the canopy over the Rock. Burial 
Hill (originally called Fort Hill, as it was first used for defensive 
purposes) contains the graves of several Pilgrims and of many of 
their descendants. The oldest stone bears the date 1681; 
many of the stones were made in England, and bear quaint 
inscriptions. Here also are a tablet marking the location of 
the old fort (1621), which was also used as a place of worship, 
a tablet showing the site of the watch-tower built in 1643, and 
a marble obelisk erected in 1825 in memory of Governor William 
Bradford. Pilgrim Hall, a large stone building erected by the 
Pilgrim Society (formed in Plymouth in 1820 as the successor 
of the Old Colony Club, founded in 1769) in 1824 and remodelled 
in 1880, is rich in relics of the Pilgrims and of early colonial 
times, and contains a portrait of Edward Winslow (the only 
extant portrait of a " Mayflower " passenger), and others of later 
worthies, and paintings illustrating the history of the Pilgrims; 
the hall library contains many old and valuable books and 
manuscripts including Governor Bradford's Bible, a copy of 
Eliot's Indian Bible, and the patent of 1621 from the Council 
for New England and Captain Myles Standish's sword. The 
national monument to the Forefathers, designed by Hammatt 
Billings, and dedicated on the ist of August 1889, thirty years 
after its corner-stone was laid, stands in the northern part of 
the town. It is built entirely of granite. On a main pedestal, 
45 ft. high, stands a figure, 36 ft. high, representing the Pilgrim 
Faith. From the main pedestal project four buttresses, on 
which are seated four monolith figures representing Morality, 
Education, Law, and Freedom. On the faces of the buttresses 
below the statues are marble alto-reliefs illustrating scenes from 
the early history of the Pilgrims. On high panels between the 
buttresses are the names of the passengers of the " Mayflower." 
The court-house was built in 1820, and was remodelled in 1857. 
From it have been transferred to the fireproof building of the 
Registry of Deeds many interesting historical documents, 
among them the records of the Plymouth colony, the will of 
Myles Standish, and the original patent of the 23rd of January 
1630 (N.S.). 

Modern Plymouth has varied and important manufactures 
comprising cordage, woollens, rubber goods, &c. In 1005 the 
total value of the factory products was $11,115,713, the worsted 
goods and cordage constituting about nine-tenths of the whole 
product. The cordage works are among the largest in the world, 
and consume immense quantities of sisal fibre imported from 
Mexico and manila from the Philippine Islands; binder-twine 



864 



PLYMOUTH PLYMOUTH BRETHREN 



for binding wheat is one of the principal products. From 1900 
to 1905 the capital invested in manufactures increased 83% 
and the value of the product 101%. Large quantities of 
cranberries are raised in the township. Plymouth is a port of 
entry, but its foreign commerce is unimportant ; it has a consider- 
able coasting trade, especially in coal and lumber. The town- 
ship owns its waterworks. 

Plymouth was the first permanent white settlement in New 
England, and dates its founding from the landing here from the 
" Mayflower " shallop of an exploring party of twelve Pilgrims, 
including William Bradford, on the 2ist of December (N.S.) 
1620. The Indian name of the place was Patuxet, but the 
colonists called it New Plymouth, because they had sailed from 
Plymouth, England, and possibly because they were aware 
that the name of Plymouth had been given to the place six years 
before by Captain John Smith. When and how the town and 
the colony of Plymouth became differentiated is not clear. 
Plymouth was never incorporated as a township, but in 1633 
the General Court of the colony recognized it as such by ordering 
that " the chiefe government be tyed to the towne of Plymouth." 
In 1686 the colony submitted to Sir Edmund Andros, who had 
been commissioned governor of all New England, and chose 
representatives to sit in his council. Plymouth remained the 
seat of government of the colony until 1692, when Plymouth 
Colony, and with it the town of Plymouth, was united to Massa- 
chusetts Bay under the charter of 1691 (see MASSACHUSETTS: 
History). Part of Plymouth was established as Plympton in 
1707, and part as Kingston in 1726. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the sources of the early history of Plymouth 
consult (George) Mourt's Relation, or Journal of the Plantation of 
Plymouth (Boston, 1865, and numerous other editions); William 
Bradford's History of the Plimouth Plantation (Boston, 1858, and 
several later editions), the most important source of information 
concerning Plymouth before 1646; the Plymouth Colony Records 
(12 vols., Boston, 1855-1861); the Records of the Town of Plymouth 
(3 vols., Plymouth, 1889-1903); J. A. Young's Chronicles of the 
Pilgrim Fathers (Boston, 1841); and E. Arber's Story of the Pilgrim 
Fathers (London, 1897), the two last containing excerpts from the 
leading sources. See also, James Thacher's History of the Town 
of Plymouth (Boston, 1832); W. T. Davis's History of the Town of 
Plymouth (Philadelphia, 1885); also his Ancient Landmarks of 
Plymouth (Boston, 2nd ed., 1899); and his Plymouth Memories 
of an Octogenarian (Plymouth, 1906) ; and John A. Goodwin, The 
Pilgrim Republic (Boston, 1888). For accounts in general histories, 
see J. G. Palfrey's History of New England, I. (Boston, 1858); the 
appreciative sketch by J. A. Doyle, in his English Colonies in 
America, II. (New York, 1889); and, especially, the monograph by 
Franklin B. Dexter, in Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical 
History of America, vol. iii. (Boston, 1884). As to the truth of the 
tradition that the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock, consult 
the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1903), 2nd 
series, vol. xvii. containing articles by E. Channing and W. W. 
Goodwin; the article by Herbert B. Adams in the Magazine of 
American History, ix. 31 sqq., and that by S. H. Gay in the Atlantic 
Monthly, xlviii. 612 sqq. 

PLYMOUTH, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on the north branch of the Susquehanna river, imme- 
diately west of and across the river from Wilkes-Barre, of 
which it is a suburb. Pop. (1910), 16,996. Plymouth is served 
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad. The 
borough is finely situated in the Wyoming Valley among the 
rich anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania, and its 
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the coal industry; in 1906 
and 1907 (when it shipped 24,081,491 tons) Luzerne county 
shipped more anthracite coal than any other county in Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1005 the total value of the factory products was 
$902,758, 69-4% more than in 1900. Before the coming of 
white settlers there was an Indian village called Shawnee on 
the site of the present borough. The township of Plymouth 
was settled in 1769 by immigrants from New England many 
originally from Plymouth, Litchfield county, Connecticut, 
whence the name under the auspices of the Susquehanna 
Company, which claimed this region as a part of Connecticut, 
and Plymouth became a centre of the contest between the 
" Pennamites " and the " Yankees " (representing respectively 
Pennsylvania and Connecticut), which grew out of the conflict 
of the royal charter of Pennsylvania (granted in 1681) with the 



royal charter of Connecticut (granted in 1662), a matter which 
was not settled until 1799. (See WYOMING VALLEY.) In. its 
earlier history the region was agricultural. Two brothers, Abijah 
and John Smith, originally of Derby, Conn., settled in 
Plymouth in 1806 and began shipping coal thence in 1808; 
this was the beginning of the anthracite coal trade in the United 
States. The borough was incorporated in 1866, being then 
separated from the township of Plymouth, which had a popula- 
tion in 1890 of 8363 and in 1900 of 9655. 

See H. B. Wright's Historical Sketches of Plymouth (Philadelphia, 
1873)- 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a community of Christians who 
received the name in 1830 when the Rev. J. N. Darby induced 
many of the inhabitants of Plymouth, England, to associate 
themselves with him for the promulgation of his opinions. 
Although small Christian communities existed in Ireland and 
elsewhere calling themselves Brethren, and holding similar views, 
the accession to the ranks of Darby so increased their numbers 
and influence that he is usually reckoned the founder of Ply- 
mouthism. Darby (born in Nov. 1800 in London; graduated 
at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1819; died April 29, 1882, at 
Bournemouth) was a curate in Wicklow 1825-1827, when he felt 
himself constrained to leave the Anglican communion; going to 
Dublin, he became associated with several devout people who 
met statedly for public worship, and called themselves " Breth- 
ren." Among these were A. N. Groves and J. G. Bellett, who 
deserve to rank among the founders of the movement. In 
1830 Darby at Plymouth won over many people to his way of 
thinking, among them James L. Harris, a Plymouth clergyman, 
and the well-known Biblical scholar Samuel Prideaux Tregelles. 
The Brethren started a periodical, The Christian Witness, 
continued from 1849 as The Present Testimony, with Harris as 
editor and Darby as the most important contributor. During 
the next eight years the progress of the sect was rapid, and 
communities were founded in many of the principal towns in 
England. 

In 1838 Darby went to reside in French Switzerland, and made 
many disciples. Congregations were formed in Geneva, at 
Lausanne, where most of the Methodist and other dissenters 
joined the Brethren, at Vevey and elsewhere in Vaud. His 
opinions also found their way into France, Germany, German 
Switzerland, and Italy; but French Switzerland has always 
remained the stronghold of Plymouthism on the Continent, 
and for his followers there Darby wrote two of his most important 
tracts, Le Ministere considers dans sa nature and De la Presence 
et de Vaction du S. Esprit dans I'eglise. The revolution in the 
canton Vaud, brought about by Jesuit intrigue in 1845, brought 
persecution to the Brethren in the canton and in other parts 
of French Switzerland, and Darby's life was in great jeopardy. 

He returned to England, and his reappearance was followed 
by divisions among the Brethren at home. These divisions 
began at Plymouth. Benjamin Wills Newton, head of the 
community there, who had been a fellow of Exeter College, 
Oxford, was accused of departing from the testimony of the 
Brethren by reintroducing the spirit of clericalism. Unable 
to detach the congregation from the teacher, Darby began a 
rival assembly. The majority of the Brethren out of Plymouth 
supported Darby, but a minority remained with Newton. The 
separation became wider in 1847 on the discovery of supposed 
heretical teaching by Newton. In 1848 another division took 
place. The Bethesda congregation at Bristol, where George 
Muller was the most influential member, received into com- 
munion several of Newton's followers and justified their action. 
Out of this came the separation into Neutral Brethren, led by 
Muller, and Exclusive Brethren or Darbyites, who refused to 
hold communion with the followers of Newton or Muller. The 
Exclusives. who were the more numerous, suffered further 
divisions. An Irish clergyman named Samuel O'Malley Cluff had 
adopted views similar to those of Pearsall Smith, who preached 
a doctrine of sanctification called " Death to Nature " as an 
antidote to the supposed prevalent Laodiceanism, and when 
these were repudiated seceded with his followers. The most 



PLYMPTON ST MARY PNEUMATIC DESPATCH 865 



important division among the Exclusives came to a crisis in 
1 88 1, when William Kelly and Darby became the recognized 
leaders of two sections who separated on a point of discipline. 
This was followed (1885) by the disruption of the strict Darbyite 
section, two communions being formed out of it upon points 
of doctrine. 

There were thus six sections of Plymouthists: (i) the 
followers of B. W. Newton, who promulgated the prophetic 
views peculiar to their leader; (2) the Neutrals open brethren, 
leaning to Baptist views and to the Congregationalist idea that 
each assembly should judge for itself in matters of discipline, 
headed by George Miiller; (3) the Exclusives, the Darbyites, 
holding what may be described as a Pauline view of the Church, 
who claim to be the original Brethren, represented by J. B. 
Stoney and C. H. Mackintosh; (4) the Exclusives associated 
in Great Britain with C. E. Stuart, in America with F. W. 
Grant; (5) the Exclusives who followed W. Kelly, giving a 
general adhesion to Darby but with a tendency to place con- 
science above church action, holding the Pauline view of the 
Church modified by Johannine elements; and (6) the Exclusives 
who followed Cluff. The fundamental principle of the Exclu- 
sives, " Separation from evil God's principle of unity," has 
led to many unimportant excommunications and separations 
besides those mentioned. 

The theological views of the Brethren differ considerably from 
those held by evangelical Protestants (for a list of divergences, 
see Teulon, History and Doctrines of the Plymouth Brethren). They 
make the baptism of infants an open question and celebrate the 
Lord's Supper weekly. Their distinctive doctrines are ecclesiastical. 
They hold that all official ministry, whether on Episcopalian, 
Presbyterian or Congregationalist theories, is a denial of the 
spiritual priesthood of all believers, and sets aside the Holy Spirit's 
guidance. The gradual growth of this opinion, and perhaps the 
reasons for holding it, may be traced in Darby's earlier writings. 
While a curate in Ireland he was indignant with Archbishop 
Magee, who had stopped the progress of mission work among Roman 
Catholics by imposing on all who joined the church the oath of 
supremacy. This led Darby to the idea that established churches 
are as foreign to the spirit of Christianity as the papacy is (" Con- 
siderations addressed to the Archbishop of Dublin, &c., Coll. 
Works, i. i). The parochial system, when enforced to the extent 
of prohibiting the preaching of the gospel within a parish where the 
incumbent was opposed to it, led him to consider the whole system 
a hindrance to the proper work of the church and therefore anti- 
Christian (" Thoughts on the present position of the Home Mission," 
Coll. Works, i. 78). And the waste of power implied in the refusal 
to sanction lay preaching seemed to him to lead to the conclusion 
that an official ministry was a refusal of the gifts of the Spirit to 
the church (" On Lay Preaching," Coll. Works, p. 200). The 
movement, if it has had small results in the formation of a sect, 
has at least set churches to consider how they might make their 
machinery more elastic. Perhaps one of the reasons of the com- 
paratively small number of Brethren may be found in their idea 
that their mission is not to the heathen but to the " awakened in 
the churches." 

The movement has a distinct interest for students of church 
history: (i) as illustrating again the desire of certain Christians to 
pass over the garnered experience of the centuries, and by going 
straight to the Bible to make a fresh start without any other autho- 
rity, precedent or guidance; (2) in its development alongside the 
Evangelical, TYactarian and Broad Church movements of the io.th 
century and its affinities with them all A certain haphazardism 
that has always marked the Brethren is responsible for the present 
lack of qualified leaders. The early enthusiasm has waned, and 
no provision was made for proper theological study. 

AUTHORITIES. Darby, Collected Works (32 vols., edited by 
Kelly, with supplementary volume, 1867-1883); A. Miller, The 
Brethren, their Rise, Progress and Testimony (1879); Rogers, Church 
Systems of the Nineteenth Century; Teulon, History and Doctrines 
of the Plymouth Brethren (1883); article "John Nelson Darby," 
in Contemp. Rev. (Oct. 1885); W. B. Neatby, A History of the Ply- 
mouth Brethren (London, 1902, 2nd ed.). (T. M. L. ; A. J. G.) 

PLYMPTON ST MARY and PLYMPTON MAURICE (or 
EARL'S), two small adjacent towns in the southern parliamentary 
division of Devonshire, England, 5 m. E.N.E. of Plymouth, on 
the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), PJympton St Mary, 
3587; Plympton Maurice, 1139. Plympton St Mary contains a 
fine Decorated and Perpendicular church, with a lofty tower of 
the later period. Near it are remains of the former rich Augus- 
tinian priory of Plympton, founded by William Warelwast, bishop 
of Exeter (i 107-1 136). They include an Early English refectory 

xxi. 28 



with Norman undercroft, the kitchen and other fragments; 
but there are no remains of the great priory church. At Plymp- 
ton Maurice are slight ruins of the castle built by Richard de 
Redvers, ist earl of Devon (whence the variant of the name), 
in the time of Henry I. There are several picturesque old houses 
in the town, together with a guildhall dated 1696, and a grammar 
school founded in 1658, of which Sir Joshua Reynolds's father 
was master. 

Plympton (Plintonci) bears traces of very ancient settlement, 
the earthworks on which in the 1 2th century Richard de Redvers 
reared his Norman castle being probably of British origin, while 
a Saxon document dated 904 records a grant by Edward the 
Elder to Asser, bishop of Sherborne, of twelve manors in 
exchange for the monastery of " Plymentun." According to 
the Domesday survey " Plintona " was a royal manor assessed 
at 2^ hides, and the fact that the canons of Plympton held two 
hides apart from these shows the origin of the later division into 
the priory parish of Plympton St Mary and the secular borough 
of Plympton Erie. In the i2th century Plympton appears 
as a mesne borough under the lordship of the Redvers, earls 
of Devon, and in 1224 the burgesses claimed to have received 
a charter from William, the 6th earl, of which however nothing 
further is known, and the first charter of which a copy is extant 
was issued by Baldwin de Redvers in 1242, granting to the 
burgesses of Plympton the borough, with fairs and markets, 
and the liberties enjoyed by the citizens of Exeter, in considera- 
tion of a yearly payment of 24, 2s. 2d. In 1437 a charter from 
Edward IV. granted to the burgesses an eight-days' fair at the 
Feast of the Nativity of St John the Baptist, but at this period 
the growing importance of Plymouth was steadily robbing 
Plympton of its position as head of the district. In 1602, in 
response to a petition of the burgesses, Elizabeth issued a charter 
of incorporation, instituting a common council to consist of a 
mayor and 8 principal burgesses; a Saturday market, and fairs 
at the Feasts of the Ascension and the Annunciation. A code 
of by-laws dated 1623 mentions a fair on St Luke's Day in 
addition to the three above mentioned. The borough surren- 
dered its charter to Charles II. in 1684, and in 1685 received a 
fresh charter from James II. instituting an additional market 
on Wednesday and a fair on the ist of August. This charter 
was declared invalid in 1690, but its provisions were reaffirmed 
in 1692, with the addition of an eight-days' fair to begin on the 
I4th of February. The borough, which had returned two 
members to parliament since 1295, was disfranchised by the 
Reform Act of 1832 and from this date the municipal privileges 
gradually lapsed, and in 1859 were finally abolished. 

See Victoria County History: Devonshire; William Cotton, Some 
Account of the Ancient Borough Town of Plympton St Maurice 
(London, 1859); J. Brooking Rowe, Notes of Plympton Castle 
(Plymouth, 1880). 

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH, the name given to a system of 
transport of written despatches through long narrow tubes by the 
agency of air pressure. It was introduced in 1853 by J. Latimer 
Clark, between the Central and Stock Exchange stations of 
the Electric and International Telegraph Company in London. 
The stations were connected by a tube 15 in. in diameter 
and 220 yds. long. Carriers containing batches of telegrams, 
and fitting piston-wise in the tube, were sucked through it 
(in one direction only) by the production of a partial vacuum 
at one end. In 1858 C. F. Varley improved the system by using 
compressed air to force the carriers in one direction, a partial 
vacuum being still used to draw them in the other direction. 
This improvement enables single radiating lines of pipe to be 
used both for sending and for receiving telegrams between a 
central station supplied with pumping machinery and outlying 
stations not so supplied. 

Radial System. In the hands of R. S. Culley and R. Sabine 
the radial system of pneumatic despatch was in 1870 brought 
to great perfection in connexion with the telegraphic department 
of the British post office, since that date the total length of 
tubes (which are employed for telegrams only) has been very 
largely increased (in 1909 there was in London a total length of 



866 



PNEUMATIC DESPATCH 



40 m.), whilst in all large and also in very many smaller 
provincial towns there are installations; these are constantly 
being added to, as it is found more economical to transmit local 
message-work by tube rather than by wire, as skilled telegraph- 
ists are not required, but only tube attendants. In some cases 
only a single tube is necessary, but three or four, or even more, 
are in use in some towns, according to local circumstances. 
Short tubes, known as " house tubes " are in use in a great 
number of offices; such tubes, which are worked either by hand- 
pumps (when the tubes are very short and the traffic incon- 
siderable) or by power, are usually 13 in. in diameter, and 
are used for the purpose of conveying messages from one 
part of a telegraph instrument-room to another, or from the 
instrument-room to the public counter. The underground, 
or " street " tubes are chiefly zj in. in diameter, but there are 
also a number of 3-in. tubes in use; those in the large provincial 
towns (Birmingham, Bradford, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Grimsby, Liverpool, Manchester, Newport, Leeds, Newcastle, 
Southampton and Swansea) are 2\ in. in diameter; but in 
Dublin, Gloucester, Lowestoft and Milford i^-in. tubes are 
employed. There are fifty street tubes in London, varying in 
length from 100 to 2000 yds. (central office to the Houses of 
Parliament), and also seventy-five house tubes; the pumps 
for the whole system are worked by four 100 horse-power 
steam-engines. At Cardiff, Edinburgh, Gloucester, Leeds, 
Lowestoft, Newport, Southampton and Swansea the pumps 
are driven by electric motors; at Bradford and Grimsby gas- 
engines are used, and at Milford an oil-engine. 

The tubes are in all cases of lead, the 2j-in. tubes weighing 
8 Ib per foot run and being made in lengths of 28 ft.; they are 
enclosed in 3-in. cast-iron pipes made in lengths of 9 ft. 

Great care is exercised in making the joints in the lead pipes. 
Before the tube is placed in its trench a strong chain is passed 
through it, and a polished steel mandrel, 6 in. long and slightly 
less in diameter than the diameter of the tube, is heated and 
attached to the chain, and pushed half its length into the end of 
the tube already laid; the new length of tube is then forced over 
the projecting end of the mandrel until the tube ends (which have 
been previously cut flat) butt perfectly together; an ordinary 
plumber's joint is then made. By this means the tube is made 
perfectly air-tight, and the mandrel keeps the surface of the tube 
under the joint as smooth as at any other part of its length. After 
the joint is completed the mandrel is drawn out by the chain 
attached to it, the next length is drawn on, and the above process 
repeated. The tubes are laid about 2 ft. below the surface of 
the ground. 

The, tubes radiate from the central to the branch offices, 
the principal offices having two tubes, one for " inward " and 
tne ot ' ler ^ or " outward " traffic. At the smaller 
offices both the inward and the outward traffic is 
carried on through one tube. The " carriers " are made with gutta- 
percha bodies, covered with felt, the front of the carrier being 
provided with a buffer or piston formed of several disks of felt 
which closely fit the tube; the messages are prevented from get- 
ting out of the carrier by the end being closed by an elastic band, 
which can be stretched sufficiently to allow the message forms 
to be inserted. The 3-in. carriers will hold 75 ordinary message 
forms, the 2j-in. carriers 25 forms, and the i|-in. carriers 20 
forms. The carriers are propelled in one direction (from the 
central office) by " pressure," and drawn in the opposite direction 
by " vacuum," the standard pressure and vacuum being 10 Ib 
and 6$ Ib per sq. in. respectively, which values give approxi- 
mately the same speed. 

The time of transit of a carrier through a tube when the air 
pressure does not exceed 20 Ib per square inch is given very ap- 
proximately by the empirical formula : 



where / = length of tube in yards, d = diameter of tube in inches, 
P = effective air-pressure in pounds per square inch, / = transit 
time in seconds. For vacuum the formula is : 






-00825 



where Pi 



/7 
-5- Pi v "3" 



i - -234 V 1 5- 
effective vacuum in pounds per square inch. 



The horse-power required to propel a carrier is approximately, 
for pressure : 



for vacuum :- 



H.P. = ( 5 .i87-i.2i 4 Vi5-5-Pi)Pi\/f. 



For a given transit time the actual horse-power required is much 
less in the case of vacuum than in the case of pressure working, 
owing to the density of the air column moved being much less: 
thus, for example, the transit time for 10 Ib pressure is the same 
as for 6J Ib vacuum, but the horse-power required in the two cases 
is as 1-83 to I. A tube I m. long, 2j in. in diameter, and worked 
at 10 Ib per square inch pressure, will have a transit time of 2\ 
minutes, and will theoretically require 3-35 horse-power to be 
expended in working it, although actually 25 % more horse-power 
than this must be allowed for, owing to losses through various 
causes. The transit time for a 2i-in. tube is 16% more than for 
a 3-in. tube of the same length, when both are worked at the same 
pressure, but the horse-power required is 50% less; it is not ad- 
visable, therefore, to use a tube larger than is absolutely necessary 
to carry the volume of traffic required. 

The somewhat complicated pattern of " double sluice valve " 
originally used at the central stations has been superseded by 
a simpler form, known as the " D " box so named Despatching 
from the shape of its cross section. This box is of and 
cast iron, and is provided with a close-fitting, Receiving 
brass-framed, sb'ding lid with a glass panel. This ^W" 1 ""' 
lid fits air-tight, and closes the box after a carrier has been 
inserted into the mouth of the tube; the latter enters at 
one end of the box and is there bell-mouthed. A supply 
pipe, to which is connected a " 3-way " cock, is joined on to 
the box and allows communication at will with either the 
" pressure " or " vacuum " mains, so that the apparatus becomes 
available for either sending (by pressure) or receiving (by vacuum) 
a carrier. Automatic working, by which the air supply is 
automatically turned on on the introduction of the carrier into 
a tube and on closing of the D box, and is cut off when the 
carrier arrives, was introduced in 1909. 

On the long tubes (over about 1000 yds.) a modification of 
the " D " box in its simplest form is necessary; this modification 
consists in the addition of a " sluice " valve placed at a distance 
of about 9 in. (i.e. rather more than the length of a carrier) 
from the mouth of the tube. The sluice valve, by means of an 
interlocking arrangement, is so connected with the sliding lid 
of the box that the lid cannot be moved to the open position 
unless the sluice valve has closed the tube, nor can the sluice 
valve be opened unless the sliding lid is closed. The object of 
this sluice valve is to prevent the back rush of air which would 
take place into the tube when the sliding lid is opened to take 
out a carrier immediately on the arrival of the latter; for although 
the vacuum may be turned off by the 3-way cock, yet, owing 
to the great length of the tube, equilibrium does not immediately 
take place in the latter, and the back rush of air into the vacuum 
when the lid is opened to extract the carrier will cause the latter 
to be driven back into the tube. The sluice also prevents a 
similar, but reverse, action from taking place when pressure 
working is being carried on. 

As a rule, only one carrier is despatched at a time, and no 
second carrier is inserted in the tube until the arrival of the 
first one at the farther end is automatically signalled (by an 
electric apparatus) to the despatching office. On some of the 
long tubes a carrier, when it passes the midway point in the 
tube, strikes a trigger and sends back an electrical signal indicat- 
ing its passage; on the receipt of this signal a second carrier may 
be despatched. This arrangement has been almost entirely 
superseded by a signalling apparatus which by a clock movement 
actuates an indicating hand and moves the latter to " tube clear " 
a certain definite time (30 to 40 seconds) after a carrier has been 
inserted in the tube. By this arrangement carriers can be 
despatched one after the other at comparatively short intervals 
of time, so that several carriers (separated by distinct intervals) 
may be travelling through the tube simultaneously. It is 
necessary that the carriers be separated by a definite interval, 
otherwise they tend to overtake one another and become jammed 



PNEUMATIC GUN 



867 



in the tube. Although the stoppage of a carrier in a tube is of 
exceedingly rare occurrence, it does occasionally take place, 
through picks being driven into the tube by workmen executing 
repairs to gas or water pipes, but the locality of such a stoppage 
is easily determined by a simple inspection along the route of 
the tube. In no case is any special means of testing for the 
locality from the central office found necessary. 

Circuit System. Another method of working, extensively 
used in Paris and other continental cities, is the circuit system, 
in which stations are grouped on circular or loop lines, round 
which carriers travel in one direction only. In one form of 
circuit system that of Messrs Siemens a continuous current 
of air is kept up in the tube, and rocking switches are provided 
by which carriers can be quickly introduced or removed at 
any one of the stations on the h'ne without interfering with the 
movement of other carriers in other parts of the circuit. More 
usually, however, the circuit system is worked by despatching 
carriers, or trains of carriers, at relatively long intervals, the 
pressure or vacuum which gives motive power being applied 
only while such trains are on the line. On long circuits means 
are provided at several stations for putting on pressure or 
vacuum, so that the action may be limited to that section of the 
line on which the carriers are travelling at any time. In America, 
in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, tubes (Batcheller 
system) up to 8 in. in diameter are in use. The tubes are of 
cast iron made in i2-ft. lengths and are carefully bored; they 
resemble ordinary water pipe. Short bends are made in 
seamless brass tube carefully bent to a uniform radius of twelve 
times the diameter of the tube, the tube being slightly larger 
in diameter than the main tube. The sending apparatus, or 
transmitter, is similar to the Siemens switch before described, 
and consists of two sections of the tube supported in a swinging 
frame so arranged that either section can be brought into line 
with the main tube, in which a current of air is constantly 
flowing. One of these tube sections maintains the continuity 
of the main tube, while the other is swung to one side to receive 
a carrier. In despatching, a carrier is 
placed in an iron trough and then 
pushed into the open tube section. 
The frame carrying the two tube sec- 
tions is then swung until the section 
containing the carrier is brought into 
line with the main tube, when the 
carrier is swept along with the current 
of air. When the frame is swinging 
from one position to another the air 
is prevented from escaping by plates 
that cover the ends of the tube, and 
a by-pass is provided so that the 
current is not interrupted. An air- 
motor, consisting of a cylinder and 
piston, furnishes the power to swing 
the frame, the operation requiring 
an instant only. When the con- 
trolling .lever is pulled and latched the 
frame swings, and as the carrier 
passes out of the apparatus it trips 
the lever, and the frame swings back 
position to receive another carrier. 



leather; the rear end is closed by a hinged lid secured by a lock. 
The shell of the carrier is 24 in. long and 7 in. in diameter for 
the 8-in. tube; it is secured by two bearing-rings of woven 
cotton fabric clasped between metal rings; the rings are renewed 
after about 2000 m. of travel. The tubes are worked at a 
pressure of 6 Ib per sq. in., and for a distance of 4500 ft. require 
about 30 horse-power, the transit speed being 30 m. per hour. 

In addition to its use for postal and telegraphic purposes 
the pneumatic despatch is employed for internal communication 
in offices, hotels, &c., and also in shops for the transport of 
money and bills between the cashier's desk and the counters. 

REFERENCES. The system as used in the United Kingdom is 
fully described in a paper by Messrs Culley and Sabine (Min. Proc. 
Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. xliii.). The same volume contains a description 
of the pneumatic telegraphs of Paris and of experiments on them 
by M. Bontemps, and also a discussion of the theory of pneumatic 
transmission by Professor W. C. Unwin. Reference should also 
be made to a paper, by C. Siemens (Min. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 
vol. xxxiii.), describing the Siemens circuit system; and to Les Tett- 
graphes, by M. A. L. Ternant (Paris, 1881); General Post Office 
Technical Instructions, vol x., "Pneumatic Tubes"; Kempe's 
Engineers' Year-Book (1908 edition). (H. R. K.) 

PNEUMATIC GUN. Air as a propellant has in recent years 
been applied to guns of large calibre, in which its comparatively 
gentle action has proved advantageous when high explosives 
contained in their shells are employed as projectiles. In 1883 
Mr Mefford of Ohio utilized an air pressure of 500 R> per sq. 
in. in a 2-in. gun, and succeeded in propelling a projectile 
2 1 oo yds. The arrangement was of the simplest form a 
hose with an ordinary cock by which the air was admitted into 
the gun behind the projectile. The question was then taken 
up by Capt. E. L. Zalinski (1840-1909) of the United States 
Artillery, who in 1888 reduced the so-called " dynamite gun " 
to a practical shape and obtained excellent firing results. 

The principal features of his system are: (i) An extremely in- 
genious balanced valve admitting the air pressure into the gun. 
This valve is opened and closed by a simple movement of the firing 
lever, and is capable of adjustment so that the propelling force, 




Dynamite gun, mounted at Sandy Hook, New York Harbour. 



automatically into 
To prevent carriers from 



being despatched too frequently and overtaking each other a 
time lock is attached to the sending apparatus; this locks the 
controlling valve when a carrier is despatched, and keeps it 
locked for a given period of time, varying from five to fifteen or 
twenty seconds, according to the adjustment of the lock. The 
carrier is received at the farther end of the tube into an air 
cushion formed by closing the end of the tube with a sluice-gate, 
and allowing the air to flow out into a branch pipe through slots 
in the tube located about 4 ft. in the rear of the sluice-gate. 
When a carrier arrives it passes over the slots, enters the air 
cushion and is brought to rest without injury or shock. The 
carriers are thin steel cylinders closed at the front end by a 
convex disk of the same material carrying a buffer of felt and 



and consequently the range, can be regulated. (2) A light steel 
projectile carrying the bursting charge, and provided with a tail 
to which vanes are attached in order to give rotation. (3) Electric 
fuses of entirely original design. Each shell carries a wet battery, 
the current from which fires the charge on impact with any solid 
object, and a dry battery which becomes active after the shell has 
dived below the surface of the water, and ignites the charge after 
delay capable of regulation. For safety all the electric circuits are 
made to pass through a disconnector, which prevents_them from 
being completed until the shell has been fired. The gun is a built-up 
smooth-bore tube, 15 in. or less in diameter. The full-calibre 
shell weighs 1000 ft, and carries a bursting charge of 600 ft of 
blasting gelatine, cut into the form of cheeses, fitting the _ steel 
envelope, and provided with a core of dry gun-cotton as a primer. 
Sub-calibre projectiles, 10 in. and 8 in., can also be used. In their 
case, rotation is given by vanes or fins attached to the body of the 
shell. Air at 1000 ft pressure is stored in tubes close to the gun, 
and is supplied from primary reservoirs, to which it is directly 



868 



PNEUMATICS PNEUMATOLYSIS 



pumped at a pressure of about 2000 Ib. There is always, there- 
Fore, a considerable reserve of power available without pumping. 
Pneumatic guns of this description (see figure) have been mounted 
for the protection of New York and San Francisco. With a full- 
calibre shell (1000 Ib) these guns have a range of 2400 yds.; with 
a sub-calibre 8-in. shell (250 Ib) the maximum range is 6000 yds. 
The official trials showed remarkable accuracy. At 5000 yds. 
75 % of the projectiles fell in an area of 360 X 90 ft. When the 
gun was tried at Shoeburyness the accuracy was far greater than 
could be obtained with howitzer shells propelled by explosives. 
On account of the power of exploding, the shell under water, and 
thus securing a torpedo action, a direct hit upon a ship is not 
required, and the target offered is largely in excess of the deck 
plan. The gun is, in fact, capable of replacing systems of sub- 
marine mines with economy, and without the great objection of 
interfering with a waterway. 

The only employment of the dynamite gun afloat has been 
in the case of the U.S. gunboat " Vesuvius," carrying three in 
the bows. These guns are fixed at a constant angle of elevation, 
and the range is regulated by the air valve, training being given 
by the helm. Thus mounted on an unstable platform, the 
accuracy of fire obtainable must evidently be much less than 
on shore. The " Vesuvius " was employed during the Spanish- 
American War of 1898, when on several nights in succession 
she approached the defences of Santiago under cover of dark- 
ness and discharged three projectiles. Fire delivered under 
such conditions could not be sufficiently accurate to injure 
coast defences; but the shells burst well, and made large craters. 
A small dynamite gun on a field-carriage was used in the land 
operations above Santiago in the same war. 

PNEUMATICS (Gr. nvtv^a, wind, air), the branch of 
physical science concerned with the properties of gases and 
vapours (see GAS). A pneumatic trough is simply a basin con- 
taining water or some other liquid used for collecting gases. 

PNEUMATOLYSIS (Gr. irvtvua, vapour, and \veiv, to set free), 
in petrology, the discharge of vapours from igneous magmas 
and the effects produced by them on rock masses In all vol- 
canic eruptions the gases given off by the molten lavas are 
powerful agencies. The slaggy clots of lava thrown out from 
the crater are so full of gas that when they cool they resemble 
spongy pieces of bread. The lava streams as they flow down 
the slopes of the volcano are covered with white steam clouds, 
while over the orifice of the crater hangs a canopy of vapour 
which is often darkened by fine particles of ash. Most authors 
ascribe volcanic explosions to the liberation of steam from the 
magma which held it in solution, and the enormous expansive 
powers which free water vapour possesses at very high 
temperatures. 

Of these gases the principal are water and carbonic acid, 
but by analysis of the discharges from the smaller fumaroles, 
for the active crater is generally too hot to be approached during 
an eruption, it has been ascertained that hydrogen, nitrogen, 
hydrochloric acid, boron, fluorine, sulphuretted hydrogen 
and sulphurous acid are all emitted by volcanoes. A recent 
lava flow has been likened to a great fumarole pouring out 
volatile substances at every crack in its slaggy crust. Many 
minerals are deposited in these fissures, and among the sub- 
stances produced in this way are ammonium chloride, ferric 
chloride and oxide, copper oxide (tenorite and cuprite) and 
sulphur; by reacting on the minerals of the rock many zeolites 
and other secondary products are formed. These processes 
have been described as " juvenile " or " post eruptive," and 
it is believed that the amygdales which occupy the cavities of 
many porous lavas are not due really to weathering by sur- 
face waters percolating in from above, but to the action of the 
steam and other gases set free as the lava crystallizes. The zeo- 
lites are the principal group of minerals which originate in this 
way together with chlorite, chalcedony and calcite. The larger 
cavities (or geodes) are often lined with beautiful crystal groups 
of natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, stilbite, and other minerals 
of this order. 

The active gases were evidently in solution in the magma as 
it rose to the surface. Some geologists believe it is of 
subterranean origin like the lava itself, and is an essential or 
original component of the magma. They point to the exist- 



ence of gases in considerable quantity in meteorites, and, com- 
paring the earth to a great aerolite, insist that it should con- 
tain gases in solution like the smaller masses of the same kind. 
Others hold it more probable that the water has percolated 
in from the surface, or seeing that many volcanoes stand near 
the sea margin and by their linear disposition may be dis- 
posed along fissures or lines of weakening in the crust, they 
argue that the water of the sea may have filtered down even 
in spite of the great outward pressure exerted by the steam 
generated by contact with the intensely heated rock. The 
abundance of chlorides and hydrochloric acid is appealed to 
also in favour of a marine origin for the water. Against this 
we may place the fact that at great depths whence active mag- 
mas ascend the rocks are under so great pressures that every 
fissure is closed up; in fact in some of the deepest mines the 
quantity of water found in the workings is often exceedingly 
small. Probably there is some truth in both theories, but the 
balance of probability seems to incline in favour of the view 
that the water is an original and essential part of the magma 
and not an introduction from above. 

Long after a lava has cooled down and become rigid the 
vapours continue to ooze out through its fissures, and around 
many volcanoes which are believed to be extinct there are 
orifices discharging gas in great quantities. This state of 
activity is said to be " solfataric," and a good example of it is 
the volcano called the Solfatara near Naples. The numerous 
"Soufrieres" of the West Indies are further instances. The 
prevalent gas is steam with sulphuretted hydrogen and car- 
bonic acid. At the Grotto del Cane in the Phlegraean Fields 
(Italy) the carbonic acid rising from fissures in the bottom of a 
cave covers the floor as a heavy layer, and a dog placed in the 
interior of the cave becomes stupefied by the narcotic gas; such 
gas-springs have been called " mofettes." Around them 
there is often a deposit of sulphur, produced by oxidation of the 
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the rocks are bleached, softened 
and decomposed. White crusts of alum, various sulphates, 
and sulphides such as pyrites, also carbonates of soda and other 
bases, are formed by the action of the acid vapours on the 
volcanic rocks. The final manifestation of volcanic activity 
in such a region may be the discharge of heated waters, which 
have ascended from the deep-seated magma far below the 
surface, and make their appearance as groups of hot springs; 
these springs persist long after the volcanoes which give rise 
to them have become quite extinct. 

It is now believed by a large number of geologists and mining 
engineers that these ascending hot waters are of paramount im- 
portance in the genesis of some of the most important types of 
ore deposits. Analyses have proved that the igneous rocks often 
contain distinct though very small quantities of the heavy metals; 
it is also established beyond doubt that veins of gold, silver, lead, 
tin and mercury most commonly occur in the vicinity of intrusive 
igneous masses. At Steamboat in Nevada, hot springs, probably 
of magmatic origin, are forming deposits of cinnabar. At Cripple 
Creek, Colorado, and in many other places gold-bearing veins 
occur in and around intrusive plugs of igneous rock. Tin ores 
in all parts of the world are found in association with tourmaline 
granites. In all cases the veins bear evidence of having been filled 
from below by hot waters set free during the cooling of the igneous 
intrusions. Volcanic rocks are consequently the parent sources 
of many valuable mineral deposits, and the agency by which they 
were brought into their present situations is the volatile products 
discharged as the magma crystallized. The process was no doubt 
a long one and it is most probable that both steam and water 
took part in it. Above 365 C. water is a gas under all pressures 
and the action is strictly pneumatolytic; below that temperature 
steam is changed to water by pressure and the action may be 
described as hydatogenetic. The distinction is unessential, and in 
our ignorance of the temperatures and pressures prevailing at con- 
siderable depths we lack the means of classification. In what con- 
dition the metallic ores are dissolved and by what reactions they 
are precipitated depends on many factors only partly understood. 
The tin ores are so often associated with minerals containing boron 
and fluorine that it is quite probable that they were combined 
with these elements in some way, but they were deposited in nearly 
all cases as oxides. Other gaseous substances, such as sulphuretted 
hydrogen, carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid, probably have 
an important part in dissolving certain metals; and the alkaline 
carbonates, sulphides and chlorides have been shown by experiment 
to act also as solvents. In these ore deposits not only the heavy 



PNEUMONIA 



869 



metals are found, but often a much larger quantity of minerals 
such as calcite, barytes, fluorspar, quartz and tourmaline which 
serve as a matrix or gangue, and have been deposited by the same 
agencies, and often at the same time as the valuable minerals. 

In their passage upwards and outwards through the rocks of 
the earth's crust, these gases and liquids not only deposit minerals 
in the fissures along which they ascend, but attack the surrounding 
rocks and alter them in many ways. The granite or other plutonic 
mass from which the vapours are derived is especially liable to these 
transformations, probably because it is at a high temperature, 
not having vet completely copied down. Around the tin-bearing 
veins in granite there is extensive replacement of felspar and biotite 
by quartz, tourmaline and white micas (the last-named often rich 
in lithia). In this way certain types of altered granite are produced, 
such as greisen (q.v.) and schorl rock (see SCHORL). In the slates adja- 
cent to the tin veins tourmalinization also goes on, converting them 
into schorl-schists. The alteration of felspar into kaolin or china 
clay is also a pneumatolytic process, and is often found along with 
tin veins or other types of mineral deposit ; probably both fluorine 
and carbonic acid operated in this instance along with water. 
Equally common and important is the silicification of rocks near 
mineral veins which carry gold, copper, lead and other metals. 
Granites and felsites may be converted into hard cherty masses 
of silica. Limestones undergo this transformation very readily; 
at the same time they are regarded as rocks very favourable to the 
deposition of ores. Probably the great frequency' ;with which 
they undergo silicification and other types of metasomatic replace- 
ment is one of the main causes of the abundance of valuable deposits 
in them. The process known as " propylitization," which has 
extensively affected the andesites of the Hungarian goldfields, 
is believed to be also a consequence of the action of pneumatolytic 
gases. The andesites change to dull, soft, greenish masses, and 
their original minerals are to a large extent replaced by_ quartz, 
epidote, chlorite, sericite and kaolin. Around granites jntrusive 
into serpentine and other rocks containing much magnesia, there 
is often extensive " steatisation," or the deposit of talc and steatite 
in place of the original minerals of the rock. Some of the apatite 
veins of Canada and Norway accompany basic rocks of the gabbro 
group; it has been argued that the apatite (which contains phos- 
phorus and chlorine) was laid down by vapours or solutions contain- 
ing those gases, which may play a similar part in the basic rocks 
to that taken by fluorine and boron in the pneumatolytic veins 
around granites. In the country rock around the veins scapolite 
(q.v.), a lime alumina silicate, containing chlorine, often is substituted 
for lime-felspar. 

These extensive changes attending the formation of mineral 
veins are by no means common phenomena, but in many plutonic 
masses pneumatolytic action has contributed to the formation of 
pegmatites (q.v.). (J. S .F.) 

PNEUMONIA (Gr. irvevnuv, lung), a term used for inflam- 
mation of the lung substance. Formerly the disease was 
divided into three varieties: (i) Acute Croupous or lobar 
pneumonia; (2) Catarrhal or Broncho-pneumonia; (3) Inter- 
stitial or Chronic pneumonia. 

i. Acute Croupous or Lobar Pneumonia (Pneumonic Fever) 
is now classed as an acute infective disease of the lung, char- 
acterized by fever and toxaemia, running a definite course and 
being the direct result of a specific micro-organism or micro- 
organisms. The micrococcus lanceolatus (pneumococcus, or 
diplococcus pneumoniae) of Frankel and Weichselbaum is 
present in a large number of cases in the bronchial secretions, 
in the affected lung and in the blood. This organism is also 
present in many other infective processes which may com- 
plicate or terminate lobar pneumonia, such as pericarditis, 
endocarditis, peritonitis and empyema. The bacillus pneu- 
moniae of Friedlander is also present in a proportion of cases, 
but is probably not the cause of true lobar pneumonia. Various 
other organisms may be associated with these, but they are to 
be regarded as in the nature of a secondary invasion. Lobar 
pneumonia may be considered as an acute endemic disease of 
temperate climates, though epidemic forms have been de- 
scribed. It has a distinct seasonal incidence, being most 
frequent in the winter and spring. Osier strongly supports the 
view that it is an infectious disease, quoting the outbreaks 
reported by W. L. Rodman of Frankfort, Kentucky, where 
in a prison of 735 inhabitants there were 118 cases in one year; 
but direct contagion does not seem to be well proved, and it is 
undoubted that the pneumococcus is present in the fauces of 
numbers of healthy persons and seems to require a lowered 
power of resistance or other favouring condition for the pro- 
duction of an attack. 



Lobar Pneumonia begins by the setting up of an acute in- 
flammatory process in the alveoli. The changes which take 
place in the lung are chiefly three, (i) Congestion, or engorge- 
ment, the blood-vessels being distended and the lung more 
voluminous and heavier than normal, and of dark red colour. 
Its air cells still contain air. (2) Red Hepatizalion, so called 
from its resemblance to liver tissue. In this stage there is 
poured into the air cells of the affected part an exudation con- 
sisting of amorphous fibrin together with epithelial cells and 
red and white blood corpuscles, the whole forming a viscid mass 
which occupies not only the cells but also the finer bronchi, and 
which speedily coagulates, causing the lung to become firmly 
consolidated. In this condition the cells are entirely emptied 
of air, their blood-vessels are pressed upon by the exudation, 
and the lung substance, rendered brittle, sinks in water. The 
appearance of a section of the lung in this stage has been likened 
to that of red granite. It is to the character of the exudation, 
consisting largely of coagulable fibrin, that the term croupous 
is due. (3) Grey Hepatization. In this stage the lung still re- 
tains its liver-like consistence, but its colour is row grey, not 
unlike the appearance of grey granite. This is due to the change 
taking place in the exudation, which undergoes resolution by a 
process of fatty degeneration, pus formation, liquefaction and 
ultimately absorption so that in a comparatively short period 
the air vesicles get rid of their morbid contents and resume 
their normal function. During resolution the changes in the 
exudate take place by a process of autolysis or peptonization 
of the inflammatory products by unorganized ferments, absorp- 
tion taking place into the lymphatics and circulation. The 
absorbed exudate is mainly excreted by the kidneys, excess of 
nitrogen being found in the urine during this period. This is 
happily the termination of the majority of cases of lobar pneu- 
monia. One of the most remarkable phenomena is the rapidity 
with which the lung tissue clears up, and its freedom from 
alteration or from infiltration into the connective tissue as fre- 
quently takes place after broncho-pneumonia. When resolution 
does not take place, death may occur from extension of the 
disease and subsequent toxaemia, from circulatory failure, 
from the formation of one or more abscesses or more rarely from 
gangrene of the lung or from the complication mentioned below. 
Chronic interstitial pneumonia is infrequent, following on the 
acute variety. The most frequent seat of pneumonia is the 
base or lower lobes, but occasionally the apices are the only 
parts affected. The right lung is the most often attacked. Pneu- 
monia may extend to the entire lung or it may affect both 
lungs. The death rate of acute lobar pneumonia in the chief 
London hospitals is 20%. With an organism so prevalent 
as the pneumococcus it follows that alcoholism, diabetes and 
other general diseases and intoxications must render the body 
liable to an attack. Males are more commonly attacked than 
females, and a previous attack seems to give a special liability 
to another. The incubation period of pneumonia is unknown; 
it is probably very short. 

The symptoms are generally well marked from the beginning. 
The attack is usually ushered in by a rigor (or in children a con- 
vulsion), and the speedy development of the febrile condition, the 
temperature rising to a considerable degree 101 to 104 or more. 
The pulse is quickened, and there is a marked disturbance in the 
respiration, which is rapid, shallow and difficult, the rate being 
usually accelerated to some two or three times its normal amount. 
The lips are livid, and the face has a dusky flush. Pain in the side 
is felt, especially should any amount of pleurisy be present, as is 
often the case. Cough is an early symptom. It is at first frequent 
and hacking, and is accompanied with a little tough colourless 
expectoration, which soon, however, becomes more copious and of 
a rusty red colour, either tenacious or frothy and liquid. Micro- 
scopically this consists mainly of epithelium, casts of the air cells 
and fine bronchi, together with granular matter, blood and pus 
corpuscles and haematoidin crystals. The micro-organisms usually 
present are the pneumococcus, Friedlander's bacillus, and sometimes 
the influenza bacillus. The following are the chief physical signs 
in the various stages of the disease. In the stage of congestion 
fine crackling or crepitation is heard over the affected area; some- 
times there is very little change from the natural breathing. In 
the stage of red hepatization the affected side of the chest is seen 
to expand less freely than the opposite side; there is dullness on 



870 



PNEUMONIA 



percussion, and increase of the vocal fremitus; while on ausculta- 
tion the breath sounds are tubular or bronchial in character, with, 
it may be, some amount of fine crepitation in certain parts. In 
the stage of grey hepatization the percussion note is still dull and 
the breathing tubular, but crepitations of coarser quality than 
before are also audible. These various physical signs disappear 
more or less rapidly during convalescence. With the progress 
of the inflammation the febrile symptoms and rapid breathing 
continue. The patient during the greater part of the disease lies 
on the back or on the affected side. The pulse, which at first was 
full, becomes small and soft owing to the interruption to the 
pulmonary circulation. Occasionally slight jaundice is present, 
due probably to a similar cause. The urine is scanty, sometimes 
albuminous, and its chlorides are diminished. In favourable cases, 
however severe, there generally occurs after six or eight days a 
distinct crisis, marked by a rapid fall of the temperature accom- 
panied with perspiration and with a copious discharge of lithates 
in the urine. Although no material change is as yet noticed in 
the physical signs, the patient breathes more easily, sleep returns, 
and convalescence advances rapidly in the majority of instances. 
In unfavourable cases death may take place either from the extent 
of the inflammatory action, especially if the pneumonia is double, 
from excessive fever, from failure of the heart's action or general 
strength at about the period of the crisis, or again from the disease 
assuming from the first a low adynamic form with delirium and 
with scanty expectoration of greenish or " prune juice " appear- 
ance. Such cases are seen in persons worn out in strength, in the 
aged, and especially in the intemperate. 

The complications of acute pneumonia are pleurisy, which is 
practically inevitably present, empyema (in which the pneumococcus 
is frequently present and occasionally the streptococcus), peri- 
carditis and endocarditis, both due to septic poisoning, while perhaps 
the most serious complication is meningitis, which is responsible 
for a large percentage of the fatal cases. The pneumococcus has 
been found in the exudate. Secondary pneumonias chiefly follow 
the specific fevers, as diphtheria, enteric fever, measles and influenza, 
and are the result of a direct poisoning. Bacteriologically a number 
of different organisms have been found, together with the specific 
microbe of the primary disease; the striking features of primary 
lobar pneumonia are often masked in these types. 

The treatment of acute pneumonia has of late undergone a 
marked change, and may be divided into 3 heads: (i) General 
hygienic treatment; (2) the treatment of special symptoms; 
(3) treatment by vaccines and sera. The same treatment of 
absolute rest should be carried out as in enteric fever; this 
absolute rest is necessary to limit the auto-inoculation by the 
absorption of toxins. Fresh air in abundance and even open- 
air treatment if possible has been attended with good results. 
Ice poultices over the affected part are useful in the relief of 
pain, while tepid sponging and tepid or even cold baths may 
be freely given, and the patient's strength supported by milk, 
soups and other light forms of nourishment. Stimulants may 
be called for, and strychnine and digitalin are the most valu- 
able; disinfection of the sputum should be systematically 
carried out. Many trials have been made with antipneumo- 
coccic serum, but it has not been shown to have a very 
marked effect in cutting short the disease. The polyvalent 
serum of Romer has given the best results. Much more favour- 
able results have been obtained from the use of a vaccine. The 
results of vaccine treatment obtained by Boellke in 30 cases of 
severe pneumonia and one case of pneumococcic endocarditis 
are encouraging. The vaccine, to produce the best effects, 
should be made from the patient's own pneumococcus, as it is 
evident there are different strains of pneumococci, the doses 
(5 to 50 million dead pneumococci) being regulated by the 
guidance of the opsonic index. The objection to the prepara- 
tion of the vaccine from the patient's own organisms is the 
time (several days) which is required, valuable time being 
thereby lost; but the results are much more certain than with 
the use of a " stock" vaccine. 

2. Broncho- Pneumonia (Catarrhal or Lobular-Pneumonia or 
Capillary Bronchitis). An acute form of lobular pneumonia 
has been described, having all the characters of acute lobar 
pneumonia except that the pneumonic patches are disseminated. 
The term " broncho-pneumonia" is however here used to 
denote a widespread catarrhal inflammation of the smaller 
bronchi which spreads in places to the alveoli and produces 
consolidation. All forms of broncho-pneumonia depend on 
the invasion of the lung by micro-organisms. No one organism 



has however been constantly found which can be said to be 
specific, as in lobar pneumonia; the influenza bacillus, micro- 
coccus catarrhalis, pneumococcus, Friedlander's bacillus and 
various staphylococci having been found. John Eyre, in 
Allbutt's System of Medicine, gives 62% of mixed infection in 
the cases investigated by him. Broncho-pneumonia may occur 
as an acute primary affection in children, but is more usually 
secondary. It may be a sequence of infectious fevers, measles, 
diphtheria, whooping cough, scarlet fever and sometimes typhoid 
fever. In these it forms a frequent and often a fatal com- 
plication. The large majority of the fatal cases are those of 
early childhood. In adults it may follow influenza or com- 
plicate chronic Bright's disease or various other disorders. 
Broncho-pneumonia also may follow operations on the mouth 
or trachea, or the inhalation of foreign bodies into the trachea. 
It is a frequent complication of pulmonary tuberculosis. 

The following changes take place in the lung: at first the 
affected patches are dense, non-crepitant, with a bluish red 
appearance tending to become grey or yellow. Under the 
microscope the air vesicles and finer bronchi are crowded with 
cells, the result of the inflammatory process, but there is no 
fibrinous exudation such as is present in croupous pneumonia. 
In favourable cases resolution takes place by fatty degenera- 
tion, liquefaction, and absorption of the cells, but on the other 
hand they may undergo caseous degenerative changes, abscesses 
may form, or a condition of chronic interstitial pneumonia be 
developed, in both of which cases the condition passes into one 
of pulmonary tuberculosis. Evidence of previous bronchitis 
is usually present in the lungs affected with catarrhal pneu- 
monia. In the great majority of instances catarrhal pneu- 
monia occurs as an accompaniment or sequel of bronchitis, either 
from the inflammation passing from the finer bronchi to the 
pulmonary air vesicles, or from its affecting portions of lung 
which have undergone collapse. 

The symptoms characterizing the onset of catarrhal pneumonia 
in its more acute form are the occurrence during an attack of 
bronchitis or the convalescence from measles or whooping cough, 
of a sudden and marked elevation of temperature, together with 
a quickened pulse and increased difficulty in breathing. The 
cough becomes short and painful, and there is little or no expectora- 
tion. The physical signs are not distinct, being mixed up with those 
of the antecedent bronchitis; but, should the pneumonia be exten- 
sive, there may be an impaired percussion note with tubular breath- 
ing and some bronchophony. Dyspnoea may be present in a marked 
degree; and death frequently occurs from paralysis of the heart. 
Broncho-pneumonia is a serious disease, the death-rate in children 
under five has been estimated at 30 to 50 %. 

The treatment of broncho-pneumonia is mainly symptomatic. 
At the outset a mild purgative is given, and should the secre- 
tion accumulate in the bronchial tubes an emetic is useful. 
Inhalations are useful to relieve the cough, and circulatory 
stimulants such as strychnine are valuable, together with bella- 
donna and oxygen. When orthopnoea and lividity are present, 
with distension of the right heart, venesection is necessary. 
The treatment of broncho-pneumonia by serum and vaccines 
is not so successful as in lobar pneumonia, owing to the difficulty 
of ascertaining the precise bacterial infection. The great 
danger of broncho-pneumonia is the subsequent development 
of pulmonary tuberculosis. 

3. Chronic Interstitial Pneumonia (Cirrhosis of the Lung) 
is a fibroid change in the lung, chiefly affecting the fibrous 
stroma and may be either local or diffuse. The changes pro- 
duced in the lung by this disease are marked chiefly by the 
growth of nucleated fibroid tissue around the walls of the bronchi 
and vessels, and in the intervesicular septa, which proceeds to 
such an extent as to invade and obliterate the air cells. The 
lung, which is at first enlarged, becomes shrunken, dense in 
texture and solid, any unaffected portions being emphyse- 
matous; the bronchi are dilated, the pleura thickened, and the 
lung substance often deeply pigmented, especially in the case 
of miners, who are apt to suffer from this disease. The other 
lung is always greatly enlarged and distended from emphysema; 
the heart becomes hypertrophied, particularly the right ven- 
tricle; and there may be marked atheromatous changes in the 



PNOM-PENH POBEDONOSTSEV 



871 



blood vessels. Later the lung becomes converted into a series 
of bronchiectatic cavities. This condition is usually present to 
a greater or less degree in almost all chronic diseases of the lungs 
and bronchi, but it is specially apt to arise in an extensive form 
from pre-existing catarrhal pneumonia, and not unfrequently 
occurs in connexion with occupations which necessitate the 
habitual inhalation of particles of dust, such as those of col- 
liers, flax-dressers, stonemasons, millers, &c., to which the 
term pneumonokoniosis is now applied (including anthracosis, 
siderosis, chalicosis and the so-called " grinder's rot" ). 

The symptoms are very similar to those of chronic phthisis (see 
TUBERCULOSIS), especially increasing difficulty of breathing, particu- 
larly on exertion, cough either dry or with expectoration, some- 
times copious and fetid. In the case of coal-miners the sputum is 
black from containing carbonaceous matter. The physical signs 
are deficient expansion of the affected side the disease being 
mostly confined to one lung increasing dullness on percussion, 
tubular breathing and moist sounds. As the disease progresses 
retraction of the side becomes manifest, and the heart and liver 
may _ be displaced. Ultimately the condition, both as regards 
physical signs and symptoms, takes the characters of the later 
stages of pulmonary phthisis with colliquative symptoms, in- 
creasing emaciation and death. Occasionally dropsy is present 
from the heart becoming affected in the course of the disease. 
The malady is usually of long duration, many cases remaining 
for years in a stationary condition and even undergoing temporary 
improvement in mild weather, but the tendency is on the whole 
downward. 

See Allbutt and Rolleston, System of Medicine (1909) ; R. W. Allen, 
Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment (1908); 
Osjer, Practice of Medicine (1909); The Practitioner (May 1908); 
Clinical Journal (Jan. 1908) ; American Journal of the Medical Sciences 
(Jan. 1908); W. C. Bosanquet and J. Eyre, Serums, Vaccines and 
Toxines (1909). 

PNOM-PENH, a town of French Indo-China, capital, since 
1866, of the protectorate of Cambodia and seat of the resident- 
superior. Pop. about 60,000, consisting of Cambodians, An- 
namese, Chinese, Malays, Indians and about 600 Europeans. 
It is situated on the Mekong about 173 m. from its mouth at 
the point where it divides into two arms and is joined by the 
branch connecting it with the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap). Its 
position makes it the market for the products of Cambodia, 
Laos, Upper Burma and part of Siam (dried fish, rice, cotton, 
indigo, cardamoms, &c.) The town is lighted by electricity. 
The palace of the king of Cambodia occupies a large space in 
the Cambodian quarter. The town gets its name from the 
Pn6m, a central hill surmounted by an ancient pagoda. 

PO (anc. Padus, Gr. IlctSos), a river of northern Italy, and 
the largest in the whole country, with a total length of about 
310 m. direct from the source to the mouth, but, including its 
many windings, of some 417 m. The navigable portion from 
Casale Monferrato to the mouth is 337 m.; the minimum width 
of this portion 656 ft., and its minimum depth 7 ft. Owing 
to the prevalence of shallows and sandbanks, navigation is 
difficult. 

The Po is the dominating factor in north Italian geography, 
north Italy practically consisting of the Po basin, with the sur- 
rounding slopes of the Alps and Apennines. For a description 
of its course, and a list of its principal tributaries see ITALY. 
The area of its basin, which includes portions of Switzerland 
and Austria, is estimated at 26,798 sq. m. 

In the first 21 m. of its course, down to Revello (west of Saluzzo), 
the Po descends no less than 5250 ft., or a fall of 47-3: 1000, forming 
a very remarkable contrast to its fall lower down. From the con- 
fluence of the Ticino its fall is about 0-3:1000; from the beginning 
of the delta below Ferrara, 0-08:1000. At Turin it has an average 
width of 400 to 415 ft., a mean depth of 3i to sJ ft., and a velocity 
of i to 3 ft. in the second. The mean depth from the confluence 
of the Ticino (altitude 217 ft.) downwards is 6 to 15 ft. The river 
is embanked from Piacenza, and continuously from Cremona, 
the total length of the embankments exceeding 600 m. Owing to 
its confinement between these high banks, and to the great amount 
of sedimentary matter which the river brings down with it, its bed 
has been gradually raised, so that in its lower course it is in many 
places above the level of the surrounding country. A result of 
confining the stream between its containing banks is the rapid 
growth of the delta. Lombardini calculated that the annual 
increase in the area of the Po delta during the period 1300 to 1600 
amounted to 127 acres; but during the period 1600 to 1830 it rose 
to 324 acres. Marinelli 1 estimated that between the years 1823 



and 1893 the annual increase was at the average rate of 173 to 
175 acres, and the total accretion at about 20 sq. m. ; and the total 
area of inundated land north and south of the delta at nearly 
60 sq. m. 1 He further estimated that the Po della Maestra advances 
282 ft. annually, the Pq delle Tolle 262 ft., the Po della Gnocca 
mj ft., and the Po di Gorp259 ft. The low ground between 
the lower Po and the lower Adige and the sea is known as Polesine, 
a name the derivation of which is much discussed. It is generally 
applied only to the province of Rovigp, but is sometimes extended 
to the neighbourhood of Adria and Ferrara. All along its course 
from Chivasso (below TurinJ down to the delta the river is con- 
nected with several of its tributaries by canals, and at the same time 
other canals connect the tributaries and carry off their waters and 
the waters of the Po purely for purposes of irrigation. 

The researches of Helbig (Die Italiker in der Po-Ebene, Leipzig, 
1879) show that the lower valley of the Po was at an early period 
occupied by people of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic stages of 
civilization, who built houses on piles along the swampy borders 
of the streams. It is possible that even they may have begun by 
crude dikes the great system by which the waters are now con- 
trolled ; at least it is certain that these works date their origin from 
pre-Roman antiquity. _ Pliny refers them to the Etruscans. The 
reclaiming and protecting of the riparian lands went on rapidly 
under the Romans, and in several places the rectangular divisions 
of the ground, still remarkably distinct, show the military character 
of some of the agricultural colonies. During the time of the bar- 
barian invasions much of the protective system was allowed to fall 
into decay; but the latter part of the middle ages saw the works 
resumed with great energy, so that the main features of the present 
arrangement were in existence by the close of the igth century. 

The earlier Roman writers speak of the region between the 
northern boundaries of Etruria and Umbria and the Alps as Gallia 
Cisalpina. It was separate from Italy proper, the Aesis first and 
then the Rubicon being the boundary on the east, and the Arnus 
the boundary on the west, so that, for example, Luca remained 
outside the boundaries of Italy proper, even in 89 B.C. Romaniza- 
tion had, however, progressed considerably, the foundation of 
colonies and the construction of roads had gone on during the 
2nd century, and the whole district as far as the Padus was given 
the Roman franchise in 89 B.C., while the Transpadanes received 
Latin rights, and were fully enfranchised forty years later. Cis- 
alpine Gaul was apparently formed into a province by Sulla in 
81 B.C. and continued to be so until the fall of the Republic. 

The Ligurian name of the Po was Bodincus or Bodencus, i.e. 
the bottomless. The name Padus was taken from the Celts or the 
Veneti. Thus we find Bodincomagus as a town name (Industria) 
on the upper course, and II<n56a (Padua, Catull. 95, 7) as a name 
of one of the mouths of the river. The name 'HptSai-Aj (Eri- 
danus) of Greek poetry was identified with it at a comparatively 
late period. 

POACH (probably from Fr. poche, bag, or Eng. "poke," 
thrust into), to trespass on private property in pursuit of game 
or fish; also, generally, to catch game or fish by means or at 
times not permitted by the law, or in an unsportsmanlike 
manner (see GAME LAWS). The etymology is rather obscure, but 
as used in the independent sense of " poaching" an egg, i.e. 
cooking by breaking into boiling water, the word appears to 
be from the same original. 

POBEDONOSTSEV, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1827- 
1907), Russian jurist, state official, and writer on philosophical 
and literary subjects. Born in Moscow in 1827, he studied at 
the School of Law in St Petersburg, and entered the public 
service as an official in one of the Moscow departments of the 
senate. From 1860 to 1865 he was professor of Russian civil 
law in the Moscow University, and instructed the sons of Alex- 
ander II. in the theory of law and administration. In 1868 
he became a senator in St Petersburg, in 1872 a member of the 
council of the empire, and in 1880 chief procurator of the Holy 
Synod. He always showed himself an uncompromising Con- 
servative, and never shrank from expressing boldly his opinions. 
Consequently, in the so-called Liberal camp he was always 
denounced an an " obscurantist" and an enemy of progress. 
In the early years of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881), 
Pobedonostsev maintained, though keeping aloof from the 
Slavophils, that Occidental institutions were radically bad in 
themselves and totally inapplicable to Russia. Parliamentary 
methods of administration, modern judicial organization and pro- 
cedure, trial by jury, freedom of the press, secular education 
these were among the principal objects of his aversion. He 

1 See G. Marinelli, in Atti inst. veneto sci., 8th series, vol. viii. 
(1896-1897); and " L'Accrescimento del Delta del Po nel Secolo 
XIX.," in Riv. Georg. Ital. (1898), vol. v. 



872 



POCHARD POCKET-MOUSE 



subjected all of them to a severe analysis in his Reflections of a 
Russian Statesman (English by R. C. Long, London, 1898). 
To these dangerous products of Occidental rationalism he 
found a counterpoise in popular vis inerliae, and in the respect of 
the masses for institutions developed slowly and automatically 
during the past centuries of national life. Among the practical 
deductions drawn from these premisses is the necessity of pre- 
serving the autocratic power, and of fostering among the people 
the traditional veneration for the ritual of the national Church. 
In the sphere of practical politics he exercised considerable 
influence by inspiring and encouraging the Russification policy 
of Alexander III. (1881-1894), which found expression in an 
administrative Nationalist propaganda and led to a good deal 
of religious persecution. After the death of Alexander III. he 
lost much of his influence, for Nicholas II., while clinging to 
his father's Russification policy and even extending it to Fin- 
land, disliked the idea of systematic religious persecution, and 
was not wholly averse from the partial emancipation of the 
Russian Church from civil control. During the revolutionary 
tumult which followed the disastrous war with Japan Pobe- 
donostsev, being nearly 80 years of age, retired from public 
affairs. He died on the 23rd of March 1907. 

POCHARD, POCKARD, or POKER, 1 names properly belonging 
to the male of a species of duck (the female of which is known 
as the Dunbird), the Anasferina of Linnaeus, and Nyroca ferina 
of later ornithologists but names very often applied by writers 
in a general way to most of the group or sub-family Fuligulinae, 
commonly called Diving or Sea-Ducks (see DUCK). The Pochard 
in full plumage is a very handsome bird, with a coppery-red 
head, on the sides of which sparkle the ruby irides of his eyes, 
relieved by the greyish-blue of the basal half of his broad bill, 
and the deep black of his breast, while his back and flanks 
appear of a light grey, being really of a dull white closely barred 
by fine undulating black lines. The tail-coverts both above 
and below are black, the quill feathers brownish-black, and the 
lower surface of a dull white. The Dunbird has the head and 
neck reddish-brown, with ill-defined whitish patches on the 
cheeks and chin; the back and upper tail-coverts are dull brown, 
and the rest of the plumage, except the lower tail-coverts, which 
are brownish-grey, resembles that of the Pochard. This 
species is very abundant in many parts of Europe, northern 
Asia, and North America, generally frequenting in winter the 
larger open waters, and extending its migrations to Barbary 
and Egypt, but in summer retiring northward and inland to 
breed. The American Pochard is slightly larger, has yellow 
eyes, and is now regarded as specifically distinct under the 
name of Nyroca americana; but America has a perfectly distinct 
though allied species in the celebrated canvas-back duck, 
N. vallisneria, a much larger bird, with a longer, higher and 
narrower bill, which has no blue at the base, and, though 
the plumage of both, especially in the females, is very similar, 
the male canvas-back has a darker head, and the black lines 
on the back and flanks are much broken up and farther 
asunder, so that the effect is to give these parts a much 
lighter colour, and from this has arisen the bird's common 
though fanciful name. Its scientific epithet is derived from 
the fresh-water plant, a species of Vallisneria, usually known 
as " wild celery," from feeding on which its flesh is believed to 
acquire the delicate flavour that is held in so great a repute. 
The Pochard and Dunbird in Europe are in much request for 
the table (as the German name of the species, Tafelente, testi- 
fies) when they frequent fresh-water; birds killed on the sea- 
coast are so rank as to be almost worthless. 

Among other species nearly allied to the Pochard that frequent 
the northern hemisphere may be mentioned the Scaup-Duclc, 
Fuligula marila, with its American representative F. affinis, in 

1 The derivation of these words, in the first of which the ch is 
pronounced hard (though Dr Johnson made it soft), and the o 
m all of them generally long, is very uncertain. Cotgrave has 
pocheculier (modern French poche-cuiller), which he renders 
" Shoueler," nowadays the name of a kind of duck, but in his time 
meaning the bird we commonly call Spoonbill (<?..). Littrd gives 
pochard as a popular French word signifying drunkard. 



both of which the male has the head black, glossed with blue or 
green; but these are nearly always uneatable from the nature of 
their food, which is mostly gathered at low tide on the " scaups " 
or " scalps," as the banks on which mussels and other marine 
molluscs grow are in many places termed. Then there are the 
Tufted Duck, F. cristata black with a crest and white flanks 
and its American equivalent F. collaris, and the White-eyed Pochard, 
F. nyroca, and the Red-crested Pochard, F. rufina both peculiar 
to the Old World, and well known in India. In the southern hemi- 
sphere the genus is represented by three species, F. capensis, F. 
australis and F. novae-zealandiae, whose respective names indicate 
the country each inhabits, and in South America exists a some- 
what divergent form which has been placed in a distinct genus as 
Metopiana peposaca. 

Generally classed with the Fuligulinae is the small group known 
as the Eiders, which differ from them in several respects: the bulb 
at the base of the trachea in the male, so largely developed in the 
members of the genus Fuligula, is here much smaller and wholly 
of bone; the males take a much longer time, two or even three years, 
to attain their full plumage, and some of the feathers on the head, 
when that plumage is completed, are always stiff, glistening and of 
a peculiar pale-green colour. This little group of hardly more 
than half a dozen species may be fairly considered to form a separate 
genus under the name of Somateria. Many authors indeed have 
unjustifiably, as it seems to the present writer broken it up into 
three or four genera. The well-known Eider, S. mollissima, is the 
largest of this group, and, beautiful as it is, is excelled in beauty 
by the King-Duck, S. spectabilis, and the little S. stelleri. A most 
interesting form generally, but obviously in error, placed among 
them, is the Logger-head, Racehorse or Steamer-Duck, Micropterus 
(or more probably Tachyeres) cinereus of Chile, the Falkland Islands 
and Straits of Magellan nearly as large as a tame goose, and subject 
to the, so far as known, unique peculiarity of losing its power of 
flight after reaching maturity. Its habits have been well de- 
scribed by C. Darwin in his Journal of Researches, and its anatomy 
is the subject of an excellent paper in the Zoological Society's 
Transactions (vii. 493-501, pis. Iviii.-lxii.) by R. O. Cunningham. 

(A. N.) 

POCKET, a small bag, particularly a bag-like receptacle 
either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing. As a 
measure of capacity " pocket" is now only used for hops; it 
equals 168 Ib. The word appears in Mid. Eng. as poket, and 
is taken from a r Norman diminutive of O. Fr. poke, pouque, mod. 
poche, cf. " pouch." The form " poke " is now only used 
dialectically, or in such proverbial sayings as a " pig in a poke," 
and possibly in the " poke-bonnet," the coal-scuttle bonnet 
fashionable during the first part of the igth century, and now 
worn by the female members of the Salvation Army; more 
probably the name of the bonnet is connected with " poke," 
to thrust forward, dig. The origin cf this is obscure. Dutch 
has poken, pook, a dagger; Swedish pdk, a stick. 

POCKET-GOPHER (i.e. pouched rat), the name of a group 
of, chiefly North, American rat-like rodents, characterized 
by the possession of large cheek-pouches, the openings of 
which are external to the mouth; while their inner surface 
is lined with fur. The cheek-teeth, which comprise two pairs 
of premolars and three of molars in each jaw, are in the form 
of simple prfsms of enamel, which do not develop roots. The 
fore and hind limbs are of approximately equal length, but the 
second and third front-claws are greatly enlarged, and all the 
claws are furnished at the base with bristles. The eyes are 
small, and the external ears rudimentary. 

Pocket-gophers, which typify a family, the Geomyidae, spend 
the whole of their time underground, and are specially organ- 
ized for such a mode of existence, their powerful claws being 
adapted for digging, while the bristles on the toes prevent the earth 
from passing between them. The upper incisor teeth are employed 
to loosen the ground, like a fork; and the little rodents are able 
to move both backwards and forwards in their runs. The cheek- 
pouches are employed solely in carrying food, which consists largely 
of roots. In the typical genus Geomys the upper incisors are grooved, 
but in the allied Thomomys they are smooth. The common pocket- 
gopher, Geomys bursarius, of the Mississippi Valley measures about 
8 in. in length, with a tail of between 2 and 3 in.; its colour being 
rufous brown and greyish beneath. A well-known representative 
of the second genus is Thomomys talpoides, which is considerably 
smaller than the former. To the farmer and the gardener pocket- 
gophers are an unmitigated source of annoyance. (See RODENTIA.) 

POCKET-MOUSE, the name of a number of small jerboa-like, 
chiefly North, American rodents belonging to the family Geo- 
myidae, and constituting the genus Perognathus and Heteromys. 
They are nearly allied to the American kangaroo-rats (see 



POCOCK PODEBRAD 



873 



KANGAROO-RAT), but differ in having rooted molar teeth. The 
typical pocket-mouse P. fasciatus, which is a native of Mon- 
tana, Missouri, and Wyoming, is a sandy-coloured rodent 
marked with black lines above and with white beneath, and 
measuring about 6 in. in length, this length being equally divided 
between the head and body and the tail. (See RODENTIA.) 

POCOCK, SIR GEORGE (1706-1792), British admiral, son 
of Thomas Pocock, chaplain in the navy, was born on the 6th 
of March 1706, and entered the navy under the protection of 
his maternal uncle, Captain Streynsham Master (1682-1724), 
in the " Superbe " in 1718. He became lieutenant in April 
1725, commander in 1733, and post-captain in 1738. After 
serving in the West Indies he was sent to the East Indies in 
1754 as captain of the " Cumberland" (58) with Rear-Admiral 
Charles Watson (1714-1757). Watson's squadron co-operated 
with Clive in the conquest of Bengal. In 1755 Pocock became 
rear-admiral, and was promoted vice-admiral in 1756. On the 
death of Watson he took the command of the naval forces in 
the eastern seas. In 1758 he was joined by Commodore Charles 
Steevens (d. 1761), but the reinforcement only raised the squadron 
to seven small line-of-battle ships. War being now in pro- 
gress between France and England the French sent a naval 
force from their islands in the Indian Ocean into the Bay of 
Bengal to the assistance of Pondicherry. To intercept the 
arrival of these reinforcements for the enemy now became 
the object of Pocock. The French force was indeed of less 
intrinsic strength than his own. Count D'Ache (i7oo?-i77s), 
who commanded, had to make up his line by including several 
Indiamen, which were only armed merchant ships. Yet the 
number of the French was superior and Pocock was required 
by the practice of his time to fight by the old official fighting 
instructions. He had to bring his ships into action in a line 
with the enemy, and to preserve his formation while the en- 
gagement lasted. All Pocock's encounters with D'Ache were 
indecisive. The first battle, on the 2gth of April 1758, failed to 
prevent the Frenchmen from reaching Pondicherry. After a 
second and more severe engagement on the 3rd of August, 
the French admiral returned to the Mauritius, and when the 
monsoon set in Pocock went round to Bombay. He was back 
early in spring, but the French admiral did not return to the 
Bay of Bengal till September. Again Pocock was unable to 
prevent his opponent from reaching Pondicherry, and a well- 
contested battle between them on the roth of September 1759 
proved again indecisive. The French government was nearly 
bankrupt, and D'Ache could get no stores for his squadron. 
He was compelled to return to the islands, and the English 
were left in possession of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts. 
Pocock went home in 1760, and in 1761 was made Knight of the 
Bath and admiral. In 1762 he was appointed to the com- 
mand of the naval forces in the combined expedition which took 
Havana. The siege, which began on the 7th of June, and 
lasted till the i3th of August, was rendered deadly by the climate. 
The final victory was largely attributable to the vigorous and 
intelligent aid which Pocock gave to the troops. His share in 
the prize money was no less than 122,697. On his return to 
England Pocock is said to have been disappointed because 
another officer, Sir Charles Saunders (1713-1775), was chosen 
in preference to himself as a member of the admiralty board, 
and to have resigned in consequence. It is certain that he re- 
signed his commission in 1766. He died on the 3rd of April 
1792. His monument is in Westminster Abbey. 

POCOCKE, EDWARD (1604-1691), English Orientalist and 
biblical scholar, was born in 1604, the son of a Berkshire clergy- 
man, and received his education at the free school of Thame in 
Oxfordshire and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (scholar in 
1620, fellow in 1628). The first-fruit of his studies -was an edition 
from a Bodleian MS. of the four New Testament epistles (2 Peter, 
2 and 3 John, Jude) which were not in the old Syriac canon, and 
were not contained in European editions of the Peshito. This 
was published at Leiden at the instigation of G. Vossius in 1630, 
and in the same year Pococke sailed for Aleppo as chaplain to the 
English factory. At Aleppo he made himself a profound Arabic 



scholar, and collected many valuable MSS. At this time Wm. 
Laud was bishop of London and chancellor of the university of 
Oxford, and Pococke became known to him as one who could 
help his schemes for enriching the university. Laud founded 
an Arabic chair at Oxford, and invited Pococke home to fill it, 
and he entered on his duties on the loth of August 1636; but 
next summer he sailed again for Constantinople to prosecute 
further studies and collect more books, and remained there for 
about three years. When he returned to England Laud was in 
the Tower, but had taken the precaution to place the Arabic 
chair on a permanent footing. Pococke does not seem to have 
been an extreme churchman or to have meddled actively in 
politics. His rare scholarship and personal qualities raised him 
up influential friends among the opposite party, foremost among 
these being John Selden and John Owen. Through their offices 
he was even advanced in 1648 to the chair of Hebrew, though as 
he could not take the engagement of 1649 h e l s t the emoluments 
of the post soon after, and did not recover them till the Restora- 
tion. These cares seriously hampered Pococke in his studies, as 
he complains in the preface to his Eutychius; he seems to have 
felt most deeply the attempts to remove him from his parish of 
Childrey, a college living which he had accepted in 1643. In 
1649 he published the Specimen historiae arabum, a short 
account of the origin and manners of the Arabs, taken from 
Barhebraeus (Abulfaragius), with notes from a vast number of 
MS. sources which are still valuable. This was followed in 1655 
by the Porta Mosis, extracts from the Arabic commentary of 
Maimonides on the Mishna, with translation and very learned 
notes; and in 1656 by the annals of Eutychius in Arabic and 
Latin. He also gave active assistance to Brian Walton's poly- 
glot bible, and the preface to the various readings of the Arabic 
Pentateuch is from his hand. After the Restoration Pococke's 
political and pecuniary troubles were removed, but the reception 
of his Magnum opus a complete edition of the Arabic history of 
Barhebraeus (Greg, Abulfaragii historia compendiosa dynastia- 
rum), which he dedicated to the king in 1663, showed that the new 
order of things was not very favourable to profound scholarship. 
After this his most important works were a Lexicon heptaglotton 
(1669) and English commentaries on Micah (1677), Malachi 
(1677), Hosea (1685) and Joel (1691), which are still worth reading. 
An Arabic translation of Grotius's De veritate, which appeared in 
1660, may also be mentioned as a proof of Pococke's interest in 
the propagation of Christianity in the East. This was an old 
plan, which he had talked over with Grotius at Paris on his way 
back from Constantinople. Pococke married in 1646, and died in 
1691. One of his sons, Edward (1648-1727), published several 
contributions to Arabic literature a fragment of Abdallatif's 
description of Egypt and the Philosophus autodidactus of Ibn 
Tufail. 

The theological works of Pococke were collected, in two volumes, 
in 1740, with a curious account of his life and writings by L. Twells. 

PODEBRAD, GEORGE OF (1420-1471), king of Bohemia, was 
the son of Victoria of Kunstat and Podebrad, a Bohemian noble- 
man, who was one of the leaders of the " Orphans" or modern 
Taborites during the Hussite wars. George himself as a boy of 
fourteen took part in the great battle of Lipan, which marks the 
downfall of the more advanced Taborites. Early in life, as one 
of the leaders of the Calixtine party, he defeated the Austrian 
troops of the German King Albert II., son-in-law and successor 
of King Sigismund. He soon became a prominent member of 
the national or Calixtine party, and after the death of Ptacek of 
Pirkstein its leader. During the minority of Ladislas, son of 
Albert, who was born after his father's death, Bohemia was 
divided into two parties the Romanist or Austrian one, led by 
Ulrich von Rosenberg (1403-1462), and the national one, led by 
Podebrad. After various attempts at reconciliation, Podebrad 
decided to appeal to the force of arms. He gradually raised an 
armed force in north-eastern Bohemia, where the Calixtine cause 
had most adherents and where his ancestral castle was situated. 
With this army, consisting of about 9000 men, he marched in 
1448 from Kutna Hora to Prague, and obtained possession of the 
capital almost without resistance. Civil war, however, broke 



8 74 



PODESTA PODIUM 



out, but PodSbrad succeeded in defeating the Romanist nobles. 
In 1451 the emperor Frederick III., as guardian of the young 
king Ladislas, entrusted Podfibrad with the administration of 
Bohemia. In the same year a diet assembled at Prague also 
conferred on Podebrad the regency. The struggle of the Bohe- 
mians against Rome continued uninterruptedly, and the position 
of Podfibrad became a very difficult one when the young king 
Ladislas, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his sympathies 
for the Roman Church, though he had recognized the compacts 
and the ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislas 
died suddenly, and public opinion from an early period 
accused Podlbrad of having poisoned him. The Bohemian 
historian, Palacky, fifty years ago thoroughly disproved this 
accusation, and, though it has recently been revived by German 
historians, it must undoubtedly be considered as a calumny. 
On the 27th of February 1458 the estates of Bohemia unani- 
mously chose Podgbrad as king; even the adherents of the 
Austrian party voted for him, not wishing at that moment to 
oppose the popular feeling, which demanded the election of a 
national sovereign. A year after the accession of Podebrad 
Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius) became pope, and his incessant hostility 
proved one of the most serious obstacles to PodSbrad's rule. 
Though he rejected the demand of the pope, who wished him to 
consent to the abolition of the compacts, he endeavoured to 
curry, favour with the Roman see by punishing severely all the 
more advanced opponents of papacy in Bohemia. Podebrad's 
persecution of the newly-founded community of the Bohemian 
brethren is certainly a blemish on his career. All Podebrad's 
endeavours to establish peace with Rome proved ineffectual, 
and though the death of Pius II. prevented him from carrying 
out his planned crusade against Bohemia, his successor was a 
scarcely less bitter enemy of the country. Though the rule of 
Podfibrad had proved very successful and Bohemia had under it 
obtained a degree of prosperity which had been unknown since 
the time of Charles IV., the Calixtine king had many enemies 
among the Romanist members of the powerful Bohemian nobility. 
The malcontent nobles met at Zeleha Hora (Griineberg) on the 
28th of November 1465, and concluded an alliance against 
the king, bringing forward many mostly untrue accusations 
against him. The confederacy was from its beginning supported 
by the Roman see, though Podfibrad after the death of his im- 
placable enemy, Pius II., attempted to negotiate with the new 
pope, Paul II. These negotiations ended when the pontiff grossly 
insulted the envoys of the king of Bohemia. On the 23rd 
of December 1466 Paul II. excommunicated Podebrad and 
pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, forbidding all 
Romanists to continue in his allegiance. The emperor Frederick 
III., and King Matthias of Hungary, Podebrad's former ally, 
joined the insurgent Bohemian nobles. King Matthias conquered 
a large part of Moravia, and was crowned in the capital of that 
country, Brno(Briinn), as king of Bohemia on the 3rd of May 1469. 
In the following year PodSbrad was more successful in his resist- 
ance to his many enemies, but his death on the 22nd of March 
1471 put a stop to the war. In spite of the misfortunes of the 
last years of his reign, Podebrad's memory has always been 
cherished by the Bohemians. He was the only king of Bohemia 
who belonged to that nation, and the only one who was not a 
Roman Catholic. 

See H. Markgraf, ffber das Verhdllniss des Konigs Georg von 
Podebrad zu Papst Pius II. (1867); Jordan, Das Konigthum Georgs 
von Podibrad (1861); A. Bachmann, Ein Jahr bohmischer Geschichte 
(1876), and Urkunden . . . zur oesterreichischen Geschichte . . . 
im Zeitalter Georgs von Podebrad (1879); E. W. Kanter, Die 
Ermordung Kdnig Ladislaus (1906); Novotry, Uber den Tod Konig 
Ladislaws Postumus (1906). All histories of Bohemia, particularly 
that of F. Palacky (1836-1867), contain detailed accounts of the 
career of King George of Podeorad. (L.) 

PODESTA (Lat. potestas, power), the name given during the 
later middle ages to a high official in many Italian cities. Podes- 
tas or rectors were first appointed by the emperor Frederick I. 
when about 1158 he began to assert his Imperial rights over 
the cities of northern Italy. Their business was to enforce 
these rights; from the first they were very unpopular, and their 



arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the formation 
of the Lombard league and the rising against Frederick in 
1167. 

Although the emperor's experiment was short-lived podestas 
soon became general in northern Italy, making their appearance 
in most communes about 1200. These officials, however, were 
now appointed by the citizens or by their representatives. They 
exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war, 
both in foreign and domestic matters, but they only held office 
for a period of a year. In order to avoid the intestine strife 
so common in Italian civic life, it soon became the custom 
to select a stranger to fill this position. Venetians were in 
special request for this purpose during the I2th and i3th cen- 
turies, probably because at this time, at least, they were less 
concerned than other Italians in the affairs of the mainland. 
Afterwards in a few cases the term of office was extended to 
cover a period of years, or even a lifetime. 

During the later part of the I2th and the whole of the i3th 
century most of the Italian cities were governed by podestas. 
Concerning Rome, Gregorovius says that in 1205 " the pope 
changed the form of the civic government; the executive power 
lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podesta, 
who, directly or indirectly, was appointed by the pope." In 
Florence soon after 1180 the chief authority was transferred 
from the consuls to the podesta, and Milan and other cities 
were also ruled by these officials. There were, moreover, podestas 
in some of the cities of Provence. Gradually the podestas be- 
came more despotic and more corrupt, and sometimes a special 
official was appointed to hear complaints against them; in the 
I3th century in Florence and some other cities a capitano del 
popolo was chosen to look after the interests of the lower classes. 
In other ways also the power of the podestas was reduced; they 
were confined more and more to judicial functions until they 
disappeared early in the i6th century. 

The officials who were sent by the Italian republics to ad- 
minister the affairs of dependent cities were sometimes called 
podestas. At the present day the cities of Trent and Trieste give 
the name of podesta to their chief magistrate. 

The example of Italy in the matter of podestas was sometimes 
followed by cities and republics in northern Europe in the 
middle ages, notably by such as had trade relations with Italy. 
The officers thus elected sometimes bore the title of podesta or 
podestat. Thus in East Friesland there were podestas identical 
in name and functions with those of the Italian republics; 
sometimes each province had one, sometimes the federal diet 
elected a podesta-general for the whole country, the term of 
office being for a limited period or for life (see J. L. Motley, Dutch 
Republic, i. 44, ed. 1903). 

Lists of the Italian podestas are given in Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire ; 
vol. iii. (Leiden, 1889). See also W. F. Butler, The Lombard 
Communes (1906). 

PODGORITSA (Croatian, Podgorica), the largest town in Mon- 
tenegro; on the left bank of the river Moracha, and in a fertile 
valley which strikes inland for 18 m. from the shores of Lake 
Scutari to the mountains of central and eastern Montenegro. 
Pop. (1900), about 5500. Spread out on a perfectly flat plain, 
Podgoritsa has two distinct parts: the picturesque Turkish 
quarter, with its mosques and mined ramparts, and the Monte- 
negrin quarter, built since 1877, and containing a prison and an 
agricultural college. These quarters are separated by the river 
Ribnitsa, a tributary of the Moracha. A fine old Turkish bridge 
crosses the main stream. Podgoritsa receives from the eastern 
plains and the north-eastern highlands a great quantity of 
tobacco, fruit, cereals, honey, silk, livestock and other commodi- 
ties, which it distributes through Plavnitsa, its port on Lake 
Scutari, and through Riyeka to Cettigne and Cattaro. After 
being captured from Turkey in 1877, Podgoritsa was in 1878 
recognized as Montenegrin territory by the Treaty of Berlin. 

PODIUM (Gr. TToduiv, diminutive of]'7roOs, foot), the name in 
architecture for a continuous pedestal, or low wall on which 
columns are carried, consisting of a cornice or capping, a dado or 
die, and a moulded plinth. In the Etruscan and Roman temples 



PODOLIA POE 



875 



the whole structure was raised on a podium, with a flight of steps 
on the principal front, enclosed between the prolongation of the 
podium wall. 

PODOLIA, a government of south-western Russia, having 
Volhynia on the N., Kiev and Kherson on the E. and S., Bess- 
arabia on the S.W., and Galicia (Austria) on the W., from which 
it is separated by the Zbrucz, or Rodvocha, a tributary of the 
Dniester. It has an area of 16,219 S Q- m -) extending for 200 m. 
from N.W. to S.E. on the left bank of the Dniester. In the 
same direction the government is traversed by two ranges of 
hills separated by the Bug, ramifications of the Avratynsk heights. 
These hills nowhere exceed an elevation of 1185 ft. Two large 
rivers, which numerous tributaries, drain the government the 
Dniester, which forms its boundary with Bessarabia and is 
navigable throughout its length, and the Bug, which flows almost 
parallel to the former in a higher, sometimes swampy, valley, 
and is interrupted at several places by rapids. The Dniester is 
an important channel for trade, corn, spirits and timber being 
exported from Mogilev, Kalus, Zhvanets, Porog and other 
Podolian river-ports. The rapid smaller tributaries of the 
Dniester supply numerous flour-mills with motive power. The 
soil is almost throughout " black earth," and Podolia is one of 
the most fertile governments of Russia. Forests cover nearly 
15% of the total area. Marshes occur only beside the Bug. 
The climate is moderate, the average temperature of the year at 
Kamenets being 48-3 (24-5 in January, 69 in July). 

The estimated population in 1906 was 3,543,700. It consists 
chiefly of Little Russians, Poles (35%), and Jews (12%). There 
are besides a few Armenians, some Germans, and 50,000 Moldav- 
ians. There are many Nonconformists (18,000) among the 
Russians, Tulchin being the seat of their bishops and a centre of 
propaganda. After Moscow, Podolia is the most densely in- 
habited government of Russia outside Poland. It is divided 
into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Kamenets- 
Podolskiy, the capital, Balta, Bratslav, Gaisin, Letichev, Litin, 
Mogilev-on-Dniester, Novaya-Ushitsa, Olgopol, Proskurov, 
Vinnitsa and Yampol. The chief occupations of the people are 
agriculture and gardening. The principal crops are wheat, rye, 
oats, barley, maize, hemp, flax, potatoes, beetroot and tobacco. 
Podolia is famous for its cherries and mulberries, its melons, 
gourds and cucumbers. Nearly 67,000 gallons of wine are 
obtained annually. Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep 
are bred, the cattle being famous. Bee-keeping is an important 
industry. Sugar factories, distilleries, flour-mills, woollen mills, 
tanneries, potteries, tobacco factories, breweries, candle and soap 
factories, have an annual output valued at 4,000,000. An 
active trade is carried on with Austria, especially through the 
Isakovets and Gusyatin custom-houses, corn, cattle, horses, 
skins, wool, linseed and hemp seed being exported, in exchange 
for wooden wares, linen, woollen stuffs, cotton, glass and agri- 
cultural implements. The trade with the interior is also carried 
on very briskly, especially at the twenty-six fairs, the chief of 
which are Balta and Yarmolintsy. Podolia is traversed by a 
railway which runs parallel to the Dniester, from Lemberg to 
Odessa, and has two branch lines, to Kiev (from Zhmerinka) 
and to Poltava (from Balta). 

History. The country has been inhabited since the beginning 
of the Neolithic period. Herodotus mentions it as the seat of the 
Graeco-Scythian Alazones and the Scythian Neuri, who were 
followed by the Dacians and the Getae. The Romans left traces 
of their rule in the Wall of Trajan, which stretches through the 
modern districts of Kamenets, Ushitsa and Proskurov. During 
the great migrations many nationalities passed through this 
territory, or settled within it for some time, leaving traces in 
numerous archaeological remains. Nestor mentions that the 
Bujanes and Dulebes occupied the Bug, while the Tivertsi and 
Ugliches, apparently all four Slav tribes, were settled on the 
Dniester. These peoples were conquered by the Avars in the 
7th century. Oleg, prince of Kiev, extended his rule over this 
territory the Ponizie, or " lowlands," which became later a part 
of the principalities of Volhynia, Kiev and Galicia. In the i3th 
century the Ponizie was plundered by the Mongols; a hundred 



years afterwards Olgierd, prince of Lithuania, freed it from their 
rule, annexing it to his own territories under the name of Podolia, 
a word which has the same meaning as Ponizie. After the death 
(1430) of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, Podolia was annexed to 
Poland, with the exception of its eastern part, the province of 
Bratslav, which remained under Lithuania until its union 
(1501) with Poland. The Poles retained Podolia until the 
third division of their country in 1793, when it was taken by 
Russia. (P.A.K.; J.T.BE.) 

PODOLSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow, 
26 m. S. of the city of Moscow, at the junction of the two main 
roads from Moscow to the Crimea and to Warsaw. Pop. (1881), 
1 1,000; (1897), 3808. It is picturesquely built on the hilly banks 
of the Fakhra, here crossed by a suspension bridge for carriages 
as well as by the railway bridge. Down to 1781 ths wealthy 
village of Podol was a dependency of the Danilov monastery in 
Moscow. Before the opening of the southern railway the cara- 
vans of wagons and sledges to and from Moscow used to halt here; 
the principal occupation of the inhabitants was innkeeping and ' 
supplying the caravans with provisions and other necessaries 
of travel. The limestone quarries, at the confluence of the 
Desna and the Pakhra, supply the capital with good building 
material; and there are a cement, lime and brick factory and a 
paper-mill. 

PODOPHYLLIK, a drug obtained from the rhizome of the 
American mandrake or may apple, Podophyllum peltatum, an 
herbaceous perennial belonging to the natural order Berbefi- 
daceae, indigenous in woods in Canada and the United States. 
The plant is about i ft. high, bearing two peltate, deeply- 
divided leaves, which are about 5 in. in diameter, and bear 
in the axil a solitary, stalked, white flower, about the size and 
shape of the garden anemone, with six or more petals and twice 
as many hypogynous stamens. The fruit is ripe in July, and 
is an oval, yellowish, fleshy berry, containing twelve or more 
seeds, each surrounded by a pulpy outer coat or aril. The 
rhizome, as met with in commerce, occurs in cylindrical pieces 
2 or 3 in. long and about % in. in diameter, of a chocolate or 
purplish-brown colour, smooth, and slightly enlarged where the 
juncture of the leafy stem is indicated by a circular scar on the 
upper and a few broken rootlets on the under side. The odour 
is heavy and disagreeable, and the taste acrid and bitter. 

Podophyllin is a resinous powder obtained by precipitating an 
alcoholic tincture of the rhizome by means of water acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid. It varies in colour from greyish to bright 
yellow or greenish-brown, the first-named being the purest. The 
powder is soluble in alcohol and strong solutions of alkalis, such 
as ammonia. Its composition is somewhat complex. There are 
certainly at least two resins in the powder (which is known offici- 
ally as Podophylli resina), one of them being soluble and the other 
insoluble in ether. Each of these contains an active substance, 
which can be obtained in crystalline foim.and is known as ppdo- 
phyllotoxin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and boiling 
water. Alkalis decompose it into picro-podophyllic acid and 
picro-podophyllin, minute traces of both of which occur in a free 
state in the rhizome. The acid is inert, but picro-podophyllin is 
the active principle. It is a crystalline body, soluble only in con- 
centrated alcohol. Hence the inutility of the pharmacopeial 
tinctura podophylli, which cannot be diluted before administration. 
The properties of ppdophyllin resin vary with the reaction of the 
tissue with which it is in contact; where this is acid the drug is inert, 
the picro-podophyllin being precipitated. 

The resin does not affect the unbroken skin, but may be ab- 
sorbed from a raw surface, and will then cause purging. When 
taken internally it is both a secretory and an excretory cholagpgue, 
but so irritant and powerful that its use in cases of Jaundice is 
generally undesirable. Its value, however, in _ certain cases of 
constipation of hepatic origin is undeniable. It is largely used in 
patent medicines, usually as an auxiliary to aloes. The best method 
of prescribing podophyllin is in pill form. In toxic doses podo- 
phyllin causes intense enteritis, with all its characteristic symptoms, 
and severe depression, which may end in death. The treatment 
is symptomatic, there being no specific antidote. 

POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849), American poet, writer of 
fiction and critic, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the igth 
of January 1809. The family was of English origin, but was settled 
in Ireland, whence the poet's great-grandfather emigrated to 
Maryland. His grandfather, David Poe, served with credit as a 



8;6 



POERIO 



soldier in the War of Independence, was known to Washington, 
and was the friend of Lafayette. His son David Poe was bred 
as a lawyer, but deeply offended his family by marrying an actress 
of English birth, Mrs Elizabeth Hopkins,&: Arnold.and by himself 
going on the stage. In 1811 he and his wife died, leaving three 
children William, Edgar, and a daughter Rosalie wholly des- 
titute. William died young, and Rosalie became mad. Edgar 
was adopted by John Allan, a tobacco merchant of Scottish ex- 
traction, seemingly at the request of his wife, who was childless. 
The boy was indulged in every way, and encouraged to believe 
that he would inherit Mr Allan's fortune. Mr Allan, having 
come to England in 1815, placed Edgar in a school at Stoke 
Newington, kept by a Dr Bransby. In 1820 Mr Allan returned 
to Richmond, Virginia, and Edgar was first placed at school in 
the town and then sent to the university of Virginia at Char- 
lottesville in 1826. Here the effects of a very unwise training 
on a temperament of inherited neurotic tendency were soon seen. 
He was fond of athletics, and was a strong and ardent swimmer; 
but he developed a passion for gambling and drink. His dis- 
orders made it necessary to remove him, and he was taken away 
by Mr Allan, who refused to pay his debts of honour. He enlisted 
on the 26th of May 1827 at Boston, and served for two years in 
the United States army. As a soldier his conduct must have 
been exemplary, for he was promoted sergeant-major on the ist 
of January 1829. It is to be noted that throughout his life, 
when under orders, Poe could be a diligent and capable subor- 
dinate. In May 1829 Mr Allan secured his discharge from the 
army, and in 1 830 obtained a nomination for him to the West Point 
military academy. As a student he showed considerable faculty for 
mathematics, but his aloofness prevented him from being popular 
with his comrades, and he neglected his duly. When court- 
martialled he made no answer to the charges, and was expelled on 
the 6th of March 1 83 1 . Mr Allan's generosity was now exhausted. 
The death of his first wife in 1829 had doubtless removed an 
influence favourable to Poe. A second marriage brought him 
children, and at his death in 1834 he left his adopted son 
nothing. A last meeting between the two, shortly before Mr 
Allan's death, led only to a scene of painful violence. 

In 1827 Poe had published his first volume of poetry, Tamer- 
lane and other Poems, at Boston. He did not publish under his 
name, but as " A Bostonian." In 1831 he published a volume 
of Poems under his name at New York. His life immediately 
after he left West Point is very obscure, but in 1833 he was living 
at Baltimore with his paternal aunt, Mrs Clemm, who was 
throughout life his protector, and, in so far as extreme poverty 
permitted, his support. In 1833 he won a prize of $100 offered 
for the best story by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. He would 
have won the prize for the best poem if the judges had not 
thought it wrong to give both rewards to one competitor. The 
story, MS. found in a Bottle, is one of the most mediocre of his 
tales, but his success gave him an introduction to editors and 
publishers, who were attracted by his striking personal appear- 
ance and his fine manners, and were also touched by his mani- 
fest poverty. From 1833 till his death he was employed on 
different magazines at Richmond, New York and Philadelphia. 
His famous poem " The Raven " was published first in 1845, 
and soon became extraordinarily popular; but Poe only got 
2 for it. 

The facts of his life have been the subject of very ill-judged 
controversy. The acrimonious tone of the biography by Rufus 
Griswold, prefixed to the first collected edition of his works in 
1850, gave natural offence, and attempts have been made to show 
that the biographer was wrong as to the facts. But it is no real 
kindness to Poe's memory to deny the sad truth that he was 
subject to chronic alcoholism. He was not a boon companion, 
and never became callous to his vice. When it seized him he 
drank raw spirits, and was disordered by a very little. But when 
he was free from the maddening influence of alcohol he was 
gentle, well-bred, and a hard worker on the staff of a magazine, 
willing and able to write reviews, answer correspondents, pro- 
pound riddles or invent and solve cryptograms. His value as a 
contributor and sub-editor secured him successive engagements 



on the Southern Literary Messenger of Richmond, on the New 
York Quarterly Review, and on Graham's Magazine at Phila- 
delphia. It enabled him in 1843 to have a magazine of his own, 
the Stylus. His mania sooner or later broke ofi all his engage- 
ments and ruined his own venture. In 1835 he married his 
cousin, Virginia Clemm, a beautiful girl of fourteen years of age. 
A false statement as to her age was made at the time of the 
marriage. She died after a long decline in 1847. Poe made two 
attempts to marry women of fortune Mrs Whitman and Mrs 
Shelton. The first of these engagements was broken off. The 
second was terminated by his death in hospital at Baltimore, 
Md., on the 7th of October 1849. 

His life and death had many precedents, and will always recur 
among Bohemian men of letters and artists. What was indi- 
vidual in Poe, and what alone renders him memorable, was his 
narrow but profound and original genius (see AMERICAN LITERA- 
TURE). In the midst of much hack-work and not a few failures 
in his own field he produced a small body of verse, and a hand- 
ful of short stories of rare and peculiar excellence. The poems 
express a melancholy sensuous emotion in a penetrating melody 
all his own. The stories give form to horror and fear with an 
exquisite exactness of touch, or construct and unravel mysteries 
with extreme dexterity. He was a conscientious literary artist 
who revised and perfected his work with care. His criticism, 
though often commonplace and sometimes ill-natured, as when 
he attacked Longfellow for plagiarism, was trenchant and 
sagacious at his best. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Life and Letters of Edgar Allan Poe, by J. A. 
Harrison (New York, 1903) and The Life of Edgar Allan Poe (Boston, 
new ed. 1909), by G. E. Woodberry, are the best biographies. The 
standard edition of his Works is that published in 1894-189531 Chi- 
cago, in ten volumes, by E. C. Stedman and G. E. Woodberry. There 
have been many partial reprints. For Poe's influence in France, 
which has been great, see C. Baudelaire, Histoires extraordinaire^ 
(Paris, 1856); S. Mallarme, Poemes d' Edgar Poe (Brussels, 1888); 
and Les Nevroses, by Arvede Barine (Paris, 1899). (D. H.) 

POERIO, ALESSANDRO (1802-1848), Italian poet and patriot, 
was descended from an old Calabrian family, his father, Baron 
Giuseppe Poerio, being a distinguished lawyer of Naples. In 
1815 he and his brother Carlo accompanied their father, who had 
been identified with Murat's cause, into exile, and settled at 
Florence. In 1818 they were allowed to return to Naples, and 
on the proclamation of the constitution in 1820 the Poerios were 
among the stoutest defenders of the newly-won freedom. Alles- 
sandro fought as a volunteer, under General Guglielmo Pepe, 
against the Austrians in 1821, but when the latter reoccupied 
Naples and the king abolished the constitution, the family was 
again exiled and settled at Gratz. Alessandro devoted himself 
to study in various German universities, and at Weimar he 
became the friend of Goethe. In 1835 the Poerios returned to 
Naples, and Alessandro, while practising law with his father, 
published a number of lyrics. In 1848 he accompanied Pepe as 
a volunteer to fight the Austrians in northern Italy, and on the 
recall of the Neapolitan contingent Alessandro followed Pepe to 
Venice and displayed great bravery during the siege. He was 
severely wounded in the fighting round Mestre, and died on the 
3rd of November 1848. His poetry " reveals the idealism of a 
tender and delicate mind which was diligent in storing up 
sensations and images that for others would have been at most 
the transient impressions of a moment." But he could also 
sound the clarion note of patriotism, as in his stirring poem 
II Risorgimento. 

His brother Carlo (1803-1867), after returning to Naples, 
practised as an advocate, and from 1837 to 1848 was frequently 
arrested and imprisoned; but when King Ferdinand, moved by 
the demonstration of the 27th of January of the latter year, 
promulgated a constitution, he was made minister of education. 
Discovering, however, that the king was acting in bad faith, he 
resigned office in April and returned to Naples to take his seat in 
parliament, where he led the constitutional opposition. The 
Austrian victory of Novara (March 1849) set the king free to 
dissolve parliament and trample on the constitution, and on the 
of July 1849 Poerio was arrested, tried, and condemned to 



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877 



nineteen years in irons. Chained in pairs, he and other political 
prisoners were confined in one small room in the bagno of Nisida, 
near the lazaretto. The eloquent exposure (1851) of the horrors 
of the Neapolitan dungeons by Gladstone, who emphasized 
especially the case of Poerio, awakened the universal indignation 
of Europe, but he did not obtain his liberty till 1858. He arid 
other exiles were than placed on board a ship bound for the United 
States, but the son of Settembrini, another of the exiles, who was 
on board in disguise, compelled the crew to land them at Cork, 
whence Poerio made his way to London. In the following year 
he returned to Italy, and in 1860 he was elected deputy to the 
parliament of Turin, of which he was chosen vice-president in 
1861. He died at Florence on the -28th of April 1867. 

See Baldachini, Delia Vila e de' tempi di Carlo Poerio (1867); 
W. E. Gladstone, Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen (1851); Carlo 
Poerio and the Neapolitan Police (London, 1858); Vannucci, / 
Martiri della liberta italiana, vol. iii. (Milan, 1880) ; Imbriani, Ales- 
sandro Poerio a Venezia (Naples, 1884); Del Giudice, / Fratelli 
Poerio (Turin, 1899); Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, Italian 
Characters (London, 1901). 

POETRY. In modern criticism the word poetry (i.e. the art 
of the poet, Gr. iroirjrijs, maker, from iroutiv, to make) is used 
sometimes to denote any expression (artistic or other) of imagin- 
ative feeling, sometimes to designate a precise literary art, 
which ranks as one of the fine arts. As an expression of imagin- 
ative feeling, as the movement of an energy, as one of those 
great primal human forces which go to the development of the 
race, poetry in the wide sense has played as important a part as 
science. In some literatures (such as that of England) poetic 
energy and in others (such as that of Rome) poetic art is the 
dominant quality. It is the same with individual writers. 
In classical literature Pindar may perhaps be taken as a type of 
the poets of energy; Virgil of the poets of art. With all his 
wealth of poetic art Pindar's mastery over symmetrical methods 
never taught him to " sow with the hand," as Corinna declared, 
while his poetic energy always impelled him to " sow with the 
whole sack." In English poetical literature Elizabeth Barrett 
Browning typifies, perhaps, the poets of energy; while Keats 
(notwithstanding all his unquestionable inspiration) is mostly 
taken as a type of the poets of art. In French literature Hugo, 
notwithstanding all his mastery over poetic methods, represents 
the poets of energy. 

In some writers, and these the very greatest in Homer, 
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and perhaps 
Goethe poetic energy and poetic art are seen in something like 
equipoise. It is of poetry as an art, however, that we have 
mainly to speak here; and all we have to say upon poetry as an 
energy is that the critic who, like Aristotle, takes this wide view 
of poetry the critic who, like him, recognizes the importance of 
poetry in its relations to man's other expressions of spiritual 
force, claims a place in point of true critical sagacity above that 
of a critic who, like Plato, fails to recognize that importance. 
And assuredly no philosophy of history can be other than in- 
adequate should it ignore the fact that poetry has had as much 
effect upon human destiny as that other great human energy by 
aid of which, from the discovery of the use of fire to that of the 
electric light, the useful arts have been developed. 

With regard to poetry as an art, most of the great poems of the 
world are dealt with elsewhere in this work, either in connexion 
with the names of the writers or with the various literatures to 
which they belong; consequently these remarks must be confined 
to general principles. Under VERSE the detailed questions of 
prosody are considered; here we are concerned with the essential 
principles which underlie the meaning of poetry as such. 

All that can be attempted is to inquire: (i) What is poetry? 

(2) What is the position it takes up in relation to the other arts ? 

(3) What is its value and degree of expressional power in relation 
to these ? and, finally, (4) What varieties of poetic art are the 
outcome of the two great kinds of poetic impulse, dramatic 
imagination and lyric or egoistic imagination ? 

i. What is Poetry? Definitions are for the most part alike 
unsatisfactory and treacherous; but definitions of poetry are 
proverbially so. Is it possible to lay down invariable principles 



of poetry, such as those famous " invariable principles " of 
William Lisle Bowles, which in the earlier part of the century 
awoke the admiration of Southey and the wrath Defloltlan 
of Byron ? Is it possible for a critic to say of any 
metrical phrase, stanza or verse, " This is poetry," or " This is 
not poetry " ? Can he, with anything like the authority with 
which the man of science pronounces upon the natural objects 
brought before him, pronounce upon the qualities of a poem ? 
These are questions that have engaged the attention of critics 
ever since the time of Aristotle. Byron, in his rough and 
ready way, answered them in one of those letters to his 
publisher John Murray, which, rich as they are in nonsense, are 
almost as rich in sense. " So far are principles of poetry from 
being invariable," says he, " that they never were nor ever will 
be settled. These principles mean nothing more than the 
predilections of a particular age, and every age has its own and a 
different from its predecessor. It is now Homer and now Virgil ; 
once Dryden and since Sir Walter Scott; now Corneille and now 
Racine; now Crebillon and now Voltaire." This is putting the 
case very strongly perhaps too strongly. But if we remember 
that Sophocles lost the first prize for the Oedipus tyrannus; if we 
remember what in Dante's time (owing partly, no doubt, to the 
universal ignorance of Greek) were the relative positions of 
Homer and Virgil, what in the time of Milton were the relative 
positions of Milton himself, of Shakespeare, and of Beaumont and 
Fletcher; again, if we remember Jeffrey's famous classification 
of the poets of his day, we shall be driven to pause over Byron's 
words before dismissing them. Yet some definition, for the 
purpose of this essay, must be here attempted; and, using 
the phrase " absolute poetry " as the musical critics use the 
phrase " absolute music," we may, perhaps, without too great 
presumption submit the following: 

Absolute poetry is the concrete and artistic expression of the 
human mind in emotional and rhythmical language. 

This at least will be granted, that no literary expression can, 
properly speaking, be called poetry that is not in a certain deep 
sense emotional, whatever may be its subject-matter, concrete 
in its method and its diction, rhythmical in movement, and 
artistic in form. 

That the expression of all real poetry must be concrete in 
method and diction is obvious, and yet this dictum would exclude 
from the definition much of what is called didactic poetry. With 
abstractions the poet has nothing to do, save to take them and 
turn them into concretions; for, as artist, he is simply the man 
who by instinct embodies in concrete forms that " universal 
idea" which Gravina speaks of that which is essential and 
elemental in nature and in man; as; poetic artist he is simply 
the man who by instinct chooses for his concrete forms metrical 
language. And the questions to be asked concerning any work 
of art are simply these Is that which is here embodied really 
permanent, universal and elemental? and, Is the concrete form 
embodying it really beautiful acknowledged as beautiful by 
the soul of man in its highest moods? Any other question is an 
impertinence. 

As an example of the absence of concrete form in verse take the 
following lines from George Eliot's Spanish Gypsy: 

" Speech is but broken light upon the depth 
Of the unspoken ; even your loved words 
Float in the larger meaning of your voice 
As something dimmer." 

Without discussing the question of blank verse cadence and the 
weakness of a line where the main accent falls upon a positive 
hiatus, " of the unspoken," we would point out that this powerful 
passage shows the spirit of poetry without its concrete form. 
The abstract method is substituted for the concrete. Such 
an abstract phrase as " the unspoken " belongs entirely to 
prose. 

As to what is called ratiocinative poetry, it might perhaps be 
shown that it does not exist at all. Not by syllogism, but per 
sallum, must the poet reach in every case his conclusions. We 
listen to the poet we allow him to address us in rhythm or in 
rhyme we allow him to sing to us while other men are only 



8y8 



POETRY 



allowed to talk, not because he argues more logically than they, 
but because he feels more deeply and perhaps more truly. It is 
for his listeners to be knowing and ratiocinative; it is for him to 
be gnomic and divinely wise. 

That poetry must be metrical or even rhythmical in movement, 
however, is what some have denied. Here we touch at once the 
very root of the subject. The difference between all literature 
and mere " word-kneading " is that, while h'terature is alive, 
word-kneading is without life. This literary life, while it is 
only bipartite in prose, seems to be tripartite in poetry; that is to 
say, while prose requires intellectual life and emotional life, 
poetry seems to require not only intellectual life and emotional 
life but rhythmic life, this last being -the most important of all 
according to many critics, though Aristotle is not among these. 
Here indeed is the " fork " between the old critics and the new. 
Unless the rhythm of any metrical passage is so vigorous, so 
natural, and so free that it seems as though it could live, if need 
were, by its rhythm alone, has that passage any right to exist? 
and s'lould it not, if the substance is good, be forthwith demetri- 
tized and turned into prose? Thoreau has affirmed that prose, 
at its best, has high qualities of its own beyond the ken of poetry; 
to compensate for the sacrifice of these, should not the metrical 
gains of any passage be beyond all cavil? 

This argument might be pressed farther still. It might seem 
bold to assert that, in many cases, the mental value of poetry 
may actually depend upon form and colour, but would it not be 
true ? The mental value of poetry must be judged by a standard 
not applicable to prose; but, even with regard to the different 
kinds of poetry, we must not compare poetry whose mental value 
consists in a distinct and logical enunciation of ideas, such as that 
of Lucretius and Wordsworth, and poetry whose mental value 
consists partly in the suggestive richness of passion or symbol 
latent in rhythm (such as that of Sappho sometimes, Pindar often, 
Shelley always), or latent in colour, such as that of some of the 
Importance P ers * an poets. To discuss the question, Which of these 
of Metrical twc kinds of poetry is the more precious ? would be 
Questions. "He, but are we not driven to admit that certain 
poems whose strength is rhythm, and certain other 
poems whose strength is colour, while devoid of any logical state- 
ment of thought, may be as fruitful of thoughts and emotions 
too deep for words as a shaken prism is fiuitful of tinted 
lights ? The mental forces at work in the production of a 
poem like the Excursion are of a very different kind from the mental 
forces at work in the production of a poem like Shelley's "Ode to 
the West Wind." In the one case the poet's artistic methods, 
like those of the Greek architect, show, and are intended to show, 
the solid strength of the structure. In the other, the poet's artistic 
methods, like those of the Arabian architect, contradict the idea 
of solid strength make the structure appear to hang over our 
heads like the cloud pageantry of heaven. But, in both cases, 
the solid strength is, and must be, there, at the base. Before the 
poet begins to write he should ask himself which of these artistic 
methods is natural to him ; he should ask himself whether his natural 
impulse is towards the weighty iambic movement whose primary 
function is to state, or towards those lighter movements which we 
still call, for want of more convenient words, anapaestic and dactylic, 
whose primary function is to suggest. Whenever Wordsworth 
and Keats pass from the former to the latter they pass at once 
into doggerel. Nor is it difficult to see why English anapaestic 
and dactylic verse must suggest, and not state, as even so compara- 
tively successful a tour de force as Shelley's " Sensitive Plant " 
shows. Conciseness is a primary virtue of all statement. The 
moment the English poet tries to pack " his anapaestic or dactylic 
line as he can pack his iambic line, his versification becomes rugged, 
harsh, pebbly becomes so of necessity. Nor is this all : anapaestic 
and dactylic verse must in English be obtrusively alliterative, 
or the same pebbly effect begins to be felt. The anapaestic line 
is so full of syllables that in a language where the consonants 
dominate the vowels (as in English), these syllables grate against 
each other, unless their corners are artfully bevelled by one of the 
only two smoothing processes at the command of an English versifier 
obtrusive alliteration, or an obtrusive use of liquids. Now these 
demands of form may be turned by the perfect artist to good 
account if his appeal to the listener's soul is primarily that of 
suggestion by sound or symbol, but if his appeal is that of direct 
and logical statement the diffuseness inseparable from good ana- 
paestic and dactylic verse is a source of weakness such as the true 
artist should find intolerable. 

Using the word " form " in a wider sense still, a sense that 
includes " composition," it can be shown that poetry, to be entitled 
to the name, must be artistic in form. Whether a poem be a 
Welsh triban or a stornello improvised by an Italian peasant girl, 



whether it be an ode by Keats or a tragedy by Sophocles, it is 
equally a work of art. The artist's command over form may 
be shown in the peasant girl's power of spontaneously 
rendering in simple verse, in her stornello or rispetto, 
her emotions through nature's symbols; it may be 
shown by Keats in that perfect fusion of all poetic elements of 
which he was such a master, in the manipulation of language so 
beautiful both for form and colour that thought and words seem 
but one blended loveliness; or it may be shown by Sophocles 
in a mastery over what in painting is called composition, in the 
exercise of that wise vision of the artist which, looking before and 
after, sees the thing of beauty as a whole, and enables him to grasp 
the eternal laws of cause and effect in art and bend them to his 
own wizard will. In every case, indeed, form is an essential 
part of poetry; and, although George Sand's saying that " L'art 
est une forme " applies perhaps more strictly to the plastic arts 
(where the soul is reached partly through mechanical means), 
its application to poetry can hardly be exaggerated. 

Owing, however, to the fact that the word Trotrjrfc (first used 
to designate the poetic artist by Herodotus) means maker, 
Aristotle seems to have assumed that the indispensable basis 
of poetry is invention. He appears to have thought that a poet 
is a poet more on account of the composition of the action than 
on account of the composition of his verses. Indeed he said as 
much as this. Of epic poetry he declared emphatically that 
it produces its imitations either by mere articulate words or 
by metre superadded. This is to widen the definition of poetry 
so as to include all imaginative h'terature, and Plato seems to 
have given an equally wide meaning to the word iroirjaa. Only, 
while Aristotle considered TTOIT/CTK to be an imitation of the facts 
of nature, Plato considered it to be an imitation of the dreams 
of man. Aristotle ignored, and Plato slighted, the importance 
of versification (though Plato on one occasion admitted that 
he who did not know rhythm could be called neither musician 
nor poet). 

Perhaps the first critic who tacitly revolted against the dictum 
that substance, and not form, is the indispensable basis of poetry 
was Dionysius of Halicarnassus, whose treatise upon the arrange- 
ment of words is really a very fine piece of literary criticism. In 
his acute remarks upon the arrangement of the words in the 
sixteenth book of the Odyssey, as compared with that in the story 
of Gyges by Herodotus, was perhaps first enunciated clearly the 
doctrine that poetry is fundamentally a matter of style. The 
Aristotelian theory as to invention, however, dominated all 
criticism after as well as before Dionysius. When Bacon came 
to discuss the subject (and afterwards) the only division between 
the poetical critics was perhaps between the followers of Aristotle 
and those of Plato as to what poetry should, and what it should 
not, imitate. It is curious to speculate as to what would have 
been the result had the poets followed the critics in this matter. 
Had not the instinct of the poet been too strong for the schools, 
would poetry as an art have been lost and merged in such 
imaginative prose as Plato's ? Or is not the instinct for form too 
strong to be stifled ? By the poets themselves metre was always 
considered to be the one indispensable requisite of a poem, though, 
as regards criticism, even in the time of the appearance of the 
Waverley Novels, the Quarterly Review would sometimes speak of 
them as " poems "; and perhaps even later the same might be 
said of romances so concrete in method and diction, and so full of 
poetic energy, as Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre, where we 
get absolutely all that Aristotle requires for a poem. On the 
whole, however, the theory that versification is not an indis- 
pensable requisite of a poem seems to have become nearly 
obsolete. Perhaps, indeed, many critics would now go so far in 
the contrary direction as to say with Hegel (Aesthetik, ii. 289) 
that " metre is the first and only condition absolutely demanded 
by poetry, yea even more necessary than a figurative picturesque 
diction." At all events this at least may be said, that the division 
between poetical critics is not now between Aristotelians and 
Baconians; it is of a different kind altogether. While one group 
of critics may still perhaps say with Dryden that " a poet is a 
maker, as the name signifies," and that " he who cannot make, 



POETRY 



879 



that is, invent, has his name for nothing," another group con- 
tends that it is not the invention but the artistic treatment, the 
form, which determines whether an imaginative writer is a poet 
or a writer of prose contends, in short, that emotion is the 
basis of all true poetic expression, whatever be the subject- 
matter, that thoughts must be expressed in an emotional manner 
before they can be brought into poetry, and that this emotive 
expression demands even yet something else, viz. style and 
form. 

Although many critics are now agreed that " L'art est une 
forme," that without metre and without form there can be no 
The Impor- P oetrv > there are few who would contend that poetry 
tanceot can exist by virtue of any one of these alone, or 
ideas and even by virtue of all these combined. Quite inde- 
Attltude. p en( jent of verbal melody, though mostly accompany- 
ing it, and quite independent of " composition," there is an 
atmosphere floating around the poet through which he sees 
everything, an atmosphere which stamps his utterances as 
poetry; for instance, among all the versifiers contemporary with 
Donne there was none so rugged as he occasionally was, and yet 
such songs as " Sweetest love, I do not go for weariness of thee " 
prove how true a poet he was whenever he could master those 
technicalities which far inferior poets find comparatively easy. 
While rhythm may to a very considerable degree be acquired 
(though, of course, the highest rhythmical effects never can), 
the power of looking at the world through the atmosphere that 
floats before the poet's eyes is not to be learned and not to be 
taught. This atmosphere is what we call poetic imagination. 
But first it seems necessary to say a word or two upon that high 
temper of the soul which in truly great poetry gives birth to 
this poetic imagination. 

The " message " of poetry must be more unequivocal, more 
thoroughly accentuated, than that of any of the other fine arts. 
With regard to modern poetry, indeed, it may almost be said 
that if any writer's verse embodies a message, true, direct and 
pathetic, we cannot stay to inquire too curiously about the degree 
of artistic perfection with which it is delivered, for Wordsworth's 
saying " That which comes from the heart goes to the heart " 
applies very closely indeed to modern poetry. The most truly 
passionate poet in Greece was no doubt in a deep sense the most 
artistic poet; but in her case art and passion were one, and that 
is why she has been so cruelly misunderstood. The most truly 
passionate nature, and perhaps the greatest soul, that in recent 
years has expressed itself in English verse is Elizabeth Barrett 
Browning; at least it is certain that, with the single exception 
of Hood in the " Song of the Shirt," no writer of the igth century 
really touched English hearts with a hand so powerful as hers 
and this notwithstanding violations of poetic form, or defective 
rhymes, such as would appal some of the contemporary versifiers 
of England and France " who lisp in numbers for the numbers 
[and nothing else] come." The truth is that in order to produce 
poetry the soul must for the time being have reached that state 
of exaltation, that state of freedom from self-consciousness, 
depicted in the lines: 

" I started once, or seemed to start, in pain, 

Resolved on noble things, and strove to speak, 
As when a great thought strikes along the brain, 
And flushes all the cheek." 

Whatsoever may be the poet's " knowledge of his art," into 
this mood he must always pass before he can write a truly poetic 
line. For, notwithstanding all that may be said upon poetry as 
a fine art, it is in the deepest sense of the word an " inspiration." 
No man can write a line of genuine poetry without having been 
" born again " (or, as the true rendering of the text says, " born 
from above ") ; and then the mastery over those highest reaches 
of form which are beyond the ken of the mere versifier comes to 
him as a result of the change. Hence, with all Mrs Browning's 
metrical blemishes, the splendour of her metrical triumphs at 
her best. 

For what is the deep distinction between poet and proseman? 
A writer may be many things besides a poet; he may be a warrior 
like Aeschylus, a man of business like Shakespeare, a courtier 



like Chaucer, or a cosmopolitan philosopher like Goethe; but the 
moment the poetic mood is upon him all the trappings of the 
world with which for years he may perhaps have been clothing 
his soul the world's knowingness, its cynicism, its self-seeking, 
its ambition fall away, and the man becomes an inspired child 
again, with ears attuned to nothing but the whispers of those 
spirits from the Golden Age, who, according to Hesiod, haunt 
and bless the degenerate earth. What such a man produces may 
greatly delight and astonish his readers, yet not so greatly as it 
delights and astonishes himself. His passages of pathos draw 
no tears so deep or so sweet as those that fall from his own 
eyes while he writes; his sublime passages overawe no soul so 
imperiously as his own; his humour draws no laughter so rich 
or so deep as that stirred within his own breast. 

It might almost be said, indeed, that Sincerity and Conscience, 
the two angels that bring to the poet the wonders of the poetic 
dream, bring him also the deepest, truest delight of form. It might 
almost be said that by aid of sincerity and conscience the 
poet is enabled to see more clearly than other men the eternal 
limits of his own art to see with Sophocles that nothing, not 
even poetry itself, is of any worth to man, invested as he is by 
the whole army of evil, unless it is in the deepest and highest 
sense good, unless it comes linking us all together by closer bonds 
of sympathy and pity, strengthening us to fight the foes with 
whom fate and even Nature, the mother who bore us, sometimes 
seem in league to see with Milton that the high quality of 
man's soul which in English is expressed by the word virtue is 
greater than even the great poem he prized, greater than all the 
rhythms of all the tongues that have been spoken since Babel 
and to see with Shakespeare and with Shelley that the high passion 
which in English is called love is lovelier than all art, lovelier 
than all the marble Mercuries that " await the chisel of the 
sculptor " in all the marble hills. 

2. What Position does Poetry take up in Relation to the other 
Arts? Notwithstanding the labours of Lessing and his followers, 
the position accorded by criticism to poetry in pottryla 
relation to the other arts has never been so uncertain Relation to 
and anomalous as in recent years. On the one hand the other 
there are critics who, judging from their perpetual 
comparison of poems to pictures, claim her as a sort of handmaid 
of painting and sculpture. On the other hand the disciples of 
Wagner, while professing to do homage to poetry, have claimed 
her as the handmaid of music. With regard to the relations of 
poetry to painting and sculpture, it seems necessary to glance 
for a moment at the saying of Simonides, as recorded by Plutarch, 
that poetry is a speaking picture and that painting is a mute 
poetry. It appears to have had upon modern criticism as much 
influence since the publication of Lessing's Laocoon as it had 
before. Perhaps it is in some measure answerable for the 
modern vice of excessive word-painting. Beyond this one 
saving, there is little or nothing in Greek literature to show that 
the Greeks recognized between poetry and the plastic and 
pictorial arts an affinity closer than that which exists between 
poetry and music and dancing. Understanding artistic methods 
more profoundly than the moderns, and far too profoundly to 
suppose that there is any special and peculiar affinity between 
an art whose medium of expression is marble and an art whose 
medium of expression is a growth of oral symbols, the Greeks 
seem to have studied poetry not so much in its relation to painting 
and sculpture as in its relation to music and dancing. It is 
matter of familiar knowledge, for instance, that at the Dionysian 
festival it was to the poet as "teacher of the chorus" 
(xopo3i5do-/caAos) that the prize was awarded, even though the 
" teacher of the chorus " were Aeschylus himself or Sophocles. 
And this recognition of the relation of poetry to music is 
perhaps one of the many causes of the superiority of Greek to 
all other poetry in adapting artistic means to artistic ends. In 
Greek poetry, even in Homer's description of the shield of 
Achilles, even in the famous description by Sophocles of his 
native woods in the Oedipus coloneus, such word-painting 
as occurs seems, if not inevitable and unconscious, so alive 
with imaginative feeling as to become part and parcel of the 



88o 



POETRY 



dramatic or lyric movement itself. And whenever description 
is so introduced the reader of Greek poetry need not be told 
that the scenery itself rises before the listener's imagination 
with a clearness of outline and a vigour of colour such as 
no amount of detailed word painting in the modern fashion can 
achieve. The picture even in the glorious verses at the end of 
the eighth book of the Iliad rises before our eyes seems actu- 
ally to act upon our bodily senses simply because the poet's 
eagerness to use the picture for merely illustrating the solem- 
nity and importance of his story lends to the picture that very 
authenticity which the work of the modern word-painter lacks. 

That the true place of poetry lies between music on the one 
hand and prose, or loosened speech, on the other, was, we say, 
taken for granted by the one people in whom the artistic instinct 
was fully developed. No doubt they used the word music in a 
very wide sense, in a sense that might include several arts. But 
it is a suggestive fact that, in the Greek language, long before 
poetic art was called "making" it was called "singing." The 
poet was not Trotip-ifr but aoi&os. And as regards the Romans it 
is curious to see how every now and then the old idea that poetry 
is singing rather than making will disclose itself. It will be 
remembered for instance how Terence, in the prologue of 
Phormio, alludes to poets as musicians. That the ancients were 
right in this could well be shown by a history of poetry: music 
and the lyrical function of the poet began together, but here, as 
in other things, the progress of art from the implicit to the explicit 
has separated the two. Every art has its special function, has a 
certain work which it can do better than any one of its sister 
arts. Hence its right of existence. For instance, before the 
" sea of emotion " within the soul has become " curdled into 
thoughts," it can be expressed in inarticulate tone. Hence, 
among the fine arts, music is specially adapted for rendering it. 
It was perhaps a perception of this fact which made the Syrian 
Gnostics define life to be " moving music." When this sea of 
emotion has "curdled into thoughts," articulate language 
rhythmically arranged words steeped in music and colour, but 
at the same time embodying ideas can do what no mere word- 
less music is able to achieve in giving it expression, just as 
unrhythmical language, language mortised in a foundation of 
logic, that is to say prose, can best express these ideas as soon as 
they have cooled and settled and cleared themselves of emotion 
altogether. Yet every art can in some degree invade the domain 
of her sisters, and the nearer these sisters stand to each other the 
more easily and completely can this invasion be accomplished. 
Prose, for instance, can sometimes, as in the case of Plato, do 
some of the work of poetry (however imperfectly, and however 
trammelled by heavy conditions); and sometimes poetry, as in 
Pindar's odes and the waves of the Greek chorus, can do, though 
in the same imperfect way, the work of music. 

The poems of Sappho, however, are a good case in point. Here 
the poet's passion is expressed so completely by the mere sound 
of her verses that a good recitation of them to a person ignorant 
of Greek would convey something of that passion to the listener; 
and similar examples almost as felicitous might be culled from 
Homer, from Aeschylus and from Sophocles. Nor is this power 
confined to the Greek poets. The students of Virgil have often 
and with justice commented on such lines as Aen. v. 481 (where 
the sudden sinking of a stricken ox is rendered by means of rhythm), 
and such lines as Georg. ii. 441, where, by means of verbal sounds, 
the gusts of wind about a tree are rendered as completely as though 
the voice were that of the wind itself. In the case of Sappho the 
effect is produced by the intensity of her passion, in the case of 
Homer by the intensity of the dramatic vision, in the case of Virgil 
by a supreme poetic art. But it can also be produced by the mere 
ingenuity of the artist, as in Edgar Poe's " Ulalume." The poet's 
object in that remarkable tour de force was to express dull and 
hopeless gloom in the same way that the mere musician would 
have expressed it that is to say, by monotonous reiterations, 
by hollow and dreadful reverberations of gloomy sounds though 
as an artist whose vehicle was articulate speech he was obliged 
to add gloomy ideas, in order to give to his work the intellec- 
tual coherence necessary for its existence as a poem. He 
evidently _ set out to do this, and he did it, and Ulalume" 
properly intoned would produce something like the same effect 
upon a listener knowing no word of English that it produces 
upon us. 

On the other hand, music can trench very far upon the 



domain of articulate speech, as we perceive in the wonderful 
instrumentation of Wagner. Yet, while it can be shown that 
the place of poetry is scarcely so close to scufpture and painting 
as to music on the one side and loosened speech on the other, the 
affinity of poetry to music must not be exaggerated. We must 
be cautious how we follow the canons of Wagner and the more 
enthusiastic of his disciples, who almost seem to think that 
inarticulate tone can not only suggest ideas but express them 
can give voice to the Verstand, in short, as well as to the Vernunfl 
of man. Even the Greeks drew a fundamental distinction 
between melic poetry (poetry written to be sung) and poetry 
that was written 'to be recited. It is a pity that, while modern 
critics of poetry have understood, or at least have given 
attention to painting and sculpture, so few have possessed any 
knowledge of music a fact which makes Dante's treatise De 
vulgari doquio so important. Dante was a musician, and 
seems to have had a considerable knowledge of the relations 
between musical and metrical laws. But he did not, we think, 
assume that these laws are identical. 

If it is indeed possible to establish the identity of musical and 
metrical laws, it can only be done by a purely scientific investi- 
gation; it can only be done by a most searching inquiry into the 
subtle relations that we know must exist throughout the universe 
between all the laws of undulation. And it is curious to re- 
member that some of the greatest masters of verbal melody have 
had no knowledge of music, while some have not even shown any 
love of it. All Greek boys were taught music, but whether 
Pindar's unusual musical skill was born of natural instinct and 
inevitable passion, or came from the accidental circumstance that 
his father was, as has been alleged, a musician, and that he was 
as a boy elaborately taught musical science by Lasus of Hennione, 
we have no means of knowing. Nor can we now learn how much 
of Milton's musical knowledge resulted from a like exceptional 
" environment," or from the fact that his father was a musician. 
But when we find that Shelley seems to have been without the 
real passion for music, that Rossetti disliked it, and that 
Coleridge's apprehension of musical effects was of the 
ordinary nebulous kind, we must hesitate before accepting the 
theory of Wagner. 

The question cannot be pursued here; but if it should on in- 
quiry be found that, although poetry is more closely related to 
music than to any of the other arts, yet the power over verbal 
melody at its very highest is so all-sufficing to its possessor, as in 
the case of Shelley and Coleridge, that absolute music becomes 
a superfluity, this would only be another illustration of that 
intense egoism and concentration of force the impulse of all 
high artistic energy which is required in order to achieve the 
rarest miracles of art. 

With regard to the relation of poetry to prose, Coleridge once 
asserted in conversation that the real antithesis of poetry was 
not prose but science. If he was right the difference in kind 
lies, not between the poet and the prose writer, but between the 
literary artist (the man whose instinct is to manipulate language) 
and the man of facts and of action whose instinct impels him to 
act, or, if not to act, to inquire. One thing is at least certain, 
that prose, however fervid and emotional it may become, must 
always be directed, or seem to be directed, by the reins of logic. 
Or, to vary the metaphor, like a captive balloon it can never 
really leave the earth. 

Indeed, with the literature of knowledge as opposed to the 
literature of power poetry has nothing to do. Facts have no 
place in poetry until they are brought into relation with the 
human soul. But a mere catalogue of ships may become poetical 
if it tends to show the strength and pride and glory of the warriors 
who invested Troy; a detailed description of the designs upon 
a shield, however beautiful and poetical in itself, becomes still 
more so if it tends to show the skill of the divine artificer and the 
invincible splendour of a hero like Achilles. But mere dry 
exactitude of imitation is not for poetry but for loosened speech. 
Hence, most of the so-called poetry of Hesiod is not poetry 
at all. The Muses who spoke to him about " truth " on Mt 
Helicon made the common mistake of confounding fact with 



POETRY 



881 



truth. And here we touch upon a very important matter. 
The reason why in prose speech is loosened is that, untrammelled 
by the laws of metre, language is able with more exactitude to 
imitate nature, though of course speech, even when " loosened," 
cannot, when actual sensible objects are to be depicted, compete 
in any real degree with the plastic arts in accuracy 0f imitation, 
for the simple reason that its media are not colours nor solids 
but symbols arbitrary symbols which can be made to indicate, 
but never to reproduce, colours and solids. Accuracy of imita- 
tion is the first requisite of prose. But the moment language 
has to be governed by the laws of metre the moment the conflict 
begins between the claims of verbal music and the claims of 
colour and form then prosaic accuracy has to yield; sharpness 
of outline, mere fidelity of imitation, such as is within the com- 
pass of prose, have in some degree to be sacrificed. But, just 
as with regard to the relations between poetry and music the 
greatest master is he who borrows the most that can be borrowed 
from music, and loses the least that can be lost from metre, so 
with regard to the relations between poetry and prose the greatest 
master is he who borrows the most that can be borrowed from 
prose and loses the least that can be lost from verse. No doubt 
this is what every poet tries to do by instinct ; but some sacrifice 
on either side there must be, and, with regard to poetry and 
prose, modern poets at least might be divided into those who 
make picturesqueness yield to verbal melody, and those 
who make verbal melody yield to picturesqueness. 

With one class of poets, fine as is perhaps the melody, it is made 
subservient to outline or to colour; with the other class colour 
and outline both yield to metre. The chief aim of the first class 
is to paint a picture; the chief aim ot the second is to sing a song. 
Weber, in driving through a beautiful country, could only enjoy 
its beauty by translating it into music. The same may be said 
of some poets with regard to verbal melody. The supreme artist, 
however, is he whose pictorial and musical power are so interfused 
that each seems born of the other, as is the case with Sappho, 
Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and indeed most of the great Greek 
poets. Among English poets (leaving the two supreme masters 
undiscussed) Keats and Coleridge have certainly done this. The 
colour seems born of the music and the music born of the 
colour. In French poetry the same triumph has been achieved in 
Victor Hugo's magnificent poem " En marchant la nuit dans un 
bois," which, as a rendering through verbal music of the witchery 
of nature, stands alone in the poetry of France. For there the 
poet conquers that crowning difficulty we have been alluding to, 
the difficulty of stealing from prose as much distinctness of colour 
and clearness of outline as can be imported into verse with as little 
sacrifice as possible of melody. 

If poetry can in some degree invade the domain of prose, so 
on the other hand prose can at times invade the domain of poetry, 
and no doubt the prose of Plato what is called poetical prose 
is a legitimate form of art. Poetry, the earliest form of litera- 
ture, is also the final and ideal form of all pure literature; and, 
when Landor insists that poetry and poetical prose are antago- 
nistic, we must remember that Landor's judgments are mostly 
based on feeling, and that his hatred of Plato would be quite 
sufficient basis with him for an entire system of criticism upon 
poetical prose. As with Carlyle, there was a time in his life when 
Plato had serious thoughts of becoming a poet. And perhaps, 
like Carlyle, having the good sense to see his true function, he 
himself desisted from writing, and strictly forbade other men to 
write, in verse. If we consider this, and if we consider that 
certain of the great English masters of poetic prose of the i7th 
century were as incapable of writing in metre as their followers 
Richter and Carlyle, we shall hardly escape the conclusion on the 
one hand that the faculty of writing poetry is quite another 
faculty than that of producing work in the arts most closely 
allied to it, music and prose, but that on the other hand there is 
nothing antagonistic between these faculties. 

3. Comparative Value in Expressional Power. There is one 
great point of superiority that musical art exhibits over metrical 
art. This consists, not in the capacity for melody, but in 
the capacity for harmony in the musician's sense. The finest 
music of Aeschylus, of Pindar, of Shakespeare, of Milton, 
is after all only a succession of melodious notes, and, in 
endeavouring to catch the harmonic intent of strophe, anti- 
Strophe and epode in the Greek chorvts and in the true ode (that 



of Pindar), we can only succeed by pressing memory into our 
service. We have to recall by memory the waves that have gone 
before, and then to imagine their harmonic power in relation to 
the waves at present occupying the ear. Counterpoint, therefore, 
is not to be achieved by the metricist, even though he be Pindar 
himself; but in music this perfect ideal harmony was fore- 
shadowed perhaps in the earliest writing. We know at least 
that as early as the i2th century counterpoint began to show a 
vigorous life, and the study of it is now a familiar branch of 
musical science. Now, inasmuch as " nature's own hymn " is 
and must be the harmonic blending of apparently Kllrtl . 
independent and apparently discordant notes, among 
the arts whose appeal is through the ear that which can achiere 
counterpoint must perhaps rank as a pure art above one which 
cannot achieve it. We are of course speaking here of metre only. 
We have not space to inquire whether the counterpoint of absolute 
poetry is the harmony underlying apparently discordant emotions 
the emotion produced by a word being more persistent than the 
emotion produced by an inarticulate sound. But if poetry falls 
behind music in rhythmic scope, it is capable of rendering emotion 
after emotion has become disintegrated into thoughts, and here, 
as we have seen, it enters into direct competition with the art of 
prose. It can use the emphasis of sound, not for its own sake 
merely, but to strengthen the emphasis of sense, and can thus 
give a fuller and more adequate expression to the soul of man 
than music at its highest can give. With regard to prose, no 
doubt such writing as Plato's description of the chariot of the 
soul, his description of the island of Atlantis, or of Er's visit to 
the place of departed souls, comes but a short way behind 
poetry in imaginative and even rhythmic appeal. It is impossible, 
however, here to do more than touch upon the subject of the 
rhythm of prose in its relation to the rhythm of poetry; for in 
this matter the genius of each individual language has to be 
taken into account. 

Perhaps it may be said that deeper than all the rhythm of art 
is that rhythm which art would fain catch, the rhythm of nature; 
for the rhythm of nature is the rhythm of life itself. This 
rhythm can be caught by prose as well as by poetry, such prose, 
for instance, as that of the English Bible. Certainly the rhythm 
of verse at its highest, such, for instance, as that of Shakespeare's 
greatest writings, is nothing more and nothing less than the 
metre of that energy of the spirit which surges within the bosom 
of him who speaks, whether he speak in verse or in impassioned 
prose. Being rhythm, it is of course governed by law, but it is a 
law which transcends in subtlety the conscious art of the metricist 
and is only caught by the poet in his most inspired moods, a law 
which, being part of nature's own sanctions, can of course never 
be formulated but only expressed, as it is expressed in the melody 
of the bird, in the inscrutable harmony of the entire bird-chorus 
of a thicket, in the whisper of the leaves of the tree, and in the 
song or wail of wind and sea. Now is not this rhythm of nature 
represented by that " sense rhythm " which prose can catch as 
well as poetry, that sense rhythm whose finest expressions are 
to be found in the Bible, Hebrew and English, and in the biblical 
movements of the English Prayer Book, and in the dramatic 
prose of Shakespeare at its best? Whether it is caught by prose 
or by verse, one of the virtues of the rhythm of nature is that it is 
translatable. Hamlet's peroration about man and Raleigh's 
apostrophe to death are as translatable into other languages as 
are the Hebrew psalms, or as is Manu's magnificent passage 
about the singleness of man: 

" Single is each man born into the world; single he dies; single 
he receives the reward of his good deeds, and single the punishment 
of his evil deeds. When he dies his body lies like a fallen tree upon 
the earth, but his virtue accompanies his soul. Wherefore let man 
harvest and garner virtue, so that he may have an inseparable com- 
panion in traversing chat gloom which is so hard to be traversed." 

Here the rhythm, being the inevitable movement of emotion 
and " sense," can be caught and translated by every literature 
under the sun. While, however, the great goal before the poet 
is to compel the listener to expect his caesuric effects, the great 
goal before the writer of poetic prose is in the very opposite 
direction; it is to make use of the concrete figures and impassioned 



POETRY 



diction of the poet, but at the same time to avoid the recognized 
and expected metrical bars upon which the poet depends. The 
moment the prose poet passes from the rhythm of prose to the 
rhythm of metre the apparent sincerity of his writing is destroyed. 

As compared with sculpture and painting the great infirmity 
of poetry, as an " imitation " of nature, is of course that the 
medium is always and of necessity words even when 
Tmffatioa. no words could, in the dramatic situation, have been 
spoken. It is not only Homer who is obliged some- 
times to forget that passion when at white heat is never voluble, 
is scarcely even articulate; the dramatists also are obliged to for- 
get that in love and in hate, at their tensest, words seem weak and 
foolish when compared with the silent and satisfying triumph and 
glory of deeds, such as the plastic arts can render. This becomes 
jmanifest enough when we compare the Niobe group or the Lao- 
'coon group, or the great dramatic paintings of the modern 
world, with even the finest efforts of dramatic poetry, such as the 
speech of Andromache to Hector, or the speech of Priam to 
Achilles, nay such as even the cries of Cassandra in the Agamem- 
non, or the wailings of Lear over the dead Cordelia. Even when 
writing the words uttered by Oedipus, as the terrible truth breaks 
in upon his soul, Sophocles must have felt that in the holiest 
chambers of sorrow and in the highest agonies of suffering reigns 
that awful silence which not poetry, but painting sometimes, and 
sculpture always, can render. What human sounds could render 
the agony of Niobe, or the agony of Laocoon, as we see them in 
the sculptor's rendering? Not articulate speech at all; not 
words but wails. It is the same with hate; it is the same with 
love. We are not speaking merely of the unpacking of the heart 
in which the angry warriors of the Iliad indulge. Even such 
subtle writing as that of Aeschylus and Sophocles falls below the 
work of the painter. Hate, though voluble perhaps, as Clytaem- 
nestra's when hate is at that red-heat glow which the poet can 
render, changes in a moment whenever that redness has been 
fanned to hatred's own last complexion whiteness as of iron 
at the melting-point when the heart has grown far too big to 
be " unpacked " at all, and even the bitter epigrams of hate's 
own rhetoric, though brief as the terrier's snap before he fleshes 
his teeth, or as the short snarl of the tigress as she springs before 
her cubs in danger, are all too slow and sluggish for a soul to 
which language at its tensest has become idle play. But this is 
just what cannot be rendered by an art whose medium consists 
solely of words. 

It is in giving voice, not to emotion at its tensest, but to the 
variations of emotion, it is in expressing the countless shifting 
movements of the soul from passion to passion, that poetry 
shows in spite of all her infirmities her superiority to the plastic 
arts. Hamlet and the Agamemnon, the Iliad and the Oedipus 
Tyrannus, are adequate to the entire breadth and depth of man's 
soul. 

Varieties of Poetic Art. We have now reached the inquiry: 
What varieties of poetic art are the outcome of the two kinds of 
poetic impulse, dramatic imagination and lyric or egoistic imagin- 
ation? It would be impossible here to examine fully the subject 
of poetic imagination. In order to do so we should have to enter 
upon the vast question of the effect of artistic environment upon 
the development of man's poetic imagination; we should have 
to inquire how the instinctive methods of each poet and of each 
group of poets have been modified and often governed by the 
methods characteristic of their own time and country. We 
should have to inquire, for instance, how far such landscape 
as that of Sophocles in the Oedipus Coloneus and such landscape 
as that of Wordsworth depends upon difference of individual 
temperament, and how far upon difference of artistic environ- 
ment. That, in any thorough and exhaustive discussion of 
poetic imagination, the question of artistic environment must 
be taken into account, the case of the Iliad is alone sufficient 
to show. Ages before Phrynichus, ages before an acted drama 
was dreamed of, a dramatic poet of the first order arose, and, 
though he was obliged to express his splendid dramatic imagina- 
tion through epic forms, he expressed it almost as fully as if 
he had inherited the method and the stage of Sophocles. And if 



Homer never lived at all, then an entire group of dramatic poets 
arose in remote times whose method was epic instead of dramatic 
simply because there was then no stage. This, contrasted with 
the fact that in a single half-century the tragic art of Greece 
arose with Aeschylus, culminated with Sophocles, and decayed 
with Euripides, and contrasted also with the fact that in England 
at one time, and in Spain at one time, almost the entire poetic 
imagination of the country found expression in the acted drama 
alone, is sufficient to show that a poet's artistic methods are 
very largely influenced by the artistic environments of his country 
and time. So vast a subject as this, however, is beyond our scope, 
and we can only point to the familiar instance of the troubadours 
and the trouveres and then pass on. 

With the trouvere (the poet of the langue d'oil), the story or 
situation is always the end of which the musical language is 
the means; with the troubadour (the poet of the langue d'oc), 
the form is so beloved, the musical language so enthralling, that, 
however beautiful may be the story or situation, it is felt to 
be no more than the means to a more beloved and beautiful 
end. But then nature makes her own troubadours and her own 
trouveres irrespective of fashion and of time irrespective of 
langue d'oc and langue d'oil. And, in comparing the troubadours 
with the trouveres, this is what strikes us at once there are 
certain troubadours who by temperament, by original endow- 
ment of nature, ought to have been trouveres, and there are 
certain trouveres who by temperament ought to have been 
troubadours. Surrounding conditions alone have made them 
what they are. There are those whose impulse (though writing 
in obedience to contemporary fashions lyrics in the langue d'oc) 
is manifestly to narrate, and there are those whose impulse 
(though writing in obedience to contemporary fashions fabliaux 
in the langue d'oil) is simply to sing. In other words, there are 
those who, though writing after the fashion of their brother- 
troubadours, are more impressed with the romance and wonder- 
fulness of the human life outside them than with the romance 
and wonderfulness of their own passions, and who delight in 
depicting the external world in any form that may be the popular 
form of their time; and there are those who, though writing after 
the fashion of their brother-trouveres, are far more occupied 
with the life within them than with that outer life which the 
taste of their time and country calls upon them to paint born 
rhythmists who must sing, who translate everything external 
as well as internal into verbal melody. Of the former class 
Pierre Vidal, of the latter class the author of Le Lay de I'oiselet, 
may be taken as the respective types. 

That the same forces are seen at work in all literatures few 
students of poetry will deny though in some poetical groups 
these forces are no doubt more potent than in others, as, for 
instance, with the great parable poets of Persia, in some of whom 
there is perpetually apparent a conflict between the dominance 
of the Qriental taste for allegory and subtle suggestion, as 
expressed in the Zoroastrian definition of poetry " apparent 
pictures of unapparent realities " and the opposite yearning 
to represent human life with the freshness and natural freedom 
characteristic of Western poetry. 

Allowing, however, for all the potency of external influences, 
we shall not be wrong in saying that of poetic imagination there 
are two distinct kinds (i) the kind of poetic imagina- Absolute 
tion seen at its highest in Aeschylus, Sophocles, ""I Relative 
Shakespeare and Homer, and (2) the kind of poetic 
imagination seen at its highest in Pindar, Dante and 
Milton, or else in Sappho, Heine and Shelley. The former, 
being in its highest dramatic exercise unconditioned by the 
personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might perhaps be called 
absolute dramatic vision; the latter, being more or less conditioned 
by the personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might be called 
relative dramatic vision. It seems impossible to classify poets, 
or to classify the different varieties of poetry, without draw- 
ing some such distinction as this, whatever words of definition 
we may choose to adopt. 

For the achievement of all pure lyric poetry, such as the ode, 
the song, the elegy, the idyll, the sonnet, the stornello, it is 



POETRY 



883 



evident that the imaginative force we have called relative vision 
will suffice. And if we consider the matter thoroughly, in many 
other forms of poetic art forms which at first sight might seem 
to require absolute vision we shall, find nothing but relative 
vision at work. 

Even in Dante, and even in Milton and Virgil, it might be 
difficult to trace the working of any other than relative vision. 
And as to the entire body of Asiatic poets it might perhaps be 
found (even in view of the Indian drama) that relative vision 
suffices to do all their work. Indeed the temper which produces 
true drama is, it might almost be said, a growth of the Western 
mind. For, unless it be Semit ic, as seen in the dramatic narratives 
of the Bible, or Chinese, as seen in that remarkable prose story, 
The Two Fair Cousins, translated by Remusat, absolute vision 
seems to have but small place in the literatures of Asia. The 
wonderfulness of the world and the romantic possibilities of fate, 
or circumstance, or chance not the wonderfulness of the 
character to whom these possibilities befall are ever present 
to the mind of the Asiatic poet. Even in so late a writer as the 
poet of the Shall Nameh, the hero Irij, the hero Zal and the hero 
Zohreb are in character the same person, the virtuous young man 
who combines the courage of youth with the wisdom and forbear- 
ance of age. And, as regards the earlier poets of Asia, it was 
not till the shadowy demigods and heroes of the Asiatic races 
crossed the Caucasus, and breathed a more bracing air, that 
they became really individual characters. But among the many 
qualities of man's mind that were invigorated and rejuvenated 
by that great exodus from the dreamy plains of Asia is to be 
counted, above all others, his poetic imagination. The mere 
sense of wonder, which had formerly been an all-sufficing source 
of pleasure to him, was all-sufficing no longer. The wonderful 
adventure must now be connected with a real and interesting 
individual character. It was left for the poets of Europe to 
show that, given the interesting character, given the Achilles, 
the Odysseus, the Helen, the Priam, any adventure happening 
to such a character becomes interesting. 

What then is this absolute vision, this true dramatic imagina- 
tion which can hardly be found in Asia which even in Europe 
cannot be found except in rare cases? Between relative and 
absolute vision the difference seems to be this, that the former 
only enables the poet, even in its very highest exercise, to make 
his own individuality, or else humanity as represented by his own 
individuality, live in the imagined situation; the latter enables 
him in its highest exercise to make special individual characters 
other than the poet's own live in the imagined situation. 

" That which exists in nature," says Hegel, " is a something 
purely individual and particular. Art, on the contrary, is essen- 
tially destined to manifest the general." And no doubt this is 
true as regards the plastic arts, and true also as regards literary 
art, save in the very highest reaches of pure drama and pure 
lyric, when it seems to become art no longer when it seems to 
become the very voice of Nature herself. The cry of Priam 
when he puts to his lips the hand that slew his son is not merely 
the cry of a bereaved and aged parent; it is the cry of the in- 
dividual king of Troy, and expresses above everything else that 
most naive, pathetic and winsome character. Put the words 
into the mouth of the irascible and passionate Lear and they 
would be entirely out of keeping. 

It may be said then that, while the poet of relative vision, 
even in its very highest exercise, can only, when depicting the 
Lyric, Epic external world, deal with the general, the poet oi 
and " absolute vision can compete with Nature herseli 
Dramatic an d deal with both general and particular. If this 
singers. ^ re ally so we may perhaps find a basis for a classi- 
fication of poetry and of poets. That all poets must be singers 
has already been maintained. But singers seem to be divisible 
into three classes: first the pure lyrists, each of whom can with 
his one voice sing only one tune; secondly the epic poets, save 
Homer, the bulk of the narrative poets, and the quasi-dramatists 
each of whom can with his one voice sing several tunes; and 
thirdly the true dramatists, who, having, like the nightingale o: 
Gongora, many tongues, can sing all tunes. 



It is to the first-named of these classes that most poets belong. 
With regard to the second class, there are not of course many 
wets left for it: the first absorbs so many. But, when we come 
.o consider that among those who, with each his one voice, can 
iing many tunes, are Pindar, Firdausi, Jami, Virgil, Dante, 
Milton, Spenser, Goethe, Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, 
Schiller, Victor Hugo, the second class is so various that no 
;eneralization save such a broad one as ours could embrace its 
members. And now we come to class three, and must pause. 
The third class is necessarily very small. In it can only be 
)laced such names as Shakespeare, Aeschylus, Sophocles, 
rlomer and (hardly) Chaucer. 

These three kinds of poets represent three totally different 
cinds of poetic activity. 

With regard to the first, the pure lyrists, the impulse is pure 
egoism. Many of them have less of even relative vision at its 
lighest than the mass of mankind. They are often too much 
mgaged with the emotions within to have any deep sympathy 
with the life around them. Of every poet of this class it may 
be said that his mind to him " a kingdom is," and that the 
smaller the poet the bigger to him is that kingdom. To make 
use of a homely image like the chaffinch whose eyes have been 
iricked by the bird-fancier, the pure lyrist is sometimes a warbler 
Because he is blind. Still he feels that the Muse loves him 
exceedingly. She takes away his eyesight, but she gives him 
sweet song. And his song is very sweet, very sad, and very 
aeautiful; but it is all about the world within his own soul its 
sorrows, joys, fears and aspirations. 

With regard to the second class the impulse here is no doubt a 
kind of egoism too; yet the poets of this class are all of a different 
temper from the pure lyrists. They have a wide imagination; 
but it is still relative, still egoistic. They have splendid eyes, 
but eyes that never get beyond seeing general, universal 
humanity (typified by themselves) in the imagined situation. 
Not even to these is it given to break through that law of 
centrality by which every " me " feels itself to be the central 
" me " the only " me " of the universe, round which all other 
spurious " me's " revolve. This " me " of theirs they can 
transmute into many shapes, but they cannot create other 
" me's " nay, for egoism, some of them scarcely would, perhaps, 
if they could. 

The third class, the true dramatists, whose impulse is the 
simple yearning to create akin to that which made " the great 
Vishnu yearn to create a world," are " of imagination all com- 
pact " so much so that when at work " the divinity " which 
lamblichus speaks of " seizes for the time the soul and guides 
it as he will." 

The distinction between the pure lyrists and the other two 
classes of poets is obvious enough. But the distinction between 
the quasi-dramatists and the pure dramatists examp/eso/ 
requires a word of explanation before we proceed Relative and 
to touch upon the various kinds of poetry that spring ***9 lute 
from the exercise of relative and absolute vision. 
Sometimes, to be sure, the vision of the true dramatists 
the greatest dramatists will suddenly become narrowed 
and obscured, as in that part of the Oedipus tyrannus where 
Sophocles makes Oedipus ignorant of what every one in Thebes 
must have known, the murder of Laius. And again, finely as 
Sophocles has conceived the character of Electra, he makes her, 
in her dispute with Chrysothemis, give expression to sentiments 
that, in another play of his own, come far more appropriately 
from the lofty character of Antigone in a parallel dispute with 
Ismene. And, on the other hand, examples of relative vision 
in its furthest reaches can be found in abundance everywhere, 
especially in Virgil, Dante, Calderon and Milton. Some of the 
most remarkable examples of that high kind of relative vision 
which may easily be mistaken for absolute vision may be found 
in those great prose epics of the North which Aristotle would 
have called poems. Here is one from the Volsunga Saga. 
While the brothers of Gudrun are about their treacherous 
business of murdering Sigurd, her husband, as he lies asleep in 
her arms, Brynhild, Sigurd's former love, who in the frenzy of 



884 



POETRY 



" love turned to hate " has instigated the murderers to the deed, 
hovers outside the chamber with Gunnar, her husband, and 
listens to the wail of her rival who is weltering in Sigurd's blood. 
At the sound of that wail Brynhild laughs: 

" Then said Gunnar to her, Thou laughest not because thy heart 
roots are gladded, or else why doth thy visage wax so wan ? " 1 

This is of course very fine; but, as any two characters in that 
dramatic situation might have done that dramatic business, 
fine as it is as the sagaman gives us the general and not the 
particular the vision at work is not absolute but relative at its j 
very highest exercise. But our examples will be more interest- j 
ing if taken from English poets. In Coleridge's " Ancient 
Mariner " we find an immense amount of relative vision of so 
high a kind that at first it seems absolute vision. When the 
ancient mariner, in his narrative to the wedding guest, reaches 
th slaying of the albatross, he stops, he can proceed no farther, 
and the wedding guest exclaims: 

" God save thee, Ancient Mariner, 

From the fiends that plague thee thus ! 
Why look'st thou so ? " " With my cross-bow 

I shot the albatross." 

But there are instances of relative vision especially in the 
great master of absolute vision, Shakespeare which are higher 
still so high indeed that not to relegate them to absolute 
vision seems at first sight pedantic. Such an example is the 
famous speech of Lady Macbeth in the second act, where she 
says: 

" Had he not resembled 
My father as he slept, I had done "t." 

Marvellously subtle as is this speech, it will be found, if 
analysed, that it expresses the general human soul rather than 
any one special human soul. Indeed Leigh Hunt records the 
case of a bargeman who, charged with robbing a sleeping 
traveller in his barge, used in his confession almost identical 
words " Had he not looked like my father as he slept, I should 
have killed as well as robbed him." Again, the thousand and 
one cases (to be found in every literature) where a character, 
overwhelmed by some sudden surprise or terror, asks whether 
the action going on is that of a dream or of real life, must all, 
on severe analysis, be classed under relative rather than under 
absolute vision even such a fine speech, for instance, as that 
where Pericles, on discovering Marina, exclaims: 
" This is the rarest dream that e'er dull sleep 
Did mock sad fools withai " ; 

or as that in the third act of Titus Andronicus, where Titus, 
beholding his mutilated and ruined daughter, asks: 

" When will this fearful slumber have an end? " 
even here, we say, the humanity rendered is general and not 
particular, the vision at work is relative and not absolute. The 
poet, as representing the whole human race, throwing himself 
into the imagined situation, gives us what general humanity 
would have thought, felt, said or done in that situation, not 
what one particular individual and he alone would have 
thought, felt, said or done. 

Now what we have called absolute vision operates in a very 
different way. So vividly is the poet's mere creative instinct 
at work that the ego sinks into passivity becomes insensitive 
to all impressions other than those dictated by the vision by 
the " divinity " which has " seized the soul." Shakespeare is 
full of examples. Take the scene in the first act of Hamlet 
where Hamlet hears for the first time, from Horatio, that his 
father's ghost haunts the castle. Having by short sharp 
questions elicited the salient facts attending the apparition, 
Hamlet says, " I would I had been there." To this Horatio 
makes the very commonplace reply, " It would have much 
amazed you." Note the marvellously dramatic reply of Hamlet 
" Very like, very like ! Stayed it long ? " Suppose that this 
dialogue had been attempted by any other poet than a true 
dramatist, or by a true dramatist in any other mood than 
his very highest, Hamlet, on hearing Horatio's commonplace 
remarks upon phenomena which to Hamlet were more subversive 
i Translation of Morris and Magnusson. 



of the very order of the universe than if a dozen stars had fallen 
from their courses, would have burst out with:" Amazed me!" 
and then would have followed an eloquent declamation about 
the " amazing " nature of the phenomena and their effect upon 
him. But so entirely has the poet become Hamlet, so completely 
has " the divinity seized his soul," that all language seems 
equally weak for expressing the turbulence within the soul of 
the character, and Hamlet exclaims in a sort of meditative 
irony, " Very like, very like ! " It is exactly this one man 
Hamlet, and no other man, who in this situation would have 
so expressed himself. Charles Knight has some pertinent 
remarks upon this speech of Hamlet ; yet he misses its true value, 
and treats it from the general rather than from the particular 
side. Instances of absolute vision in Shakespeare crowd upon 
us; but we can find room for only one other. In the pathetic 
speech of Othello, just before he kills himself, he declares himself 
to be: 

" One not easily jealous, but, being wrought, 
Perplexed in the extreme."., 

Consider the marvellous timbre of the word " wrought," ' as 
coming from a character like Othello. When writing this 
passage, especially when writing this word, the poet had become 
entirely the simple English soldier-hero, as the Moor really is he 
had become Othello, looking upon himself " as not easily jealous," 
whereas he was " wrought " and " perplexed in the extreme " 
by tricks which Hamlet would have seen through in a moment. 

While all other forms of poetic art can be vitalized by relative 
vision, there are two forms (and these the greatest) in which 
absolute vision is demanded, viz. the drama, and in Dramatic 
a lesser degree the Greek epic, especially the Iliad. imaglaa- 
This will be seen more plainly perhaps if we now tioa - 
vary our definitions and call relative vision egoistic imagination', 
absolute vision dramatic imagination. 

Very much of the dramatist's work can be, and in fact is, 
effected by egoistic imagination, while true dramatic imagination 
is only called into play on comparatively rare occasions. Not 
only fine but sublime dramatic poems have been written, however, 
where the vitalizing power has been entirely that of lyrical 
imagination. We need only instance the Prometheus Bound of 
Aeschylus, the most sublime poem in the world. The dramas 
of Shelley too, like those of Victor Hugo and Calderon, are 
informed entirely by egoistic imagination. In all these splendid 
poems the dramatist places himself in the imagined situation, 
or at most he places there some typical conception of universal 
humanity. There is not in all Calderon any such display of 
dramatic imagination as we get in that wonderful speech of 
Priam's in the last book of the Iliad, to which we have before 
alluded. There is not in the Cenci such a display of dramatic 
imagination as we get in the sudden burst of anger from the 
spoilt child of gods and men, Achilles (anger which alarms the 
hero himself as much as it alarms Priam), when the prattle of 
the old man has carried him too far. It may seem bold to say 
that the drama of Goethe is informed by egoistic imagination 
only assuredly the prison-scene in Faust is unsurpassed in 
the literatures of the world. Yet, perhaps, it could be shown of 
the passion and the pathos of Gretchen throughout the entire 
play that it betrays a female character general and typical rather 
than individual and particular. 

The nature of this absolute vision or true dramatic imagination 
is easily seen if we compare the dramatic work of writers without 
absolute vision, such as Calderon, Goethe, Ben Jonson, Fletcher 
and others, with the dramatic work of Aeschylus and of Shake- 
speare. While of the former group it may be said that each poet 
skilfully works his imagination, of Aeschylus and Shakespeare 
it must be said that each in his highest dramatic mood does not 
work, but is worked by his imagination. Note, for instance, 
how the character of Clytaemnestra grows and glows under the 
hand of Aeschylus. The poet of the Odyssey had distinctly 
said that Aegisthus, her paramour, had struck the blow, but 
the dramatist, having imagined the greatest tragic female in 
all poetry, finds it impossible to let a man like Aegisthus assist 
such a woman in a homicide so daring and so momentous. And 



POETRY 



885 



when in that terrible speech of hers she justifies her crime 
(ostensibly to the outer world, but really to her own conscience), 
the way in which, by the sheer magnetism of irresistible person- 
ality, she draws our sympathy to herself and her crime is un- 
rivalled out of Shakespeare and not surpassed even there. In 
the Great Drama, in the Agamemnon, in Othello, in Hamlet, in 
Macbeth, there is an imagination at work whose laws are inexor- 
able, are inevitable, as the laws by the operation of which the 
planets move around the sun. But in this essay our business 
with drama is confined entirely to its relations to epic. 

Considering how large and on the whole how good is the body 
of modern criticism upon drama, it is surprising how poor is 
Epic and the modern criticism upon epic. Aristotle, compar- 
Drama ing tragedy with epic, gives the palm to tragedy 
Compared. as b em g t ne more perfect art, and nothing can be 
more ingenious than the way in which he has marshalled his 
reasons. He tells us that tragedy as well as epic is capable 
of producing its effect even without action; we can judge of 
it perfectly, says he, by reading. He goes so far as to say 
that, even in reading as well as in representation, tragedy has 
an advantage over the epic, the advantage of greater clearness 
and distinctness of impression. And in some measure this was 
perhaps true of Greek tragedy, for as Muller in his Dissertations 
on the Eumenides has well said, the ancients always remained 
and wished to remain conscious that the whole was a Dionysian 
entertainment; the quest of a commonplace airon) came after- 
wards. And even of Romantic Drama it may be said that in 
the time of Shakespeare, and indeed down through the i8th 
century, it never lost entirely its character of a recitation as well 
as a drama. It was not till melodrama began to be recognized 
as a legitimate form of dramatic art that the dialogue had to be 
struck from the dramatic action " at full speed " struck like 
sparks from the roadster's shoes. The truth is, however, that 
it was idle for Aristotle to inquire which is the more important 
branch of poetry, epic or tragedy. Equally idle would it be 
for the modern critic to inquire how much romantic drama 
gained and how much it lost by abandoning the chorus. 

Much has been said as to the scope and the limits of epic and 
dramatic poetry. If in epic the poet has the power to take the 
imagination of his audience away from the dramatic centre and 
show what is going on at the other end of the great web of the 
world, he can do the same thing in drama by the chorus, and 
also by the introduction into the dramatic circle of messengers 
and others from the outside world. But, as regards epic poetry, 
is it right that we should hear, as we sometimes do hear, the voice 
of the poet himself as chorus bidding us contrast the present 
picture with other pictures afar off, in order to enforce its teach- 
ing and illustrate its pathos? This is a favourite method with 
modern poets and a still more favourite one with prose narrators. 
Does it not give an air of self-consciousness to poetry? Does 
it not disturb the intensity of the poetic vision? Yet it has 
the sanction of Homer; and who shall dare to challenge the 
methods of the great father of epic? An instance occurs in 
Iliad v. 158, where, in the midst of all the stress of fight, the poet 
leaves the dramatic action to tell us what became of the in- 
heritance of Phaenops, after his two sons had been slain by 
Diomedes. Another instance occurs in iii. 243-244, where the 
poet, after Helen's pathetic mention of her brothers, comments 
on the causes of their absence, " criticizes life " in the approved 
modern way, generalizes upon the impotence of human intelli- 
gence the impotence even of human love to pierce the dark- 
ness in which the web of human fate is woven. Thus she spoke 
(the poet tells us); but the life-giving earth already possessed 
them, there in Lacedaemon, in their dear native land: 

Ha <j>a.To~ rot's 5' <)57j K&T(X(" <t>valfoos ato 
iv \OK(&ainovt auOi, 0i\n rv Trarptii 



This, of course, is " beautiful exceedingly," but, inasmuch as 
the imagination at work is egoistic or lyrical, not dramatic; inas- 
much as the vision is relative, not absolute, it does not represent 
that epic strength at its very highest which we call specially 
" Homeric," unless indeed we remember that with Homer the 



Muses are omniscient: this certainly may give the passage a 
deep dramatic value it otherwise seems to lack. 

The deepest of all the distinctions between dramatic and epic 
methods has relation, however, to the nature of the dialogue. 
Aristotle failed to point it out, and this is remarkable until we 
remember that his work is but a fragment of a great system of 
criticism. In epic poetry, and in all poetry that narrates, 
whether the poet be Homer, Chaucer, Thomas the Rhymer, 
Gottfried von Strasburg, or Turoldus, the action, of course, 
moved by aid partly of narrative and partly by aid of dialogue, 
but in drama the dialogue has a quality of suggestiveness and 
subtle inference which we do not expect to find in any other 
poetic form save perhaps that of the purely dramatic ballad. 
In ancient drama this quality of suggestiveness and subtle 
inference is seen not only hi the dialogue, but in the choral odes. 
The third ode of the Agamemnon is an extreme case in point, 
where, by a kind of double entendre, the relations of Clytaemnestra 
and Aegisthus are darkly alluded to under cover of allusions 
to Paris and Helen. Of this dramatic subtlety Sophocles is 
perhaps the greatest master; and certain critics have been led 
to speak as though irony were heart-thought of Sophoclean 
drama. But the suggestiveness of Sophocles is pathetic (as 
Professor Lewis Campbell has well pointed out), not ironical. 
This is one reason why drama more than epic seems to satisfy the 
mere intellect of the reader, though this may be counterbalanced 
by the hardness of mechanical structure which sometimes disturbs 
the reader's imagination in tragedy. 

When, for instance, a dramatist pays so much attention to 
the evolution of the plot as Sophocles does, it is inevitable that 
his characters should be more or less plot-ridden; they have to 
say and do now and then certain things which they would not 
say and do but for the exigencies of the plot. Indeed one of 
the advantages which epic certainly has over drama is that the 
story can be made to move as rapidly as the poet may desire 
without these mechanical modifications of character. 

The only kind of epic for Aristotle to consider was Greek epic, 
between which and all other epic the difference is one of kind, 
if the Iliad alone is taken to represent Greek epic. Tlle Q 
In speaking of the effect that surrounding conditions _ . 
seem to have upon the form in which the poetic energy ^ 
of any time or country should express itself, we instanced the 
Iliad as a typical case. The imagination vivifying it is mainly 
dramatic. The characters represent much more than the mere 
variety of mood of the delineator. Notwithstanding all the splendid 
works of Calderon, Marlowe, Webster and Goethe, it is doubtful 
whether as a born dramatist the poet of the Iliad does not come 
nearer to Aeschylus and Shakespeare than does any other poet. 
His passion for making the heroes speak for themselves is almost 
a fault in the Iliad considered as pure epic, and the unconscious 
way in which each actor is made to depict his own character is in 
the highest spirit of drama. It is owing to this speciality of 
the Iliad that it stands apart from all other epic save that of the 
Odyssey, where, however, the dramatic vision is less vivid. It is 
owing to the dramatic imagination displayed in the Iliad that it 
is impossible to say, from internal evidence, whether the poem is 
to be classified with the epics of growth or with the epics of art. 
All epics are clearly divisible into two classes, first those which are 
a mere accretion of poems or traditionary ballads, and second, those 
which, though based indeed on tradition or history, have become 
so fused in the mind of one great poet, so stained, therefore, with 
the colour and temper of that mind, as to become new crystalliza- 
tions inventions, in short, as we understand that word. _ Each 
kind of epic has excellencies peculiar to itself, accompanied by 
peculiar and indeed necessary defects. In the one we get the 
freedom apparently schemeless and motiveless of nature, but, as 
a consequence, miss that " hard acorn of thought " (to use the 
picturesque definition in the Volsunga Saga of the heart of a man) 
which the mind asks for as the core of every work of art. In the 
other this great requisite of an adequate central thought is found, 
but accompanied by a constriction, a lack of freedom, a cold 
artificiality, the obtrusion of a pedantic scheme, which would be 
intolerable to the natural mind unsophisticated by literary study. 
The flow of the one is as that of a river, the flow of the other as that 
of a canal. Yet, as has been already hinted, though the great 
charm of Nature herself is that she never teases us with any obtrusive 
exhibitions of scheme, she doubtless has a scheme somewhere, she 
does somewhere hide a " hard acorn of thought " of which the poem 
of the universe is the expanded expression. And, this being so, 
art should have a scheme too; but in such a dilemma is she placed 
in this matter that the epic poet, unless he is evidently telling the 



886 



POETRY 



story for its own sake, scornful of purposes ethic or aesthetic, must 
sacrifice illusion. 

Among the former class of epics are to be placed the great epics of 
growth, such as the Mahabhdrata, the Nibelung story, &c. ; among 
the latter the Odyssey, the Aeneid, Paradise Lost, the Gerusalemme 
liberata, the Lusiadas. 

But where in this classification are we to find a place for the 
Iliad? The heart-thought of the greatest epic in all literature is 
simply that Achilles was vexed and that the fortunes of the world 
depended upon the whim of a sulky hero. Yet, notwithstanding all 
the acute criticisms of Wolff, it remains difficult for us to find a 
place for the Iliad among the epics of growth. And why? Because 
throughout the Iliad the dramatic imagination shown is of the 
first order; and, if we are to suppose a multiplicity of authors 
for the poem, we must also suppose that ages before the time of 
Pericles there existed a group of dramatists more nearly akin to the 
masters of the Great Drama, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shake- 
speare, than any group that has ever existed since. Yet it is equally 
difficult to find a place for it amongst the epics of art. In the 
matter of artistic motive the Odyssey stands alone among the epics 
of art of the world, as we are going to see. 

It is manifest that, as the pleasure derived from the epic of art 
is that of recognizing a conscious scheme, if the epic of art fails 
through confusion of scheme it fails altogether. What 
The Epic of jg (J eman( j e( j o f the epic of art (as some kind of compensa- 
^ r ^ tion for that natural freedom of evolution which it 

can never achieve, that sweet abandon, which belongs to nature 
and to the epic of growth alike) is unity of impression, harmonious 
and symmetrical development of a conscious heart-thought or 
motive. This being so, where are we to place the Aeneid, and where 
are we to place the Shah Nameh? Starting with the intention, 
as it seems, of fusing into one harmonious whole the myths and 
legends upon which the Roman story is based, Virgil, by the time 
he reaches the middle of his epic, forgets all about this primary 
intent, and gives us his own thoughts and reflections on things in 
general. Fine as is the speech of Anchises to Aeneas in Elysium 
(A en. vi. 724-755), its incongruity with the general scheme of the 
poem as developed in the previous books shows how entirely Virgil 
lacked that artistic power shown in the Odyssey of making a story 
become the natural and inevitable outcome of an artistic idea. 

In the Shah Nameh there is the artistic redaction of Virgil, but 
with even less attention to a central thought than Virgil exhibits. 
Firdausi relies for his effects upon the very qualities which 
characterize not the epic of art but the epic of growth a natural 
and not an artificial flow of the story; so much indeed that, if the 
Shah Nameh were studied in connexion with the Iliad on the one 
hand and with the Kalevala on the other, it might throw a light 
upon the way in which an epic may be at one and the same time an 
aggregation of the national ballad poems and the work of a single 
artificer. That Firdausi was capable of working from a centre 
not only artistic but philosophic his Yusufand Zuleikha shows; and if 
we consider what was the artistic temper of the Persians in Firdausi's 
time, what indeed has been that temper during the whole of the 
Mahommedan period, the subtle temper of the parable poet the 
Shah Nameh, with its direct appeal to popular sympathies, is a 
standing wonder in poetic literature. 

With regard, however, to Virgil's defective power of working 
from an artistic motive, as compared with the poet of the Odyssey, 
this is an infirmity he shares with all the poets or the Western world. 
Certainly he shares it with the writer of Paradise Lost, who, setting 
out to " justify the ways of God to man," forgets occasionally the 
original worker of the evil, as where, for instance, he substitutes 
chance as soon as he comes (at the end of the second book) to the 
point upon which the entire epic movement turns, the escape of 
Satan from hell and his journey to earth for the ruin of man: 

" At last his sail-broad vans 
He spreads for flight, and, in the surging smoke 
Uplifted, spurns the ground ; thence many a league, 
As in a cloudy chair, ascending rides 
Audacious; but, that seat soon failing, meets 
A vast vacuity ; all unawares, 
Fluttering his pinions vain, plumb down he drops 
Ten thousand fathoms deep, and to this hour 
Down had been falling, had not, by ILL CHANCE, 
The strong rebuff of some tumultuous cloud, 
Instinct with fire and nitre, hurried him 
As many miles aloft." 

In Milton's case, however, the truth is that he made the mistake 
of trying to disturb the motive of the story for artistic purposes 
a fatal mistake, as we shall see when we come to speak of the 
Nibelungenlied in relation to the old Norse epic cycle. 

Though Vondel's mystery play of Lucijer is, in its execution, 
rhetorical more than poetical, it did, beyond all question, influence 
Milton when he came to write Paradise Lost. The famous line 
which is generally quoted as the keynote of Satan's character 

" Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven " 

seems to have been taken bodily from Vondel's play, and Milton's 
entire epic shows a study of it. While Marlowe's majestic move- 



ments alone are traceable in Satan's speech (written some years 
before the rest of Paradise Lost, when the dramatic and not the 
epic form had been selected), Milton's Satan became afterwards a 
splendid amalgam not of the Mephistopheles but of the Faustus 
of Marlowe and the Lucifer of Vondel. Vondel's play must have 
possessed a peculiar attraction for a poet of Milton's views of 
human progress. _ Defective as the play is in execution, it is far 
otherwise in motive. This motive, if we consider it aright, is 
nothing less than an explanation of. man's anomalous condition 
on the earth spirit incarnate in matter, created by God, a little 
lower than the angels in order that he may advance by means 
of these very manacles which imprison him, in order that he may 
ascend by the staircase of the world, the ladder of fleshly conditions, 
above those cherubim and seraphim who, lacking the education 
of sense, have not the knowledge wide and deep which brings man 
close to God. 

Here Milton found his own favourite doctrine of human develop- 
ment and self-education in a concrete and vividly artistic form. 
Much, however, as such a motive must have struck a 'man of Milton's 
instincts, his intellect was too much chained by Calvinism to permit 
of his treating the subject with Vondel's philosophic breadth. 
The cause of Lucifer's wrath had to be changed from jealousy of 
human progress to jealousy of the Son's proclaimed superiority. 
And the history of poetry shows that once begin to tamper with 
the central thought around which any group of incidents has 
crystallized and the entire story becomes thereby rewritten, as we 
have seen in the case of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus. Of the motive 
of his own epic, after he had abandoned the motive of Vondel, 
Milton had as little permanent grasp as Virgil had of his. As 
regards the Odyssey, however, we need scarcely say that its motive 
is merely artistic, not philosophic. And now we come to philosophic 
motive. 

The artist's power of thought is properly shown not in the 
direct enunciation of ideas but in mastery over motive. Here 
Aeschylus is by far the greatest figure in Western poetry a proof 
perhaps among many proofs of the Oriental strain of his genius. 
(As regards pure drama, however, important as is motive, freedom, 
organic vitality in every part, is of more importance than even 
motive, and in this freedom and easy abandonment the concluding 
part of the Oresteia is deficient as compared with such a play as 
Othello or Lear.) Notwithstanding the splendid exception of 
Aeschylus, the truth seems to be that the faculty of developing a 
poetical narrative from a philosophic thought is Oriental, and on 
the whole foreign to the genius of the Western mind. Neither in 
Western drama nor in Western epic do we find, save in such rare 
cases as that of_ Vondel, anything like thalt power of developing 
a story from an idea which not only Jami but all the parable poets 
of Persia show. 

In modern English poetry the motive of Shelley's dramatic 
poem Prometheus Unbound is a notable illustration of what is here 
contended. Starting with the full intent of developing a drama 
from a motive starting with a universalism, a belief that good 
shall be the final goal of ill Shelley cannot finish his first three 
hundred lines without shifting (in the curse of Prometheus) into 
a Manichaeism as pure as that of Manes himself : 

" Heap on thy soul, by virtue of this curse, 
111 deeds, then be thou damned, beholding good; 
Both infinite as is the universe." 

According to the central thought of the poem human nature, 
through the heroic protest and struggle of the human mind typified 
by Prometheus, can at last dethrone that supernatural terror and 
tyranny (Jupiter) which the human mind had itself installed. 
But, after its dethronement (when human nature becomes infinitely 
perfectible), how can the supernatural tyranny exist apart from 
the human mind that imagined it? How can it be as " infinite as 
the universe "? 

The motive of Paradise Lost is assailed with much vigour by 
Victor Hugo in his poem Religions et Religion. But when Hugo, in 
the after parts of the poem, having destroyed Milton's " God," 
sets up an entirely French " Dieu " of his own and tries " to justify " 
him, we perceive how pardonable was Milton's failure after all. 
Compare such defect of mental grip and such nebulosity of thought 
as is displayed by Milton, Shelley and Hugo with the strength of 
hand shown in the " Salaman " and " Absal " of Jami, and indeed 
by the Sufi poets generaily. 

There is, however, one exception to this rule that Western poetry 
is nebulous as to motive. There is, besides the Iliad, one epic 
that refuses to be classified, though for entirely different reasons. 
This is the Nibelung story, where we find unity of purpose and also 
entire freedom of movement. We find combined here beauties 
which are nowhere else combined which are, in fact, at war with 
each other everywhere else. We find a scheme, a real " acorn of 
thought," in an epic which is not the self-conscious work of a single 
poetic artificer, but is as much the slow growth of various times 
and various minds as is the Mahabhdrata, in which the heart-thought 
is merely that the Kaurayas defeated their relatives at dice and 
refused to disgorge their winnings. 

This Northern epic-tree, as we find it in the Icelandic sagas, the 
Norns themselves must have watered; for it combines the virtues 



POETRY 



887 



of the epic of growth with those of the epic of art. Though not 
written in metre, it may usefully be compared with the epics of 
Greece and of India and Persia. Free in movement as the wind, 
which " bloweth where it listeth," it listeth to move by law. Its 
action is that of free will, but free will at play within a ring of 
necessity. Within this ring there throbs all the warm and passionate 
life of the world outside, and all the freedom apparently. Yet 
from that world it is enisled by a cordon of curses by a zone of 
defiant flames more impregnable than that which girdled the 
beautiful Brynhild at Hindfell. Natural laws, familiar emotions, 
are at work everywhere in the story; yet the " Ring of Andvari," 
whose circumference is but that of a woman's finger, encircles 
the whole mimic world of the sagaman as the Midgard snake encircles 
the earth. For this artistic perfection in an epic of growth there 
are, of course, many causes, sorne of them traceable and some of 
them beyond all discovery causes no doubt akin to those which 
gave birth to many of the beauties of other epics of growth. 
Originally Sinfiotli and Sigurd were the same person, and note 
how vast has been the artistic effect of the separation of the two ! 
Again, there were several different versions of the story of Brynhild. 
The sagamen, finding all these versions too interesting and too 
much beloved to be discarded, adopted them all worked them up 
into one legend, so that, in the Volsunga Saga we have a heroine 
possessing all the charms of goddess, demi-goddess, earthly princess 
and amazon a heroine surpassing perhaps in fascination all other 
heroines that have ever figured in poetry. 

It is when we come to consider such imaginative work as this 
that we are compelled to pause before challenging the Aristotelian 
doctrine that metrical structure is but an accidental quality of epic. 
In speaking of the Nibelung story we do not, of course, speak of 
the German version, the Nibelungenlied, a fine epic still, though a 
degradation of the elder form. Between the two the differences 
are fundamental in the artistic sense, and form an excellent illustra- 
tion of what has just been said upon the disturbance of motive in 
epic, and indeed in all poetic art. It is not merely that the endings 
of the three principal characters, Sigurd (Siegfried), Gudrun 
(Kriemhilt), and Brynhild are entirely different; it is not merely 
that the Icelandic version, by missing the blood-bath at Fafnir's 
lair, loses the pathetic situation of Gudrun's becoming afterwards 
an unwilling instrument of her husband's death; it is not merely 
that, on the other hand, the German version, by omitting the early 
love passages between Brynhild and Sigurd at Hindfell, misses 
entirely the tragic meaning of her story and the terrible hate that 
is love resulting from the breaking of the troth ; but the conclusion 
of each version is so exactly the opposite of that of the other that, 
while the German story is called (and very properly) " Kriemhilt's 
Revenge," the story of the Volsunga Saga might, with equal pro- 
priety, be called Gudrun's Forgiveness. 

If it be said that, in both cases, the motive shows the same 
Titanic temper, that is because the Titanic temper is the special 
_ . characteristic of the North- Western mind. The temper 

/emperor Q f revo j t aga j ns t authority seems indeed to belong 
West! ' to tnat ener SY which succeeds in the modern develop- 
ment of the great racial struggle for life. Although 
no epic, Eastern or Western, can exist without a struggle between 
good and evil and a struggle upon apparently equal terms it 
must not be supposed that the warring of conflicting forces which 
is the motive of Eastern epic has much real relation to the warring 
of conflicting forces which is the motive of Western epic. 

And, as regards the machinery of epic, there is, we suspect, a 
deeper significance than is commonly apprehended in the fact that 
the Satan or Shaitan of the Eastern world becomes in Vondel and 
Miltorwa sublime Titan who attracts to himself the admiration which 
in Eastern poetry belongs entirely to the authority of heaven. 
In Asia, save perhaps among the pure Arabs of the desert, underlying 
all religious forms, there is apparent a temper of resignation to the 
irresistible authority of heaven. And as regards the Aryans il 
is probable that the Titanic temper the temper of revolt against 
authority did not begin to show itself till they had moved across 
the Caucasus. But what concerns us here is the fact that the 
farther they moved to the north-west the more vigorously this 
temper asserted itself, the prouder grew man in his attitude towards 
the gods, till at last in the Scandinavian cycle he became their equa 
and struggled alongside them, shoulder to shoulder, in the defence 
of heaven against the assaults of hell. Therefore, as we say, the 
student of epic poetry must not suppose that there is any rea 
parallel between the attitude of Vishnu (as Rama) toward 
Ravana and the attitude of Prometheus towards Zeus, or the atti 
tude of the human heroes towards Odin in Scandinavian poetry 
Had Ravana been clothed with a properly constituted authority 
had he been a legitimate god instead of a demon, the Eastern 
doctrine of recognition of authority would most likely have com 
in and the world would have been spared one at least of it 
enormous epics. Indeed, the Ravana of the Ramayana answer 
somewhat to the Fafnir of the Volsunga Saga; and to plot agams 
demons is not to rebel against authority. The vast field of India: 
epic, however, is quite beyond us here. 

Nor can we do more than glance at the Kalevala. From one pom 
of view that group of ballads might be taken, no doubt, as a simpl 
record of how the men of Kalevala were skilful in capturing th 



isters of the Pojohla men. But from another point of view the 
niversal struggle of the male for the female seems typified in this 
o-called epic of the Finns by the picture of the " Lady of the 
Lainbow " sitting upon her glowing arc and weaving her golden 
Breads, while the hero is doing battle with the malevolent forces 
f nature. 

But it is in the Nibelung story that the temper of Western epic 

s at its best the temper of the simple fighter, whose business 

: is to fight. The ideal Western fighter was not known in Greece 

ill ages after Homer, when in the pass of Thermopylae the com- 

anions of Leonidas combed their long hair in the sun. The business 

f the fighter in Scandinavian epic is to yield to no power whatso- 

ver, whether of earth or heaven or hell to take a buffet from the 

Allfather himself, and to return it; to look Destiny herself in the 

ace, crying out for quarter neither to gods nor demons nor Norns. 

'his is the true temper of pure " heroic poetry " as it has hitherto 

ourished on this side the Caucasus the temper of the fighter 

who is invincible because he feels that Fate herself falters when 

he hero of the true strain defies the fighter who feels that the very 

'"lorns themselves must cringe at last before the simple courage of 

man standing naked and bare of hope against all assaults, whether 

)f heaven or hell or doom. The proud heroes of the Volsunga 

Saga utter no moans and shed no Homeric tears, knowing as they 

enow that the day prophesied is sure when, shoulder to shoulder, 

;ods and men shall stand up to fight the entire brood of night, and 

evil, storming the very gates of Asgard. 

That this temper is not the highest from the ethical point of 

iew is no doubt true. Against the beautiful resignation of 

buddhism it may seem barbaric, and if moral suasion could supplant 

physical force in epic if Siddartha could take the place of Achilles 

or Sigurd it might be better for the human race. 

But we must now give undivided attention to pure egoistic 
or lyric imagination. This, as has been said, is sufficient to 
vitalize all forms of poetic art save drama and the The Lyric 
Greek epic. It would be impossible to discuss imagtam- 
adequately here the Hebrew poets, who have pro- a a - 
duced a lyric so different in kind from all other lyrics as to 
stand in a class by itself. As it is equal in importance to 
the Great Drama of Shakespeare, Aeschylus and Sophocles, 
we may perhaps be allowed to call it the " Great Lyric." 
The Great Lyric must be religious it must, it would seem, 
be an outpouring of the soul, riot towards man but towards 
God, like that of the God-intoxicated prophets and psalmists 
of Scripture. Even the lyric fire of Pindar owes much to the 
fact that he had a childlike belief in the myths to which so many 
of his contemporaries had begun to give a languid assent. But 
there is nothing in Pindar, or indeed elsewhere in Greek poetry, 
like the rapturous song, combining unconscious power with 
unconscious grace, which we have called the Great Lyric. It 
might perhaps be said indeed that the Great Lyric is purely 
Hebrew. But, although we could hardly expect to find it among 
those whose language, complex of syntax and alive with self- 
conscious inflexions, bespeaks the scientific knowingness of the 
Western mind, to call the temper of the Great Lyric broadly 
" Asiatic " would be rash. It seems to belong as a birthright 
to those descendants of Shem who, yearning always to look 
straight into the face of God and live, could (when the Great 
Lyric was sung) see not much else. 

Though two of the artistic elements of the Great Lyric, 
unconsciousness and power, are no doubt plentiful enough in 
India, the element of grace is lacking for the most part. The 
Vedic hymns are both nebulous and unemotional, as compared 
with Semitic hymns. And as to the Persians, they, it would 
seem, have the grace always, the power often, but the uncon- 
sciousness almost never. This is inevitable if we consider for 
a moment the chief characteristic of the Persian imagination an 
imagination whose wings are not so much " bright with beauty " 
as heavy with it heavy as the wings of a golden pheasant 
steeped in beauty like the " tiger-moth's deep damasked wings." 
Now beauty of this kind does not go to the making of the Great 
Lyric. 

Then there comes that poetry which, being ethnologically 
Semitic, might be supposed to exhibit something at least of the 
Hebrew temper the Arabian. But, whatever may be said of 
the oldest Arabic poetry, with its deep sense of fate and pain, 
it would seem that nothing can be more unlike than the Hebrew 
temper and the Arabian temper as seen in later poets. It is not 
with Hebrew but with Persian poetry that Arabian poetry can 



888 



POETRY 



The Ode. 



be usefully compared. If the wings of the Persian imagination 
are heavy with beauty, those of the later Arabian imagination 
are bright with beauty brilliant as an Eastern butterfly, quick 
and agile as a dragon-fly or a humming-bird. To the eye of 
the Persian poet the hues of earth are (as Firdausi says of the 
garden of Afrasiab) " like the tapestry of the kings of Ormuz, 
the air is perfumed with musk, and the waters of the brooks are 
the essence of roses." And to the later Arabian no less than to 
the Persian the earth is beautiful; but it is the clear and sparkling 
beauty of the earth as she " wakes up to life, greeting the Sabaean 
morning "; we feel the light more than the colour. But it is 
neither the Persian's instinct for beauty nor the Arabian's 
quenchless wit and exhaustless animal spirits that go to the 
making of the Great Lyric; far from it. In a word, the Great 
Lyric, as we have said, cannot be assigned to the Asiatic temper 
generally any more than it can be assigned to the European 
temper. 

In the poetry of Europe, if we cannot say of Pindar, devout 
as he is, that he produced the Great Lyric, what can we say of 
any other European poet ? The truth is that, like 
the Great Drama, so straight and so warm does it 
seem to come from the heart of man in its highest moods that 
we scarcely feel it to be literature at all. Passing, however, 
from this supreme expression of lyrical imagination, we come 
to the artistic ode, upon which subject the present writer can 
only reiterate here what he has more fully said upon a former 
occasion. Whatever may have been said to the contrary, 
enthusiasm is, in the nature of things, the very basis of the ode; 
for the ode is a mono-drama, the actor in which is the poet 
himself; and, as Marmontel has well pointed out, if the actor 
in the mono-drama is not affected by the sentiments he expresses, 
the ode must be cold and lifeless. But, although the ode is a 
natural poetic method of the poet considered as prophet 
although it is the voice of poetry as a fine frenzy it must 
not be supposed that there is anything lawless in its structure. 
" Pindar," says the Italian critic Gravina, " launches his verses 
upon the bosom of the sea; he spreads out all his sails; he con- 
fronts the tempest and the rocks; the waves arise and are ready 
to engulf him; already he has disappeared from the spectator's 
view; when suddenly he springs up in the midst of the waters, 
and reaches happily the shore." Now it is this Pindaric dis- 
cursiveness, this Pindaric unrestraint as to the matter, which 
has led poets to attempt to imitate him by adopting an unre- 
straint as to form. Although no two odes of Pindar exhibit 
the same metrical structure (the Aeolian and Lydian rhythms 
being mingled with the Doric in different proportions), yet each 
ode is in itself obedient, severely obedient, to structural law. 
This we feel; but what the law is no metricist has perhaps ever 
yet been able to explain. 

It was a strange misconception that led people for centuries 
to use the word " Pindaric " and irregular as synonymous terms; 
whereas the very essence of the odes of Pindar (of the few, alas! 
which survive to us) is their regularity. There is no more difficult 
form of poetry than this, and for this reason: when in any 
poetical composition the metres are varied, there must, as the 
present writer has before pointed out, be a reason for such 
freedom, and that reason is properly subjective the varying 
form must embody and express the varying emotions of the 
singer. But when these metrical variations are governed by 
no subjective law at all, but by arbitrary rules supposed to be 
evolved from the practice of Pindar, then that very variety 
which should aid the poet in expressing his emotion crystallizes 
it and makes the ode the most frigid of all compositions. Great 
as Pindar undoubtedly is, it is deeply to be regretted that no 
other poet survives to represent the triumphal ode of Greece 
the digressions of his subject matter are so wide, and his volu- 
bility is so great. 

In modern literature the ode has been ruined by theories 
and experiments. A poet like La Mothe, for instance, writes 
execrable odes, and then writes a treatise to prove that all odes 
should be written on the same model. There is much confusion 
of mind prevalent among poets as to what is and what is not 



an ode. All odes are, no doubt, divisible into two great classes: 
those which, following an arrangement in stanzas, are commonly 
called regular, and those which, following no such arrangement, 
are commonly called irregular. 

We do not agree with those who assert that irregular metres are 
of necessity inimical to poetic art. On the contrary, we believe 
that in modern prosody the arrangement of the rhymes and the 
length of the lines in any rhymed metrical passage may be deter- 
mined either by a fixed stanzaic law or by a law infinitely deeper by 
the law which impels the soul, in a state of poetic exaltation, to 
seize hold of every kind of metrical aid, such as rhyme, caesura, &c. 
for the purpose of accentuating and marking off each shade of 
emotion as it arises, regardless of any demands of stanza. But 
between the irregularity of makeshift, such as we find it in Cowley 
and his imitators, and the irregularity of the " fine frenzy " of such 
a poem, for instance, as Coleridge's Kubla Khan, there is a difference 
in kind. Strange that it is not in an ode at all but in this unique 
lyric Kubla Khan, descriptive of imaginative landscape, that an 
English poet has at last conquered the crowning difficulty of writing 
in irregular metres. Having broken away from all restraints of 
couplet and stanza having caused his rhymes and pauses to fall 
just where and just when the emotion demands that they should 
fall, scorning the exigencies of makeshift no less than the exigencies 
of stanza he has found what every writer of irregular English odes 
has sought in vain, a music as entrancing, as natural, and at the 
same time as inscrutable, as the music of the winds or of the sea. 

The prearranged effects of sharp contrasts and antiphonal move- 
ments, such as some poets have been able to compass, do not of 
course come under the present definition of irregular staazak 
metres at all. If a metrical passage does not gain , ' rf 
immensely by being written independently of stanzaic En , oUona i 
law, it loses immensely; and for this reason, perhaps, that f, 
the great charm of the music of all verse, as distinguished LMW ' 
from the music of prose, is inevitableness of cadence. In regular 
metres we enjoy the pleasure of feeling that the rhymes will 
inevitably fall under a recognized law of couplet or stanza. But 
if the passage flows independently of these, it must still flow 
inevitably it must, in short, show that it is governed by another 
and a yet deeper force, the inevitableness of emotional expression. 
The lines must be long or short, the rhymes must be arranged after 
this or after that interval, not because it is convenient so to arrange 
them, but because the emotion of the poet inexorably demands 
these and no other arrangements. When, however, Coleridge came 
to try his hand at irregular odes, such as the odes " To the 
Departing Year " and " To the Duchess of Devonshire," he certainly 
did not succeed. 

As to Wordsworth's magnificent " Ode on Intimations of Im- 
mortality," the sole impeachment of it, but it is a grave one, is that 
the length of the lines and the arrangement of the rhymes are not 
always inevitable; they are, except on rare occasions, governed 
neither by stanzaic nor by emotional law. For instance, what 
emotional necessity was there for the following rhyme-arrange- 
ment ? 

" My heart is at your festival, 

My head hath its coronal, 
The fulness of your bliss I feel I feel it alL 

Oh, evil day! if I were sullen , 

While earth herself is adorning, 

This sweet May morning; 

And the children are culling, 
On every side, 

In a thousand valleys far and wide, 
Fresh flowers." 

Beautiful as is the substance of this entire passage, so far from 
gaining, it loses by rhyme loses, not in perspicuity, for Wordsworth 
like all his contemporaries (except Shelley) is mostly perspicuous, 
but in that metrical emphasis the quest of which is one of the impulses 
that leads a poet to write in rhyme. In spite, however, of its metrical 
defects, this famous ode of Wordsworth's is the finest irregular 
ode in the language; for, although Coleridge's " Ode to the De- 
parting Year " excels it in Pindaric fire, it is below Wordsworth's 
masterpiece in almost every other quality save rhythm. Among 
the writers of English irregular odes, next to Wordsworth, stands 
Dryden. The second stanza of the " Ode for St Cecilia's Day " 
is a great triumph. 

Leaving the irregular and turning to the regular ode, it is natural 
to divide these into two classes: (l) those which are really Pindaric 
in so far as they consist of strophes, antistrophes and epodes, 
variously arranged and contrasted; and (2) those which consist of a 
regular succession of regular stanzas. Perhaps all Pindaric odes 
tend to show that this form of art is in English a mistake. It is 
easy enough to write one stanza and call it a strophe, another in 
a different movement and call it an antistrophe, a third in a different 
movement still and call it an epode. But in modern prosody, 
disconnected as it is from musical and from terpsichorean science, 
what are these? No poet and no critic can say. 

What is requisite is that the ear of the reader should catch a great 
metrical scheme, of which these three varieties of movement 



POETRY 



889 



are necessary parts should catch, in short, that inevitableness 
of structure upon which we have already touched. In order to 
justify a poet in writing a poem in three different kinds of move- 
ment, governed by no musical and no terpsichorean necessity, 
a necessity of another kind should make itself apparent; that is, 
the metrical wave moving in the strophe should be metrically 
answered by the counter-wave moving in the antistrophe, while the 
epode which, as originally conceived by Stesichorus, was merely 
a standing still after the balanced movements of the strophe and 
antistrophe should clearly, in a language like ours, be a blended 
echo of these two. A mere metrical contrast such as some poets 
labour to effect is not a metrical answer. And if the reply to this 
criticism be that in Pindar himself no such metrical scheme is 
apparent, that is the strongest possible argument in support of 
our position. If indeed the metrical scheme of Pindar is not 
apparent, that is because, haying been written for chanting, it was 
subordinate to the lost musical scheme of the musician. It has 
been contended, and is likely enough, that this musical scheme was 
simple as simple, perhaps, as the scheme of a cathedral chant; 
but to it, whatever it was, the metrical scheme of the poet was 
subordinated. It need scarcely be said that the phrase " metrical 
scheme " is used here not in the narrow sense as indicating the 
position and movement of strophe and antistrophe by way of 
simple contrast, but in the deep metrical sense as indicating the 
value of each of these component parts of the ode, as a counter-wave 
balancing and explaining the other waves in the harmony of the 
entire composition. We touch upon this matter in order to show 
that the moment odes ceased to be chanted, the words strophe, 
antistrophe, and epode lost the musical value they had among the 
Greeks, and pretended to a complex metrical value which their 
actual metrical structure does notNappear to justify. It does 
not follow from this that odes should not be so arranged, but it 
does follow that the poet's arrangement should justify itself by 
disclosing an entire metrical scheme in place of the musical scheme 
to which the Greek choral lyric was evidently subordinated. But 
even if the poet were a sufficiently skilled metricist to compass a 
scheme embracing a wave, an answering wave, and an echo gathering 
up the tones of each, i.e. the strophe, the antistrophe and the 
epode, the ear of the reader, unaided by the musical emphasis 
which supported the rhythms of the old choral lyric, is, it should 
seem, incapable of gathering up and remembering the sounds 
further than the strophe and the antistrophe, after which it demands 
not an epode but a return to the strophe. That is to say, an epode, 
as alternating in the body of the modern ode, is a mistake; a single 
epode at the end of a group of strophes and antistrophes (as in some 
of the Greek odes) has, of course, a different function altogether. 

The great difficulty of the English ode is that of preventing the 
apparent spontaneity of the impulse from being marred by the 
apparent artifice of the form; for, assuredly, no writer subsequent 
to Coleridge and to Keats would dream of writing an ode on the cold 
Horatian principles adopted by Warton, and even by Collins, in his 
beautiful Ode to Evening." 

Of the second kind of regular odes, those consisting of a regular 
succession of regular stanzas, the so-called odes of Sappho are, of 
course, so transcendent that no other amatory lyrics can be compared 
with them. Never before these songs were sung and never since 
did the human soul, in the grip of a fiery passion, utter a cry like 
hers; and from the executive point of view, in directness, in lucidity, 
in that high imperious verbal economy which only nature herself 
can teach the artist, she has no equal, and none worthy to take 
the place of second not even in Heine, nor even in Burns. Turning, 
however, to modern poetry, there are some magnificent examples 
of this simple form of ode in English poetry Spenser's immortal 
" Epithalamion " leading the way in point of time, and probably 
also in point of excellence. 

Fervour being absolutely essential, we think, to a great English 
ode, fluidity of metrical movement can never be dispensed with. 
The more billowy the metrical waves the better suited are they to 
render the emotions expressed by the ode, as the reader will see by 
referring to Coleridge's " Ode to France " (the finest ode in the 
English language, according to Shelley), and giving special atten- 
tion to the first stanza to the way in which the first metrical 
wave, after it had gently fallen at the end of the first quatrain, 
leaps up again on the double rhymes (which are expressly intro- 
duced for this effect), and goes bounding on, billow after billow, to 
the end of the stanza. Not that this fine ode is quite free from the 
great vice of the English ode, rhetoric. If we except Spenser and, 
in one instance, Collins, it can hardly be said that any Enghsn 
writer before Shelley and Keats produced odes independent of 
rhetoric and supported by pure poetry alone. But fervid as are 
Shelley's " Ode to the West Wind " and Keats's odes To a Night- 
ingale " and " On a Grecian Urn," they are entirely free from 
rhetorical flavour. Notwithstanding that in the " Ode on a Grecian 
Urn " the first stanza does not match in rhyme arrangement with 
the others, while the second stanza of the " Ode to a Nightingale 
varies from the rest by running on four rhyme-sounds instead ot 
five, vexing the ear at first by disappointed expectation, these 
two odes are, after Coleridge's " France," the finest regular odes 
perhaps in the English language. 

With regard to the French ode, Malherbe was the first writer 



who brought it to perfection. Malherbe showed also more variety 
of mood than it is the fashion just now to credit him with. This 
may be especially noted in his " Ode to Louis XIII." His disciple 
Racan is not of much account. There is certainly much vigour 
in the odes of Rousseau, but it is not till we reach Victor Hugo that 
we realize what French poetry can achieve in this line; and con- 
temporary poetry can hardly be examined here. We may say, 
however, that some of Hugo's odes are truly magnificent. As a 
pure lyrist his place among the greatest poets of the world is very 
nigh. Here, though writing in an inferior language, he ranks with 
the greatest masters of Greece, of England, and of Germany. Had 
he attempted no other kind of poetry than lyrical, his would still 
have been the first name in French poetry. Whatever is defective 
in his work arises, as in the case of Euripides, from the importation 
of lyrical force where dramatic force is mainly needed. 

The main varieties of lyrical poetry, such as the idyll, the 
satire, the ballad, the sonnet, &c., are treated in separate articles; 
but a word or two must be said here about the song _. _ 
and the elegy. To write a good song requires that 
simplicity of grammatical structure which is foreign to many 
natures that mastery over direct and simple speech which 
only true passion and feeling can give, and which " coming from 
the heart goes to the heart." Without going so far as to say 
that no man is a poet who cannot write a good song, it may 
certainly be said that no man can write a good song who is not 
a good poet. In modern times we have, of course, nothing in 
any way representing those choral dance-songs of the Greeks, 
which, originating in the primitive Cretan war-dances, became, 
in Pindar's time, a splendid blending of song and ballet. Nor 
have we anything exactly representing the 'Greek scolia, those 
short drinking songs of which Terpander is said to have been 
the inventor. That these scolia were written, not only by poets 
like Alcaeus, Anacreon, Praxilla, Simonides, but also by Sappho 
and by Pindar, shows in what high esteem they were held by 
the Greeks. These songs seem to have been as brief as the 
stornelli of the Italian peasant. They were accompanied by 
the lyre, which was handed from singer to singer as the time 
for each scolion came round. 

With regard to the stornello, many critics seem to confound 
it with the rispetto, a very different kind of song. The Italian 
rispetto consists of a stanza of inter-rhyming lines ranging from 
six to ten in number, but often not exceeding eight. The Tuscan 
and Umbrian stornello is much shorter, consisting, indeed, of a 
hemistich naming some natural object which suggests the motive 
of the little poem. The nearest approach to the Italian stornello 
appears to be, not the rispetto, but the Welsh triban. 

Perhaps the mere difficulty of rhyming in English and the 
facility of rhyming in Italian must be taken into account when 
we inquire why there is nothing in Scotland of course there 
could be nothing in England answering to the nature-poetry 
of the Italian peasant. Most of the Italian rispetti and stornelli 
seem to be improvisations; and to improvise in English is as 
difficult as to improvise is easy in Italian. Nothing indeed is 
more interesting than the improvisatorial poetry of the Italian 
peasants, such as the canzone. If the peasantry discover who 
is the composer of a canzone, they will not sing it. The speciality 
of Italian peasant poetry is that the symbol which is mostly 
erotic is of the purest and most tender kind. A peasant girl 
will improvise a song as impassioned as " Come into the Garden, 
Maud," and as free from unwholesome taint. 

With regard to English songs, the critic cannot but ask 
Wherein lies the lost ring and charm of the Elizabethan song- 
writers ? Since the Jacobean period at least, few have succeeded 
in the art of writing real songs as distinguished from mere book 
lyrics. Between songs to be sung and songs to be read there 
is in our time a difference as wide as that which exists between 
plays for the closet and plays for the boards. 

Heartiness and melody the two requisites of a song which 
can never be dispensed with can rarely be compassed, it seems, 
by one and the same individual. In both these qualities the 
Elizabethan poets stand pre-eminent, though even with them 
the melody is not so singable as it might be made. Since their 
time heartiness has, perhaps, been a Scottish rather than an 
English endowment of the song-writer. It is difficult to imagine 
an Englishman writing a song like " Tullochgorum " or a song 



890 



POGGENDORFF POGGIO 



like " Maggie Lauder," where the heartiness and impulse of 
the poet's mood conquer all impediments of close vowels and 
rugged consonantal combinations. Of Scottish song-writers 
Burns is, of course, the head; for the songs of John Skinner, 
the heartiest song-writer that has appeared in Great Britain 
(not excluding Herrick), are too few in number to entitle him to 
be placed beside a poet so prolific in heartiness and melody as 
Burns. With regard to Campbell's heartiness, this is quite a 
different quality from the heartiness of Burns and Skinner, 
and is in quality English rather than Scottish, though, no doubt, 
it is of a fine and rare strain, especially in " The Battle of the 
Baltic." His songs illustrate an infirmity which even the 
Scottish song-writers share with the English a defective sense 
of that true song -warble which we get in the stornelli and rispetti 
of the Italian peasants. A poet may have heartiness in plenty, 
but if he has that love of consonantal effects which Donne 
displays he will never write a first-rate song. Here, indeed, 
is the crowning difficulty of song-writing. An extreme simplicity 
of structure and of diction must be accompanied by an instinctive 
apprehension of the melodic capabilities of verbal sounds, and 
of what Samuel Lover, the Irish song-writer, called " singing " 
words, which is rare in this country, and seems to belong to the 
Celtic rather than to the Saxon ear. " The song-writer," says 
Lover, " must frame his song of open vowels with as few guttural 
or hissing sounds as possible, and he must be content sometimes 
to sacrifice grandeur and vigour to the necessity of selecting 
singing words and not reading words." And he exemplifies 
the distinction between singing words and reading words by a 
line from one of Shelley's songs 

" ' The fresh earth in new leaves drest/ 

" where nearly every word shuts up the mouth instead of opening 
it." But closeness of vowel sounds is by no means the only 
thing to be avoided in song-writing. A phrase may be absolutely 
unsingable, though the vowels be open enough, if it is loaded 
with consonants. The truth is that in song-writing it is quite 
as important, in a consonantal language like ours, to attend to 
the consonants as to the vowels; and perhaps the first thing to 
avoid in writing English songs is the frequent recurrence of the 
sibilant. But this applies to all the brief and quintessential 
forms of poetry, such as the sonnet, the elegy, &c. 

As to the elegy a form of poetic art which has more relation 
to the objects of the external world than the song, but less rela- 
TheEle l ' on to tnese tnan ^6 stornello its scope seems 
* y ' to be wide indeed, as practised by such various 
writers as Tyrtaeus, Theognis, Catullus, Tibullus, and our own 
Gray. It may almost be said that perfection of form is more 
necessary here and in the sonnet than in the song, inasmuch as 
the artistic pretensions are more pronounced. Hence even such 
apparent minutiae as those we have hinted at above must not 
be neglected here. 

We have quoted Dionysius of Halicarnassus in relation to the 
arrangement of words in poetry. His remarks on sibilants are 
Phonetic e P. ua "y deserving of attention. He goes so far as to 
Perfection. ea V tnat . " ' s ent ' r ely disagreeable, and, when it often 
recurs, insupportable. The hiss seems to him to be 
more appropriate to the beast than to man. Hence certain writers, 
he says, often avoid it, and employ it with regret. Some, he tells 
us, have composed entire odes without it. But if sibilation is a 
defect in Greek odes, where the softening effect of the vowel sounds is 
so potent, it is much more so in English poetry, where the con- 
sonants dominate, though it will be only specially noticeable in 
the brief and quintessential forms such as the song, the sonnet, the 
elegy. Many poets only attend to their sibilants when these clog 
the rhythm. To write even the briefest song without a sibilant 
would be a tow de force; to write a good one would no doubt be 
next to impossible. It is singular that the only metricist who ever 
attempted it was John Thelwall, the famous " Citizen John," 
friend of Lamb and Coleridge, and editor of the famous Champion 
newspaper, where _ many of Lamb's epigrams appeared. Thelwall 
gave much attention to metrical questions, and tried his hand at 
various metres. Though " Citizen John's " sapphics might cer- 
tainly have been better, he had a very remarkable critical insight 
into the_ Rationale of metrical effects, and his " Song without a 
Sibilant " is extremely neat and ingenious. Of course, however, 
it would be mere pedantry to exaggerate this objection to sibilants 
even in these brief forms of poetry. (T. W.-D.) 



POGGENDORFF, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1796-1877), German 
physicist, was born in Hamburg on the 29th of December 1796. 
His father, a wealthy manufacturer, having been all but ruined 
by the French siege, he had, when only sixteen, to apprentice 
himself to an apothecary in Hamburg, and when twenty-two 
began to earn his living as an apothecary's assistant at Itzehoe. 
Ambition and a strong inclination towards a scientific career 
led him to throw up his business and remove to Berlin, where 
he entered the university in 1820. Here his abilities were 
speedily recognized, and in 1823 he was appointed meteorological 
observer to the Academy of Sciences. Even at this early period 
he had conceived the idea of founding a physical and chemical 
scientific journal, and the realization of this plan was hastened 
by the sudden death of L. W. Gilbert, the editor of Gilberts 
Annalen der Physik, in 1824. Poggendorff immediately put 
himself in communication with the publisher, Barth of Leipzig, 
with the result that he was installed as editor of a scientific 
journal, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, which was to be a 
continuation of Gilberts Annalen on a somewhat extended plan. 
Poggendorff was admirably qualified for the post. He had an 
extraordinary memory, well stored with scientific knowledge, 
both modern and historical, a cool and impartial judgment, and 
a strong preference for facts as against theory of the speculative 
kind. He was thus able to throw himself into the spirit of modern 
experimental science. He possessed in abundant measure the 
German virtue of orderliness in the arrangement of knowledge 
and in the conduct of business. Further he had an engaging 
geniality of manner and much tact in dealing with men. These 
qualities soon made Poggendorjfs Annalen the foremost scientific 
journal in Europe. 

In the course of his fifty-two years' editorship of the Annalen 
Poggendorff could not fail to acquire an unusual acquaintance 
with the labours of modern men of science. This knowledge, 
joined to what he had gathered by historical reading of equally 
unusual extent, he carefully digested and gave to the world in 
his Biographisch-literarisches Handivorterbuch zur Geschichte der 
exacten Wissenschaften, containing notices of the lives and labours 
of mathematicians, astronomers, physicists, and chemists, of all 
peoples and all ages. This work contains an astounding col- 
lection of facts invaluable to the scientific biographer and 
historian. The first two volumes were published in 1863; after 
his death a third volume appeared in 1898, covering the period 
1858-1883, and a fourth in 1904, coming down to the beginning 
of the 2oth century. 

Poggendorff was a physicist of high although not of the very 
highest rank. He was wanting in mathematical ability, and 
never displayed in any remarkable degree the still more impor- 
tant power of scientific generalization, which, whether accom- 
panied by mathematical skill or not, never fails to mark the 
highest genius in physical science. He was, however, an able 
and conscientious experimenter, and was very fertile and 
ingenious in devising physical apparatus. By far the greater 
and more important part of his work related to electricity and 
magnetism. His literary and scientific reputation speedily 
brought him honourable recognition. In 1830 he was made royal 
professor, in 1834 Hon. Ph.D. and extraordinary professor in the 
university of Berlin, and in 1839 member of the Berlin Academy 
of Sciences. Many offers of ordinary professorships were made 
to him, but he declined them all, devoting himself to his duties 
as editor of the Annalen, and to the pursuit of his scientific 
researches. He died at Berlin on the 24th of January 1877. 

POGGIO (1380-1459). Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, 
Italian scholar of the Renaissance, was born in 1380 at Terra- 
nuova, a village in the territory of Florence. He studied Latin 
under John of Ravenna, and Greek under Manuel Chrysoloras. 
His distinguished abilities and his dexterity as a copyist of MSS. 
brought him into early notice with the chief scholars of Florence. 
Coluccio Salutati and Niccolo de' Niccoli befriended him, and 
in the year 1402 or 1403 he was received into the service of the 
Roman curia. His functions were those of a secretary; and, 
though he profited by benefices conferred on him in lieu of salary, 
he remained a layman to the end of his life. It is noticeable 



POGLIZZA 



891 



that, while he held his office in the curia through that momentous 
period of fifty years which witnessed the Councils of Constance 
and of Basel, and the final restoration of the papacy under 
Nicholas V., his sympathies were never attracted to ecclesiastical 
affairs. Nothing marks the secular attitude of the Italians at 
an epoch which decided the future course of both Renaissance 
and Reformation more strongly than the mundane proclivities 
of this apostolic secretary, heart and soul devoted to the 
resuscitation of classical studies amid conflicts of popes and 
antipopes, cardinals and councils, in all of which he bore an 
official part. Thus, when his duties called him to Constance 
in 1414, he employed his leisure in exploring the libraries of 
Swiss and Swabian convents. The treasures he brought to 
light at Reichenau, Weingarten, and above all St Gall, restored 
many lost masterpieces of Latin literature, and supplied students 
with the texts of authors whose works had hitherto been acces- 
sible only in mutilated copies. In one of his epistles he describes 
how he recovered Quintilian, part of Valerius Flaccus, and the 
commentaries of Asconius Pedianus at St Gall. MSS. of 
Lucretius, Columella, Silius Italicus, Manilius and Vitruvius 
were unearthed, copied by his hand, and communicated to the 
learned. Wherever Poggio went he carried on the same industry 
of research. At Langres he discovered Cicero's Oration for 
Caecina, at Monte Cassino a MS. of Frontinus. He also could 
boast of having recovered Ammianus Marcellinus, Nonius 
Marcellus, Probus, Flavius Caper and Eutyches. If a codex 
could not be obtained by fair means, he was ready to use fraud, 
as when he bribed a monk to abstract a Livy and an Ammianus 
from the convent library of Hersfield. Resolute in recognizing 
erudition as the chief concern of man, he sighed over the folly 
of popes and princes, who spent their time in wars and eccle- 
siastical disputes when they might have been more profitably 
employed in reviving the lost learning of antiquity. This point 
of view is eminently characteristic of the earlier Italian Renais- 
sance. The men of that nation and of that epoch were bent 
on creating a new intellectual atmosphere for Europe by means 
of vital contact with antiquity. Poggio, like Aeneas Sylvius 
Piccolomini (Pius II.), was a great traveller, and wherever he 
went he brought enlightened powers of observation trained in 
liberal studies to bear upon the manners of the countries he 
visited. We owe to his pen curious remarks on English and 
Swiss customs, valuable notes on the remains of antique art 
in Rome, and a singularly striking portrait of Jerome of Prague 
as he appeared before the judges who condemned him to the 
stake. It is necessary to dwell at length upon Poggio's devotion 
to the task of recovering the classics, and upon his disengage- 
ment from all but humanistic interests, because these were the 
most marked feature of his character and career. In literature 
he embraced the whole sphere of contemporary studies, and 
distinguished himself as an orator, a writer of rhetorical treatises, 
a panegyrist of the dead, a violent impugner of the living, a 
translator from the Greek, an epistolographer and grave historian 
and a facetious compiler of fabliaux in Latin. On his moral 
essays it may suffice to notice the dissertations On Nobility, On 
Vicissitudes of Fortune, On the Misery of Human Life, On the 
Infelicity of Princes and On Marriage in Old Age. These com- 
positions belonged to a species which, since Petrarch set the 
fashion, were very popular among Italian scholars. They have 
lost their value, except for the few matters of fact embedded 
in a mass of commonplace meditation, and for some occasionally 
brilliant illustrations. Poggio's History of Florence, written 
in avowed imitation of Livy's manner, requires separate mention, 
since it exemplifies by its defects the weakness of that merely 
stylistic treatment which deprived so much of Bruni's, Carlo 
Aretino's and Bembo's work of historical weight. A somewhat 
different criticism must be passed on the Facetiae, a collection 
of humorous and indecent tales expressed in such Latinity as 
Poggio could command. This book is chiefly remarkable for 
its unsparing satires on the monastic orders and the secular 
clergy. It is also noticeable as illustrating the latinizing 
tendency of an age which gave classic form to the lightest essays 
of the fancy. Poggio, it may be observed, was a fluent and 



copious writer in the Latin tongue, but not an elegant scholar. 
His knowledge of the ancient authors was wide, but his taste 
was not select, and his erudition was superficial. His translation 
of Xenophon's Cyropaedia into Latin cannot be praised for 
accuracy. Among contemporaries he passed for one of the 
most formidable polemical or gladiatorial rhetoricians; and a 
considerable section of his extant works are invectives. One 
of these, the Dialogue against Hypocrites, was aimed in a spirit 
of vindictive hatred at the vices of ecclesiastics; another, written 
at the request of Nicholas V., covered the anti-pope Felix with 
scurrilous abuse. But his most famous compositions in this 
kind are the personal invectives which he discharged against 
Filelfo and Valla. All the resources of a copious and unclean 
Latin vocabulary were employed to degrade the objects of his 
satire; and every crime of which humanity is capable was 
ascribed to them without discrimination. In Filelfo and Valla 
Poggio found his match; and Italy was amused for years with 
the spectacle of their indecent combats. To dwell upon such 
literary infamies would be below the dignity of the historian, 
were it not that these habits of the early Italian humanists 
imposed a fashion upon Europe which extended to the later age 
of Scaliger's contentions with Scioppius and Milton's with 
Salmasius. The greater part of Poggio's long life was spent 
in attendance to his duties in the papal curia at Rome and else- 
where. But about the year 1452 he finally retired to Florence, 
where he was admitted to the burghership, and on the death of 
Carlo Aretino in 1453 was appointed chancellor and historio- 
grapher to the republic. He had already built himself a villa 
in Valdarno, which he adorned with a collection of antique 
sculpture, coins and inscriptions. In 1435 he had married a 
girl of eighteen named Vaggia, of the famous Buondelmonte 
blood. His declining days were spent in the discharge of his 
honourable Florentine office and in the composition of his history. 
He died in 1459, and was buried in the church of Santa 
Croce. A statue by Donatello and a picture by Antonio del 
Pollajuolo remained to commemorate a citizen who chiefly for 
his services to humanistic literature deserved the notice of 
posterity. 

Poggio's works were printed at Basel in 1538, " ex aedibus Henrici 
Petri." Dr Shepherd's Life oj Poggio Bracciolini (1802) is a good 
authority on his biography. For his position in the history of the 
revival, see Voigt's Wiederbelebung des classischen Allerthums, and 
Symonds's Renaissance in Italy. (J. A. S.) 

POGLIZZA (Serbo-Croatian, Poljica), a tract of mountainous 
land in Dalmatia, Austria; formerly the seat of an independent 
republic. The territories of Poglizza lay chiefly within the 
south-easterly curve made by the river Cetina before it enters 
the Adriatic at Almissa (Omis). They also comprised the 
fastnesses of the Mossor range (4500 ft.) and the fertile strip 
of coast from Almissa to Stobrez, 10 m. W.N.W. The inhabi- 
tants lived in scattered villages, each ruled by its count, and all 
together ruled by the supreme count. These officers, with the 
three judges, were always of noble birth, though elected by the 
whole body of citizens. There were two orders of nobles; the 
higher, including about 20 families, claimed Hungarian descent; 
the lower, claiming kinship with the Bosnian aristocracy. Below 
these ranked the commoners and the serfs. At a very early 
date the warlike Highlanders of Poglizza became the friends and 
allies of the Almissan corsairs, who were thus enabled to harass 
the seaborne trade of their neighbours without fear of a sudden 
attack by land. Almissa received a charter from Andrew II. 
of Hungary in 1207, and remained under the nominal protection 
of Hungary until 1444, when both Almissa and Poglizza accepted 
the suzerainty of Venice, while retaining their internal freedom. 
The population of Poglizza numbered 6566 in 1806. In the 
following year, however, the republic incurred the enmity of 
Napoleon by rendering aid to the Russians and Montenegrins 
in Dalmatia; and it was invaded by French troops, who plundered 
its villages, massacred its inhabitants, and finally deprived it 
of independence. 

See the Annuario Dalmatico for 1885 (published at Zara); and 
A. Fortis, Travels into Dalmatia (London, 1778). 



892 



POINCARE POINT PLEASANT 



POINCARfi, RAYMOND (1860- ), French statesman, was 
born at Bar-le-duc on the 2oth of August 1860, the son of Nicolas 
Antoinin Helene Poincare, a distinguished civil servant and 
meteorologist. Educated at the university of Paris, Raymond 
was called to the Paris bar, and was for some time law editor 
of the Voltaire. He had served for over a year in the depart- 
ment of agriculture when in 1887 he was elected deputy for the 
Meuse. He made a great reputation in the Chamber as an 
economist, and sat on the budget commissions of 1890-1891 
and 1892. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion 
in the first cabinet (April-Nov. 1893) of Charles Dupuy, and 
minister of finance in the second and third (May i894~Jan. 1895). 
In the succeeding Ribot cabinet Poincare became minister of 
public instruction. Although he was excluded from the Radical 
cabinet which followed, the revised scheme of death duties 
proposed by the new ministry was based upon his proposals 
of the previous year. He became vice-president of the chamber 
in the autumn of 1895, and in spite of the bitter hostility of the 
Radicals retained his position in 1896 and 1897. In 1906 he 
returned to the ministry of finance in the short-lived Sarrien 
ministry. Poincare had retained his practice at the bar during 
his political career, and he published several volumes of essays 
on literary and political subjects. 

His brother, Lucien Poincare (b. 1862), famous as a physicist, 
became inspector-general of public instruction in 1902. He is 
the author of La Physique moderne (1906) and L' Electricite (1907) . 
Jules Henri Poincare (b. 1854), also a distinguished physicist, 
belongs to another branch of the same family. 

POINSETTIA. The Poinsettia pulcherrima of gardens (Euphor- 
bia pidcherrima of botanists), a native of Mexico and Central 
America, with its brilliant scarlet bracts, stands unrivalled 
amongst decorative plants. The white-bracted sort, var. alba, is 
not so effective, but the double-flowered, var. plenissima, in 
which the brilliant inflorescence is branched, is as brilliant as 
the type, and keeps long in flower. They are increased by 
cuttings in spring, which when taken off with a heel strike freely 
in brisk heat. They require good turfy loam, with an addition 
of one-sixth of leaf-mould and a little sand, and should be kept 
in a heat of from 65 to 70 at night, with a rise of 10 by day. 
To prevent their growing lanky, they should be kept with their 
heads almost touching the glass; and as the pots get filled with 
roots they must be shifted into others, 7 or 8 in. in diameter. 
About August they may be inured to a heat of 50 at night, and 
should be brought to bear air night and day whilst the weather 
is warm, or they may be placed out of doors for a month under 
a south wall in the full sun. This treatment matures and pre- 
pares them for flowering. In autumn they must be removed 
to a house where the temperature is 50 at night, and by the end 
of September some of them may be put in the stove, where they 
will come into flower, the remainder being placed under heat 
later for succession. When in bloom they may be kept at about 
55 by night, and so placed will last longer than if kept in a higher 
temperature. 

POINSOT, LOUIS (1777-1859), French mathematician, was 
born at Paris on the 3rd of January 1777. In 1794 he became 
a scholar at the Ecole Polytechnique, which he left in 1796 to 
act as a civil engineer. In 1804 he was appointed professor of 
mathematics at the Lycee, in 1809 professor of analysis and 
mechanics, and in 1816 examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique. 
On the death of J. L. Lagrange, in 1813, Poinsot was elected to 
his place in the Academic des Sciences; and in 1840 he became 
a member of the superior council of public instruction. In 1846 
he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour; and on the 
formation of the senate in 1852 he was chosen a member of that 
body. He died at Paris on the sth of December 1859. 

Poinsot's earliest work was his Eltmens de statique (1803; 
9th edition, 1848), in which he introduces the idea of statical 
couples and investigates their properties. In the Thtorie 
nouvelle de la rotation des corps (1834) he treats the motion of a 
rigid body geometrically, and shows that the most general motion 
of such a body can be represented at any instant by a rotation 
about an axis combined with a translation parallel to this axis, 



and that any motion of a body of which one point is fixed may 
be produced by the rolling of a cone fixed in the body on a cone 
fixed in space. The previous treatment of the motion of a rigid 
body had in every case been purely analytical, and so gave no 
aid to the formation of a mental picture of the body's motion; 
and the great value of this work lies in the fact that, as Poinsot 
himself says in the introduction, it enables us to represent to 
ourselves the motion of a rigid body as clearly as that of a 
moving point. In addition to publishing a number of works 
on geometrical and mechanical subjects, Poinsot also contributed 
a number of papers on pure and applied mathematics to Lion- 
mile's Journal and other scientific periodicals. 

See J. L. F. Bertrand, Discours aux funerailles de Poinsot (Paris, 
1860). 

POINT PLEASANT, a town and the county-seat of Mason 
county, West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, at the mouth 
of the Kanawha river, and about midway between Pittsburg 
and Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 1934; (1910) 2045. It is served 
directly by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Kanawha & Michigan 
(controlled by the Hocking Valley) railways, and by the Hocking 
Valley railway on the opposite side of the Ohio river. The 
Kanawha river is navigable (by the use of locks and dams) for 
90 m. above the town, and Point Pleasant is a re-shipping point 
for Kanawha coal. Coal and salt are mined in the vicinity, 
but the surrounding country is principally agricultural. 

The battle of Point Pleasant, the only important engagement 
in " Lord Dunmore's War," was fought here on the loth of 
October 1774 between about noo Virginia militiamen, under 
General Andrew Lewis (c. i'j2o-i'j&i), 1 and about icoo Shawnees 
and their allies, under their chief, Cornstalk (c. I72O-I777). 2 
Lewis had been ordered to meet Lord Dun more here with a body 
of militiamen (recruited from Botetourt, West Augusta and 
Fincastle counties), but when he reached the mouth of the 
Kanawha, after marching 160 m. from Fort Union (now Lewis- 
burg, W. Va.), Dunmore's force, which was to have gone over 
the Braddock trail to Fort Pitt, and thence down the Ohio 
river, had not arrived. Early on the morning of the icth the 
Indians suddenly attacked, and the battle continued fiercely 
throughout the day. At night the Indians crossed the Ohio 
river, leaving behind many of their dead. The whites lost about 
144 in killed and wounded, Colonel Charles Lewis (1733-1774), 
a brother of the commanding officer, being among the former. 
In December LordDunmore concluded a treaty with the Indians, 
by which they surrendered their claim to lands south of the 
Ohio and agreed not to molest whites travelling to the western 
country. The battle, which overawed the Indians, and the 
treaty, which was not seriously broken for three years, made 
possible the rapid settlement of the western country, especially 
of Kentucky, during the early years of the War of Indepen- 
dence. 3 Four years before the battle the Virginia House of 
Burgesses had awarded to General Lewis, for his earlier services 
in the French and Indian War, 9876 acres of land, including the 

1 General Lewis was born in Donegal, Ireland ; served with Wash- 
ington at Fort Necessity and at Braddock's defeat ; was commissioner 
from Virginia to conclude the treaty with the Six Nations at Fort 
Stanwix (1768); was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses 
for several years; served as a brigadier-general in the War of 
Independence; and in 1776 forced Lord Dunmore to retire from 
Gwynn's Island, in Chesapeake Bay, where he had taken refuge. 

1 Cornstalk and his son were killed within the fort at Point Pleasant 
in November 1777 by Virginian soldiers (contrary to the protests of 
their commanding officers), who thus avenged the death of a 
comrade. He was at the time warning the garrison of his inabijity 
to hold the Shawnees to the terms of the treaty of 1774. There is a 
granite monument (erected in 1899) over his grave in the yard 
of the court-house. 

Various American writers have asserted that Lord Dunmore 
incited the Indians to attack the frontier in order to divert the 
colonists from their opposition to Great Britain, and that he 
purposely refrained from effecting a junction with Lewis, so that 
Lewis might be defeated and Virginia thus be greatly crippled on 
the eve of the threatened war with the mother country; and the 
battle itself has accordingly frequently been referred to as the 
first battle of the War of Independence. The assertions with 
regard to Lord Dunmore, however, rest on circumstantial evidence 
alone, and have never been conclusively proved. 



POISON 



893 



present site of Point Pleasant ; the survey of this grant was made 
by George Washington. After the battle General Lewis sent 
a detachment to build a fort (called Fort Blair) here; in 1776 
Fort Randolph (abandoned in 1779) was erected on the same 
site, and in 1785 (from which year the permanent settlement 
of the town may be dated) a third fort was built here. Daniel 
Boone lived here from 1788 until about 1799. In 1794 the 
village of Point Pleasant was platted; it was incorporated as a 
town in 1833. A granite monument (86 ft. high) commemorat- 
ing the battle was unveiled on the toth of October 1909. 

See J. T. McAllister's article, " The Battle of Point Pleasant," 
in the Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1901-1902), 
vol. x., and Virgil A. Lewis, History of the Battle of Point Pleasant 
(Charleston, W. Va., 1909). 

POISON. An exact definition of the word "poison " (derived 
through Fr. from Lat. polio, potionem, a drink; i.e. a deadly 
draught) is by no means easy. There is no legal definition of 
what constitutes a poison, and the definitions usually proposed 
are apt to include either too much or too little. Generally, a 
poison may be defined to be a substance having an inherent 
deleterious property, rendering it capable of destroying life by 
whatever avenue it is taken into the system; or it is a substance 
which when introduced into the system, or applied externally, 
injures health or destroys life irrespective of mechanical means 
or direct thermal changes. In popular language a poison is a 
substance capable of destroying life when taken in small 
quantity; but a substance which destroys life by mechanical 
means as, e.g. powdered glass, is not, strictly speaking, a poison. 

The subject of toxicology forms one of the most important 
branches of medical jurisprudence (q.v.). The medical jurist 
should be familiar with the nature and actions of poisons, the 
symptoms which they produce, the circumstances which modify 
their working, the pathological results of their action, and the 
methods of combating these. 

Action of Poisons. Poisons may exert a twofold action. 
This may be either local, or remote, or both local and remote. 
The local action of a poison is usually one of corrosion, inflam- 
mation, or a direct effect upon the sensory or motor nerves. 
The remote actions of poisons are usually of a specific character, 
though some writers group the remote effects of poisons under 
two heads, and speak of the common and the specific remote 
effects of a poison. The local action of a poison of the corrosive 
class is usually so well marked and obvious that the fact of the 
administration of a poison of this class is generally unmistakable. 
The same may be said, in a less degree, of the irritant poisons, 
especially the mineral irritants; but here the symptoms some- 
times so closely simulate those of natural disease as to render 
the recognition of the administration of poison a matter of 
difficulty. Hence an accurate acquaintance with the remote 
specific effects of the various poisons is indispensable to the 
medical jurist. The class of poisons which has been adminis- 
tered or taken will thus be suggested to his mind by the observa- 
tion of the symptoms; and not unfrequently the specific poison 
taken will be suspected. It is almost universally admitted 
that absorption of a poison is necessary for the production of 
its specific remote effects, and the old notion that a poison may 
kill, by its action through the nervous system, without absorp- 
tion, is abandoned. 

Modifying Circumstances. The ordinary action of a poison 
may be greatly modified by the largeness of the dose, by the state 
of aggregation, admixture, or of chemical combination of the 
poison, by the part or membrane to which it is applied, and by 
the condition of the patient. Thus, for example, opium may 
be a medicine or a poison, according to the dose in which it is 
given; and a dose of the drug which may be beneficial to an 
adult in certain states of the system may be fatal to a child, or 
to an adult when suffering from some forms of disease. All 
barium salts, again, are poisonous, except the quite insoluble 
sulphate. The simple cyanides, and many double cyanides, 
are highly poisonous; but yellow prussiate of potash, which is a 
double cyanide of iron and potassium, is almost without action 
upon the system. The part or tissue to which a poison is applied 



greatly affects the activity of a poison, owing to the varying 
rapidity with which absorption takes place through the cuta- 
neous, mucous and serous surfaces, and by the other tissues of 
the body. Curare, an arrow poison, may be swallowed in con- 
siderable quantity without appreciable result, whilst a minute 
quantity of the same substance introduced into a wound is 
speedily fatal. Idiosyncrasy has an important bearing in 
toxicology. Pork, mutton, certain kinds of fish, more especially 
shell-fish so-called, and mushrooms have each produced all the 
symptoms of violent irritant poisoning, whilst other persons 
who have partaken of the same food at the same time have 
experienced no ill effects. Some persons are stated, on good 
authority, to be capable of taking with impunity such poisons 
as opium, corrosive sublimate, or arsenic, in enormous doses 
and this irrespective of habit, which is known to have such an 
influence in modifying the effects of some poisons, notably the 
narcotics. A tolerance of poisons is sometimes engendered by 
disease, so that a poison may fail to produce its customary 
effect. Thus, opium is tolerated in large quantities in tetanus 
and in delirium tremens; and mercurial compounds may in some 
febrile affections fail to produce the usual constitutional effects 
of the metal. On the other hand, diseases which impede the 
elimination of a poison may intensify its effects. 

The evidence that a poison has been administered is based 
upon the symptoms produced, on the appearances met with in 
the body after death, on the analysis of articles of food and drink, 
of excreta and ejecta, and of the organs of the body after death, 
and on physiological experiments made with substances extracted 
from the same articles. These physiological experiments are 
usually made upon animals, but in some cases, as for instance 
when aconite has to be searched for, the physiological experi- 
ments must be made also upon the human subject. The 
evidence obtained from one or more of these sources, as compared 
with the properties or effects of various known poisons, will 
enable the medical jurist to form an opinion as to the administra- 
tion or non-administration of a poison. 

The symptoms exhibited by the patient during life rarely fail 
to afford some clue to the poison taken. Persons may, however, 
be found dead of whose history nothing can be learned. Here 
post mortem appearances, chemical analysis, and, it may be, 
physiological experiments, are all-important for the elucidation 
of the nature of the case. 

Poisoning may be acute or chronic. The general conditions 
which should arouse a suspicion of acute poisoning are the 
sudden onset of serious and increasingly alarming symptoms in a 
person previously in good health, especially if there be pain in 
the region of the stomach, or, where there is complete prostra- 
tion of the vital powers, a cadaveric aspect, and speedy death. 
In all such cases the aid of the analytical chemist must be called 
in either to confirm well-founded or to rebut ill-founded 
suspicions. 

The mode of treatment to be adopted in the case of poisoned 
persons varies greatly according to the nature of the poison. 
The first indication, when the poison has been swallowed, is 
to evacuate the stomach ; and this may usually be done by means 
of the stomach-pump when the poison is not of the corrosive 
class; or the stomach may be gently washed out by means of a 
funnel and flexible siphon-tube. In many cases emetics are 
valuable. Antidotes and counter-poisons may then be given. 
The former are such substances as chalk to neutralize the mineral 
acids and oxalic acid; the latter have a physiological counter- 
action, and are such as atropine, which is a counter-poison 
to morphia. These may usually be administered most effec- 
tively by hypodermic injection. The stomach may to a certain 
degree be protected from the injurious effects of irritants by 
the administration of mucilaginous drinks; alkaloids may be 
rendered sparingly soluble by means of astringent substances 
containing tannin; and pain may be relieved by means of 
opium, unless contra-indicated by the nature of the poison. 
The effects of the convulsant poisons, such as strychnine, may 
be combated by means of the inhalation of chloroform. 

The classification of poisons is a matter of difficulty. Various 



8 94 



POISON 



attempts have been made to classify them scientifically, but 
with no signal success; and perhaps the best system is that 
which groups the various poisons according to the more obvious 
symptoms which they produce. Our knowledge of the more 
intimate action of poisons is still too imperfect to admit of any 
useful classification according to the manner in which they 
specifically affect the vital organs. Poisons may in the manner 
indicated be classified as (i) Corrosives, (2) Irritants, (3) Neu- 
rotics, and (4) Gaseous Poisons. 

i. Corrosives. 

The typical member of this class is corrosive sublimate, the 
soluble chloride of mercury. In it are included also the concen- 
trated mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric); oxalic 
acid; the alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia) and their carbonates; 
acid, alkaline, and corrosive salts of the metals (such as bisulphate 
of potash, alum, butter of antimony and nitrate of silver); also 
carbolic acid. 

The symptoms produced by the mineral acids and the alkalies 
are almost altogether referable to local action; but some corrosive 
poisons, such as carbolic acid, produce, besides a local action, 
remote and specific constitutional effects. The symptoms of 
corrosive poisoning are marked and unmistakable, except in infants. 
Immediately on swallowing the corrosive substance, an acid, caustic 
or metallic burning sensation is experienced in the mouth, fauces, 
gullet and region of the stomach, and this speedily extends over 
the whole belly; as a rule vomiting speedily follows. In the case 
of the mineral acids, and in oxalic acid poisoning, the vomit is 
so acid that if it falls upon a marble or concrete floor effervescence 
ensues. No relief follows the evacuation of the stomach. The 
ejected matters contain blood, and even fragments of the corroded 
walls of the alimentary canal. The belly becomes distended with 
gas and horribly tender. High fever prevails. The mouth is 
found to be corroded. Death usually ensues within a few hours; 
or, if the patient survives, he or she may perish miserably, months 
after the poison was taken, through starvation consequent upon 
the gradual contraction of the gullet, brought about by its corrosion 
and subsequent healing. 

The treatment of corrosive poisoning consists in very gently 
emptying and washing out the stomach by means of a soft siphon- 
tube. The stomach-pump cannot be used with safety in con- 
sequence of the weakening of the walls of the stomach by corrosion. 
Demulcents and opiates may be subsequently administered. After 
death from corrosive poisoning the walls of the stomach are found 
corroded and even perforated. 

1. Corrosive Sublimate. Here all the signs and symptoms of 
corrosive poisoning are produced in their severest form. A grain 
or two of this poison may prove fatal. Fortunately there is an 
efficient antidote in white of egg, the albumen of which, if adminis- 
tered at once, renders the salt insoluble. The eggs should be divested 
of their yolks, beaten up with water, and given promptly, repeatedly, 
and abundantly, followed by emetics. Poisoning by corrosive 
sublimate may be followed by the specific toxic effects of mercury, 
such as salivation and tremor. 

Workers in mercury, such as water-gilders, looking-glass makers, 
and the makers of barometers and thermometers, are apt to suffer 
from a peculiar form of shaking palsy, known as " the trembles," 
or mercurial tremor. This disease affects most frequently those 
who are exposed to mercurial fumes. The victim is affected with 
tremors when an endeavour is made to exert the muscles, so that he 
is unable, for instance, to convey a glass of water to the lips steadily, 
and when he walks he breaks into a dancing trot. The treatment 
consists in removal from the mercurial atmosphere, baths, fresh air, 
and the administration of iron and other tonics. 

2. Mineral Acids. These are oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid, 
aqua fortis or nitric acid, and spirit of salt or hydrochloric (muri- 
atic) acid. These, when taken in a concentrated form, produce well- 
marked symptoms of corrosion. When they are diluted, the symp- 
toms are those of an irritant poison. Nitric acid stains the mouth 
and skin of a yellow colour. The treatment consists in the admin- 
istration of the alkalies or other carbonates, chalk, whiting, or even 
uncoloured plaster scraped off the walls or ceiling, with the view 
of neutralizing the acid. 

3. Oxalic acid is a vegetable acid. When taken in the state of 
concentrated solution it acts as a corrosive, but when diluted as an 
irritant. But it also exerts a specific effect, killing the patient by 
cardiac syncope not unfrequently within a few minutes. When a 
person after taking a crystalline substance, tasting strongly acid, 
dies within 15 or 30 minutes, after the manifestation of great weak- 
ness, small pulse and failure of the heart's power, poisoning by 
oxalic acid is almost certain. The treatment consists in promptly 
administering an emetic, followed by chalk, whiting, or any sub- 
stance containing carbonate of calcium. The alkaline carbonates are 
valueless, for the alkaline oxalates are almost as poisonous as oxalic 
acid itself. 

4. The Alkalis. Caustic potash and caustic soda produce symp- 
toms resembling those of the mineral acids, except that purging is 
a usual accompaniment. 



5. Carbolic acid when taken in the form of a concentrated liquid 
acts as a corrosive, causing whitening and shrinking of all the 
animal membranes with which it comes in contact. The patient, 
however, becomes speedily comatose, the poison acting profoundly 
upon the great nervous centres. A curious phenomenon black or 
dark green urine is commonly observed after the administration 
of this poison. Saccharated lime-water, diluted and drunk freely, 
and a solution of sulphate of soda are perhaps the most useful 
remedies. 

2. Irritant Poisons. 

Irritant poisons are of two classes metallic irritants and vege- 
table and animal irritants, these latter being for convenience grouped 
together. Perhaps none of the irritants act purely as such, the 
irritant symptoms being usually accompanied by well-marked 
effects upon the nervous system. An irritant is a substance which 
causes inflammation of the part to which it is applied usually 
the alimentary canal. Arsenic is by far the most important of 
the metallic irritants. Other irritants are the moderately diluted 
acids, many metallic salts, such as those of antimony, lead, copper, 
zinc and chromium. Elaterium, gamboge, aloes, colocynth and 
croton oil are good examples of vegetable irritants; and cantharides 
of animal irritants. Animal and vegetable food when decomposed, 
or infested with certain organisms known as bacteria, may produce 
violent irritant symptoms. The symptoms produced by irritant 
poisons are usually more slow in their development than where 
a corrosive has been administered. Usually, after an interval, 
greater or less according to the specific nature of the irritant 
swallowed, a burning pain is felt in the mouth, throat and gullet, 
with a sense of constriction of the parts, and followed by burning 
pain in the region of the stomach. This is increased, and not 
alleviated, by pressure, a mark which serves to distinguish the 
attack from one of ordinary colic. Nausea, vomiting and thirst 
ensue, speedily followed by distension of the whole abdomen, which 
is exceedingly tender to the touch. Ordinarily the vomiting is 
followed by profuse diarrhoea. Should the poison not be speedily 
eliminated in the vomited and faecal matters, inflammatory fever 
sets in, followed by collapse; and death may ensue in a few hours. 

There is danger of confounding iiritant poisoning with some forms 
of natural disease, such as gastritis and gastric ulcer, colic, perito- 
nitis, cholera and rupture of the intestines. 

1. Arsenic is a specific irritant poison. Almost all the compounds 
of this metal are poisonous. The term " arsenic " is, however, 
most commonly applied, not to the metal itself, but to its lower 
oxide, arsenious oxide, which is also known as white arsenic. By 
whatever channel arsenic is introduced into the system, it invari- 
ably affects specifically the stomach and intestines, causing con- 
gestion or inflammation. The common sources of arsenical poisoning 
are the taking of white arsenic, which causes acute poisoning, and 
the inhalation of dust from arsenical wall-papers and textile fabrics, 
whereby a chronic form of poisoning is induced. 

The symptoms and treatment of arsenical poisoning are described 
under Arsenic (}..). 

Arsenic-eating, or the ability of some persons to take relatively 
large doses of arsenic habitually, is a well-established fact. The 
cause of this singular immunity from the ordinary results of arsenic 
is unknown. 

2. Lead. The salts of lead, more especially the acetate (sugar of 
lead), are irritant poisons of no very great activity; and, though 
occasionally death ensues, recovery is the rule. Chrome- yellow, 
or lead chromate, is a powerful irritant poison. All chromates are, 
indeed, irritant poisons. (See LEAD POISONING.) 

3. Copper. The soluble salts of copper, such as blue vitriol (the 
sulphate) and verdigris (subcarbonate and subacetate), are emetic 
and irritant salts. Their emetic effects usually, but not invariably, 
secure their prompt rejection by the stomach. Occasionally fatal 
effects have resulted from their administration. Copper becomes 
accidentally mixed with articles of dietary in a variety of modes. 
It is also used for improving the colour of preserved fruits and 
vegetables. Its deleterious properties when thus used in minute 
quantities have been both asserted and denied. There is, however, 
a large body of evidence in favour of the at all events occasional 
poisonous effects of minute quantities of copper. 

4. Zinc salts and barium, salts, except the quite insoluble barium 
sulphate, are irritant poisons; and barium compounds act also 
upon the central nervous system. 

5. Chromates, e.g. bichromate of potash, are violent irritants. 
Chrome yellow, or lead chromate. has already been mentioned. 

6. Phosphorus. Of the two chief forms of the elements the 
yellow or ordinary and the red or amorphous the former only 
is poisonous. Rarely there is met with a chronic form of poisoning 
among workers in the material, arising from the inhalation of 
phosphorus vapours. Its special characteristic is a peculiar 
necrosis or death of the bony structure of the lower jaw. Acute 
phosphorus poisoning is more common. Phosphorus is used foi 
tipping matches, and is also the basis of several vermin destroyers. 
(See PHOSPHORUS and MATCH.) 

7. Vegetable Irritants. These produce drastic purgative effects. 
Frequently the nature of the illness may be ascertained by the 
discovery of portions of the vegetable substance-^recognizable 
by the microscope in the matters ejected by the patient. 



POISON 



895 



8. Cantharides. The administration of cantharides (g.ti.) is 
followed by vomiting, purging, strangury, or even entire inability 
to pass the urine. In the ejecta portions of the shining elytra or 
wing-cases of the fly may often be recognized. There is often great 
excitement of the sexual proclivities. The active principle of the 
fly, cantharidin, may be extracted from suspected matters by means 
of chloroform, and the residue left after the evaporation of this 
blisters the lip or any tender mucous surface to which it is applied. 
Demulcent remedies, with opiate enemata and injections, afford the 
best relief by way of treatment. 

3. Neurotics. 

1. Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid is one of the 
best known poisons, and a very deadly one. In the pure state it is 
said to kill with lightning-like rapidity. It is met with in commerce 
only in a dilute state. In Great Britain two kinds of acid are 
commonly sold the pharmacopoeial acid, containing 2% of 
anhydrous prussic acid, and Scheele's acid, containing 4 to 5%. 
Less than a teaspoonful of the 2 % acid has caused death. Given 
in fatal doses, the symptons of prussic-acid poisoning set in with 
great rapidity; and, m consequence of the readiness with which the 
poison is absorbed from the stomach and diffused through the 
circulation, the onset of symptoms is reckoned by seconds rather 
than by minutes. Occasionally the victim may be able to perform 
a few voluntary actions before alarming symptoms are developed. 
There is first a very brief stage of difficult breathing, and slow 
action of the heart, with a tendency for the organ to stop in the state 
of dilatation. With widely-dilated pupils of the eye, the patient is 
then seized with violent irregular convulsive movements. The 
rhythm of the respiratory movements is disturbed, and the coun- 
tenance becomes of a bluish cast. The patient now sinks to the 
ground with complete loss of muscular power; and the third or 
asphyxial stage is reached, in which there are slow gasping respira- 
tions, loss of pulse, and paralysis of motion. Death is frequently 
preceded by muscular spasms. The foudroyant character _ of the 
illness, and the speedy death of the patient, coupled with the 
peculiar odour of the acid in the breath and atmosphere around the 
body, seldom leave any doubt as to the nature of the case. The 
treatment consists in inhalation of fumes of strong ammonia, 
drinks of warm and cold water alternately, friction of the limbs, and 
artificial respiration. The subcutaneous injection of atropine, 
which acts as a cardiac stimulant, may prove serviceable. 

Other soluble cyanides, more especially cyanide of potassium, a 
salt largely used in photography and in the arts, are equally 
poisonous with hydrocyanic acid. (See PRUSSIC ACID.) 

2. Opium. In consequence of the extent to which opium, its 
preparations, and its active alkaloid morphia are used for the relief 
of pain, poisoning by opium is of frequent occurrence. It is largely 
used by suicides; and children, being very susceptible to its influence, 
frequently die from misadventure after administration of an over- 
dose of the drug. The ordinary preparations of opium are the 
drug itself, which is the inspissated juice of the oriental poppy, and 
the tincture, commonly known as laudanum. Opium contains a 
variety of more or less active principles, the chief of which is the 
alkaloid morphia, which is present in good opium to the extent of 
about 10% in combination with meconic acid, which is physio- 
logically inactive. Opium is largely used by Eastern nations for 
smoking, and there is great discrepancy of opinion as to the extent 
to which opium smoking is deleterious. The preponderance of 
opinion is in favour of the view that opium smoking is a demoral- 
izing, degrading, and pernicious habit, and that its victims are 
sufferers both in body and mind from its use. (See OPIUM and 
MORPHINE.) 

3. Strychnine and Strychnine-yielding Plants. The alkaloids 
strychnine and brucine, as well as all the plants in which they are 
found, all act in the same manner, being highly poisonous, and 
causing death after spasms of a severe character. Many vermin- 
killers contain strychnine as their active ingredient. 

Strychnine, and all substances containing that alkaloid, produce 
their effects within a very few minutes usually within ten or fifteen 
minutes. The patient complains of stiffness about the neck, and his 
aspect exhibits terror. There is an impression of impending 
calamity or death. Very speedily the head is jerked back, the 
limbs extended, the back arched (opisthotonos), so that the body 
may rest on the head and heels only. In a few moments these 
symptoms pass off, and there is complete relaxation of the spasm. 
The spasmodic condition speedily returns, and is brought about 
by the slightest touch or movement of the patient. Accessions 
and remissions of the tetanic state ensue rapidly till the patient 
succumbs, usually within half an hour of the administration of 
the poison. The best treatment is to put, and keep, the patient 
under the influence of chloroform till time is given for the excretion 
of the alkaloid, having previously given a full dose of chloral hydrate. 
(See STRYCHNINE.) 

4. Aconite Poisoning. The ordinary blue rocket, wolfsbane or 
monkshood, Acontium Napellus, and an alkaloid extracted from it, 
aconitine, are perhaps the most deadly of known poisons. One- 
sixteenth of a grain of aconitine has proved fatal to a man. _ All the 
preparations of aconite produce a peculiar burning, tingling, and 
numbness of the parts to which they are applied. When given in 



large doses they produce violent vomiting, as a rule, more or less 
paralysis of motion and sensation, and great depression of the heart, 
usually ending in death from syncope. Intelligence remains 
unaffected till almost the last. The treatment consists in the 
hypodermic injection of digitalin, which is a counter-poison in its 
action upon the heart. The root of aconite has been eaten in mistake 
for that of horse-radish. 

5. Belladonna. The belladonna or deadly nightshade, Atropa 
'Belladonna, contains an alkaloid, atropine, which is largely used by 
oculists to procure dilatation of the pupils of the eye. The bright 
scarlet berries of the plant have been eaten by children, who are 
attracted by their tempting appearance. Belladonna produces 
dilatation of the pupils, rapid pulse, hot dry flushed skin, with an 
eruption not unlike that of scarlatina, soreness of the throat, with 
difficulty of swallowing, intense thirst, and gay, mirthful delirium. 
The treatment consists in evacuation of the poison by means of the 
stomach-pump, and the hypodermic injection of morphia as a 
counter-poison. 

4. Gaseous Poisons. 

The effects of these are varied some of them acting as irritants, 
while others have a specific effect, apparently in consequence of 
their forming chemical compounds with the red pigment of the 
blood, and thus destroying its capability of acting as a carrier of 
oxygen. 

1. Chlorine and bromine act as powerful irritants. They provoke 
spasm of the glottis when inhaled, and subsequently induce in- 
flammation of the respiratory mucous membrane, which may prove 
speedily fatal. Inhalation of diluted ammonia vapour is the best 
remedy. 

2. Hydrochloric or muriatic acid gas and hydrofluoric or fluoric 
acid gas are irritating and destructive to life. The former is more 
destructive to vegetable life than even chlorine. They are emitted 
in many processes of manufacture, and especially in the manufac- 
ture of carbonate of soda from common salt by Le Blanc's process, 
in the salt-glazing of earthenware, and in the manufacture of arti- 
ficial manures. 

3. Sulphurous Acid Gas. The gas given off by burning sulphur 
is most suffocating and irritating. Its inhalation, even in a highly 
diluted state, may cause speedy death from spasmodic closure of 
the glottis. 

4. Nitrous vapours, or gaseous oxides of nitrogen (except nitrous 
oxide), are given off from galvanic batteries excited by nitric acid; 
also in the process of etching on copper. They produce, when 
diluted, little immediate irritation, but are exceedingly dangerous, 
setting up extensive and fatal inflammation of the lungs. 

5. Ammonia gas is highly irritant, but does not often prove fatal. 

6. Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than atmospheric air, is totally 
irrespirable when pure, and is fatal when present in large quantities 
in respired air. It is given off from burning fuel, accumulates in 
pits and wells as choke-damp, and constitutes the deadly after- 
damp of coal-mines. It is also formed during alcoholic fermen- 
tation, and hence accumulates in partially filled vats in which fer- 
mented liquors are stored. When it is breathed in a concentrated 
state, death is almost instantaneous. Persons descending into wells 
foul with this gas sink down powerless, and are usually dead before 
they can be removed from the vitiated atmosphere. In these cases 
there is true asphyxia; but carbonic acid is also a narcotic gas. 
Persons exposed to an atmosphere partially composed of this gas, 
but not long enough to produce fatal results, are affected with 
stertorous breathings, oppression, flushed face, prominent eyes, 
swollen tongue and feeble pulse. The proper treatment is removal 
from the foul atmosphere, alternate cold and tepid douches to the 
chest, friction of the limbs and trunk, and artificial respiration. 
When animation is restored the patient should be put to bed and 
kept quiet, but should be carefully watched in case of relapse. 

7. Carbon monoxide gas is given off by burning charcoal and other 
forms of fuel, mixed with carbonic acid. The poisonous effects of 
charcoal fumes are perhaps due rather to the more poisonous car- 
bonic oxide than to the less poisonous carbonic acid. An atmo- 
sphere containing less than I % of carbonic oxide would doubtless 
be fatal if breathed for many minutes. Carbonic oxide forms with 
haemoglobin, the red pigment of the blood, a bright scarlet compound. 
The compound is very stable, and the oxide cannot be displaced 
by atmospheric oxygen. Hence the blood after death from the 
inhalation of carbonic oxide is of a bright arterial hue, which it 
retains on exposure to air. 

8. Coal-gas acts as an asphyxiant and narcotic. The appear- 
ances met with after death more especially the fluid state of the 
blood are similar to those observed after death from carbonic 
oxide gas, which is a constituent of coal-gas, and to which the chief 
effect of coal-gas may be due. 

9. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is highly poisonous by whatever 
channel it gains access to the body. In a concentrated form it 
produces almost instant death from asphyxia. Even in a diluted 
state it produces colic, nausea, vomiting and drowsiness. This 
may pass into insensibility with lividity and feeljle respiration. 
The skin is cold and clammy, or bathed in perspiration. The red 
blood corpuscles are disintegrated. The treatment consists in 
removal from the contaminated atmosphere, friction to the surface 



896 



POISSON 



of the body, warmth, and the administration of stimulants. The 
inhalation of chlorine gas has been recommended on chemical 
grounds; but it must be remembered that chlorine is itself poisonous. 

10. Anaesthetics. Nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, and the gases 
or vapours of other anaesthetic substances, such as chloroform, 
may, if improperly administered, produce death by asphyxia, and 
perhaps otherwise. Obviously, as a rule, medical assistance is 
at hand. The treatment consists in artificial respiration, and the 
use of galvanic current. 

11. Vapours of Hydrocarbons. The volatile vapours of the natural 
hydrocarbons known as benzoline, petroleum, &c., are poisonous 
when inhaled for lengthened periods. (T. S.*) 

POISSON. SIMEON DENIS (1781-1840), French mathemati- 
cian, was born at Pithiviers in the department of Loiret, on the 
zist of June 1781. His father, Simeon Poisson, served as a 
common soldier in the Hanoverian wars; but, disgusted by the 
ill-treatment he received from his patrician officers, he deserted. 
About the time of the birth of his son, Simeon Denis, he occupied 
a small administrative post at Pithiviers, and seems to have 
been at the head of the local government of the place during 
the revolutionary period. Poisson was first sent to an uncle, a 
surgeon at Fontainebleau, and began to take lessons in bleeding 
and blistering, but made little progress. Having given promise 
of mathematical talent he was sent to the Ecole Centrale of 
Fontainebleau, and was fortunate in having a kind and sympa- 
thetic teacher, M. Billy, who, when he speedily found that his 
pupil was becoming his master, devoted himself to the study 
of higher mathematics in order to follow and appreciate him, 
and predicted his future fame by the punning quotation from 
Lafontaine 1 : 

" Petit Poisson deviendra grand 
Pourvu que Dieu lui prete vie." 

In 1798 he entered the Ecole Poly technique at Paris as first 
in his year, and immediately began to attract the notice of the 
professors of the school, who left him free to follow the studies 
of his predilection. In 1800, less than two years after his entry, 
he published two memoirs, one on . Bezout's method of elimina- 
tion, the other on the number of integrals of an equation of 
finite differences. The latter of these memoirs was examined 
by S. F. Lacroix and A. M. Legendre, who recommended that 
it should be published in the Recuett des savants etrangers, an 
unparalleled honour for a youth of eighteen. This success at 
once procured for Poisson an entry into scientific circles. J. L. 
Lagrange, whose lectures on the theory of functions he attended 
at the Ecole Polytechnique, early recognized his talent, and 
became his friend; while P. S. Laplace, in whose footsteps 
Poisson followed, regarded him almost as his son. The rest of 
his career, till his death on the 2$th of April 1840, was almost 
entirely occupied in the composition and publication of his many 
works, and in discharging the duties of the numerous educational 
offices to which he was successively appointed. Immediately 
after finishing his course at the Ecole Polytechnique he was 
appointed repetiteur there, an office which he bad discharged as 
an amateur while still a pupil in the school; for it had been the 
custom of his comrades often to resort to his room after an 
unusually difficult lecture to hear him repeat and explain it. 
He was made prpfesseur suppliant in 1802, and full professor in 
succession to J. Fourier in 1806. In 1808 he became astronomer 
to the Bureau des Longitudes; and when the Faculte des Sciences 
was instituted in 1809 he was appointed professeur de la meca- 
nique ralionelle. He further became member of the Institute 
in 1812, examiner at the military school at St Cyr in 1815, leaving 
examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1816, councillor of the 
university in 1820, and geometer to the Bureau des Longitudes 
in succession to P. S. Laplace in 1827. His father, whose early 
experiences led him to hate aristocrats, bred him in the stern 
creed of the first republic. Throughout the empire Poisson 
faithfully adhered to the family principles, and refused to 
worship Napoleon. When the Bourbons were restored, his 
hatred against Napoleon led him to become a Legitimist a 
conclusion which says more for the simplicity of his character 
than for the strength or logic of his political creed. He was 
faithful to the Bourbons during the Hundred Days; in fact, was 

1 This prediction is sometimes attributed to Laplace. 



with difficulty dissuaded from volunteering to fight in their 
cause. After the second restoration his fidelity was recognized 
by his elevation to the dignity of baron in 1825; but he never 
either took out his diploma or used the title. The revolution 
of July 1830 threatened him with the loss of all his honours; 
but this disgrace to the government of Louis Philippe was 
adroitly averted by F. Arago, who, while his " revocation " was 
being plotted by the council of ministers, procured him an invi- 
tation to dine at the Palais Royale, where he was openly and 
effusively received by the citizen king, who " remembered" him. 
After this, of course, his degradation was impossible, and seven 
years later he was made a peer of France, not for political 
reasons, but as a representative of French science. 

As a teacher of mathematics Poisson is said to have been more 
than ordinarily successful, as might have been expected from 
his early promise as a repetiteur at the Ecole Polytechnique. As 
a scientific worker his activity has rarely if ever been equalled. 
Notwithstanding his many official duties, he found time to 
publish more than three hundred works, several of them exten- 
sive treatises, and many of them memoirs dealing with the most 
abstruse branches of pure and applied mathematics. There 
are two remarks of his, or perhaps two versions of the same 
remark, that explain how he accomplished so much: one, " La 
vie n'est bonne qu'a deux choses a faire des mathematiques 
et a les professeur; " the other, " La vie c'est le travail." 

A list of Poisson's works, drawn up by himself, is given at the 
end of Arago's biography. A lengthened analysis of them would 
be out of place here, and all that is possible is a brief mention of 
the more important. There are few branches of mathematics to 
which he did not contribute something, but it was in the applica- 
tion of mathematics to physical subjects that his greatest services 
to science were performed. Perhaps the most original, and 
certainly the most permanent in their influence, were his memoirs 
on the theory of electricity and magnetism, which virtually created 
a new branch of mathematical physics. Next (perhaps in the 
opinion of some first) in importance stand the memoirs on celestial 
mechanics, in which he proved himself a worthy successor to 
P. S. Laplace. The most important of these are his memoirs " Sur 
les inegalites seculaires des moyens mouvements des planetes," " Sur 
la variation des constantes arbitraires dans les questions de meca- 
nique," both published in the Journal of the Ecole Polytechnique 
(1809); " Sur la libration de la lune," in Connaiss.d. temps (l82i),&c. ; 
and " Sur la mouvement de la terre autour de son centre de graviteV' 
in Mem. d. I'acad. (1827), &c. In the first of these memoirs Poisson 
discusses the famous question of the stability of the planetary 
orbits, which had already been settled by Lagrange to the first 
degree of approximation for the disturbing forces. Poisson showed 
that the result could be extended to a second approximation, and thus 
made an important advance in the planetary theory. The memoir 
is remarkable inasmuch as it roused Lagrange, after an interval of 
inactivity, to compose in his old age one of the greatest of his 
memoirs, viz. that Sur la theorie des variations des Elements des 
planetes, et en particulier des variations des grands axes de leurs 
orbites. So highly did he think of Poisson's memoir that he made 
a copy of it with his own hand, which was found among his papers 
after his death. Poisson made important contributions to the 
theory of attraction. His well-known correction of Laplace's 
partial differential equation for the potential was first published 
m the Bulletin de la societ6 philomatique (1813). His two most 
important memoirs on the subject are " Sur 1'attraction des 
sph6roides " (Connaiss. d. temps, 1829), and " Sur 1'attraction d'un 
ellipsoide homogfene " (Mem. d. I'acad., 1835). In concluding our 
selection from his physical memoirs we may mention his memoir 
on the theory of waves (Mem. d. I'acad., 1825). 

In pure mathematics, his most important works were his series 
of memoirs on definite integrals, and his discussion of Fourier's 
series, which paved the way for the classical researches of L. Dirichlet 
and B. Riemann on the same subject ; these are to be found in the 
Journal of the Ecole Polytechnique from 1813 to 1823, and in the 
Memoirs de I'academie for 1823. In addition we may also mention 
his essay on the calculus of variations (Mem. d. I'acad., 1833), and 
his memoirs on the probability of the mean results of observations 
(Connaiss. d. temps, 1827, &c.). 

Besides his many memoirs Poisson published a number of treatises, 
most of which were intended to form part of a great work on mathe- 
matical physics, which he did not live to complete. Among these 
may be mentioned his TraM de mecanique (2 vols. 8vo, 1811 and 
1833), which was long a standard work; Theorie nouvelle de I' action 
cappillaire (4to, 1831); Theorie mathematique de la chaleur (4to, 1835); 
Supplement to the same (410, 1837) ; Recnerches sur la probability des 
jugements en matures criminelles, &c. (410, 1 837) , all published at Paris. 

See F. Arago, Biographic de Poisson, read before the Acad6mie des 
Sciences on the i6th of December 1850. 



POISSY POITIERS 



897 



POISSY, a town of northern France, in the department of 
Seine-et-Oise, 17 m. W.N.W. of Paris, on the railway from Paris 
to Rouen. Pop. (1906), 6043. The church, supposed to have 
been built in the first half of the i2th century, and eventually 
restored under the direction of Viollet le Due, is of special 
architectural interest, as affording one of the earliest and best 
examples of transition from the Romanesque to the Pointed 
style. The bridge of Poissy, a very ancient foundation, has 
been widened and modernized; of the mills which formerly 
bordered it one was known as Queen Blanche's. A statue of 
the painter J. L. E. Meissonier was erected in 1894, close to his 
house. Poissy supplied butchers' meat to Paris during six 
centuries, but in 1867 the market was removed to the metropolis. 
A handsome fountain stands in the old market-place. Distilling 
and the manufacture of chairs and flour-milling equipment are 
carried on and ragstone is quarried. 

Poissy, the ancient Pinciacum, was the capital of the country 
of the Carnutes. In the time of Charlemagne it had a royal 
palace, where during the gth century four national assemblies 
were held. Later it became a favourite residence of Blanche of 
Castille, and her son, afterwards St Louis, is supposed to 
have been born there. Philip the Fair gave the castle to the 
Dominicans, by whom it was completely transformed, and it 
was in the refectory of the abbey that the famous conference 
(see below) between the Roman Catholics and Protestants took 
place in 1561. 

POISSY, COLLOQUY OF, a conference held in 1561 with the 
object of effecting a reconciliation between the Catholics and 
Protestants of France. It was initiated by Queen Catherine 
de' Medici, regent during the minority of her son Charles IX. 
In the policy of which it was the outcome she enjoyed the support 
of the Chancellor Michel de 1'HdpitaI and the lieutenant-general 
of the kingdom, Anthony of Navarre ; while on the other hand 
the heads of the Catholic party had attempted to frustrate 
any form of negotiation. Theodore Beza from Geneva and 
Peter Martyr Vermigli from Zurich appeared at the colloquy; the 
German theologians to whom invitations had been despatched 
only arrived in Paris after the discussion was broken off. The 
conference was opened on the 9th of September in the refectory 
of the convent of Poissy, the king himself being present. The 
spokesman of the Reformed Church was Beza, who, in the first 
session, gave a lengthy exposition of its tenets, but excited such 
repugnance by his pronouncements on the Communion that he 
was interrupted by Cardinal Tournon. In the second session 
(Sept. 16) he was answered by the cardinal of Lorraine, who 
discharged his task with skill and moderation. On the motion, 
however, of Ippolito d'Este, the papal legate, exception was 
taken to the further conduct of the negotiations in full conclave; 
and a committee of twenty-four representatives, twelve from 
each party, was appointed ostensibly to facilitate a satisfactory 
decision. On the Catholic side, as was speedily demonstrated, 
there existed no sort of tendency to conciliation. On the con- 
trary, the cardinal of Lorraine, by his question whether the 
Calvinists were prepared to sign the Confession of Augsburg, 
attempted to sow dissension between them and the Lutheran 
Protestants of Germany, on whose continued support they calcu- 
lated. The Catholic delegates, moreover, discovered a powerful 
auxiliary when Lainez, the general of the Jesuit order, which 
had been admitted into France a short time previously, entered 
the debate; and the acrimony with which he opposed the Protes- 
tants was of material service in clarifying the situation. Still 
a further reduction was made in the number of members, and a 
small residuum consisting of five Catholics and five Protestants 
undertook the task of devising a formula on which the two 
churches might unite with regard to the question of the Com- 
munion. Their difficult labours even seemed on the point of 
success when the assemblage of prelates refused assent, and the 
conference broke up on the gth of October a result which barred 
the way to a pacific understanding with the Huguenots. 

See H. Kiipffel, Le Collogue de Poissy (Paris, 1868) ; E. Lacheinmann 
in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie f. protest. Theologie (3rd ed., 
1904), xv. 497. (C. M.) 

XXI. 29 



POITIERS, a town of western France, formerly the capital of 
Poitou, and now the chief town of the department of Vienne, 
61 m. S.S.W. of Tours on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), 
town, 31,532; commune, 39,302. Poitiers is situated at the 
junction of the Boivre with the Clain (a tributary of the Loire 
by the Vienne), and occupies the slopes and summit of a 
plateau which rises 130 ft. above the level of the streams by 
which it is surrounded on three sides. The town is picturesque; 
and its streets are interesting for their remains of ancient 
architecture, especially of the Romanesque period, and the 
memories of great historical events. Blossac park, named after 
the intendant of the " generality " of Poitiers (1751-1786), and, 
situated on the south side of the town, and the botanical garden 
on the north-east, are the two principal promenades. Till 
1857 Poitiers contained the ruins of a Roman amphitheatre 
more extensive than that of Nimes; remains of Roman baths, 
constructed in the ist and demolished in the 3rd century, were 
laid bare in 1877; and in 1879 a burial-place and the tombs of a 
number of Christian' martyrs were discovered on the heights to 
the south-east the names of some of the Christians being 
preserved in paintings and inscriptions. Not far from these 
tombs is a huge dolmen (the " Pierre Levee "), 22 ft. long, 16 ft. 
broad and 6 or 7 ft. high, around which used to be held the great 
fair of St Luke. 

The cathedral of St Peter, begun in 1162 by Henry II. of 
England and Eleanor of Guienne on the ruins of a Roman 
basilica, and well advanced by the end of the i2th century, is a 
building in the Romanesque and Early Gothic style, the latter 
predominating. It consists of three naves almost equal in 
height and width, both of which decrease towards the west, 
thus enhancing the perspective. Its length is 308 ft., and the 
keystone of the central vaulted roof is 89 ft. above the pavement. 
There is no apse, and the exterior generally has a heavy appear- 
ance. The principal front, the width of which is excessive in pro- 
portion to its height, has unfinished side-towers 105 and no ft. 
in height, begun in the i3th century. Most of the windows of 
the choir and the transepts preserve their stained glass of the 
1 2th and I3th centuries; the end window, which is certainly 
the first in the order of time, contains the figures of Henry II. 
and Eleanor. The choir stalls, carved between 1235 and 1257, 
are among the oldest in France. The church of St Jean near 
the cathedral is the most ancient Christian monument in the 
country. Built as a baptistery in the first half of the 4th century, 
it was enlarged in the 7th century, since when it has suffered 
little structural alteration. It contains frescoes of the I2th 
century and a collection of tombs of the Merovingian period. 
The church of St Hilaire was erected at the close of the 4th 
century over the tomb of the celebrated bishop. At first an 
oratory, it was rebuilt on a larger scale by Clovis, and after- 
wards became, in the loth, nth and I2th centuries, a sumptuous 
collegiate church, of which the nave was flanked by triple aisles 
and surmounted by six cupolas. Great damage was done to it 
in the Wars of Religion and the French Revolution, and the 
facade was entirely rebuilt in the igth century. The confes- 
sional or oratory under the choir contains the relics of St Hilary 
and a Christian sarcophagus of the 4th century. The church of 
St Radegonde, a great resort of pilgrims, commemorates the 
consort of Clotaire (d. 587), and preserves in its crypt the tomb 
of Radegonde, who founded at Poitiers the abbey of the Holy 
Cross, and two others reputed to be those of St Agnes and St 
Disciola. The choir and tower above the entrance are of the 
nth century, while the nave (late 1 2th century) is in the Angevin 
style. In a recess in the nave known as the Chapelle du Pas 
de Dteu, there is a footprint which tradition asserts to be that of 
Christ, who appeared in a vision to St Radegonde. Notre-Dame 
la Grande, which dates from the close of the nth century, and 
represents a collegiate church of one or two hundred years older, 
has a sculptured Romanesque facade rivalled in richness only 
by that of St Pierre of Angoule'me. The first stone of the 
church of Montierneuf (Monasterium Novum) was laid in 1077 
by William VI., duke of Aquitaine and count of Poitiers, who is 
buried within its walls; and the choir (in the I3th century 



POITIERS 



modified by the erection of a " lantern ") was solemnly conse- 
crated by Urban II. in 1096. Mutilated about 1640 and during 
the Revolution, the building was partly restored between 1850 
and 1860. The tower of St Porchaire, a precious remnant of 
nth-century architecture, was restored in the igth century under 
the auspices of the well-known Societt des antiquaires de I'ouest. 

Among the secular buildings the first place belongs to the 
law courts, formerly the palace of the dukes of Aquitaine and 
counts of Poitiers, and rebuilt between the I2th and the isth 
century. The Salle des Pas Perdus forms a fine nave 160 ft. 
long by 56 ft. wide, with a vaulted wooden roof. The southern 
wall is the work of duke Jean de Berry (d. 1416), brother of 
Charles V. ; above its three vast fireplaces are mullioned windows 
filled with stained glass. The Maubergeon tower attached 
to the palace by the same duke represented the feudal centre 
of all the lordships of the countship of Poitiers. The house 
known as the prevdle or provost's mansion, built about 1500, has 
a fine facade flanked by turrets, and there are other houses 
of the isth, i6th and lyth centuries. In the H&tel de Ville, 
erected between 1869 and 1876, are museums of natural history 
and painting. The museum of the Antiquaires de I'ouest 
occupies the chapel and the great hall of the old university, 
adjoining the old Hotel de Ville; it is a valuable collection com- 
prising Roman antiquities, Merovingian sculptures, medals, a 
fine Renaissance fireplace, &c. The building devoted to the 
faculties also contains the library. The municipal records are 
very rich in charters of Eleanor of Guienne, Philip Augustus, 
Alphonse of Poitiers, &c. 

Poitiers is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal 
and a court of assizes, and centre of an educational division 
(acadSmie), and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, 
a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a 
branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions 
comprise a university with faculties of law, science and letters, 
and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a school 
of theology, training colleges for both sexes, a lycee for boys 
and a school of fine art. Trade is in farm produce, wine, cattle, 
wool, honey, goose-quills and leather. The industries include 
the preparation of goose-skins, printing, tanning, and the 
manufacture of brushes, paint and candles. 

Poitiers, called Limonum at the time of the Roman Conquest, 
afterwards took the name of its Gallic founders, the Pictones or 
Pictavi. Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century, and 
the first bishop of Poitiers, from 350 to 367, was St Hilarius. 
Fifty years later the city had fallen into the hands of the Arian 
Visigoths, and became one of the principal residences of their 
kings. Alaric II., one of their number, was defeated by Clovis 
at Vouille, not far from Poitiers, in 507, and the town became a 
part of the Prankish dominion. This was the first occasion on 
which the peoples of northern and southern Gaul met in conflict 
in the neighbourhood of the town which was destined to see 
them so frequently join battle. By his victory in 732 over the 
Mahommedans at Moussais-la-Bataille in this region, Charles 
Martel proved the saviour of Christendom. Eleanor of Guienne 
frequently resided in the city, which she embellished and fortified, 
and in 1199 entrusted with communal rights. Alphonse of 
Poitiers, at a plenary court held in 1241 in the great hall of the 
Palais de Justice, received the homage of his numerous vassals. 
After the battle of Poitiers in 1356 (see below), Poitou was recog- 
nized as an English possession by the treaty of Br6tigny (1360); 
but by 1373 it was recovered by Bertrand Du Guesclin. It 
was at Poitiers that Charles VII. was proclaimed king (1432); 
and he removed thither the parlement and university of Paris, 
which remained in exile till the English withdrew from the capital 
in 1436. During this interval (1429) Joan of Arc was subjected 
to a formal inquest in the town. The university was founded 
in 1432. Calvin had numerous converts at Poitiers. Of the 
violent proceedings which attended the Wars of Religion the 
city had its share. In 1569 it was defended by Gui de Daillon, 
comte du Lude, against Gaspard de Coligny, who after an 
unsuccessful bombardment retired from the siege at the end of 
seven weeks. 



Counts of Poitiers.- In the time of Charlemagne the countship 
of Poitiers, which was then a part of the kingdom of Aquitaine, 
was represented by a certain Abbon. Renoul (Ranulph), who 
was created count of Poitiers by the emperor Louis the Pious in 
839, was the ancestor of a family which was distinguished in the 
9th and icth centuries for its attachment to the Carolingian 
dynasty. One of his successors, Ebles the Bastard (d. 935), 
took the title of duke of Aquitaine; and his descendants, who 
bore the hereditary name of William, retained the same title. 
William IV., Fierebrace, joined Hugh Capet, his brother-in-law, 
in 987. William V. the Great (993-1030) was a patron of 
letters, and received from the Italian lords the offer of the 
imperial crown after the death of the emperor Henry II. in 
1024. William IX. (1086-1127) went on crusade in noo, and 
had violent quarrels with the Papacy. His son William X. 
(1127-1137) sided with the anti-pope Anacletus against Innocent 
II. In accordance with the dying wishes of William X. his 
daughter Eleanor was married in 1137 to Louis, the son of Louis 
VI. of France. Sole heiress of her father, she brought her 
husband a large dowry, comprising Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis, 
a part of Touraine and Berry, Marche, Angoumois, Perigord, 
Auvergne, Limousin, Bordelais, Agenois and Gascony. After 
the dissensions between Louis VII. and Eleanor had resulted 
in a divorce in 1152, Eleanor married the count of Anjou, 
Henry Plantagenet, who became king of England as Henry II. 
The west of France thus passed into the hands of England, a 
transfer which gave rise to long wars between the two kingdoms. 
Philip Augustus reconquered Poitou in 1204, and the province 
became in succession an apanage of Alphonse, son of Louis 
VIII., in 1241 ; of Philip the Tall, son of Philip the Fair, in 1311 ; 
of John, son of Philip of Valois, in 1344; and of John, due de 
Berry, son of John the Good, in 1356; and passed to the dauphins 
John (1416) and Charles (1417), sons of Charles VI. When 
Charles VII. ascended the throne he finally united the countship 
of Poitiers to the Crown. 

See P. GueVin, Recueil des documents concernant le Poitou (Paris, 
1880-1906); and A. Richards, Histoire des comtes de Poitou (Paris, 
1903)- 

Battle of Poitiers. This battle, fought on the igth of Septem- 
ber 1356 between the armies of King John of France and Edward 
the " Black Prince," was the second of the three great English 
victories of the Hundred Years' War. From Bordeaux the 
prince had led an army of his father's Guienne vassals, with 
which there was a force of English archers and men-at-arms, 
into central France and had amassed an enormous booty. 
King John, hitherto engaged against the army of John of Gaunt 
duke of Lancaster, in Normandy, hurried south to intercept 
the raiding army and to bar its homeward road. The Black 
Prince, by forced marching, was able to slip past the French, 
but reaching Maupertuis, 7 m. south-east of Poitiers, with the 
king's army in chase, he found himself compelled to choqse 
between fighting and abandoning his spoil. He chose the 
former course, in spite of the enemy's great superiority in 
numbers (16,000 to 6500), and in order to give his trains time to 
draw off took up a defensive position on the i8th of September, 
with a slight hollow in front and a wood behind, between the 
Poitiers-Bordeaux main road and the River Maussion. 1 John, 
instead of manoeuvring to envelop the English, allowed the 
Cardinal Talleyrand de Perigord to attempt to negotiate a 
peace. This proving vain, the French army attacked without 
any attempt at manoeuvre or reconnaissance, and on a front so 
narrow that the advantage of superior numbers was forfeited. 
Moreover, King John ordered all but the leading line to dismount 
and to attack on foot (tactics suggested by the success on the 
defensive of the dismounted English men-at-arms at Crecy and 
the Scots at Bannockburn), and thus condemned the best part 
of his army to a fatiguing advance on foot across difficult country 
in full armour. 

The French arblasters, who might have crushed the relatively 

1 The view adopted is that of Professor Oman, Art of War, 
Middle Ages, p. 631. 



POITOU POKER 



899 



few English archers present, were mingled with the 300 picked 
mounted men in first line, but, as the latter charged, their 
advance masked the fire of the arblasters in the first few seconds, 
besides leaving the other, dismounted, lines far in rear. Thus 
the first attack on the Black Prince's line, which was greatly 
strengthened by trees and hedges in front of it, was promptly 
brought to a standstill by the arrows of the archers lining a 
hedge which overlooked the hollow in front; and the earl of 
Oxford hastily drawing out a body of archers beyond the defen- 
ders' left, into the low-lying ground of the Maussion valley, 
completed their rout by firing up the hollow into their flank. 
But it was not so easy to deal with the second line of dismounted 
men-at-arms, led by the dauphin, which was the next to arrive 
on the French side. The hedge indeed was held, and the 
assailants, unable to advance beyond the hollow, gave way, 
but to achieve this the prince had to use all but 400 of his 
men. Had the third body of the French advanced with equal 
spirit the battle would probably have ended there and then, 
but the duke of Orleans, who commanded it, was so demoralized 
by the retirement of the dauphin's division that he led his whole 
force off the field without striking a blow. Thereupon the king 
himself advanced furiously with the fourth and last line, and as it 
came on the situation of the English seemed so desperate that the 
prince was advised to retreat. But his determined courage was 
unshaken; seeing that this was the last attack he put his reserve 
into line, and rallying around this nucleus all men who could 
still fight, he prepared not only to repulse but to counter-attack 
the French. He despatched a small force under the Captal de 
Buch to ride round the flank of the enemy and tc appear in their 
rear at the crisis of the fight. Though a medieval knight, he 
knew as well as Napoleon at Arcola that when the moral force 
of both sides has passed its culminating point even a materially 
insignificant threat serves to turn the balance. And so it fell 
out. When both lines were fighting hand-to-hand, the fifty 
horsemen of the Captal de Buch appeared in rear of the French. 
The front ranks fought on, but the rear of the French melted 
away rapidly, and at last only a group of the bravest, with King 
John and his son Philip, a boy of fourteen, in their midst, were 
left. This band continued their hopeless resistance for a time, 
but in the end they were killed or captured to a man. The 
rest of the French army, totally dispersed, was pursued by the 
victors until nightfall. Two thousand five hundred of the 
French, 2000 of them knights and men-at-arms, were killed, 
including the constable, one of the marshals, the standard- 
bearer and six other great lords. The prisoners included the 
king and his son Philip, the other marshal and 25 great lords, 
and 1033 knights and men-at-arms as well as 500 others. 

POITOU, one of the old provinces of France, which also 
formed one of the great military governments of the kingdom, 
was bounded on the N. by Brittany, Anjou and Touraine; on 
the S. by Angoumois and Aunis; on the E. by Touraine, Berri 
and Marche; and on the W. by the ocean. It was divided into 
Lower Poitou, which corresponded to the modern department of 
La Vendee, and Upper Poitou, now split into the departments 
of Deux-Sevres and Vienne. The principal towns in Upper 
Poitou were Poitiers the capital, Mirebeau, Chatellerault, 
Richelieu, Loudun, Thouars, Mauleon, Parthenay, Niort, &c.; 
and in Lower Poitou Fontenay-le-Comte, MaiUezais, Lucon 
and Roche-sur-Yon. lie d'Yeu or fie-Dieu and Noirmoutier 
belonged to the province. Ecclesiastically, Poitou was a diocese 
which was broken up in 1317 to form two new dioceses of Lucon 
and Maillezais; the seat of the latter was transferred in the i?th 
century to La Rochelle. For the administration of justice, 
Poitou was attached to the parlement of Paris. After 778 it 
formed part of the domain of the counts of Poitiers (q.v.) . Poitou 
(Poictou, Pictavia) takes its name from the PictonesorPictavi, 
a Gallic nation mentioned by Caesar, Strabo and Ptolemy, and 
described by Strabo as separated from the Namnetes on the 
north by the Loire. It formed part of the territory known as 
Aquitaine (?..). 

For the history see the Memoires of the Socie'te' des Antiquaires 
de 1'Ouest (1835 sqq.) and the documents published by the Archives 



historiques du Poitou (1872 sqq.) ; also the Dictionnaire topographique 
de la Vienne, by L. Re"det (1881). 

POKEBERRY, POKEWEED (from the American-Indian 
pocan, applied to any plant yielding a red or yellow dye), in 
botany, the popular name of Phytolacca decandra, a strong- 
smelling perennial herb, a native of North America, with ovate- 
lanceolate sharp-pointed leaves, racemes of small greenish-white 
flowers and flattish berries nearly | in. in diameter, which contain 
a crimson juice. The young asparagus-like shoots are sometimes 
used as a pot-herb, but the roots are poisonous. The plant is 
often cultivated in Europe, and has become naturalized in the 
Mediterranean region. ' 

POKER, a game at cards. By most writers its origin has been 
ascribed to // Frusso, an Italian game of the isth century, from 
which the game of Primiera, called in Spain Primero, and 
La Prime in France, in which country it was elaborated into 
L'Ambigu or Le Meslt. In England the game was played under 
the name of Post and Pair, of which the modern Brag is only 
a variation. But Mr R. F. Foster proves that, though poker 
is probably a descendant of Primero, and perhaps of a much 
more ancient Persian game called As ras, it is not a development 
of the English Brag, but was introduced from France into the 
colony of Louisiana, the name being merely an English mispro- 
nunciation of Poque, a game described as early as 1718 in the 
Academic universelle des jeux, and still played in Germany 
under the name Pocken. The earliest mention of the game 
in America is in G. B. Zieber's Exposure of the Arts and 
Miseries of Gambling (1843), and it is probable that poker was 
generally played on the Mississippi steamboats as early as 1830, 
twenty cards being used, " full-deck poker " with 52 cards 
being invented later. " Draw-poker " was introduced about 
1860. 

Poker is played for money stakes, markers or " chips" of 
different value being used. These are either divided equally 
among the players, or, more usually, one player acts as banker 
and sells chips to the other players, redeeming them at the end of 
the game. There are several varieties of the game, but Draw 
Poker, played by from 2 to 6 or even 7 persons with a pack of 
52 cards, is the most popular. The player who wins the cut 
for deal shuffles the pack, which is then cut by the player at his 
right. He then deals five cards, one by one, to each player. 
If a card is faced during the deal the player must accept it; if 
two are exposed a new deal must ensue. Before the deal is 
complete the player at the dealer's left, who is said to hold the 
age, and is called " the age," places (or puts up) on the table in 
front of him half the stake for which he wishes to play. This is 
called blind. The player at the age's left then looks at his hand 
and announces whether he will play. If his hand seems too 
weak he throws his cards away face-down and " drops out " 
of the game. If he elects to play he puts up his ante, which is 
twice the amount of the blind. The other players, including the 
dealer, then either come hi, i.e. elect to play, each putting up 
his ante, or, deeming their hands worthless, drop out. The age, 
who has the last say, may then himself drop out, forfeiting his 
half-stake already put up, or he may come in and make good his 
ante, i.e. put up his unpaid half of the blind. Each player in his 
turn has the privilege of increasing the stake to any amount 
not exceeding the limit, 1 which is always agreed upon before 
the game begins. Thus, if the limit is i, and the age has put 
up 6d. as his blind, any player may, when his turn comes to 
declare whether he will play, say, " I play and make it los. 
(or a sovereign) more to draw cards," at the same time placing 
the ante plus xos. (or a sovereign) in the middle of the table. 
Thereupon all the other players, each in turn, must see the raise, 
i.e. pay in the additional sum, or drop out of the game, forfeiting 
what they have already paid into the pool. The " age " being 
the last to complete, is in the best position to raise, as a player 
who has already completed is less likely to sacrifice his stake 
and withdraw from the game. On the other hand each player 

1 " Table stakes " means playing strictly for cash ; " unlimited " 
explains itself, although even when this is the rule a certain high 
limit is pretty generally observed. 



900 



POKER 



has the right, in his turn, after paying the extra stake called 
for, of raising it further on his own account, and this goes on 
until the players who have not dropped out have paid an equal 
sum into the pool and no one cares to raise further. Each 
player then throws away as many of his five cards as he chooses 
and receives from the dealer new ones in their place. In this 
supplementary deal no player may accept a faced card, but 
receives one in its place after all the other players have been 
served. The number of new cards taken by each one should 
be carefully noted by the other players, as it gives a valuable 
due to the probable value of his hand. The following list 
shows the value of hands, beginning with the lowest. 

1. One Pair (accompanied by three cards of different denomi- 
nations). If two players each hold a pair, the higher wins; if 
similar pairs (e.g. a pair of kings each) then the next highest card 
wins. 

2. Two Pairs. 

3. Triplets or Threes of a Kind (e.g. three kings, accompanied 
by two other cards not forming a pair). 

4. Straight, a sequence of five cards, not all of the same suit. 
Sometimes, but very rarely, these straights are not admitted. 
An ace may either begin or end a straight. For example: ace, 



king, queen, knave and 10 is the highest straight; 5, 4, 3, 2, and ace 
is the lowest. An ace cannot be in the middle. For example, 3, 2, 
ace, king, queen is not a straight. 



5. Flush, five cards of the same suit, not in sequence. If two 
flushes are held, that containing the highest card wins; if the 
highest cards are similar, the next highest wins, &c. 

6. Full, or Full House, meaning three cards of the same denomina- 
tion together with a pair; e.g. three sixes and a pair of fours. If 
more than one player holds a full, the highest triplet wins. 

7. Fours, or four cards of the same denomination; e.g. four 
queens, which beat four knaves and under. 

8. Straight Flush, a sequence of five cards all of the same suit; 
e.g. knave, 10, 9, 8, 7, of hearts. 

9. Royal Flush, the highest possible straight flush; e.g. ace, king, 
queen, knave and 10 of spades. 

If no player holds at least one pair, then the hand containing the 
highest card wins. 

Each player having received the new cards called for, the 
betting is opened by the player sitting at the age's left, should 
he consider his hand worth it; otherwise he throws down his 
cards and is out of the game, and the next player (whom we will 
call C) makes the first bet, which may be of any amount up 
to the limit, but is usually a small one, with a view to later 
developments. The next player, D, either drops out, trails, 
i.e. puts up the amount bet by C (also called seeing and calling), 
or raises C's bet; in other words puts in the amount bet by 
C plus as much more (within the limit) as he cares to risk. 
This raise on D's part means either that he thinks he holds a 
better hand than C, or that he is trying to frighten C out. The 
last manoeuvre illustrates the principle of the bluff, the most 
salient characteristic of the game of Poker. If C, with two 
small pairs in the hand, bets half a crown, and D, with a hand of 
no value whatever, covers, or sees C's bet and raises it to a sove- 
reign, it is very likely that C will throw down his cards rather 
than risk a sovereign on his own by no means strong hand. 
In this case C has been bluffed by D, who, without even having 
to show his cards, wins the pool, although intrinsically his hand 
was far inferior to C's. The ability to bluff successfully depends 
upon self-command, keen observation, judgment and knowledge 
of character, so as to attempt the bluff when the bluffer is sure 
that there are no very strong hands out against him. Other 
wise he will surely be called in his turn, and, having nothing 
of value, will lose the pool, besides suffering the ignominy of 
throwing away his money for nothing. 

Two players with strong hands will often raise each other's 
bets repeatedly, until one of them calls the other, upon which 
the hands are shown and the stronger wins. The complete 
hands of the caller and the called must be shown. The common 
practice of throwing away unshown, for purposes of concealment, 
a losing hand that has called is illegal. No player who is not 
called is obliged to show his hand, so that the company is often 
in doubt whether or not the winner has bluffed. When two 
hands are of exactly equal value the pool is divided. 

The game is often varied by a player going blind, i.e. raising 
the ante before the deal. Another variation is straddling the 



blind. This is done by the player sitting next the age, who puts 
up twice the amount of the blind with the words " I straddle." 
This has the effect of doubling the stake, as every player must 
then pay twice the amount of the straddle (instead of the blind) 
in order to play. The straddle may be straddled again in its 
turn if the aggregate amount does not pass the limit. The 
straddle does not carry with it the privilege of betting last, but 
merely raises the amount of the stake. 

The regular Draw-Poker game is usually varied by occasional 
Jack-Pots, which are played once in so many deals, or when 
all have refused to play, or when the player deals who holds the 
buck, a marker placed in the pool with every jack-pot. In a 
jack-pot each player puts up an equal stake and receives a hand. 
The pot must then be opened by a player holding a hand of the 
value of a pair of knaves (jacks) or better. If no player holds 
so valuable a hand the deal passes and each player adds a small 
sum to the pot or pool. When the pot is opened the opener 
does so by putting up any sum he chooses, within the limit, 
and his companions must pay in the same amount or " drop." 
They also possess the right to raise the opener. The new 
cards called for are then dealt and the opener starts the betting, 
the play proceeding as in the regular game. If Progressive 
Jack-Pots are played, the minimum value of the opening hand 
is raised one degree every deal in which the pot is not opened. 
Thus the opening hand must in the first deal be at least a pair 
of knaves; but if the pot is not opened the minimum for the 
second deal is a pair of queens, for the third a pair of kings, &c. 
Jack-Pots were introduced about 1870. 

Straight Poker, or Bluff, is played without drawing extra 
cards. It was the only variety of the game played, although 
52 cards are now used instead of 20, as formerly. The first 
dealer is provided with a marker called a buck, and having, before 
dealing, put up the antes of all the players, passes the buck to 
the next dealer, who must in his turn ante for all when he deals. 
The rules for betting, raising, &c., are the same as at Draw- 
Poker. The hands, of course, average smaller. 

Stud-Poker is played like Draw-Poker, except that there is 
no draw and, in dealing, the first card only is dealt face down, 
the rest being exposed. Each player in turn looks at his turned 
card and makes his bet or raise. A common variation of Stud- 
Poker consists in stopping the deal after two cards, one face up 
and the other face down, have been dealt, and betting on those 
two cards. A third card is then dealt and betting again takes 
place, the process being repeated after the fourth and fifth cards 
have been dealt, the value of the different hands changing with 
each added card. A player failing to " stand " any raise must 
retire from that pot. 

Whiskey-Poker is also played without a draw. An extra hand, 
called the widow, is dealt to the table face down. The first 
bettor then examines his hand and has the option of taking up 
the widow and placing his own hand on the table face up in its 
place, or of passing and allowing the following players in turn 
the choice. After an exposed hand has been laid on the table 
in place of the widow the next player may either take up one 
card from the new widow replacing it with one from his own 
hand, or he may exchange his entire hand for the widow, or he 
may knock on the table. If he knocks every other player in 
turn may exchange one card or his whole hand, and the betting 
then begins, or there may be an agreement that the best hand 
wins from all the rest, or that the poorest hand pays a chip to 
the pool. 

Technical Terms. 

Big Dog. Ace high and nine low; not usually played. If played 
it beats a Little Dog. 

Blaze. Five court cards; not usually played. If played it 
beats any two pairs. 

Bobtail. Four cards of a flush or straight, the fifth card not 
filling. 

Bone. The smallest counter or chip. 

Buck. A marker, to show when a jack-pot is to be played, viz. 
when it is the holder's deal. 

Burnt Card. Card on the bottom of the pack turned up to prevent 
being seen. 

Chips. Counters. 



POLA 



901 



Cold Feet. Any excuse of a winner for leaving the game before 
the time agreed upon. 

Dead-wood. The discard pile. 

Deck. Pack. 

Fatten. Adding chips and a jack-pot after a failure to open. 

Freeze Out. A game in which a player having lost a certain 
agreed capital must stop playing. 

Inside Straight. Intermediate straight, e.g. 2, 3, 5, 6. 

Kilter. Hand with no pair and no card above the nine; seldom 
played. 

Kitty. A fund, to pay for cards or refreshments, made by taking 
a chip from each jack-pot, or paid by a winner holding a valuable 
hand. 

Little Dog. Deuce low and seven high; not usually played. 
When played it beats a straight. 

Milking. Shuffling by taking a card from the top and one from 
the bottom of the pack with the same movement. 

Mistigris. Poker with the joker added ; the joker may be called 
any card the holder chooses. 

Monkey Flush. Three cards of a flush. 

Natural Jacks. Jack-pots played because there has been no 
ante in the previous deal. 

Openers. A hand on which a jack-pot may be opened. 

Pat Hand. A hand to which no card is drawn. 

Pool. The chips in the middle of the table. 

Show-down. Laying the hands face-up on the table after a call. 

Show. Part of a pool to which a player is entitled who has bet 
as long as his capital lasted but is not able to stand further raises. 
If his hand is the best he wins whatever was in the pool at the 
time when he put into it the last of his capital. 

Shy. Not having put up the jack-pot ante. 

Splitting. Having opened a jack-pot with one pair, and holding 
four other cards of one suit, to throw away one of the pair on the 
chance of making a flush. 

Sweeten. Chipping to a jack-pot after a failure to open. 

Triplets. Three of a kind. 

Under the Gun. The first player to bet. 

Whangdoodle. Compulsory round of jack-pots, usually agreed 
upon to follow a very large hand. 

Widow. An extra hand dealt to ths table, as in Whiskey-Poker. 

See Practical-Poker, by R. F. Foster (1904), the most authorita- 
tive work. 

A very important attribute of a successful poker player is 
sound judgment in discarding, and this is principally based on the 
following mathematical table of approximate chances. 

To improve any hand in the draw, the chances are : 



Having in Hand 


To make the Hand below. 


The 
Chance is 


i pair 


To get two pairs (3-card draw) 


I in4J 


I pair 


To get three of a kind (3-card draw) 


i in 9 


I pair 


To improve either way average value 


i in 3 


I pair and I odd card 


To improve either way by drawing two cards . 


i in 7 


2 pairs 


To get a full hand drawing one card 


i in 12 


3's 


To get a full hand drawing two cards . ' . 


I in I5i 


3's 


To get four of kind drawing two cards . 


i in 23^ 


3's 


To improve either way drawing two cards . 


i ing! 


3's and I odd card 


To get a full hand by drawing one card 


i in 15! 


3's and I odd card 


To improve either way by drawing one card 


i in llf 


4 straight .... 


To fill when open at one end only or in middle 
as 3 4 6 7, or A 2 3 4 


i in u| 


4 straight .... 


To fill when open at both ends as 3 4 5 6 . 


I in 6 


4 flush 


To fill the flush drawing one card .... 


I in 5 


4-straight flush 


To fill the straight flush drawing one card . 


I in 23i 


3-card flush 


To make a flush drawing two cards .... 


I in 24 



Of course these chances are somewhat improved by the fact that, 
in actual play, pairs and threes are, on account of careless shuffling, 
apt to lie together more or less. 

POLA (Gr. II6Xa or IIoXcu.; Slovene, Pulj), a seaport of Austria, 
in Istria, 86 m. S. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900), 45,052. It 
is the principal naval harbour and arsenal of the Austro- 



Hungarian monarchy, and is situated near the southern 
extremity of the peninsula of Istria. It lies at the head of the 
Bay of Pola, and possesses a safe and commodious harbour almost 
completely landlocked. An extensive system of fortifications, 
constructed on the hills, which enclose the harbour, defends 
its entrance, while it also possesses a good roadstead in the large 
channel of Fasana. This channel separates the mainland from 
the Brionian Islands, which dominate the entrance to the bay. 
The harbour has an area of 3-32 sq. m., and is divided into two 
basins by a chain of three small islands. The inner basin is sub- 
divided by the large Olive Island into the naval harbour, lying to 
the south, and the commercial harbour, lying to the north. The 
Olive Island is connected with the coast by a chain-bridge, and 
is provided with wharfs and dry and floating docks. The town 
proper lies opposite the Olive Island, round the base of a hill 
formerly crowned by the Roman capitol and now by a castle 
from the I7th century. Besides the castle the chief buildings 
are the cathedral, dating from the I5th century; the new 
garrison church, completed in 1898 in the Basilica style, with 
a fine marble facade; the Franciscan convent dating from the 
i3th century, and now used as a military magazine; the huge 
infantry barracks; and the town-hall, dating from the beginning 
of the I4th century. To the south-west, along the coast, 
extends the marine arsenal, a vast and well-planned establish- 
ment possessing all the requisites for the equipment of a large 
fleet. It contains an interesting naval museum, and is supple- 
mented by the docks and wharves of the Scoglio Olivi. The 
artillery laboratory and the powder magazine are on the north 
bank of the harbour. Behind the arsenal lies the suburb of 
San Policarpo, almost exclusively occupied by the naval popula- 
tion and containing large naval barracks and hospitals. In the 
middle of it is a pleasant park, with a handsome monument to 
the emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who had been a rear-admiral 
in the Austrian navy. To the north, between San Policarpo 
and the town proper, rises the Monte Zaro, surmounted by an 
observatory and a statue of Admiral Tegetthoff. Pola has no 
manufactures outside of its naval stores, 
but its shipping trade is now considerable, 
the exports consisting of fish, timber and 
quartz sand used in making Venetian glass, 
and the imports of manufactured and 
colonial wares. To many people, however, 
the chief interest of Pola centres in its fine 
Roman remains. The most extensive of 
these is the amphitheatre built in A.D. 
198-211, in honour of the emperors Septi- 
mius Severus and Caracalla, which is 79 ft. 
high, 400 ft. long and 320 ft. wide, and 
could accommodate 20,000 spectators. It 
is remarkable as the only Roman amphi- 
theatre of which the outer walls have 
been preserved intact; the interior, how- 
ever, is now completely bare though the 
arrangements for the naumachiae, or naval 
contests, can still be traced. The oldest 
Roman relic is the fine triumphal arch of 
the Sergii, in the Corinthian style, erected 
soon after the battle of Actium; and of not 
much later date is the elegant and well- 
preserved temple of Augustus and Roma 
erected in the year 19 B.C. Among the 
other antiquities are three of the old town 
gates and a fragment of a temple of Diana. 

The foundation of Pola is usually carried 
back to the mythic period, and ascribed 
to the Colchian pursuers of Jason and the 
Argonauts. In all probability it was a Thracian colony, but 
its verifiable history begins with its capture by the Romans in 
178 B.C. It was destroyed by Augustus on account of its 
espousal of the cause of Pompey, but was rebuilt on the inter- 
cession of his daughter Julia, and received (according to Pliny) 
the name of Pietas Julia. It became a Roman colony either 



902 



POLABS POLAND 



under the triumviri or under Octavian, and was mainly impor- 
tant as a harbour. It seems to have attained its greatest 
prosperity about the time of the emperor Septimius Severus 
(193-211 A.O.), when it was an important war harbour and 
contained 35,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. At a later period 
Pola became the capital of the margraves of Istria, and was 
captured by the Venetians in 1148. It was several times 
captured and plundered by the Genoese, and recaptured by the 
Venetians. In 1379 the Genoese, after defeating the Venetians 
in a great naval battle off the coast, took and destroyed Pola, 
which disappears from history for the next four hundred and 
fifty years. It remained under Venetian supremacy down to 
1797, and has been permanently united with Austria since 1815. 
In 1848 a new era began for Pola in its being selected as the 
principal naval harbour of Austria. 

See Th. Moramsen in Corp. inscr. latin, v. 3 sqq. (Berlin, 1883); 
T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria, vol. iii. 
(Oxford, 1887). 



POLABS (Po=on, La6a = Elbe), the Slavs (q.v.) who 
dwelt upon the Elbe and eastwards to the Oder. Their chief 
tribes were the Vagri in Holstein, the Bodridi or Obotritae in 
Mecklenburg, the LjutiCi or Wiltzi in western Pomerania, the 
Sprevane on the Spree and the GlomaSi or Dalemintsi in Saxony. 
Except the Lithuanians they were the last Europeans to be 
christianized; their chief sanctuary was at Arcona on the Isle 
of Riigen. They were converted and conquered by the I2th 
century and systematically germanized. By the xyth century 
Slavonic survived only in a tiny patch in the east of Hanover 
about Ltichow, where a few words were still understood at the 
beginning of the igth century. The population of the district 
still goes by the name of Wends (q.v.). The chief remains of 
the language are a paternoster, a few phrases and a short 
vocabulary written down by Pastor Chr. Henning (c. 1700), and 
the diary of J. Paruns Schultze (d. 1734). These were edited 
by A. Hilferding (St Petersburg, 1856), and a grammar was 
published there by A. Schleicher (1871). M. Porzezinski and 
Fr. Lorentz are the chief later authorities. Polabian agrees 
mostly with Polish and Kasube with its nasalized vowels and 
highly palatalized consonants. It had, however, long vowels 
and a free accent. The remains of it are most corrupt, having 
been written down when the language was full of Low German 
by people who did not know Slavonic. 

POLACCA, the Italian name for a three-masted merchant 
vessel, formerly common in the eastern waters of the Mediter- 
ranean. The masts were of one piece and the sails were square 
or lateen-shaped. The name appears in various forms in other 
languages, e.g. Fr. polaque or polacre, Sp. polacra, Du. polaak or 
Ger. Polack, and certainly means Polish, although there is no 
explanation to be found for any connexion between Poland and 
such a Mediterranean vessel. 

POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, 
below), a country of Europe which till the end of the i8th century 
was a kingdom extending (with Lithuania) over the basins of the 
Warta, Vistula, Dwina, Dnieper and upper Dniester, and had 
under its dominion, besides the Poles proper and the Baltic 
Slavs, the Lithuanians, the White Russians and the Little 
Russians or Ruthenians. 

We possess no certain historical data relating to Poland till 
the end of the loth century. It would seem, from a somewhat 
obscure passage in the chronicle compiled from older 
Poland. sources by Nestor, a monk of Kiev (d. c. 1115), that 
the progenitors of the Poles, originally established 
on the Danube, were driven from thence by the Romans to 
the still wilder wilderness of central Europe, settling finally 
among the virgin forests and impenetrable morasses of the basin 
of the upper waters of the Oder and the Vistula. Here the 
Lechici, as they called themselves (a name derived from the 
mythical patriarch, Lech), seemed to have lived for centuries, 
in loosely connected communities, the simple lives of huntsmen, 
herdsmen and tillers of the soil, till the pressure of rapacious 
neighbours compelled them to combine for mutual defence. 
Of this infant state, the so-called kingdom of the Piasts (from 



Piast its supposed founder), we know next to nothing. Its 
origin, its territory, its institutions are so many insoluble 
riddles. The earliest Polish chroniclers, from Gallus in the early 
1 2th century to Janko of Czarnkow l in the I4th, are of little 
help to us. The only facts of importance to be gleaned from 
them are that Prince Ziemovifc, the great-grandfather of Mieszko 
(Mieczyslaw) I. (962-992), wrested from the vast but tottering 
Moravian Empire the province of Chrobacyja (extending from 
the Carpathians to the Bug), and that Christianity was first 
preached on the Vistula by Greek Orthodox missionary monks. 
Mieszko himself was converted by Jordan, the chaplain of his 
Bohemian consort, Dobrawa or Bona, and when Jordan became 
the first bishop of Posen, the people seem to have followed the 
example of their prince. But the whole movement was appar- 
ently the outcome not of religious conviction, but of political 
necessity. The Slavonic peoples, whose territories then extended 
to the Elbe, and embraced the whole southern shore of the Baltic, 
were beginning to recoil before the vigorous impetus of the 
Germans in the West, who regarded their pagan neighbours in 
much the same way as the Spanish Conquistadores regarded the 
Aztecs and the Incas. To accept Christianity, at least formally, 
was therefore a prudential safeguard on the part of the Slavonians. 
This was thoroughly understood by Mieszko's son Boleslaus I. 
(992-1025), who went aconsiderable step fartherthan his father. 
Mieszko had been content to be received on almost any terms 
into the Christian community, Boleslaus aimed at securing the 
independence of the Polish Church as an additional conversion 
guarantee of the independence of the Polish nation. '<> Christi- 
It was Boleslaus who made the church at Gnesen *"">' 
in Great Poland a national shrine by translating thither the 
relics of the martyred missionary, St Adalbert of Prague. 
Subsequently he elevated Gnesen into the metropolitan see of 
Poland, with jurisdiction over the bishoprics of Cracow, Breslau 
and Kolberg, all three of these new sees, it is important to notice, 
being in territory conquered by Boleslaus; for hitherto both 
Cracow and Breslau had been Bohemian cities, -while Kolberg was 
founded to curb the lately subjugated Pomeranians. Boleslaus 
was also the first Polish prince to bear the royal title, which 
seems to have been conferred upon him by 
Otto III. in looo, though as Boleslaus crowned^" s/ ' f 
himself king a second time in 1025, it is evident 
that he regarded the validity of his first coronation as somewhat 
doubtful. He was primarily a warrior, whose reign, an almost 
uninterrupted warfare, resulted in the formation of a vast king- 
dom extending from the Baltic to the Carpathians, and from 
the Elbe to the Bug. But this imposing superstructure rested 
on the flimsiest of foundations. In less than twenty years 
after the death of its founder, it collapsed before a combined 
attack of all Poland's enemies, and simultaneously a terrible 
pagan reaction swept away the poor remnants of Christianity 
and civilization. For a time Poland proper became a smoking 
wilderness, and wild beasts made their lairs in the ruined 
and desecrated churches. Under Boleslaus II. (1058-1079) 
and Boleslaus III. (1102-1139) some of the lost provinces, 
notably Silesia and Pomerania, were recovered and Poland 
was at least able to maintain her independence against the 
Germans. Boleslaus III., moreover, with the aid of St Otto, 
bishop of Bamberg, succeeded in converting the heathen 
Pomeranians (1124-1128), and making head against paganism 
generally. 

The last act of Boleslaus III. was to divide his territories 
among his sons, whereby Poland was partitioned into no fewer 
than four, and ultimately into as many as eight, pariHionai 
principalities, many of which (Silesia and Great Period, 
Poland, for instance) in process of time split ll38 -' 305 - 
up into still smaller fractions all of them more or less 
bitterly hostile to each other. This partitional period, as 
Polish historians generally call it, lasted from 1138 to 1305, 
during which Poland lost all political significance, and became 
an easy prey to her neighbours. The duke of Little Poland, 

'Archdeacon of Gnesen 1367: vice-chancellor of Poland; d. 

c. 1387- 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



903 



Rite of 
Cities. 



who generally styled himself duke of Poland, or dux totius 
Poloniae, claimed a sort of supremacy among these little states, 
a claim materially strengthened by the wealth and growing 
importance of his capital, Cracow, especially after Little Poland 
had annexed the central principality of Sieradia (Sieradz). 
But Masovia to the north, and Great Poland to the north-west, 
refused to recognize the supremacy of Little Poland, while 
Silesia soon became completely germanized. It was at the 
beginning of this period too, between 1216 and 1224, that 
Pomerania, under an energetic native dynasty, freed herself 
from the Polish suzerainty. Nearly a generation 
invasion. ^ ater ( I2 4 J ) the Tatar hordes, under Batu, appeared 
for the first time on the confines of Poland. The 
Polish princes opposed a valiant but ineffectual resistance; the 
towns of Sandomir and Cracow were reduced to ashes, and all 
who were able fled to the mountains of Hungary or the forests 
of Moravia. Pursuing his way to Silesia, Batu overthrew the 
confederated Silesian princes at Liegnitz (April 9), and, after 
burning all the Silesian towns, invaded Hungary, where he 
routed King Bela IV. on the banks of the Sajo. But this 
marked the limit of his triumph. Exhausted and diminished 
by the stout and successful opposition of the Moravians at 
Olmtitz, the Tatars vanished as suddenly as they had appeared, 
leaving a smoking wilderness behind them. 

Batu's invasion had an important influence upon the social 
and political development of Poland. The only way of filling 
Foreign U P the gaps in the population of the ravaged land 
/mm/- was to invite foreign immigrants of a superior class, 

grants. chapmen and handicraftsmen , not only given to peace- 
ful pursuits and accustomed to law and order, but 
capable of building and defending strong cities. Such 
immigrants could naturally be obtained only from the civilized 
west, and on their own terms. Thus it came about that the 
middle class element was introduced into Polish society for the 
first time. Immediately dependent upon the prince, from whom 
they obtained their privileges, the most important of which were 
self-government and freedom from taxation, these traders soon 
became an important factor in the state, counterpoising, to 
some extent, the influence of the gentry, enriching the land by 
developing its resources, and promoting civilization by raising 
the standard of comfort. 

Most of these German citizens in process of time were absorbed 
by the Polish population, and became devoted, heart and soul, 
The Knights to their adopted country; but these were not the 
only Germans with whom the young Polish state 
had now to deal. In the first year of the I3th century, 
the Knights of the Sword, one of the numerous orders of crusad- 
ing military monks, had been founded in Livonia to " convert " 
the pagan Letts, and, in 1208, the still more powerful Teutonic 
order was invited by Duke Conrad of Masovia to settle in 
the district of Kulm (roughly corresponding to modern East 
Prussia) to protect his territories against the incursions of the 
savage Prussians, a race closely akin to the Lithuanians. Conrad 
has been loudly blamed by Polish historians for introducing 
this foreign, and as it ultimately proved, dangerous element 
into Poland. But the unfortunate prince had to choose between 
dependence and extermination, for his unaided resources were 
powerless against the persistent attacks of the unconquerable 
The Prussians. The Teutonic Order, which had just 

Teutonic been expelled from Hungary by Andrew II., joyfully 
Order. accepted this new domicile, and its position in the 

north was' definitely established by the compact of Kruschwitz 
in 1 230, whereby it obtained absolute possession of the maritime 
district between Pomerania and Courland, and southwards as 
far as Thorn. So far were the Poles from anticipating any 
danger from the Teutonic Order, that, from 1243 to 1255, they 
actually assisted it to overthrow the independent Pomeranian 
princes, the most formidable opponents of the Knights in the 
earlier years of their existence. A second Tatar raid in 1259, 
less dangerous, perhaps, but certainly more ruinous, than the first 
invasion for the principalities of Little Poland and Sandomir 
were systematically ravaged for three months still further 



of the 
Sword. 



The Lit hu- 

aaians. 



depressed the land, and, at this very time, another enemy 
appeared in the east the Lithuanians. 

This interesting people, whose origin is to this day the most 
baffling of ethnographical puzzles, originally dwelt amidst the 
forests and marshes of the Upper Niemen. Thanks 
to the impenetrability of their fastnesses, they 
preserved their original savagery longer than any 
of their neighbours, and this savagery was coupled with a valour 
so tenacious and enterprising as to make them formidable to 
all who dwelt near them. The Russians fled at the sight of 
them, " like hares before hunters." The Livs and Letts 
were as much the prey of the Lithuanians " as sheep are the 
prey of wolves." The German chroniclers describe them as 
the most terrible of all the barbarians. The Lithuanians first 
emerge into the light of history at the time of the settlement 
of the Teutonic Order in the North. Rumours of the war of 
extermination conducted against their kinsmen, the wild 
Prussians, by the Knights, first woke the Lithuanians to a sense 
of their own danger, and induced them to abandon their loose 
communal system in favour of a monarchical form of govern- 
ment, which concentrated the whole power of the state in a 
single hand. Fortunately, too, at this crisis of their history, 
the Lithuanians were blessed with an altogether exceptional series 
of great rulers, who showed themselves fully capable of taking 
care of themselves. There was, for instance, Mendovg (1240- 
1263), who submitted to baptism for purely political reasons, 
checkmated the Teutonic Knights by adroitly seeking the protec- 
tion of the Holy See, and annexed the principality of Plock to 
his ever-widening grand duchy, which already included Black 
Russia, and formed a huge wedge extending southwards from 
Courland, thus separating Poland from Russia. A still greater 
prince was Gedymin (1315-1342) who did his utmost to civilize 
Lithuania by building towns, introducing foreigners, and 
tolerating all religions, though he himself remained a pagan 
for political reasons. Gedymin still further extended the 
limits of Lithuania by annexing Kiev, Chernigov and other 
old Russian principalities. 

At the very time when Lithuania was thus becoming a com- 
pact, united, powerful state, Poland seemed literally to be 
dropping to pieces. Not even the exhortations of 
the popes could make her score of princes unite 
for mutual defence against the barbarians who en- 
vironed them. For a time it seemed highly probable that Poland 
would be completely germanized, like Silesia, or become a part 
of the new Bohemian Empire which Wenceslaus II. (crowned 
king of Poland in 1300) had inherited from his father, Ottakar II. 
From this fate she was saved by the valour of Wladislaus 
Lokietek, duke of Great Poland (1306-1333), who reunited 
Great and Little Poland, revived the royal dignity in 
1320, and saved the kingdom from annihilation by his great 
victory over the Teutonic Knights at Plowce in 1332. The 
whole reign of Wladislaus I. was indeed an unceasing struggle 
against all the forces of anarchy and disintegration; but the 
fruits of his labours were richly reaped by his son Casimir III. 
the Great (1333-^70), Poland's first great statesman in the 
modern sense of the word, who, by a most skilful system of 
matrimonial alliances, reintroduced isolated Poland Casimirin. 
into the European system, and gave the exhausted the Great, 
country an inestimably beneficial breathing space t 333-O70. 
of thirty-seven years. A born ruler, Casimir introduced a 
whole series of administrative and economical reforms. He 
was the especial protector of the cities and the peasants, 
and, though averse from violent measures, punished aristo- 
cratic tyranny with an iron hand. Casimir's few wars were 
waged entirely for profit, not glory. It is to him that Poland 
owed the important acquisition of the greater part of Red 
Russia, or Galicia, which enabled her to secure her fair share of 
the northern and eastern trade. In default of male issue, 
Casimir left the Polish throne to his nephew, Louis of Hungary, 
who ruled the country (1370-1382) through his mother, Queen 
Elizabeth, Wladislaus Lokietek's daughter. Louis well deserved 
the epithet of " great " bestowed upon him by his contemporaries; 



/., 



94 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



but Poland formed but a small portion of his vast domains, 
and Poland's interests were subordinated to the larger demands 
of an imperial policy which embraced half Europe within its 
orbit. 

On the death of Louis there ensued an interregnum of two 
years marked by fierce civil wars, instigated by duke Ziemovit 
of Masovia, the northernmost province of Poland, 
which continued to exist as an independent princi- 
jagieiio. pality alongside of the kingdom of Poland. Ziemo- 
Union of vit aimed at the Polish crown, proposing to marry 
l ^ e m f ant princess Jadwiga of Hungary, who, as 
the daughter of Louis the Great and the grand- 
daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, had an equal right, by 
inheritance, to the thrones of Hungary and Poland. By an 
agreement with the queen mother of Hungary at Kassa in 
1383, the Poles finally accepted Jadwiga as their queen, and, 
on the i8th of February 1386, greatly against her will, the 
young princess, already betrothed to William of Austria, was 
wedded to Jagiello, grand duke of Lithuania, who had been 
crowned king of Poland at Cracow, three days previously, under 
the title of Wladislaus II. 

The union of Poland and Lithuania as separate states under 
one king had been brought about by their common fear of the 
Teutonic Order. Five years after the death of Gedymin, 
Olgierd, the most capable of his seven sons, had been placed upon 
the throne of Lithuania by his devoted brother Kiejstut, and 
for the next two-and-thirty years (1345-1377) the two princes 
still further extended the sway of Lithuania, principally at the 
expense of Muscovy and the Tatars. Kiejstut ruled the western 
portion of the land where the Teutonic Knights were a constant 
menace, while Olgierd drove the Tatar hordes out of the south- 
eastern steppes, and compelled them to seek a refuge in the 
Crimea. During Olgierd's reign the southern boundaries of 
Lithuania touched the Black Sea, including the whole tract of 
land between the mouth of the Bug and the mouth of the 
Dnieper. Olgierd was succeeded by his son Jagiello as grand 
duke in 1377, while Kiejstut was left in possession of Samogitia, 
Troki and Grodno; but the Teutonic Order, alarmed at the 
growth of Lithuania, succeeded in estranging uncle and nephew, 
and Kiejstut was treacherously assassinated by Jagiello's orders, 
at Krewo, on the isth of August 1382. Three weeks later 
Jagiello was compelled to cede Samogitia, as far as the Dubissa, 
to the Knights, and, in the following year they set up against 
him Kiejstut's son Witowt. The eyes of Jagiello were now 
opened to the fact that the machiavellian policy of the Knights 
aimed at subjugating Lithuania by dividing it. He at once 
made peace with his cousin; restored him his patrimony; and, 
to secure Lithuania against the future vengeance of the Knights, 
Jagiello made overtures to Poland for the hand of Jadwiga, 
and received the Polish crown along with it, as already men- 
tioned 

Before proceeding to describe the Jagiellonic period of Polish 
history, it is necessary to cast a rapid glance at the social and 
political condition of the country in the preceding Piast period. 

The paucity and taciturnity of our sources make it impossible 
to give anything like an adequate picture of Old Poland during 
Begtnatnsfs tne nrst f ur centuries of its existence. A glimpse 
of the Polish here and there of the political development of the 
Consiitu- country is the utmost that the most diligent scrutiny 
can glean from the scanty record of the early chron- 
icles. External pressure, here as elsewhere, created a patriotic 
military caste, and the subsequent partitional period, when 
every little prince had his own separate court, still further 
established the growing influence of the szlachta, or gentry, who 
were not backward in claiming and obtaining special privileges 
in return for their services. The first authentic pacta conventa 
made between the Polish nobility and the Crown dates from 
the compact of Kassa (September 17, 1374), when Louis of 
Hungary agreed to exempt the szlachta from all taxation, 
except two Polish groschen per hide of land, and to compensate 
them for the expenses of all military service rendered beyond 
the confines of the realm. The clergy received their chief 



privileges much earlier. It was at the synod of Leczyca, 
nearly a century before the compact of Kassa, that the property 
of the Church was first safeguarded against the encroachments 
of the state. The beneficial influence of the Church of Poland 
in these early times was incalculable. To say nothing of the 
labours of the Cistercians as colonists, pioneers and church- 
builders, or of the missions of the Dominicans and Franciscans 
(the former of whom were introduced into Poland by Ivo, 
bishop of Cracow, 1 the personal friend of Dominic), the Church 
was the one stable and unifying element in an age of centrifugal 
particularism. The frequent synods represented the whole 
of Poland, and kept alive, as nothing else could, the idea of 
national solidarity. The Holy See had also a considerable 
share in promoting the political development of the land. In 
the i3th century alone no fewer than forty-nine papal legates 
visited Poland, and thirty provincial synods were held by them 
to regulate church affairs and promote good government. 
Moreover the clergy, to then- eternal honour, consistently 
protected the lower from the tyranny of the upper classes. 

The growth of the towns was slower. During the heroic 
Boleslawic period there had been a premature outcrop of civil 
life. As early as the nth century Kruschwitz, Growth 
the old Polish capital, and Gnesen, the metropolitan of the 
see, were of considerable importance, and played a 
leading part in public life. But in the ensuing anarchic period 
both cities were utterly ruined, and the centre of political 
gravity was transferred from Great Poland to Little Poland, 
where Cracow, singularly favoured by her position, soon became 
the capital of the monarchy, and one of the wealthiest cities 
in Europe. At the end of the I4th century we find all the great 
trade gilds established there, and the cloth manufactured at 
Cracow was eagerly sought after, from Prague to Great Novgorod. 
So wealthy did Cracow become at last that Casimir the Great felt 
it necessary to restrain the luxury of her citizens by sumptuary 
ordinances. Towards the end of the I4th century the Polish 
towns even attained some degree of political influence, and their 
delegates sat with the nobles and clergy in the king's councils, 
a right formally conceded to them at Radom in March 1384. 
Even the peasants, who had suffered severely from the wholesale 
establishment of prisoners of war as serfs on the estates of the 
nobles, still preserved the rights of personal liberty and free 
transit from place to place, whence their name of lazigi. The 
only portion of the community which had no privileges were the 
Jews, first introduced into Poland by Boleslaus the Pious, 
duke of Great Poland, in 1264, when bitter persecutions had 
driven them northwards from the shores of the Adriatic. Casimir 
the Great extended their liberty of domicile over the whole 
kingdom (1334). From the first they were better treated in 
Poland than elsewhere, though frequently exposed to outbreaks 
of popular fanaticism. 

The transformation of the pagan Lithuanian chieftain Jagiello 
into the catholic king of Poland, Wladislaus II., was an event of 
capital importance in the history of eastern Europe. .. 
Its immediate and inevitable consequence was the i aus //. 
formal reception of the Lithuanian nations into the and the 
fold of the Church. What the Teutonic Order had Teutonic 
vainly endeavoured to bring about by fire and sword, 
for two centuries, was peacefully accomplished by Jagiello within 
a single generation, the Lithuanians, for the most part, willingly 
yielding to the arguments of a prince of their own blood, who 
promptly rewarded his converts with peculiar and exclusive 
privileges. The conversion of Lithuania menaced the very 
existence of the Teutonic Knights. Originally planted on the 
Baltic shore for the express purpose of christianizing their 
savage neighbours, these crusading monks had freely exploited 
the wealth and the valour of the West, ostensibly in the cause 
of religion, really for the purpose of founding a dominion of 
their own which, as time went on, lost more and more of its 
religious character, and was now little more than a German 
military forepost, extending from Pomerania to the Niemen, 
which deliberately excluded the Slavs from the sea and thrived 

'Archbishop of Gnesen 1219-1220. Died at Modena~l229. 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



95 



at their expense. The mere instinct of self-preservation had, 
at last, drawn the Poles and Lithuanians together against these 
ruthless and masterful intruders, and the coronation of Jagiello 
at Cracow on the 15th of February 1386, was both a warning 
and a challenge to the Knights. But if the Order had now become 
a superfluous anachronism, it had still to be disposed of, and 
this was no easy task. For if it had failed utterly as a mission 
in partibus, it had succeeded in establishing on the Baltic one 
of the strongest military organizations in Europe. In the art 
of war the Knights were immeasurably superior to all their 
neighbours. The pick of the feudal chivalry composed their 
ranks; with all Europe to draw upon, their resources seemed 
inexhaustible, and centuries of political experience made them 
as formidable in diplomacy as they were valiant in warfare. 
And indeed, for the next twenty years, the Teutonic Order 
more than held its own. Skilfully taking advantage of the 
jealousies of Poland and Lithuania, as they were accentuated 
by the personal antagonism of Jagiello and Witowt (q.v.), with 
the latter of whom the Knights more than once contracted 
profitable alliances, they even contrived (Treaty of Salin, 1378) 
to extend their territory by getting possession of the province of 
Samogitia, the original seat of the Lithuanians, where paganism 
still persisted, and where their inhuman cruelties finally excited 
the horror and indignation of Christian Europe. By this time, 
however, the prudent Jagiello had become convinced that 
Lithuania was too strong to be ruled by or from Poland, and 
yet not strong enough to stand alone, and by the compact 
of Vilna (January 18, 1401, confirmed by the compact of 
Radowo, March 10) he surrendered the whole grand duchy 
to Witowt, on the understanding that the two states should 
have a common policy, and that neither of them should elect 
a new prince without the consent of the other. The wisdom of 
this arrangement was made manifest in 1410, when Jagiello 
and Witowt combined their forces for the purpose of delivering 
Samogitia from the intolerable tyranny of the Knights. The 
issue was fought out on the field of Tannenberg, or [Griinewald 
(July 15, 1410), when the Knights sustained a crushing defeat, 
which shook their political organization to its very foundations. 
A few weeks after the victory the towns of Thorn, Elbing, 
Braunsberg and Danzig submitted to the Polish king, and all 
the Prussian bishops voluntarily offered to render him 
homage. But the excessive caution of Jagiello gave the 
Knights time to recover from the blow; the Polish levies proved 
unruly and incompetent; Witowt was suddenly recalled to 
Lithuania by a Tatar invasion, and thus it came about that, 
when peace was concluded at Thorn, on the ist of February 
141 1, Samogitia (which was to revert to the Order on the death of 
Jagiello and Witowt), Dobrzyn, and a war indemnity of 100,000 
marks payable in four instalments, were the best terms Poland 
could obtain from the Knights, whose territory practically 
remained intact. Jagiello's signal for the attack at the battle 
of Griinewald, " Cracow and Vilna " (the respective capitals 
of Poland and Lithuania) had [eloquently [demonstrated the 
solidarity of the two states. This solidarity was still further 
strengthened by the Union of Horodlo (October 2, 1413) 
which enacted that henceforth Lithuania was to have the 
same order of dignitaries 1 as Poland, as well as a council of 
state, or senate, similar to the Polish senate. The power of 
the grand-duke was also greatly increased. He was now 
declared to be the equal of the Polish king, and his successor could 
be elected only by the senates of Poland and Lithuania in con- 
junction. The Union of Horodlo also established absolute 
parity between the nobility of Poland and Lithuania, but the 
privileges of the latter were made conditional upon their pro- 
fession of the Roman Catholic faith, experience having shown 
that difference of religion in Lithuania meant difference of politics, 
and a tendency Moscow-wards, the majority of the Lithuanian 
boyars being of the Greek Orthodox Confession. 

1 All the chief offices of state were consequently duplicated,^.?, 
the hetman wielki koronny, i.e. " grand hetman of the crown," as 
the Polish commander-in-chief was called, had his counterpart in 
Lithuania, who bore the title of wielki hetman litewski, i.e. grand 
hetman of Lithuania," and so on. 



During the remainder of the reign of Wladislaus II. the 
Teutonic Order gave Poland much trouble, but no serious 
anxiety. The trouble was due mainly to the repeated efforts 
of the Knights to evade the fulfilment of the obligations of the 
Treaty of Thorn. In these endeavours they were materially 
assisted by the emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hun- 
gary. Sigismund, in 1422, even went so far as to propose a 
partition of Poland between Hungary, the empire and the 
Silesian princes, a scheme which foundered upon Sigismund's 
impecuniosity and the reluctance of the Magyars to injure the 
Poles. More than once Wladislaus II. was even obliged to 
renew the war against the Knights, and, in 1422, he compelled 
them to renounce all claims upon Samogitia; but the long 
struggle, still undecided at his death, was fought mainly with 
diplomatic weapons at Rome, where the popes, generally speak- 
ing, listened rather to the victorious monarch who had added 
an ecclesiastical province to the Church than to the discomfited 
and turbulent Knights. 

Had Wladislaus II. been as great a warrior as Witowt he 
might, perhaps, have subdued the Knights altogether. But 
by nature he was pre-eminently a diplomatist, and it must in 
fairness be admitted that his diplomacy in every direction was 
distinctly beneficial to Poland. He successfully thwarted all 
the schemes of the emperor Sigismund, by adroitly supporting 
the revolutionary party in Bohemia (<?..). In return Hussite 
mercenaries fought on the Polish side at Tannenburg, and 
Czech patriots repeatedly offered the crown of Bohemia to 
Wladislaus. The Polish king was always ready enough to 
support the Czechs against Sigismund; but the necessity of 
justifying his own orthodoxy (which the Knights were for ever 
impugning) at Rome and in the face of Europe prevented him 
from accepting the crown of St Wenceslaus from the hands of 
heretics. 

Wladislaus II. died at Lemberg in 1434, at the age of eighty- 
three. During his long reign of forty-nine years Poland had 
gradually risen to the rank of a great power, a result due in no 
small measure to the insight and sagacity of the first Jagiello, 
who sacrificed every other consideration to the vital necessity 
of welding the central Slavs into a compact and homogeneous 
state. The next ten years severely tested the stability of his 
great work, but it stood the test triumphantly. Neither a 
turbulent minority, nor the neglect of an absentee king; neither 
the revival of separatist tendencies in Lithuania, nor the out- 
breaks of aristocratic lawlessness in Poland, could do more 
than shake the superstructure of the imposing edifice. After 
the death at Varna, in 1444, of Jagiello's eldest son and successor, 
Wladislaus III. (whose history belongs rather to Hungary than to 
Poland), another great statesman, in nowise inferior to Wladis- 
laus II., completed and consolidated his work. This was 
Wladislaus's second son, already grandduke of Lithuania, 
who ascended the Polish throne as Casimir IV. in 1447, thus 
reuniting Poland and Lithuania under one monarch. 

Enormous were the difficulties of Casimir IV. He instinc- 
tively recognized not only the vital necessity of the maintenance 
of the union between the two states, but also the 
fact that the chief source of danger to the union lay 
in Lithuania, in those days a maelstrom of conflicting 
political currents. To begin with, Lithuania was a far less 
composite state than Poland. Two-thirds of the grandduchy 
consisted of old Russian lands inhabited by men who spoke 
the Ruthenian language and professed the Orthodox Greek 
religion, while in the north were the Lithuanians proper, semi- 
savage and semi-catholic, justly proud of their heroic forefathers 
of the house of Gedymin, and very sensitive of the pretensions 
of Poland to the provinces of Volhynia and Podolia, the fruits of 
Lithuanian valour. A Lithuanian himself, Casimir strenuously 
resisted the attempts of Poland to wrest these provinces from 
the grandduchy. Moreover, during the earlier years of his 
reign, he was obliged to reside for the most part in Lithuania, 
where his tranquilizing influence was needed. His supposed 
preference for Lithuania was the real cause of his unpopularity in 
Poland, where, to the very end of his reign, he was regarded 






906 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart his 
far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were 
beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrow- 
minded contemporaries. This was notably the case as regards 
his dealings with the old enemy of his race, the Teutonic 
Order, whose destruction was the chief aim of his ambition. 

The Teutonic Order had long since failed as a religious institu- 
tion; it was now to show its inadequacy as a political organiza- 
tion. In the domain of the Knights the gentry, parochial 
clergy and townsmen, who, beneath its protection, had attained 
to a high degree of 'wealth and civilization, for long remained 
without the slightest political influence, though they bore nearly 
the whole burden of taxation. In 1414, however, intimidated 
by the growing discontent, which frequently took the form of 
armed rebellion, the Knights consented to the establishment 
of a diet, which was re-formed on a more aristocratic basis in 
1430. But the old abuses continuing to multiply, the Prussian 
towns and gentry at last took their affairs into their own hands, 
and formed a so-called Prussian League, which demanded an 
equal share in the government of the country. This league was 
excommunicated by the pope, and placed under the ban of 
the empire almost simultaneously in 1453, whereupon it placed 
itself beneath the protection of its nearest powerful neighbour, 
the king of Poland, who (March 6, 1454) issued a manifesto 
incorporating all the Prussian provinces with Poland, but, 
at the same time, grunting them local autonomy and free 
trade. 

But provinces are not conquered by manifestoes, and Casimir's 
acceptance of the homage of the Prussian League at once 
involved him in a war with the desperate Teutonic Knights, 
which lasted twelve years, but might easily have been concluded 
in a twelvemonth had he only been loyally supported by his 
own subjects, for whose benefit he had embarked upon this 
great enterprise. But instead of support, Casimir encountered 
obstinate obstruction at every point. No patriotic Pole, we 
imagine, can read the history of this miserable war without 
feeling heartily ashamed of his countrymen. The acquisition 
of the Prussian lands was vital to the existence of Poland. It 
meant the excision of an alien element which fed h'ke a cancer 
on the body politic; it meant the recovery, at comparatively 
little cost, of the command of the principal rivers of Poland, the 
Vistula and the Niemen; it meant the obtaining of a seaboard 
with the corollaries of sea-power and world-wide commerce. 
Yet, except in the border province of Great Poland, which was 
interested commercially, the whole enterprise was regarded 
with such indifference that the king, in the very crisis of the 
struggle, could only with the utmost difficulty obtain contribu- 
tions for war expenses from the half-dozen local diets of Poland, 
which extorted from the helplessness of their distracted 
and impecunious sovereign fresh privileges for every subsidy 
they grudgingly granted. Moreover Casimir's difficulties were 
materially increased by the necessity of paying for Czech 
mercenaries, the pospolite ruszenie, or Polish militia, proving 
utterly useless at the very beginning of the war. Indeed, 
from first to last, the Polish gentry as a body took good care to 
pay and fight as little as possible, and Casimir depended for 
the most part upon the liberality of the Church and the Prussian 
towns, and the valour of the Hussite infantry, 170,000 of whom, 
fighting on both sides, are said to have perished. Not till the 
victory of Puck (September 17, 1462), one of the very few 
pitched battles in a war of raids, skirmishes and sieges, did 
fortune incline decisively to the side of the Poles, who maintained 
and improved their advantage till absolute exhaustion compelled 
the Knights to accept the mediation of a papal legate, and 
the second peace of Thorn (October 14, 1466) concluded a 
struggle which had reduced the Prussian provinces to a wilder- 
ness. 1 By the second peace of Thorn, Poland recovered the 
provinces of Pomerelia, Kulm and Michalow, with the bishopric ' 
of Ermeland, numerous cities and fortresses, including Marien- 

18,000 of their 21,000 villages were destroyed, 1000 churches 
were razed to the ground, and the population was diminished by 
more than a quarter of a million. 



burg, Elbing, Danzig and Thorn. The territory of the Knights 
was now reduced to Prussia proper, embracing, roughly speak- 
ing, the district between the Baltic, the lower Vistula and the 
lower Niemen, with Konigsberg as its capital. For this territory 
the grand-masters, within nine months of their election, were 
in future to render homage to the Polish king; but, on the other 
band, the king undertook not to make war or engage in any 
important enterprise without the consent of the Prussian pro- 
vince, and vice versa. Thus Prussia was now confederated with 
Poland, but she occupied a subordinate position as compared 
with Lithuania, inasmuch as the grand-master, though filling 
the first place in the royal council, was still a subject of the 
Polish crown. Thus the high hopes entertained by Casimir 
at the beginning of the war had not been realized. The final 
settlement with the Poles was of the nature of a compromise. 
Still the Knights had been driven beyond the Vistula, and Poland / 
had secured a seaboard; and it was due entirely to the infinite 
patience and tenacity of the king that even as much as this was 
won at last. 

The whole foreign policy of Casimir IV. was more or less 
conditioned by the Prussian question, and here also his superior 
diplomacy triumphantly asserted itself. At the beginning of 
the war both the empire and the pope were against him, but he 
neutralized their hostility by allying himself with George of 
Podvebrad, whom the Hussites had placed on. the throne of 
Bohemia. On the death of George, Casimir's eldest son Wladis- 
laus was elected king of Bohemia by the Utraquist party, despite 
the determined opposition of Matthias Corvinus, king of 
Hungary, whose ability and audacity henceforth made him 
Casimir's most dangerous rival. Sure of the support of 
the pope, Matthias (q.v.) deliberately set about traversing 
all the plans of Casimir. He encouraged the Teutonic Order 
to rebel against Poland; he entertained at his court anti- 
Polish embassies from Moscow; he encouraged the Tatars to 
ravage Lithuania; he thwarted Casimir's policy in Moldavia. 
The death of the brilliant adventurer at Vienna in 1490 came 
therefore as a distinct relief to Poland, and all danger from 
the side of Hungary was removed in 1490 when Casimir's son 
Wladislaus, already king of Bohemia, was elected king of 
Hungary also. 

It was in the reign of Casimir IV. that Poland first came 
into direct collision with the Turks. The Republic was never, 
indeed, the " Buckler of Christendom." That 
glorious epithet belonged of right to Hungary, which 
had already borne the brunt of the struggle with 
the Ottoman power for more than a century. It is true that 
Wladislaus II. of Poland had fallen on the field of Varna, but 
it was as a Magyar king at the head of a Magyar army that the 
young monarch met his fate. Poland, indeed, was far less able 
to cope with the Turks than compact, wealthy Hungary, which 
throughout the i$th century was one of the most efficient 
military monarchies in Europe. The Jagiellos, as a rule, 
prudently avoided committing themselves to any political 
system which might irritate the still distant but much-dreaded 
Turk, but when their dominions extended so far southwards 
as to embrace Moldavia, the observance of a strict neutrality 
became exceedingly difficult. Poland had established a sort 
of suzerainty over Moldavia as early as the end of the i4th 
century; but at best it was a loose and vague overlordship 
which the Hospodars repudiated whenever they were strong 
enough to do so. The Turks themselves were too much occupied 
elsewhere to pay much attention to the Danubian principalities 
till the middle of the isth century. In 1478 Mahomet II. 
had indeed attempted their subjugation, with but indifferent 
success; but it was not till 1484 that the Ottomans became 
inconvenient neighbours to Poland. In that year a Turkish 
fleet captured the strongholds of Kilia and Akkerman, command- 
ing respectively the mouths of the Danube and Dniester. This 
aggression seriously threatened the trade of Poland, and induced 
Casimir IV. to accede to a general league against the Porte. 
In 1485, after driving the Turks out of Moldavia, the Polish 
king, at the head of 20,000 men, proceeded to Kolomea on the 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



907 



Pruth, where Bayezid II., then embarrassed by the Egyptian 
war, offered peace, but as no agreement concerning the captured 
fortresses could be arrived at, hostilities were suspended by a 
truce. During the remainder of his reign the Turks gave no 
trouble. 

It was a fortunate thing for Poland that, during the first 
century of her ascension to the rank of a great power, political 
exigencies compelled her to appropriate almost more territory 
than her primitive and centrifugal government could properly 
assimilate; it was fortunate that throughout this period of 
expansion her destinies should, with one brief interval, have 
been controlled by a couple of superior statesmen, each of whom 
ruled for nearly fifty years. During the fourteen years (1492- 
1 506) which separate the reigns of Casimir IV. and Sigismund I. 
she was not so lucky. The controlling hand of Casimir IV. was 
no sooner withdrawn than the unruly elements, ever present 
in the Republic, and ultimately the casue of its ruin, at once 
burst forth. The first symptom of this lawlessness was the 
separation of Poland and Lithuania, the Lithuanians proceeding 
to elect Alexander, Casimir's fourth son, as their grand-duke, 
without even consulting the Polish senate, in flagrant violation 
of the union of Horodlo. The breach, happily, was of no very 
long duration. A disastrous war with Ivan III., the first 
Muscovite tsar, speedily convinced the Lithuanians that they 
were not strong enough to stand alone, and in 1499 they 
voluntarily renewed the union. Much more dangerous was 
the political revolution proceeding simultaneously in Poland, 
John I. where John Albert, the third son of Casimir, had 
Albert, been elected king on the death of his father. The 
1492-1501, na t ure o f thjs revolution will be considered in detail 
when we come to speak of the growth of the Polish 
constitution. Suffice it here to say that it was both anti- 
monarchical and anti-democratic, tending, as it did, to place all 
political authority in the hands of the szlachla, or gentry. 
The impecunious monarch submitted to the dictation of the 
diet in the hope of obtaining sufficient money to prosecute his 
ambitious designs. With his elder brother Wladislaus reigning 
over Bohemia and Hungary the credit of the Jagiellos in Europe 
had never been so great as it was now, and John Albert, bent 
upon military glory, eagerly placed himself at the head of what 
was to have been a great anti-Turkish league, but ultimately 
dwindled down to a raid upon Moldavia which ended in disaster. 
The sole ad vantage which John Albert reaped from his champion- 
ship of the Christian cause was the favour of the Curia, and the 
ascendancy which that favour gave him over the Teutonic 
Knights, whose new grand-master, Albert of Saxony, was reluc- 
tantly compelled to render due homage to the Polish king. 
. , . Under Alexander (<?.!>.), who succeeded his brother 

Alexander, . . ' . , , . , 

isoi-1506. ln I 5 OI > matters went from bad to worse. Alex- 
ander's election cemented, indeed, once for all, the 
union between Poland and Lithuania, inasmuch as, on the 
eve of it (Oct. 3, 1501) the senates of both countries agreed 
that, in future, the king of Poland should always be grand-duke 
of Lithuania; but this was the sole benefit which the Republic 
derived from the reign of Alexander, under whom the Polish 
government has been well described as a rudderless ship in a 
stormy sea, with nothing but the grace of God between it 
and destruction. In Lithuania the increasing pressure of the 
Muscovite was the chief danger. Till the accession of Ivan III. 
in 1462 Muscovy had been a negligible factor in 
Lithuania. Ph sn politics. During the earlier part of the I5th 
century the Lithuanian princes had successfully 
contested Muscovite influence even in Pskov and Great Novgorod. 
Many Russian historians even maintain that, but for the fact 
that Witowt had simultaneously to cope with the Teutonic 
Order and the Tatars, that energetic prince would certainly 
have extinguished struggling Muscovy altogether. But since 
the death of Witowt (1430) the military efficiency of Lithuania 
had sensibly decline*d; single-handed she was no longer a match 
for her ancient rival. This was owing partly to the evils of an 
oligarchic government; partly to the weakness resulting from 
the natural attraction of the Orthodox-Greek element in Lithu- 



ania towards Muscovy, especially after the fall of Constantinople, 
but chiefly to the administrative superiority of the highly cen- 
tralized Muscovite government. During the reign of Alex- 
ander, who was too poor to maintain any adequate standing 
army in Lithuania, the Muscovites and Tatars ravaged the 
whole country at will, and were prevented from conquering it 
altogether only by their inability to capture the chief fortresses. 
In Poland, meanwhile, something very like anarchy prevailed. 
Alexander had practically surrendered his authority to an 
incapable aristocracy, whose sole idea of ruling was systematically 
to oppress and humiliate the lower classes. In foreign affairs 
a policy of drift prevailed which encouraged all the enemies 
of the Republic to raise their heads, while the dependent states 
of Prussia in the north and Moldavia in the south made strenuous 
efforts to break away from Poland. Fortunately for the integ- 
rity of the Polish state the premature death of Alexander in 
1506 brought upon the throne his capable brother Sigismund, 
the fifth son of Casimir IV., whose long reign of 
forty-two years was salutary, and would have been 
altogether recuperative, had his statesmanship only 
been loyally supported by his subjects. Eminently practical, 
Sigismund recognized that the first need of Poland was a stand- 
ing army. The miserable collapse of the Polish chivalry during 
the Bukovinian campaign of 1497 had convinced every one that 
the ruszenie pospolite was useless for serious military purposes, 
and that Poland, in order to hold her own, must in future follow 
the example of the West, and wage her warfare with trained 
mercenaries. But professional soldiers could not be hired 
without money, and the difficulty was to persuade the diet to 
loose its purse-strings. All that the gentry contributed at 
present was two pence (groschen) per hide of land, and this only 
for defensive service at home. If the king led the ruszenie 
pospolite abroad he was obliged to pay so much per pike out of 
his own pocket, notwithstanding the fact that the heavily 
mortgaged crown lands were practically valueless. At the 
diet of 1510 the chancellor and primate, Adam Laski, proposed 
an income-tax of 50% at once, and 5% for subsequent years, 
payable by both the lay and clerical estates. In view of the 
fact that Poland was the most defenceless country in Europe, 
with no natural boundaries, and constantly exposed to attacks 
from every quarter, it was not unreasonable to expect even this 
patriotic sacrifice from the privileged classes, who held at least 
two-thirds of the land by military tenure. Nevertheless, the 
diet refused to consider the scheme. In the following year a 
more modest proposal was made by the Crown in the shape of 
a capitation of six gulden, to be levied on every nobleman at 
the beginning of a campaign, for the hiring of mercenaries. 
This also was rejected. In 1512 the king came forward with a 
third scheme. He proposed to divide the country into five 
circles, corresponding to the five provinces, each of which was 
to undertake to defend the realm in turn should occasion arise. 
Moreover, every one who so desired it might pay a commutation 
in lieu of personal service, and the amount so realized was to be 
re-used to levy troops. To this the dietines, or local diets, of 
Great Poland, and Little Poland, agreed, but at the last moment 
the whole project foundered on the question who was the proper 
custodian of the new assessment rolls, and the king had to be 
content with the renewal of former subsidies, varying from 
twelve to fifteen groats per hide of land for three years. Well 
might the disappointed monarch exclaim: " It is vain to labour 
for the welfare of those who do not care a jot about it them- 
selves." Matters improved somewhat in 1527, when the 
szlachta, by a special act, placed the mightiest magnates on the 
same level as the humblest squire as regards military service, 
and proposed at the same time a more general assessment for 
the purpose, the control of the money so realized to be placed 
in the hands of the king. In consequence of this law the great 
lords were compelled to put forces in the field proportioned to 
their enormous fortunes, and Sigismund was able in 1529 to 
raise 300 foot and 3200 horse from the province of Podolia alone. 
But though the treasury was thus temporarily replenished and 
the army increased, the gentry who had been so generous at 



908 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



the expense of their richer neighbours would hear of no addi- 
tional burdens being laid on themselves, and the king only 
obtained what he wanted by sacrificing his principles to his 
necessities, and helping the szlachta to pull down the magnates. 
This fatal parsimony had the most serious political consequences, 
for it crippled the king at every step. Strive and scheme as 
he might, his needs were so urgent, his enemies so numerous, 
that, though generally successful in the end, he had always to 
be content with compromises, adjustments and semi-victories. 
Thus he was obliged, in 1525, to grant local autonomy to the 
province of Prussia instead of annexing it; he was unable to 
succour his unfortunate nephew, Louis of Hungary, against the 
Turkish peril; he was compelled to submit to the occupation 
of one Lithuanian province after the other by the Muscovites, 
and look on helplessly while myriads of Tatars penetrated to 
the very heart of his domains, wasting with fire and sword 
everything they could not carry away with them. 

Again, it should have been the first duty of the Republic 
adequately to fortify the dzikie pola, or " savage steppe," as 
the vast plain was called which extended from Kiev 
Cossacks. t the Black Sea, and some feeble attempts to do so 
were at last made. Thus, in the reign of Alexander, 
the fugitive serfs whom tyranny or idleness had driven into 
this wilderness (they were subsequently known as Kazaki, or 
Cossacks, a Tatar word meaning freebooters) were formed into 
companies (c. 1504) and placed at the disposal of the frontier 
starostas, or lord marchers, of Kaniev, Kamenets, Czerkask on 
the Don and other places. But these measures proved inade- 
quate, and in 1533 the lord marcher, Ostafi Daszkiewicz, the 
hero of Kaniev, which he had successfully defended against 
a countless host of Turks and Tatars, was consulted by the 
diet as to the best way of defending the Ukraine permanently 
against such inroads. The veteran expert advised the populating 
and fortifying of the islands of the Dnieper. Two thousand 
men would suffice, he said, and the Cossacks supplied excellent 
military material ready to hand. The diet unanimously 
approved of this simple and inexpensive plan; a special com- 
mission examined and approved of its details, and it was sub- 
mitted to the next diet, which rejected it. So nothing at all 
was done officially, and the defence of the eastern Ukraine was 
left to providence. Oddly enough the selfish prudence of Sigis- 
mund's rapacious consort, Queen Bona, did more for the national 
defence than the Polish state could do. Thus, to defend her 
immense possessions in Volhynia and Podolia, she converted 
the castles of Bar and Krzemieniec into first-class fortresses, 
and placed the former in the hands of her Silesian steward, who 
acquitted himself so manfully of his charge 1 that " the Tatars 
fell away from the frontier all the days of Pan Pretficz," and 
a large population settled securely beneath the walls of Bar, 
henceforth known as " the bastion of Podolia." Nothing, 
perhaps, illustrates so forcibly the casual character of the Polish 
government in the most vital matters as this single incident. 

The most important political event during the reign of Sigis- 
mund was the collapse of the ancient Hungarian monarchy at 
Mohacs in 1526. Poland, as the next neighbour of Hungary, 
was more seriously affected than any other European power 
by this catastrophe, but her politicians differed as to the best 
way of facing it. Immediately after the death of King Louis, 
who fell on the field of battle, the emperor Ferdinand and John 
Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania, competed for the vacant 
crown, and both were elected almost simultaneously. In 
Poland Zapolya's was the popular cause, and he also found 
powerful support in the influential and highly gifted Laski family, 
as represented by the Polish chancellor and his nephews John 
and Hieronymus. Sigismund, on the other hand, favoured 
Ferdinand of Austria. Though bound by family ties with both 
competitors, he regarded the situation from a purely political 
point of view. He argued that the best way to keep the Turk 
from Poland was for Austria to incorporate Hungary, in which 
case the Austrian dominion would be a strong and permanent 
barrier against a Mussulman invasion of Europe. History has 

1 Pretficz won no fewer than 70 engagements over the Tatars. 



more than justified him, and the long duel which ensued between 
Ferdinand and Zapolya (see HUNGARY: History) enabled the 
Polish monarch to maintain to the end a cautious but observant 
neutrality. More than once, indeed, Sigismund was seriously 
compromised by the diplomatic vagaries of Hieronymus Laski, 
who entered the service of Zapolya (since 1529 the protege of 
the sultan), and greatly alarmed both the emperor and the pope 
by his disturbing philo-Turk proclivities. It was owing to 
Laski's intrigues that the new hospodar of Moldavia, Petrylo, 
after doing homage to the Porte, intervened in the struggle as 
the foe of both Ferdinand and Sigismund, and besieged the 
Grand Hetman of the Crown, Jan Tarnowski, in Obertyn, where, 
however, the Moldavians (August 22, 1531) sustained a crush- 
ing defeat, and Petrylo was slain. Nevertheless, so anxious was 
Sigismund to avoid a collision with the Turks, that he forbade 
the victorious Tarnowski to cross the Moldavian frontier, and 
sent a letter of explanation to Constantinople. On the death of 
John Zapolya, the Austro-Polish alliance was still further 
cemented by the marriage of Sigismund's son and heir, Sigis- 
mund Augustus, with the archduchess Elizabeth. In the reign of 
Sigismund was effected the incorporation of the duchy of Masovia 
with the Polish crown, after an independent existence of five 
hundred years. In 1526 the male line of the ancient dynasty 
became extinct, and on the 26th of August Sigismund received 
the homage of the Masovians at Warsaw, the capital of the 
duchy and ere long of the whole kingdom. Almost every 
acre of densely populated Masovia was in the hands of her sturdy, 
ultra-conservative squires, in point of culture far below their 
brethren in Great and Little Poland. The additional revenue 
gained by the Crown from Masovia was at first but 14,000 
gulden per annum. 

The four and twenty years of Sigismund II. 's reign was a 
critical period of Polish history. Complications with the 
Turk were avoided by the adroit diplomacy of the king, while 
the superior discipline and efficiency of the Polish armies under 
the great Tarnowski (q.v.) and his pupils overawed the Tatars 
and extruded the Muscovites, neither of whom were so trouble- 
some as they had been during the last reign. All the more 
disquieting was the internal condition of the country, due 
mainly to the invasion of Poland by the Reformation, and the 
coincidence of this invasion with an internal revolution of a 
quasi-democratic character, which aimed at substituting the 
rule of the szlachta for the rule of the senate. 

Hitherto the Republic had given the Holy See but little 
anxiety. Hussite influences, in the beginning of the isth 
century, had been superficial and transitory. The rtteRetor- 
Polish government had employed Hussite mercen- matioo la 
aries, but rejected Hussite propagandists. The />0/al "'- 
edict of Wielun (1424), remarkable as the first anti-heretical 
decree issued in Poland, crushed the new sect in its infancy. 
Lutheranism, moreover, was at first regarded with grave sus- 
picion by the intensely patriotic Polish gentry, because of its 
German origin. Nevertheless, the extremely severe penal edicts 
issued during the reign of Sigismund I., though seldom applied, 
seem to point to the fact that heresy was spreading widely 
throughout the country. For a time, therefore, the Protestants 
had to be cautious in Poland proper, but they found a sure 
refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the estab- 
lished religion, and where the newly erected university of 
Konigsberg became a seminary for Polish ministers and 
preachers. 

While Lutheranism was thus threatening the Polish Church 
from the north, Calvinism had already invaded her from the 
west. Calvinism, indeed, rather recommended itself to the Poles 
as being of non-German origin, and Calvin actually dedicated 
his Commentary on the Mass to the young krolewicz (or crown 
prince) Sigismund Augustus, from whom protestantism, erron- 
eously enough, expected much in the future. Meanwhile 
conversion to Calvinism, among the higher classes in Poland, 
became more and more frequent. We hear of crowded Calvinist 
conventicles in Little Poland from 1545 onwards, and Calvinism 
continued to spread throughout the kingdom during the latter 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



909 



years of Sigismund I. Another sect, which ultimately found 
even more favour in Poland than the Calvinists, was that of 
the Bohemian Brethren. We first hear of them in Great Poland 
in 1548. A royal decree promptly banished them to Prussia, 
where they soon increased so rapidly as to be able to hold their 
own against the Lutherans. The death of the uncompromising 
Sigismund I. came as a great relief to the Protestants, who 
entertained high hopes of his son and successor. He was known 
to be familiar with the works of the leading reformers; he was 
surrounded by Protestant counsellors, and he was actually 
married to Barbara, daughter of Prince Nicholas Radziwill, 
" Black Radziwill," the all-powerful chief of the Lithuanian 
Calvinists. It was not so generally known that Sigismund II. 
was by conviction a sincere though not a bigoted Catholic; and 
nobody suspected that beneath his diplomatic urbanity lay a 
patriotic firmness and statesmanlike qualities of the first order. 
Moreover, they ignored the fact that the success of the Protestant 
propaganda was due rather to political than to religious causes. 
The Polish gentry's jealousy of the clerical estate, whose privi- 
leges even exceeded their own, was at the bottom of the whole 
matter. Any opponent of the established clergy was the natural 
ally of the szlachta, and the scandalous state of the Church herself 
provided them with a most formidable weapon against her. 
It is not too much to say that the condition of the Catholic 
Church in Poland was almost as bad as it was in Scotland during 
the same period. The bishops were, for the most part, elegant 
triflers, as pliant as reeds, with no fixed principles and saturated 
with a false humanism. Some of them were notorious evil- 
livers. " Pint-pot " Latuski, bishop of Posen, had purchased 
his office for i2-,ooo ducats from Queen Bona; while another 
of her creatures, Peter, popularly known as the " wencher," 
was appointed bishop of Przemysl with the promise of the 
reversion of the still richer see of Cracow. Moreover, despite 
her immense wealth (in the province of Little Poland alone 
she owned at this time 26 towns, 83 landed estates and 772 
villages), the Church claimed exemption from all public burdens, 
from all political responsibilities, although her prelates continued 
to exercise an altogether disproportionate political influence. 
Education was shamefully neglected, the masses being left in 
almost heathen ignorance and this, too, at a time when the 
upper classes were greedily appropriating the ripe fruits of the 
Renaissance and when, to use the words of a contemporary, 
there were " more Latinists in Poland than there used to be in 
Latium." The university of Cracow, the sole source of know- 
ledge in the vast Polish realm, still moved in the vicious circle 
of scholastic formularies. The provincial schools, dependent 
upon so decrepit an alma mater, were suffered to decay. This 
criminal neglect of national education brought along with it 
its own punishment. The sons of the gentry, denied proper 
instruction at home, betook themselves to the nearest univer- 
sities across the border, to Goldberg in Silesia, to Wittemberg, 
to Leipzig. Here they fell in with the adherents of the new faith, 
grave, earnest men who professed to reform the abuses which had 
grown up in the Church ; and a sense of equity as much as a love 
of novelty moved them, on their return home, to propagate 
wholesome doctrines and clamour for the reformation of their 
own degenerate prelates. Finally the poorer clergy, neglected 
by their bishops, and excluded from all preferment, took part 
with the szlachta against their own spiritual rulers and eagerly 
devoured and imparted to their flocks, in their own language, 
the contents of the religious tracts which reached them by divers 
ways from Goldberg and Konigsberg. Nothing indeed did so 
much to popularize the new doctrines in Poland as this beneficial 
revival of the long-neglected vernacular by the reformers. 

Such was the situation when Sigismund II. began his reign. 
The bishops at once made a high bid for the favour of the new 
Sigts- king by consenting to the coronation of his Calvinist 

muadll., consort (Dec. 7, 1550) and the king five days 
154&-1572. afterwards issued the celebrated edict in which he 
pledged his royal word to preserve intact the unity of the Church 
and to enforce the law of the land against heresy. Encouraged 
by this pleasing symptom of orthodoxy the bishops, instead 



of first attempting to put their own dilapidated house in order, 
at once proceeded to institute prosecutions for heresy against 
all and sundry. This at once led to an explosion, and at the 
diet of Piotrkow, 1552, the szlachta accepted a proposition of 
the king, by way of compromise, that the jurisdiction of the 
clerical courts should be suspended for twelve months, on 
condition that the gentry continued to pay tithes as heretofore. 
Then began a religious interim, which was gradually prolonged 
for ten years, during which time Protestantism in Poland 
flourished exceedingly. Presently reformers of every shade of 
opinion, even those who were tolerated nowhere else, poured 
into Poland, which speedily became the battle-ground of all the 
sects of Europe. Soon the Protestants became numerous enough 
to form ecclesiastical districts of their own. The first Calvinist 
synod in Poland was held at Pinczow in 1550. The Bohemian 
Brethren evangelized Little Poland, but ultimately coalesced 
with the Calvinists at the synod of Kozminek (August 1555). 
In the diet itself the Protestants were absolutely supreme, 
and invariably elected a Calvinist to be their marshal. At the 
diet of 1555 they boldly demanded a national synod, absolute 
toleration, and the equalization of all the sects except the Anti- 
trinitarians. But the king intervened and the existing interim 
was indefinitely prolonged. At the diet of Piotrkow, 1558-1559, 
the onslaught of the szlachta on the clergy was fiercer than ever, 
and they even demanded the exclusion of the bishops from the 
senate. The king, however, perceiving a danger to the constitu- 
tion in the violence of the szlachta, not only supported the 
bishops, but quashed a subsequent reiterated demand for a 
national synod. The diet of 1558-1559 indicates the high-water 
mark of Polish Protestantism. From this time forward it began 
to subside, very gradually but unmistakably. The chief cause 
of this subsidence was the division among the reformers them- 
selves. From the chaos of creeds resulted a chaos of ideas 
on all imaginable subjects, politics included. The Anti-trini- 
tarian proved to be the chief dissolvent, and from 1 560 onwards 
the relations between the two principal Protestant sects, the 
Lutherans and the Calvinists, were fratricidal rather than 
fraternal. An auxiliary cause of the decline of Protestantism 
was the beginning of a Catholic reaction. The bulk of the popu- 
lation still held persistently, if languidly, to the faith of its 
fathers; the new bishops were holy and learned men, very 
unlike the creations of Queen Bona, and the Holy See gave to 
the slowly reviving zeal of both clergy and laity the very neces- 
sary impetus from without. For Poland, unlike Scotland, was 
fortunately, in those days of difficult inter-communication, not 
too far off, and it is indisputable that in the first instance it was 
the papal nuncios, men like Berard of Camerino and Giovanni 
Commendone, who reorganized the scattered and faint-hearted 
battalions of the Church militant in Poland and led them back 
to victory. At the diet of Piotrkow in 1562, indeed, the king's 
sore need of subsidies induced him, at the demand of the szlachta, 
to abolish altogether the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts 
in cases of heresy; but, on the other hand, at the diet of 1564 
he accepted from Commendone the Tridentine decrees and issued 
an edict banishing all foreign, and especially Anti-trinitarian, 
heretics from the land. At the diet of 1565 Sigismund went 
still farther. He rejected a petition for a national The 
pacificatory synod as unnecessary, inasmuch as the Counter- 
council of Trent had already settled all religious Reformation 
questions, and at the same time consented to the " 
introduction into Poland of the most formidable adversaries of 
the Reformation, the Jesuits. These had already been installed 
at Poltusk, and were permitted, after the diet rose, to found 
establishments in the dioceses of Posen, Ermeland and Vilna, 
which henceforth became centres of a vigorous and victorious 
propaganda. Thus the Republic recovered her cathoh'city and 
her internal harmony at the same time. 

With rare sagacity Sigismund II. had thus piloted the Republic 
through the most difficult internal crisis it had yet encountered. 
In purely political matters also both initiative and fulfilment 
came entirely from the Crown, and to the last of the Jagiellos 
Poland owed the important acquisition of Livonia and the 



910 



POLAND 



(HISTORY 



welding together of her loosely connected component parts into 
a single state by the Union of Lublin. 

In the middle of the i6th century the ancient order of the 
Knights of the Sword, whose territory embraced Esthonia, 
Livonia, Courland, Semgallen and the islands of Dago and Oesel, 
was tottering to its fall. All the Baltic powers were more or less 
interested in the apportionment of this vast tract of land, whose 
geographical position made it not only the chief commercial 
link between east and west, but also the emporium whence the 
English, Dutch, Swedes, Danes and Germans obtained their 
corn, timber and most of the raw products of Lithuania and 
Muscovy. Matters were complicated by the curious political 
intricacies of this long-coveted domain, where the grand-master, 
the archbishop of Riga, and the estates of Livonia possessed 
concurrent and generally conflicting jurisdictions. Poland 
and Muscovy as the nearest neighbours of this moribund state, 
which had so long excluded them from the sea, were vitally 
concerned in its fate. After an anarchic period of suspense, 
lasting from 1546 to 1561, during which Sweden secured 
Esthonia, while Ivan the Terrible fearlessly ravaged Livonia, 
in the hope of making it valueless to any other potentate, 
Sigismund II., to whom both the grand-master and the arch- 
bishop had appealed more than once for protection, at length 
intervened decisively. Both he and his chancellor, Piotr 
Myszkowski (d. 1591), were well aware of the importance of 
securing a coast-land which would enable Poland to become a 
naval power. But the diet, with almost incredible short-sighted- 
ness, refused to waste a penny on an undertaking which, they 
argued, concerned only Lithuania, and it was not as king of 
Poland, but as grand-duke of Lithuania, and with purely 
Lithuanian troops, that Sigismund, in 1561, occupied Livonia. 
At his camp before Riga the last grand-master, Gotthard von 
Ketteler, who had long been at the head of the Polish party in 
Livonia, and William of Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga, 
gladly placed themselves beneath his protection, and by a subse- 
quent convention signed at Vilna (Nov. 28, 1561), Livonia was 
incorporated with Lithuania in much the same way as Prussia 
had been incorporated with Poland thirty-six years previously. 
Ketteler, who had adopted Lutheranism during a visit to Ger- 
many in 1553, now professed the Augsburg Confession, and be- 
came the first duke of a new Protestant duchy, which he was to 
hold as a fief of the Polish crown, with local autonomy and abso- 
lute freedom of worship. The southern provinces of the ancient 
territory of the Order, Courland and Semgallen, had first been 
ceded on the 24th of June 1559 to Lithuania on similar condi- 
tions, the matter being finally adjusted by the compact of 
March 1562. 

The apathy of Poland in such a vital matter as the Livonian 
question must have convinced so statesmanlike a prince as 
Sigismund II. of the necessity of preventing any possibility of 
cleavage in the future between the two halves of his dominions 
whose absolute solidarity was essential to their existence as a 
great power. To this patriotic design he devoted the remainder 
of his life. A personal union, under one monarch, however 
close, had proved inadequate. A further step must be taken 
the two independent countries must be transformed into a 
single state. The great obstacle in the way of this, the only 
true solution of the difficulty, was the opposition of the Lithu- 
anian magnates, who feared to lose the absolute dominancy 
they possessed in the grand-duchy if they were merged in the 
szlachta of the kingdom. But, at the last moment, the dread 
of another Muscovite invasion made them more pliable and, at 
a Polish diet held at Warsaw from November 1563 to June 1 564, 
which the Lithuanians attended, the question of an absolute 
union was hotly debated. When things came to a deadlock 
the king tactfully intervened and voluntarily relinquished his 
hereditary title to Lithuania, thus placing the two countries 
on a constitutional equality and preparing the way for fresh 
negotiations in the future. The death, in 1565, of Black 
Radziwill, the chief opponent of the union, still further weakened 
the Lithuanians, and the negotiations were reopened with more 
prospect of success at the diet which met at Lublin on the icth 



of January 1569. But even now the Lithuanians were indis- 
posed towards a complete union, and finally they quitted the 
diet, leaving two commissioners behind to watch their interests. 
Then Sigismund executed his master stroke. Knowing the 
sensitiveness of the Lithuanians as regards Volhynia and 
Podolia, he suddenly, of his own authority, formally incorporated 
both these provinces with the kingdom of Poland, whereupon, 
amidst great enthusiasm, the Volhynian and Podolian deputies 
took their places on the same benches as their Polish brethren. 
The hands of the Lithuanians were forced. Even a complete 
union on equal terms was better than mutilated independence. 
Accordingly they returned to the diet, and the Co feto 
union was unanimously adopted on the ist of July Union of 
1569. Henceforth the kingdom of Poland and the Lithuania 
grand duchy of Lithuania were to constitute one a .%?? ol " i ' 
inseparable and indivisible body politic, under one 
sovereign, elected in common, with one diet and one currency. 
All dependencies and colonies, including Prussia and Livonia, 
were to belong to Poland and Lithuania in common. The 
retention of the old duality of dignities was the one reminis- 
cence of the original separation. No decision, however, could 
be come to as to the successor of the childless king, partly 
because of the multiplicity of candidates, partly because of 
Austrian intrigue, and this, the most momentous question of all, 
was still unsettled when Sigismund II. expired on the 6th of 
July 1572. 

The Jagiellonic period (1386-1572) is the history of the con- 
solidation and fusion into one homogeneous, political whole 
of numerous national elements, more or less akin character 
ethnologically, but differing immensely in language, ofthe 
religion and, above all, in degrees of civilization. Jagieiioalc 
Out of the ancient Piast kingdom, mutilated by the Pfrloa ' 
loss of Silesia and the Baltic shore, arose a republic 
consisting at first of various loosely connected entities, naturally 
centrifugal, but temporarily drawn together by the urgent need 
of combination against a superior foe, who threatened them 
separately with extinction. Beneath the guidance of a dynasty of 
princes which, curiously enough, was supplied by the least 
civilized portion of this congeries of nationalities, the nascent 
republic gradually grew into a power which subjugated its 
former oppressors and, viewed externally, seemed to bear upon 
it the promise of empire. It is dangerous to prophesy, but all 
the facts and circumstances before us point irresistibly to the 
conclusion that had the JagieJlonic dynasty but endured this 
promise of empire might well have been realized. The extra- 
ordinary thing about the Jagiellos was the equable persistency 
of their genius. Not only were five of the seven great statesmen, 
but they were statesmen of the same stamp. We are disturbed 
by no such sharp contrasts as are to be found among the Plan- 
tagenets, the Vasas and the Bourbons. The Jagiellos were 
all of the same mould and pattern, but the mould was a strong 
one and the pattern was good. Their predominant and constant 
characteristic is a sober sagacity which instinctively judges 
aright and imperturbably realized its inspirations. The Jagiellos 
were rarely brilliant, but they were always perspicacious. 
Above all, they alone seem to have had the gift of guiding the 
most difficult of nations properly. Two centuries of Jagiellonic 
rule made Poland great despite her grave external difficulties. 
Had that dynasty been prolonged for another century, there is 
every reason to suppose that it would also have dealt satisfac- 
torily with Poland's still more dangerous internal difficulties, 
and arrested the development of that anarchical constitution 
which was the ruling factor in the ruin of the Republic. 

Simultaneously with the transformation into a great power 
of the petty principalities which composed ancient Poland, 
another and equally momentous political transformation was 
proceeding within the country itself. 

The origin of the Polish constitution is to be sought in the 
wiece or councils of the Polish princes, during the partitional 
period (c. 1270-1370). The privileges conferred upon the mag- 
nates of which these councils were composed, especially upon 
the magnates of Little Poland, who brought the Jagiellos to 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



911 



the throne, directed their policy, and grew rich upon their 
liberality, revolted the less favoured szlachta, or gentry, who, 
The Polish towards the end of the I4th century, combined for 
Const/to- mutual defence in their sejmiki, or local diets, 
"""' of which originally there were five, three in Great 

Poland, one in Little Poland and one in Posen-Kalisz. 1 In 
these sejmiki the deputies of the few great towns were also 
represented. The Polish towns, notably Cracow, had obtained 
their privileges, including freedom from tolls and municipal 
government, from the Crown in return for important services, 
such as warding off the Tatars, while the cities of German 
origin were protected by the Magdeburg law. Casimir the 
Great even tried to make municipal government as democratic 
as possible by enacting that one half of the town council of 
Cracow should be elected from the civic patriciate, but the 
other half from the commonalty. Louis the Great placed the 
burgesses on a level with the gentry by granting to the town 
council of Cracow jurisdiction over all the serfs in the extra-rural 
estates of the citizens. From this time forth deputies from the 
cities were summoned to the sejmiki on all important occasions, 
such, for instance, as the ratification of treaties, a right formally 
conceded to them by the sejmik of Radom in 1384. Thus at 
this period Poland was a confederation of half a dozen semi- 
independent states. The first general assembly of which we 
have certain notice is the zjazd walny which was summoned to 
Koszyce in November 1404, to relieve the financial embarrass- 
ments of Wladislaus, and granted him an extraordinary subsidy 
of twenty groats per hide of land to enable him to purchase 
Dobrzyn from the Teutonic Knights. Such subsidies were 
generally the price for the confirmation of ancient or the con- 
cession of new privileges. Thus at the diet of Brzesd Kujawski, 
in 1425, the szlachta obtained its first habeas corpus act in return 
for acknowledging the right of the infant krolewcz Wladislaus 
to his father's throne. The great opportunity of the szlachta 
was, of course, the election of a new king, especially the election 
of a minor, an event always accompanied and succeeded by 
disorders. Thus at the election of the infant Wladislaus III., 
his guardians promised in his name to confirm all the privileges 
granted by his father. If, on attaining his majority, the king 
refused to ratify these promises, his subjects were ipso facto 
absolved from their obedience. This is the first existence of 
the mischievous principle de presianda obedientia, subsequently 
elevated into a statute. It is in this reign, too, that we meet 
with the first rokosz, or insurrection of the nobility against the 
executive. The extraordinary difficulties of Casimir IV. were 
freely exploited by the szlachta, who granted that ever impecu- 
nious monarch as little as possible, but got full value for every 
penny they grudgingly gave. Thus by the Articles of Cerekwica 
presented to him by the sejmik or dietine of Great Poland in 
1454 on the outbreak of the Teutonic War, he conceded the 
principle that no war should in future be begun without the 
consent of the local diets. A few months later he was obliged 
to grant the Privileges of Nieszawa, which confirmed and 
extended the operation of the Articles of Cerekwica. The 
sejmiki had thus added to their original privilege of self-taxation 
the right to declare war and control the national militia. 2 This 
was a serious political retrogression. A strongly centralized 
government had ever been Poland's greatest need, and Casimir 
the Great had striven successfully against all centrifugal ten- 
dencies. And now, eighty-four years after his death, Poland 
was once more split up into half a dozen loosely federated states 
in the hands of country gentlemen too ignorant and prejudiced 
to look beyond the boundaries of their own provinces. The 
only way of saving the Republic from disintegration was to 
concentrate all its political factors into a sejm-walny or general 
diet. But to this the magnates and the szlachta were equally 
opposed, the former because they feared the rivalry of a national 
assembly, the latter because they were of more importance 
in their local diets than they could possibly hope to be in a 

1 The Red Russian sejmik was of later origin, c. 1433. 
1 In view of the frequency of the Tatar inroads, the control of the 
militia was re-transferred to the Crown in 1501. 



general diet. The first sejm to legislate for the whole of Poland 
was the diet of Piotrkow (1493), summoned by John Albert 
to grant him subsidies; but the mandates of its deputies were 
limited to twelve months, and its decrees were to have force 
for only three years. John Albert's second diet (1496), after 
granting subsidies the burden of which fell entirely on the 
towns and peasantry, passed a series of statutes benefiting 
the nobility at the expense of the other classes. Thus one 
statute permitted the szlachta henceforth to export and import 
goods duty free, to the great detriment of the towns and the 
treasury. Another statute prohibited the burgesses from holding 
landed property and enjoying the privileges attaching thereto. 
A third statute disqualified plebeians from being elected to 
canonries or bishoprics. A fourth endeavoured to bind the 
peasantry more closely to the soil by forbidding emigration. 
The condition of the serfs was subsequently (1520) still further 
deteriorated by the introduction of socage. In a word, this 
diet disturbed the equilibrium of the state by enfeebling and 
degrading the middle classes. Nevertheless, so long as the 
Jagiello dynasty lasted, the political rights of the cities were 
jealously protected by the Crown against the usurpations of the 
nobility. Deputies from the towns took part in the election 
of John Albert (1492), and the burgesses of Cracow, the most 
enlightened economists in the kingdom, supplied Sigismund I. 
with his most capable counsellors during the first twenty years 
of his reign (1506-1526). Again and again the nobility attempted 
to exclude the deputies of Cracow from the diet, in spite of 
a severe edict issued by Sigismund I. in 1509, threatening to 
prosecute for treason all persons who dared to infringe the 
liberties of the citizens. During Sigismund's reign, moreover, 
the Crown recovered many of the prerogatives of which it had 
been deprived during the reign of his feeble predecessor, Alex- 
ander, who, to say nothing of the curtailments of the prerogative, 
had been forced to accept the statute nihil novi (1505) which 
gave the sejm and the senate an equal voice with the Crown 
in all executive matters. In the latter years of Sigismund I. 
(1530-1548) the political influence of the szlachta grew rapidly 
at the expense of the executive, and the gentry in diet assembled 
succeeded in curtailing the functions of all the great officers 
of state. During the reign of Sigismund II. (1548-1572) they 
diverted their attention to the abuses of the Church and con- 
siderably reduced both her wealth and her privileges. In this 
respect both the Crown and the country were with them, so that 
their interference,if violent,was on the whole distinctly beneficial. 
The childless Sigismund II. died suddenly without leaving 
any regulations as to the election of his successor. Fortunately 
for Poland the political horizon was absolutely inter- 
unclouded. The Turks, still reeling from the shock regnam, 
of Lepanto, could with difficulty hold their own IS72-1573. 
against the united forces of the pope, Spain and Venice; 
while Ivan the Terrible . had just concluded a truce with 
Poland. Domestic affairs, on the other hand, were in an almost 
anarchical condition. The Union of Lublin, barely three 
years old, was anything but consolidated, and in Lithuania 
it continued to be extremely unpopular. In Poland proper 
the szlachta were fiercely opposed to the magnates; and the 
Protestants seemed bent upon still further castigating the clergy. 
Worst of all, there existed no recognized authority in the land 
to curb and control its jarring centrifugal political elements. 
It was nearly two hundred years since the Republic had suffered 
from an interregnum, and the precedents of 1382 were obsolete. 
The primate, on hearing of the demise of the Crown, at once 
invited all the senators of Great Poland to a conference at 
Lowicz, but passed over the szlachta altogether. In an instant 
the whole Republic was seething like a caldron, and a rival 
assembly was simultaneously summoned to Cracow by Jan 
Ferlej, the head of the Protestant party. Civil war was happily 
averted at the last moment, and a national convention, composed 
of senators and deputies from all parts of the country, assembled 
at Warsaw, in April 1573, for the purpose of electing a new king. 
Five candidates for the throne were already in the field. Lithu- 
ania favoured Ivan IV. In Poland the bishops and most of 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



the Catholic magnates were for an Austrian archduke, while 
the strongly anti-German szlachta were inclined to accept almost 
any candidate but a German, so long as he came with a gift 
in his hand and was not a Muscovite. In these circumstances it 
was an easy task for the adroit and energetic French ambassador, 
Jean de Montluc (d. 1579), brother of the famous marshal, 
and bishop of Valence, to procure the election of the French 
candidate, Henry, duke of Anjou. Well provided with funds, he 
speedily bought over many of the leading magnates, and his 
popularity reached its height when he strenuously advocated 
the adoption of the mode of election by the gentry en masse 
(which the szlachta proposed to revive), as opposed to the usual 
and more orderly " secret election " by a congress of senators 
and deputies, sitting with closed doors. The religious difficulty, 
meanwhile, had been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties 
by the compact of Warsaw (Jan. 28, 1573), which granted 
absolute religious liberty to all non-Catholic denominations 
(dissidenles de religione, as they now began to be called) without 
exception, thus exhibiting a far more liberal intention than 
the Germans had manifested in the religious peace of Augsburg 
eighteen years before. Finally, early in April 1573, the election 
diet assembled at Warsaw, and on the nth of May, in the midst 
of intrigue, corruption, violence and confusion, Henry of Valois 
was elected king of Poland. 

The election had, however, been preceded by a correctura 
jurum, or reform of the constitution, which resulted in the 
Henry at famous " Henrican Articles " which converted 
Valois, king, Poland from a limited monarchy into a republic 
1573-1574. with an elective chief magistrate. Henceforward 
the king was to have no voice in the choice of his successor. 
He was not to use the word hoeres, not being an hereditary 
sovereign. He was to marry a wife selected for him by 
the senate. He was neither to seek for a divorce nor give 
occasion for one. He was to be neutral in all religious 
matters. He was not to lead the militia across the border 
except with the consent of the szlachta, and then only for three 
months at a time. Every year the senate was to appoint 
sixteen of its number to be in constant attendance upon the 
king in rotas of four, which sedecimwrs were to supervise all 
his actions. Should the king fail to observe any one of these 
articles, the nation was ipso facto absolved from its allegiance. 
This constitutional reform was severely criticized by contem- 
porary political experts. Some strongly condemned the clause 
justifying renunciation of allegiance, as tending to treason and 
anarchy. Others protested against the anomalous and helpless 
position of the so-called king, who, if he could do no harm, was 
certainly powerless for good. But such Cassandras prophesied 
to heedless ears. The Republic had deliberately cast itself upon 
the downward grade which was to lead to ruin. 

The reign of Henry of Valois lasted thirteen months. The 
tidings of the death of his brother Charles IX., which reached 
him on the I4th of June 1574, determined him to exchange a 
thorny for what he hoped would be a flowery throne, and at 
midnight on the i8th of June 1574 he literally fled from Poland, 
pursued to the frontier by his indignant and bewildered subjects. 
Eighteen months later (Dec. 14, 1575), mainly through the 
influence of Jan Zamoyski, Stephen Bathory, prince of Transyl- 
vania, was elected king of Poland by the szlachta in opposition 
to the emperor Maximilian, who had been elected two days 
previously by the senate, after disturbances which would have 
rent any other state but Poland to pieces. 

The glorious career of Stephen Bathory (1575-1586) is dealt 
with elsewhere (see STEPHEN, King of Poland). His example 
Stephen demonstrates the superiority of genius and valour 
Bathory, over the most difficult circumstances. But his 
1575-1586, reign was too brief to be permanently beneficial. 

The Vasa period of Polish history which began with the 
election of Sigismund, son of John III., king of Sweden, was the 
sitfi- epoch of last and lost chances. The collapse of the 

mundin., Muscovite tsardom in the east, and the submersion 
1S87-1632. O f t h e German Empire in the west by the Thirty 
Years' War, presented Poland with an unorecedented oooor- 



tunity of consolidating, once for all, her hard-won position as 
the dominating power of central Europe. Everywhere circum- 
stances were favourable to her, and in Zolkiewski, Chodkiewicz 
and Koniecpolski she possessed three of the greatest captains 
of that or any other age. With all the means at her disposal 
cheerfully placed in the hands of such valiant and capable 
ministers, it would have been no difficult task for the Republic 
to have wrested the best part of the Baltic littoral from the 
Scandinavian powers, and driven the distracted Muscovites 
beyond the Volga. Permanent greatness and secular security 
were within her reach at the commencement of the Vasa period; 
how was it, then, that at the end of that period, only fifty 
years later, Poland had already sunk irredeemably into much 
the same position as Turkey occupies now, the position of a 
moribund state, existing on sufferance simply because none 
was yet quite prepared to administer the coup de grace? There 
is only one answer; the principal cause of this complete and 
irretrievable collapse is to be sought for in the folly, egotism 
and selfishness of the Polish gentry, whose insane dislike of all 
discipline, including even the salutary discipline of regular 
government, converted Poland into something very like a primi- 
tive tribal community at the very time when every European 
statesman, including the more enlightened of the Poles them- 
selves, clearly recognized that the political future belonged to 
the strongly centralized monarchies, which were everywhere 
rising on the ruins of feudalism. Of course there were other 
contributory causes. The tenacity with which Sigismund III. 
clung to his hereditary rights to the Swedish Crown involved 
Poland in a quite unnecessary series of wars with Charles IX. 
and Gustavus Adolphus, when her forces were sorely needed 
elsewhere. The adhesion of the same monarch to the League 
of the Catholic Reaction certainly added to the difficulties of 
Polish diplomacy, and still further divided the already distracted 
diet, besides alienating from the court the powerful and popular 
chancellor Zamoyski. Yet Sigismund III. was a far more clear- 
sighted statesman than any of his counsellors or contradictors. 
For instance, he was never misled by the successes of the false 
Demetrius in Muscovy, and wisely insisted on recovering the 
great eastern fortress of Smolensk rather than attempting 
the conquest of Moscow. His much-decried alliance with the 
emperor at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War was eminently 
sagacious. He perceived at once that it was the only way of 
counteracting the restlessness of the sultan's proteg6s, the 
Protestant princes of Transylvania, whose undisciplined hordes, 
scarcely less savage than their allies the Turks and Tatars, were 
a perpetual menace both to Austria and to Poland. Finally 
he was bent upon reforming the Polish constitution by substitut- 
ing the decision of all matters by a plurality of votes for a 
unanimity impossible to count upon. 

When we turn to the szlachta who absolutely controlled the 
diet, we find not the slightest trace, I will not say of political 
foresight that they never possessed but of common patriot- 
ism, or ordinary public spirit. The most urgent national 
necessities were powerless to stir their hearts or open their 
purses. The diets during the reign of Sigismund III. were 
even more niggardly than they had been under the Jagiellos, 
and on the single occasion when the terrors of an imminent 
Tatar invasion constrained them to grant extraordinary sub- 
sidies, they saw to it that such subsidies should rest entirely 
on the shoulders of the burgesses (who had in the meantime 
been deprived of the franchise) and the already overburdened 
peasantry. In the very crisis of the Swedish War, the diminutive 
army of the victorious Chodkiewicz was left unpaid, with the 
result that the soldiers mutinied, and marched off en masse. 
Both Chodkiewicz and Zolkiewski frequently had to pay the 
expenses of their campaigns out of their own pockets, and were 
expected to conquer empires and defend hundreds of miles of 
frontier with armies of 3000 or 4000 men at most. When they 
retreated before overwhelming odds they were publicly accused 
of cowardice and incompetence. The determination to limit 
still further the power of the executive was at the bottom of 
this fatal parsimony, with the inevitable consequence that, 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



9 J 3 



while the king and the senate were powerless, every great noble 
or lord-marcher was free to do what he chose in his own domains, 
so long as he flattered his " little brothers," the szlachta. In- 
credible as it may seem, the expedition to place the false 
Demetrius on the Muscovite throne was a private speculation 
of a few Lithuanian magnates, and similar enterprises on the 
part of other irresponsible noblemen on the Danube or Dniester 
brought upon unhappy Poland retaliatory Tatar raids, which 
reduced whole provinces to ashes. Every attempt to improve 
matters, by reforming the impossible constitution, stranded on 
the opposition of the gentry. Take, for instance, the typical 
and highly instructive case of Zebrzydowski's rebellion. 
Nicholas Zebrzydowski, a follower of the chancellor Zamoyski, 
was one of the wealthiest and most respectable magnates in 
Poland. As palatine of Cracow he held one of the highest and 
most lucrative dignities in the state, and was equally famous 
for his valour, piety and liberality. Disappointed in his hope 
of obtaining the great seal on the death of Zamoyski, he at once 
conceived that the whole of the nobility had been insulted in 
his person, and proceeded to make all government impossible 
for the next three years. On the 7th of March 1606 Sigismund 
summoned a diet for the express purpose of introducing the 
principle of decision by majority in the diet, whereupon Zebrzy- 
dowski summoned a counter-confederation to Stenczyn in 
Little Poland, whose first act was to open negotiations with the 
prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, with the view of 
hiring mercenaries from him for further operations. At a subse- 
quent confederation, held at Lublin in June, Zebrzydowski 
was reinforced by another great nobleman, Stanislaus Stadnicki, 
called the Devil, who " had more crimes on his conscience than 
hairs on his head," and was in the habit of cropping the ears 
and noses of small squires and chaining his serfs to the walls of 
his underground dungeons for months at a time. This champion 
of freedom was very eloquent as to the wrongs of the szlachta, 
and proposed that the assembly should proceed in a body to 
Warsaw and there formally renounce their allegiance. The 
upshot of his oratory was the summoning of a rokosz, or national 
insurrection, to Sandomir, which was speedily joined by the 
majority of the szlachta all over the country, who openly pro- 
claimed their intention of dethroning the king and chastising 
the senate, and sent Stadnicki to Transylvania to obtain the 
armed assistance of Stephen Bocskay. Only the clergy, natur- 
ally conservative, still clung to the king, and Sigismund III., 
who was no coward, at once proceeded to Cracow to overawe 
the rokoszanie, or insurrectionists, by his proximity, and take 
the necessary measures for his own protection. By the advice 
of his senators he summoned a zjazd, or armed convention, to 
Wislica openly to oppose the insurrection of Sandomir, which 
zjazd was to be the first step towards the formation of a general 
confederation for the defence of the throne. Civil war seemed 
inevitable, when the szlachta of Red Russia and Sieradz suddenly 
rallied to the king, who at once ordered his army to advance, 
and after defeating the insurrectionists at Janowiec (in October), 
granted them a full pardon, on the sole condition that they 
should refrain from all such acts of rebellion in future. Despite 
their promises, Zebrzydowski and his colleagues a few months 
later were again in arms. In the beginning of 1607 they sum- 
moned another rokosz to Jendrzejow, at the very time when the 
diet was assembling at Warsaw. The diet authorized the king 
to issue a proclamation dissolving the rokosz, and the rokosz 
retorted with a manifesto in which an insurrection was declared 
to be as much superior to a parliament as a general council was 
to a pope. In a second manifesto published at Jezierna, on the 
24th of June, the insurrectionists again renounced their allegiance 
to the king. Oddly enough, the diet before dissolving had, 
apparently in order to meet the rokosz half-way, issued the 
famous edict De non praestanda obedientia, whereby, in case of 
future malpractices by the king and his subsequent neglect of at 
least two solemn warnings there-anent by the prirnate and the 
senate, he was to be formally deposed by the next succeeding 
diet. But even this was not enough for the insurrectionists. 
It was not the contingent but the actual deposition of the king 



that they demanded, and they had their candidate for the throne 
ready in the person of Gabriel Bethlen, the new prince of Tran- 
sylvania. But the limits of even Polish complacency had at 
last been reached, and Zolkiewski and Chodkiewicz were sent 
against the rebels, whom they routed at Oransk near Guzow, 
after a desperate encounter, on the 6th of July 1607. But, 
though driven from the field, the agitation simmered all over 
the country for nearly two years longer, and was only terminated, 
in 1609, by a general amnesty which excluded every prospect of 
constitutional reform. 

Wladislaus IV., who succeeded his father in 1632, was the 
most popular monarch who ever sat on the Polish throne. 
The szlachta, who had had a " King Log " in Sigis- wiadis- 
mund, were determined that Wladislaus should be lausiv., 
" a King Bee who will give us nothing but honey " 1632-1643. 
in other words they hoped to wheedle him out of even more than 
they had wrested from his predecessor. Wladislaus submitted 
to everything. He promised never to declare war or levy 
troops without the consent of the sejm, undertook to fill all 
vacancies within a certain time, and released the szlachta from 
the payment of income-tax, their one remaining fiscal obligation. 
This boundless complacency was due to policy, not weakness. 
The second Polish Vasa was a man of genius, fully conscious of 
his powers, and determined to use them for the benefit of his 
country. The events of the last reign had demonstrated the 
incompetence of the Poles to govern themselves. Any ameliora- 
tion of the existing anarchy must be extra-parh'amentary and 
proceed from the throne. But a reforming monarch was 
inconceivable unless he possessed the confidence of the nation, 
and such confidence, Wladislaus naturally argued, could only 
be won by striking and undeniable public services. On these 
principles he acted with brilliant results. Within three years 
of his accession he compelled the Muscovites (Treaty of Polyan- 
kova, May 28, 1634) to retrocede Smolensk and the eastern 
provinces lost by Sigismund II., overawed the Porte by a military 
demonstration in October of the same year, and, by the Truce 
of Stumdorf (Sept. 12, 1635), recovered the Prussian provinces 
and the Baltic seaboard from Sweden. But these achievements 
excited not the gratitude but the suspicion of the szlachta. They 
were shrewd enough to guess that the royal triumph might 
prejudice their influence, and for the next five years they 
deliberately thwarted the enlightened and far-reaching projects 
of the king for creating a navy and increasing the revenue 
without burdening the estates, by a system of tolls levied on 
the trade of the Baltic ports (see WLADISLAUS IV.), even going 
so far as to refuse for nine years to refund the expenses of the 
Muscovite War, which he had defrayed out of his privy purse. 
From sheer weariness and disgust the king refrained from any 
intervention in public affairs for nearly ten years, looking on 
indifferently while the ever shorter and stormier diets wrangled 
perpetually over questions of preferment and the best way of 
dealing with the extreme dissenters, to the utter neglect of public 
business. But towards the end of his reign the energy of 
Wladislaus revived, and he began to occupy himself with another 
scheme for regenerating his country, in its own despite, by means 
of the Cossacks. First, however, it is necessary to describe 
briefly the origin and previous history of these romantic free- 
booters who during the second half of the i7th century were the 
determining factor of Polish and Muscovite politics. 

At the beginning of the i6th century the illimitable steppe 
of south-eastern Europe, extending from the Dnieper to the 
Urals, had no settled population. Hunters and 
fishermen frequented its innumerable rivers, return- Co s sacis- 
ing home laden with rich store of fish and pelts, 
while runaway serfs occasionally settled in small communities 
beneath the shelter of the fortresses built, from time to time, 
to guard the southern frontiers of Poland and Muscovy. 
Obliged, for fear of the Tatars, to go about with arms in their 
hands, these settlers gradually grew strong enough to raid their 
raiders, selling the booty thus acquired to the merchants of 
Muscovy and Poland. Moreover, the Turks and Tatars being 
the natural enemies of Christendom, a war of extermination 



914 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



against them was regarded by the Cossacks as a sacred duty. 
Curiously enough, these champions of orthodoxy borrowed the 
name, which has stuck to them ever since, from their " dog- 
headed " adversaries. The rank and file of the Tatar soldiery 
were known as Kazaki, or Cossacks, a word meaning " free- 
booters," and this term came to be applied indiscriminately to all 
the free dwellers in the Ukraine, or border-lands. As time went 
on the Cossacks multiplied exceedingly. Their daring grew 
with their numbers, and at last they came to be a constant 
annoyance to all their neighbours, both Christian and Mussul- 
man, frequently involving Poland in dangerous and unprofitable 
wars with the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, it is not too much to 
say that, until the days of Sobieski, the Cossacks were invariably 
the chief cause of the breaches between the Porte and the 
Republic. We have seen how carefully the Jagiellos avoided 
participating in any of the crusades directed by the Holy See 
against the arch-enemies of the Cross. So successful was their 
prudential abstention that no regular war occurred between 
Turkey and Poland during the two centuries of then- sway. 
The first actual collisions, the Cecora campaign of 1620 and the 
Khotin War of 1621 (for John Albert's Moldavian raid does not 
count), were due to the depredations of the Cossacks upon the 
dominions of the sultan by land and sea, and in all subsequent 
treaties between the two powers the most essential clause was 
always that which bound the Republic to keep its freebooters in 
order. 

But in the meantime the Cossacks themselves had become 
a semi-independent community. The origin of the Cossack 
state is still somewhat obscure, but the germs of it are visible 
as early as the beginning of the i6th century. The union of 
Lublin, which led to the polonization of Lithuania, was the 
immediate occasion of a considerable exodus to the lowlands of 
the Dnieper of those serfs who desired to escape from the taxes 
of the Polish government and the tyranny of the Polish land- 
lords. Stephen Bathory presently converted the pick of them 
into six registered regiments of 1000 each for the defence of the 
border. Ultimately the island of Hortica, just below the falls 
of the Dnieper, was fixed upon as their headquarters; and on the 
numerous islands of that broad river there gradually arose the 
famous Cossack community known as the Zaporozhskaya Syech, 
or Settlement behind the Fafls, whence the Dnieperian Cossacks 
were known, generally, as Zaporozhians, or Backfallsmen. 1 The 
Cossack kosh, or commonwealth, had the privilege of electing 
its hetman, or chief, and his chief officers, the starshins. The 
hetman, after election, received from the king of Poland direct 
the insignia of his office, viz. the bulawa, or baton, the bunchuk, 
or horse-tail standard, and his official seal; but he was respon- 
sible for his actions to the kosh alone, and an inquiry into his 
conduct was held at the expiration of his term of office in the 
obschaya shkoda, or general assembly. In time of peace his 
power was little more than that of the responsible minister of 
a constitutional republic; but in time of warfare he was a 
dictator, and disobedience to his orders in the field was punish- 
able by death. 

The Cossacks were supposed to be left alone as much as possible 
by the Polish government so long as they faithfully fulfilled 
their chief obligation of guarding the frontiers of the Republic 
from Tatar raids. But the relations between a community of 
freebooters, mostly composed of fugitive serfs and refugees, 
and a government of small squires who regarded the Cossacks 
as a mere rabble were bound to be difficult at the best of times, 
and political and religious differences presently supervened. 
The Cossacks, mostly of Lithuanian origin, belonged to the 
Orthodox religion, so far as they belonged to any religion at 
all, and the Jagiellos had been very careful to safeguard the 
religious liberties of their Lithuanian subjects, especially as 
the Poles themselves were indifferent on the subject. But, at the 
beginning of the iyth century, when the current of the Catholic 
reaction was running very strongly and the Jesuits, after 
subduing the Protestants, began to undermine the position of 
the Orthodox Church in Lithuania, a more intolerant spirit 
1 Cf. American, Backwoodsmen. 



began to prevail. The old Calvinist nobility of Lithuania were 
speedily reconverted; a Uniate Church in connexion with Rome 
was established; Greek Orthodox congregations, if not generally 
persecuted, were at least depressed and straitened; and the 
Cossacks began to hate the Pans, or Polish lords, not merely 
as tyrants, but as heretics. Yet all these obstacles to a good 
understanding might, perhaps, have been surmounted if only 
the Polish diet had treated the Cossacks with common fairness 
and common sense. In 1619 the Polish government was 
obliged to prohibit absolutely the piratical raids of the Cossacks 
in the Black Sea, where they habitually destroyed Turkish 
property to the value of millions. At the same time, by the 
compact of Rastawica, the sejm undertook to allow the Cossacks, 
partly as wages, partly as compensation, 40,000 (raised by the 
compact of Kurukow to 60,000) gulden and 170 wagons of 
cloth per annum. These terms were never kept, despite the 
earnest remonstrances of the king, and the complaints of the 
aggrieved borderers. Parsimony prevailed, as usual, over 
prudence, and when the Cossacks showed unmistakable signs 
of restiveness, the Poles irritated them still further by ordering 
the construction of the strong fortress of Kudak at the confluence 
of the Dnieper and the Samara, to overawe the Zaporozhian 
community. This further act of repression led to two ter- 
rible Cossack risings, in 1635 and 1636, put down only with 
the utmost difficulty, whereupon the diet of 1638 deprived 
the Cossacks of all their ancient privileges, abolished the 
elective hetmanship, and substituted for it a commission of 
Polish noblemen with absolute power, so that the Cossacks 
might well declare that those who hated them were lords 
over them. 

Such was the condition of affairs in the Ukraine when Wladis- 
laus IV. proposed to make the Cossacks the pivot of his foreign 
policy and his domestic reforms. His far-reaching plans were 
based upon two facts, the absolute devotion of the Zaporozhians 
to himself personally, and the knowledge, secretly conveyed 
to him by Stanislaus Koniecpolski (<?..), that the whole of the 
Ukraine was in a ferment. He proposed to provoke the Tatars 
to a rupture by repudiating the humiliating tribute with which 
the Republic had so long and so vainly endeavoured to buy off 
their incessant raids. In case of such rupture he meant, at the 
head of 100,000 Cossacks, to fall upon the Crimea itself, the seat 
of their power, and exterminate the Khanate. This he calcu- 
lated would bring about a retaliatory invasion of Poland by 
the Turks, which would justify him in taking the field against 
them also with all the forces of the Republic. In case of success 
he would be able to impose the will of a victorious king upon a 
discredited diet, and reform the constitution on an English or 
Swedish model. Events seemed at first to favour this audacious 
speculation. Almost simultaneously a civil war broke out in 
the Crimea and the Porte declared war against the Venetian 
republic, with which Wladislaus at once concluded an offensive 
and defensive alliance (1645). He then bade the Cossacks 
prepare their boats for a raid upon the Turkish galleys, and 
secured the co-operation of the tsar in the Crimean expedition 
by a special treaty. Unfortunately, Venice, for her own 
safety's sake, insisted on the publication of Wladislaus's anti- 
Turkish alliance; the Porte, well informed of the course of Polish 
affairs, remained strictly neutral despite the most outrageous 
provocations; and Wladislaus, bound by his coronation oath 
not to undertake an offensive war, found himself at the mercy 
of the diet which, full of consternation and rage, assembled at 
Warsaw on the 2nd of May 1647. It is needless to say that the 
Venetian alliance was repudiated and the royal power still 
further reduced. A year later Wladislaus died at his hunting- 
box at Merecz, at the very moment when the long-impending 
tempest which he himself had conjured up burst with over- 
whelming fury over the territories of the Republic. 

The prime mover of the great rebellion of 1648, which shook 
the Polish state to its very foundations, was the Cossack Bohdan 
Chmielnicki (q.v.), who had been initiated in all the plans of 
Wladislaus IV. and, with good reason, feared to be the first 
victim of the Polish magnates when the king's designs were 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



unmasked and frustrated. To save himself he hit upon the novel 
and terrible expedient of uniting the Tatars and the Cossacks 
Cossack in a determined onslaught upon the Republic, whose 
Rebellion of inward weakness, despite its brave outward show, 
he had been quick to discern. On the i8th of April 
1648, at the general assembly of the Zaporozhians, he openly 
expressed his intention of proceeding against the Poles and was 
elected hetman by acclamation; on the ipth of May he annihi- 
lated a small detached Polish corps on the banks of the river 
Zheltndya Vodui, and seven days later overwhelmed the army 
of the Polish grand-hetman, massacring 8500 of his 10,000 men 
and sending the grand-heiman himself and all his officers in 
chains to the Crimea. The immediate consequence of these 
victories was the outburst of a khlopskaya zloba, or " serfs' 
fury." Throughout the Ukraine the gentry were hunted down, 
flayed, burnt, blinded and sawn asunder. Every manor-house 
and castle was reduced to ashes. Every Uniate or Catholic 
priest who could be caught was hung up before his own high 
altar, along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabi- 
tants fled to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were 
swarming over the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. Mean- 
while the Polish army, 40,000 strong, with too guns, was assem- 
bling on the frontier. It consisted almost entirely of the noble 
militia, and was tricked out with a splendour more befitting 
a bridal pageant than a battle array. For Chmielnicki and his 
host these splendid cavaliers expressed the utmost contempt. 
" This rabble must be chased with whips, not smitten with 
swords," they cried. On the 23rd of September the two armies 
encountered near Pildawa, and after a stubborn three days' 
contest the gallant Polish pageant was scattered to the winds. 
The steppe for miles around was strewn with corpses; and the 
Cossacks are said to have reaped 10,000,000 guldens worth of 
booty when the fight was over. All Poland now lay at Chmiel- 
nicki's feet, and the road to the defenceless capital was open 
John H. before him; but he wasted two precious months in 
Casimir, vain before the fortress of Zamosc, and then the 
1648-166S. new i y elected king of Poland, John Casimir, Wladis- 
laus IV.'s brother, privately opened negotiations with the rebel, 
officially recognized him by sending him the bulawa and the 
other insignia of the hetman's dignity, and promised his " faithful 
Zaporozhians " the restoration of all their ancient liberties if 
they would break off their alliance with the Tatars and await 
the arrival of peace commissioners at Pereyaslavl. But the 
negotiations at Pereyaslavl came to nothing. Chmielnicki's 
conditions of peace were so extravagant that the Polish com- 
missioners durst not accept them, and in 1649 he again invaded 
Poland with a countless host of Cossacks and Tatars. Again, 
however, he made the mistake of attacking a fortress, which 
delayed his advance for a month, and gave John Casimir time 
to collect an army for the relief of the besieged. By the com- 
pact ofZborow(Aug 21, 1649) Chmielnicki was recognized as 
hetman of the Zaporozhians, whose registered number was now 
raised from 6000 1040,000; a general amnesty was also granted, 
and it was agreed that all official dignities in the Orthodox palati- 
nates of Lithuania should henceforth be held solely by the 
Orthodox gentry. For the next eighteen months Chmielnicki 
ruled the Ukraine like a sovereign prince. He made Chigirin, 
his native place, the Cossack capital, subdivided the country into 
sixteen provinces, and entered into direct relations with foreign 
powers. His attempt to carve a principality for his son out of 
Moldavia led to the outbreak of a third war between suzerain 
and subject in February 1651. But fortune, so long Bohdan's 
friend, now deserted him, and at Beresteczko (July i, 1651) the 
Cossack chieftain was* utterly routed by Stephen Czarniecki. 
All hope of an independent Cossackdom was now at an end; yet 
it was not Poland but Muscovy which reaped the fruits of 
Czarniecki's victory. 

Chmielnicki, by suddenly laying bare the nakedness of the 
Polish republic, had opened the eyes of Muscovy to the fact 
that her secular enemy was no longer formidable. Three years 
after his defeat at Beresteczko, Chmielnicki, finding himself 
unable to cope with the Poles single-handed, very reluctantly 



transferred his allegiance to the tsar, and the same year the 
tsar's armies invaded Poland, still bleeding from the all but 
mortal wounds inflicted on her by the Cossacks. The war 
thus begun, and known in Russian history as the The Rut- 
Thirteen Years' War, far exceeded even the Thirty siaasiavade 
Years' War in grossness and brutality. It resembled Pohtad - 
nothing so much as a hideous scramble of ravening beasts and 
obscene fowls for the dismembered limbs of a headless carcase, 
for such did Poland seem to all the world before the war was half 
over. In the summer of 1655, moreover, while the Republic 
was still reeling beneath the shock of the Muscovite invasion, 
Charles X. of Sweden, on the flimsiest of pretexts, / nvas / on / 
forced a war upon reluctant and inoffensive Poland, Charles x. 
simply to gratify his greed of martial glory, and of Sweden, 
before the year was out his forces had occupied the l655 ' 
capital, the coronation city and the best half of the land. King 
John Casimir, betrayed and abandoned by his own subjects, 
fled to Silesia, and profiting by the cataclysm which, for the 
moment, had swept the Polish state out of existence, the Mus- 
covites, unopposed, quickly appropriated nearly everything 
which was not already occupied by the Swedes. At this crisis 
Poland owed her salvation to two events the formation of a 
general league against Sweden, brought about by the appre- 
hensive court of Vienna and an almost simultaneous popular 
outburst of religious enthusiasm on the part of the Polish people. 
The first of these events, to be dated from the alliance between 
the emperor Leopold and John Casimir, on the 27th of May 1657, 
led to a truce with the tsar and the welcome diversion of all the 
Muscovite forces against Swedish Livonia. The second event, 
which began with the heroic and successful defence of the 
monastery of Czenstochowa by Prior Kordecki against the 
Swedes, resulted in the return of the Polish king from exile, 
the formation of a national army under Stephen Czarniecki and 
the recovery of almost all the lost provinces from the Swedes, 
who were driven back headlong to the sea, where with difficulty 
they held their own. On the sudden death of Charles X. (Feb. 
13, 1660), Poland gladly seized the opportunity of adjusting 
all her outstanding differences with Sweden. By the peace 
of Oliva (May 3, 1660), made under French mediation, John 
Casimir ceded Livonia, and renounced all claim to the Swedish 
crown. The war with Muscovy was then prosecuted with 
renewed energy and extraordinary success. In the autumn of 
1661 the Russian commanders were routed at Zeromsk, and 
nearly all the eastern provinces were recovered. In 1664 a 
peace congress was opened at Durovicha and the prospects of 
Poland seemed most brilliant; but at the very moment when 
she needed all her armed strength to sustain her diplomacy, 
the rebellion of one of her leading magnates, Prince Lubomirsky, 
involved her in a dangerous civil war, compelled her to reopen 
negotiations with the Muscovites, at Andrussowo, under far 
more unfavourable conditions, and after protracted negotiations 
practically to accept the Muscovite terms. By the truce of 
Andrussowo (Feb. n, 1667) Poland received back The Truce 
from Muscovy Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia, of Aodrus- 
but ceded in perpetuity Smolensk, Syeversk, Cherni- sowo - I66T - 
gov and the whole of the eastern bank of the Dnieper, including 
the towns of Konotop, Gadyach, Pereyaslavl, Mirgorod, Poltava 
and Izyum. The Cossacks of the Dnieper were henceforth to 
be under the joint dominion of the tsar and the king of Poland. 
Kiev, the religious metropolis of western Russia, was to remain 
in the hands of Muscovy for two years. 

The " truce " of Andrussowo proved to be one of the most 
permanent peaces in history, and Kiev, though only pledged 
for two years, was never again to be separated from the Orthodox 
Slavonic state to which it rightly belonged. But for the terrible 
and persistent ill-luck of Poland it is doubtful whether the 
" truce " of Andrussowo would ever have been signed. The 
war which it concluded was to be the last open struggle between 
the two powers. Henceforth the influence of Russia over 
Poland was steadily to increase, without any struggle at all, 
the Republic being already stricken with that creeping paralysis 
which ultimately left her a prey to her neighbours. Muscovy 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



had done with Poland as an adversary, and had no longer any 
reason to fear her ancient enemy. 

Poland had, in fact, emerged from the cataclysm of 1648-1667 
a moribund state, though her not unskilful diplomacy had 
enabled her for a time to save appearances. Her territorial 
losses, though considerable, were, in the circumstances, not 
excessive, and she was still a considerable power in the opinion 
of Europe. But a fatal change had come over the country 
during the age of the Vasas. We have already seen how the 
ambition of the oligarchs and the lawlessness of the szlachta had 
reduced the executive to impotence, and rendered anything 
like rational government impossible. But these demoralizing 
and disintegrating influences had been suspended by the religious 
revival due to the Catholic reaction and the Jesuit propaganda, 
a revival which reached its height towards the end of the i6th 
century. This, on the whole, salutary and edifying move- 
ment permeated public life, and produced a series of great 
captains who cheerfully sacrificed themselves for their country, 
and would have been saints if they had not been heroes. But 
this extraordinary religious revival had wellnigh spent itself 
by the middle of the zyth century. Its last manifestation was 
the successful defence of the monastery of Czenstochowa by 
Prior Kordecki against the finest troops in Europe, its last 
representative was Stephen Czarniecki, who brought the fugitive 
John Casimir back from exile and reinstalled him on his tottering 
throne. The succeeding age was an age of unmitigated egoism, 
Growing in which the old ideals were abandoned and the old 
Corruption examples were forgotten. It synchronized with, and 
la Poland. was p ar tly determined by, the new political system 
which was spreading all over Europe, the system of dynastic 
diplomatic competition and the unscrupulous employment cf 
unlimited secret service funds. This system, which dates from 
Richelieu and culminated in the reign of Louis XIV., was based 
on the secular rivalry of the houses of Bourbon and Habs- 
burg, and presently divided all Europe into two hostile camps. 
Louis XIV. is said to have expended 50,000,000 livres a year for 
bribing purposes, the court of Vienna was scarcely less liberal, 
and very soon nearly all the monarchs of the Continent and 
their ministers were in the pay of one or other of the antagonists. 
Poland was no exception to the general rule. Her magnates, 
having already got all they could out of their own country, 
looked eagerly abroad for fresh El Dorados. Before long most 
of them had become the hirelings of France or Austria, and the 
value demanded for their wages was, not infrequently, the 
betrayal of their own country. To do them justice, the szlachta 
at first were not only free from the taint of official corruption, 
but endeavoured to fight against it. Thus, at the election diet 
of 1669, one of the deputies, Pieniaszek, moved that a new and 
hitherto unheard-of clause should be inserted in the agenda of 
the general confederation, to the effect that every senator and 
deputy should solemnly swear not to take bribes, while another 
szlacic proposed that the ambassadors of foreign Powers should 
be excluded permanently from the Polish elective assemblies. 
But the flighty and ignorant szlachta not only were incapable 
of any sustained political action, but they themselves uncon- 
sciously played into the hands of the enemies of then" country 
by making the so-called Hberum veto an integral part of the Polish 
constitution. The liberum veto was based on the assumption 
of the absolute political equality of every Polish gentleman, 
with the inevitable corollary that every measure introduced into 
the Polish diet must be adopted unanimously. Consequently, 
if any single deputy believed that a measure already approved 
of by the rest of the house might be injurious to his constituency, 
he had the right to rise and exclaim nie pozwalam, " I disap- 
prove," when the measure in question fell at once to the ground. 
Subsequently this vicious principle was extended still further. 
A deputy, by interposing his individual veto, could at any time 
dissolve the diet, when all measures previously passed had to be 
re-submitted to the consideration of the following diet. The 
liberum veto seems to have been originally devised to cut short 
interminable debates in times of acute crisis, but it was generally 
used either by highly placed criminals, anxious to avoid an 



inquiry into their misdeeds, 1 or by malcontents, desirous of 
embarrassing the executive. The origin of the liberum veto 
is obscure, but it was first employed by the deputy Wladislaus 
Sicinski, who dissolved the diet of 1652 by means of it, and before 
the end of the I7th century it was used so frequently and reck- 
lessly that all business was frequently brought to a standstill. 
In later days it became the chief instrument of foreign ambassa- 
dors for dissolving inconvenient diets, as a deputy could always 
be bribed to exercise his veto for a handsome consideration. 

The Polish crown first became an object of universal com- 
petition in 1573, when Henry of Valois was elected. In 1575, 
and again in 1587, it was put up for public auction, when the 
Hungarian Bathory and the Swede Sigismund respectively 
gained the prize. But at all three elections, though money and 
intrigue were freely employed, they were not the determining 
factors of the contest. The Polish gentry were still the umpires 
as well as the stake-holders; the best candidates generally won 
the day; and the defeated competitors were driven out of the 
country by force of arms if they did not take their discomfiture, 
after a fair fight, like sportsmen. But with the ^/e^/on,,/ 
election of Michael Wisniowiecki in 1669 a new era Michael 
began. In this case a native Pole was freely elected wtinio- 
by the unanimous vote of his countrymen. Yet a ^669^1673 
few weeks later the Polish commander-in-chief formed 
a whole series of conspiracies for the purpose of dethroning his 
lawful sovereign, and openly placed himself beneath the protec- 
tion of Louis XIV. of France, just as the rebels of the i8th 
century placed themselves under the protection of Catherine II. 
of Russia. And this rebel was none other than John Sobieski, 
at a later day the heroic deliverer of Vienna! If heroes could 
so debase themselves, can we wonder if men who were not heroes 
lent themselves to every sort of villainy? We have come, in 
fact, to the age of utter shamelessness, when disappointed 
place-hunters openly invoked foreign aid against their own 
country. Sobieski himself, as John III. (he sue- John ill. 
ceeded Michael in 1674), was to pay the penalty Sobieski, 
of his past lawlessness, to the uttermost farthing. 
Despite his brilliant military achievements (see JOHN III., 
KING OF POLAND), his reign of twenty-two years was a 
failure. His victories over the Turks were fruitless so far as 
Poland was concerned. His belated attempts to reform the 
constitution only led to conspiracies against his life and crown, 
in which the French faction, which he had been the first to 
encourage, took an active part. In his later years Lithuania 
was in a state of chronic revolt, while Poland was bankrupt 
both morally and materially. He died a broken-hearted man, 
prophesying the inevitable ruin of a nation which he himself 
had done so much to demoralize. 

It scarcely seemed possible for Poland to sink lower than she 
had sunk already. Yet an era was now to follow, compared 
with which even the age of Sobieski seemed to be an age of gold. 
This was the; Saxon period which, with occasional violent 
interruptions, was to drag on for nearly seventy years. By the 
time it was over Poland was irretrievably doomed. It only 
remained to be seen how that doom would be accomplished. 

On the death of John III. no fewer than eighteen candidates 
for the vacant Polish throne presented themselves. Austria 
supported James Sobieski, the eldest son of the late 
king, France Francis Louis Prince of Conti (166 
1709), but the successful competitor was Frederick 
Augustus, elector of Saxony, who cheerfully renounced 
Lutheranism for the coveted crown, and won the day 
because he happened to arrive last of all, with fresh funds, 
when the agents of his rivals had spent all their money. He 
was crowned, as Augustus II., on the isth of September 1697, 
and his first act was to expel from the country the prince of 
Conti, the elect of a respectable minority, directed by the 
cardinal primate Michal Radziejowski (1645-1705), whom 
Augustus II. subsequently bought over for 75,000 thalers. 

1 Thus the Sapiehas, who had been living on rapine for years, 
dissolved the diet of 1688 by means of the veto of one of their hire- 
lings, for fear of an investigation into their conduct. 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



917 



Good luck attended the opening years of the new reign. In 
1699 the long Turkish War, which had been going on ever since 
1683, was concluded by the peace of Karlowitz, whereby Podolia, 
the Ukraine and the fortress of Kamenets Podolskiy were 
retroceded to the Republic by the Ottoman Porte. Immediately 
afterwards Augustus was persuaded by the plausible Livonian 
exile, Johan Reinhold Patkul, to form a nefarious league with 
Frederick of Denmark and Peter of Russia, for the purpose of 
despoiling the youthful king of Sweden, Charles XII. (see 
SWEDEN: History). This he did as elector of Saxony, but it was 
Warwttb the unfortunate Polish republic which paid for the 
Charles XII. hazardous speculation of its newly elected king. 
ol Sweden. Throughout the Great Northern War (see SWEDEN: 
History), which wasted northern and central Europe for 
twenty years (1700-1720), all the belligerents treated Poland 
as if she had no political existence. Swedes, Saxons and 
Russians not only lived upon the country, but plundered 
it systematically. The diet was the humble servant of the 
conqueror of the moment, and the leading magnates chose 
their own sides without the slightest regard for the interests 
of their country, the Lithuanians for the most part supporting 
Charles XII., while the Poles divided their allegiance between 
Stanislaus Augustus and Stanislaus Leszczynski, whom Charles 
Lt-szczyh- placed upon the throne in 1704 and kept there till 
tU " 1709- At the end of the war Poland was ruined 

materially as well as politically. Augustus attempted to 
indemnify himself for his failure to obtain Livonia, his 
covenanted share of the Swedish plunder, by offering Frederick 
William of Prussia Courland, Polish Prussia and even part of 
Great Poland, provided that he were allowed a free hand in the 
disposal of the rest of the country. When Prussia declined this 
tempting offer for fear of Russia, Augustus went a step farther 
and actually suggested that " the four l eagles " should divide 
the banquet between them. He died, however (Feb. i, 1733) 
before he could give effect to this shameless design. 

On the death of Augustus II., Stanislaus Leszczynski, who 
had, in the meantime, become the father-in-law of Louis XV., 
attempted to regain his throne with the aid of a small French 
army corps and 4,000,000 livres from Versailles. Some of the 
best men in Poland, including the Czartoryscy, were also in his 
favour, and on the 26th of August 1733 he was elected king for 
the second time. But there were many malcontents, principally 
among the Lithuanians, who solicited the intervention of Russia 
in favour of the elector of Saxony, son of the late king, and in 
October 1733 a Russian army appeared before Warsaw and 
compelled a phantom diet (it consisted of but 15 senators and 
Augustus 500 of the szlachto) to proclaim Augustus III. From 
in., 1733- the end of 1733 till the 3oth of June 1734 Stanislaus 
1763. anc j jjj s partisans were besieged by the Russians in 

Danzig, their last refuge, and with the surrender of that for- 
tress the cause of Stanislaus was lost. He retired once more 
to his little court in Lorraine, with the title of king, leaving 
Augustus III. in possession of the kingdom. 

Augustus III. was disqualified by constitutional indolence 
from taking any active part in affairs. He left everything to 
his omnipotent minister, Count Heinrich Bruhl, and Briihl 
entrusted the government of Poland to the Czartoryscy, who 
had intimate relations of long standing with the court of Dresden. 

The Czartoryscy, who were to dominate Polish politics for 
the next half-century, came of an ancient Ruthenian stock which 
had intermarried with the Jagiellos at an early date, and had 
always been remarkable for their civic virtues and political 
sagacity. They had powerfully contributed to the adoption 
of the Union of Lublin; were subsequently received into the 
Roman Catholic Church ; and dated the beginning of their influ- 
ence in Poland proper from the time (1674) when Florian 
Czartoryski became primate there. Florian's nephews, Fryderyk 
Michal and Augustus, were now the principal representatives 
of " the Family," as their opponents sarcastically called them. 
The former, through the influence of Augustus's minister and 
favourite Briihl, had become, in his twenty-eighth year, vice- 
1 The fourth eagle was the White Eagle, i.e. Poland. 



chancellor and subsequently grand chancellor of Lithuania, 
was always the political head of the family. His brother and 
Augustus, after fighting with great distinction against the Turks 
both by land and sea (Prince Eugene decorated him with a 
sword of honour for his valour at the siege of Belgrade), had 
returned home to marry Sophia Sieniawska, whose fabulous 
dowry won for her husband the sobriquet of " the Family 
Croesus." Their sister Constantia had already married Stanislaus 
Poniatowski, the father of the future king. Thus wealth, 
position, court influence and ability combined gave the Czar- 
toryscy a commanding position in Poland, and, to their honour 
be it said, they had determined from the first to save the Republic, 
whose impending ruin in existing circumstances they dearly 
foresaw, by a radical constitutional reconstruction which was 
to include the abolition of the liberum veto and the formation 
of a standing army. 

Unfortunately the other great families of Poland were obstin- 
ately opposed to any reform or, as they called it, any "violation" 
of the existing constitution. The Potoccy, whose possessions 
in south Poland and the Ukraine covered thousands of square 
miles, the RadziwiHowie, who were omnipotent in Lithuania 
and included half a dozen millionaires 2 amongst them, the 
Lubomirscy and their fellows, hated the Czartoryscy because 
they were too eminent, and successfully obstructed all their 
well-meant efforts. The castles of these great lords were the foci 
of the social and political life of their respective provinces. Here 
they lived like little princes, surrounded by thousands of re- 
tainers, whom they kept for show alone, making no attempt to 
organize and discipline this excellent military material for the 
defence of their defenceless country. Here congregated hundreds 
of the younger szlachta, fresh from their school benches, whence 
they brought nothing but a smattering of Latin and a determina- 
tion to make their way by absolute subservience to their " elder 
brethren," the pans. These were the men who, a little later, 
at the bidding of their " benefactors," dissolved one inconvenient 
diet after another; for it is a significant fact that during the 
reigns of the two Augustuses every diet was dissolved in this way 
by the hirelings of some great lord or, still worse, of some foreign 
potentate. In a word constitutional government had practically 
ceased, and Poland had become an arena in which contesting 
clans strove together for the mastery. 

It was against this primitive state of things that the Czar- 
toryscy struggled, and struggled in vain. First they attempted 
to abolish the liberum veto with the assistance of the Saxon court 
where they were supreme, but fear of foreign complications and 
the opposition of the Potoccy prevented anything being done. 
Then they broke with their old friend Bruhl and turned to 
Russia. Their chief intermediary was their nephew Stanislaus 
Poniatowski, whom they sent, as Saxon minister, to the Russian 
court in the suite of the English minister Hanbury Williams, 
in 1755. The handsome and insinuating Poniatowski speedily 
won the susceptible heart of the grand-duchess Catherine, but 
he won nothing else and returned to Poland in 1759 somewhat 
discredited. Disappointed in their hopes of Russia, the Czar- 
toryscy next attempted to form a confederation for the deposi- 
tion of Augustus III., but while the strife of factions was still 
at its height the absentee monarch put an end to the struggle 
by expiring, conveniently, on the sth of October 1763. 

The interregnum occurring on the death of Augustus III. 
befell at a time when all the European powers, exhausted by 
the Seven Years' War, earnestly desired peace. The position 
of Poland was, consequently, much more advantageous than 
it had been on every other similar occasion, and if only the 
contending factions had been able to agree and unite, the final 
catastrophe might, perhaps, even now, have been averted. 
The Czartoryscy, of all men, were bound by their principles 
and professions to set their fellow citizens an example of fraternal 
concord. Yet they rejected with scom and derision the pacific 
overtures of their political opponents, the Potoccy, the Radzi- 
wiHowie, and the Braniscy, Prince Michal openly declaring that of 
two tyrannies he preferred the tyranny of the Muscovite to the 
2 Michal Kazimierz Radziwill alone was worth thirty millions. 



9i8 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



tyranny of his equals. He had in fact already summoned a 
Russian army corps to assist him to reform his country, which 
sufficiently explains his own haughtiness and the unwonted 
compliancy of the rival magnates. 

The simplicity of the Czartoryscy was even more mischievous 
than their haughtiness. When the most enlightened statesmen 
of the Republic could seriously believe in the benevolent in- 
tentions of Russia the end was not far off. Their naive expecta- 
tions were very speedily disappointed. Catherine II. and 
Frederick II. had already determined (Treaty of St Petersburg, 
April 22, 1764) that the existing state of things in Poland must 
be maintained, and as early as the i8th of October 1763 Catherine 
had recommended the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski as 
" the individual most convenient for our common interests." 
The personal question did not interest Frederick: so long as 
Poland was kept in an anarchical condition he cared not who 
was called king. Moreover, the opponents of the Czartoryscy 
made no serious attempt to oppose the entry of the Russian 
troops. At least 40,000 men were necessary for the purpose, 
and these could have been obtained for 200,000 ducats; but a 
congress of magnates, whose collective fortunes amounted to 
hundreds of millions, having decided that it was impossible to 
raise this sum, there was nothing for it but to fight a few skirmishes 
and then take refuge abroad. The Czartoryscy now fancied 
themselves the masters of the situation. They at once proceeded 
to pass through the convocation diet a whole series of salutary 
measures. Four special commissions were appointed to super- 
intend the administration of justice, the police and the finances. 
The extravagant powers of the grand hetmans and the grand 
marshals were reduced. All financial and economical questions 
before the diet were henceforth to be decided by a majority of 
Stanislaus votes - Shortly afterwards Stanislaus Poniatowski 
u.Pooia- was elected king (Sept. 7, 1764) and crowned (Nov. 
towski, 2 j)_ B u t a t the beginning of 1766 Prince Nicholas 
17 ' Repnin was sent as Russian minister to Warsaw 
with instructions which can only be described as a carefully 
elaborated plan for destroying the Republic. The first weapon 
employed was the dissident question. At that time the 
population of Poland was, in round numbers, 11,500,000, 
of whom about 1,000,000 were dissidents or dissenters. Half 
of these were the Protestants of the towns of Polish Prussia and 
Great Poland, the other half was composed of the Orthodox 
population of Lithuania. The dissidents had no political rights, 
and their religious liberties had also been unjustly restricted; 
but two-thirds of them being agricultural labourers, and most 
of the rest artisans or petty tradesmen, they had no desire to 
enter public life, and were so ignorant and illiterate that their 
new protectors, on a closer acquaintance, became heartily 
ashamed of them. Yet it was for these persons that Repnin, 
in the name of the empress, now demanded absolute equality, 
political and religious, with the gentlemen of Poland. He was 
well aware that an aristocratic and Catholic assembly like the 
sejm would never concede so preposterous a demand. He also 
calculated that the demand itself would make the szlachta 
suspicious of all reform, including the Czartoryscian reforms, 
especially as both the king and his uncles were generally un- 
popular, as being innovators under foreign influence. His 
calculations were correct. The sejm of 1766 not only rejected 
the dissident bill, but repealed all the Czartoryscian reforms 
and insisted on the retention of the liberum veto as the foundation 
of the national liberties. The discredit into which Stanislaus 
had now fallen encouraged the Saxon party, led by Gabriel 
Podoski (1719-1777), to form a combination for the purpose of 
dethroning the king. Repnin knew that the allied courts would 
never consent to such a measure; but he secretly encouraged 
the plot for his own purposes, with signal success. Early in 
1767 the malcontents, fortified by the adhesion of the leading 
Catheriaeii. political refugees, formed a confederation at Radom, 
at Russia whose first act was to send a deputation to St 
ana Poland. p ete rsburg, petitioning Catherine to guarantee the 
liberties of the Republic, and allow the form of the Polish 
constitution to be settled by the Russian ambassador at 



Warsaw. With this carte blanche in his pocket, Repnin 
proceeded to treat the diet as if it were already the slave of 
the Russian empress. But despite threats, wholesale corrup- 
tion and the presence of Russian troops outside and even inside 
the izba, or chamber of deputies, the patriots, headed by four 
bishops, Woclaw Hieronim Sierakowski (1690-1784) of Lemberg, 
Feliks Pawel Turski of Chelm (1720-1800), Kajetan Ignaty 
Soltyk of Cracow (1715-1788), and J6zef Jendrzej Zaluski of 
Kiev (1702-1774), offered a determined resistance to Repnin's 
demands. Only when brute force in its extremest form had 
been ruthlessly employed, only when three senators and some 
deputies had been arrested in full session by Russian grenadiers 
and sent as prisoners to Kaluga, did the opposition collapse. 
The liberum veto and all the other ancient abuses were now 
declared unalterable parts of the Polish constitution, which was 
placed under the guarantee of Russia. All the edicts against 
the dissidents were, at the same time, repealed. 

This shameful surrender led to a Catholic patriotic uprising, 
known as the Confederation of Bar, which was formed on the 
29th of February 1768, at Bar in the Ukraine, by 
a handful of small squires. It never had a chance 
of permanent success, though, feebly fed by French 
subsidies and French volunteers, it lingered on for four years, 
till finally suppressed in 1772. But, insignificant itself, it was 
the cause of great events. Some of the Bar confederates, 
scattered by the Russian regulars, fled over the Turkish border, 
pursued by their victors. The Turks, already alarmed at 
the progress of the Russians in Poland, and stimulated by Ver- 
gennes, at that time French ambassador at Constantinople, at 
once declared war against Russia. Seriously disturbed at the 
prospect of Russian aggrandizement, the idea occurred, almost 
simultaneously, to the courts of Berlin and Vienna that the best 
mode of preserving the equilibrium of Europe was for all three 
powers to readjust their territories at the expense of Poland. 
The idea of a partition of Poland was nothing new, but , the vast- 
ness of the country, and the absence of sufficiently powerful and 
united enemies, had hitherto saved the Republic from spoliation. 
But now that Poland lay utterly helpless and surrounded by 
the three great military monarchies of Europe, nothing could 
save her. In February 1769 Frederick sent Count Rochus 
Friedrich Lynar (1708-1783) to St Petersburg to sound the 
empress as to the expediency of a partition, in August Joseph II. 
solicited an interview with Frederick, and in the course of the 
summer the two monarchs met, first at Neisse in Silesia and 
again at Neustadt in Moravia. Nothing definite as to Poland 
seems to have been arranged, but Prince Kaunitz, the Austrian 
chancellor, was now encouraged to take the first step by occupy- 
ing, in 1770, the county of Zips, which had been hypothecated 
by Hungary to Poland in 1442 and never redeemed. This act 
decided the other confederates. In June 1770 Frederick sur- 
rounded those of the Polish provinces he coveted with a military 
cordon, ostensibly to keep out the cattle plague. Catherine's 
consent had been previously obtained by a special mission of 
Prince Henry of Prussia to the Russian capital, pint Par- 
The first treaty of partition'was signed at St Peters- otion of 
burg between Prussia and Russia on the 6-i7th of Poland, 
February 1772; the second treaty, which admitted m2 ' 
Austria also to a share of the spoil, on the 5-1 6th of August 
the same year. It is unnecessary to recapitulate the unheard- 
of atrocities by which the consent of the sejm to this act of 
brigandage was at last extorted (Aug. 18, 1773). Russia 
obtained the palatinates of Vitebsk, Polotsk Mscislaw: 1586 
sq. m. of territory, with a population of 550,000 and an 
annual revenue of 920,000 Polish gulden. Austria got the 
greater part of Galicia, minus Cracow: 1710 sq. m., with 
a population of 816,000 and an annual revenue of 1,408,000 
gulden. Prussia received the maritime palatinate minus 
Danzig, the palatinate of Kulm minus Thorn, Great Poland as far 
as the Nitza, and the palatinates of Marienburg and Ermeland: 
629 sq. m., with a population of 378,000, and an annual 
revenue of 534,000 thalers. In fine, Poland lost about one-fifth 
of her population and one-fourth of her territory. 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



919 



In return for these enormous concessions the partitioning 
powers presented the Poles with a constitution superior to any- 
thing they had ever been able to devise for themselves. The 
most mischievous of the ancient abuses, the elective monarchy 
and the liberum veto, were of course retained. Poland was to 
be dependent on her despoilers, but they evidently meant to 
make her a serviceable dependant. The government was hence- 
forth to be in the hands of a rada nieuslajaca, or permanent 
council of thirty-six members, eighteen senators and eighteen 
deputies, elected biennially by the sejm in secret ballot, sub- 
divided into the five departments of foreign affairs, police, war, 
justice and the exchequer, whose principal members and assist- 
ants, as well as all other public functionaries, were to have fixed 
salaries. The royal prerogative was still further reduced. The 
king was indeed the president of the permanent council, but he 
could not summon the diet without its consent, and in all cases 
of preferment was bound to select one out of three of the council's 
nominees. The annual budget was fixed at 30,000,000 Polish 
gulden, 1 out of which a regular army of 30,000 2 men was to 
be maintained. Sentiment apart, the constitution of 1775 was 
of distinct benefit to Poland. It made for internal stability, 
order and economy, and enabled her to develop and husband 
her resources, and devote herself uninterruptedly to the now 
burning question of national education. For the shock of the 
first partition was so far salutary that it awoke the public con- 
science to a sense of the national inferiority; stimulated the 
younger generation to extraordinary patriotic efforts; and thus 
went far to produce the native reformers who were to do such 
wonders during the great quadrennial diet. 

It was the second Turkish War of Catherine II. which gave 
patriotic Poland her last opportunity of re-establishing her 
independence. The death of Frederick the Great (Aug. 17, 1786) 
completely deranged the balance of power in Europe. The 
long-standing accord between Prussia and Russia came to an 
end, and while the latter drew nearer to Austria, the former 
began to look to the Western powers. In August 1787 Russia 
and Austria provoked the Porte to declare war against them both, 
and two months later a defensive alliance was concluded be- 
tween Prussia, England and Holland, as a counterpoise to the 
alarming preponderance of Russia. In June 1788 Gustavus III. 
of Sweden also attacked Russia, with 50,000 men, while in the 
south the Turks held the Muscovites at bay beneath the walls 
of Ochakov, and drove back the Austrian invaders into Transyl- 
vania. Prussia, emboldened by Russia's difficulties, now went 
so far as to invite Poland also to forsake the Russian alh'ance, 
and placed an army corps of 40,000 men at her disposal. 

It was under these exceptional circumstances that the " four 
years' diet " assembled (Oct. 6, 1788). Its leaders, Stanislaw 
Reformat Malachowski, Hugo Kollontaj and Ignaty Potocki, 
the Con- were men of character and capacity, and its measures 
natation, were correspondingly vigorous. Within a few months 
of its assembling it had abolished the permanent 
council; enlarged the royal prerogative; raised the army 
to 65,000 men; established direct communications with the 
Western powers; rejected an alliance which Russia, alarmed 
at the rapid progress of events, had hastened to offer; declared 
its own session permanent ; and finally settled down to the crucial 
task of reforming the constitution on modern lines. But the 
difficulties of the patriots were commensurate with their energies, 
and though the new constitution was drafted so early as Decem- 
ber 1789, it was not till May 1791 that it could safely be presented 
to the diet. Meanwhile Poland endeavoured to strengthen her 
position by an advantageous alliance with Prussia. Frederick 
William II. stipulated, at first, that Poland should surrender 
Danzig and Thorn, and Pitt himself endeavoured to persuade 
the Polish minister Michal Kleophas Oginski (1765-1833) that 
the protection of Prussia was worth the sacrifice. But the Poles 
proving obstinate, and Austria simultaneously displaying a 
disquieting interest in the welfare of the Republic, Prussia, on 

1 1 Pol. gulden = 5 silber groschen. 
1 At the very next diet, 1776, the Poles themselves reduced the 
army to 18,000 men. 



the aoth of March 1791, concluded an alliance with Poland which 
engaged the two powers to guarantee each other's possessions 
and render mutual assistance in case either were attacked. 

But external aid was useless so long as Poland was hampered 
by her anarchical constitution. Hitherto the proceedings of 
the diet had not been encouraging. The most indispensable 
reforms had been frantically opposed, the debate on the re- 
organization of the army had alone lasted six months. It was 
only by an audacious surprise that Kollontaj and his associates 
contrived to carry through the new constitution. Taking 
advantage of the Easter recess, when most of the malcontents 
were out of town, they suddenly, on the 3rd of May, brought 
the whole question before the diet and demanded urgency for 
it. Before the opposition could remonstrate, the marshal of 
the diet produced the latest foreign despatches, which unani- 
mously predicted another partition, whereupon, at the solemn 
adjuration of Ignaty Potocki, King Stanislaus exhorted the 
deputies to accept the new constitution as the last means of 
saving their country, and himself set the example by swearing 
to defend it. 

The revolution of the 3rd of May 1791 converted Poland into 
an hereditary 3 limited monarchy, with ministerial responsibility 
and duennial parliaments. The liberum veto and all the intricate 
and obstructive machinery of the anomalous old system were 
for ever abolished. All invidious class distinctions were done 
away with. The franchise was extended to the towns. Serfdom 
was mitigated, preparatorily to its entire abolition; absolute 
religious toleration was established, and every citizen declared 
equal before the law. Frederick William II. officially congratu- 
lated Stanislaus on the success of " the happy revolution which 
has at last given Poland a wise and regular government," and 
declared it should henceforth be his " chief care to maintain 
and confirm the ties which unite us." Cobenzl, the Austrian 
minister at St Petersburg, writing to his court immediately 
after the reception of the tidings at the Russian capital, describes 
the empress as full of consternation at the idea that Poland under 
an hereditary dynasty might once more become a considerable 
power. But Catherine, still in difficulties, was obliged to watch 
in silence the collapse of her party in Poland, and submit to the 
double humiliation of recalling her ambassador and withdrawing 
her army from the country. Even when the peace of Jassy 
(Jan. 9, 1792) finally freed her from the Turk, she waited 
patiently for the Polish malcontents to afford her a pretext and 
an opportunity for direct and decisive interference. She had not 
long to wait. The constitution of the 3rd of May had scarce 
been signed when Felix Potocki, Severin Rzewuski and Xavier 
Branicki, three of the chief dignitaries of Poland, hastened to 
St Petersburg, and there entered into a secret convention with 
the empress, whereby she undertook to restore the old constitu- 
tion by force of arms, but at the same time promised to respect 
the territorial integrity of the Republic. On the I4th of May 
1792 the conspirators formed a confederation, consisting, in 
the first instance, of only ten other persons, at the little town 
of Targowica in the Ukraine, protesting against the constitution 
of the 3rd of May as tyrannous and revolutionary, and at the 
same time the new Russian minister at Warsaw presented a 
formal declaration of war to the king and the diet. The diet 
met the crisis with dignity and firmness. The army was at once 
despatched to the frontier; the male population was called to 
arms, and Ignaty Potocki was sent to Berlin to claim the assist- 
ance stipulated by the treaty of the igth of March 1791. The 
king of Prussia, in direct violation of all his oaths and promises, 
declined to defend a constitution which had never had his 
" concurrence." Thus Poland was left entirely to R USS ia 
her own resources. The little Polish army of 46,000 overthrows 
men, under Prince Joseph Poniatowski and Tadeusz t ^ lo ^" sa ' 
Kosciuszko, did all that was possible under the 
circumstances. For more than three months they kept 
back the invader, and, after winning three pitched battles, 
retired in perfect order on the capital (see PONIATOWSKI, and 

' On the death of Stanislaus, the crown was to pass to the family 
of the elector of Saxony. 



920 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



KOSCIUSZKO). But the king, and even Kollontaj, despairing 
of success, now acceded to the confederation; hostilities were 
suspended; the indignant officers threw up their commissions; 
the rank and file were distributed all over the country; the 
reformers fled abroad; and the constitution of the 3rd of May 
was abolished by the Targowicians as " a dangerous novelty." 
The Russians then poured into eastern Poland; the Prussians, 
at the beginning of 1793, alarmed lest Catherine should appro- 
priate the whole Republic, occupied Great Poland; and a 
diminutive, debased and helpless assembly met at Grodno in 
order, in the midst of a Russian army corps," to come to an 
amicable understanding " with the partitioning powers. After 
Second Par- every conceivable means of intimidation had been 
tition ot unscrupulously applied for twelve weeks, the second 
Poland. treaty of partition was signed at three o'clock on the 
morning of the 23rd of September 1793. By this poclum 
subjeclionis, as the Polish patriots called it, Russia got all 
the eastern provinces of Poland, extending from Livonia to 
Moldavia, comprising a quarter of a million of square miles, 
while Prussia got Dobrzyn, Kujavia and the greater part of 
Great Poland, with Thorn and Danzig. Poland was now reduced 
to one-third of her original dimensions, with a population of 
about three and a half millions. 

The focus of Polish nationality was now transferred from 
Warsaw, where the Targowicians and their Russian patrons 
Kosciuszko re is ne d supreme, to Leipzig, whither the Polish 
patriots, Kosciuszko, Kollontaj and Ignaty Potocki 
among the number, assembled from all quarters. From the 
first they meditated a national rising, but their ignorance, 
enthusiasm and simplicity led them to commit blunder after 
blunder. The first of such blunders was Kosciuszko's mission 
to Paris, in January 1794. He was full of the idea of a league 
of republics against the league of sovereigns; but he was unaware 
that the Jacobins themselves were already considering the best 
mode of detaching Prussia, Poland's worst enemy, from the 
anti-French coalition. With a hypocrisy worthy of the diplo- 
macy of " the tyrants," the committee of public safety declared 
that it could not support an insurrection engineered by aristo- 
crats, and Kosciuszko returned to Leipzig empty-handed. The 
next blunder of the Polish refugees was to allow themselves to be 
drawn into a premature rising by certain Polish officers in Poland 
who, to prevent the incorporation of their regiments in the 
Russian army, openly revolted and led their troops from Warsaw 
to Cracow. Kosciuszko himself condemned their hastiness; 
but, when the Russian troops began to concentrate, his feelings 
grew too strong for him, and early in April he himself appeared 
at Cracow. In an instant the mutiny became a revolution. 
The details of the heroic but useless struggle will be found else- 
where (see KoSciuszxo, KOLLONTAJ, POTOCKI, IGNATY, DOM- 
BROWSKI). Throughout April the Polish arms were almost 
universally successful. The Russians were defeated in more 
than one pitched battle; three-quarters of the ancient territory 
was recovered, and Warsaw and Vilna, the capitals of Poland 
and Lithuania respectively, were liberated. Kosciuszko was 
appointed dictator, and a supreme council was established 
to assist him. The first serious reverse, at Szczekociny 
(June 5), was more than made up for by the successful defence 
of Warsaw against the Russians and Prussians (July 9 to 
Sept. 6); but in the meantime the inveterate lawlessness of 
the Poles had asserted itself, as usual, and violent and ceaseless 
dissensions, both in the supreme council and in the army, 
neutralized the superhuman efforts of the unfortunate but still 
undaunted dictator. The death-blow to the movement was 
the disaster of Maciejowice (Oct. 10), and it expired amidst the 
carnage of Praga (Oct. 29), though the last Polish army corps 
did not capitulate till the i8th of November. Yet all the glory 
of the bitter struggle was with the vanquished, and if the Poles, 
to the last, had shown themselves children in the science of 
government, they had at least died on the field of battle like 
men. The greed of the three partitioning powers very nearly 
led to a rupture between Austria and Prussia; but the tact 
and statesmanship of the empress of Russia finally adjusted all 



difficulties. On the 24th of October 1795 Prussia acceded to 
the Austro-Russian partition compact of the 3rd of January, 
and the distribution of the [conquered provinces Third Par- 
was finally regulated on the loth of October 1796. tttioa of 
By the third treaty of partition Austria had to be Po^nd, 
content with Western Galicia and Southern Masovia; l796 ' 
Prussia took Podlachia, and the rest of Masovia, with Warsaw; 
and Russia all the rest. 

The immediate result of the third partition was an immense 
emigration of the more high-spirited Poles who, during) the next 
ten years, fought the battles of the French Republic and of 
Napoleon all over Europe, but pVincipally against their own 
enemies, the partitioning powers. They were known as the 
Polish legions, and were commanded by the best Polish generals, 
e.g. Joseph Poniatowski and Dombrowski. Only Kosciuszko 
stood aloof. Even when, after the peace of Tilsit, the inde- 
pendent grand-duchy of Warsaw was constructed out of the 
central provinces of Prussian Poland, his distrust of Napoleon 
proved to be invincible. He was amply justified by the course 
of events. Napoleon's anxiety to conciliate Russia effectually 
prevented him from making Poland large and strong enough 
to be self-supporting. The grand-duchy of Warsaw originally 
consisted of about 1850 sq. m., to which Western Galicia 
and Cracow, about 900 sq. m. more, were added in 1809. 
The grand-duchy was, from first to last, a mere recruiting-ground 
for the French emperor. Its army was limited, on paper, to 
30,000 men; but in January 1812 65,000, and in November 
the same year 97,000 recruits were drawn from it. The con- 
stitution of the little state was dictated by Napoleon, and, 
subject to the exigencies of war, was on the French model. 
Equality before the law, absolute religious toleration and local 
autonomy, were its salient features. The king of Saxony, as 
grand-duke, took the initiative in all legislative matters; but 
the administration was practically controlled by the French. 

(R.N.B.) 

The Congress Kingdom, 1813-1863. The Grand Duchy of 
Warsaw perished with the Grand Army in the retreat from 
Moscow in 1812. The Polish troops had taken a prominent 
part in the invasion of Russia, and their share in the plundering 
of Smolensk and of Moscow had intensified the racial hatred 
felt for them by the Russians. Those of them who survived 
or escaped the disasters of the retreat fled before the tsar's army 
and followed the fortunes of Napoleon in 1813 and 1814. The 
Russians occupied Warsaw on the i8th of February 1813 and 
overran the grand duchy, which thus came into their possession 
by conquest. Some of the Poles continued to hope Alexaaderi. 
that Alexander would remember his old favour for and Poland. 
them, and would restore their kingdom under his 
own rule. Nor was the tsar unwilling to encourage their 
delusion. He himself cherished the desire to re-establish 
the kingdom for his own advantage. As early as the i3th of 
January 1813 he wrote to assure his former favourite and con- 
fidant, Prince Adam Czartoryski, that, " Whatever the Poles 
do now to aid in my success, will at the same time serve to 
forward the realization of their hopes." But the schemes of 
Alexander could be carried out only with the co-operation 
of other powers. They refused to consent to the annexation of 
Saxony by Prussia, and other territorial arrangements which 
would have enabled him to unite all Poland in his The Con- 
own hand. By the final act of the Congress of gresaof 
Vienna, signed on the 9th of June 1815, Poland was vlet ">*~ 
divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia, with one trifling 
exception: Cracow with its population of 61,000 was erected 
into a republic embedded in Galicia. Posen and Gnesen, with 
a population of 810,000, were left to Prussia. Austria remained 
in possession of Galicia with its 1,500,000 inhabitants. Lithuania 
and the Ruthenian Palatinates, the spoil of former partitions, 
continued to be incorporated with Russia. The remnant was 
constituted as the so-called Congress Kingdom under the 
emperor of Russia as king (tsar) of Poland. It had been stipu- 
lated by the Final Act that the Poles under foreign rule should 
be endowed with institutions to preserve their national existence 



HISTORY] 



POLAND 



921 



according to such forms of political existence as the governments 
to which they belong shall think fit to allow them. 

Alexander, who had a sentimental regard for freedom, so 
long as it was obedient to himself, had promised the Poles a 
The New constitution in April 1815 in a letter to Ostrov- 
Poiish Coa- skiy, the president of the senate at Warsaw. His 
stitution, promise was publicly proclaimed on the 25th of 
May, and was reaffirmed in the Zamok or palace at 
Warsaw and the cathedral of St John on the 2oth of June. 
The constitution thus promised was duly drafted, and was 
signed on the 3oth of November. It contained 165 articles 
divided under seven heads. The kingdom of Poland was 
declared to be united to Russia, in the person of the tsar, as 
a separate political entity. The kingdom was the Congress 
Kingdom, for the vague promises of an extension to the east 
which Alexander had made to the Poles were never fulfilled. 
Lithuania and the Ruthenian Palatinates continued to be 
incorporated with Russia as the Western Provinces and were 
divided from the Congress Kingdom by a customs barrier till 
the reign of Nicholas I. The kingdom of Poland thus defined 
was to have at its head a lieutenant of the emperor (namiestnik) , 
who must be a member of the Imperial house or a Pole. The 
first holder of the office, General Zajonczek (1752-1826), was 
a veteran who had served Napoleon. Roman Catholicism was 
recognized as the religion of the state, but other religions were 
tolerated. Liberty of the Press was promised subject to the 
passing of a law to restrain its abuses. Individual liberty, the 
use of the Polish language in the law courts, and the exclusive 
employment of Poles in the civil government were secured by 
the constitution. The machinery of government was framed 
of a council of state, at which the Imperial government was 
represented by a commissioner plenipotentiary, and a diet 
divided into a senate composed of the princes of the blood, the 
palatines and councillors named for life, and a house of nuntii 
elected for seven years, 77 chosen by the " dietines " of the 
nobles, and 51 by the commons. The diet was to meet every 
other year fcr a session of thirty days, and was to be renewed 
by thirds every two years. Poland retained its flag, and a 
national army based on that which had been raised by and had 
fought for Napoleon. The command of the army was given 
to the emperor's brother Constantine, a man of somewhat 
erratic character, who did much to offend the Poles by violence, 
but also a good deal to please them by his marriage with Johanna 
Grudzinska, a Polish lady afterwards created Princess Lowicz, 
for whose sake he renounced his right to the throne of Russia 
(see CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH). 

The diet met three times during the reign of Alexander, in 
1818, in 1820 and in 1825, and was on all three occasions opened 
by the tsar, who was compelled to address his subjects in French, 
since he did not speak, and would not learn, their language. 
It is highly doubtful whether, with the best efforts on both sides, 
a constitutional government could have been worked by a 
Russian autocrat, and an assembly of men who inherited the 
memories and characters of the Poles. In fact the tsar and the 
diet soon quarrelled. The Poles would not abolish the jury to 
please the tsar, nor conform as he wished them to do to the 
Russian law of divorce. Opposition soon arose, and as Alexander 
could not understand a freedom which differed from himself, 
and would not condescend to the use of corruption, by which 
the ancient Polish diets had been managed, he was driven to 
use force. The third session of the diet i3th of May to I3th 
of June 1825 was a mere formality. All publicity was sup- 
pressed, and one whole district was disfranchised because it 
persisted in electing candidates who were disapproved of at 
court. On the other hand, the Poles were also to blame for 
the failure of constitutional government. They would agitate 
by means of the so-called National Masonry, or National 
Patriotic Society as it was afterwards called, for the restoration 
of the full kingdom of Poland. The nobles who dominated the 
diet did nothing to remove the most crying evil of the country 
the miserable state of the peasants, who had been freed from 
personal serfdom by Napoleon in 1807, but were being steadily 



driven from their holdings by the landlords. In spite of the 
general prosperity of the country due to peace, and the execution 
of public works mostly at the expense of Russia, the state of 
the agricultural class grew, if anything, worse. 

Yet no open breach occurred during the reign of Alexander, 
nor for five years after his death in 1825. The Decembrist 
movement in Russia had little or no echo in Poland. On the 
death of Zajonczek in 1826, the grand duke Constantine be- 
came Imperial lieutenant, and his administration, fhe Grand 
though erratic, was not unfavourable to displays Duke Coa- 
of Polish nationality. The Polish army had no< afl < toe - 
share in the Turkish War of 1829, largely, it is said, at 
the request of Constantine, who loved parades and thought 
that war was the ruin of soldiers. No attempt was made to 
profit by the embarrassments of the Russians in their war with 
Turkey. A plot to murder Nicholas at his coronation on the 
24th of May 1829 was not carried out, and when he held the 
fourth diet on the 3Oth of May 1830, the Poles made an osten- 
tatious show of their nationality which Nicholas was provoked 
to describe as possibly patriotic but certainly not civil. Never- 
theless, he respected the settlement of 1815. In the meantime 
the Patriotic Society had divided into a White or Moderate 
party and a Red or Extreme party, which was subdivided into 
the Academics or Republicans and the Military or Terrorists. 
The latter were very busy and were supported by the Roman 
Catholic Church, which did little for the Prussian Poles and 
nothing for the Austrian Poles, but was active in harassing the 
schismatical government of Russia. 

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1830 and the 
revolt of Belgium produced a great effect in Poland. The spread 
of a belief, partly justified by the language of Polish 
Nicholas, that the Polish army would be used to Rising of 
coerce the Belgians, caused great irritation. At last, ' 

on the 29th of November 1830, a military revolt took place in 
Warsaw accompanied by the murder of the minister of war, 
Hauke, himself a Pole, and other loyal officers. The extra- 
ordinary weakness of the grand duke allowed the rising to gather 
strength. He evacuated Warsaw and finally left the country, 
dying at Vitebsk on the 2 7th of June 1831 (see CONSTANTINE 
PAVLOVICH). The war lasted from January till September 1831. 
The fact that the Poles possessed a well-drilled army of 23,800 
foot, 6800 horse and 108 guns, which they were able to recruit 
to a total strength of 80,821 men with 158 guns, gave solidity 
to the rising. The Russians, who had endeavoured to over- 
awe Europe by the report of their immense military power, 
had the utmost difficulty in putting 114,000 men into the field, 
yet in less than a year, under the leadership of Diebitsch, and 
then of Paskevich, they mastered the Poles. On the political 
and administrative side the struggle of the Poles was weakened 
by the faults which had been the ruin of their kingdom 
faction pushed to the point of anarchy, want of discipline, 
intrigue and violence, as shown by the abominable massacre 
which took place in Warsaw when the defeat of the army was 
known. The Poles had begun by protesting that they only 
wished to defend their rights against the tsar, but they soon 
proceeded to proclaim his deposition. Their appeal to the 
powers of Europe for protection was inevitably disregarded. 

When the Congress Kingdom had been reconquered it was 
immediately reduced to the position of a Russian province. 
No remnant of Poland's separate political existence Poland m 
remained save the minute republic of Cracow. Russian 
Unable to acquiesce sincerely in its insignificance Provlace - 
and even unable to enforce its neutrality, Cracow was a 
centre of disturbance, and, after Russia, Prussia, and Austria 
had in 1846 agreed to its suppression, was finally occu- 
pied by Austria on the 6th of November 1848, as a consequence 
of the troubles, more agrarian than political, which convulsed 
Galicia. The administration established by Nicholas I. in 
Russian Poland was harsh and aimed avowedly at destroying 
the nationality, and even the language of Poland. The Polish 
universities of Warsaw and Vilna were suppressed, and the 
students compelled to go to St Petersburg and Kiev. Polish 



922 



POLAND 



[HISTORY 



Insurrection 
011863. 



recruits were distributed in Russian regiments, and the use of 
the Russian language was enforced as far as possible in the civil 
administration and in the law courts. The customs barrier 
between Lithuania and the former Congress Kingdom was 
removed, in the hope that the influence of Russia would spread 
more easily over Poland. A very hostile policy was adopted 
against the Roman Catholic Church. But though these measures 
cowed the Poles, they failed 'to achieve their main purpose. 
Polish national sentiment was not destroyed, but intensified. 
It even spread to Lithuania. The failure of Nicholas was in 
good part due to mistaken measures of what he hoped would 
be conciliation. He supported Polish students at Russian 
universities on condition that they then spent a number of 
years in the public service. It was the hope of the emperor 
that they would thus become united in interest with the Russians. 
But these Polish officials made use of their positions to aid 
their countrymen, and were grasping and corrupt with patriotic 
intentions. The Poles in Russia, whether at the universities 
or in the public service, formed an element which refused to 
assimilate with the Russians. In Poland itself the tsar left 
much of the current civil administration in the hands of the 
nobles, whose power over their peasants was hardly diminished 
and was misused as of old. The Polish exiles who filled Europe 
after 1830 intrigued from abroad, and maintained a constant 
agitation. The stern government of Nicholas was, however, 
so far effective that Poland remained quiescent during the 
Crimean War, in which many Polish soldiers fought in the Russian 
army. The Russian government felt safe enough to reduce 
the garrison of Poland largely. It was not till 1863, eight years 
after the death of the tsar in 1855, that the last attempt of 
the Poles to achieve independence by arms was made. 

The rising of 1863 may without injustice be said to be due 
to the more humane policy of the tsar Alexander II. Exiles 
were allowed to return to Poland, the Church was 
propitiated, the weight of the Russian administration 
was lightened, police rules as to passports were 
relaxed, and the Poles were allowed to form an agricultural 
society and to meet for a common purpose for the first time 
after many years. Poland in short shared in the new era of milder 
rule which began in Russia. In April 1856 Alexander II. was 
crowned king in the Roman Catholic cathedral of Warsaw, 
and addressed a flattering speech to his Polish subjects in French, 
for he too could not speak their language. His warning, " No 
nonsense, gentlemen " (Point de reveries, Messieurs), was taken 
in very ill part, and it was perhaps naturally, but beyond question 
most unhappily, the truth that the tsar's concessions only served 
to encourage the Poles to revolt, and to produce a strong Russian 
reaction against his liberal policy. As the Poles could no longer 
dispose of an army, they were unable to assail Russia as openly 
as in 1830. They had recourse to the so-called " unarmed 
agitation," which was in effect a policy of constant provocation 
designed to bring on measures of repression to be represented 
to Europe as examples of Russian brutality. They began in 
1860 at the funeral of the widow of General Sobinski, killed in 
1830, and on the 27th of February 1861 they led to the so-called 
Warsaw massacres, when the troops fired on a crowd which 
refused to disperse. The history of the agitation which cul- 
minated in the disorderly rising of 1863 is one of intrigue, secret 
agitation, and in the end of sheer terrorism by a secret society, 
which organized political assassination. The weakness of the 
Russian governor, General Gorchakov, in 1861 was a repetition 
of the feebleness of the Grand Duke Constantino in 1830. He 
allowed the Poles who organized the demonstration of the 
27th of February to form a kind of provisional government. 
Alongside of such want of firmness as this were, however, to be 
found such measures of ill-timed repression as the order given in 
1860 to the agricultural society not to discuss the question of the 
settlement of the peasants on the land. Concession and repres- 
sion were employed alternately. The Poles, encouraged by the 
one and exasperated by the other, finally broke into the partial 
revolt of 1863-1864. It was a struggle of ill-armed partisans, 
who were never even numerous, against regular troops, and was 



marked by no real battle. The suppression of the rising was 
followed by a return to the hard methods of Nicholas. The 
Polish nobles, gentry and Church the educated classes generally 
were crushed. It must, however, be noted that one class 
of the measures taken to punish the old governing part of the 
population of Poland has been very favourable to the majority. 
The peasants were freed in Lithuania, and in Poland proper 
much was done to improve their position. The Russian govern- 
ment has benefited by their comparative prosperity, and by the 
incurable hatred they continue to feel for the classes which were 
once their oppressors. The national history of Poland closes with 
the rising of 1863. (D. H.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best general history of Poland is still Jozef 
Szujski's monumental History of Poland according to the latest inves- 
tigations (4 vols., Pol., Lemberg, 1865-1866), a work which has all 
the authority of careful criticism and easy scholarship. It adopts, 
throughout, the conservative-monarchical standpoint. Szujski's 
book has superseded even Joachim Lelewel's learned History of 
Poland (Pol., Brussels, 1837), of which there, are excellent French 
(Paris, 1844) and German (Leipzig, 1846) editions. The best con- 
temporary general history is August Sokolowski's Illustrated History 
of Poland (Pol., Vienna, 1896-1900). The best independent German 
history of Poland is, on the whole, Roepell (Richard) and Caro's 
(Jakab) Geschichte Polens (Hamburg and Gotha, 1840-1888). 
Scholars desiring to explore for themselves the sources of Polish 
history from the nth century to the i8th have immense fields of 
research lying open before them in the Ada historica res gestas 
Poloniae illustrantia (1878, &c.), the Scriptores rerum polonicarum 
(1872, &c.), and the Historical Dissertations (Pol., 1874, &c.), all three 
collections published, under the most careful editorship, by the 
University of Cracow. To the same order belong Ludwik Finkel's 
Fontes rerum polonicarum (Lemberg, 1901, &c.), and the innumerable 
essays and articles in The Historical Quarterly Review of Poland (Pol., 
Lemberg, 1887, &c.). The soundest history of Lithuania, before its 
union with Poland, is still Lelewel's History of Lithuania (Pol., 
Leipzig, 1839), of which a French translation was published at Paris 
in 1861. Proceeding to the earlier history of Poland, Lelewel's 
Poland in the Middle Ages (4 vols., Posen, 1846-1851) is still a 
standard work, though the greatest authority on Polish antiquities 
is now Tadeusz Wojciechowski, who unites astounding learning 
with a perfect style. His Historical Sketches of the Eleventh Century 
(Pol., Cracow, 1904) is a very notable work. Karol Szajnocha's 
great monograph, justly described as " a pearl of historical litera- 
ture," Jadwiga and Jagiello (4 vols., Lemberg, 1861), the result of 
twelve years of exhaustive study, is our best authority on the first 
union between Poland and Lithuania. On the other hand, his 
Bolt-sinus the Bold, &c. (Lemberg, 1859) would now be considered 
too romantic and picturesque. The relations between Poland, 
Prussia and Livonia are adequately dealt with by two sound German 
books, Theodor Schiemann's Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 
xyiii. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1885-1887) and Max Perlbach's Preus- 
sisch-polnische Studien (Halle, 1886). A good guide to the history 
of the Jagiellonic period, 1386-1572, is also Adolf Pawinski's Poland 
in the i$th Century (Pol., Warsaw, 1883-1886). Of the numerous 
works relating to the reign of the heroic Stephen Bathory, 1575- 
1586, Ignaty Janicki's Ada historica res gestas Stephani Bathorei 
illustrantia (Cracow, 1881), and Paul Pierling's Un arbitrate ponti- 
fical entre la Pologne et la Russie 1581-1582 (Brussels, 1890) can be 
recommended. The best Polish work on the subject is Wincenty 
Zakrzewski's The Reign of Stephen Bdthory (Pol., Cracow, 1887). 
Of the books relating to the Polish Vasas the most notable is Szai- 
nocha's Two Years of our History, 1646-1648 (Lemberg, 1865), 
which deals exhaustively with the little-known but remarkable 
attempt (the last practical attempt of its kind) of Ladislaus IV. to 
abolish the incurably vicious Polish constitution. Another first- 
class work, relating to the same period and dealing specifically with 
the mode of warfare of heroic Poland, is Jozef Tretiak's History 
of the War of Chocim (Pol., Lemberg, 1893). For works relating to 
the Sobieskian, Saxon and Partitional periods of Polish history, 
the reader is referred to the bibliographical notes appended to the 
biographies of John III., king of Poland, Michal Czartoryski, Stanis- 
laus II., Tadeusz Andrzej Kosciuszko, Jozef Poniatowski, and the 
other chief actors of these periods. But the following additional 
authorities should also be noted, (i) Lelewel's History of the Reign 
of Stanislaus Augustus (Pol., Warsaw, 1831; Fr. ed., Paris, 1839); 
the book is important as being based on unpublished memoirs in the 
exclusive possession of the author's family. (2) Materials for the 
History of the last century of the Republic, by S. Korwin (Cracow, 
1890). (3) Die letzte polnische Konigswahl, by Szymon Askenazy 
(Cracow, 1882-1886). (4) The extremely valuable Prince Repnin 
in Poland by Aleksander Kraushar (Warsaw, 1900), one of the most 
thorough of contemporary Polish historians. Innumerable are the 
works relating to the Partitional period. Perhaps the best of all 
is Walery Jan Kalinka's great work in four volumes, Der vierjahrige 
polnische Reichstag (Berlin, 1896-1898). Kalinka is, however, far 
too severe upon the patriots and much too indulgent towards 



LITERATURE] 



POLAND 



9 2 3 



King Stanislaus. Albert Sorel's La Question d' Orient au XVIII*. 
siecle (Paris, 1889) is lucid and accurate, but somewhat superficial. 
Wolfgang Michael's England! Stellung zur ersten Teilung Polens 
(Hamburg, 1890) is of especial interest to Englishmen. Maryan 
Dubiecki's Karol Prozor (Pol., Cracow, 1897) shows with what 
self-sacrificing devotion the gentry and people supported Kosciu- 
szko's rising. For more complete bibliography see Jozef Korzeniow- 
ski's Catalogus actorum et documentarum res gestas Poloniae illus- 
trantium (Cracow, 1889), and Ludwik Finkel's Bibliography of Polish 
History (Pol., Lemberg, 1891). For the period 1815-1863 see also 
N. A. Day, The Russian Government in Poland (London, 1867); 
Theodor Schiemann, Russland unter Kaiser Nikolaus I., vol. i. 
(Berlin, 1904). 

POLISH LITERATURE 

The Polish language belongs to the western branch of the 
Slavonic tongues, and exhibits the closest affinities with the 
Czech or Bohemian and Lusatian Wendish. Unlike the people 
of other Slavonic countries, the Poles are comparatively poor 
in popular and legendary poetry, but such compositions un- 
doubtedly existed in early times, as may be seen by the writings 
of their chroniclers; thus Callus translated into Latin a poem 
written on Boleslaus the Brave, and a few old Polish songs are 
included in Wojcicki's Library of Ancient Writers. A great deal 
of the early literature written in Poland is in Latin. The earliest 
specimen of the Polish language is the so-called Psalter of Queen 
Margaret, discovered in 1826 at the convent of St Florian. The 
date of the manuscript appears to be the middle of the i4th 
century, and probably in its present form it is only a copy of a 
much older text; there is also a translation of the fiftieth psalm 
belonging to the I3th century. 1 The ancient Polish hymn or war 
song, Piesn Boga Rodzica, was an address to the Virgin, sung by 
the Poles when about to fight. The oldest manuscript of this 
production is dated 1408, and is preserved at Cracow. By a 
legend which subsequently grew up the composition of it was 
assigned to St Adalbert. John Lodzia, bishop of Posen from 
1335 to 1346, composed several religious songs in Latin. 

The next monument of Polish literature to which we come is 
the Bible of Queen Sophia or Bible of Szaroszpatak. It is im- 
perfect, and only contains the early books, viz. the Pentateuch, 
Joshua, Ruth and Kings; there are, however, fragments of three 
others. It is said to have been written for Sophia, the fourth 
wife of Jagiello, about the year 1455. It has been edited with 
great care by Malecki. Five religious songs in Polish dating 
from the isth century have been preserved; they are ascribed 
to Andrew Slopuchowski, prior of the monastery of the Holy 
Cross on Lysa G6ra. There is also the fragment of a hymn in 
praise of Wycliffe. To these fragments may be added the prayer- 
book of a certain Wadaw, a sermon on marriage, and some 
Polish glosses. These are all the existing memorials of the Polish 
language before the i6th century. 

Perhaps a few words should be said concerning the writers 
in Latin. Martin Gallus lived in Poland between mo and 1135. 
From his name he has been supposed by some to 
Chronicles nave been a Frenchman or Walloon, and we must 
remember that Poland swarmed at that time with 
foreign ecclesiastics. Lelewel, the Polish historian, considers 
that it is merely a translation into Latin of some such 
name as Kura, signifying " a fowl." Others suppose him to 
have been an Italian, or a monk from the convent of St Gall in 
Switzerland. He has plenty of legends to tell us, and writes 
altogether in a poetical style, so that his prose seems to fall 
into rhythm unconsciously. His quotations from the classics, 
Sallust, Lucan and others, show the extent of his reading. 
Gallus was followed by Matthew Cholewa and Vincent Kadlubek, 
two bishops of Cracow, and Bogufal or Boguchwal (Gottlob), 
bishop of Posen, who all used Latin. The work of Kadlubek 
is more ornate in diction than that of Bogufal, and for a long time 
enjoyed great popularity. He was born in 1160, educated at 
the university of Paris, and died in Poland in 1223 as a Cistercian 
monk. His Latin, like that of Gallus, is far from classical, 
but he writes with spirit and throws a good deal of light upon 

1 The Psalter is called after Margaret, the first wife of King 
Louis, who died in 1349, by a mere conjecture. Caro thinks it 
more probable that the book belonged to Mary, his daughter. 



the events of his time. The education of the country was wholly 
in the hands of the ecclesiastics, many of whom were foreigners. 
In this way we must explain the great prevalence of the Latin 
language. Such a system would be sure to stifle all national 
outgrowth, and accordingly we have among the Poles none of 
those early monuments of the language which other countries 
boast. For instance, there are no bilinl or legendary poems, 
such as are found among the Russians, although many passages 
in the ancient chroniclers from their poetical colouring seem to 
be borrowed from old songs or legends, and the first verses of 
some of these compositions have been preserved. Mention 
may here be made of other chroniclers such as Martin the Pole 
(Polonus), who died in 1279 or 1280, and Jan of Czarnkow, who 
died in 1389; the latter was the historian and panegyrist of 
Casimir the Great. With the reign of Casimir III. (1333-1370) 
must be associated the statutes of Wislica. Jadwiga, the wife 
of Jagiello, was mainly instrumental in creating the university 
of Cracow, which received a charter in 1364, but did not come 
into effective existence till its reconstitution in 1400. In this 
institution for many years all the great men of Poland were 
trained among others Gregory of Sanok, Dlugosz and Copernicus. 
Casimir the Great may be said to have laid the foundation of 
this university. Having obtained the consent of Pope Urban V., 
he established at Cracow a sludium generale on the model of the 
university of Bologna. It consisted of three faculties Roman 
law, medicine and philosophy. But the aristocratic youth still 
preferred frequenting the universities of Prague, Padua and 
Paris, and accordingly the newly founded studium languished. 
Jadwiga, however, obtained from Boniface IX. permission to 
create a new chair, that of theology; and the university of Cracow 
was remodelled, having been reorganized on the same basis 
as that of Paris. Another university was founded later at Vilna 
by Batory, and one at Zamosc by the chancellor Zamoyski. 
There were also good schools in various places, such as the 
Collegium Lubranskiego of Posen and the school of St Mary at 
Cracow. In the year 1474 a press was set up in the latter city, 
where Giinther Zainer printed the first book. The first press 
from which books in the Polish language appeared was that of 
Hieronymus Wietor, a Silesian, who commenced publishing in 
1515. A few fragments printed in Polish had appeared before 
this, as the Lord's Prayer in the statutes of the bishops of Breslau 
in 1475, the story of Pope Urban in Latin, German and Polish 
in 1505, &c.; but the first complete work in the Polish language 
appeared from the press of this printer at Cracow in 1521, under 
the title, Speeches of the Wise King Solomon. The translation 
was executed by Jan Koszycki, as the printer informs us in 
the preface, and the work is dedicated to Anna Wojnicka, the 
wife of a castellan. In 1522, a Polish translation of Ecclesiastes 
appeared from that press, and before the conclusion of that year 
The Life of Christ, with woodcuts, translated into Polish by 
Balthasar Opec. Many other presses were soon established. 
Printers of repute at Cracow, during the r6th and beginning of 
the 1 7th century, were Sybeneicher and Piotrkowczyk. 

Little as yet had been produced in Polish, as the chroniclers 
still adhered to Latin; and here mention must be made of Jan 
Dlugosz, who called himself Longinus. He was bishop 
of Lemberg, the capital of Galicia, and has left us a very 
valuable history which has merits of style and shows considerable 
research. So anxious was Dlugosz to make his work as perfect 
as he could that he learned Russian so as to be able to read the 
Chronicle of Nestor. The best part of his book is that which 
treats of the period between 1386 and 1480. About 1500 was 
written an interesting little work entitled " Memoirs of a Polish 
Janissary " (Pamietniki ianczara polaka). Although written 
in the Polish language, it was probably the production of a 
Serb, Michael Constantinovich of Ostrovitza. He was taken 
prisoner by the Turks in 1455 and served ten years among the 
Janissaries, after which he escaped into Hungary. About 
this time also flourished Nicholas Copernicus, a native of Thorn, 
one of the few Poles who have made themselves known beyond 
the limits of their country. 

The Poles call the period between 1548 and 1606 their golden 



Dlugosz. 



924 



POLAND 



[LITERATURE 



*"' " 



age. Poland was the great land of eastern Europe, and owing 
to the universal toleration encouraged by the government, 
Protestantism was widely spread. Many of the chief nobility 
were Calvinists, and the Socini came to reside in the country. 
All this, however, was to pass away under the great Jesuit re- 
action. At Rakow in Poland was published the catechism of 
the Socinian doctrines in 1605. The Jesuits made their appear- 
ance in Poland in 1564, and soon succeeded in getting the 
schools of the country into their hands. Besides extirpating the 
various sects of Protestants, they also busied themselves with 
destroying the Greek Church in Lithuania. Latin poetry was 
cultivated with great success by Clement Janicki (1516-1543), 
but the earliest poet of repute who wrote in Polish is Rej of 
Naglowice (1505-1569). After a somewhat idle youth he betook 
himself to poetry. He was a Protestant, and among other 
religious works translated the Psalms. His best work was 
Zwierciadlo albo zyivot poczciiaego czlowieka (The Mirror or 
Life of an Honourable Man) a somewhat tedious didactic 
piece. He was also the author of a kind of play a mystery 
we may term it, and productions of this sort seem to have been 
common in Poland from a very early time entitled Life of 
Joseph in Egypt. This piece is interesting merely from an 
antiquarian point of view; there is but little poetry in it. It 
teems with anachronisms; thus we have mention of the mass 
and organs, and also of a German servant. Lucas Goinicki 
(1527-1603) wrote many historical works, and Dworzanin 
polski, an imitation of the Corlegiano of Castiglione. 

Jan Kochanowski 1 (1530-1584), called the prince of Polish 
poets, came of a poetical family, having a brother, a cousin 

and a nephew who all enriched the literature of 
. their country with some productions. Kochanowski 

studied for some time at the university of Padua, 
and also resided in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of 
Ronsard. Returning to Poland, he became in 1564 secretary 
to Sigismund Augustus. He has left The Game of Chess, 
an imitation of Vida, and Proporzec albo hold pruski (The 
Standard or Investiture of Prussia), where he describes the 
fealty done by Albert of Brandenburg to Sigismund Augustus. 
He also executed a translation of the Psalms. He wrote a 
play a piece of one act, with twelve scenes The Despatch 
of the Greek Ambassadors. It is written in rhymeless five-foot 
iambics, and is altogether a product of the Renaissance, 
reminding us of some of the productions of George Buchanan. 
Rhyme is employed in the choruses only. It was acted 
on the marriage of the chancellor Jan Zamoyski with Christine 
RadziwiH, in the presence of King Stephen and his wife, 
at Ujazdowo near Warsaw in 1578. The poet's most popular 
work, however, is his Treny or " Lamentations, " written 
on the death of his daughter Ursula. These beautiful elegies 
have been justly praised by Mickiewicz; they are enough to 
raise Kochanowski far above the level of a merely artificial 
poet. Besides poems in Polish, he also wrote some in Latin. 
It will be observed that we get this double-sided authorship 
in many Polish writers. They composed for an exclusive and 
learned circle, certainly not for the Jew, the German trader of 
the town, or the utterly illiterate peasant. It may be said 
with truth of Kochanowski that, although the form of his poetry 
is classical and imitated from classical writers, the matter is 
Polish, and there is much national feeling in what he has left 
us. Mention must also be made of his epigrams, which he styled 
" Trifles " (Fraszki) ; they are full of spirit and geniality. Stan- 
islaus Grochowski (1554-1612) was a priest; but his poetry 
is of little merit, although he was celebrated in his time as a 
writer of panegyrics. His satire Babie Kola (The Women's 
Circle) gave offence .on account of its personalities. A great 
partisan of the Catholics in the time of Sigismund III. was 
Caspar Miaskowski, whose Waleta Wloszizonowska (Farewell 
to his Native Country) deserves mention. Szarzynski, who 
died young in 1581, deserves notice as having introduced the 

1 His collected works were printed in 1584; they were many 
times reprinted, the best edition being that of Warsaw (4 vols., 
1884). His life was written by Przyborowski (Posen, 1857). 



sonnet to the Poles. This species of poetry was afterward to be 
carried to great perfection by Mickiewicz and Gaszynski. 

Szymonowicz (1554-1624) was a writer of good pastorals. 
Although they are imitated from classical writers, he has 
introduced many scenes of national life, which he 
describes with much vigour. Among the best are Sz y moao " 
" The Lovers," " The Reapers," and " The Cake " 
(Kolacz). Mickiewicz is very loud in his praise, and considers 
him one of the best followers of Theocritus. The condition, 
however, of the Polish peasants was too miserable to admit 
of their being easily made subjects for bucolic poetry. 
There is an artificial air about the idylls of Szymonowicz 
which makes one feet too keenly that they are productions 
of the Renaissance; one of their best features is the humane 
spirit towards the miserable peasantry which they every- 
where display. Another excellent writer of pastorals was 
Zimorowicz, a native of Lemberg, who died at the early 
age of twenty-five. Some of his short lyrics are very elegant, 
and remind us of Herrick and Carew e.g. that beginning 
" Ukochana Lancellotol Ciebie nie proszq o zloto." Another 
writer of pastorals, but not of equal merit, was Jan Gawinski, 
a native of Cracow. Some good Latin poetry was written by 
Casimir Sarbiewski, better known in the west of Europe as 
Sarbievius (d. 1640). He was considered to have approached 
Horace more nearly than any other modern poet, and a gold 
medal was given him by Pope Urban VIII. Martin Kromer 
(1512-1589) wrote a history of Poland in thirty books, and 
another volume, giving a description of the country and its 
institutions both in Latin. The history is written in an easy 
style and is a work of great merit. A poet of some importance 
was Sebastian Fabian Klonowicz (1545-1602), who latinized 
his name into Acernus, Klon being the Polish for maple, and 
wrote hi both Latin and Polish, and through his inclination 
to reform drew down on himself the anger of the clergy. Some- 
times he is descriptive, as in his Polish poem entitled Fits (" The 
Boatman "), in which he gives a detailed account of the scenery 
on the banks of the Vistula. There is some poetry in this com- 
position, but it alternates with very prosaic details. In another 
piece, Rhoxolania, in Latin, he describes the beauties of Galicia. 
Occasionally he is didactic, as in Worek Judaszow (The Bag 
of Judas) and Victoria deorum, where, under the allegory of 
the gods of Olympus, he represents the struggles of parties 
in Poland, not without severely satirizing the nobility and 
ecclesiastics. A curious work called Quincunx, written by 
Orzechowski (1515-1566), is concerned with religious polemics. 
Andrew Modrzewski, a Protestant, in his work De republica 
emendanda (1551), recommended the establishment of a national 
church which should be independent of Rome, something upon 
the model of the Anglican. 

A florid Jesuitical style of oratory became very popular in 
the time of Sigismund III., not without rhetorical power, but 
frequently becoming tawdry. The chief representa- sja 
tive of this school was Piotr Skarga (1536-1612), one 
of the main agents in extirpating Calvinism in Poland and the 
Greek Church in Lithuania. Among his numerous writings may 
be mentioned Lives of the Saints, Discourses on the Seven Sacra- 
ments, and especially his sermons preached before the diet, in 
which he lashed the Poles for their want of patriotism and 
prophesied the downfall of the country. Mecherzynski, in his 
" History of Eloquence in Poland " (Historya ivymowy w Polsce), 
especially praises his two funeral sermons on the burial of Anna 
Jagiellonka, widow of Stephen Batory, and Anna of Austria, first 
wife of Sigismund III. Besides the Latin histories of Wapowski 
and Gwagnin (Guagnini, of Italian origin), we have the first 
historical work in Polish by Martin Bielski, a Protestant, viz. 
Kronika polska, which was afterwards continued by his son. The 
author was born in 1495 on his father's estate, Biala, and was 
educated, like so many other of his illustrious contemporaries, 
at the university of Cracow. He lived to the age of eighty; 
but, however great were the merits of his Chronicle, it was long 
considered a suspicious book on account of the leanings of the 
author to Calvinism. After his death his work was continued by 



LITERATURE] 



POLAND 



925 



his son Joachim (1540-1599). There is also a Chronicle by 
Bartholomew Paprocki. In 1582 was also published the 
Chronicle of Stryjkowski, full of curious learning, and still of 
great use to the student of history. Five years later appeared 
the Annales Poloniae of Sarnicki. The last three works are in 
Latin. 

A few words may be said here about the spread of Pro- 
testantism in Poland, which is so intimately mixed up with 
the development of the national language. The 
Spread of darings o f jjus had entered the country in very 

Protestant* . . /- i -r> i* i t 

ism. early times, and we find Polish recensions of 

Bohemian hymns; even the hymn to the Virgin 
previously mentioned is supposed to have a Czech basis. The 
bishops were soon active against those who refused to conform 
to the doctrines of the Roman church. Thus we find that Bishop 
Andrew of Bnin seized five Hussite priests and caused them to 
be burnt in the market of Posen in 1439. A hundred years 
afterwards a certain Katharina Malcher, on account of her 
Utraquist opinions, was condemned by Gamrat, the bishop of 
Cracow, to be burnt, which sentence was accordingly carried 
out in the ragmarket at Cracow. As early as 1530 Lutheran 
hymns were sung in the Polish language at Thorn. In Konigs- 
berg, John Seklucyan, a personal friend of Luther, published 
a collection of Christian Songs. He was born in Great Poland, 
and was at first a Roman Catholic priest in Posen, but 
afterwards embraced the Protestant faith and was invited 
by Duke Albert as a preacher to Konigsberg, where he 
died in 1578. He executed the first translation of the New 
Testament in 1551. Four years afterwards appeared a com- 
plete Polish Bible published by Scharffenberg at Cracow. In 
1553 appeared at Brzesc the Protestant translation of the whole 
Bible made by a committee of learned men and divines, and 
published at the expense of Nicholas RadziwiH, a very rich 
Polish magnate who had embraced the Protestant doctrines. 
This book is now of great rarity because his son Christopher, 
having been induced to become a Roman Catholic by the Jesuit 
Skarga, caused all copies of his father's Bible which he could 
find to be burnt. One, however, is to be seen in the Bodleian 
Library, and another in the library of Christ Church at Oxford. 
A Socinian Bible was issued by Simon Budny in 1570 at Nies- 
wiez, as he professed to find many faults in the version issued 
under the patronage of RadziwiH; in 1597 appeared the Roman 
Catholic version of the Jesuit Wujek; and in 1632 the so-called 
Danzig Bible, which is in use among Protestants and is still 
the most frequently reprinted. 

Up to this time Polish literature, although frequently rhe- 
torical and too much tinctured with classical influences, had 
still exhibited signs of genius. But now, owing 
to the fri v l us studies introduced by the Jesuits, 
the so-called macaronic period supervened, which 
lasted from 1606 to 1764, and was a time of great degradation 
for the language and literature. The former was now mixed 
with Latin and classical expressions; much of the literature con- 
sists of fulsome panegyric, verses written on the marriages and 
funerals of nobles, with conceits and fantastic ideas, devoid of 
all taste, drawn from their coats of arms. The poets of this 
period are, as may be imagined, in most cases mere rhymesters; 
there are, however, a few whose names are worth recapitulating, 
such as Wadaw Potocki (c. 1622-6. 1696), now known to have 
been the author of the Wojna Chocimska, or " War of Khotin," 
the same campaign which afterwards formed the subject of the 
epic of Krasicki. At first the author was supposed to have 
been Andrew Lipski, but the real poet was traced by the his- 
torian Szajnocha. The epic, which remained in manuscript 
till 1850, is a genuine representation of Polish life; no picture 
so faithful appeared till the Pan Tadeusz of Mickiewicz. More- 
over, Potocki had the good taste to avoid the macaronic style 
so much in vogue; his language is pure and vigorous. He does 
not hesitate to introduce occasionally satirical remarks on the 
luxury of the times, which he compares, to its disadvantage, 
with the simplicity of the old Polish life. There is also another 
poem attributed to Potocki called the New Mercury. In one 



passage he censures King Michael for ceding Podolia to the 
Turks. Samuel Twardowski (1600-1660) was the most pro- 
lific poet of the period of the Vasas. His most important poem 
is Wladystaus I V '., King of Poland, in which he sings in a very 
bombastic strain the various expeditions of the Polish monarch. 
A bitter satirist appeared in the person of Christopher Opalinski 
(1609-1656). His works were published under the title of 
Juvenalis redivivus, and, although boasting but little poetical 
merit, give us very curious pictures of the times. Hieronymus 
Vespasian Kohcowski (1633-1699) was a soldier-poet, who went 
through the campaigns against the Swedes and Cossacks; he 
has left several books of lyrics full of vivacity, a Christian epic 
and a Polish psalmody. Another poet was Andrew Morsztyn 
(born about 1620, died about the commencement of the i8th 
century), an astute courtier, who was finance minister (pod- 
skdrbi) under John Casimir, and was a devoted adherent of the 
French party at court, in consequence of which, in the reign 
of Sobieski, he was compelled to leave his native country and 
settle in France. His poems are elegant and free from the 
conceits and pedantry of the earlier writers. In fact, he in- 
troduced into Poland the easy French manner of such writers as 
Voiture. He translated the Cid of Corneille, and wrote a poem 
on the subject of Psyche, based upon the well-known Greek 
myth. History in the macaronic period made a backward 
step: it had been written in the Polish language in the golden 
age; it was now again to take a Latin form, as in the Chronica 
Geslarum in Europa singularium of the ecclesiastic Paul Piasecki 
(1580-1649), who is an authority for the reigns ofSigismund III. 
and Wladislaus IV., and Rudawski, who describes events 
from the accession of John Casimir to the peace of Oliva (1648- 
1660); and as valuable materials for history may be mentioned 
the five huge volumes of Andrew Chrysostom Zaluski (1711), 
bishop of Warmia. This work is entitled Epislolae historico- 
familiares. It would be impossible to recapitulate here the 
great quantity of material in the shape of memoirs which has 
come down, but mention must be made of those of John Chry- 
sostom Pasek, a nobleman of Masovia, who has left us very 
graphic accounts of life and society in Poland; after a variety 
of adventures and many a well-fought battle, he returned to 
the neighbourhood of Cracow, where he died between 1699 
and 1701. Some of the most characteristic stories illustrating 
Polish history are drawn from this book. A later period, that of 
the miserable epoch of Augustus III., is described very graphic- 
ally in the memoirs of Matuszewicz, first edited by Pawinski 
at Warsaw in 1876. Relating to the same period are also the 
memoirs of Bartholomew Michalowski (Pamietniki Bartlomieja 
Michalowskiego). A curious insight into the course of education 
which a young Polish nobleman underwent is furnished by 
the instructions which James Sobieski, the father of the cele- 
brated John, gave to Orchowski, the tutor of his sons. This 
has been twice printed in comparatively recent times (Instrukcya 
Jakdba Sobieskiego kasztelana Krakowskiego dana panu Orchow- 
skiemu ze strony syndw, Vilna, 1840). The old gentleman in 
his aristocratic imperiousness frequently reminds us of the 
amusing directions given by Sir John Wynne to his chaplain, 
quoted in Pennant's Tour in Wales. 

A History of the Lithuanians in Latin was published by the 
Jesuit KoiaJowicz; the first volume appeared at Danzig in 1650. 
A valuable work on the condition of Poland was written by 
Stanislaus Leszczynski, who was twice chosen king, entitled 
Glos wolny wolnost ubezpieczajqcy (A Free Voice Guaranteeing 
Freedom), where he tells the Poles some homely and perhaps 
disagreeable truths illustrating the maxim Summa libertas 
etiam perire volentibus. 

A notable man was Joseph Andrew Zaluski, bishop of Kiev, 
a Pole who had become thoroughly frenchified so much so, 
that he preached in French to the fashionable congregations 
of Warsaw. He collected a splendid library of about 300,000 
volumes and 15,000 manuscripts, which he bequeathed to the 
Polish nation; but it was afterwards carried off to St Petersburg, 
where it formed the foundation of the imperial public library. 
According to Nitschmann in his Geschichte der polnischen 



926 



POLAND 



[LITERATURE 



Litteratur a work which has been of service in the preparation 
of this article the books were transported to Russia very care- 
lessly, and many of them injured by the way. It was especially 
rich in works relating to Polish history. Konarski edited in six 
volumes a valuable work entitled Volumina }egum, containing 
a complete collection of Polish laws from the time of the statute 
of Wislica. He did much good also in founding throughout 
the country schools for the education of the sons of the upper 
classes, but as yet nothing had been done for popular educa- 
tion properly so-called. About the close of this period we have 
some valuable writers on Polish history, which now began to 
be studied critically, such as Hartknoch in his Alt- und Neues 
Preussen (1684), a work in which are preserved interesting 
specimens of the old Prussian language, and Lengnich (1689- 
1774), author of the valuable Jus publicum regni Poloniae, 
which appeared in 1742. 

We now come to the reign of the last Polish king, Stan- 
islaus Poniatowski, and the few quiet years before the final 
division of the country, during which the French taste was all- 
powerful. This is the second great period of the development 
of Polish literature, which has known nothing of medieval 
romanticism. The literature of the first or Renaissance period 
gives us some good poets, who although occasionally imitators 
are not without national feeling, and a goodly array of chron- 
iclers, most of whom made use of Latin. In the second or French 
period we get verse-makers rather than poets, who long to be 
Frenchmen, and sigh over the barbarism of their country; 
but the study of history in a critical spirit is beginning under 
the influence of Naruszewicz, Albertrandi and others. In the 
third period, that of modern romanticism, we get true nation- 
alism, but it is too often the literature of exile and despair. 
Here may be mentioned, although living a little time before 
the reign of Stanislaus, a Polish poetess, Elizabeth Druzbacka 
(1695-1760), whose writings show a feeling for nature at a time 
when verse-making of the most artificial type was prevalent 
throughout the country. The portrait prefixed to the Leipzig 
edition of her works is a striking one, representing a hand- 
some, intellectual-looking woman, dressed in the garb of some 
religious order. Her Life of David in verse appears tedious, 
but many of the descriptions in the Seasons are elegant. Un- 
fortunately she introduces latinisms, so that her Polish is 
by no means pure. A national theatre was founded at Warsaw 
in 1765 under the influence of the court, but it was not till 
long afterwards that anything really national connected with 
the drama appeared in Poland. Thomas Kajetan Wegierski 
(1755-1787), who was chamberlain to the king, enjoyed a con- 
siderable reputation among his countrymen for his satirical 
writing. He was a kind of Polish Churchill, and like his Eng- 
lish parallel died young. His life also appears to have been 
as irregular as Churchill's. In consequence of an attack on 
the empress of Russia, he was compelled to leave Poland, and 
accordingly made a tour in Italy, France, America, and Eng- 
land, dying at Marseilles at the early age of thirty-three. His 
poetry shows the influence of the French taste, then prevalent 
throughout Europe. In times of great national disasters he 
deserves to be remembered as a true patriot; but the spirit of 
his poetry is altogether unwholesome. It is the wailing cry 
of a moribund nation. The great laureate of the court of 
Stanislaus was Trembecki (1722-1812), whose sympathies 
were too much with the Russian invaders of his country. He 
was little more than a fluent poetaster, and is now almost for- 
gotten. One of his most celebrated pieces was Zofjoivka, 
written on the country seat of Felix Potocki, a Polish magnate, 
for this was the age of descriptive as well as didactic poetry. 
Perhaps the English gave the hint in such productions as 
" Cooper's Hill." The old age of Trembecki appears to have been 
ignoble and neglected; he had indeed "fallen upon evil days 
and evil tongues "; and when he died at an advanced age all 
the gay courtiers of whom he had been the parasite were either 
dead or had submitted to the Muscovite yoke. He comes before 
us as a belated epicurean, whose airy trifles cannot be warbled 
in an atmosphere surcharged with tempests and gunpowder. 



The end of the i8th century was not the period for a court 
poet in Poland. 

The most conspicuous poet, however, of the time was Ignatius 
Krasicki, bishop of Warmia (1735-1801). He Was the friend of 
Frederick the Great and a prominent member of KrasicU. 
the king's literary club at Sans Souci. Krasicki 
wrote an epic on the war of Khotin the same as had furnished 
the subject of the poem of Potocki, of which Krasicki in all 
probability had never heard, and also that of the Dalmatian 
Gundulich. Krasicki's poem is at best but a dull affair, in 
fact a pale copy of a poor original, the Henriade of Voltaire. 
His mock heroics are, to say the least, amusing, and among these 
may be mentioned Myszeis, where he describes how King Popiel, 
according to the legend, was eaten up by rats. His Monacho- 
machia is in six cantos, and is a satire upon the monks. The 
bishop was also the writer of some pretty good comedies. In 
fact most styles of composition were attempted by him of 
course satires and fables among the number. He presents him- 
self to us much more like a transplanted French abb6 than a 
Pole. In the year 1801 he travelled to Berlin, and died there 
after a short illness. Among his other works the bishop pub- 
lished in 1781-1782, in two volumes, a kind of encyclopaedia 
of belles lettres entitled Zbidr WiadomoSci. His estimates of 
various great poets are not very accurate. Of course he finds 
Shakespeare a very " incorrect " author, although he is willing 
to allow him considerable praise for his vigour. F. Morawski 
(1783-1861) published some excellent Fables (1800) in the 
manner of Krasicki, and in 1851 an epic entitled My Grandfather's 
Farm. Adam Naruszewicz (1733-1796) was bishop and poet. 
The existence of so many ecclesiastical writers was a natural 
feature in Polish literature; they formed the only really cul- 
tured class in the community, which consisted besides of a 
haughty ignorant nobility living among their serfs, and (at a 
vast distance) those serfs themselves, in a brutalized condition. 
Burghers there were, properly speaking, none, for most of the 
citizens in the large towns were foreigners governed by the 
Jus magdeburgicum. Naruszewicz has not the happy vivacity 
of Krasicki; he attempts all kinds of poetry, especially satire 
and fable. He is at best but a mediocre poet; but he has suc- 
ceeded better as a historian, and especially to be praised is his 
" History of the Polish Nation " (History a narodu polskiego), 
which, however, he was not able to carry further than the year 
1386. He also wrote an account of the Polish general Chod- 
kiewicz, and translated Tacitus and Horace. Interesting 
memoirs have been published by Kilinski, a Warsaw shoemaker, 
and Kosmian, state referendary, who lived about this time 
and saw much of the War of Independence and other political 
affairs. Among the smaller poets of this period may be men- 
tioned Karpinski (1741-1828), a writer of sentimental elegies 
in the style then so very much in fashion, and Franciszek 
Dyonizy Kniaznin (1750-1807), who nourished his muse on 
classical themes and wrote several plays. He was the court 
poet of Prince Adam Czartoryski at Pulawy, and furnished 
odes in commemoration of all the important events which 
occurred in the household. He lost his reason on the down- 
fall of Poland, and died after eleven years' insanity in 1807. 
Julian Ursin Niemcewicz (1758-1841) was one of the most 
popular of Polish poets at the commencement of the present 
century (see NIEMCEWICZ). His most popular work is the 
" Collection of Historical Songs " (Spiewy historyczne) , where 
he treats of the chief heroes of Polish history. Besides these 
he wrote one or two good plays, and a novel in letters, on the 
story of two Jewish lovers. John Paul Woronicz (1757-1829) 
born in Volhynia, and at the close of his life bishop of Warsaw 
and primate of Poland, was a very eloquent divine, and has 
been called the modern Skarga. A valuable worker in the 
field of Slavonic philology was Linde, the author of an excellent 
Polish dictionary in six volumes. For a long time the culti- 
vation of Polish philology was in a low state, owing to the preva- 
lence of Latin in the i7th century and French in the i8th. 
No Polish grammar worthy of the name appeared till that of 
Kopczynski at the close of the i8th century, but the reproach 



LITERATURE] 



POLAND 



927 



has been taken away in modern times by the excellent works 
by Malecki and Malinowski. Rakowiecki, who edited the 
Rousskaia Pravda, and Macieiowski (who died in 1883, 
aged ninety), author of a valuable work on Slavonic law, may 
here be mentioned. Here we have a complete survey of the 
leading codes of Slavonic jurisprudence. At a later period 
(in 1856) appeared the work of Helcel, Starodawne prawa pol- 
skifgo pomniki (" Ancient Memorials of Polish Law "). Aloysius 
Felinski (1771-1820) produced an historical tragedy, Barbara 
Radziwill, and some good comedies were written by Count 
Polish Alexander Fredro (1793-1876). In fact Fredro may 
Drama. be considered the most entertaining writer for the 
stage which Poland has produced. He introduced genuine comedy 
among his countrymen. The influence of Moliere can be very 
clearly seen in his pieces; his youth was spent chiefly in France, 
where he formed one of the soldiers of the Polish legion of 
Napoleon and joined in the expedition to Russia. His first produc- 
tion was Pan Geldhab, written in 1819 and produced at Warsaw 
in 1821. From 1819 to 1835 he wrote about seventeen pieces 
and then abandoned publishing, having taken offence at some 
severe criticisms. At his death he left several comedies, which 
were issued in a posthumous edition. There is a good deal of 
local colouring in the pieces of Fredro; although the style is 
French, the characters are taken from Polish life. From him 
may be said to date the formation of anything like a national 
Polish theatre, so that his name marks an epoch. The Poles, 
like many of the other nations of Europe, had religious plays 
at an early period. They were originally performed in churches; 
but Pope Innocent II. finding fault with this arrangement, 
the acting was transferred to churchyards. Mention has 
already been made of plays written by Rej and Kochanowski; 
they are mere fruits of the Renaissance, and cannot in any way 
be considered national. The wife of John Casimir, a French- 
woman, Marie Louise, hired a troop of French actors and first 
familiarized the Poles with something which resembled the 
modern stage. The Princess Franciszka RadziwiH composed 
plays which were acted at her private residence, but they are 
spoken of as inartistic and long and tedious. The national 
theatre was really founded in the reign of Stanislaus Augustus; 
and good plays were produced by Bohomolec, Kaminski, Krop- 
inski, Boguslawski, Zablocki, and others. Perhaps, however, 
with the exception of the works of Fredro, the Poles have not 
produced anything of much merit in this line. A great states- 
man and writer of the later days of Polish nationality was 
Kollataj, born at Sandomir in 1750. He was a man of liberal 
sentiments, and, had his plans been carried out, Poland might 
have been saved. He wished to abolish serfdom and throw 
open state employments to all. The nobility, however, were too 
infatuated to be willing to adopt these wise measures. Like 
the French aristocrats with the reforms of Necker, they would 
not listen till ruin had overtaken them. During the last war 
of Poland as an independent country Kollataj betook himself to 
the camp of Kosciuszko, but when he saw that there was no 
longer hope he went to Galicia, but was captured by the 
Austrians and imprisoned at Olmiitz till 1803. He died in 1812. 
An active co-operator with Koliataj was Salesius Jezierski, who 
founded clubs for the discussion of political questions, and 
Stanislaus Staszic, who did much for education and improved 
the condition of the university of Warsaw. 

The reputation of all preceding poets in Poland was now 
destined to be thrown into the shade by the appearance of 
Mickiewicz (1798-1855), the great introducer of 
romanticism into the country (see MICKIEWICZ). 
Poland, as has been said before, is not rich in national 
songs and legendary poetry, in which respect it cannot com- 
pare with its sister Slavonic countries Russia and Servia. Collec- 
tions have appeared, however, by Waclaw Zaleski, who writes 
under the pseudonyms of Waclaw z Oleska, Wojcicki, Roger, 
Zegota Pauli, and especially Oskar Kolberg. Poland and 
Lithuania, however, abounded with superstitions and legends 
which only awaited the coming poet to put them into verse. 
In the year 1851 Romuald Zienkiewicz published Songs of the 



Roman- 
ticism. 



People of Pinsk, and collections have even appeared of those 
of the Kashoubes, a remnant of the Poles living near Danzig. 
Mickiewicz had had a predecessor, but of far less talent, Casimir 
Brodzinski (1791-1835). He served under Napoleon in the 
Polish legion, and has left a small collection of poems, the most 
important being the idyl Wieslaw, in which the manners of the 
peasants of the district of Cracow are faithfully portrayed. 
The second great poet of the romantic school who appeared in 
Poland after Mickiewicz was Julius Slowacki (1809-1849), 
born at Krzemieniec. In 1831 he left his native country and 
chose Paris as his residence, where he died. His writings are 
full of the fire of youth, and show great beauty and elegance 
of expression. We can trace in them the influence of Byron 
and Victor Hugo. He is justly considered one of the greatest 
of the modern poets of Poland. His most celebrated pieces 
are Hugo; Mnich ("The Monk ") ; Lambro, a Greek corsair, 
quite in the style of Byron; Anhelli, a very Dantesque poem 
expressing under the form of an allegory the sufferings of Poland ; 
Krol duch (" The Spirit King "), another mysterious and alle- 
gorical poem; Waclaw, on the same subject as the Marya of 
Malczewski, to be afterwards noticed; Beniowski, a long poem 
in ottava rima on this strange adventurer, something in the 
style of Byron's humorous poems; Kordyan, of the same school 
as the English poet's Manfred; Lilla Weneda, a poem dealing 
with the early period of Slavonic history. The h'fe of Slowacki 
has been published by Professor Anton Malecki in two volumes. 

Mickiewicz and Slowacki were both more or less mystics, 
but even more we may assign this characteristic to Sigismund 
Krasinski, who was born in 1812 at Paris, and died there in 
1859. It would be impossible to analyse here his extraordinary 
poem Nieboska komedja (" The Undivine Comedy "), Irydion, 
and others. In them Poland, veiled under different allegories, 
is always the central figure. They are powerful poems written 
with great vigour of language, but enveloped in clouds of mys- 
ticism. The life of Krasinski was embittered by the fact that 
he was the son of General Vincent Krasinski, who had become 
unpopular among the Poles by his adherence to the Russian 
government; the son wrote anonymously in consequence, and 
was therefore called " The Unknown Poet." Among his latest 
productions are his " Psalms of the Future " (Psalmy przy- 
szlosct), which were attacked by the democratic party as a 
defence of aristocratic views which had already ruined Poland. 
His friend Slowacki answered them in some taunting verses, 
and this led to a quarrel between the poets. One of the most 
striking pieces of Krasinski has the title " Resurrecturis." The 
sorrows of his country and his own physical sufferings have 
communicated a melancholy tone to the writings of Krasinski, 
which read like a dirge, or as if the poet stood always by an open 
grave and the grave is that of Poland. He must be considered 
as, next to Mickiewicz, the greatest poet of the country. Other 
poets of the romantic school of considerable merit were Gorecki, 
Witwicki, Odyniec, and Gaszynski; the last-named wrote 
many exquisite sonnets, which ought alone to embalm his name. 
Witwicki (1800-1847) was son of a professor at Krzemieniec. 
He was a writer of ballads and poems dealing with rural life, 
which enjoyed great popularity among his countrymen and had 
the good fortune to be set to music by Chopin. The works of 
Lelewel have separate mention (see LELEWEL) ; but here may be 
specified the labours of Narbutt, Dzieje starozytne arodu 
litewskiego (" Early History of the Lithuanian People "), pub- 
lished at Vilna in nine volumes, and the valuable Monumenla 
Poloniae historica, edited at Lemberg by Bielowski, of which 
several volumes have appeared, containing reprints of most of 
the early chroniclers. Bielowski died in 1876. 

A further development of romanticism was the so-called 
Ukraine school of poets, such as Malczewski, Goszczynski, 

and Zaleski. Anton Malczewski (1793-1826) wrote 

,, TT1 . . x i !_ Ukraine 

one poem, Marya, a Ukrainian tale which passed school. 

unnoticed at the time of its publication, but after 
its author's death became very popular. Malczewski was one 
of Napoleon's officers; he led a wandering life and was in- 
timate with Byron at Venice; he is said to have suggested to 



928 



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[LITERATURE 



the latter the story of Mazeppa. Marya is a narrative in verse 
in the manner of Byron. It is written with much feeling and 
elegance, and in a most harmonious metre. The chief poem is 
Severin Goszczynski (1803-1876) is Zamek Kaniowski (" The 
Tower of Kaniow "). The most interesting poem of Bogdan 
Zaleski is his " Spirit of the Steppe " (Duck od stepu). Other 
poets of the so-called Ukraine school, which has been so well 
inspired by the romantic legends of that part of Russia, are 
Thomas or Timko Padoura (who also wrote in the Malo-Russian, 
or Little-Russian, language), Alexander Groza, and Thomas 
Olizarowski. For many of the original songs and legends we 
must turn to the work of Messrs Antonovich and Dragomanov. 
Bogdan Joseph Zaleski was born in 1802 in the Ukraine village, 
Bohaterka. In 1820 he was sent to the university of Warsaw, 
where he had Goszczynski as a fellow student. Besides the 
longer poem previously mentioned, he is the author of many 
charming lyrics in the style of the Little Russian poems, such 
as Shevchenko has written in that language. He died at Ville- 
preux, in France, in 1886, after more than fifty years of exile. 
Michael Grabowski (1805-1863) belongs also to this school by 
his fine Melodies of the Ukraine (1828). Maurice Goslawski 
also won fame by his Poems of a Polish Outlaw in the struggle 
of 1830-1831. A poet of great vigour was Stephen Garczynski 
(1806-1833), the friend of Mickiewicz, celebrated for his War 
Sonnets and his poem entitled The Deeds of Wactaiv. 

Wincenty Pol (1807-1872) was born at Lublin, and though of 
foreign extraction by both parents proved an ardent patriot. He 
wrote a fine descriptive work, Obrazy z zycia i podrozy (" Pictures 
of Life and Travel '), and also a poem, Piesn o ziemi naszej (" Song 
of our Land ") For about three years from 1849 he was professor 
of geography in the university of Cracow. In 1855 he published 
Mohort, a poem relating to the times of Stanislaus Poniatowski. 
Ludwik Wladyslaw Kondratowicz (who wrote chiefly under the 
name of Syrokomla) was born in 1823 in the government of Minsk, 
and died on the ith of September 1862 at Vilna. His parents were 
poor, and he received a meagre education, but made up for it by 
careful self-culture. One of his most remarkable poems is his 
Jan Deboroe, in which, like Mickiewicz, he has well described the 
scenery of his native Lithuania. He everywhere appears as the 
advocate of the suffering peasants, and has consecrated to them many 
beautiful lyrics. In Kaczkowski the Poles found a novelist who 
treated many periods of their history with great success. His 
sympathies, however, were mostly aristocratic, though modified 
by the desire of progress. An important writer of history is Karl 
Szajnocha (1818-1868), born in Galicia of Czech parents. He began 
his labours with The Age of Casimirthe Great (1848), and Bolenaw 
the Brave (1849), following these with Jadwiga and Jagiello, in three 
volumes (18551856) a work which Spasovich, in his Russian 
History of Slavonic Literature, compares in vigour of style and fullness 
of colour with Macaulay's History of England and Thierry's Norman 
Conquest. Our author was still further to resemble the latter 
writer in a great misfortune ; from overwork he lost his sight in 1857. 
Szajnocha, however, like Thierry and the American Prescott, did 
not abandon his studies. His excellent memory helped him in his 
affliction. In 1858 he published a work in which he traced the 
origin of Poland from the Varangians (Lechicki poczatek polski), 
thus making them identical in origin with the Russians'. He began 
to write the history of John Sobieski, but did not live to finish it. 
dying in 1868, soon after completing a history of the Cossack wars, 
Dwa lata dziejow naszych (" Two Years of Our History"). A writer 
of romances of considerable power was Joseph Korzeniowski (1797 
1863), tutor in early youth to the poet Krasinski, and afterwards 
director of a school at Kharkov. Besides some plays now forgotten, 
he was author of some popular novels, such as Wedrowki ory- 
ginata (" Tours of an Original "), iS^SiGarbaty (" The Hunchback "), 
1852, &c. But the most fertile of Polish authors was J.I. Kraszew- 
ski (q.v.). His works constitute a library in themselves; they are 
chiefly historical and political novels, some or which treat of early 
times in Poland, and some of its condition under the Saxon kings. 
As lyrical poets may also be mentioned Jachowicz; Jaskowski, 
author of a fine poem, The Beginning of Winter; Edmund Wasilew- 
ski (1814-1846), the author of many popular songs; and Holowinski, 
archbishop of Mogilev (1807-1855), author of religious poems. The 
style of poetry in vogue in the Polish parts of Europe at the present 
time is chiefly lyrical. Other writers deserving mention are Cornelius 
Ujejski (1823-1897), the poet of the last revolt of 1863; Theophilus 
Lenartowicz (born 1822), who wrote some very graceful poetry; 
Sigismund Milkpwski (T. T. Tez, born in 1820), author of romances 
drawn from Polish history, for the novel of the school of Sir Walter 
Scott still flourishes vigorously among the Poles. Among the 
very numerous writers of romances may be mentioned Henry 
Rzewuski (1791-1866); Joseph Dzierzkowski wrote novels on aristo- 
cratic life, and Michael Czajkowski (1808-1876) romances of the 



Ukraine; Valerius Wieloglowski (1865) gave pictures of country 
life. 

In 1882 the Poles lost, in the prime of life, a very promising 
historian Szujski (born in 1835), and also Schmitt, who died in his 
sixty-sixth year. Szujski commenced his literary career in 1859 
with poems and dramas; in 1860 appeared his first historical pro- 
duction, Rzutokana History e Polski (*' A Glance at Polish History "), 
which attracted universal attention; and in 1862 he commenced 
the publication in parts of his work Dzieje Polski (" The History of 
Poland "), the printing of which ceased in 1866. The value of this 
book is great both on account of the research it displays and its 

ehilpsopnical and unprejudiced style. One of the last works of 
zujski, written in German, Die Polen und Ruthenen in Galizien, 
attracted a great deal of attention at the time of its appearance. 
Schmitt got mixed up with some of the political questions of the day 
he was a native of Galicia and therefore a subject of the Austrian 
emperor and was sentenced to death in 1846, but the penalty 
was commuted into imprisonment in Spielberg, whence he was re- 
leased by the revolution of 1848. In 1863 he took part in the Polish 
rebellion, and was compelled to fly to Paris, where he only returned 
in 1871. His chief works are History of the Polish People from the 
Earliest Times to the year 1763 (1854), History of Poland in the i8th 
and igth Centuries (1866), and History of Poland from the time of the 
Partition (1868), which he carried down to the year 1832. In opposi- 
tion to the opinion of many historians, his contemporaries, that 
Poland fell through the nobility and the diets, Schmitt held (as did 
Lelewel) that the country was brought to ruin by the kings, who 
always preferred dynastic interests to those of the country, and by 
the pernicious influence of the Jesuits. Adalbert Ke.trzynski, who 
succeeded Bielowski in 1877 in his post of director of the Ossolinski 
Institute at Lemberg, is the author of some valuable monographs 
on the history of Poland. He was born in 1838. Casimir Stadmcki 
has treated of the period of the Jagiellons; and Szaraniewicz, pro- 
fessor at the university of Lemberg, has written on the early history 
of Galicia. Thaddeus Wojciechowski has published a clever work 
on Slavonic antiquities. Xavier Liske, born in 1838, professor of 
universal history at Lemberg, has published many historical essays 
of considerable value, and separate works by him have appeared 
in the German, Polish, Swedish, Danish and Spanish languages. 
The " Sketch of the History of Poland " (Dzieje Polskie w zarysie) 
by Michael Bobrzynski, born in 1849 in Cracow (professor of Polish 
and German law), is a very spirited work, and has given rise to a 
great deal of controversy on account of the opposition of many 
of its views to those of the school of Lelewel. Vincent Zakrzewski, 
professor of history at Cracow, has written some works which have 
attracted considerable attention, such as On the Origin and Growth of 
the Reformation in Poland, and After the Flight of King Henry, in 
which he describes the condition of the country during the period 
between that king's departure from Poland and the election of 
Stephen Batory. Smolka has published a history entitled Mieszko 
the Elder and his Age. Wladyslaw Wislocki has prepared a catalogue 
of manuscripts in the Jagiellon library at Cracow. Dr Joseph 
Casimir Plebanski, besides editing the Biblioteka iparszawska, 
a very valuable literary journal which stands at the head of all works 
of the kind in Poland, has also written a dissertation (in Latin) 
on the liberum veto, which puts that institution in a new light. Felix 
Jezierski, the previous editor of the above-mentioned journal, 
published in it translations of parts of Homer, and is also the author 
of an excellent version of Faust. 

The history of Polish literature has not been neglected. We 
first have the early history of Felix Bentkowski (1781-1852), 
followed by that of Michael Wiszniewski (1794-1865), which, how- 
ever, only extends to the I7th century, and is at best but a quarry 
of materials for subsequent writers, the style being very heavy. A 
" History of Eloquence " (Historya wymowy w Polsce) was published 
by Karl Mecherzyski. An elaborate history of Polish litera- 
ture has been written by Anton Malecki, who is the author of the 
best Polish grammar (Gramatyka historyczno-porownawcza jezyka 
polskiego, 2 vols., Lemberg, 1879). The Polish bibliography of 
Karl Estreicher, director of the Jagiellon library at Cracow, is a work 
of the highest importance. One oi the most active writers on Polish 
philology and literature is Wladyslaw Nchring, whose numerous 
contributions to the Archiy fur slavische Philologie of Professor 
Jagic entitle him to the gratitude of all who have devoted themselves 
to Slavonic studies. Wiadimir Spasowicz, a lawyer of St Petersburg, 
assisted Pipin in his valuable work on Slavonic literature. The 
lectures of Professor Cybulski (d. 1867) on Polish literature in the 
first half of the I9th century are written with much spirit and appre- 
ciation. The larger poetical works which appear during that time 
are carefully analysed. 

In recent times many interesting geological and anthropological 
investigations have been carried on in Poland. In 1868 Count 
Constantine Tyszkiewicz published a valuable monograph on the 
Tombs of Lithuania and Western Ruthenia. And Professor Joseph 
tepkowski, of Cracow, has greatly enriched the archaeological 
museum of his native city. 

In philosophy the Poles (as the Slavs generally) have produced 
but few remarkable names. Goluchowski, the brothers Andrew 
and John Sniadecki, the latter of whom gained a reputation almost 
European, Bronislaw Trentowski, Karol Liebelt and Joseph Kremer 



POLAND, RUSSIAN 



929 



deserve mention. August Cieszkowski has written on philosophical 
and economic subjects. Moritz Straszewski, professor of philosophy 
at the university of Cracow, has also published some remarkable 
works. 

Mention has already been made of the poetess Elizabeth Druz- 
backa. Female writers are not very common among Slavonic 
nations. Perhaps the most celebrated Polish authoress was Klemen- 
tina Hoffmann, whose maiden name was Tanska, born at Warsaw 
in 1798. She married Karl Boromaus Hoffmann, and accompanied 
her husband, in 1831, to Passy near Paris, where she died in 1845. 
Her novels still enjoy great popularity in Poland. Of the poetesses 
of later times Gabriele Narzyssa Zmichowska (1825-1878), Maria 
Ilnicka, translator of Scott's Lord of the Isles, and Jadwiga Luszczew- 
ska may be mentioned. 

A poet of considerable merit is Adam Asnyk (1838-1897). In 
his poetry we seem to trace the steps between romanticism and the 
modern realistic school, such as we see in the Russian poet Nekrasov. 
In some of the flights of his muse he reminds us of Siowacki, in the 
melody of his verse of Zaleski. Besides showing talent as a poet, 
he has also written some good plays, as " The Jew " (Zid), Cola 
di Rienzi, and Kiejstut. Other poets worthy of mention are Zagor- 
ski, Czerwienski, and Maria Konopnicka, who has published two 
volumes of poems that have been very favourably noticed. Mention 
must also be made of Baiucki (1837-1901), author of novels and 
comedies, and Narzymski (1839-1872), who was educated in France, 
but spent part of his short life in Cracow, author of some very popular 
tales. 

The four centres of Polish literature, which, in spite of the 
attempts which have been made to denationalize the country, is 
fairly active, are Cracow, Posen, Lemberg and Warsaw. A cheap 
edition of the leading Polish classics, well adapted for dissemination 
among the people, has been published, under the title of Biblioteka 
Polska, at Cracow. Not only are the professors of Cracow University 
some of the most eminent living Poles, but it has been chosen as a 
place of residence by many Polish literary men. The academy 
of sciences, founded in 1872, celebrated the bicentenary of the raising 
of the siege of Vienna by Sobieski by publishing the valuable Acta 
Joannis III. regis Poloniae. Some good Polish works have been 
issued at Posen. At Lemberg, the capital of Austrian Galicia, 
there is an active Polish press. Here appeared the Monumenta 
Poloniae historica of Bielowski, previously mentioned; but Polish 
in this province has to struggle with the Red-Russian or Ruthenian, 
a language or dialect which for all practical purposes is the same as 
the Southern or Little Russian. At Warsaw, since the last insurrec- 
tion, the university has become entirly Russianized, and its Transac- 
tions are published in Russian ; but Polish works of merit still issue 
from the press among others the leading Polish literary journal, 
Biblioteka warszmvska. 

Perhaps the most popular modern writer in Poland is Eliza 
Orszeszko, of whose novels a complete " Jubilee " edition has 
appeared. Many of her tales as, for instance, Argonauci (" The 
Argonauts ") have appeared in the Tygodnik, or weekly illustrated 
journal _of Warsaw. Meir Ezofowicz has enjoyed great popularity. 
The object of this tale is to bridge over the gulf between the Jew 
and Christian in Poland. Adolf Dygasinski writes clever village 
tales of the " kail-yard " school, as it has been sometimes termed in 
England. Waclaw Sieroszewski has written Twelve Years in the 
Land of the Jakuts, a contribution to the literature of folk-lore and 
ethnology such as only a real artist could produce. Among the 
latest poets we may mention Wyspianski, Kisiliewski, Reympnt, 
Mme Zapolska; the latter is the author of some powerful realistic 
novels and plays, and she has been called the Polish Zola. It is 
this kind of poetry and traces of the decadent school which we 
find in the_later Polish poets. A pessimistic spirit is apparent, as 
in the writings of Wenceslaus Berent. Since the death of Asnyk 
and Ujejski the most prominent poet is Marya Konopnicka (1846). 
Some good critical work has been done in the leading reviews by 
Swietochowski and others. Historical work has been produced 
by Hirschberg, Pappee, Sobieski, Czermak and others, and the 
histories of Polish literature by Stanislaus Tarnowski and Piotr 
Chmielowski are of the highest value, the former dealing more with 
the aesthetic side of literature and the latter with the historical. 
The Poles are busy in reviving their great past. Hence the 
enthusiasm for historical studies, and the Biblioteka pisarzow polskich, 
which shows us what abundance of literature was produced in 
Poland in the i6th and beginning of the I7th century. In Henry k 
Sienkiewicz (q.v.), the historical novelist, Poland has a modern 
writer of European reputation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pipin and Spafovich, Istoria slavianskikh 
Literatur (in Russian; St Petersburg, 1879) ; Geschichte der polnischen 
Literatur von Dr A. Bruckner (Leipzig, 1901 ; also written in Polish) ; 
Chmielowski, History of Polish Literature (in Polish, 3 vols.) ; Stanis- 
laus Tarnowski, History of Polish Literature (in Polish) ; Grabowski, 
Poezy a Polska po roku 1863 (Cracow, 1903); Heinrich Nitschmann, 
Geschichte der polnischen Literatur (Leipzig ; sine anno). (W. R. M.) 

POLAND, RUSSIAN, a territory consisting of ten governments 
which formerly constituted the kingdom of Poland (see above), 
but now are officially described as the " governments on the 
xxi. 30 



Vistula," or occasionally as the " territory on the Vistula." 
It is bounded N. by the Prussian provinces of West and East 
Prussia, W. by those of Posen and Prussian Silesia, S. by the 
Austrian crownland of Galicia, and E. by the Russian govern- 
ments of Volhynia, Vilna, Grodno, and Kovno. 

Physical Features. The territory consists for the most part of 
an undulating plain, 300 to 450 ft. above the sea, which connects 
the lowlands of Brandenburg on the west with the great plain 
of central Russia on the east. A low swelling separates it from 
the Baltic Sea; while in the south it rises gradually to a series 



POLAND 

Scale, 1:5.750.000 



Capital* of Goaernmtntt... ....... 

Boundaritt of Government! 

iay ._*-* Cana/s-. -.-.-* 
Fortification! 




of plateaus, which merge imperceptibly into the northern spurs 
of the Carpathians. These plateaus, with an average elevation 
of 800 to 1000 ft., are mostly covered with forests of oak, beech 
and lime, and are deeply cut by river valleys, some being narrow 
and craggy, and others broad, with gentle slopes and marshy 
bottoms. Narrow ravines intersect them in all directions, and 
they often assume, especially in the east, the character of wild, 
impassable, woody and marshy tracts. In the south-eastern 
corner of Poland they are called podlasie, and are in a measure 
akin to the polyesie of the Pripet. The Vistula, which skirts 
them on the south-west, cuts its way through them to the 
great plain of Poland, and thence to the Baltic. Its valley 
divides the hilly tracts into two parts the Lublin heights on the 
east, and the Sdomierz (Sandomir) or central heights on the west. 
These last are diversified by several ranges which run east- 
south-east, parallel to the Beskides of the Carpathian system, 
the highest of them being the Lysa Gora, which reach 1910 ft. 
and 2010 ft. above the sea. Another short ridge, the Ch?cinski 
hills in Kielce, follows the same direction along the Nida river 
and reaches 1345 ft. south of the Nida; the Olkusz hills, linked 
on to spurs of the Beskides, fill up the south-west corner of 
Poland, reaching 1620 ft., and containing the chief mineral 
wealth of the country; while a fourth range, 1000 to 1300 ft. 
high, runs north-west past Cz^nstochowa, separating the Oder 
from the Warta (Warthe). In the north, the plain of Poland is 
bordered by a flat, broad swelling, 600 to 700 ft. above the sea, 
dotted with lakes, and recalling the lacustrine regions of north- 
western Russia. Wide tracts of sand, marshes, peat-bogs, ponds, 
and small lakes, among which the streams lazily meander from 
one marsh to another, the whole covered with thin pine- 
forests and scanty vegetation, with occasional patches of fertile 



930 



POLAND, RUSSIAN 



soil such are the general characters of the northern border- 
region of the great plain of central Poland. The rivers flow 
across the plain in broad, level valleys, only a few hundred 
or even only a few dozen feet lower than the watersheds; 
they separate into many branches, enclosing islands, forming 
creeks, and drowning wide tracts of land during inundations. 
Their basins, especially in the west, interpenetrate ojie another 
in the most intricate way, the whole bearing unmistakable 
evidences of having been in recent geological, and partly in 
historical times the bottom of extensive lakes, whose alluvial 
deposits now yield heavy crops. The fertility of the soil and 
the facility of communication by land and by water have 
made this plain the cradle of the Polish nationality. The 
very name of Poland is derived from it Wielkopolska and 
Wielkopolane being the Slav terms for the great plain and its 
inhabitants. 

Rivers and Canals. Russian Poland belongs mostly, though not 
entirely, to the basin of the Vistula its western parts extending 
into the upper basin of the Warta, a tributary of the Oder, and its 
north-east spur (Suwalki) penetrating into the basin of the Memel, 
of which it occupies the left bank. For many centuries, however, 
the Poles have been driven back from the mouths of their rivers by 
the German race, maintaining only the middle parts of their basins. 
About Jozefow (51 N.) the Vistula enters the great central plain 
and flows north and west-north-west between Tow banks, with a 
breadth of 1000 yds. Its inundations, dangerous even at Cracow, 
become still more so in the plain, when the accumulations of ice 
in its lower course obstruct the outflow, or the heavy rains in the 
Carpathians raise its level. Embankments 20 to 24 ft. high are 
maintained for 60 m., but they do not always prevent the river from 
inundating the plains of Opole in Lublin and Kozienice in Radom, 
the waters sometimes extending for 150 m. to the east. Thousands 
of rafts and boats of all descriptions descend the stream every year 
with cargoes of corn, wool, timber and wooden wares, giving occupa- 
tion to a large number of men. Steamers ply as far as Sandomir. 
The Wieprz ('?o m.), a right-hand tributary of the Vistula, is the 
chief artery of the Lublin government; it is navigable for small 
boats and rafts for 105 m. from Krasnystaw. The Bug, another 
right-hand tributary of the Vistula, describes a wide curve concen- 
tric with those of the middle Vistula and the Narew, and separates 
the Polish governments of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian 
governments of Volhynia and Grodno. Only light boats (galary) 
are floated down this broad, shallow stream, whose flat and open 
valley is often inundated. Its tributary, the Narew (250 m.), 
brings the forest-lands of Byelovyezh in Grodno into communication 
with Poland, timber being floated down from Surazh and light boats 
from Tykocin in Lomza. The Pilica, which joins the Vistula from the 
left 30 m. above Warsaw, rises in the south-western corner of Poland, 
and flows for 200 m. north and east in a broad, flat, sandy and marshy 
valley, of evil repute for its unhealthiness. 

The Warta (450 m.) rises in the Cz^nstochowa hills, 900 ft. above 
the sea, and flows north and west past Sieradz and Kolo. Below 
Czenstochowa it traverses a flat lowland, whose surface rises only 
2 to 5 ft. above the level of the river, and the inhabitants have a 
constant struggle to keep it to its bed; every spring an immense 
lake is formed by the river at the mouth of the Ner, a little above 
Kolo. 

The Memel flows along the north-east frontier of Poland, from 
Grodno to Yurburg, separating it from Lithuania. The yellowish 
sandy plains on its left will grow nothing except oats, buckwheat 
and some rye. The river often changes its bed, and, notwithstanding 
repeated attempts to regulate it, offers great difficulties to navigation. 
Still, large amounts of corn, wool and timber are floated down, 
especially after its confluence with the Black Hancza. 

Though navigable for a few months only, the rivers of Poland 
have always been of considerable importance for the traffic of the 
country, and their importance is further increased by several canals 
connecting them with the Russian and German rivers. The Memel 
is connected with the Dnieper by the Oginsky canal, situated in the 
Russian government of Minsk. The Dnieper and Bug canal in 
Grodno connects the Mukhavets, a tributary of the Bug, with the 
Pina in the basin of the Pripet, that is, the Dnieper with the Vistula. 
The Vistula is connected also with the Oder by the Bromberg 
canal in Prussia, which links the Brahe, in the basin of the Vistula, 
with the Netze, a tributary of the Warta. All these canals are, 
however, beyond Russian Poland. In Poland proper, the Augus- 
towo canal connects the Vistula with the Memel, by means of the 
rivers Black Hancza, Netta, Biebrz and Narew. Another canal, 
to the west of Leczyca, connects the Bzura, a tributary of the Vistula, 
with the Ner and the Warta ; and the bed of the former has been 
altered so as to obtain regular irrigation of the meadows along its 
banks. 

Lakes. Lakes are numerous in the government of Suwalki, but 
are all small and mostly hidden in thick coniferous or birch forests, 
and their waters penetrate with undefined banks amidst marshes, 
sandy tracts and accumulations of moss-grown boulders. Another 



group of small lakes is situated in the basin of the Warta (north 
part of Kalisz), the largest being Goplo, 18 m. long and 100 ft. 
deep. 

Climate. With the exception of the Lysa Gora hilly tracts 
(Kielce and south Radom), which lie within the isotherms of 41 
and 42, Poland is situated between the isotherms of 42 and 46. 
The isotheres and isocheims (i.e. lines of equal mean summer and 
winter temperature respectively) crossing one another at right angles, 
and the former running east-north-east, Poland is included between 
the isotheres of 64 and 61 and the isocheims of 35-7 and 39-2. 
The prevailing winds are westerly, with north-north-east and south 
winds in autumn and winter, and east winds in spring. There is an 
average of 21-7 to 23-6 in. of rainfall in central Poland, and the 
quantity increases slowly towards the south on account of the 
proximity of the Carpathians, where it is 30-3 in. Owing to this 
distribution the snow-sheet in Poland is not very thick, and spring 
sets in early. Still, frosts of 4 to 22 Fahr. are not uncommon, 
and the rivers are generally icebound for two and a half to three 
months the Warta being under ice for 70 to 80 days, the Vistula 
at Warsaw for 80 days and (exceptionally) even for 116, and the 
Memel for 100 (exceptionally for 140). 

The following averages will serve to illustrate the climate of 
Poland: 





Warsaw. 


Vilna 
(in Russia). 


Earliest frost 


Oct. 18 


Oct. 17 


Latest frost 


March 15 


March 25 


Absolute maximum temperature 
Absolute minimum temperature 
Annual rainfall (total) .... 


95-5 
-37-6 
22-8 in. 


89-3 
39-0 
7-6 in. 



Flora. The flora of Poland is more akin to that of Germany 
than to that of Russia, several middle European species finding their 
north-east limits in the basin of the Memel or in the marshes of 
Lithuania. Coniferous forests, consisting mostly of pine (Pinus 
sylvestris) and birch, cover large tracts in Mazovia in the north, extend 
across the Baltic lake-ridge southwards as far as the confluence of 
the Bug with the Narew, and join in the south-east the Polysie of 
the Pripet. The pine covers the Lysa Gora hills and the hills in 
the extreme south-west. The larch, which three centuries ago 
covered large tracts, has almost entirely disappeared. Pinus 
cembra is only remembered, as also Taxus baccata. Picea obovala 
is cultivated. 

Of deciduous trees, the common beech is the most typical; it 
extends from the Carpathians to 52 N. and reaches three degrees 
farther north in small groups or isolated specimens; the confluence 
of the Bug and the Narew may be regarded as its eastern limit. 
The white beech (Carpinus belulus), the aspen, and two elms (Ulmus 
campestris, U. effusa) are found nearly everywhere. The lime 
appears in groves only in the east (Memel, Pripet, Lublin). It is 
the most popular tree with the Poles, as the birch with the Russians ; 
judgment of old was pronounced under its shade, and all the folk- 
songs repeat its name. The oak a highly venerated tree in Poland, 
though not so much as in Lithuania grows in forests only on the 
most fertile land, but it is of common occurrence in conjunction with 
the beech, elm, &c. The maples (Acer platanoides and A. pseudo- 
platanus) are somewhat rare; the black alder (Alnus glutinosa) lines 
the banks of the rivers and canals, and the Alnus incana is common. 
The willow and orchard trees apple, pear, plum and cherry are 
cultivated everywhere. 

Fauna. The fauna of Poland belongs to the middle European 
zoological group; within the historical period it has lost such species 
as formerly gave it a subarctic character. The reindeer now occurs 
only as a fossil; the sable, mentioned in the annals, has migrated 
eastwards; the wild horse, described by the annals as intermediate 
between the horse and the ass probably similar to the Equus 
przewalskii of central Asia is reputed to have been met with in 
the 1 3th century in the basin of the Warta, and two centuries later 
in the forests of Lithuania. The wild goat, bison and elk have 
migrated to the Lithuanian forests. The lynx and beaver have 
disappeared. The brown bear continues to haunt the forests of the 
south, but is becoming rarer; the wolf, the wild boar, and the fox 
are most common throughout the great plain, as also the hare and 
several species of Arvicola. The mammals in Poland, however, 
do not exceed fifty species. The avi-fauna, which does not differ 
from that of central Europe, is represented by some one hundred 
and twenty species, among which the singing birds (Dentirostrae 
and Conirostrae) are the most numerous. On the whole, Poland 
lies to the westward of the most frequented route of the migratory 
birds, and is less visited by them than the steppes of south-west 
Russia. Numerous aquatic birds breed on the waters of the Baltic 
lake-region. 

Population. The population of Poland, 6,193,710 in 1871, 
reached 7,319,980 in 1881, and 10,500,000 in 1897. The esti- 
mated population in 1906 was 10,747,300. Details for 1897 
are shown in the subjoined table. 



POLAND, RUSSIAN 



Governments. 


Area, 
sq. m. 


Domiciled 
Population, 
1897. 


Urban 
Population. 


Density 
per 
sq. m. 


Kalisz .... 


4-390 


844,358 


113,609 


193 


Kielce .... 


3,896 


765,212 


57,8i4 


196 


Lomza 


4,666 


585,033 


69,834 


125 


Lublin 


6,500 


1,165,122 


148,196 


179 


Piotrkow . 


4,728 


1,406,427 


509,699 


297 


Flock .... 


4-199 


557,229 


89,821 


J33 


Radom . 


4,768 


818,044 


94,3i8 


171 


Siedlce 


5,533 


775,326 


iio,995 


140 


Suwalki . 


4,845 


610,154 


73.308 


126 


Warsaw . 


5,605 


1,929,200 


791,746 


344 


Total . . . 


49,130 


9.456,105 


2,059,340 


193 



The non-domiciled population numbered about 1,000,000, and by 
1904 the total was estimated to have increased to 12,000,000, the 
rate of increase between 1889 and 1904 having been 46-6. Poland, 
with 193 (domiciled) inhabitants or 213 inhabitants in all to the 
square mile in 1897, and 240 to the square mile in 1904, has a denser 
population than any other region in the Russian empire, the next to 
it being the governments of Moscow, with 189 inhabitants to the 
square mile, Podolia with 186, and Kiev with 181. The drift town- 
wards of the rural population began in 1890, when the urban popula- 
tion amounted to only 18% of the whole, whereas in 1904 it reached 
24 %, as compared with 13 % for the urban population of Russia as 
a whole. Of the towns of Poland 32 have a population each exceed- 
ing 10,000, the largest being WaVsaw the capital, with 638,208 inhabi- 
tants in 1897 and 756,426 m 1901 ; Lodz, with 315,209 in 1897 and 
35 '.57 in 1900; Czenstochowa, with 45,130 in 1897 and 53,650 in 
1900; and Lublin, with 50,152 in 1897. According to nationalities, 
the population was made up as follows in 1897: 6,755,503 Poles, 
equal to 64-6% of the total; 1,267,194 Jews, equal to 12-1%; 
631,844 Russians (6%); 391,440 Germans (4%); 310,386 Lithuan- 
ians and Letts (3 %) ; with a few thousands each of Tatars, Bohemians, 
Rumanians, and Esthonians, and a few Gypsies and Hungarians. 

During prehistoric times the basin of the Vistula seems 
to have been inhabited by a dolichocephalic race, different 
from the brachycephalic Poles of the present day; but from 
the dawn of history Slavs (Poles), intermingled to some extent 
with Lithuanians, have to be found on the plains of the Vistula 
and the Warta. The purest Polish type exists in the basin of 
the middle Vistula and in Posen. The Poles extend but little 
beyond the limits of Russian Poland. In East Prussia they 
occupy the southern slope of the Baltic swelling (the Mazurs), 
and extend down the left bank of the lower Vistula to its mouth 
(the Kaszubes or Kassubians). Westward they stretch down 
the Warta as far as Birnbaum (100 m. east of Berlin) ; and in the 
south they extend along the right bank of the Vistula to the 
river San in western Galicia. In Russia they constitute, with 
Jews, Lithuanians, Ruthenians and White Russians, the town 
population, as also the landed nobility and the country gentry, 
in several governments west of the Dvina and the Dnieper. 

According to the localities which they inhabit, the Poles take 
different names. They are called Wielkopolanie on the plains of 
middle Poland, while the name of Malopolanie is reserved for those 
on the Warta. The name of Leczycanie is given to the inhabitants 
of the marshes of the Ner, that of Kurpie to those of the Podlasie; 
Kujawiacy, Szlacy in the Silesia, and Gorale in the Carpathians. 

The Kaszubes, and especially the Mazurs, may be considered as 
separate stocks of the Polish family. The Mazurs are distinguished 
from the Poles by their lower stature, broad shoulders and massive 
frame, and still more by their national dress, which has nothing of 
the smartness of that of the southern Poles, and by their ancient 
customs; they have also a dialect of their own, containing many 
words now obsolete in Poland, and several grammatical forms 
bearing witness to Lithuanian influence. They submit without 
difficulty to German culture, and in Prussia are Lutherans. The 
language of the Kaszubes can also be considered as a separate dialect. 
The Poles proper are on the whole of medium stature (5 ft. 4-6 in.), 
finely built, dark in the south and fair in the north, richly endowed 
by nature, inclined to deeds of heroism, but perhaps deficient in 
that energy which characterizes the northern races of Europe, and 
in that sense of unity which has been the strength of their present 
rulers. 

The German element is annually increasing both in number and 
in influence. The Lodz manufacturing district, the Polish Birming- 
ham, is becoming more German than Polish; and throughout the 
governments west of the Vistula German immigration is going on at 
a steadily increasing rate, especially in the governments of Plock, 
Kalisz, Piotrkow and Warsaw. 

The Jews, who are found everywhere throughout Poland, are 
nowhere agricultural ; in the larger towns many of them are artisans, 



but in the villages they are almost exclusively engaged as shop- 
keepers, second-hand traders, dealers on commission, innkeepers 
and usurers. In the country, both commerce and agriculture are 
in the hands of their intimately connected trading associations. 
Their relations with Poles and Ruthenians are anything but cordial, 
and " Jew-baiting " is of frequent occurrence. They are increasing 
much more rapidly than the Slavs. 

Agriculture. From remote antiquity Poland has been celebrated 
for the production and export of grain. Both, however, greatly 
declined in the 1 8th century; and towards the beginning of the igth, 
the peasants, ruined by their proprietors, or abandoned to the 
Jews, were in a more wretched condition than even their Russian 
neighbours. Serfdom was abolished in 1807; but the liberated 
peasants received no allotments of land, and the old patrimonial 
jurisdictions were retained. Compelled to accept the conditions 
imposed by the landlords, the peasants had to pay rack-rents and 
to give compulsory labour in various forms for the use of their land. 
Only a limited number were considered as permanent farmers, while 
nearly one-half of them became mere proletaires. Pursuing a policy 
intended to reconcile the peasantry to Russian rule and to break 
the power of the Polish nobility, the Russian government promul- 
gated, during the outbreak in 1864, a law by which those peasants 
who were holders of land on estates belonging to private persons, 
institutions (such as monasteries and the like), or the Crown were 
recognized as proprietors of the soil the state paying compensation 
to the landlords in bonds, and the peasants having to pay a yearly 
annuity to the state until the debt thus contracted had been cleared 
off. The valuation of these allotments was made at a rate much 
more advantageous than in Russia, and the average size of holding 
amounted to 15 acres per family. Of those who held no land a 
number received grants out of the confiscated estates of the nobility 
and monasteries. At the same time the self-government of the 
peasants was organized on democratic principles. The so-called 
' servitudes," however that is, the right to pasture on and take 
wood from the landlord's estates were maintained for political 
reasons. These reforms resulted in a temporary increase of pros- 
perity, or at any rate an alleviation of the previous misery of the 
peasants. But whereas between 1864 and 1873 the peasantry 
as a whole purchased, in addition to the land granted to them 
by the government, 297,000 acres, in the period 1873-1893, they 
bought 540,000 acres and between 1 893 and 1 905 as much as i ,620,000 
acres. Thus the process of breaking up the larger estates is pro- 
ceeding rapidly and at an accelerated rate. In ten years (1864- 
1873) the area of cultivated soil increased by 1,350,000 acres, while 
during the fourteen years 1845-1859 its increase had been only 
540,000 acres. But the maintenance of the " servitudes," the want 
of pasture-land, the lack of money for improvements, and the very 
rapid increase in the price of land, all helped to counteract the bene- 
fits of the agrarian measures of 1864.. 

In 1904 the village communities (peasantry) owned 43-8% of the 
total area; private owners, mostly nobles, 40-6%; the Crown and 
imperial family, 6%; and public bodies, such as towns and monas- 
teries, 2-6 %; while 3 % was in the hands of the Jews. The holdings 
of the peasant families vary generally from 8 to 13 acres, the 
minimum in Russia being 16 to 22 acres. By a law of 1891 further 
subdivision below 8-3/acres is prohibited. But out of a total of some 
7,000,000 peasants no fewer than 3,000,000 possess no land. In 
consequence of this every summer no fewer than 800,000 emigrate 
temporarily to Germany in quest of work. 

Forests cover over 21-3% of the surface, of which nearly one- 
third belong to the Crown, and only 515,000 acres (7-7%) to the 
peasantry. 

Agriculture in Poland is on the whole carried on according to more 
advanced methods than in Russia. The extensive cultivation of 
beetroot, of potatoes for distilleries, and of fodder crops has led to 
the introduction of a rotation of several years instead of the former 
" three-fields " system ; and agricultural machinery is in more general 
use, especially on the larger estates of the west. Winter wheat is 
extensively cultivated, especially in the south, the Sandomir (Sedo- 
mierz) wheat having a wide repute. Of the land in the possession 
of the peasants no less than 70 % is under crops, and of the land in 
the larger estates 52 % ; of the former category 1 1 %, and of the 
latter 8%, is meadow. Altogether nearly 1 6 million acres of 
Russian Poland, or almost one-half of the total area, are under crops, 
principally rye, oats, wheat, barley, potatoes and hay, with some 
flax, hemp, peas, buckwheat and hops. After local wants are 
supplied, there remains every year a surplus of about 3! million 
quarters of cereals for export. Beetroot is largely grown for the 
manufacture of sugar. Potatoes are extensively grown for use in 
the distilleries. The cultivation of tobacco is successfully carried on, 
especially in the governments of Warsaw, Plock and Lublin. The 
breeding of livestock (cattle, sheep and horses), is an important 
source of income. Fine breeds of horses and cattle are kept on the 
larger estates of the nobility, and cattle are exported to Austria. 
Bee-keeping is widely followed, especially in the south-east. Fishing 
is carried on remuneratively, more particularly on the Vistula and 
its tributaries. 

Manufactures and Mines. Since 1864, and more especially since 
1875, there has been a remarkable development of manufacturing 
enterprise in Poland, the branch of industry which has shown the 



932 



POLARITY POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



greatest progress being the textile. Whereas in 1864 the annual 
production of all factories in Poland was valued at not more than 
5t millions sterling, in 1875, when the workers numbered 27,000, 
the output was estimated at even less; but in 1905 the value of the 
industrial production reached 53 millions sterling. The principal 
industrial centres are Lodz (textiles), Warsaw (sugar, leather and 
miscellaneous) and Bendzin Sosnowice ^Dombrowa, in Piotrk6w 
(mining). The sugar factories and refineries, situated chiefly in the 
governments of Warsaw, Lublin and Plock, turn out approximately 
one million tons of sugar in the year, the Polish sugar industry being 
exceeded in Russia only by that of Kiev. Cotton is the principal 
product of the mills at Lodz and Lask, both in Piotrkow; though 
woollen cloth, silk and linen are also produced. Tanning is centred 
in Warsaw and Radom; Polish (i.e. Warsaw) boots and shoes have 
a great reputation throughout the Russian empire. Other notable 
branches of manufacturing industry, besides those already named, 
are flour-mills, jute, hosiery, lace, paper, cement, hats, haberdashery, 
machinery, tobacco, soap and candle factories, iron and steel works, 
distilleries, breweries, potteries, vinegar, chocolate, varnish, furni- 
ture, clothing and brickworks. The cottage industries, such as pot- 
tery and basket- making, formerly of considerable importance, are 
gradually being replaced by the factory system of working. 

Southern Poland possesses abundant minerals, especially in the 
Kielce mountains and the region adjacent to Prussian Silesia. The 
Devonian sandstones contain malachite ores near Kielce, and copper 
has been worked there since the I5th century, though the mines are 
now neglected. The brown iron ores of Kielce contain no less than 
40 % of iron. The zinc ores of the Olkusz district, more than 50 ft. 
thick, contain 8 to 14%, sometimes 25%, of zinc. The tin ores of 
Olkusz are still more important, and were extensively wrought 
as early as the i6th century. Brown iron ores, appearing in the 
neighbourhood of Bendzin as lenticular masses 55 ft. thick, and 
containing 25 to 33 % of iron, accompany the zinc ores. Spherosider- 
ites and brown iron ores are plentiful also in the " Keuper forma- 
tion." Sulphur is wrought in the district of Pinczow; the deposits, 
which contain 25 % of sulphur, reach a thickness of 7 to 70 ft. Coal 
occurs in south-west Poland over an area of 200 sq. m. in the districts 
of Bendzin and Olkusz. Brown coaj, or lignite, which appears in 
the Olkusz district in beds 3 to 7 ft. thick, has been worked out. The 
output of coal is 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 tons in the year, the number 
of hands employed being 18,000 to 20,000. The yield of lignite is 
less than 100,000 tons annually; of zinc 10,000 to 12,000 tons; of 
copper and lead small. The production of iron and steel increased 
from 13,000 tons in 1862 to about 500,000 tons in 1905. Of other 
mineral produce, chalk, exported from Lublin, a few quarries of 
marble and many of building stones, are worthy of notice. Mineral 
waters are used medicinally at Ciechocinek in Plock and Nal?czow 
in Lublin. 

Communications. The railways of Poland have an aggregate 
length of 1300 m. A line of great importance, connecting Vienna 
with St Petersburg, crosses the country from south-west to 
north-east, passing through the mining district and through Warsaw, 
and sending a short branch to Lodz. Another important line, 
connecting Danzig with Odessa, crosses Poland from north-west to 
south-east. A branch line, parallel to this last, connects Skiernie- 
wice with Thorn and Bromberg; while a military railway connects 
the fortresses of Warsaw and Ivangorod with Brest-Litovsk, via 
Siedlce and Lukow. The line from Berlin to St Petersburg traverses 
the north of Suwalki for 54 m. between Eydtkunen and Kovno. 

Commerce. The general trade of Poland is merged in that of 
Russia, under which heading it is treated. With the extension of 
the railways the fairs have lost much of their importance, but their 
aggregate yearly returns are still estimated at 3,000,000. The 
principal fairs are held at Warsaw (wool, hemp, hops), Leczyca 
in Kalisz, Skaryszew in Radom, Ciechanoviec in Lomza, and Lowicz 
in Warsaw. 

Administration. The entire administration of Poland is 
under the governor-general residing at Warsaw. He is at the 
same time the commander of the military forces of the " Warsaw 
military district." Justice is represented by the gmina tribunals, 
which correspond to those of the mir in Russia; the justices of the 
peace (nominated by government); the syezd, or " court " of the 
justices of the peace; the district tribunals (assizes) in each 
government; and the Warsaw courts of appeal and cassation. 
Poland has had no separate budget since 1867; its income and 
expenditure are included in those of the empire. 

After the insurrection of 1863 all towns with less than 2000 
inhabitants were deprived of their municipal rights, and were 
included, under the designation of posads, in the gminas. 
Viewed with suspicion by the Russian government, the Polish 
towns received no self-government like the villages. The elective 
municipal councils, which enjoyed de jure very large rights, 
including that of maintaining their own police, although in 
reality they were under the rule of the nobility, were practically 
abolished, and Russian officials were nominated in their place 



and entrusted with all their rights. The municipal councils 
were, however, maintained to carry out the orders of the military 
chiefs. The new municipal law of 1870, first introduced at 
Warsaw, reduced the functions of the municipal council almost 
to nothing. The burgomaster is entirely dependent upon the 
police and the chief of the district, and has to discharge all sorts 
of functions (bailiff, policeman, &c.) which have nothing to do 
with municipal affairs. In all official communications the 
Russian language is obligatory, and a gradual elimination of 
Poles from the administration has been effected. 

Defence. Poland contains the first line of defence of the Russian 
empire on its western frontier. The marshy lowlands, covered with 
forests on the western bank of the Vistula, are a natural defence 
against an army advancing from the west, and they are strengthened 
by the fortresses on that river. The centre of these latter is Warsaw, 
with Novogeorgievsk, formerly Modlin, in the north, at the mouth 
of the Bug, and Ivangorod, formerly Demblin, in the south, at the 
mouth of the Wieprz. Novogeorgievsk is a strongly fortified camp 
which requires a garrison of 12,000 men, and may shelter an army of 
50,000 men. The town of Sierock, at the confluence of the Bug and 
the Narew, is fortified to protect the rear of Novogeorgievsk. The 
Vistula line of fortresses labours, however, under the great disadvan- 
tage of being easily turned from the rear by armies advancing from 
East Prussia or Galicia. Brest-Litovsk, at the western issue from 
the marshes of the Pripet, the towns of Dubno, Lutsk and Bob- 
ruisk constitute the second line of defence. 

Religion and Education. The prevalent religion is the Roman 
Catholic, to which over 75 % of the total population belong. Pro- 
testants (mostly Lutherans) amount to 6%, while about 5% are 
members of the Orthodox Greek Church. After the insurrection of 
1863, measures were taken to reduce the numbers of the Roman 
Catholic clergy in Poland. One diocese (Podlasie) was abolished, 
and a new one established at Kielce, while several bishops were 
sent out of the country. Poland is now divided into four dioceses 
Warsaw, Sedomierz, Lublin and Plock. 

The educational institutions of Poland are represented by a 
university at Warsaw, with 1500 students. Teaching has been 
carried on _in Russian since 1873. There are excellent technical 
schools, an institute of agriculture and forestry at Nowa-Alexandrya, 
and several seminaries for teachers. At Warsaw there is a good 
musical conservatory. The Jewish children are mostly sent to the 
Jewish schools, but they receive almost no instruction at all. 
Although there has been a decided increase in the number of both the 
primary and the secondary schools, nevertheless the school accommo- 
dation has in neither category of school kept pace with the growth 
of the population. The proportion of primary schools has in 
fact been steadily decreasing, and the applications for admission 
to the secondary schools and colleges are on the average twice as great 
as the number of vacancies. All the same, Poland compares very 
favourably with Russia in the general level of education, for whereas 
those able to read and write in 1897 amounted in Poland to 30-5 % 
of the population (only 9-3% in 1862), in Russia it was 19-8 %. 

(P. A. K.;J. T. BE.) 

POLARITY (Lat. polaris, polus, pole), having two poles or 
parts at which certain properties are the opposite to one another, 
as in a magnet the ends of which have opposite magnetic charac- 
ters. The act of producing polarity is termed polarization. 
For electrolytic polarization see BATTERY and ELECTROLYSIS, 
and for optical see POLARIZATK>N OF LIGHT below. 

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. A stream of light coming 
directly from a natural source has no relation to space except 
that concerned in its direction of propagation, round which 
its properties are alike on all sides. That this is not a necessary 
characteristic of light was discovered by Christian Huygens, 
who found that, whereas a stream of sunlight in traversing a 
rhomb of spar in any but one direction always gives rise to two 
streams of equal brightness, each of these emergent streams 
is divided by a second rhomb into two portions having a relative 
intensity dependent upon the position with respect to one another 
of the principal planes of the faces of entry into the rhombs the 
planes through the axes of the crystals perpendicular to the 
refracting surfaces. In certain cases, indeed, one portion 
vanishes entirely: thus the stream ordinarily refracted in the 
first rhomb gives an ordinary or an extraordinary stream alone 
in the second, according as the principal planes are parallel or 
perpendicular, the reverse being the case with the extraordinary 
stream of the first rhomb. In intermediate cases the intensities 
of the two beams are proportional to the squares of the cosines 
of the angles that the principal plane of the second rhomb makes 
with the positions in which they have the greatest intensity. 



POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



933 



On the other hand, if the emergent streams overlap and the 
common part be examined, it is found to have all the properties 
of common light. To this phenomenon E. T Malus gave the 
name of polarization, as he attributed it, on the emission theory 
of light, to a kind of polarity of the light-corpuscles. This 
term has been retained and the ordinary stream is said to be 
plane polarized in the principal plane of the face of entry into 
the rhomb, and the extraordinary stream to be plane polarized 
in the perpendicular plane. 

The phenomenon of polarization observed by Huygens 
remained an isolated fact for over a century, until Malus in 
1808 discovered that polarization can be produced independently 
of double refraction, and must consequently be something 
closely connected with the nature of light itself. Examining 
the light reflected from the windows of the Luxemburg palace 
with a doubly refracting prism, he was led to infer (though more 
refined experiments have shown that this is not strictly the case) 
that light reflected at a certain angle, called the polarizing angle, 
from the surface of transparent substances has the same proper- 
ties with respect to the plane of incidence as those of the ordinary 
stream in Iceland spar with respect to the principal plane of the 
crystal. Thus in accordance with the definition, it is polarized 
in the plane of incidence. Further, if polarized light fall at 
the polarizing angle on a reflecting surface, the intensity of the 
reflected stream depends upon the azimuth of the plane of 
incidence, being proportional to the square of the cosine of the 
angle between this plane and the plane of the polarization. 
At angles other than the polarizing angle common light gives 
a reflected stream that behaves as a mixture of common light 
with light polarized in the plane of incidence, and is accordingly 
said to be partially polarized in that plane. The refracted 
light, whatever be the angle of incidence, is found to be partially 
polarized in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and 
D. F. J. Arago showed that at all angles of incidence the reflected 
and refracted streams contain equal quantities of polarized light. 
The polarizing angle varies from one transparent substance to 
another, and Sir David Brewster in 1815 enunciated the law that 
the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive 
index of the substance. It follows then that if a stream of light 
be incident at the polarizing angle on a pile of parallel transparent 
plates of the same nature, each surface in turn will be met by 
the light at the polarizing angle and will give rise to a reflected 
portion polarized in the plane of incidence. Hence the total 
reflected light will be polarized in this plane and will of necessity 
have a greater intensity than that produced by a single surface. 
The polarization of the light transmitted by the pile is never 
complete, but tends to become more nearly so as the number 
of the plates is increased and at the same time the angle of inci- 
dence for which the polarization is a maximum approaches 
indefinitely the polarizing angle (Sir G. G. Stokes, Math, and 
Phys. Papers, iv. 145). 

In order to isolate a polarized pencil of rays with a rhomb 
of Iceland spar, it is necessary to have a crystal of such a thick- 
ness that the emergent streams are separated, so that one may 
be stopped by a screen. There are, however, certain crystals 
that with a moderate thickness give an emergent stream of light 
that is more or less completely polarized. The polarizing action 
of such crystals is due to the unequal absorption that they exert 
on polarized streams. Thus a plate of tourmaline of from 
i mm. to 2mm. in thickness with its faces perpendicular to the 
optic axis is nearly opaque to light falling normally upon it, 
and a plate of this thickness parallel to the axis permits of the 
passage of a single stream polarized in a plane perpendicular 
to the principal section. Such a plate acts in the same way 
on polarized light, stopping it or allowing it to pass, according 
as the plane of polarization is parallel or perpendicular to the 
principal section. Certain artificial salts, e.g. iodo-sulphate of 
quinine, act in a similar manner. 

From the above instances we see that an instrumental 
appliance that polarizes a beam of light may be used as a means 
of detecting and examining polarization. This latter process 
is termed analysation, and an instrument is called a polarizer 



or an analyser according as it is used for the first or the second 
of these purposes. 

In addition to the above facts of polarization mention may 
be made of the partial polarization, in a plane perpendicular 
to that of emission, of the light emitted in an oblique 
direction from a white-hot solid, and of the polarization 
produced by diffraction. Experiments with gratings have 
been instituted by Sir G. Gabriel Stokes, C. H. A. Holtzmann, 
F. Eisenlohr and others, with the view of determining 
the direction of the vibrations in polarized light (vide 
infra), but the results have not been consistent, and 
H. Fizeau and G. H. Quincke have shown that they depend 
upon the size and form of the apertures and upon the state of 
the surface on which they are traced. The polarization of the 
light reflected from a glass grating has also been investigated 
by I. Frohlich, while L. G. Gouy has studied the more simple 
case of diffraction at a straight edge. The polarization of the 
light scattered by small particles has been examined by G. Govi, 
J. Tyndall, L. Soret and A. Lallemand, and in the case of ultra- 
microscopic particles by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy 
(Drude Ann. 1903, x. i); an interesting case of this phenomenon 
is the polarization of the light from the sky a subject that has 
been treated theoretically by Lord Rayleigh in an important 
series of papers (See SKY, COLOUR OF, and Rayleigh, Scientific 
Works, i. 87, 104, 518; iv. 397). 

An important addition to the knowledge of polarization was 
made in 1816 by Augustin J. Fresnel and D. F. J. Arago, who 
summed up the results of a searching series of experiments in 
the following laws of the interference of polarized light: 
(i) Under the same conditions in which two streams of common 
light interfere, two streams polarized at right angles are without 
mutual influence. (2) Two streams polarized in parallel planes 
give the same phenomena of interference as common light. 

(3) Two streams polarized at right angles and coming from a 
stream of common light can be brought to the same plane of 
polarization without thereby acquiring the faculty of interfering. 

(4) Two streams polarized at right angles and coming from a 
stream of polarized light interfere as common light, when 
brought to the same plane of polarization. (5) In calculating 
the conditions of interference in the last case, it is necessary 
to add a half wave-length to the actual difference of path of the 
streams, unless the primitive and final planes of polarization lie 
in the same angle between the two perpendicular planes. 

The lateral characteristics of a polarized stream lead at once 
to the conclusion that the stream may be represented by a 
vector, and since this vector must indicate the direction in 
which the light travels as well as the plane of polarization, it is 
natural to infer that it is transverse to the direction of propaga- 
tion. That this is actually the case is proved by experiments on 
the interference of polarized light, from which it may be deduced 
that the polarization-vector of a train of plane waves of plane 
polarized light executes rectilinear vibrations in the plane of the 
waves. By symmetry the polarization-vector must be either 
parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polarization: which of 
these directions is assumed depends upon the physical character- 
istic that is attributed to the vector. In fact, whatever theory 
of light be adopted, there are two vectors to be considered, 
that are at right angles to one another and connected by purely 
geometrical relations. 

The general expressions for the rectangular components of 
a vector transverse to the direction of propagation (z) in the 
case of waves of length X travelling with speed v are: 

u=a cos (T-o), =& cos (T-/3), 

where T= 2ir(vl z)/X. The path of the extremity of the vector 
is then in general an ellipse, traversed in a right-handed direction 
to an observer receiving the light when a 13 is between o and IT, 
or between w and 2ir, and in a left-handed direction if this 
angle be between ir and 2ir, or between o and IT. In conformity 
with the form of the path, the light is said to be elliptically 
polarized, right- or left-handedly as the case may be, and the 
axes of the elliptic path are determined by the planes of 



934 



POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



maximum and minimum polarization of the light. In the par- 
ticular case in which a = b and a = =>= (211 + i) IT/ 2, the 
vibrations are circular and the light is said to be circularly 
polarized. 

These different types of polarization may be obtained from 
a plane polarized stream by passing it through a quarter-wave 
plate, i.e. a crystalline plate of such a thickness that it introduces 
a relative retardation of a quarter of a wave between the com- 
ponent streams within it. Such plates are generally made of 
mica or selenite, and the normal to the plane of polarization 
of the most retarded stream is called " the axis of the plate." 
If this axis be parallel or perpendicular to the primitive plane 
of polarization, the emergent beam remains plane polarized; 
it is circularly polarized if the axis be at 45 to the plane of 
polarization, and in other cases it is elliptically polarized with 
the axes of the elliptic path parallel and perpendicular to the 
axis of the plate. Conversely a quarter-wave plate may be 
employed for reducing a circularly or elliptically polarized 
stream to a state of plane polarization. 

Two streams are said to be oppositely polarized when the one 
is, so far as relates to its polarization, what the other becomes 
when it is turned through an azimuth of 90 and has its character 
reversed as regards right and left hand. An analytical investi- 
gation of the conditions of interference of polarized streams of 
the most general type leads to the result that there will be no 
interference only when the two streams are oppositely polarized, 
and that when the polarizations are identical the interference 
will be perfect, the fluctuations of intensity being the greatest 
that the difference of intensity of the streams admits (Sir G. G. 
Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 233). 

It remains to consider the constitution of common unpolarized 
light. Since a beam of common light can be resolved into plane 
polarized streams and these on recomposition give a stream 
with properties indistinguishable from those of common 
light, whatever their relative retardation may be, it is natural 
to assume that an analytical representation of common light 
can be obtained in which no longitudinal vector occurs. On the 
other hand a stream of strictly monochromatic light with a 
polarization-vector that is entirely transversal must be (in general 
elliptically) polarized. Consequently it follows that common 
light cannot be absolutely monochromatic. The conditions 
that are necessary in order that a stream of light may behave as 
natural light have been investigated by Sir G. Gabriel Stokes 
(loc. cit.) and by E. Verdet (Oeuwes, i. 281), and it may be 
shown that two polarized streams of a definite character are 
analytically equivalent to common light provided that they are of 
equal intensity and oppositely polarized and that there is no 
common phase relation between the corresponding monochro- 
matic constituents. Further a stream of light of the most 
general character is equivalent to the admixture of common 
and polarized light, the polarization being elliptical, circular 
or plane. 

We see then that there are seven possible types of light: 
common light, polarized light and partially polarized light; 
the polarization in the two latter cases being elliptical, circular 
or plane. Common light, circularly polarized and partially 
circularly polarized light all have the characteristic of giving 
two streams of equal intensity on passing through a ihomb of 
Iceland spar, however it may be turned. They may, however, 
be distinguished by the fact that on previous transmission 
through a quarter-wave plate this property is retained in the 
case of common light, while with the two other types the relative 
intensity of the streams depends upon the orientation of the 
rhomb, and with circularly polarized light one stream may be 
made to vanish. Plane polarized light gives in general two 
streams of unequal intensity when examined with a rhomb, 
and for certain positions of the crystal there is 1 only one emergent 
stream. Elliptically polarized, partially elliptically polarized 
and partially plane polarized light give with Iceland spar two 
streams of, in general, unequal intensity, neither of which can 
be made to vanish. They may be differentiated by first passing 
the light through a quarter-wave plate with its axis parallel or 



perpendicular to the plane of maximum polarization: for 
elliptically polarized light thereby becomes plane polarized 
and one of the streams is extinguished on rotating the rhomb; 
but with the other two kinds of light this is not the case, and the 
light is partially plane or partially elliptically polarized according 
as the plane of maximum polarization remains the same or is 
changed. 

Colours of Crystalline Plates. It was known to E. T. Malus that 
the interposition of a doubly refracting plate between a polarizer 
and an analyser regulated for extinction has the effect of partially 
restoring the light, and he used this property to discover double 
refraction in cases in which the separation of the two refracted 
streams was too slight to be directly detected. D. F. J. Arago 
in 1811 found that in the case of white light and with moderately 
thin plates the transmitted light is no longer white but coloured, 
a variation of brightness but not of tint being produced when the 
polarizer and analyser being crossed are rotated together, while the 
rotation of the analyser alone produces a change of colour, which 
passes through white into the complementary tint. This pheno- 
menon was subjected to a detailed investigation by Jean Baptiste 
Biot during the years 1812 to 1814, and from the results of his experi- 
ments Thomas Young, with his brilliant acumen, was led to infer 
that the colours were to be attributed to interference between 
the ordinary and extraordinary streams in the plate of crystal. 
This explanation is incomplete, as it leaves out of account the action 
of the polarizer and analyser, and it was with the purpose of removing 
this defect that Fresnel and Arago undertook the investigations 
mentioned above and thus supplied what was wanting in Young's 
explanation. In Biot's earlier experiments the beam of light em- 
ployed was nearly parallel: the phenomena of rings and brushes 
that are seen with a conical pencil of light were discovered by Sir 
David Brewster in the case of uniaxal crystals in 1813 and in that 
of biaxal crystals in 1815. 

Let a, ft, tf/ be the angles that the primitive and final planes of 
polarization and the plane of polarization of the quicker wave 
within the plate make with a fixed plane, and let p be the relative 
retardation of phase of the two streams on emergence from the plate 
for light of period T. On entry into the crystal the original polar- 
ized stream is resolved into components represented by 

o cos(^ o) cos T, a sin ty-a) cos T, T = 2irt/T, 
and on emergence we may take as the expression of the waves 

a cos (^ a) cos T, a sin (^ o) cos (T p). 

Finally after traversing the analyser the sum of the two resolved 
components is 

a cos (<]/ a) cos ty ft) cos T+a sin ($ a) sin (^ 0) cos (T p), 
of which the intensity is 

{a cos (\l/ a) cos (\l/ ft) -fa sin (\!> a) sin (\l/ ft) cos p}*+ 
a 2 sin 2 W- a) sin 2 (^ ft) sin s p = 

a 2 cos 2 (/3 a) a 2 sin 2(^ 0) sin 2(<j/ft) sin 1 Jp. 

When the primitive light is white, this expression must be summed for 
the different monochromatic constituents. In strictness the angle ^ 
is dependent upon the frequency, but if the dispersion be weak rela- 
tively to the double refraction, the product sin 2(\l/ o)sin 2(<l/ ft) 
has sensibly the same value for all terms of the summation, and we 
may write 

I=cos 2 (/3 o)2o l sin 2(^0) sin 2(^1 /3)2o 2 sin* Jp. 
This formula contains the whole theory of the colours of crystalline 
plates in polarized light. Since the first term represents a stream of 
white light, the plate will appear uncoloured whenever the plane of 
polarization of either stream transmitted by it coincides with either 
the primitive or final plane of polarization. In intermediate cases the 
field is coloured, and the tint changes to its complementary as the 
plate passes through one of these eight positions, since the second 
term in the above expression then changes sign. If, however, the 
primitive and final planes of polarization be parallel or crossed, the 
field exhibits only one colour during a complete revolution of the plate 
The crystalline plate shows no colour when it is very thin, and also 
when its thickness exceeds a moderate amount. In the former case the 
retardation of phase varies so little with the period that the intensity 
is nearly the same for all colours ; in the latter case it alters so rapidly 
that for a small change in the period the intensity passes from a 
maximum or a minimum, and consequently so many constituents 
of the light are weakened and these are so close to one another in 
frequency, that the light presents to the eye the appearance of being 
white. The true character of the light in this case may be revealed 
by analysing it with a spectroscope, when a spectrum is obtained 
traversed by dark bands corresponding to the constituents that are 
weakened or annulled. The phenomenon of colour may, however, be 
obtained with thick plates by superposing two of them in a suit- 
able manner, the combination acting as a thicker or a thinner plate 
according as the planes of polarization of the quicker waves within 
them are parallel or crossed. In this way a delicate test for slight 
traces of double refraction is obtained. When the retardation of 
phase for light of mean period is ir or a small multiple of t a 
crystalline plate placed between a crossed polarizer and analyser 



POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



935 



exhibits in white light a distinctive greyish violet colour, known as a 
sensitive tint from the fact that it changes rapidly to blue or red, 
when the retardation is very slightly increased or diminished. 
If then the sensitive plate be cut in naif and the two parts be placed 
side by side after the one has been turned through 90 in its own 
plane, the tint of the one half will be raised and that of the other 
will be lowered when the compound plate is associated with a second 
doubly refracting plate. 

When light from an extended source is made to converge upon 
the crystal, the phenomenon of rings and brushes localized at infinity is 
obtained.The exact calculation of the intensity in this case is very com- 
plicated and the resulting expression is too unwieldy to be of any 
use, but as an approximation the formula for the case of a parallel 
beam may be employed, the quantities $ and p therein occurring 
being regarded as functions of the angle and plane of incidence 
and consequently as variables. In monochromatic light, then, 
the interference pattern is characterized by three systems of curves: 
the curves of constant retardation p = const.; the lines of like 
polarization \l> = const. ; the curves of constant intensity I = const. 
When p = ssnr and also when ^ = o or o+x/2 or ^ = /3 or /3+ir/2, 
that is at points for which the streams within the plate are polarized 
in planes parallel and perpendicular to the planes of primitive and 
final polarization, the intensity (called the fundamental intensity) 
is the same as when the plate is removed. These conditions define 
two systems of curves called respectively the principal curves of 
constant retardation and the principal lines of like polarization, 
these latter lines dividing the field into regions in which the intensity 
is alternately greater and less than the fundamental intensity. 
When, however, the planes of polarization and analysation are 
parallel or crossed, the two pairs of principal lines of like polarization 
coincide, and the intensity is at all points in the former case not 
greater than, and in the latter case not less than, it was before the 
introduction of the plate. The determination of the curves of con- 
stant retardation depends upon expressing the retardation in terms 
of the optical constants of the crystal, the angle of incidence and the 
azimuth of the plane of incidence. P. A. Berlin has shown that a 
useful picture of the form of these curves may be obtained by taking 
sections, parallel to the plate, of a surface that he calls the " iso- 
chromatic surface," and that is the locus of points on the crystal 
at which the relative retardation of two plane waves passing simul- 
taneously through a given point and travelling in the same direction 
has an assigned value. But as this surface is obtained by assuming 
that the interfering streams follow the same route in the crystal, 
and by neglecting the refraction out of the crystal, it does not lend 
itself to accurate numerical calculations. To the same degree of 
accuracy as that employed in obtaining the expression for the 
intensity, the form of the lines of like polarization is given by the 
section, parallel to the plate, of a cone, whose generating lines are 
the directions of propagation of waves that have their planes of 
polarization parallel and perpendicular to a given plane: the cone is 
in general of the third degree and passes through the optic axes of 
the crystal. We must limit ourselves in this article to indicating 
the chief features of the phenomenon in the more important cases. 
(Reference should be made to the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY for 
illustrations, and for applications of these phenomena to the deter- 
mination of crystal form.) 

With an uniaxal plate perpendicular to the optic axis, the curves 
of constant retardation are concentric circles and the lines of like 
polarization are the radii : thus with polarizer and analyser regulated 
for extinction, the pattern consists of a series of bright and dark 
circles interrupted by a black cross with its arms parallel to the 
planes of polarization and analysation. In the case of a biaxal 
plate perpendicular to the bisector of the acute angle between the 
optic axes, the curves of constant retardation are approximately 
Cassini's ovals, and the lines of like polarization are equilateral 
hyperbolae passing through the points corresponding to the optic 
axes. With a crossed polarizer and analyser the rings are inter- 
rupted by a dark hyperbolic brush that cuts the plane of the optic 
axes at right angles, if this plane be at 45 to the planes of polariza- 
tion and analysation the so-called diagonal position and that 
becomes a rectangular cross with its arms parallel and perpendicular 
to the plane of the optic axes when this plane coincides with the 
plane of primitive or final polarization the normal position. 

When white light is employed coloured rings are obtained, pro- 
vided the relative retardation of the interfering streams be not too 
great. The isochromatic lines, unless the dispersion be excessive, 
follow in the main the course of the curves of constant retardation, 
and the principal lines of like polarization are with a crossed 
polarizer and analyser dark brushes, that in certain cases are fringed 
with colour. This state of things may, however, be considerably 
departed from if the axes of optical symmetry of the crystal are 
different for the various colours. The examination of dispersion of 
the optic axes in biaxal crystals (see REFRACTION, Double) may be 
conveniently made with a plate perpendicular to the acute bisectrix 
placed in the diagonal position for light of mean period between a 
crossed polarizer and analyser. When the rings are coloured sym- 
metrically with respect to two perpendicular lines the acute bisec- 
trix and the plane of the optic axes are the same for all frequencies, 
and the colour for which the separation of the axes is the least is 
that on the concave side of the summit of the hyperbolic brushes. 



Crossed, inclined and horizontal dispersion are characterized respec- 
tively by a distribution of colour' that is symmetrical with respect 
to the centre alone, the plane of the optic axes, and the perpendicular 
plane. 

The phenomenon of interference produced by crystalline elates 
is considerably modified if the light be circularly or elliptically 
polarized or analysed by the interposition of a quarter-wave between 
the crystal and the polarizer or analyser. Thus in the two cases 
described above the brushes disappear and the rings are continuous 
when the light is both polarized and analysed circularly. But the 
most important case, on account of its practical application to 
determining the sign of a crystal, is that in which the light is plane 
polarized and circularly analysed or the reverse. Let us suppose 
that the light is circularly analysed and that the primitive and final 
planes of polarization are at right angles. Then with an uniaxal 
plate perpendicular to the optic axis, the black cross is replaced by 
two lines, on crossing which the rings are discontinuous, expansion 
or contraction occurring in the quadrants that contain the axis of 
the quarter-wave plate, according as the crystal is positive or nega- 
tive. With a biaxal plate perpendicular to the optic axis in the 
diagonal position, the hyperbolic brush becomes an hyperbolic line 
and the rings are expanded or contracted on its concave side, with 
a positive plate, according as the plane of the optic axes is parallel 
or perpendicular to the axis of the quarter-wave plate, the reverse 
being the case with a negative plate. 

With a combination of plates in plane-polarized and plane-analysed 
light the interference pattern with monochromatic light is generally 
very complicated, the dark curves when polarizer and analyser are 
crossed being replaced by isolated dark spots or segments of lines. 
When, however, the field is very small, or when the primitive light 
is white so that interference is only visible for small relative retarda- 
tions, the problem becomes in many cases one of far less complexity. 
An instance of considerable importance is afforded by the combina- 
tion known as Savart's plate. This consists of two plates of an 
uniaxal crystal of equal thickness, cut at the same inclination of 
about 45 to the optic axis and superposed with their principal planes 
at right angles. The interference pattern produced by this combina- 
tion is, when the field is small, a system of parallel straight line* 
bisecting the angle between the principal planes of its constituents. 
These attain their maximum visibility when the plane of analysation 
is at 45 to these planes, and vanish when the plane of polarization 
is parallel to either of the principal planes. 

The phenomena of chromatic polarization afford a ready means 
of detecting doubly refracting structure in cases, such as that pro- 
duced in isotropic bodies by strain, in which its effects aie very 
minute. Thus a bar of glass of sufficient thickness, placed in the 
diagonal position between a crossed polarizer and analyser and bent 
in a plane perpendicular to that of vision, exhibits two sets of coloured 
bands separated by a neutral line, the double refraction being posi- 
tive on the dilated and negative on the compressed side. Again, 
a system of rings, similar to those of an uniaxal plate perpendicular 
to the axis, may be produced with a glass cylinder by transmitting 
heat from its surface to its axes by immersion in heated oil, and glass 
that has been raised to a rec! heat and then cooled rapidly at its edges 
gives in polarized light an interference pattern of a regular form 
dependent upon the shape of the contour. 

Rotary Polarization. In general a stream of plane-polarized light 
undergoes no change in traversing a plate of an uniaxal crystal in 
the direction of its axis, and when the emergent stream is analysed, 
the light, if originally white, is found to be colourless and to be 
extinguished when the polarizer and analyser are crossed. When, 
however, a plate of quartz is used in this experiment, the light is 
coloured and is in no case cut off by the analyser, the tint, however, 
changing as the analyser is rotated. This phenomenon may be 
explained, as D. F. J. Arago pointed out, by supposing that in passing 
through the plate the plane of polarization of each monochromatic 
constituent is rotated by an amount dependent upon the frequency 
an explanation that may be at once verified either by using mono- 
chromatic light or by analysing the light with a spectroscope, the 
spectrum in the latter case being traversed by one or more dark 
bands, according to the thickness of the plate, that pass along the 
spectrum from end to end as the analyser is rotated. J. B. Biot 
further ascertained that this rotation of the plane of polarization 
varies as the distance traversed in the plate and very nearly as the 
inverse square of the wave-length, and found that with certain 
specimens of quartz the rotation is in a clockwise or right-handed 
direction to an observer receiving the light, while in others it is in 
the opposite direction, and that equal plates of the right- and left- 
hand varieties neutralize one another's effects. 

A similar rotary property is possessed by other uniaxal crystals, 
such as cinnabar and the thiosulphates of potassium, lead and calcium, 
and as H. C. Pockiington (Phil. Mag:, 1901 [6], ii. 361) and J. H. 
Dufet (Journ. de phys., 1904 [4], iii. 757) have shown by a few biaxal 
crystals, such as sugar and Rochelle salt, the rotation produced by a 
given thickness being in general different, and in some cases of oppo- 
site sign for the two optic axes. Further, certain cubic crystals, such 
as sodium chlorate and bromate, and also some liquids and even 
vapours, rotate the plane of polarization of the light that traverses 
them, whatever may be the direction of the stream. 

In crystals the rotary property appears to be sometimes inherent 



93^ 



POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



in the crystalline arrangement of the molecules, as it is lost on fusion 
or solution, and in several cases belongs to enantiomorphous 
crystals, the two correlated forms of which are the one right-handed 
and the other left-handed optically as well as crystallographically, 
this being necessarily the case if the property be retained when the 
crystal is fused or dissolved. In organic bodies the rotary property, 
as the researches of J. A. Le Bel, J. H. van't Hoff and others have 
established, corresponds to the presence of one or more asymmetric 
atoms of carbon that is, atoms directly united to elements or radicles 
all different from one another and in every case there exists an 
isomer that rotates the plane of polarization to the same degree in 
the opposite direction. Absence of rotary power when asymmetric 
carbon atoms are present, may be caused by an internal compensa- 
tion within the molecule as with the inactive tartaric acid (meso- 
tartaric acid), or may be due to the fact that the compound is an 
equimolecular mixture of left- and right-hand varieties, this being 
the case with racemic acid that was broken by Louis Pasteur into 
laevo- and dextro-tartaric acid (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). 

Substances that by reason of the structure or arrangement of 
their molecules rotate the plane of polarization are said to be 
structurally active, and the rotation produced by unit length is 
called their rotary power. If unit mass of a solution contain m 
grammes of an active substance and if S be the density and p be the 
rotary power of the solution, the specific rotary power is defined 
by p/m&, and the molecular rotary power is obtained from this by 
multiplying by the hundredth part of the molecular mass. This 
quantity is not absolutely constant, and in many cases varies with 
the concentration of the solution and with the nature of the solvent. 
A mixture of two active substances, or even of an active and an 
inactive substance, in one solution sometimes produces anomalous 
effects. 

Fresnel showed that rotary polarization could be explained kine- 
matically by supposing that a plane-polarized stream is resolved on 
entering an active medium into two oppositely circularly polarized 
streams propagated with different speeds, the rotation being 
right- or left-handed according as the right- or left-handed stream 
travels at the greater rate. 

The polarization- vector of the primitivejstream being = o cos nt, 
the first circularly polarized stream after traversing a distance z 
in the medium may be represented by 

1 = a cos (nt fez), rn = a sin (nt k\z), 
and the second by 

& = a cos (nt kiz), 172 = a sin (nt fez). 

The resultant of these is 

= 2a cos 5 (fe fe)z cos {nt J(fe + fe)?|, 
jj = 2a sin J (fe ki)z cos {nt J(fe + fe)zj, 

which shows that for any fixed value of z the light is plane polarized 
in a plane making an angle ^(k 2 -ki)z = T(\~ 1 \~ 1 )z, with the initial 
plane of polarization, Xi and X 2 being the wave-lengths of the circular 
components of the same frequency. 

Since the two circular streams have different speeds, Fresnel 
argued that it would be possible to separate them by oblique 
refraction, and though the divergence is small, since the difference 
of their refractive indices in the case of quartz is only about 0-00007, 
he succeeded by a suitable arrangement of alternately right- and 
left-handed prisms of quartz in resolving a plane-polarized stream 
into two distinct circularly polarized streams. A similar arrange- 
ment was used by Ernst v. Fleischl for demonstrating circular 
polarization in liquids. This result is not, however, conclusive ; for 
an application of Huygens's principle shows that it is a consequence 
of the rotation of the plane of polarization by an amount propor- 
tional to the distance traversed, independently of the state of affairs 
within the active medium. Not more convincing is a second experi- 
ment devised by Fresnel. If in the interference experiment with 
Fresnel's mirrors or biprism the slit be illuminated with white light 
that has passed through a polarizer and a quartz plate cut perpendicu- 
larly to the optic axis, it is found on analysing the light that in 
addition to the ordinary central set of coloured fringes two lateral 
systems are seen, one on either side of it. According to Fresnel's 
explanation the light in each of the interfering streams consists of 
two trains of waves that are circularly polarized in opposite direction 
and have a relative retardation of phase, introduced by the passage 
through the quartz: the central fringes are then due to the similarly 
polarized waves ; the lateral systems are produced by the oppositely 
polarized streams, these on analysation being capable of interfering. 
A. Righi has, however, pointed out that this experiment may be 
explained by the fact that the function of the quartz plate and 
analyser is to eliminate the constituents of the composite stream of 
white light that mask the interference actually occurring at the posi- 
tions of the lateral systems of fringes, and that any other method of 
removing them is equally effective. In fact, the lateral systems 
are obtained when a plate of selenite is substituted for the quartz. 

Sir G. B. Airy extended Fresnel's hypothesis to directions inclined 
to the axis of uniaxal crystals by assuming that in any such direction 
the two waves, that can be propagated without alteration of their 
state of polarization, are oppositely elliptically polarized with their 
planes of maximum polarization parallel and perpendicular to the 
principal plane of the wave, these becoming practically plane polar- 
ized at a small inclination to the optic axis. Several investigations 



have been made to test the correctness of Airy's views, but it must 
be remembered that it is only possible to experiment on waves 
after they have left the crystal, and L. G. Gouy (Journ. de phys., 1885 
[2], iv. 149) has shown that the results deduced from Airy's waves 
of permanent type may be obtained by regarding the action of the 
medium as the superposition of the effects of ordinary double 
refraction and of an independent rotary power. As regards the 
course of the streams on refraction into the crystal, it is found that 
it is determined by the Huygenian law (see REFRACTION, Double) ; 
as, however, the two streams in the direction of the axis have differ- 
ent speeds, the spherical and the spheroidal sheets of the wave- 
surface do not touch as in the case of inactive uniaxal crystals. On 
these principles Airy, by an elaborate mathematical investigation, 
successfully explained the interference patterns obtained with plates 
of quartz perpendicular to the optic axis. When the polarizer and 
analyser are parallel or crossed, the pattern is the same as with 
inactive plates, with the exception that the brushes do not extend 
to 'the centre of the field; but as the analyser is rotated a small 
cross begins to appear at the centre of the field, while the rings change 
their form and become nearly squares with rounded corners, when 
the planes of polarization and analysation are at 45. With two 
plates of equal thickness and of opposite rotations, the pattern 
consists of a series of circles and of four similar spirals starting from 
the centre, each spiral being turned through 90 from that adjacent 
to it. When the light is circularly polarized or circularly analysed, 
a single plate gives two mutually inwrapping spirals, and similar 
spirals in circularly polarized light are obtained with plates of an 
active biaxal crystal perpendicular to one of the optic axes. It 
was in this way that the rotary property of certain biaxal crystals 
was first established by Pocklington. 

F. E. Reusch has shown that a packet of identical inactive plates 
arranged in spiral fashion gives an artificial active system, and the 
behaviour of certain pseudosymmetric crystals indicates a formation 
of this character. On these results L. Sohncke (Math. Ann., 1876, 
ix. 504) and E. Mallard (Traite de cristattographie, vol. ii. ch. ix.) have 
built up a theory of the structure of active media, but in the instances 
in which static spirality has been shown to be effective in producing 
optical rotation the coarse-grainedness of the structure is comparable 
with the wave-length of the radiation affected. 

The rotary property may be induced in substances naturally 
inactive. Thus A. W. Ewell (Amer. Jour, of Science, 1899 [4], 
viii. 89) has shown the existence of a rotational effect in twisted 
glass and gelatine, the rotation being opposite to the direction of the 
twist. But a far more important instance of induced activity 
is afforded by Michael Faraday's discovery of the rotary polarization 
connected with a magnetic field. There is, however, a marked 
difference between this magnetic rotation and that of a structurally 
active medium, for in the latter it is always right-handed or always 
left-handed with respect to the direction of the ray, while in the 
former the sense of rotation is determined by the direction of mag- 
netization and therefore remains the same though the ray be 
reversed. This subject is treated in the article MAGNETO-OPTICS, 
to which the reader is also referred for John Kerr's discovery of 
the effect on polarization produced by reflection from a magnetic 
pole, and for the action of a magnetic field on the radiation of a 
source the " Zeeman effect." 

Reflection and Refraction. Huygens satisfactorily explained the 
laws of reflection and refraction on the principles of the wave theory, 
so far as the direction of the waves is concerned, but his explanation 
gives no account of the intensity and the polarization of the reflected 
light. This was supplied by Fresnel, who, starting from a mechanical 
hypothesis, showed by ingenious but not strictly dynamical reasoning 
that if the incident stream have unit amplitude, that of the reflected 
stream will be 

sin (i-r)/sin (i + r) or tan (i-r)/tan (i + r), 
according as the incident light is polarized in or perpendicularly to 
the plane of incidence i, r , being the angles of incidence and refraction 
connected by the formula sin i=/i sin r. At normal incidence the. 
intensity of the reflected light, measured by the square of the ampli- 
tude, is {(fi-i)/Oi+i)P in both cases; but whereas in the former the 
intensity increases uniformly with i to the value unity for i go, 
in the latter the intensity at first decreases as i increases, until k 
attains the value zero when i+r =90, or tan =/ the polar- 
izing angle of Brewster and then increases until it becomes unity 
at grazing incidence. If the incident light be polarized in a plane, 
mating an angle o with the plane of incidence, the stream may be 
resolved into two that are polarized in the principal azimuths, 
and these will be reflected in accordance with the above laws. Hence 
if be the angle between the plane of incidence and that in which 
the reflected light is polarized 

tan /3=-tan o cos (j+r)/cos (t-r). 

The expressions for the intensity of the refracted light may be 
obtained from those relating to the reflected light by the principle 
of energy. In order to avoid the question of the measurements 
of the intensity in different media, it is convenient to suppose that 
the refracted stream emerges into a medium similar to the first by 
a transition so gradual that no light is lost by reflection. The 
intensities of the incident, reflected and refracted streams are 
then measured in the same way, and we have merely to express that 



POLARIZATION OF LIGHT 



937 



the square of the amplitude of the incident vibrations is equal to the 
sum of the squares of the amplitudes of the reflected and refracted 
vibrations. 

Fresnel obtained his formulae by assuming that the optical differ- 
ence of media is due to a change in the effective density of the ether, 
the elasticity being the same an assumption inconsistent with his 
theory of double refraction and was led to the result that the 
vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. Franz 
Neumann and James MacCullagh, starting from the opposite assump- 
tion of constant density and different elasticities, arrived at the same 
formulae for the intensities of the reflected light polarized in the 
principal azimuths, but in this case the vibrations must be regarded 
as parallel to the plane of polarization. The divergence of these 
views has led to a large number of experimental investigations, 
instituted with the idea of deciding between them. In the main 
such investigations have only an academic interest, as, whatever 
theory of light be adopted, we have to deal with two vectors that 
are parallel and perpendicular respectively to the plane of polariza- 
tion. Thus certain experiments of Otto H. Wiener (Wied. Ann., 
1890, xl. 203) show that chemical action is to be referred to the 
latter of these vectors, but whether Fresnel's or Neumann's hypo- 
thesis be correct is only to be decided when we know if it be the mean 
kinetic energy or the mean potential energy that determines chemical 
action. Similarly on the electromagnetic theory the electric or the 
magnetic force will be perpendicular to the plane of polarization, 
according as chemical action depends upon the electric or the mag- 
netic energy. Lord Rayleigh (Scientific Papers, i. 104) has, however, 
shown that the polarization of the light from the sky can only be 
explained on the elastic solid theory by Fresnel's hypothesis of_a 
different density, and from the study of Hertzian oscillations, in 
which the direction of the electric vibrations can be a priori assigned, 
we learn that when these are in the plane of incidence there is no 
reflection at a certain angle, so that the electric force is perpendicular 
to the plane of polarization. 

It has been supposed in the above that the medium into which 
the light enters at the reflecting-surface is the more refracting. In 
the contrary case, total reflection commences as soon as sin i = if l , n 
being still the relative refractive index of the more highly refracting 
medium; and for greater angles of incidence r becomes imaginary. 
Now Fresnel's formulae were obtained by assuming that the incident, 
reflected and refracted vibrations are in the same or opposite phases 
at the interface of the media, and since there is no real factor that 
converts cos T into cos (T+p), he inferred that the occurrence of 
imaginary expressions for the coefficients of vibration denotes a 
change of phase other than ir, this being represented by a change of 
sign. If this be so, it is clear that the factor V i denotes a change 
of phase of ir/2, since this twice repeated converts cos T into cos 
(T+ir) = cos T, and hence that the factor a +&V I represents 
a change of phase of tan -1 (6/a). Applying this interpretation to 
the formulae given above, it follows that when the incident light is 
polarized at an azimuth a. to the plane of incidence and the second 
medium is the less refracting, the reflected light at angles of incidence 
exceeding the critical angle is elliptically polarized with a difference 
of phase A between the components polarized in the principal azi- 
muths that is given by 

tan (A/2)=cot t'V(i f* cosec 2 t). 

Thus A is zero at grazing incidence and at the critical angle, and 
attains its maximum value v 4 tan -1 (i//i) at an angle of incidence 
given by sin 2 =2/(/i 2 -|-l). 

It is of some interest to determine under what conditions it is 
possible to obtain a specified difference of phase. Solving for cot 2 i 
we obtain 



(^-i) 2 V [(M 2 -tan 2 (r-A)/4) { M J -cot* (T- A)/4J], 

and since tan ((* A)/4J is less than unity, y. must exceed cot ((JT A) /4J 
if cotH' is to be real. Thus if A = ir/2, n must exceed ir/8 or 2-414, that 
is, the substance must be at least as highly refracting as a diamond : 
if A = jr/4, it, must be greater than 3ir/i6 or i -4966, and when this is the 
case, it is possible by two reflections to convert into a circularly 
polarized stream a beam of light polarized at 45 to the plane of 
incidence. This is the principle of Fresnel's rhomb, that is sometimes 
employed instead of a quarter-wave plate for obtaining a stream of 
circularly polarized light. It consists of a parallelepiped glass so 
constructed that light falling normally on one end emerges at the 
other after two internal reflections at such an angle as to introduce 
a relative retardation of phase of ?r/4 between the components polar- 
ized in the principal azimuths. 

Fresnel's formulae are sufficiently accurate for most practical 
purposes, but that they are not an exact representation of the facts 
of reflection was shown by Sir David Brewster and by Sir G. B. 
Airy. Detailed investigations by J. C. Jamin, G. H. Quincke, 
C. W. Wernicke and others have established that in general _light 
polarized in any but the principal azimuths becomes elliptically 
polarized by reflection, the relative retardation of phase of the 
components polarized in these azimuths becoming ir/2 at a certain 
angle of incidence, called the principal incidence. In some cases 
it is the component polarized in the plane of incidence that is most 
retarded and the reflection is then said to be positive : in the case of 
negative reflection the reverse takes place. It was at first supposed 



that the defect of Fresnel's formulae was due to the neglect of the 
superficial undulations that, on a rigorous elastic solid theory of 
the ether, are called into existence at reflection and refraction. 
But the result of taking these into account is far from being in accor- 
dance with the facts, and experiments of Lord Rayleigh and Paul 
Drude make it probable that we ought to assume that the transition 
from one medium to another, though taking place in a distance 
amounting to about one fiftieth of a wave-length, is gradual instead 
of abrupt. The effect of such a transition-layer can easily be 
calculated, at least approximately; but it is of little use to take 
account of it except in the case of a theory of reflection that gives 
Fresnel's formujae as the result of an abrupt transition. Lord 
Rayleigh has pointed out that all theories are defective in that they 
disregard the fact that one at least of the media is dispersive, and 
that it is probable that finite reflection would result at the interface 
of media of different dispersive powers, even in the case of waves 
for which the refractive indices are absolutely the same. 

A more pronounced case of elliptic polarization by reflection is 
afforded by metals. Formulae for metallic reflection may be ob- 
tained from Fresnel's expressions by writing the ratio sin i/sin r 
equal to a complex quantity, and interpreting the imaginary co- 
efficients in the manner explained above. The optical constants 
(refractive index and co-efficient of extinction) of the metal may then 
be obtained from observations of the principal incidence and the 
elliptic polarization then produced. A detailed investigation of 
these constants has been made by Drude (Wied. Ann., 1890, xxxix. 
504), who has found the remarkable result that coprjer, gold, magne- 
sium and silver have refractive indices less than unity, and this has 
been completely confirmed by observations with metallic prisms 
of small refracting angle. He further showed that except in the 
cases of copper, lead and gold the dispersion is abnormal the index 
for red light being greater than that for sodium light. The higher 
the co-efficient of extinction for light of a given period, the more 
copious will be reflection of that constituent of a mixed pencil. 
This fact has been employed for separating waves of large wave- 
length, and in this way waves of length 0-061 mm. have been isolated 
by five successive reflections from the surface of sylvite. 

The Study of Polarization. The best method of obtaining a strong 
beam of polarized light is to isolate one of the streams into which 
a beam of common light is resolved by double refraction. This is 
effected in polarizing prisms of the earlier type, devised by A. M. de 
Rochon, H. H. de Senarmont and W. H. Wollaston, by blocking off 
one of the streams with a screen, sufficient lateral separation being 
obtained by combining two equal crystalline prisms cut differently 
with respect to the optic axis an arrangement that achromatizes 
more or less completely the pencil that is allowed to pass. In a 
second type, called Nicol's prisms, one stream is removed by total 
reflection. Theoretically the best construction for prisms of this 
class is the following: a rectangular block of Iceland spar, of length 
about four times the width and having its end and two of its side 
faces parallel to the optic axis, is cut in half by a plane parallel to the 
optic axis and making an angle of about 14 with the sides; the two 
halves are then reunited with a cement whose refractive index 
is between the ordinary and extraordinary indices of the spar and 
as nearly as possible equal to the latter. Thus constructed, the 
prism produces no lateral shift of the transmitted pencil; a conical 
pencil, incident directly, has nearly constant polarization over its 
extent, and consequently the error in determining the polarization 
of a parallel pencil, incident not quite normally, is a minimum. 
In a Nicol's prism it is the extraordinary stream that passes; jn a 
prism suggested by E. Sang and sometimes called a Bertrand's prism, 
it is the ordinary stream that is utilized. This is made by fixing a 
thin crystalline plate between two glass prisms turned in opposite 
directions by a cement of the same refractive index as the glass. 
This refractiye index should be equal to the greatest index of the 
plate, and with a biaxal plate the mean axis of optical symmetry 
should be parallel to its faces and in the normal section of the 
prisms, while with an uniaxal plate the optic axis should be in a 
plane perpendicular to this normal section. These prisms have the 
advantage of economy of material and of a greater field than the 
ordinary Nicol's prism, but a difficulty seems to be experienced 
in finding a suitable permanent cement. 

For an accurate determination of the plane of polarization analy- 
sers that act by extinction are not of much practical use, and a 
different device has to be employed. Savart's analyser consists 
of a Savart's plate (see above) connected to a Nicol's prism, _the 
principal section of which bisects the angle between the principal 
planes of the plate: the plane of polarization is determined by 
turning the analyser until the bands, ordinarily seen, disappear, 
in which case it is parallel to one of the principal planes of the plate. 
Half-shade analysers depend upon the facility with which the eye 
can distinguish slight differences in the intensities of two streams 
seen in juxtaposition, when the illumination is not too bright. The 
field is divided into two parts that for most positions of the analyser 
have different intensities, and the setting is effected by turning the 
analyser until both halves are equally dark. These instruments 
are very sensitive, but care must be taken to avoid errors caused by 
changes in the relative intensities of parts_ of the source of light 
a precaution that is sometimes overlooked in furnishing polarimeters 
with these analysers. In J. H. Jellet's and M. A. Cornu's analysers 



938 



POLAR REGIONS 



formedthe one from two parts of a rhomb of spar, the other from 
two portions of a Nicol's prism the two halves of the field are ana- 
lysed in slightly different planes; but these, though they have certain 
advantages, are now seldom employed, partly on account of a diffi- 
culty in their construction and partly because their sensitiveness 
cannot be adjusted. The more usual half-shade analyser is avail- 
able for light of only one frequency, as it depends upon the action 
of a half-wave plate, in traversing which the plane of polarization 
is turned until it makes the same angle with the principal section 
as at first but on the opposite side : half the field is covered with the 
plate, to which is attached a Nicol's prism with its principal section 
inclined at a small angle to that of the plate. The eye must be 
focussed on the edge of the plate, and the two halves of the field 
will only be equally dark when the principal plane of the plate is 
parallel to the primitive plane of polarization. Another plan, due 
to J. H. Poynting, is before analysation to impress unequal rotations 
upon the plane of polarization of the two parts of the field, either by 
means of an active medium, or by oblique transmission through 
glass plates. 

Elliptically polarized light is investigated by the reduction of the 
pencil to a state of plane polarization, and a determination of the 
resulting plane of polarization. One method consists in finding 
directly the elliptic constants of the vibration by means of a quarter- 
wave plate and an analyser; but the more usual plan is to measure 
the relative retardation of two rectangular components of the 
stream by a Babinet's compensator. This is a plate made of two 
equal wedges of quartz, that can be moved over one another so as to 
vary its thickness, and are cut so that the faces of the plate are 
parallel to the optic axis, which in the first wedge is perpendicular 
and in the second is parallel to the refracting edge. It is clear that 
direct transmission through the plate at a point where the thick- 
nesses of the prisms are di and <fe will introduce a relative retardation 
of (jtt MO) (didt) between streams polarized in planes parallel and 
perpendicular to the edges of the prisms, /> and it,, being the 
ordinary and the extraordinary refractive indices; and it is hence 
possible by an adjustment of the thickness to reduce elliptically 
polarized to plane polarization at an assigned point marked off by 
two parallel lines. A subsequent determination of the plane of 
polarization gives the ratio of the amplitudes of the vibrations in 
the component streams. 

For the observation and measurement of rings in crystals polari- 
scopes are constructed on the following principle. Light from an 
extended source passes after polarization through two convex 
systems of lenses, between which the crystalline plate is placed, and 
is then received in an eyepiece furnished with an analyser. If 
measurements be required, the plate must have a motion round an 
axis perpendicular to that of the optical systems, and also about an 
axis normal to its faces; the polarizer and analyser must also be 
capable of adjustment. All the rays through a given point in the 
first principal focal plane of the anterior system of lenses traverse 
the plate as a parallel beam and reunite at the corresponding point 
of the second focal plane of the posterior system, each in its passage 
being divided into two by the plate having a given relative retarda- 
tion. It is on this latter plane that the eyepiece must be focussed, 
and here the measuring web must be placed. The actual details 
of the systems of lenses depend upon the object for which the polari- 
scope is intended, and are given for some of the principal types of 
instruments in Th. Liebisch s Physikalische Kristallographie. 

Of polarimeters for the study of rotary polarization there are 
three principal forms. In Wild's polaristrobometer, light from a 
soda name, rendered parallel by a lens, is polarized by a Nicol's 
prism, and after traversing the space into which the active substance 
is to be inserted, falls on a Savart's plate placed in front of an astro- 
nomical telescope of low power, that contains in its eyepiece a 
Nicol's prism, which with the plate forms a Savart's analyser. A 
web in the focal plane of telescope marks the point in the field at 
which the bands are to be made to disappear; this is effected by 
turning the polarizer by means of a rack and pinion worked by an 
arm from the observer's end of the instrument. The polarizing 
prism is fixed at the centre of a circular disk, that has a scale on its 
circumference, which with a fixed vernier determines the positions 
of the polarizer, for which the bands disappear at the assigned point 
of the field. Laurent's polarimeter is a half-shade instrument. 
Soda light, first sifted by passage through a plate of potassium 
bichromate, traverses in succession a lens, a Nicol's prism, and a 
glass plate half covered with a half-wave plate of quartz, that is cut 
parallel to the optic axis and has its principal section inclined at a 
small angle to that of the prism. This combination forms a half- 
shade polarizer, the sensitiveness of which can be varied by a slight 
adjustment that can be given to the Nicol. The light is finally 
received in a Galilean telescope, containing an analyser and carried 
at the centre of a circular plate, that is graduated on its rim and can 
be turned in front of a vernier by means of a rack and pinion. The 
telescope must be focussed on the edge of the quartz plate, and in 
order that all points of the field may be illuminated by the same part 
of the source, the flame must be so placed that its image is thrown 
by the lens on the diaphragm of the object glass of the telescope. 
The chief features of SoleiT's saccharimeter are the biquartz and 
the compensator. The former consists of two semicircular pjates 
of quartz, perpendicular to the optic axis and of opposite rotations, 



placed so as to have a common diameter and having such a thickness 
that each rotates the plane of polarization of mean yellow light 
through the same multiple of 90. If then a stream of polarized 
white light traverse the biquartz, it is possible by an analyser to 
cut off the mean yellow light from each half of the field, and the whole 
will then have the sensitive tint; but a small change in the plane 
of analysation will give the one half a red and the other half a blue 
tone. A rotation of the plane of polarization is not, however, 
measured by an adjustment of the analyser, but by annulling the 
rotation with a compensator. This is made of two plates of quartz, 
cut normally to the optic axis and of opposite rotations, placed the 
one in front of the other : the thickness of the one plate is fixed, while 
that of the other can be varied, as it is formed of two equal prisms 
that can be moved over one another along their common face. 
When the plates are of equal thickness, their combined effect is 
nil, but by adjusting the second, a rotation in the one or the other 
direction may be introduced, a scale attached to one prism and a 
vernier to the other giving the thickness of the resultant quartz 

Clate. At one end of the instrument is placed a polarizer and the 
iquartz, and at the other a Galilean telescope, that must be focused 
on the edge of biquartz, having in front of its object-glass the com- 
pensator and an analyser that is regulated for producing the sensitive 
tint, when the plates of the compensator have the same thickness. 
The sensitiveness of the instrument depends upon the exactness of 
the sensitive tint, when the colour of the two halves of the field are 
the same, and this is liable to be upset by absorption in the substance 
under investigation. In order to correct this, the light after analysa- 
tion is passed through another plate of quartz and then the sensitive 
tint may be more or less restored by cutting off some colour, the same 
for the whole field, by a Nicol's prism placed in the eyepiece of the 
telescope. Soleil's saccharimeter, as its name implies, is designed 
for the study of solutions of sugar, and it is clear that it will only 
work satisfactorily with active media that have nearly the same 
rotary dispersion as quartz. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. A bibliography of the subjects treated in this 
article will be found at the end of the corresponding chapters of 
. Verdet's Lemons d'optique physique (1869); this work has been 
brought to a later date in the German translation by Karl Exner 
(Braunschweig, 1881); references to later papers will be found in 
J. Walker's The Analytical Theory of Light (1904). In addition to 
the above the reader may consult for the general subject of polariza- 
tion the following treatises: Th. Preston (3rd. ed. by C. J. Joly), 
The Theory of Light (1901) ; A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory 
of Optics (1904); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905); E. Mascart, 
Traite d'optique (1889); and for the phenomena exhibited by 
crystals F. Pockel, Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906); Th. Liebisch, 
Physikalische Kristallographie (1891). (J. WAL.*) 

POLAR REGIONS, a general term for the regions about the 
North or South Pole, otherwise called the Arctic or Antarctic 
regions. The ancients had no actual knowledge of mst or y O f 
the Polar regions. They had probably heard rumours Arctic 
of the light summer nights and the dark winter Exploration. 
nights in the north, as is shown by Homer's description of 
the Laestrygons having the short nights and the Cimmerians 
living in perpetual darkness. By astronomical speculations 
the Greeks had come to the conclusion that north of the 
Arctic Circle there must be midnight sun at midsummer and 
no sun at midwinter. The general view was that the Polar 
regions, north and south, belonged to the uninhabitable frozen 
zones; while according to a less scientific notion there was a 
happy region north of the north wind (Boreas), where the sun 
was always shining and the Hyperboreans led a peaceful life. 
The first traveller of history who probably approached the 
Arctic Circle and reached the land of the midnight 
sun was the Greek Pytheas (?..), from Massalia 
(Marseilles), who about 325 B.C. made a voyage of discovery 
northwards along the west coast of Europe, which is one of the 
most remarkable in history. He visited England, Scotland, 
the Scottish isles, and probably also northern Norway, which 
he called Thule. He moved the limits of the known world 
from the south coast of England northward to the Arctic Circle. 
It seems probable that he made two or perhaps several voyages. 
He also discovered the northern coasts of Germany as far east 
as Jutland. 

We hear of no other voyages towards the Arctic regions before 
the Irish monk Dicuil, writing about 825, mentions the discovery 
by Irish monks of a group of small islands (the Irish 
Faeroes), and a greater island (Iceland), which he Discovery 
calls Thule, where there was hardly any night at oficelind. 
midsummer. It is possible that Iceland and the Faeroes were 
inhabited by a small Celtic population before the Irish monks 



West 150 Longitude 



NORTH 
POLAR REGIONS 



Scale, 1:24,000,000 

English Miles 
50 100 150 zoo, 400 



Wftclt of Jeannette'881 -..., 

Hennatt*l.":C.mma 



:raiw/-- 

% ^S^sA^t-L' W~~ r T ri ' o" 



5aC ":* strait 

-tVi ^W ' ..-L O l ' r. 




kiritry Walker K. 



POLAR REGIONS 



939 



came thither. The fact that Irish monks lived in Iceland before 
the Norsemen settled there in the end of the gth century 
is verified by the Icelandic sagas. 

In his translation of Orosius, King Alfred inserts the interesting 
story of the first known really Arctic voyage, told him by the 
Norwegian Ottar (Alfred calls him Ohthere), who 
about 870 rounded the North Cape, sailed eastwards 
along the Murman coast and discovered the White Sea, where 
he reached the south coast of the Kola Peninsula and the bound- 
ary of the land of the Biarmians (Beormas). Ottar told King 
Alfred that "he chiefly went thither, in addition to the seeing 
of the country, on account of the walruses." 

After Ottar's time the king of Norway took possession of all 
land as far east as the White Sea and the land of the Biarmians, 
and the native " Finns " had to pay him tribute. Many voyages, 
mostly of hostile nature but also for trade purposes, were under- 
taken from Norway to the White Sea, and even kings went as 
far. It is told of King Eric, called Bloodyaxe, who died as king 
of York in England, that he made such a voyage, and fought 
with the Biarmians, about 920, and about 965 his son Harold 
Graafeld defeated the Biarmians and killed many people in a 
great battle near the river Dvina, where Archangel was built 
later. 

After having settled in Iceland in the end of the 9th century, 
the Norsemen soon discovered Greenland and settled there. 
The first who is reported to have seen the coast of Greenland 
was a Norwegian, Gunnbjorn Ulfsson, who on his way to Ice- 
land was storm-driven westwards. He came to some islands, 
afterwards called Gunnbjornskier, and saw a coast, but, without 
exploring the new land, he had evidently continued his way till 
he reached Iceland. The real discoverer and explorer 
of Greenland was the Norwegian, Eric the Red, 
who, with his father had settled in Iceland. As he and his 
men had there been declared outlaws for having killed several 
people they had to leave Iceland for three years, and he went 
westward to find the land which Gunnbjorn was reported to 
have seen. He explored the west coast of Greenland for three 
years, probably about 982-985. He then returned to Iceland, 
but founded the following year a colony in Greenland (?..). 
Many colonists followed, and two Norse settlements were formed, 
viz. the Eystrabygd (i.e. eastern settlement) on the south-eastern 
part of the Greenland west coast, between Cape Farewell and 
about 61 N. lat., where Eric the Red had his house, Brattalid, 
at the Eiriksfjord; and the Vestrabygd (i.e. western settlement) 
in the region of the present Godthaab district, between 63 and 
66 N. lat. The Norse settlers carried on their seal and whale- 
hunting still farther north along the west coast beyond the 
Arctic circle, and probably in the region of Disco Bay. A 
runic stone was found in a cairn on a small island in 72 55' N. 
lat. north of Upernivik, showing that Norsemen had been there. 
The stone probably dates from the I4th century. About 1267 
an expedition was sent northwards along the west coast and 
may possibly have reached some distance north of Upernivik. 
The last known communication between the Norse settle- 
ments in Greenland and Norway was in 1410, when some 
Icelanders returned, who four years previously had been 
storm-driven to Greenland. After that time we possess no 
reliable information about the fate of these settlements. When 
Greenland was rediscovered in the i6th century no descendants 
of the Norse settlers were found. The probability is that having 
gradually been cut off from all communications with Europe, 
the remaining settlers who had not returned to the motherland 
were obliged to adopt the Eskimo mode of life, which in those 
surroundings was far superior to the European, and by inter- 
marriage they would then soon be absorbed amongst the more 
numerous natives. There is evidence to show that an expedi- 
tion was probably sent from Denmark or Norway to Greenland 
in the latter part of the isth century (perhaps about 
ScoHls J 47 6 ) under Pining and Pothorst (by Purchas called 
"Punnus and Fothorse"); and perhaps with Johan 
Scolvus as pilot. It is probable that this expedition had inter- 
course with the natives of Greenland, and possibly even reached 



King 
Harold. 



Labrador, but it is unknown whether any remains of the Norse 
settlements were found on the Greenland west coast. 

It is reported by Adam of Bremen (about 1070) that the 
Norwegian king Harold Haardraade (in the nth century) made 
an expedition into the Arctic Sea (probably north- 
wards) in order to examine how far it extended, 
but we know nothing more about this voyage. 

The Icelandic annals report that a land called Svolbardi was 
discovered in 1194. The name means the cold side or coast. 
The land was, according to the sagas, situated s {tsbe 
four days' sailing from north-eastern Iceland north- 
wards in the Hafsbotn (i.e. the northern termination of the 
sea, which was supposed to end as a bay). There can be no 
doubt that this land was Spitsbergen. The Norsemen carried 
on seal, walrus and whale hunting, and it is believed on good 
ground that they extended their hunting expeditions eastwards 
as far as Novaya Zemlya and northwards to Spitsbergen. 

On his way to Greenland from Norway in the year 1000 
Leif Ericsson found America, probably Nova Scotia, which he 
called Wineland the Good. A few years later Thorfinn Karlsefni 
sailed from Greenland with three ships to make a settlement 
in the land discovered by Leif. They first came to Labrador, 
which they called Helluland, then to Newfoundland, which was 
called Markland (i.e. woodland), and then to Cape Breton and 
Nova Scotia (V inland; Wineland). After three years they had 
to give up the undertaking on account of hostilities with the 
natives, probably Red Indians, and they returned to Greenland 
about 1006. We know of no later expedition of the Norsemen 
that reached Greenland; it is stated that Eric Uppri, the first 
bishop of Greenland, went in 1121 to seek Vinland, but it is not 
related whether he ever reached it, and the probability is that he 
never returned. 

The Icelandic annals state that in 1347 a small Greenland 
ship which had sailed to Markland (Newfoundland) was after- 
wards storm-driven to Iceland with seventeen men. 
This is the last known voyage made by the Norse- Newfound* 
men of Greenland which with certainty reached Iaad - 
America. 

The discoveries of the old Norsemen extended over the north- 
ern seas from Novaya Zemlya in the east to Labrador, New- 
foundland and Nova Scotia in the west; they had visited all 
Arctic lands in these regions, and had explored the White Sea, 
the Barents Sea, the Spitsbergen and Greenland Sea, Davis 
Strait, and even some part of Baffin Bay. They were the first 
navigators in history who willingly left the coasts and sailed 
across the open ocean, and they crossed the Atlantic between 
Norway and America, thereby being the real discoverers of this 
ocean, as well as the pioneers in oceanic navigation. They 
were the teachers of the navigators of later centuries, and it is 
hardly an accident that the undertakings of England towards 
the west started from Bristol, where many Norwegians had 
settled, and which from the beginning of the I5th century had 
much trade with Iceland. 

John Cabot, sent out by the merchants of Bristol, rediscovered 
the American continent in 1497. He came to Cape Breton 
and Nova Scotia, probably the same land where Cabot 
Leif Ericsson had landed 500 years before. John 
Cabot started on a new expedition towards the west in 1498, 
but no more is known of this expedition, not even whether 
Cabot returned or not. There is no reliable evidence to prove 
that John Cabot or his son Sebastian ever discovered Labrador, 
as has been generally believed. 

The Portuguese Caspar Corte-Real rediscovered Greenland 
in 1500. He sailed along its east coast without being able to 

land on account of the ice. Whether he visited the 

_ Corte-Real. 

west coast is uncertain. In 1501 he made a new 

expedition when he also rediscovered Newfoundland. One of 
his ships returned home to Lisbon, but he himself and his ship 
disappeared. His brother went in search of him the following 
year, but was heard of no more. 

Cabot's and Corte-Real's discoveries were followed by the 
development of the Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries, 



940 



POLAR REGIONS 



Sebastian 
Cabot. 



and a whole fleet of English, Portuguese, Basque and Breton 
fishermen was soon met with in these waters, and they probably 
went along the Labrador coast northward as far as Hudson 
Strait, without having left any report of their discoveries. 

It is believed, on good grounds, that expeditions (combined 
English-Portuguese) were sent out to the newly discovered 
regions from Bristol in 1501 and 1502. It is unknown what 
their discoveries were, but they may possibly have sailed along 
the coast of Labrador. 

It is possible that John Cabot's son, Sebastian Cabot, made 
an Arctic expedition in 1508-1509, in search of a short passage 
to China towards the north-west, and later, in 1521, 
King Henry VIII. made an attempt to persuade 
the merchants of London to support him in sending 
out an expedition, under Sebastian Cabot, to the north-western 
countries. It is uncertain whether it ever started, but it is 
certain that it achieved nothing of importance. 

John Rut sailed from Plymouth in 1527, in order to seek 
a passage to China through the Arctic seas towards the north- 
west, following the suggestion of Robert Thorne of 
Bristol. He met ice in 53 N. lat. and returned to 
Newfoundland. Several other expeditions were sent out from 
various countries towards the north-west and west during this 
period, but no discoveries of importance are known to have 
been made in the Arctic regions. 

There are rumours that the Portuguese, as early as 1484, 
under King John II., had sent out an expedition towards Novaya 
^ Zemlya in search of a north-east passage to India. 
The Genovese Paolo Centurione probably proposed 
to King Henry VIII. of England, in 1525, to make an expedition 
in search of such a passage to India north of Russia, and there 
is evidence to show that there had been much talk about an 
undertaking of this kind in England and at the English court 
during the following period, as it was hoped that a new market 
might be found for English merchandise, especially cloth. 
But it led to nothing until 1553, when Sebastian Cabot was one 
of the chief promoters. Three ships and 112 men under Sir 
Will hh Hugh Willoughby sailed from Ratcliffe on the loth 
' y ' (20th) May 1553. Richard Chancelor commanded 
one of the ships, which was separated from the two others in a 
gale off northern Norway on the 3rd (i3th) August. Willoughby, 
after having sighted land in various places, probably Kolguev 
Island, where they landed, the coast near the Pechora river 
and Kanin Nos, came on the I4th (24th) September to a good 
harbour on the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula. His 
one ship being leaky, Willoughby resolved to winter there, but 
he and all his men perished. Chancelor, after his 
separation from the two other ships, rounded the 
North Cape, to which he or his sailing-master, Stephen Borough, 
gave this name. He reached Vardohus, and after having waited 
there in vain for Willoughby, he followed the route of the 
Norsemen to the White Sea and reached the bay of St Nicholas, 
with a monastery of this name, near the mouth of the Dvina 
river, where Archangel was built later. Chancelor undertook a 
journey to Moscow, made arrangements for commercial inter- 
course with Russia, and returned next year with his ship, 
which was, however, plundered by the Flemings, but he reached 
London safely with a letter from the tsar. In spite of the 
disaster of Willoughby and his men this expedition became of 
fundamental importance for the development of English trade. 
Chancelor's success and his so-called discovery of the passage to 
the White Sea, which was well known to the Norwegian traders 
in that region, proved to people in England the practical 
utility of polar voyages. It led to a charter being granted to the 
Association of Merchant Adventurers, also called the Muscovy 
or Russia Company, and gave a fresh impulse to Arctic dis- 
covery. Chancelor undertook a new expedition to the White 
Sea and Moscow in 1555; on his way home in the following year 
he was wrecked on the coast of Scotland and perished. 

In 1556 Stephen Borough (Burrough), who had served with 
Chancelor, was sent out by the Muscovy Company in a small 
pinnace called the " Search-thrift, " in order to try to reach the 



river Ob, of which rumours had been heard. Novaya Zemlya, 
Vaigach Island, and the Kara Strait leading into the Kara 
Sea, were discovered. Borough kept a careful 
journal of his voyage. In 1580 the company fitted Boro< *- 
out two vessels under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, with 
orders to sail eastwards north of Russia and Asia to the lands 
of the emperor of Cathay (China). They penetrated 
through the Kara Strait into the Kara Sea; they Pe * 

possibly saw the west coast of Yalmal, but met with much ice 
and were compelled to return. The two ships were separated 
on the way home, Pet reached London on December 26th in 
safety; Jackman wintered with his ship in Norway and sailed 
thence in February, but was never heard of again. 

About 1574 the Portuguese probably made an attempt to 
find the north-west passage under Vasqueanes Corte-Real. 
They reached "a great entrance," which may have 
been Hudson Strait, and they "passed above twentie 
leagues" into it, "without all impediment of ice," 
"but their victailes fayling them, . . . they returned backe 
agayne with ioy." 

After the expeditions in search of the north-east passage 
achieved the success of opening up a profitable trade with 
Russia, via the White Sea, new life was inspired in the under- 
takings of England on the sea, at the same time the power of 
the Hanseatic merchants, called the Easterlings, was much 
reduced. It was therefore only natural that the plan of seeking 
a north-west passage to China and India should again come to 
the front in England, and it was much discussed. It was Sir 
Martin Frobisher who opened that long series of 
expeditions all of which during three hundred years 
were sent from England in search of the north-west passage 
until the last expedition, which actually accomplished it, sailed 
from Norway. " Being persuaded of a new and neerer passage to 
Cataya" (China) towards the north- west, Frobisher "determined 
and resolved wyth himselfe, to go make full proofe thereof . . . 
or else never to retourne againe, knowing this to be the onely 
thing of the worlde that was left yet undone, whereby a notable 
mind mighte be made famous and fortunate." After having 
attempted in vain for fifteen years to find support for his enter- 
prise, he at last obtained assistance from Ambrose Dudley, earl 
of Warwick, and through him the interest of Queen Elizabeth 
was also secured. The Muscovy Company was now obliged to 
give a licence for the voyage in 1574, and the necessary money 
was found by London merchants. Aided especially by Michael 
Lok, an influential merchant and diligent student of geography, 
Frobisher sailed, on the 7th (i7th) of June 1576, from Deptford 
with two small vessels of 20 and 25 tons, called the" Gabriel" and 
"Michael," and a small pinnace of 10 tons; the crews amounted 
to 35 men all told. On the 8th (i8th) of July they lost sight of 
the pinnace, which was seen no more. On the nth (2ist) of July 
they sighted a high, rugged land, but could not approach it for 
ice. This was the east coast of Greenland, but, misled by his 
charts, Frobisher assumed it to be the fictitious Frisland, which 
was the fabrication of a Venetian, Niccolo Zeno, who in 1558 
published a spurious narrative and map (which he pretended 
to have found) as the work of an ancestor and his brother in 
the I4th century. The Zeno map was chiefly fabricated on 
the basis of a map by the Swede Olaus Magnus of 1537 and the 
map by the Dane Claudius Clavus of the isth century. It was 
accepted at the time as a work of high authority, and its fictitious 
names and islands continued to appear on subsequent maps for 
at least a century, and have puzzled both geographers at home 
and explorers in the field. These islands had also been intro- 
duced on the charts of Mercator of 1569 and of Ortelius of 1570, 
which were probably used by Frobisher. Evidently frightened 
by the sight of the great quantities of ice off the Greenland 
coast, one ship, the " Michael," left him secretly, " and re- 
tourned home wyth greate reporte that he was cast awaye. " 
The gallant Frobisher continued his voyage towards the north- 
west in the " Gabriel " alone, although his mast was sprung, his 
topmast blown overboard, and his "mizen-mast" had had to be 
cut away in a gale. On the 29th of July (Aug. 8) he sighted high 



POLAR REGIONS 



94 1 



land which he called Queen Elizabeth's Foreland. This was 
the southern part of Baffin Land (Resolution Island) in about 
62 N. lat. He was stopped by ice, but nearly two weeks later 
he reached the coast and entered an inlet which he considered 
to be the strait of the north-west passage, and he gave it his own 
name (it is now Frobisher Bay on Baffin Land). The land was 
called "Meta Incognita." Frobisher was not well prepared 
for going much farther, and after his boat with five men had 
disappeared he returned home, where, unfortunately, some 
"gold-finders" in London took it into their heads that a piece 
of dark heavy stone brought back contained gold ore. This 
caused great excitement; it was now considered much more 
important to collect this precious ore than to find the north-west 
passage, and much larger expeditions were sent out in the two 
following years. As many as fifteen vessels formed the third 
expedition of 1578, and it was the intention to form a colony 
with a hundred men in the gold land, but this scheme was 
given up. Frobisher came into Hudson Strait, which was at 
first thought to be Frobisher Strait and therefore called Mistaken 
Strait. There was an open sea without any land or ice 
towards the west, and Frobisher was certain that he could sail 
through to the " Mare del Sur" (Pacific Ocean) and " Kathaya," 
but his first goal was the " gold mines," and the vessels returned 
home with full loads of the ore. One of them, a buss (small 
ship) of Bridgwater, called the "Emmanuel," reported that on 
her voyage home she had first sighted Frisland on the 8th 
(i8th) of September, but four days later she had sighted another 
land in the Atlantic and sailed along it till the following day; they 
reckoned its southern end to be in about 57! N. lat. This land 
soon found its place on maps and charts south-west of Iceland 

under the name of Buss Island, and as it was never 
BUSS." seen a {? am it was after 1745 called "the sunken land 

of Buss." The explanation is that, misled by the 
maps, Frobisher assumed Greenland to be Frisland of the Zeno 
map and Baffin Land was afterwards assumed to be the east 
coast of Greenland. When the buss on her way home sighted 
Greenland in about 62 N., she therefore thought it to be 
Frisland, but when she four days later again sighted land 
near Cape Farewell and her dead reckoning probably had 
carried her about two degrees too far south, she naturally 
considered this to be a new land, which puzzled geographers 
and navigators for centuries. Owing to a similar mistake, not 
by Frobisher, but by later cartographers and especially by Davis, 
it was afterwards assumed that Frobisher Strait (and also 
Mistaken Strait) was not in Baffin Land but on the east coast 
of Greenland, where they remained on the maps till the i8th 
century. 

John Davis, who made the next attempt to discover a north- 
west passage, was one of the most scientific seamen of that age. 

He made three voyages in three successive years 

aided and fitted out by William Sanderson and other 
merchants. Sailing from Dartmouth on the 7th (i?th) of June 
1 585, with two ships, he sighted on the 2oth (aoth) of July " the 
most deformed, rocky and mountainous land, that ever we sawe." 
He named it the Land of Desolation, although he understood 
that he had rediscovered " the shore which in ancient time 
was called Greenland." It was its east coast. He visited 
the west coast, where Frobisher had also landed mistaking 
it for Frisland. Davis anchored in a place called Gilbert's 
Sound in 64 10' (near the present Danish settlement of Godthaab) 
and had much intercourse with the Eskimo. He then, crossing 
the strait which bears his name, traced a portion of its western 
shore southwards from about 66 40' N. lat. and came into Cum- 
berland Sound, which he thought to be the strait of the north-west 
passage, but returned home on account of contrary winds. 
In the second voyage (with four ships) Davis traced the western 
shore of Davis Strait still farther southwards, and sailed along 
the coast of Labrador. In the third voyage (with three ships) 
in 1587 he advanced far up his own strait along the west coast 
of Greenland in a small leaky pinnace, the "Ellin," and reached 
a lofty granite island in 72 41' N. lat., which he named Hope 
Sanderson. He met with ice in the sea west of this place, but 



Davis. 



reported that there was not " any yce towards the north, but 
a great sea, free, large, very salt and blew, and of an unsearche- 
able depth." By contrary winds, however, he was prevented 
from sailing in that direction. He sailed into Cumberland Sound, 
but now found that there was no passage. He also passed on 
his way southwards the entrance to Frobisher Strait, which 
he named Lumley Inlet, and Hudson Strait, without under- 
standing the importance of the latter. When Davis came to 
Labrador, where his two larger ships were to have waited for 
him, they had sailed to England. The little " Ellin " now struck 
a sunken rock and sprung a leak, which was repaired, and he 
crossed the Atlantic in this small leaky craft. He still believed 
in the existence of a passage through Davis Strait, but could 
find no support for another Arctic voyage. Davis was not the 
first to discover this strait; it was well-known to the Norsemen. 
Caspar Corte-Real had possibly also been there, and Frobisher 
had during his voyages crossed its southern part every year. 
The result of Davis's discoveries are shown on the Molyneux 
globe, which is now in the library of the Middle Temple; they 
are also shown on the " New Map " in Hakluyt's Principal 
Navigations (1598-1600). When Davis was trying to reconcile 
his discoveries with the previous ones, especially those of 
Frobisher, he made fatal mistakes as mentioned above. 

As early as 1565, by the intervention of a certain Philip 
Winterkonig, an exile from Vardohus in Norway, Dutch mer- 
chants formed a settlement in Kola, and in 1578 ^^ , 
two Dutch ships anchored in the mouth of the river 
Dvina, and a Dutch settlement was established where Archangel 
was built a few years later. The leading man in these under- 
takings was Olivier Brunei, who is thus the founder of the 
White Sea trade of the Dutch; he was also their first Arctic 
navigator. He had travelled both overland and along the coast 
to Siberia and reached the river Ob; he had also visited Kostin 
Shar on Novaya Zemlya. He propounded plans for the dis- 
covery of the north-east passage to China, and in 1581 he went 
from Russia to Antwerp to prepare an expedition. He probably 
started with one ship in 1582, on the first Arctic expedition 
which left the Netherlands. Little is known of its fate except 
that it ended unsuccessfully with the wreck of the ship in the 
shallow Pechora Bay, possibly after a vain attempt to penetrate 
through the Yugor Strait into the Kara Sea. In 1583 we find 
Olivier Brunei in Bergen trying to organize a Norwegian under- 
taking, evidently towards the north-east, but it is uncertain 
whether it led to anything. 

The Dutch, however, had begun to see the importance of a 
northern route to China and India, especially as the routes 
through the southern seas were jealously guarded by the Spani- 
ards and Portuguese, and after 1584 all trade with Portugal, 
where the Dutch got Indian goods, was forbidden. By Brunei's 
efforts their attention had been directed towards the north-east 
passage, but it was not until 1594 that a new expedition was 
sent out, one of the promoters being Peter Plancius, the 
learned cpsmographer of Amsterdam. Four ships sailed from 
Huysdunen on the 5th (isth) of June 1594. Two of these 
ships from Amsterdam were under the command of Willem 
Barents, who sighted Novaya Zemlya, north of Baren<s 
Matochkin Shar, on the 4th (i4th) of July; and aa aNay. 
from that date until the ist (nth) of August 
Barents continued perseveringly to seek a way through 
the ice-floes, and discovered the whole western coast as far 
as the Great Ice Cape, the latitude of which he, with his 
admirable accuracy, determined to be 77 N. Having reached 
the Orange Islands at the north-west extremity, he decided 
to return. The two other ships under the command of Cornells 
Nay had discovered the Yugor Strait, through which they sailed 
into the Kara Sea on the ist (nth) of August. They reached 
the west coast of Yalmal; being sure that they had passed the 
mouth of the river Ob, and finding the sea open, they thought 
they had found a free passage to Japan and China, and returned 
home on the nth (2ist) of August. A new expedition was 
made the following year, 1595, with seven ships under the 
command of Cornelis Nay, as admiral, and Willem Barents as 



942 



POLAR REGIONS 



chief pilot, but it merely made several unsuccessful attempts 
to enter the Kara Sea through the Yugor Strait. The third 
expedition was more important. Two vessels sailed from 
Amsterdam on the loth (zoth) of May 1596, under the command 
of Jacob van Heemskerck and Corneliszoon Rijp. Barents 
accompanied Heemskerck as pilot, and Gerrit de Veer, the 
historian of the voyage, was on board as mate. The masses 
of ice in the straits leading to the Sea of Kara, and the 
impenetrable nature of the pack near Novaya Zemlya, had 
suggested the advisability of avoiding the land and, by keeping 
a northerly course, of seeking a passage in the open sea. They 
sailed northwards, and on the pth (ipth) of June discovered 
Bear Island. Continuing on the same course they sighted a 
mountainous snow-covered land in about 80 N. lat., soon 
afterwards being stopped by the polar pack ice. This important 
discovery was named Spitsbergen, and was believed to be a 
part of Greenland. Arriving at Bear Island again on the ist of 
July, Rijp parted company, while Heemskerck and Barents 
proceeded eastward, intending to pass round the northern 
extreme of Novaya Zemlya. On the 26th of August (Sept. 5) 
they reached Ice Haven, after roimding the northern 
extremity of the land. Here they wintered in a house built 
out of driftwood and planks from the 'tween decks and the 
deck-house of the vessel. In the spring they made their way 
in boats to the Lapland coast; but Barents died during the 
voyage. This was the first time that an arctic winter was 
successfully faced. The voyages of Barents stand in the first 
rank among the polar enterprises of the i6th century. They 
led to flourishing whale and seal fisheries which long enriched 
the Netherlands. 

The English enterprises were continued by the Muscovy 
Company, and by associations of patriotic merchants of London; 

Wa mouth anc ^ even tne ^ ast India Company sent an expedition 
' under Captain Way mouth in 1602 to seek for a 
passage by the opening seen by Davis, but it had no success. 

The best servant of the Muscovy Company in the work of 
polar discovery was Henry Hudson. His first voyage was 
Hudson undertaken in 1607, when he discovered the most 
northern known point of the east coast of Greenland 
in 73 N. named "Hold with Hope," and examined the ice 
between Greenland and Spitsbergen, probably reaching Hakluyt's 
Headland in 79 50' N. On his way home he discovered 
the island now called Jan Mayen, which he named " Hudson's 
Tutches." In his second expedition, during the season of 1608, 
Hudson examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen and 
Novaya Zemlya. In his third voyage he was employed by the 
Dutch East India Company; he again approached Novaya 
Zemlya, but was compelled to return westwards, and he explored 
the coasts of North America, discovering the Hudson river. 
In 1610 he entered Hudson Strait, and discovered the great bay 
which bears and immortalizes his name. He was obliged to 
winter there, undergoing no small hardships. On his way 
home his crew mutinied and set him, his little son and some 
sick men adrift in a boat, and the explorer perished in the seas 
he had opened up. 

The voyages of Hudson led immediately to the Spitsbergen 
whale fishery. From 1609 to 1612 Jonas Poole made four 
Spitsbergen voyages for the prosecution of this lucrative business, 
Whale and he was followed by Fotherby, Baffin, Joseph, 
ery - and Edge. These bold seamen, while in the pursuit 
of whales, added considerably to the knowledge of the archi- 
pelago of islands known under the name of Spitsbergen, and 
in 1617 Captain Edge discovered an island to the eastward, 
which he named Wyche's Land. 

About the same period the kings of Denmark began to 
send expeditions for the rediscovery of the lost Greenland 
Danish c lny. In 1605 Christian IV. sent out three ships, 
Voyages, under the Englishmen Cunningham and Hall and 
a Dane named Lindenov, which reached the western 
coast of Greenland and had much intercourse with the Eskimo. 
Other expeditions followed in 1606-1607. 

Meanwhile, the merchant adventurers of London continued 



to push forward the western discovery. Sir Thomas Button, 
in command of two ships, the "Resolution" and "Discovery," 
sailed from England in May 1612. He entered 
Hudson Bay, crossed to its western shore, and 
wintered at the mouth of a river in 57 10' N. which was named 
Nelson river after the master of the ship, who died and was 
buried there. Next year Button explored the shore of Southamp- 
ton Island as far as 65 N., and returned home in the autumn 
of 1613. An expedition under Captain Gibbons despatched 
in 1614 to Hudson Bay was a failure; but in 1615 Robert Bylot 
as master and William Baffin as pilot and navigator in the 
"Discovery" examined the coasts of Hudson Strait and to the 
north of Hudson Bay, and Baffin, who was the equal of Davis as 
a scientific seaman, made many valuable observa- Baffin 
tions. In 1616 Bylot and Baffin again set out in the 
"Discovery." Sailing up Davis Strait they passed that navi- 
gator's farthest point at Sanderson's Hope, and sailed round the 
great channel with smaller channels leading from it which has 
been known ever since as Baffin Bay. Baffin named the most 
northern opening Smith Sound, after the first governor of the East 
India Company, and the munificent promoter of the voyage, 
Sir Thomas Smith. Lancaster Sound and Jones Sound were 
named after other promoters and friends of the voyage. The 
fame of Baffin mainly rests upon the discovery of a great channel 
extending north from Davis Strait; but it was unjustly dimmed 
for many years, owing to the omission of Purchas to publish 
the navigator's tabulated journal and map in his great collection 
of voyages. It was two hundred years before a new expedition 
sailed north through Baffin Bay. It may be mentioned, as an 
illustration of the value of these early voyages to modern science, 
that Professor Hansteen of Christiania made use of Baffin's 
magnetic observations in the compilation of his series of 
magnetic maps. In 1619 Denmark sent out an expedition, 
under the command of Jens Munk, in search of the north-west 
passage, with two ships and 64 men. They reached the west 
coast of Hudson Bay, where they wintered near Churchill river, 
but all died with the exception of one man, a boy, and Munk 
himself, who managed to sail home in the smallest ship. 

In 1631 two expeditions were despatched, one by the mer- 
chants of London, the other by those of Bristol. In the London 
ship "Charles" Luke Fox explored the western 
side of Hudson Bay as far as the place called " Sir 
Thomas Roe's Welcome." In August he en- 
countered Captain James and the Bristol -ship "Maria" in the 
middle of Hudson Bay, and went north until he reached 
"North-west Fox his farthest," in 66 47' N. He then returned 
home and wrote an entertaining narrative. Captain James had 
to winter off Charlton Island, in James Bay, the southern extreme 
of Hudson Bay, and did not return until October 1632. Another 
English voyager, Captain Wood, attempted, without success, to 
discover a north-east passage in 1676 through the sea round 
the North Pole, but was wrecked on the coast of Novaya Zemlya. 

The 1 6th and i7th centuries were periods of discovery and 
daring enterprise. Hudson Strait and Bay, Davis Strait and 
Baffin Bay, the icy seas from Greenland to Spitsbergen and 
from Spitsbergen to Novaya Zemlya had all been explored; 
but much more was not discovered than had been well known 
to the Norsemen five or six centuries earlier. The following 
century was rather a period of reaping the results of former 
efforts than of discovery. It saw the settlement of the Hudson 
Bay Territory and of Greenland, and the development of the 
whale and seal fisheries. 

The Hudson's Bay Company was incorporated in 1670, and 
Prince Rupert sent out Zachariah Gillan, who wintered at 
Rupert river. At first very slow progress was made. A voyage 
undertaken by Mr Knight, nearly 80 years old, who had been 
appointed governor of the factory at Nelson river, was unfortu- 
nate, as his two ships were lost and the crews _ 
perished. This was in 1719. In 1722 John Scroggs 
was sent from Churchill river in search of the missing ships, 
but merely entered Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome and returned. 
His reports were believed to offer decisive proofs of the existence 



POLAR REGIONS 



943 



of a passage into the Pacific; and a naval expedition was de- 
spatched under the command of Captain Christopher Middleton, 
Middietoa consistm g of the " Discovery " pink and the " Fur- 
nace " bomb. Wintering in Churchill river, Middle- 
ton started in July 1 742 and discovered Wager river and Repulse 
Bay. In 1746 Captain W. Moor made another voyage in 
Moor. tnc same direction, and explored the Wager Inlet. 
Later in the century the Hudson's Bay Company's 
servants made some important land journeys to discover the 
shores of the American polar ocean. From 176910 1772 Samuel 
Hearne descended the Coppermine River to the polar sea; and 
in 1789 Alexander Mackenzie discovered the mouth of the 
Mackenzie river. (For the establishment of the modern Danish 
settlements in Greenland, see GREENLAND.) 

The countrymen of Barents vied with the countrymen of 
Hudson in the perilous calling which annually brought fleets 
Dutch of ships to the Spitsbergen seas during the i7th and 
Whale i8th centuries. The Dutch had their large summer 
Fishery. station for boiling down blubber at Smeerenberg, 
near the northern extreme of the west coast of Spitsbergen. 
Captain Vlamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern 
end of Novaya Zemlya as the winter quarters of Barents. In 
1700 Captain Cornelis Roule is said by Witsen to have sailed 
north in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya and to have seen 
an extent of 40 m. of broken land, but Theunis Ys, one of the 
most experienced Dutch navigators, believed that no vessel 
had ever been north of the 82nd parallel. In 1671 Frederick 
Martens Martens, a German surgeon, visited Spitsbergen, and 
wrote the best account of its physical features and 
natural history that existed previous to the time of Scoresby. 
In 1707 Captain Cornelis Gilies went far to the eastward 
along the northern shores of Spitsbergen, and saw land to 
the east in 80 N., which has since been known as Gilies Land. 
The Dutch geographical knowledge of Spitsbergen was embodied 
in the famous chart of the Van Keulens (father and son), 1700- 
1728. The Dutch whale fishery continued to flourish until the 
French Revolution, and formed a splendid nursery for training 
the seamen of the Netherlands. From 1700 to 1775 the whaling 
fleet numbered 100 ships and upwards. In 1719 the Dutch 
opened a whale fishery in Davis Strait, and continued to frequent 
the west coast of Greenland for upwards of sixty years from that 
time. 

The most flourishing period of the British fishery in the Spits- 
bergen and Greenland seas was from 1752 to 1820. Bounties 
British of 403. per ton were granted by act of parliament; 
whale and in 1778 as many as 255 sail of whalers were 
Fishery. employed. In order to encourage discovery 5000 
was offered in 1776 to the first ship that should sail beyond the 
89 th parallel (16 Geo. III. c. 6). Among the numerous daring 
Stores* an( ^ a ^ e wna li n S captains, William Scoresby takes 
the first rank, alike as a successful whaler and a 
scientific observer. His admirable Account of the Arctic Regions 
is still a textbook for all students of the subject. In 1806 he 
succeeded in advancing his ship " Resolution " as far north as 
81 12' 42". In 1822 he forced his way through the ice which 
encumbers the approach to land on the east coast of Greenland, 
and surveyed that coast from 75 down to 69 N., a distance 
of 400 m. Scoresby combined the closest attention to his 
business with much valuable scientific work and no insignificant 
amount of exploration. 

The Russians, after the acquisition of Siberia, succeeded in 
gradually exploring the whole of the northern shores of that vast 
Russians re 8' on - ^ n l( M-S a Cossack named Simon Dezhneff 
is said to have equipped a boat expedition in the 
river Kolyma, passed through the strait since named after 
Bering, and reached the Gulf of Anadyr. In 1738 a voyage was 
made by two Russian officers from Archangel to the mouths of 
the Ob and the Yenisei. Efforts were then made to effect a 
passage from the Yenisei to the Lena. In 1735 Lieut. T. 
Chelyuskin Chelyuskin got as far as 77 25' N. near the cape which 
'bears his name; and in 1743 he rounded that most 
northern point of Siberia in sledges, in 77 41' N. Captain 



Phipps. 



Vitus Bering, a Dane, was appointed by Peter the Great to 
command an expedition in 1725. Two vessels were built at 
Okhotsk, and in July 1728 Bering ascertained the BeHa 
existence of a strait between Asia and America. 
In 1740 Bering was again employed. He sailed from Okhotsk 
in a vessel called the " St Paul," with G. W. Steller on board as 
naturalist. Their object was to discover the American side ot 
the strait, and they sighted the magnificent peak named by 
Bering Mt St Elias. The Aleutian Islands were also explored, 
but the ship was wrecked on an island named after the ill-fated 
discoverer, and scurvy broke out amongst his crew. Bering 
himself died there on the 8th of December 1741. 

Thirty years after the death of Bering a Russian merchant 
named Liakhoff discovered the New Siberia or Liakhoff Islands, 
and in 1771 he obtained the exclusive right from the 
empress Catherine to dig there for fossil ivory. 
These islands were more fully explored by an officer named 
Hedenstrom in 1809, and seekers for fossil ivory annually resorted 
to them. A Russian expedition under Captain Chitschakoff, 
sent to Spitsbergen in 1 764, was only able to attain a latitude of 
80 30' N. 

From 1773 onwards to the end of the igth century the objects 
of polar exploration were mainly the acquisition of knowledge 
in various branches of science. It was on these grounds that 
Daines Barrington and the Royal Society induced the British 
government to undertake arctic exploration once more. The 
result was that two vessels, the "Racehorse " and " Carcass " 
bombs, were commissioned, under the command of 
Captain J. C. Phipps. The expedition sailed from the 
Nore on the 2nd of June 1773, and was stopped by the ice to the 
north of Hakluyt Headland, the north-western point of Spits- 
bergen. Phipps reached the Seven Islands and discovered Walden 
Island; but beyond this point progress was impossible. When 
he attained their highest latitude in 80 48' N., north of the 
central part of the Spitsbergen group, the ice at the edge of 
the pack was 24 ft. thick. Captain Phipps returned to England 
in September 1773. Five years afterwards James Coot 
Cook received instructions to proceed northward 
from Kamchatka and search for a north-east or north-west 
passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. In accordance with 
these orders Captain Cook, during his third voyage, reached 
Cape Prince of Wales, the western extremity of America, on 
the gth of August 1778. His ships, the " Resolution " and 
" Discovery," arrived at the edge of the ice, after passing Bering 
Strait, in 70 41' N. On the i7th of August the farthest 
point seen on the American side was named Icy Cape. On the 
Asiatic side Cook's survey extended to Cape North. In 
the following year Captain Clerke, who had succeeded to the 
command, made another voyage, but his ship was beset in 
the ice, and so much damaged that further attempts were 
abandoned. 

The wars following the French Revolution put an end to voyages 
of discovery till, after the peace of 1815, north polar research 
found a powerful and indefatigable advocate in Sir 
John Barrow. Through his influence a measure for 
promoting polar discovery became law hr 1818 (58 Geo. III. 
c. 20), by which a reward of 20,000 was offered for making the 
north-west passage, and of 5000 for reaching 89 N., while the 
commissioners of longitude were empowered to award pro- 
portionate sums to those who might achieve certain portions of 
such discoveries. In 1817 the icy seas were reported by Captain 
Scoresby and others to be remarkably open, and this circumstance 
enabled Barrow to obtain sanction for the despatch of two 
expeditions, each consisting of two whalers one to attempt 
discoveries by way of Spitsbergen and the other by Baffin Bay. 
The vessels for the Spitsbergen route, the " Dorothea " and 
" Trent," were commanded by Captain David Buchan and 
Lieut. John Franklin, and sailed in April 1818. Driven 
into the pack by a heavy swell from the south, both 
vessels were severely nipped, and had to return to England. 
The other expedition, consisting of the " Isabella " and 
" Alexander," commanded by Captain John Ross and Lieut. 



944 



POLAR REGIONS 



Edward Parry, followed in the wake of Baffin's voyage of 1616. 
Ross sailed from England in April 1818. The chief merit of his 
voyage was that it vindicated Baffin's accuracy as a discoverer. 
Its practical result was that the way was shown to a lucrative 
fishery in the " North Water " of Baffin Bay, which continued 
to be frequented by a fleet of whalers every year. Captain Ross 
thought that the inlets reported by Baffin were merely bays, while 
the opinion of his second in command was that a wide opening 
to the westward existed through the Lancaster Sound of Baffin. 

Parry was selected to command a new expedition in the 
following year. His two vessels, the " Hecla " and " Griper, " 
Parry's passed through Lancaster Sound, the continuation 
First and of which was named Barrow Strait, and advanced 
Second westward, with an archipelago on the right, since 
Voyages. kn Own as the Parry Islands. He observed a wide 
opening to the north, which he named Wellington Channel, and 
sailed onwards for 300 m. to Melville Island. He was stopped 
by the impenetrable polar pack of vast thickness which surrounds 
the archipelago to the north of the American continent, and was 
obliged to winter in a harbour on the south coast of Melville 
Island. Parry's hygienic arrangements during the winter were 
judicious, and the scientific results of his expedition were valu- 
able. The vessels returned in October 1820; and a fresh ex- 
pedition in the " Fury " and " Hecla," again under the command 
of Captain Parry, sailed from the Nore on the 8th of May 1821, 
and passed their first winter on the coast of the newly discovered 
Melville Peninsula in 66 n' N. Still persevering, Parry passed 
his second winter among the Eskimo at Igloolik in 69 20' N., 
and discovered a channel leading westward from the head of 
Hudson Bay, which he named Fury and Hecla Strait. The 
expedition returned in the autumn of 1823. Meantime Parry's 
Franklin's friend Franklin had been employed in attempts to 
First reach by land the northern shores of America, 

Journey, hitherto only touched at two points by Hearne and 
Mackenzie. Franklin went out in 1819, with Dr John Richard- 
son, George Back and Robert Hood. They landed at York 
factory, and proceeded to the Great Slave Lake. In August of 
the following year they started for the Coppermine river, and, 
embarking on it, reached its mouth on the i8th of July 1821. 
From that point 550 m. of coast-line were explored, the 
extreme point being called Cape Turnagain. Great sufferings, 
from starvation and cold, had to be endured during the return 
journey; but eventually Franklin, Richardson and Back arrived 
safely at Fort Chippewyan. 

It was thought desirable that an attempt should be made to 
connect the Cape Turnagain of Franklin with the discoveries 
Parry's made by Parry during his second voyage; but the 
Third first effort, under Captain Lyon in the " Griper," was 
Voyage. unsuccessful. In 1824 three combined attempts were 
organized. While Parry again entered by Lancaster Sound and 
pushed down a great opening he had seen to the south 
named Prince Regent Inlet, Captain Beechey was to enter 
Bering Strait, and Franklin was to make a second journey by 
land to the shores of Arctic America. Parry was unfortunate, 
but Beechey entered Bering Strait in the " Blossom " in August 
1826, and extended our knowledge as far as Point Barrow 
Franklin's in 71 23' 30" N. lat. Franklin, in 1825-1826, de- 
Second scended the Mackenzie river to its mouth, and ex- 
Joumey. pi ore{ j the coast for 374 m. to the westward; while 
Dr Richardson discovered the shore between the mouths of the 
Mackenzie and Coppermine, and sighted land to the northward, 
named by him Wollaston Land, the dividing channel being 
called Union and Dolphin Strait. They returned in the autumn 
of 1826. 

Work was also being done in the Spitsbergen and Barents 

Seas. From 1821 to 1824 the Russian Captain Lutke was 

^ surveying the west coast of Novaya Zemlya as far as 

Cape Nassau, and examining the ice of the adjacent 

sea. In May 1823 the " Griper " sailed, under the command 

Oaverin ^ Captain Clavering, to convey Captain Sabine to 

* the polar regions in order to make pendulum 

observations. Clavering pushed through the ice in 75 30' N., 



Oraan. 



The Rosses. 



and succeeded in reaching the east coast of Greenland, where 
observations were taken on Pendulum Island. He charted the 
coast-line from 76 to 72 N. 

In Parry's attempt to reach the pole from the northern coast 
of Spitsbergen by means of sledge-boats (see PARRY), the highest 
latitude reached was 82 45' N., and the attempt was persevered 
in until it was found that the ice as a whole was drifting to the 
south more rapidly than it was possible to travel over it to 
the north. 

In 1829 the Danes undertook an interesting piece of explora- 
tion on the east coast of Greenland. Captain Graah of the 
Danish navy rounded Cape Farewell in boats, with 
four Europeans and twelve Eskimo. He advanced 
as far as 65 18' N. on the east coast, where he was stopped by 
an insurmountable barrier of ice. He wintered in 63 22' N., 
and returned to the settlements on the. west side of Greenland in 
1830. 

In the year 1829 Captain John Ross, with his nephew James 
Clark Ross, having been furnished with funds by a wealthy 
distiller named Felix Booth, undertook a private 
expedition of discovery in a small vessel called the 
" Victory. " Ross proceeded down Prince Regent Inlet to the 
Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named 
by him Boothia Felix. In the course of exploring excursions 
during the summer months James Ross crossed the land and 
discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western 
side of it, on the ist of June 1831. He also discovered a land to 
the westward of Boothia which he named King William Land, and 
the northern shore of which he examined. The most northern 
point was called Cape Felix, and thence the coast trended south- 
west to Victory Point. The Rosses could not get their little 
vessel out of its winter quarters. They passed three winters 
there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they 
passed their fourth winter, 1832-1833. Eventually they were 
picked up by a whaler in Barrow Strait, and brought home. 
Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and 
in 1833 Sir George Back, with Dr Richard King as a 
companion, set out by land in search of the missing 
explorers. Wintering at the Great Slave Lake, they left Fort 
Reliance on the 7th of June 1834, and descended the Great Fish 
river for 530 m. The mouth was reached in 67 n' N., and then 
the want of supplies obliged them to return. In 1836 Sir George 
Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical 
Society, to proceed to Repulse Bay in his ship, the " Terror, " 
and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coast- 
line thence to the mouth of the Great Fish river; but the ship 
was obliged to winter in the drifting pack, and was brought home 
in a sinking condition. 

The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the 
Hudson's Bay Company's servants. In June 1837 Thomas Simp- 
son and P. W. Dease left Chippewyan, reached the 
mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position 
with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the 
" Blossom " in 1826. In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turnagain 
of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with 
Back's work at the mouth of the Great Fish river. He landed 
at Montreal Island in the mouth of that river, and then 
advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, his 
farthest eastern point. On his return he travelled along 
the north side of the channel, the south shore of the King 
William Island discovered by James Ross. The south- 
western point of this island was named Cape Herschel, and 
there Simpson built a cairn on the 26th of August 1839. 
Little remained to do in order to complete the delineation of the 
northern shores of the American continent, and this task was 
entrusted to Dr John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in 
1846. He went in boats to Repulse Bay, where he 
wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic Circle; and there he 
and his six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they 
shot. During the spring of 1847 Dr Rae explored on foot the 
shores of a great gulf having 700 m. of coast-line. He thus 
connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla 



Back. 



Rae. 



POLAR REGIONS 



945 



Mitltlcndorf. 



Strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving 
that Boothia was part of the American continent. 

While British explorers were thus working hard to solve some 
of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the 
Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821 
Lieut. P. F. Anjou made a complete survey of the 
New Siberia Islands, and came to the conclusion that it was not 
possible to advance far from them in a northerly direction, 
owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water 
existing within 20 or 30 m. Baron Wrangell prose- 
cuted similar investigations from the mouth of the Kolyma 
between 1820 and 1823. He made four journeys with dog 
sledges, exploring the coast between Cape Chelagskoi and the 
Kolyma, and making attempts to extend his journeys to some 
distance from the land, but he was always stopped by thin ice. 
, In 1843 Middendorf was sent to explore the region 
'which terminates in Cape Chelyuskin. He reached 
Taimyr Bay in the height of the short summer, whence he saw 
open water and no ice blink in any direction. The whole arctic 
shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no 
vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point. 

The success of Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition and the 
completion of the northern coast-line of America by the Hudson's 
Bay Company's servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh 
Ev"eeHMo/i attempt to make the passage from Lancaster Sound 
to Bering Strait. The story of the unhappy expedi- 
tion of Sir John Franklin, in the " Erebus " and " Terror," is told 
under FRANKLIN; but some geographical details may be given 
here. The heavy polar ice flows south-east between Melville 
and Baring Islands, down M'Clintock Channel, and impinges 
on the north-west coast of King William Land. It was this 
branch from the " palaeocrystic " sea which finally stopped the 
progress of Franklin's expedition. On leaving the winter 
quarters at Beechey Island in 1846 Franklin found a channel 
leading south, along the western shore of the land of North 
Somerset discovered by Parry in 1819. If he could reach the 
channel on the American coast, he knew that he would be able 
to make his way along it to Bering Strait. This channel, now 
called Peel Sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed 
down it towards King William Island, with land on both sides. 
But directly the southern point of the western land was passed 
and no longer shielded the channel, the great ice stream from 
Melville Island, pressing on King William Island, was encountered 
and found impassable. Progress might have been made by 
rounding the eastern side of King William Island, but its 
insularity was then unknown. 

It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the 
Franklin expedition. In the spring of that year Sir James Ross 
Scorch was sent w ith two ships, the " Enterprise " and 
Expedition; " Investigator, " by way of Lancaster Sound. He 
Ross. wintered at Leopold Harbour, near the north-east 

point of North Devon. In the spring he made a long sledge 
journey with Lieut. Leopold M'Clintock along the northern and 
western coasts of North Somerset, but found nothing. 

On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the 
country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search 
was organized the " Enterprise " and " Investi- 
gator " under Collinson and M'Clure proceeding 
by Bering Strait, while the " Assistance " and " Resolute," 
with two steam tenders, the " Pioneer " and " Intrepid," sailed 
on the 3rd of May 1850 to renew the search by Barrow Strait, 
under Captain Horatio Austin. Two brigs, the " Lady Franklin " 
and " Sophia," under William Penny, an energetic and able whal- 
ing captain, were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr 
Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. 
Austin and Penny entered Barrow Strait, and Franklin's winter 
quarters of 1845-1846 were discovered at Beechey Island; but 
there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by 
the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's expedition wintered 
(1850-1851) in the pack off Griffith Island, and Penny found 
refuge in a harbour on the south coast of Cornwallis Island. 
Austin, who had been with Parry during his third voyage, was 



an admirable organizer. His arrangements for passing the 
winter were carefully thought out and answered perfectly. In 
concert with Penny he planned a thorough and extensive system 
of search by means of sledge-travelling in the spring, and 
Lieut. M'Clintock superintended every detail of this part 
of the work with unfailing forethought and skill. Penny under- 
took the search by Wellington Channel. M'Clintock advanced 
to Melville Island, marching over 770 m. in eighty-one days; 
Captain Ommanney and Sherard Osborn pressed southward 
and discovered Prince of Wales Island. Lieut. Brown examined 
the western shore of Peel Sound. The search was exhaustive; 
but, except the winter quarters at Beechey Island, no record was 
discovered. The absence of any record made Captain Austin 
doubt whether Franklin had ever gone beyond Beechey Island; 
so he also examined the entrance of Jones Sound, the next inlet 
from Baffin Bay north of Lancaster Sound, on his way home, 
and returned to England in the autumn of 1851. This was a 
thoroughly well conducted expedition, especially as regards the 
sledge-travelling, which M'Clintock brought to great perfection. 
So far as the search for Franklin was concerned, nothing 
remained to be done west or north of Barrow Strait. 

In 1851 the " Prince Albert " schooner was sent out by Lady 
Franklin, under Captain Wm. Kennedy, with Lieut. Bellot of 
the French navy as second. They wintered on the 
east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of 
1852 the gallant Frenchman, in the course of a long 
sledging journey, discovered Bellot Strait, separating North 
Somerset from Boothia thus proving that the Boothia coast 
facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of 
America. 

The " Enterprise " and " Investigator " sailed from England 
in January 1850, but accidentally parted company before they 
reached Bering Strait. On the 6th of May 1851 the 
" Enterprise " passed the strait, and rounded Point 
Barrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the 
narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between Banks and Prince Albert 
Islands, and reached Princess Royal Islands, where M'Clure had 
been the previous year. Returning southwards, the "Enter- 
prise " wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Island in 71 35' N. 
and 117 35' W. Three travelling parties were despatched in the 
spring of 1852 one to trace Prince Albert Land in a southerly 
direction, while the others explored Prince of Wales Strait, one of 
them reaching Melville Island. In September 1852 the ship was 
free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of North 
America, reaching Cambridge Bay (Sept. 26), where the 
second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the 
shores of Victoria Land as far as 70 26' N. and 100 45' W. : here 
he was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of 
Franklin would have been ascertained. The " Enterprise " 
again put to sea on the 5th of August 1853, and returned west- 
ward along the American coast, until she was stopped by ice and 
obliged to pass a third winter at Camden Bay, in 70 8' N. and 
145 29' W. In 1854 this remarkable voyage was completed, and 
Captain Collinson brought the " Enterprise " back to England. 

Meanwhile M'Clure in the " Investigator " had passed the 
winter of 1850-1851 at the Princess Royal Islands, only 30 m. 
from Barrow Strait. In October M'Clure ascended 
a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of 
Barrow Strait, which was navigated by Parry in 1819-1820. 
Thus, like the survivors of Franklin's crews when they reached 
Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a north-west passage. It was 
impossible to reach it, for the stream of heavily packed ice 
which stopped Franklin off King William Land lay athwart their 
northward course; so, as soon as he was free in 1851, M'Clure 
turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Banks Land, 
and commenced to force a passage to the northward between the 
western shore of that land and the enormous fields of ice which 
pressed upon it. The cliffs rose like walls on one side, while on 
the other the stupendous ice of the " palaeocrystic sea " rose from 
the water to a level with the " Investigator's " lower yards. 
After many hairbreadth escapes M'Clure took refuge in a bay on 
the northern shore of Banks Land, which he named the Bay of 



946 



POLAR REGIONS 



God's Mercy. Here the " Investigator " remained, never to 
move again. After the winter of 1851-1852 M'Clure had made a 
journey across the ice to Melville Island, and left a record at 
Parry's winter harbour. Abundant supplies of musk ox were 
fortunately obtained, but a third winter had to be faced. In the 
spring of 1853 M'Clure was preparing to abandon the ship with all 
hands, and attempt, like Franklin's crews, to reach the American 
coast; but succour arrived in time. 

The Hudson's Bay Company continued the search for Franklin. 

In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr Rae examined the American 

coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the 

Journeys Coppermine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the 

search ; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of 

1851, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined the shores 

of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored 

by Captain Collinson in the " Enterprise. " 

In 1852 the British government resolved to despatch another 
expedition by Lancaster Sound. Austin's four vessels were 
recommissioned, and the " North Star " was sent out as a dep6t 
ship at Beechey Island. Sir Edward Belcher com- 
manded the " Assistance, " with the " Pioneer " 
under Sherard Osborn as steam tender. He went up Wellington 
Channel to Northumberland Bay, where he wintered, passing a 
second winter lower down in Wellington Channel, and then 
abandoning his ships and coming home in 1854. But Sherard 
Osborn and Com. G. H. Richards did good work. They made 
sledge journeys to Melville Island, and thus discovered the 
northern side of the Parry group. Captain Kellett 
Kellett rece i vec i command of the " Resolute, " with M'Clin- 
tock in the steam tender " Intrepid." Among Kellett's officers 
were the best of Austin's sledge-travellers, M'Clintock, Mecham, 
and Vesey Hamilton, so that good work was sure to be done. 
George S. Nares, leader of the future expedition of 1874-1875, 
was also on board the " Resolute." Kellett pressed onwards to 
the westward and passed the winter of 1852-1853 at Melville 
Island. During the autumn Mecham discovered M'Clure's 
record, and the position of the " Investigator " was thus ascer- 
tained. Lieut. Pirn made his way to this point early in the 
following spring, and the officers and crew of the " Investigator, 1 ' 
led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the " Resolute " on the 
1 7th of June 1853. They reached England in the following year, 
having not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage, 
though not in the same ship and partly by travelling over ice. 
For this great feat M'Clure received the honour of knighthood, 
and a reward of 10,000 was granted to himself, the other 
officers, and the crew, by a vote of the House of Commons. 

The travelling parties of Kellett's expedition, led by M'Clin- 
tock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of 
the northern and western sides of Melville Island, and the whole 
outline of the large island of Prince Patrick, further west. 
M'Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for one 
hundred and five days, and travelled over 1328 m. Mecham 
was away ninety-four days, and travelled over 1163 m. Sherard 
Osborn, in 1853, was away ninety-seven days, and travelled over 
935 m. The " Resolute" was obliged to winter in the pack in 
1853-1854, and in the spring of 1854 Mecham made a remarkable 
journey in the hope of obtaining news of Captain Collinson at the 
Princess Royal Islands. Leaving the ship on the 3rd of April 
he was absent seventy days, out of which there were sixty-one 
and a half days of travelling. The distance gone over was 1336 
statute miles. The average rate of the homeward journey was 
23! m. a day, the average time of travelling each day nine 
hours twenty-five minutes. 

Fearing detention for another winter, Sir Edward Belcher 

ordered all the ships to be abandoned in the ice, the officers and 

crews being taken home in the " North Star," and 

' in the " Phoenix " and " Talbot," which had come out 

from England to communicate. They reached home in October 

1854. In 1852 Captain Edward A. Inglefield, R.N., had made 

a voyage up Baffin Bay in the " Isabel " as far as the entrance 

of Smith Sound. In 1853 and 1854 he came out in the " Phoenix " 

to communicate with the "North Star" at Beechey Island. 






The drift of the " Resolute " was a remarkable proof of the 
direction of the current out of Barrow Strait. She was abandoned 
in 74 41' N. and 101 n' W. on the I4th of May 1854. r 
On the loth of September 1855 an American wl 
sighted the " Resolute " in 67 N. lat. about twenty 
miles from Cape Mercy, in Davis Strait. She had drifted nearly 
a thousand miles, and having been brought into an American 
port, was purchased by the United States and presented to 
the British government. 

In 1853 Dr Rae was employed to connect a few points which 
would quite complete the examination of the coast of America, 
and establish the insularity of King Willian Land. 
He went up Chesterfield Inlet and the river Quoich, Discovery. 
wintering with eight men at Repulse Bay, where 
venison and fish were abundant. In 1854 he set out on a journey 
which occupied fifty-six days in April and May. He succeeded 
in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James 
Ross, and thus established the fact that King William Land was 
an island. Rae also brought home the first tidings and relics of 
Franklin's expedition gathered from the Eskimo, which decided 
the Admiralty to award him the 10,000 offered for definite 
news of Franklin's fate. Lady Franklin, however, sent out 
the " Fox " under the command of M'Clintock (see FRANKLIN). 
M'Clintock prosecuted an exhaustive search over part of the 
west coast of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King William 
Island, the mouth of the Grjat Fish river and Montreal Island, 
and Allen Young completed the discovery of the southern side 
of Prince of Wales Island. 

The catastrophe of Sir John Franklin's expedition led to 
7000 m. of coast-line being discovered, and to a vast extent 
of unknown country being explored, securing very considerable 
additions to geographical knowledge. 

The American nation was first led to take an interest in Polar 
research through a noble and generous sympathy for Franklin 
and his companions. Mr Grinnell of New York gave 
practical expression to this feeling. In 1850 
equipped two vessels, the " Advance " and " Rescue," " 
to aid in the search, commanded by Lieuts. de Haven and Griffith, 
and accompanied by Dr E. K. Kane. They reached Beechey Island 
on the 27th of August 1850, and assisted in the examination of 
Franklin's winter quarters, but returned without wintering. 
In 1853 Dr Kane, in the little brig "Advance," of 120 tons, under- 
took to lead an American expedition up Smith Sound, 
the most northern outlet from Baffin Bay. The 
" Advance " reached Smith Sound on the 7th of August 1853, 
but was stopped by ice in 78 45' N. only 17 m. from the 
entrance. Kane described the coast as consisting of precipitous 
cliffs 800 to 1200 ft. high, and at their base there was a belt of 
ice about 18 ft. thick, resting on the beach. Dr Kane adopted 
the Danish name of "ice-foot " (is fod) for this permanent frozen 
ledge. He named the place of his winter quarters Van Rens- 
selaer Harbour. In the spring some interesting work was done. 
A great glacier was discovered with a sea face 45 m. long and 
named the Humboldt glacier. Dr Kane's steward, Morton, 
crossed the foot of this glacier with a team of dogs, and reached 
a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. But sickness 
and want of means prevented much from being done by travelling 
parties. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second 
winter, although the Eskimo supplied them with fresh meat and 
were true friends in need. On the i7th of May 1855 Dr Kane 
abandoned the brig, and reached the Danish settlement of 
Upernivik on the 5th of August. Lieut. Hartstene, who was sent 
out to search for Kane, reached the Van Rensselaer Harbour after he 
had gone, but took the retreating crew on board on his return 
voyage. 

On the loth of July 1860 Dr 1. 1. Hayes, who had served with 
Kane, sailed from Boston for Smith Sound, in the schooner 
" United States, " of 130 tons and a crew of fifteen 
men. His object was to follow up the line of research 
opened by Dr Kane. He wintered at Port Foulke, in 78 
17' N., but achieved nothing of importance, and his narrative 
is not to be depended on. 



Hayes. 



POLAR REGIONS 



947 



Hall. 



Charles Hall (?..), in his first journey (1860-1862), discovered 
remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Frobisher built on the 
Countess of Warwick Island in 1578. In his second 
expedition (1864-1869) Hall reached the line of the 
retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island and Peffer 
River, on the south coast of King William Island. He heard the 
story of the retreat and of the wreck of one of the ships from the 
Eskimo; he was told that seven bodies were buried at Todd 
Island; and he brought home some bones which are believed to 
be those of Lieut. Le Vescomte of the " Erebus." Finally, in 

1871 he took the " Polaris " for 250 m. up the channel which 
leads northwards from Smith Sound. The various parts of this 
long channel are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy 
Channel and Robeson Channel. The " Polaris " was beset in 
82 n' N. on the sothof August; her winter quarters were in 
Thank God Harbour, 81 38' N., and here Hall died. 

The Spitsbergen seas were explored during last century by 
Norwegian fishermen as well as by Swedish and German expedi- 
tions and by British yachtsmen. In 1827 the Nor- 
Bxpiorers We 8' an geologist Keilhau made an expedition to Bear 
Island and Spitsbergen which was the first purely 
scientific Arctic expedition. The Norwegian Spitsbergen fishery 
dates from 1820, but it was only in the latter part of the century 
that Professor Mohn of Christiania carefully collected information 
from the captains who had taken part in the work when at its 
height. In 1863 Captain Carlsen circumnavigated the Spits- 
bergen group for the first time in a brig called the " Jan Mayen." 
In 1864 Captain Tobiesen sailed round North-East Land. In 

1872 Captains Altmann and Nils Johnsen visited Wiche's Land, 
which was discovered by Captain Edge in 1617. In that year 
there were twenty-three sailing vessels from Tromso, twenty-four 
from Hammerfest, and one from Vardo engaged in the Arctic 
sealing trade, averaging from 35 to 40 tons, and carrying a dozen 
men. Exploration went on slowly, in the course of the sealing and 
fishing voyages, the records of which are not very full. In 1869 
Carlsen crossed the Kara Sea and reached the mouth of the Ob. 
In 1870 there were about sixty Norwegian vessels in the Barents 
Sea, and Captain Johannesen circumnavigated Novaya Zemlya. 
In 1873 Captain Tobiesen was unfortunately obliged to winter, 
on the Novaya Zemlya coast, owing to the loss of his schooner, 
and both he and his young son died in the spring. Two years 
previously Captain Carlsen had succeeded in reaching the winter 
quarters of Barents, the first visitor since 1597, an interval of 
two hundred and seventy-four years. He landed on the 9th 
of September 1871, and found the house still standing and full 
of interesting relics, which are now in the naval museum at 
the Hague. 

Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent seven expeditions 
to Spitsbergen and two to Greenland, marking a new scientific 
Swedish era * n Arctic exploration, of which Keilhau had been 
Expeditions, the pioneer. All returned with valuable scientific 
results. That of 1864 under A. E. Nordenskiold and 
Duner made observations at 80 different places on the Spitsbergen 
shores, and fixed the heights of numerous mountains. In 1868, 
in an iron steamer, the " Sophia," the Swedes attained a latitude 
of 81 42' N. on the meridian of 18 E., during the month of 
September. In 1872 an expedition, consisting of the " Polhem " 
steamer and brig " Gladen," commanded by Professor Norden- 
skiold and Lieut. Palander, wintered in Mossel Bay on the 
northern shore of Spitsbergen. In the spring an important 
sledging journey of sixty days' duration was made over North- 
East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards 
supplies owing to two vessels, which were to have returned, 
having been forced to winter. But in the summer of 1873 they 
were visited by Mr Leigh Smith, in his yacht " Diana," who 
supplied them with fresh provisions. 

Dr A. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take 

their share in the work of polar discovery, and at his own risk 

he fitted out a small vessel called the " Germania," 

wey ' which sailed from Bergen in May 1868, under the 

command of Captain Koldewey. His cruise extended to Hin- 

lopen Strait in Spitsbergen, but was merely tentative; and in 



1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored the Stor 
Fjord in a Norwegian schooner, and also examined Walter 
Thymen Strait. After the return of the " Germania " in 1868 a 
regular expedition was organized under the command of Captain 
Koldewey, provisioned for two years. It consisted of the 
" Germania," a screw steamer of 140 tons, and the brig " Hansa," 
commanded by Captain Hegemann. Lieut. Julius Payer, the 
future explorer of Franz Josef Land, gained his first Arctic 
experience on board the " Germania." The expedition sailed 
from Bremen on the isth of June 1869, its destination being the 
east coast of Greenland. But in latitude 70 46' N. the " Hansa " 
got separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew 
built a house of patent fuel on the floe, and in this strange abode 
they passed their Christmas. In two months the current carried 
them 400 m. to the south. By May they had drifted noo m. 
on their ice-raft, and finally, on the i4th of June 1870, they 
arrived safely at the Moravian mission station of Friedriksthal, 
to the west of Cape Farewell. Fairer fortune attended the 
" Germania." She sailed up the east coast of Greenland as 
far as 75 30' N., and eventually wintered at the Pendulum 
Islands of Clavering in 74 30' N. In March 1870 a travelling 
party set out under Koldewey and Payer, and reached a distance 
of too m. from the ship to the northward, when want of pro- 
visions compelled them to return. A grim cape, named after 
Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their discoveries. 
As soon as the vessel was free, a deep branching fjord, named 
Franz Josef Fjord, was discovered in 73 15' N. stretching for a 
long distance into the interior of Greenland. The expedition 
returned to Bremen on the nth of September 1870. 

Lieut. Payer was resolved to continue in the path of polar 
discovery. He and the naval officer Weyprecht chartered a 
Norwegian schooner called the " Isbjorn," and 
examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen 
and Novaya Zemlya, in the summer of 1871. Their 
observations led them to select the route by the north end of 
Novaya Zemlya with a view to making the north-east passage. 
It was to be an Austro-Hungarian expedition, and the idea was 
seized with enthusiasm by the whole monarchy. Weyprecht 
was to command the ship, while Julius Payer conducted the 
sledge parties. The steamer " Tegethoff," of 300 tons, was 
fitted out in the Elbe, and left Tromso on the I4th of July 1872. 
The season was severe, and the vessel was closely beset near Cape 
Nassau, at the northern end of Novaya Zemlya, in the end of 
August. The summer of 1873 found her still a close prisoner 
drifting, not with a current, but chiefly in the direction of the 
prevailing wind. At length, on the 3ist of August, a moun- 
tainous country was sighted about 14 m. to the north. In 
October the vessel was drifted within 3 rn. of an island lying 
off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it, and found the 
latitude to be 79 54' N. It was named after Count Wilczek, 
one of the warmest friends of the expedition. Here the second 
winter was passed. Bears were numerous and sixty-seven were 
killed, their meat proving to be an efficient preventive of scurvy. 
In March 1874 Payer made a preliminary sledge journey in 
intense cold (thermometer at -58 F.). On the 24th of March 
he started for a more prolonged journey of thirty days. Payer 
believed that the newly discovered country equalled Spits- 
bergen in extent, and described it as consisting of two or more 
large masses Wilczek Land to the east, Zichy Land to the west, 
intersected by numerous fjords and skirted by a large number of 
islands. A wide channel, named Austria Sound, was supposed 
to separate the two main masses of land, and extend to 82 N. 
The whole country was named Franz Josef Land. Payer's 
large land-masses have by later discoveries been broken up into 
groups of islands and much of the land he thought he saw towards 
the east was found by Nansen not to exist. Payer returned 
to the " Tegethoff " on the 24th of April; and a third journey 
was undertaken to explore a large island named after M'Clintock. 
It then became necessary to abandon the ship and attempt a 
retreat in boats. This perilous voyage was commenced on the 
20th of May. Three boats stored with provisions were placed 
on sledges. It wa.s not until the I4th of August that they reached 



POLAR REGIONS 



the edge of the pack in 77 40' N., and launched the boats. 
Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and 
arrived at Vardo on the 3rd of September 1874. 

One of the most interesting problems connected with the 
physical geography of the polar regions is the actual condition 
of the vast elevated interior of Greenland, which is 
one enormous glacier. In 1867 Mr Edward Whymper 
planned an expedition to solve the question, and went to Green- 
land, accompanied by Dr Robert Brown; but their progress was 
stopped, after going a short distance over the ice, by the breaking 
down of the dog-sledges. The expedition brought home geo- 
logical and natural history collections of value. Dr H. Rink, for 
many years royal inspector of South Greenland and the most 
distinguished authority on all Greenlandic questions, also visited 
the inland ice. An important inland journey was undertaken by 
Norden- Professor A. E. Nordenskiold in 1870, accompanied 
skitiidia by Dr Berggren, professor of botany at Lund. The 
Greenland, difficulty of traversing the inland ice of Greenland 
is caused by the vast ice-cap being in constant motion, 
advancing slowly towards the sea. This movement gives rise 
to huge crevasses which bar the traveller's way. The chasms 
occur chiefly where the movement of the ice is most rapid, 
near the ice streams which reach the sea and discharge icebergs. 
Nordenskiold therefore chose for a starting-point the northern 
arm of a deep inlet called Auleitsivikfjord, which is 60 m. 
south of the discharging glacier at Jakobshavn and 240 north of 
that at Godthaab. He commenced his inland journey on the i gth 
of July. The party consisted of himself, Dr Berggren, and two 
Greenlanders; and they advanced 30 m. over the glaciers to a 
height of 2200 ft. above the sea. 

The gallant enterprises of other countries rekindled the zeal of 
Great Britain for Arctic discovery; and in 1874 the prime 
British minister announced that an expedition would be 
Expedition despatched in the following year. Two powerful 
o//A75. steamers, the " Alert " and " Discovery," were 
selected for the service, and Captain George S. Nares was 
recalled from the " Challenger " expedition to act as leader. 
Commander Albert H. Markham, who had made a cruise up 
Baffin Bay and Barrow Strait in a whaler during the previous 
year, Lieut. Pelham Aldrich, an accomplished surveyor, and 
Captain Hanry Wemyss Feilden, R.A., as naturalist, were 
also in the " Alert." The " Discovery " was commanded by 
Captain Henry F. Stephenson, with Lieut. Lewis A. Beau- 
mont as first lieutenant. The expedition left Portsmouth on 
the 29th of May 1875, and entered Smith Sound in the last days 
of July. After much difficulty with drifting ice Lady Franklin 
Bay was reached in 81 44' N., where the " Discovery " was 
established in winter quarters. The " Alert " pressed onwards, 
and reached the edge of the heavy ice named by Nares the 
palaeocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 80 to 100 ft. in thick- 
ness. Leaving Robeson Channel, the vessel made progress 
between the land and the grounded floe pieces, and passed the 
winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack, in 
82 27' N. Autumn travelling parties were despatched in 
September and October to lay out dep&ts; and during the winter 
a complete scheme was matured for the examination of as much 
of the unknown area as possible, by the combined efforts of 
sledging parties from the two ships, in the ensuing spring. The 
parties started on the 3rd of April 1876. Captain Markham with 
Lieut. Parr advanced, in the face of great difficulties, over 
the polar pack to the latitude of 83 20' N. Lieut. Aldrich 
explored the coast-line to the westward, facing the frozen 
polar ocean, for a distance of 220 m. Lieut. Beaumont made 
discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Green- 
land. The parties were attacked by scurvy, which increased 
the difficulty and hardships of the work a hundredfold. The 
expedition returned to England in October 1876. The " Alert " 
reached a higher latitude and wintered farther north than any 
ship had ever done before. The results of the expedition were 
the discovery of 300 m. of new coast line, the examination of part 
of the frozen polar ocean, a series of meteorological, magnetic 
and tidal observations at two points farther north than any such 



Dutch Ex- 
peditions. 



observations had ever been taken before, and large geological and 
natural history collections. 

In the same year 1875 Sir Allen Young undertook a voyage 
in his steam yacht the " Pandora " to attempt to force his way 
down Peel Sound to the magnetic pole, and if possible Voyages 
to make the north-west passage by rounding the of the 
eastern shore of King William Island. The ' ' Pandora " "Pandora. " 
entered Peel Sound on the 29th of August 1875, and proceeded 
down it much farther than any vessel had gone since it was passed 
by Franklin's two ships in 1846. Sir Allen reached a latitude of 
72 14' N., and sighted Cape Bird, at the northern side of the 
western entrance of Bellot Strait. But here ice barred his 
progress, and he was obliged to retrace his track, returning to 
England on the i6th of October 1875. In the following year 
Sir Allen Young made another voyage in the " Pandora " to 
the entrance of Smith Sound. 

Lieut. Koolemans Beynen, a young Dutch officer, who 
had shared Young's two polar voyages, on his return successfully 
endeavoured to interest his countrymen in polar 
discovery. It was wisely determined that the first 
expeditions of Holland should be summer reconnais- 
sances on a small 'scale. A sailing schooner of 79 tons was built 
at Amsterdam, and named the " Willem Barents." In her first 
cruise she was commanded by Lieut. A. de Bruyne, with 
Koolemans Beynen as second, and she sailed from Holland on 
the 6th of May 1878. Her instructions were to examine the ice 
in the Barents and Spitsbergen seas, take deep-sea soundings, 
and make natural history collections. She was also to erect 
memorials to early Dutch polar worthies at certain designated 
points. These instructions were ably and zealously carried out. 
Beynen died in the following year, but the work he initiated was 
carried on, the " Willem Barents " continuing to make annual 
polar cruises for many years. 

In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H. Markham, 
R.N., in the Norwegian schooner " Isbjorn " sailed along the 
west coast of Novaya Zemlya to its most northern Gore-Booth 
point, passed through the Matochkin Shar to the east '"d Mark- 
coast, and examined the ice in the direction of Franz ***" 
Josef Land as far as 78 24' N., bringing home collections in various 
branches of natural history, and making useful observations on 
the drift and nature of the ice in the Barents and Kara Seas. 

In 1880 Mr B. Leigh Smith, who had previously made three 
voyages to Spitsbergen, reached Franz Josef Land in the polar 
steam yacht " Eira." It was observed that, while 
the Greenland icebergs are generally angular and 
peaked, those of Franz Josef Land are flat on 
the top, like the Antarctic bergs. The " Eira " sailed 
along the south side of Franz Josef Land to the westward 
and discovered no m. of coast-line of a new island named 
Alexandra Land, until the coast trended north-west. A 
landing was effected at several points, and valuable collec- 
tions were made in natural history. In the following year 
the same explorer left Peterhead on the I4th of July; Franz 
Josef Land was sighted on the 23rd of July, and the 
" Eira " reached a point farther west than had been possible in 
her previous voyage. But in August the ship was caught in the 
ice, was nipped, and sank. A hut was built on shore in which 
Mr Leigh Smith and his crew passed the winter of 1881-1882, 
their health being well maintained, thanks to the exertions of 
Dr W. H. Neale. On the 2ist of June 1882 they started in 
four boats to reach some vessels on the Novaya Zemlya coast. 
It was a most laborious and perilous voyage. They were first 
seen and welcomed by the " Willem Barents " on the 2nd of 
August, and soon afterwards were taken on board the "Hope," 
a whaler which had come out to search for them under the 
command of Sir Allen Young. 

Professor A. E. Nordenskiold, when he projected the achieve- 
ment of the north-east passage, was a veteran polar explorer, for 
he had been in six previous expeditions to Greenland and Spits- 
bergen. In 1875 he turned his attention to the possibility of 
navigating the seas along the northern coast of Siberia. Cap- 
tain Joseph Wiggins of Sunderland was a pioneer of this route, 



Leigh 
Smith. 



POLAR REGIONS 



949 



and his voyages in 1874, 1875 and 1876 led the way for a trade 
between the ports of Europe and the mouth of the Yenisei River. 
Nordea- In J une l8 75 Professor Nordenskiold sailed from 
skiaid and Tromso in the Norwegian vessel, the " Proven," 
reached the Yenisei by way of the Kara Sea, and dis- 
"*** covered an excellent harbour on the eastern side of 
its mouth, which was named Port Dickson, in honour of Baron 
Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, the munificent supporter of the 
Swedish expeditions. It having been suggested that the success 
of this voyage was due to the unusual state of the ice in 1875, 
Nordenskiold undertook a voyage in the following year in the 
" Ymer," which was equally successful. By a minute study of 
the history of former attempts, and a careful consideration of all 
the circumstances, Professor Nordenskiold convinced himself 
that the achievement of the north-east passage was feasible. 
The king of Sweden, Baron Oscar Dickson, and M. Sibiriakoff, a 
wealthy Siberian proprietor, supplied the funds, and the steamer 
" Vega " was purchased. Nordenskiold was leader of the 
expedition, Lieut. Palander was appointed commander of 
the ship, and there was an efficient staff of officers and naturalists, 
including Lieut. Hovgaard of the Danish and Lieut. Bove 
of the Italian navy. A small steamer called the " Lena " 
was to keep company with the " Vega " as far as the mouth of the 
Lena, and they sailed from Gothenburg on the 4th of July 1878. 
On the morning of the loth of August they left Port Dickson, and 
on the i pth they reached the most northern point of Siberia, 
Cape Chelyuskin, in 77 41' N. On leaving the extreme northern 
point of Asia a south-easterly course was steered, the sea being 
free from ice and very shallow. This absence of ice is to some 
extent due to the mass of warm water discharged by the great 
Siberian rivers during the summer. On the 27th of August the 
mouth of the river Lena was passed, and the " Vega " parted 
company with the little " Lena," continuing her course 
eastward. Professor Nordenskiold very nearly made the 
north-east passage in one season; but towards the end of 
September the " Vega " was frozen in off the shore of a low 
plain in 67 7' N. and 173 20' W. near the settlements 
of the Chukchis. During the voyage very large and impor- 
tant natural history collections were made, and the interest- 
ing aboriginal tribe among whom the winter was passed was 
studied with great care. The interior was also explored for 
some distance. On the i8th of July 1879, after having been 
imprisoned by the ice for 294 days, the " Vega " again proceeded 
on her voyage and passed Bering Strait on the 2Oth. Sir Hugh 
Willoughby made his disastrous attempt in 1553. After a 
lapse of 326 years of intermittent effort, the north-east 
passage had at length been accomplished without the loss of 
a single life and without damage to the vessel. The " Vega " 
arrived at Yokohama on the 2nd of September 1879. 

In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States, 
with the object of throwing further light on the sad history of the 
retreat of the officers and men of Sir John Franklin's 
expedition, by examining the west coast of King 
William Island in the summer, when the snow is off the ground. 
The party consisted of Lieut. Schwatka of the United States 
army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chester- 
field Inlet in Hudson Bay, they set out overland for the estuary 
of the Great Fish river, assisted by Eskimo and dogs, on the 
ist of April 1879. They took only one month's provisions, 
their main reliance being upon the game afforded by the 
region to be traversed. The party obtained, during the 
journeys out and home, no less than 522 reindeer. After 
collecting various stories from the Eskimo at Montreal Island and 
at an inlet west of Cape Richardson, Schwatka crossed over to 
Cape Herschel on King William Land in June. He examined 
the western shore of the island with the greatest care for relics of 
Sir John Franklin's parties, as far as Cape Felix, the northern 
extremity. The return journey was commenced in November 
by ascending the Great Fish river for some distance and then 
marching over the intervening region to Hudson Bay. The cold 
of the winter months in that country is intense, the thermometer 
falling as low as 70 F., so that the return journey was most 



Schwatka. 



remarkable, and reflects the highest credit on Lieut. Schwatka 
and his companions. As regards the search little was left to be 
done after M'Clintock, but some graves were found, as well as a 
medal belonging to Lieut. Irving of H.M.S. " Terror," and 
some bones believed to be his, which were brought home and 
interred at Edinburgh. 

Mr Gordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald, 
having resolved to despatch an expedition of discovery at his 
own expense by way of Bering Strait, the " Pandora " 
was purchased from Sir Allen Young, and rechristened 
the " Jeannette." Lieut, de Long of the United States navy was 
appointed to command, and it was made a national undertaking 
by special act of Congress, the vessel being placed under martial 
law and officered from the navy. The " Jeannette " sailed from 
San Francisco on the 8th of July 1879, and was last seen steam- 
ing towards Wrangell Land on the 3rd of September. This land 
had been seen by Captain Kellett, in H.M.S. " Herald " on the 
1 7th of August 1879, but no one had landed on it, and it was 
shown on the charts by a long dotted line. The " Jeannette " 
was provisioned for three years, but as no tidings had been 
received of her by 1881, two steamers were sent up Bering Strait 
in search. One of these, the " Rodgers," under Lieut. Berry, 
anchored in a good harbour on the south coast of Wrangell 
Land, in 70 57' N., on the 26th of August 1881. The land was 
explored by the officers of the " Rodgers " and found to be an 
island about 70 m. long by 28, with a ridge of hills traversing it 
east and west, the 7ist parallel running along its southern shore. 
Lieut. Berry then proceeded to examine the ice to the north- 
ward, and attained a higher latitude by 21 m. than had ever 
been reached before on the Bering Strait meridian namely, 
73 44' N. No news was obtained of the " Jeannette," but soon 
afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After 
having been beset in heavy pack ice for twenty-two months, the 
" Jeannette " was crushed and sunk on the I3th of June 1881, in 
77 15' N. lat., and 155 E. long. The officers and men dragged 
their boats over the ice to an island which was named Bennett 
Island, where they landed on the 29th of July. They reached 
one of the New Siberia Islands on the icth of September, and on 
the 1 2th they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the 
same evening the three boats were separated in a gale of wind. 
A boat's crew with Mr Melville, the engineer, reached the Lena 
delta and searching for the other parties found the ship's books 
on the I4th of November, and resuming the search at the earliest 
possible moment in spring, Melville discovered the dead bodies of 
De Long and two of his crew on the 23rd of March 1882. They 
had perished from exhaustion and want of food. Three survivors 
of De Long's party had succeeded in making their way to a 
Siberian village; but the third boat's crew was lost. The 
" Rodgers " was burnt in its winter quarters, and one of the 
officers, W. H. Gilder (1838-1900), made a hazardous journey 
homewards through north-east Siberia. 

The Norwegian geologist Professor Amund Helland made an 
expedition to Greenland in 1875 and discovered the 
marvellously rapid movements of the Greenland 
glaciers. 

The Danes have been very active in prosecuting discoveries 
and scientific investigations in Greenland, since the journey 
of Nordenskiold in 1870. Lieut. Jensen made a ^^ 
gallant attempt to penetrate the inland ice in 1878, Greenland, 
collecting important observations, and Dr Steenstrup, 
with Lieut. Hammar, closely investigated the formation of 
ice masses at Omenak and Jacobshavn. In 1883 an expedi- 
tion under Lieuts. Holm and Garde began to explore the east 
coast of Greenland. In the summer of 1879 Captain 
Mourier, of the Danish man-of-war " Ingolf," sighted the coast 
from the 6th to the loth of July, and was enabled to observe and 
delineate it from 68 10' N. to 65 55' N., this being the gap 
left between the discoveries of Scoresby in 1822 and those of 
Graah in 1829. Nansen sighted part of the same coast in 
1882. Lieut. Hovgaard of the Danish navy, who accompanied 
Nordenskiold in his discovery of the north-east passage, planned 
an expedition to ascertain if land existed to the north of 



95 



POLAR REGIONS 



Cape Chelyuskin. He fitted out a small steamer called the 
" Dymphna " and sailed from Copenhagen in July 1882, but was 
unfortunately beset and obliged to winter in the Kara Sea. In 
1883 Baron A. E. Nordenskiold undertook another journey over 
the inland ice of Greenland. Starting from Auleitsivikf jord on 
the 4th of July, his party penetrated 84 m. eastward, and to an 
altitude of 5000 ft. The Laplanders who were of the party 
were sent farther on snow-shoes, travelling over a desert of snow 
to a height of 7000 ft. Useful results in physical geography 
and biology were obtained. 

On the i8th of September 1875 Lieut. Weyprecht, one of the 
discoverers of Franz Josef Land, read a paper before a large meet- 
ing of German naturalists at Graz on the scientific 
stations" *'' resu l ts to be obtained from polar research and the 
best means of securing them. He urged the im- 
portance of establishing a number of stations within or near the 
Arctic Circle, and also a ring of stations as near as possible to the 
Antarctic Circle, in order to record complete series of synchronous 
meteorological and magnetic observations. Lieut. Weyprecht 
did not live to see his suggestions carried into execution, 
but they bore fruit in due time. The various nations of Europe 
were represented at an international polar conference held at 
Hamburg in 1879 under the presidency of Dr Georg Neumayer, 
and at another at Berne in 1880; and it was decided that each 
nation should establish one or more stations where synchronous 
observations should be taken for a year from August 1882. 
This fine project was matured and successfully carried into 
execution. The stations arranged for in the North Polar region 
were at the following localities: 

Norwegians: Bossekop, Alten Fjord, Norway (M. Aksel S. Steen). 
Swedes: Ice Fjord, Spitsbergen (Professor N. Ekholm). 
Dutch: Port Dickson, mouth of Yenisei, Siberia (Dr M. Snellen). 
D J Sagastyr Island, mouth of Lena, Siberia (Lieut. Jurgens). 

s - \ Novaya Zemlya, 72 23' N. (Lieut. C. Andreief). 
Finns: Sodankyla, Finland (Professor S. Lemstrom). 
A . ( Point Barrow, North America (Lieut. P. H. Ray.U.S.A.). 

ncans - { 7xi<i;yFrawinBa;y,8i44'N.(Lieut.A.W.Greely,U.S.A). 
British : Great Slave Lake, Dominion of Canada (Lieut. H. P. Dawson). 
Germans: Cumberland Bay, west side of Davis Strait (Dr W. Giese). 
Danes: Godthaab, Greenland (Dr A. Paulsen). 
Austrians: Jan Mayen, North Atlantic, 71 N. (Lieut. Wohlgemuth). 

The whole scheme was successfully accomplished with the 
exception of the part assigned to the Dutch at Port Dickson. 
They started in the " Varna " but were beset in the Kara Sea and 
obliged to winter there. The " Varna " was lost, and the crew 
took refuge on board Lieut. Hovgaard's vessel, which was also 
forced to winter in the pack during 1882-1883. The scientific 
observations were kept up on both vessels during the time they 
were drifting with the ice. 

The American stations commenced work in 1882 and one of 
these furnished a rare example of heroic devotion to duty in 
face of difficulties due to the fault of those who should 
have brought relief at the appointed time. Lieut. 
A. W. Greely's party consisted of two other lieutenants, 
twenty sergeants and privates of the United States army, and 
Dr Pavy, an enthusiastic explorer who had been educated in 
France and had passed the previous winter among the Eskimo 
of Greenland. On the nth of August 1881 the steamer 
" Proteus " conveyed Lieut. Greely and his party to Lady 
Franklin Bay during an exceptionally favourable season; a house 
was built at the " Discovery's" winter quarters, and they were 
left with two years' provisions. The regular series of observa- 
tions was at once commenced, and two winters were passed 
without accident. Travelling parties were also sent out in the 
summer, dogs having been obtained at Disco. Lieut. Lockwood 
with twelve men and eleven sledges made a journey along the 
north coast of Greenland and reached Lockwood Island in 
83 24' N. and 42 45' W., the highest latitude reached up to that 
time. From this island at a height of 2600 ft. on a clear day an 
unbroken expanse of ice was seen stretching to the northward, 
the view extending far beyond the 84th parallel. A promontory 
of the north coast of Greenland seen to the north-east in 83 35' 
N. was named Cape Washington. Vegetation was found at the 
extreme position and animal life was represented by foxes, hares, 



lemmings and ptarmigan. The party returned to Fort Conger 
on the ist of June 1882 after an absence of 59 days. Greely made 
two journeys westward into the interior of Grinnell Land follow- 
ing up the northern branch of Chandler Fjord to a great sheet 
of frozen fresh water, Hazen Lake, with an area of about 500 
sq. m. Beyond this, 175 m. from Fort Conger, he climbed Mt 
Arthur, 4500 ft., the highest summit of Grinnell Land, and saw 
distant mountains beyond a fjord to the southwest. In the 
spring of 1883 Lockwood made still, more extensive journeys, 
crossing Grinnell Land to Greely Fjord, which entered the western 
sea. The central depression of Grinnell Land abounded in musk 
oxen and was free from ice, though the higher land to north and 
south lay under permanent ice-caps. Important as these geo- 
graphical discoveries were, the main object of the expedition was 
the series of scientific observations at the headquarters, and these 
were carried out during the whole period with the most scrupu- 
lous exactness. As neither the relief ship which was to have been 
despatched in 1882, nor that in 1883, sent the expected relief 
to the station at Fort Conger, Lieut. Greely started from Lady 
Franklin Bay with his men in a steam launch and three boats on 
the 9th of August, expecting to find a vessel in Smith Sound. 
The boats were beset and had to be abandoned, the party 
reaching the shore across the ice with great difficulty, carrying 
their supplies of food, now rapidly diminishing. On the 2ist of 
October 1883 they were obliged to encamp at Cape Sabine, on 
the western shore of Smith Sound, and build a hut for wintering. 
A few dep6ts were found, which had been left by Sir George 
Nares and Lieut. Beebe, but all supplies were exhausted 
before the spring. Then came a time of indescribable misery 
and acute suffering. The party proved insubordinate and the 
sternest measures were required to maintain military discipline. 
When the sun returned in 1884 the poor fellows began to die of 
actual starvation; but it was not until the 22nd of June 1884 
that the relieving steamers " Thetis " and " Bear " reached 
Cape Sabine. Lieut. Greely and six suffering companions 
were found just alive, but with all their scientific records, their 
instruments in order and the great collections of specimens 
intact. The failure of the relief expeditions to overcome 
difficulties which were child's play to what Greely and his 
companions had come through only enhances the splendid 
courage and determination of the heroic survivors. 

Danish expeditions under Lieut. G. Holm explored the east 
coast of Greenland from Cape Farewell northwards in Eskimo 
boats between 1883 and 1885, and at Angmagssalik they 
encountered a tribe of Eskimo who had never seen white men 
before. Lieut. Ryder and Lieut. T. V. Garde continued the 
exploration of East Greenland, and Ryder explored the great 
Scoresby Fjord. Captain Holm established a missionary and 
meteorological station at Angmagssalik Fjord in 1894, from 
which the Danish government take charge of the Eskimo of that 
region. In 1892-1893 an expedition sent out by the Berlin 
Geographical Society under Dr Erich von Drygalski studied the 
ice formations on the west of Greenland. 

In July 1886 Lieut. Robert E. Peary, civil engineer, U.S. 
Navy, accompanied by the Dane Christian Maigaard, made a 
journey on the inland ice of Greenland eastward from Disco 
Bay in about 69 30' N. They reached a height of Peary ana 
7500 ft., when according to Peary's observations Neaseaia 
they were 100 m. from the coast, and then re- Oneoitad. 
turned. Dr Fridtjof Nansen with Otto Sverdrup and five other 
companions, after overcoming great difficulties in penetrating 
the ice-floes, succeeded in landing on the east coast of Greenland 
in August 1888 in 64 23' N. and reached a height of 8920 ft. 
on the inland ice, which was crossed on ski to the west coast. 
The interior was found to be a nearly flat plateau of snow 
resembling a frozen ocean, and at the high altitude of more than 
8000 ft. the cold was intense. The crossing occupied more than 
two weeks, and the party not having dogs had themselves to 
haul all their gear on sledges. As they approached the western 
edge of the ice their progress was checked by dangerous crevasses; 
but on the 26th of September they succeeded in reaching the west 
coast at the head of the Ameralik Fjord in 64 12' N., having 



POLAR REGIONS 



traversed 260 m. of glacier. Nansen discovered that in that 
latitude the inland ice of Greenland has the form of a huge shield 
rising rather rapidly but regularly from the east coast to 
nearly 9000 ft., flat and even in the middle and falling again 
regularly toward the western side, completely enveloping the 
land. An important principle acted on for the first time in 
Arctic travel on this journey was that of starting from the less 
accessible side and pushing straight through with no possibility 
of turning back, and thus with no necessity for forming a base 
or traversing the same route twice over. 

Peary spent the winter of 1891-1892 at Inglefield Gulf on 
the north-west coast of Greenland, Mrs Peary, Dr F. A. Cook, 
Eivind Astrup and a coloured servant Matthew Henson being in 
his party, and a large number of the Etah Eskimo in the vicinity. 
In April 1892 he set out for a journey across the inland ice to the 
north-eastward in the hope of reaching the east coast and also 
the northern extremity of the land. After getting well up on 
the ice-covered plateau a supporting party returned to winter 
quarters, while Peary and Astrup, with two companions and 
sixteen dogs, entered on the serious part of their work. The 
highest part of the inland ice was found to be about 5700 ft., 
and as usual after the first part of the descent, towards the north- 
east in this case, the surface was broken by numerous dangerous 
crevasses, progress amongst which was very slow. Great 
hardships were experienced from cold, insufficiency of food and 
the wearing out of sledges and clothes, but on the 4th of July, 
having left the ice and got on bare land in 81 37' N., where musk 
oxen and other game were found and flowers were growing, Peary 
was rewarded by a glimpse of the sea to the north-eastward, and 
named it from the date Independence Bay. He also traced a 
channel to the north beyond which lay a new land largely free 
from snow, no doubt the southern part of the island along the 
north of which Markham and Lockwood had travelled to their 
farthest north. The return journey to Inglefield Gulf was a 
wonderful feat of endurance, which was completed on the 4th of 
August ; the total distance marched on the whole journey out and 
home was 1300 m. Peary returned to northern Greenland in 1893, 
having spent the whole time between the two expeditions in 
writing and lecturing in order to raise funds, for he travelled at 
his own charges. He landed on the shore of Inglefield Gulf on 
the 3rd of August and wintered there with a party of thir- 
teen, including Mrs Peary, and there their daughter was born. 
Astrup was taken ill after starting on the great journey in March 
1894, which was to have extended the explorations of the pre- 
vious year, and had to return; others were severely frost-bitten, 
disease broke out amongst the dogs, and a month after the 
start Peary was only 130 m. from his base and had to return. 
Peary with two of his party, Hugh J. Lee and Matthew Henson, 
remained at Inglefield Gulf for another winter, and on the 
ist of April 1895, with deer and walrus meat in place of pemmi- 
can, the supply of which had been lost, set out for Independence 
Bay. They reached the ice-free land when their food was 
exhausted and fortunately fell in with a herd of musk oxen, the 
meat from which made it possible to get back to Inglefield Gulf, 
though without adding anything material to the results of 
1892. The experience of ice-travel and of Eskimo nature gained 
in the four years' almost continuous residence in northern 
Greenland were however destined to bear rich fruit. 

Dr Nansen, after making an exhaustive study of the winds 
and currents of the Arctic Sea, and influenced largely by the 
Nansen; occurrence of driftwood on the shores past which the 
Drift ol the ice-laden waters flowed southward between Green- 
" /*." land and Spitsbergen, satisfied himself that there was 
a general drift across the polar basin and perhaps across the Pole. 
He planned an expedition to take advantage of this drift on the 
principle which guided his crossing of Greenland, that of entering 
at the least accessible point and not turning back, thus having 
no line of retreat and making a relief expedition impossible. He 
planned a ship, the " Fram," which was immensely strong, to 
resist crushing, and of such a section that if nipped in the ice the 
opposing ice-masses would pass under her and lift her on to the 
surface. The plan of the expedition was based on scientific 



reasoning, but the methods were totally at variance with those 
of previous explorers. Otto Sverdrup, who had been one of 
Nansen's party in crossing Greenland, was captain of the 
" Fram," and the party included eleven others, the whole ship's 
company of thirteen living together on terms of social equality. 
Nansen paid the greatest possible attention to the provisions, 
and all the arrangements for the health and happiness of those 
on board were carefully thought out. The clothing of the 
expedition was as original in design as the ship; instead of having 
furs, thick woollen underclothing was adopted, with a light 
wind-proof material for the outer dress. The " Fram " left 
Christiania in the summer of 1893 and made her way through the 
Kara Sea and along the north coast of Asia until on the zoth of 
September she was run into the ice in 77 30' N., off the New 
Siberia Islands, and the great drift commenced. As anticipated, 
she rose to the pressure of the ice and was borne on an even 
keel high above the water for the whole duration of the drift. 
The movement of the ice was irregular, and on the 7th of 
November the " Fram " was back at her starting-point, but on 
the whole the movement was north-westward until the isth of 
November 1895, when the highest latitude of the ship was 
attained, 85 55' N. in 66 31' E., the meridian of the east of 
Novaya Zemlya; then it was westward and finally southward 
until the ice was broken by blasting round the ship in June in 
83 N. lat.; and after being afloat, though unable to make much 
progress until the middle of July, the " Fram " broke out of 
the ice off the north coast of Spitsbergen on the I3th of August 
1896. No ship before or since has reached so high a latitude. 
In all her drift the " Fram " came in sight of no new land, but 
the soundings made through the ice proved that the Arctic Sea 
was of great depth, increasing towards the Pole, the greatest 
depth exceeding 2000 fathoms. The great mass of water filling 
the polar basin was comparatively warm, indicating free circula- 
tion with the Atlantic. It was established that the ice formed 
off the coast of Asia drifted across the polar basin in a period of 
from three to five years, and the hypothesis on the truth of which 
Nansen risked his success was abundantly verified by facts. The 
ship's company all returned in perfect health. After the second 
winter on the " Fram " at a time when the northward movement 
of the drift seemed to be checked, Nansen, accompanied by 
Lieut. Hjalmar Johansen, left the ship in order to explore 
the regions towards the Pole by travelling on ski with dog 
sledges carrying kayaks. It was obviously hopeless to attempt 
to find the drifting ship on their return, and Nansen intended to 
make for Spitsbergen in the hope of meeting one of the tourist 
steamers there. A more daring plan was never formed, and it 
was justified by success. Leaving the ship on the I4th of March 

1895 in 84 N. 102 E., they made a fairly rapid march 
northward, reaching a latitude of 86 5' N. on the 8th of April, 
the nearest approach to the Pole so far achieved. Turning 
south-westwards they travelled with much difficulty, sometimes 
on the ice, sometimes in kayaks in the open lanes of water, incur- 
ring great danger from the attacks of bears and walrus, but at 
length reaching a group of new islands east of Franz Josef 
Land. They travelled westward through this archipelago until 
the 28th of August, when they built a small stone hut roofed 
with their light silk tent, in which they passed the winter on a 
land since called Frederick Jackson Island. There they lived 
like Eskimo on bear and walrus meat cooked over a blubber 
lamp. The journey southward was resumed in the spring of 
1896, and on the isth of June they met Mr F. G. Jackson, in 
whose relief ship, the " Windward," they returned to Norway. 
Nansen and Johansen reached Vardo on the i3th of August 

1896 full of anxiety for the fate of their old comrades, when 
by a coincidence unparalleled in the history of exploration, the 
" Fram " was on that very day breaking out of the ice off 
Spitsbergen and the original party of thirteen was reunited at 
Tromso the following week and returned together to Christiania. 
On this remarkable expedition no life was lost and the ship 
came back undamaged under the skilled guidance of Sverdrup 
with a great harvest of scientific results. 

Mr Frederick George Jackson planned an exploring expedition 



95* 



POLAR REGIONS 



to attain a high latitude by the Franz Josef Land route and was 
supported financially by Mr A. C. Harmsworth (Lord North- 
jackson- cliffe). He was accompanied by Lieut. Albert 
Harmsworth Armitage, R.N.R., as second in command and six 
Expedition, scientific men, including Dr Reginald Koettlitz; 
Dr W. S. Bruce also was one of the number in the second year. 
The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition sailed in 1894, and was 
landed at Cape Flora, where log houses were built. In the 
spring of 1895 Jackson made a journey northward to 81 19' N., 
the highest latitude reached, and added considerably to our 
knowledge of the archipelago by discovering a channel between 
groups of islands west of the Austria Sound of Payer. He 
made numerous other journeys by land and in boats, and 
surveyed a considerable portion of the islands on which he 
landed, the most interesting being that of 1897, to the western 
portion of the group. The geological collections were of some 
value and the specimens secured indicated that Franz Josef 
Land and Spitsbergen were parts of an extensive land existing 
in Tertiary times. The expedition returned in 1897. 

In 1897 and subsequent years a party led by Sir Martin 
Conway explored the interior of Spitsbergen. Dr A. G. Nathorst, 
the Swedish geologist, explored the eastern coast and off-lying 
islands, and made important observations on North-East Land, 
circumnavigating the Spitsbergen archipelago in 1898. In 1899 
Nathorst visited the north-east coast of Greenland in search of 
Andr6e's balloon expedition, and here he mapped Franz Josef 
Fjord and discovered the great King Oscar Fjord in waters 
that had never been navigated before. 

In subsequent years valuable surveys and scientific observa- 
tions were made by the Prince of Monaco in his yacht "Princesse 
Alice," by Dr W. S. Bruce, notably on Prince Charles Foreland, 
and by others. Franz Josef Land was visited by the American 
explorer W. Wellman in 1898 and 1900, and his companion 
E. Baldwin in the former year made the discovery of several 
islands in the east of the archipelago. A wealthy American, 
W. Zeigler, also sent out expeditions to Franz Josef Land in 
1901 and between 1903 and 1905, in the course of which A. Fiala 
reached the high latitude of 82 4' N. in the " America," but the 
ship was afterwards lost in Teplitz Bay. These expeditions added 
little to our knowledge of polar geography, but some useful 
meteorological, magnetic and tidal observations were made. 

The Italian expedition under the command of H.R.H. Prince 
Luigi, duke of the Abruzzi, was the most successful of all those 
which have attempted to reach high latitudes by 

wav of Franz J sef Land - Embarking in the 
summer of 1899 on the " Stella Polare " (formerly 
the Norwegian whaler " Jason " which had landed Nansen on 
the east coast of Greenland in 1888) the expedition put into 
Teplitz Bay in Rudolf Land, where they wintered and there the 
ship was seriously damaged by the ice. In the spring of 1900 a 
determined effort was made to reach the North Pole by sledging 
over the sea-ice. The duke of the Abruzzi having been disabled 
by frost-bite, the leadership of the northern party devolved upon 
Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian navy, who started on 
the nth of March 1900 with ten men (Alpine guides and Italian 
sailors) and nearly a hundred dogs. His plan was to sledge 
northward over the sea-ice, sending back two parties as the 
diminishing stores allowed the advance party to take on the 
whole of the supplies destined to support them on their way to 
the Pole and back. Before losing sight of Rudolf Island three 
men forming the first party started to return, but they never 
reached winter quarters and all must have perished. The second 
party went back from latitude 83 10' N., and reached their base 
in safety. Cagni pushed on with three companions, determined 
if he could not reach the Pole at least to outdistance his prede- 
cessor Nansen, and on the 25th of April 1900 he succeeded in 
reaching 86 34' N. in 65 20' E. Diminishing food supplies 
made it necessary to turn at this point, and although he had 
reached it in 45 days it took Cagni 60 days to return.. The 
advance of summer loosened the ice-floes, and the westward 
component of the drift of the pack became a more and more 
serious danger, threatening to carry the party past Franz Josef 



Land without sighting it. Fortunately Cape Mill, a headland of 
characteristic outline, was sighted just in time, and with this as 
a guide the party succeeded in reaching Teplitz Bay, having 
eaten the last of their dogs and been reduced to great extremities. 
At the farthest north no land was visible, the rough sea-ice 
extending to the horizon on every side. 

As early as 1895 a scheme for an exploring expedition in a 
balloon was put forward seriously, and in 1897 the Swedish 
aeronaut S. A. Andree carried it out. He had 
brought a balloon to Danes Island, in the north of 
Spitsbergen, the previous year, but the weather was unpropitious 
and the ascent had to be postponed. On the nth of July 1897 
he started in a new and larger balloon with about five tons of 
supplies and two companions. It was hoped that the balloon 
could be steered to some extent by the use of heavy guide ropes 
dragging over the ice, and Andree had already made successful 
flights in this way. Rising at 2.30 p.m. the balloon was out 
of sight of Danes Island in an hour. At 10 p.m. Andree threw 
out a buoy containing a message which was recovered, and this 
stated that the balloon was in 82 N. 25 E., moving towards 
the north-east at an altitude of 800 ft. above a rugged ice-field. 
This was the last news received, and although scarcely a year 
has passed without some rumour of the balloon having been 
found in Siberia or North America, nothing further has ever 
been ascertained. 

In 1899 Admiral Makaroff of the Russian navy arranged for 
the trial trip of the great ice-breaker " Yermak," which he 
designed, to take the form of an expedition into 
the sea-ice off Spitsbergen. Though no high lati- 
tude was attained on this occasion he formed the opinion that 
a vessel of sufficient size and power could force a passage even 
to the Pole. The Russian- Japanese War put an end to the polar 
projects of this gifted man of science. 

Captain Otto Sverdrup, who had been Nansen's companion 
on his two polar expeditions, planned an Arctic voyage for the 
circumnavigation of Greenland, and the " Fram " _ 
was altered and refitted to suit her for the work. 
Starting in 1899, he was obliged to abandon the attempt to get 
northward through Smith Sound, and making his way westward 
into Jones Sound he spent three years in exploring and mapping 
the portion of the Arctic archipelago which lay to the north of 
the field of labour of the Franklin search expeditions. Ellesmere 
and Grinnell Lands were shown to be part of one large land mass 
called King Oscar Land, which is separated by a narrow channel, 
Eureka Sound, from an extensive island named Axel Heiberg 
Land. Two of his party (Isachsen and Hassel) discovered and 
explored two islands west of Heiberg Land, and Dr Schei made 
most valuable observations on the geology of the whole of the 
district examined. Sverdrup's journeys cleared up a great deal 
of uncertainty regarding the geography of the least known 
portion of the Arctic archipelago, and leave little more to be 
done in that quarter. He brought the " Fram " safely back to 
Norway in 1903. 

Many American whalers working in the sea reached through 
Bering Strait believe that land of considerable extent lies 
farther west than the Arctic archipelago, north of the mouth of 
the Mackenzie River, but neither the English traveller A. H. 
Harrison in 1905, nor the Dane Einar Mikkelsen in 1907, was 
able to find any trace of it, though the latter sledged over the 
sea ice as far as 72 N., where in 150 W. he got a sounding of 
339 fathoms with no bottom. This depth makes it somewhat 
improbable that land exists in that quarter. 

Russian surveyors and explorers continued to map portions 
of the Siberian coast, and in 1886 Dr Bunge and Baron Toll 
visited the New Siberia Islands and made known _^ _. 
the remarkable remains of mammoths which exist 
there in great numbers. In 1893 Baron Toll made an 
important geological expedition to the islands, discovering 
many well-preserved remains of mammoths and other extinct 
mammals and finding evidence that in the mammoth period 
trees grew at least as far as 74 N. Indefatigable in the pursuit 
of his studies, Toll set out once more in 1901 on board the 



POLAR REGIONS 



953 



" Zarya," hoping to reach Sannikoff Island, the most northern 
and still unvisited portion of the New Siberia group. In 
August 1902 he reached Bennet Island with the astronomer 
Seeberg and two men; he found the island to be a plateau about 
1 500 ft. in elevation, and remained there until November studying 
the geological features. Nothing more was heard of the expedi- 
tion, and a relief expedition in 1904, under Lieuts. Brusneff 
and Kolchak, failed to find any trace of the explorers beyond 
a record left on Bennet Island, which gave a summary of their 
movements up to the time of leaving the island. 

In 1901 Captain Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian, who had 
been mate on the " Belgica " in her Antarctic voyage, planned 
an expedition to the area of the north magnetic 
' pole visited by Sir James Ross in 1831, in order to 
re-locate it, and as a secondary object he. had in view the 
accomplishment of the North- West Passage by water for the 
first time, M'Clure not having carried his ship through from 
sea to sea. A small Norwegian sealing sloop, the " Gjoa," the 
cabin of which measured only 9 ft. by 6, was fitted with a 
petroleum motor engine of 39 h.p. for use in calm weather and 
strengthened to withstand ice-pressure. She left Christiania 
on the lyth of June 1903 with a total company of six men, 
second in command being Lieut. Godfred Hansen of the 
Danish navy. She passed through Lancaster Sound and worked 
her way down the west side of Boothia Felix in August, and took 
up winter quarters in Gjoa Harbour at the head of Petersen Bay 
in King William Land. Here the little vessel remained for two 
years while magnetic and meteorological observations were 
carried out, and sledging excursions were made to the magnetic 
pole and along the coasts of Victoria Land, which was charted 
up to 72 N. In August 1905 the " Gjoa " proceeded westward 
along the American coast but was frozen in off King Point for a 
third winter. On the nth of July 1906 she got free, and after 
much difficulty with the ice reached Bering Strait on the 3oth 
of August and entered the Pacific, the first ship to pass from 
ocean to ocean north of Patagonia. 

Danish explorers have continued to concentrate their attention 
on the problems of Greenland, and especially the geography 
of the east coast. Lieut. G. D. Amdrup, in a series of expedi- 
tions between 1898 and 1900, charted the coast-line as far north 
as 70 15' N., and made important scientific observations and 
collections. From time to time whalers reached the east Green- 
land coast at points in high latitudes. The duke of Orleans 
in the " Belgica," under the command of Captain Gerlache, 
made an important voyage in 1905, in the course of which he 
cruised along the coast of Germania Land between 76 and 78 N., 
and fixed the general outline of the land up to that latitude. 
This expedition did a large amount of scientific work, especially 
in oceanography. The stream of sea-ice which presses out- 
wards from the polar basin every summer bears close against 
the east coast of Greenland, and exploration by sea has always 
proved exceedingly difficult and precarious, success depending 
very much on the occurrence of chance leads amongst the ice. 
Taking advantage of all previous experience, the most important 
of the Danish expeditions was planned by L. Mylius-Erichsen 
in 1905, the expenses being partly raised by private 
subscriptions and partly provided by the Danish 
government. He sailed in the " Danmark " in June 
1906 and found winter quarters in Danmarkhaven, 75 43' N., 
where the ship remained for two years, while systematic magnetic 
and meteorological observations were kept up at the base and 
the main work of exploring to the northward was carried on by 
sledge. From existing maps it was believed that about 620 m. 
of coast separated the winter quarters from the northern point of 
Greenland, but when the sledge expedition went out in 1907 the 
coast was found to curve much farther to the eastward than 
had been anticipated, and the outward journey extended to 
800 m. Having left the winter quarters on the 28th of March 
1007, Mylius-Erichsen, with Captain Koch, Hagen, an educated 
Eskimo, Bronlund and two others, reached North-East Fore- 
land, the eastern extremity of Greenland (81 20' N., 11 15' W.). 
Here they divided; Koch with Berthelsen and the Eskimo 



Myllus- 
Ericbsen. 



Tobias went north-westward to explore the east coast of Peary 
Land, and succeeded in reaching the northernmost extremity 
of the land beyond Cape Bridgman in 83 30' N. From this 
great journey he returned in safety to winter quarters, arriving on 
the 24th of June. Meanwhile Mylius-Erichsen, with Hagen and 
the Eskimo Bronlund, followed the coast westward into what 
was believed to be the Independence Bay seen from a distance 
by Peary; this turned out to be a deep inlet now named Danmark 
Fjord. Keeping to the coast, they entered the great channel 
separating the mainland of Greenland from Peary Land, and 
surveyed Hagen Fjord on the southern shore and Bronlund 
Fjord on the northern shore of the strait. They had pushed on 
to Cape Glacier in 82 N. and 35 W. by the I4th of June 1907, 
within sight of Navy Cliff, which had been Peary's farthest coming 
from the west side, and here the softness of the snow kept them 
all summer. When they could travel, more than a fortnight was 
wasted adrift on a floe in the effort to cross Danmark Fjord. 
Here the sun left them, while they were without food, almost 
worn out and more than 500 m. from the ship. It was impossible 
to attempt the long journey round the coast, and the only chance 
of safety, and that a very slender one, was to make a way south- 
ward over the inland ice and so cut off the eastern horn of Green- 
land which the expedition had discovered. Under the most 
terrible difficulties, with only four starved dogs, and their equip- 
ment going to pieces, they accomplished the feat of marching 
160 m. in 26 days, and reached the east coast again in 79 N. 
Hagen died on the way; Mylius-Erichsen himself struggled on 
until he nearly reached the provisions left on Lambert Island 
on the northern journey; but he too perished, and only Bronlund 
reached the supplies. He was frost-bitten and unable to proceed 
further, and after recording the tragedy of the return journey 
in his diary, he died also alone in the Arctic night. His body 
and the records of the great journey were discovered in the 
following year by Koch, who started on a relief expedition as 
soon as travelling became possible. The results of this expedition 
are a splendid monument to the courage and devotion of the 
leader and his followers. The channel between Spitsbergen 
and Greenland was shown by their efforts to be far narrower 
than had previously been supposed, and the outline of Greenland 
itself was fixed for the first time, and that by an extremely 
accurate survey. 

There only remains one further episode to bring the history 
of polar exploration up to 1910, but that is the crowning event of 
four hundred years of unceasing effort, the attain- 
ment of the Pole itself; and it was accomplished by 
the undaunted perseverance of one man who would never accept 
defeat. After the return of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedi- 
tion, Lord Northcliffe presented the " Windward " to Lieut. 
Peary, who resumed in 1898 his systematic explorations of the 
Smith Sound region in the hope of finding a way to the Pole. 
He was not restrained by the precedents of earlier travellers 
and made some long sledge journeys in the winter of 1898-1899, 
having his feet badly frost-bitten and losing eight toes. Even 
this crippling did not stop his work. He wintered amongst 
the Etah Eskimo in 1899-1900 and next spring made a successful 
journey to the most northerly land north of- Greenland in 83 35' 
where the land had an abundant flora and fauna, and he pushed 
north over the sea-ice for twenty miles farther, reaching 83 54' 
N. Peary wintered again at Fort Conger in 1900-1901, and for 
the fourth year in succession he went through the Arctic winter, 
1901-1902, at Payer Harbour. In the spring of 1902 he made a 
great journey to Cape Hecla in the north of. Grant Land and 
thence northward over the frozen sea to 84 if N. in 70 W. 
Frequent open leads of water and the moving of the ice-floes 
made further advance impossible, and after an unparalleled 
sojourn in the farthest north, Peary returned to the United 
States. The Peary Arctic Club of New York, formed to support 
this indomitable explorer, provided funds for a new expedition 
and a ship differing in some respects from those hitherto em- 
ployed and named the " Roosevelt." In her he proceeded in 
the summer of 1905 through Smith Sound and the northern 
channels to Cape Sheridan on the north coast of Grant Land, 



954 



POLAR REGIONS 



Captain Robert Bartlett being in command of the ship. From 
this point he advanced by sledge to Cape Hecla, whence he made a 
most strenuous attempt to reach the North Pole. Organizing his 
large following of trained Eskimo, whose confidence in him had 
been won by many years of friendship, and his few white com- 
panions in separate parties, each complete in itself and well 
furnished with dogs and food, he set off at the end of February 
1906. A very broad lead of open water was encountered in 
84 38' N., and as the party did not carry kayaks much time was 
lost in getting across. The floes had a marked eastward drift 
and it was difficult to make progress northward; however, 
Peary struggled on by forced marches to 87 6' N., which he 
reached on the zist of April 1906, the most northerly point 
so far attained. His return journey was the most dangerous 
in his experience; many leads had to be crossed, sometimes on 
ice so thin that it bent beneath the weight of the explorers, 
provisions, were exhausted and the men were reduced to eating 
their dogs before they made land at Cape Neumayer in the north 
of Greenland, where game was found, and whence the return 
to the ship was comparatively easy. 

Returning to America, Peary prepared for a last attempt. 
The " Roosevelt " was overhauled and various defects made 
Peary's good, but not in time for the summer of 1907. 
Journey to Leaving New York hi July 1908 the " Roosevelt," 
the North a g aul under the command of R. Bartlett, brought 
the party, with the Eskimo who were picked up on 
the way, to Cape Sheridan by the sth of September. During 
the winter all supplies were transported to Cape Columbia, 
farther west on the coast of Grant Land. Here there were 
ready to start in the first light of the Arctic day seven explorers, 
17 picked Eskimo and 133 of the best dogs in Greenland with 19 
sledges. As the outcome of all Peary's experience the expedition 
was arranged to consist of a lightly equipped advance party to 
select the route and make the trail by clearing a way through 
rough ice, and a main party composed of units of four men each 
with sledges containing all their requirements marching one 
day behind the pioneer party. From this unit parties were 
to return southward at intervals with the empty sledges, leaving 
the diminished main party to push on fully provisioned. The 
" big lead " which marks the edge of the continental shelf in 
84 N. was crossed after some delay and here the sun appeared 
for the first time on the sth of March 1009. Dr MacMillan with 
three Eskimo and three sledges returned along the outward 
trail after the 7th of March from 84 29' N. A sounding at this 
point showed the depth of the sea to be 825 fathoms. After 
five more marches G. Borup turned back in 85 23' with three 
Eskimo and three sledges, the best Eskimo and dogs remaining 
with the main party. From this point the advance was regular; 
the pioneer party started from the snow-houses they had built 
and slept in when the main party arrived, and while the latter 
slept the pioneers marched, selected a camp, built new snow- 
houses, and slept till the main party came up. At 86 38' N. 
Prof. R. G. Marvin turned back, as usual with the three worst 
Eskimo and the worst dogs. His party reached the ship, but 
he himself was drowned in recrossing the " big lead," the only 
casualty of the expedition. At 88 N. Bartlett turned back on 
the ist of April in accordance with the system with two Eskimo, 
one sledge and 18 dogs. Up to this point Peary had saved him- 
self as much as possible, leaving the path-finding and the observa- 
tions to his very competent colleagues; but now he put forth all 
his strength for the arduous 140 m. which separated him from 
the Pole. He was accompanied by Henson and four Eskimo. 
The ice improved as he went on and it was possible to do 25 m. 
in a daily march of 10 hours, and on one occasion 30 m. in 12 
hours. On the 6th of April an observation gave 89 57' N., and 
here a camp was made and observations taken throughout 
24 hours to fix the position, as well as excursions a few miles 
farther on and a few miles to right and left so as to be sure 
of actually reaching the Pole. No land was to be seen, and a 
sounding through the ice gave a depth of 1500 fathoms 
with no bottom. The American flag was hoisted; the goal of all 
the ages of exploration had been reached. 



The return journey was quick and easy. The tracks kept 
open by the passage of the various return parties were distinct 
enough to follow, the snow-houses stood ready for sheltering 
at the end of each march, and a northerly gale kept the ice 
pressed well together and the leads closed. On the 23rd of 
April Cape Columbia was reached and soon after the party was 
safe on board the " Roosevelt." Success was due to the 
accumulated experience of twenty-three years' constant Arctic 
work, and to the thorough acquaintance with the Eskimo and 
their dogs, which enabled the best work to be got out of them. 

Dr F. A. Cook spent two years in the Arctic regions, 1907-1909, 
and claimed to have reached the Pole by sledging alone with two 
Eskimo a year before Peary. He submitted the evi- p , _ 
dence for this achievement to the university of Copen- ' 
hagen, which failed to find it satisfactory, and Dr Cook did not 
appear to challenge this decision. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE ARCTIC REGION 

Geology. Although much remains to be done in the explora- 
tion of the North Polar area, the main features of the physical 
geography of the region have been determined beyond any 
reasonable doubt. Within the Arctic Circle the northern 
portions of Europe, Asia, America and Greenland surround a 
central area of deep sea, the southern margin of which forms a 
broad continental shelf bearing many islands. The ring of 
land and shallow sea is broken only by the broad channel between 
Greenland and Europe through which Atlantic water gains an 
entrance to the Arctic Sea. The physical conditions of this 
sea, which covers the greater part of the Arctic regions, are 
dealt with later in detail; but there is less to be said regarding 
the land. 

In a climate which taxes human powers to the utmost to carry 
on the simplest route-surveys in the course of an exploring 
expedition, and in the presence of a snow covering which is 
permanent on all high ground and only disappears for a short 
time in summer, even on the shores and islands, it is obvious 
that any knowledge of the geology must be difficult to obtain. 
On the earlier Arctic expeditions enthusiastic collectors brought 
together quantities of specimens, many of which it was found 
impossible to bring home, and they have been found abandoned 
by later travellers. As Arctic exploration was usually carried 
out on the sea or over the sea-ice even those expeditions in which 
experienced geologists took part furnished few opportunities for 
making investigations. The result is that the geology of the 
Arctic lands has to be inferred from observations made at isolated 
points where the fortune of the ice stopped the ship, or where 
on land journeys a favourable exposure was found. Almost 
every geological formation is known to be represented, from the 
Archaean to the Quaternary, and there is a general resemblance 
in the known geological features of most of the great Arctic 
islands. The fundamental rock in all appears to be Archaean 
gneiss. In the extreme north-east Carboniferous strata have 
recently been discovered similar to the Carboniferous rocks of 
Spitsbergen. The Jurassic rocks farther south are in places 
capped by Cretaceous beds, and closely resemble the Jurassic 
rocks of Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and the northern parts 
of Norway and Russia. Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are found 
on the west coast of Greenland covered over by great flows of 
basalt, probably of Tertiary age, at Disco Island, Nugsuak 
Peninsula and various points farther north. The only mineral 
of economic value found in Greenland is cryolite, which is mined 
at Ivigtut in the south-west. Native iron occurs in considerable 
masses in several places, some of it undoubtedly of telluric 
origin, though some is probably meteoric. 

The second " Fram " expedition confirmed and extended the 
geological observations of the Franklin search expeditions on 
the American Arctic archipelago, and showed the presence above 
the Archaean rocks of Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian strata, 
the Silurian being represented by a widespread brown limestone 
abounding in fossils. Carboniferous limestones also occur and 
less extensive beds of quartz sandstones, schists and limestones 
containing ammonites and other Mesozoic fossils. Tertiary 



POLAR REGIONS 



i. Isotherms, January. 



2. Isotherms, July. 



ISOBAKIC CHARTS 



Pressure in millimetres, the 
Figures indicating the addition 
to 700. Thus on the charts 55 
= 755 mm. = 29^7 in. to the 
nearest tenth; 60 = 760 mm.= 
29-9 in. ; 65 = 765 mm. ^-=30-1 in. ; 
75 = 755 mm. = 30-5 in. 



ISOTHERMAL CHARTS, 

Temperature in degrees Centi- 
grade ; o=32F., -I7'8 = o 



Isobars, January. 



5. Isobars, July. 



3. Mean Annua.] 
Isotherms. 




From the North Pole Expedition, 1893-1896, Scientific Results, edited by Fridtjof Nansen, by permission of the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science. 



POLAR REGIONS 



955 



rocks including beds of lignite and plant fossils of Miocene age 
also occur, and they are interstratified and overspread with 
basalts and other eruptive rocks as in Greenland. In Grant 
Land Tertiary coal occurs in Lady Franklin Bay (81 45' N.), the 
most northerly deposit of fossil fuel known. Arctic Canada 
consists of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks worn down into 
plateaux or plains and bearing marks of glacial action, the 
absence of which is the most remarkable feature of the tundra 
region of Siberia. The Siberian coast is superficially formed to a 
large extent of frozen soil and gravel sometimes interbedded 
with clear ice, and in this soil the frozen bodies of mammoths 
and other Quaternary animals have been found preserved in a 
fresh condition by the low temperature. The absence of a glacial 
period in northern Siberia is probably indirectly due to the very 
low temperature which prevailed there, preventing the access 
of water vapour from without and so stopping the supply 
required to produce sufficient precipitation to form glaciers or 
ice-caps. On the New Siberia Islands Silurian and Tertiary 
rocks have been recognized, the latter with abundant deposits of 
fossil wood. 

The geological evidence is complete as to the existence of a 
genial climate in Tertiary times as far north as the present land 
extends, and of a climate less severe than that of to-day in the 
Quaternary period. The existence of raised sea margins in 
many Arctic lands and especially in the American Arctic archi- 
pelago bears evidence to a recent elevation of the land, or a 
withdrawal of the sea, which has been influential in forming 
some of the most prominent features of the present configuration. 

It is noteworthy that no great mountain range runs into the 
Arctic region. The Rocky Mountains on the west and the Ural 
range on the east die down to insignificant elevations before 
reaching the Arctic Circle. The plateau of Greenland forms the 
loftiest mass of Arctic land, but the thickness of the ice cap is 
unknown. The one active volcano within the Arctic Circle is 
on the little island of Jan Mayen. 

The Arctic Climate. As the water of the Arctic Sea is free 
from ice around the margin only for a few months in summer, 
and is covered at all times over its great expanse with thick ice 
in slow uneasy motion, there is less contrast in climate between 
land and sea, especially in winter, than in other parts of the 
world. The climate of the polar area may be described as 
the most characteristic of all the natural features, and obser- 
vations of temperature and pressure are more numerous and 
systematic than any other scientific observations. The Russian 
meteorological system includes Siberia, and long series of obser- 
vations exist from stations up to and within the Arctic Circle. 
The Canadian Meteorological Service has secured like observa- 
tions for the extreme north of North America, though the records 
are more fragmentary and of shorter duration. Norway and 
Iceland also yield many records on the margin of the Arctic 
Circle. The international circum-polar stations maintained 
during 1882 connected the Siberian, Norwegian and Canadian 
land stations with the more fragmentary work of the various 
polar expeditions which have wintered from time to time in 
high latitudes. The most valuable records and practically the 
only data available for the climate north of 84 are those of the 
first expedition of the " Fram " in her three years' drift across 
the polar basin. Later expeditions beyond the 84th parallel 
were merely dashes of a few weeks' duration, the records from 
which, however accurate, are of an altogether different order of 
importance. The data collected by the " Fram " were discussed 
in great detail by Professor H. Mohn in 1904, and that eminent 
authority combined them with all that had been known pre- 
viously, and all that was ascertained by later explorers up to the 
return of Captain Sverdrup from the second " Fram " expedition, 
so as to give the completest account ever attempted of the 
climate of the North Polar regions, and on this we rely mainly 
for the following summary. 

Temperature. From Professor Mohn's maps of the isotherms 
north of 60 N. it is evident that the temperature reduced to 
sea-level is lowest in the winter months within an area stretching 
across the pole from the interior of Greenland to the middle of 



Siberia, the long axis of this very cold area being in the meridian 
of 40 W. and 140 E. For every month from October to April 
the mean temperature of this cold area is below o F., and in 
the two coldest months there are three very cold areas or poles 
of cold with temperatures below 40 arranged along the axis. 
These are the interior of Greenland, an area around the North 
Pole and the centre of Northern Siberia. Professor Mohn is 
satisfied that these three poles of cold are separated by somewhat 
warmer belts, as observations on the north coast of Greenland 
show a temperature higher both than the temperature of the 
interior reduced to sea-level and the temperature on the 
frozen sea farther north. As summer advances the temperature 
rises to the freezing point most rapidly in North America, the 
mean temperature for June, July and August for the American 
coast and the Arctic archipelago being above the freezing point. 
In July and August the Arctic shores in America, Asia and 
Europe have a mean air-temperature of about 40 F., but the 
interior of Greenland and the area round the North Pole remain 
below 32, those two poles of cold persisting throughout the 
year while the winter cold pole in Asia disappears in summer. 1 
There is no reason to doubt that in winter the Asiatic area is 
the coldest part of the Arctic region, and as it is permanently 
inhabited it is plain that low temperature alone is no bar to the 
wintering of expeditions in any part of the North Polar region. 
The lowest temperature experienced during the drift of the 
" Fram " was 62 F.,on the I2th of March 1894 inlat. 79 41', 
long. 134 17' E. The minimum temperatures recorded on 
Sir George Nares's expedition were 73-8 F. on the " Alert " in 
82 27' N. and- 70-8 on the " Discovery " in 81 44' N., both in 
March 1876, and the minimum on Sverdrup's expedition in 
Jones Sound in 76 50' N. was 60 F. in January 1901. In 
February 1882 Greely recorded 66-2 at Fort Conger, 81 44' 
N., and at Fort Constance in Canada (66 40' N. 119 W.) a 
temperature of 72 F. was noted in January 1851. The lowest 
temperature ever recorded on the earth's surface was probably 
that experienced at Verkhoyansk in Siberia (67 34' N.) where the 
absolute minimum in the month of February was 93-6, and 
minima of 70 or more have been recorded in every winter 
month from November to March inclusive, and as the absolute 
maximum in July was +92-7 F. the total range experienced 
is no less than 186-3, f ar exceeding that known in any other 
part of the world. 

The normal monthly mean temperatures for various parallels 
of latitude are given as follows by Professor Mohn, the last 
column showing the calculated conditions at the North Pole 
itself expressed to the nearest degree. 





Normal Air Temperature for Latitudes in F. 




65 N. 


70 N. 


80 N. 


90 N. 


January . 


- 9-4 


-iS-3 


26-0 


-42 


February . 


- 6-7 


-H-5 


-26-5 


-42 


March. 


+ 3-0 


- 8-3 


-23-1 


-31 


April . 


19-0 


+ 6-8 


- 8-9 


-18 


May . 


34-7 


24-1 


+ 14-0 


+ 9 


June . 


48-6 


37-9 


30-0 


28 


July . 


54-7 


45-o 


35-6 


30 


August 


50-6 


43-2 


32-7 


27 


September 


40-7 


32-5 


18-1 


9 


October . 


24-6 


15-3 


- 2-4 


II 


November 


5-8 


- 0-6 


II-O 


-27 


December . 


- 5-1 


-10-5 


-19-1 


-36 


Year . . . 


21-7 


12-9 


!! 


- 9 



The interior of Greenland is believed to be below the normal 
temperature for the latitude in all months and so is the region 
between Bering Strait and the Pole; the Norwegian-Sea, and the 
region north of it as far as the Pole, has a temperature above the 
normal for the latitude in all months; while the temperature 

1 It must be remembered that for cartographical purposes 
temperature is reduced to its value at sea-level, allowing for a change 
of 1 F. in about 300 ft. Thus the actual temperature on the 
snowcap of Greenland at the height of 9000 ft. is 30 F. lower at 
all seasons than is shown on an isothermal map, and that of Verkho- 
yansk (500 ft.) is only 1-5 F. lower than is charted. 



956 



POLAR REGIONS 



in the northern continents is below the normal in winter and 
above the normal in summer. 

The " Fram " observations showed that while the ordinary 
diurnal range of temperature prevailed for the months when 
the sun was above the horizon during some part of the day, 
there was also a diurnal range in the winter months when the 
sun did not appear, the minimum then occurring about 2 p.m. 
and the maximum about i a.m., the " day " being colder than 
the " night." Except in July and August the temperature 
was always found to be lower with the weaker winds and higher 
with the stronger winds irrespective of direction. Extraor- 
dinarily rapid variations of temperature have been observed 
in the winter months, on one occasion in February 1896 (north 
of 84 N.) the thermometer rising within 24 hours from 45-4 
to +22-3 F., a rise of 67-7. 

Cloud and Precipitation. The amount of cloud in the far 
north is greater in the daytime than at night, the summer 
months being cloudy, the winter very clear, and the amount is 
greater with the stronger winds and less with the weaker winds. 
Precipitation is most frequent in the summer months, the 
" Fram " results showing an average of 20 days per month from 
May to September; while from October to April the average was 
only iij days per month. Rain was only observed in the months 
from May to September; but snow occurs in every month and is 
most frequent in May and June, least frequent in November and 
December, which are the months of minimum precipitation. It 
has never been possible to make satisfactory measurements of 
the amount of precipitation in the Arctic regions on account of 
the drifting of snow with high wind. Fogs occur most frequently 
in July and August (20 or 16 days per month); they are 
practically unknown between November and April. 

Pressure. The " Fram " observations enabled Professor 
Mohn to revise and extend the isobaric maps of Dr Buchan, 
the correctness of which was strikingly confirmed. The Atlantic 
and Pacific low pressure areas are found at all seasons on the 
margin of the Arctic area, the position shifting a little hi longitude 
from month to month. The two low pressures are separated 
in the winter months by a ridge of high pressure (exceeding 
30-00 in.) stretching from the Canadian to the Siberian side be- 
tween the North Pole and Bering Strait ; this ridge has been termed 
by Professor Supan " the Arctic wind divide." In April the high 
pressure over Asia gives way and an intense low pressure area 
takes its place during the summer, uniting in August with the 
less intense low-pressure area which develops later over Canada, 
and reducing the Arctic high pressure area to an irregular belt 
extending from North Greenland to Franz Josef Land on the 
Atlantic side of the Pole. The general pressure over the polar 
area is much higher in winter than in summer and the gradients 
are steeper also in the cold weather, giving rise to stronger winds. 
The isobaric conditions indicate light variable winds in summer 
along the route of the " Fram " from the New Siberia Islands to 
the north of Spitsbergen, and in winter south-easterly or easterly 
winds of greater force; this is in accord with the observations 
made during the drift. Professor Mohn believes that the 
maximum pressure at the North Pole takes place in April, when 
it is about 30-08 in.; and the minimum pressure from June to 
September, when it is about 29-88 in., the annual range of 
monthly mean pressure being thus only 0-20 in., so that the 
Pole may be said to be in a region of permanently high atmo- 
spheric pressure. Cyclonic depressions crossed the region of the 
" Fram's " track with considerable frequency, 73 being experi- 
enced in the three years, the frequency being greatest in winter 
but the wind velocity in cyclones greatest hi summer; the most 
common direction of movement was from west to east. The 
average velocity of the cyclonic winds encountered by the 
" Fram " was only about 29 m. per hour, the highest 40 m. per 
hour, the portion of the Arctic Sea she crossed being much less 
stormy than the coasts of the Arctic lands, where winds have 
been recorded of far greater severity, e.g. 45 m. per hour in 
Spitsbergen in 1882, 55 m. per hour in Teplitz Bay, Franz 
Josef Land, in 1900, 62 m. per hour on the Siberian coast in 
the " Vega " in 1879, an d as much as 90 m. per hour at Karmakul 



in Novaya Zemlya in 1883. There seems little doubt that the 
interior of the polar area is a fair weather zone as compared 
with its margins, where the contrast of the seasons is more 
marked. 

Flora. The land flora of the Arctic regions, although neces- 
sarily confined to the lower levels which are free from snow for 
some time every year, and greatly reduced in luxuriance and 
number of species as compared with the flora of the temperate 
zone, is still in its own way both rich and varied, and it extends 
to the most northerly land known. In some of the fjords of 
western Greenland and also of Ellesmere Land almost on the 
8oth parallel the prevailing colour of the landscape in summer is 
due to vegetation and not to rock. The plants which occur on 
the margin of the Arctic Sea and in the polar islands represent 
the hardier species of the North European, Asiatic and American 
flora, the total number of species amounting to probably about 
a thousand phanerogams and a still larger number of crypto- 
gams. The habit of all is lowly, but some grasses grow to a 
height of i ft. 6 hi., and the mosses, of which the Eskimo make 
their lamp-wicks, frequently form cushions more than a foot in 
depth. Trees are absent north of 73 N., which is the extreme 
point reached in Siberia, or they are dwarfed to the height of 
shrubs as in southern Greenland, or farther north to that of the 
prevailing herbage. The flowers of many Arctic species of 
phanerogams have an intensely brilliant colour. The plains and 
lower slopes of the plateaux of Ellesmere Land and Heiberg 
Land and the plain of Peary Land north of Greenland are suffici- 
ently clothed with vegetation to support large numbers of 
rodents and ruminants, the plants occurring not as occasional 
curiosities, but as the normal summer covering of the ground, 
playing their full part in the economy of nature. The cold 
of winter is not sufficient to put a stop to plant life even at the 
pole of cold in northern Siberia; and there is no reason to doubt 
that if there were islands close to the North Pole they would 
bear vegetation. 

Fauna. Animal life is comparatively abundant hi the waters 
of the Arctic Sea, though the whalebone whale, Balaena myste- 
cetis, has become almost extinct by reason of the energy with 
which its pursuit has been carried on. The white whale and 
narwhal still abound in the open waters as far north as ships can 
go. The walrus and several species of seal prey on the marine 
life, and the polar bear, the king of Arctic beasts, probably 
roams the whole surface of the frozen sea in pursuit of seals 
and the larger fish. The other Arctic carnivora include the 
Arctic fox and wolf, the latter attacking all the land mammalia 
except the polar bear and old musk-oxen. The wild reindeer 
is still found in all the circum-polar lands except Franz Josef 
Land; but its range does not extend so far to the north as that 
of the typical ruminant of the polar lands, the musk-ox (Ombos 
moschatus), which now abounds only in Peary Land, north Green- 
land and in the American Arctic Archipelago, though it was 
formerly circum-polar in its distribution. The Arctic hare is 
almost equally characteristic and more abundant, and the 
lemming probably more common still. The ermine and other 
valuable fur-bearing animals also occur. The animals are 
either permanently white like the polar bear, or change their 
coats with the season, being brown in summer and white in 
winter like the hares and lemmings. The birds of the Arctic 
regions are all migrants, retreating southward in winter but 
nesting in incredible numbers on the Arctic coast -lands, and in 
summer probably finding their way as individuals to every part. 
They are mainly sea-birds, though the snow bunting, the Arctic 
owl and other land birds are amongst the summer visitors. It 
must be remembered that the elevated plateaux of the interior 
of Greenland and of many of the large islands are totally devoid 
of life of every kind on account of their unchanging covering 
of snow and the intensely rigorous climate due to their great 
altitude. 

Arctic People. The conditions of life in the continental parts 
of the Arctic regions are extremely severe as regards tempera- 
ture in the winter, but it has been found possible for civilized 
people to live permanently both in the extreme north of North 



POLAR REGIONS 



957 



America and in the north of Siberia. In the north of Norway 
where the winter is mild on account of the warm south-westerly 
winds from the open Atlantic, organized communities dwell 
within the Arctic Circle in free communication with the south 
by telegraph, telephone, steamer, and in some cases by rail also, 
all the year round. The climate on the coast of Norway is 
scarcely less favourable in the north than in the south except 
for the absence of light in winter when the sun never rises, and 
the absence of darkness in summer when the sun never sets. 
If there were natural products of sufficient value permanent 
settlements might arise in any part of the Arctic regions where 
there is land free from snow in summer; but as a rule Arctic 
land is poor in mineral wealth and the pursuit of whales and 
seals requires only a summer visit. The original people of the 
farthest north of Europe are now represented by the Lapps, 
who lead a migratory life, depending mainly on fishing and on 
their herds of reindeer. Farther east their place is taken by the 
Samoyedes who live along the coast of the Kara Sea and the 
Yalmal Peninsula; they have also a small settlement in Novaya 
Zemlya. The Samoyedes, like the Lapps, live on the produce 
of the sea in summer and on their herds of reindeer, moving 
rapidly ever the frozen country in winter by means of reindeer 
and dog sledges. Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land appear 
never to have had native inhabitants. Along the coast of" 
Siberia there is no continuous population, except in the land of 
the Chukchis in the extreme east between the Kolyma river 
and Bering Strait; but small settlements of many tribes of pagan 
hyperboreans occur here and there. North American Indian 
tribes wander far to the north of the Arctic Circle in Canada and 
Alaska, keeping their hereditary enemies the Eskimo to the coast 
and islands. The Eskimo of the American coast are inter- 
mingling not only with the American whalers but also with the 
Polynesians who come north as part of the crew of the whalers, 
and the pure race is tending to disappear. The traces of Eskimo 
encampments in the Polar archipelago, where no Eskimo now 
live, may mark a former wider range of hunting grounds, or a 
greater extension of the population. The Greenland Eskimo 
are the most typical and the best known of their race. A few 
hundred live on the east coast, where they were formerly much 
more numerous. The greater part of the west coast Eskimo 
are now civilized members of the Danish colonies, and it is 
stated that whereas in 1855 only about 30% of the population 
were half-breeds, the blending of the Eskimo and Europeans is 
now so complete that no full-blooded Eskimo remain in Danish 
Greenland. The tribe of Eskimo living to the north of Melville 
Bay, the glaciers of which separate them from the people of 
Danish Greenland, was first described by Sir John Ross, who 
called them Arctic Highlanders. They have been fully studied 
by Commander Peary, who succeeded in utilizing them in his 
great series of journeys, and to their aid he attributes the success 
of his method of Arctic travelling. 

The Arctic Sea. 

According to its geographical position, the Arctic Sea might 
be described as the sea situated north of the Arctic Circle; but 
according to its natural configuration, it is better defined as the 
gulf-like northern termination of the long and relatively narrow 
Atlantic arm of the ocean which extends north between Europe 
on one side and America on the other. By this situation as the 
northern end of a long arm of the ocean its physical conditions 
are to a very great extent determined. This Arctic gulf is 
bounded by the northern coasts of Europe, Siberia, North 
America, the American Arctic archipelago, Greenland and 
Iceland. Its entrance is the opening between Europe and 
Labrador divided by Iceland, Greenland and the American 
Arctic islands; and its natural southern boundary would be the 
submarine ridge extending from Scotland and the Shetland 
Islands through the Faeroe Islands and Iceland to Greenland, and 
continuing on the other side of Greenland across Davis Strait 
to Baffin Land. This ridge separates the depression of the 
Arctic Sea, filled with cold water at the bottom, from the deep 
depression of the North Atlantic. The Arctic Sea communicates 



with the Pacific Ocean through Bering Strait, which is, however, 
only 49 m. broad and 27 fathoms deep. The area of the Arctic 
Sea may be estimated to be about 3,600,000 sq. m., of which 
nearly two-thirds (or 2,300,000 sq. m.) is continuously covered 
by floating ice. 

The Arctic Sea may be divided into the following parts: 
(i) The North Polar Basin (including the Siberian Sea), bounded 
by the northern coasts of Siberia (from Bering Strait to the 
western Taimyr Peninsula), Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, 
Greenland, Grinnell Land, Axel Heiberg Land, Ringnes Land, 
the Parry Islands and Alaska; (2) the Kara Sea, between Novaya 
Zemlya and the Siberian coast, south ofja line from the north 
point of the former to Lonely Island (Ensomheden) and Norden- 
skiold Island; (3) the Barents and Murman Sea, bounded by 
Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Bear Island 
and the northern coasts of Norway and Russia; (4) the Norwegian 
Sea, between Norway, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Iceland and the 
Faeroes; (5) the Greenland Sea, between Spitsbergen, Jan 
Mayen, Iceland and Greenland; (6) Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, 
between Greenland, EUesmere Land, North Devon and Baffin 
Land. 

Depths. The Arctic Sea forms an extended depression 
separating the two largest continental masses of the world 
the European-Asiatic (Eurasia) and America. Along its 
centre this depression is deep, but around its whole margin, 
on both sides, it is unusually shallow a shallow submarine 
plateau or drowned plain extending northward from both 
continents, forming the largest known continental shelf. North 
of Europe this shelf may be considered as reaching Spitsbergen 
and Franz Josef Land, extending over more than 10 degrees 
of latitude, although there is a somewhat deeper depression in 
between. North of Spitsbergen it reaches beyond 81 N., and 
north of Franz Josef Land probably somewhat north of 8a N. 
North of Siberia the shelf is 350 m. broad, or more, with depths 
of 50 to 80 fathoms, or less. In longitude 135 E. it reaches 
nearly 79 N., where the bottom suddenly sinks to form a deep 
sea with depths of 2000 fathoms or more. Farther east it 
probably has a similar northward extension. North of America 
and Greenland the shelf extends to about latitude 84 N. This 
shelf, or drowned plain, evidently marks an old extension of the 
continents, and its northern edge must be considered as the real 
margin of their masses, the coasts of which have probably been 
overflowed by the sea at some comparatively recent geological 
period. On this submarine plateau the Arctic lands are situated 
Spitsbergen (with Seven Islands to the north, Bear Island and 
Hope Island to the south), Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, 
Lonely Island, the New Siberia Islands, Wrangel Island, the 
American Arctic archipelago. The depth of the shelf is, especi- 
ally north of Siberia, very uniform, and usually not more than 
50 to 80 fathoms. North of Europe it is intersected by a sub- 
marine fjord-like depression, or broad channel, extending east- 
ward from the Norwegian Sea. Between Norway and Bear 
Island this depression is about 240 fathoms deep, and between 
Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land 100 to 150 fathoms deep. 
It gives off several submerged fjords or channels towards the 
south-east into the shallow Murman Sea, e.g. one channel, more 
than ico fathoms deep, along the Murman coast towards the 
entrance of the White Sea; another narrow channel, in parts 100 
fathoms deep, along the south-west coast of Novaya Zemlya 
through Kara Strait. It also extends into the Kara Sea, 
rounding the north point of Novaya Zemlya and forming a 
narrow channel along its eastern coast. On the American side 
similar but much narrower submarine depressions, which may 
be called submarine fjords, extend from Baffin Bay into the 
continental shelf, northward through Smith Sound, Kane Basin 
and Kennedy Channel, and westward through Lancaster Sound. 

The greatest depths in the Arctic Sea have been found in the 
North Polar Basin, where depths of 2100 fathoms, in about 
81 N. and 130 E., have been measured with certainty. It is 
deeper than 1650 fathoms along the whole route of the 
" Fram," from about 79 N. and 138 E. to near Spitsbergen. 
In 84! N. and about 75 E. the depth is 2020 fathoms, 



958 



POLAR REGIONS 



and in 83 N. and 13 E. it is 1860 fathoms. The northern 
and eastern extension of this deep basin is not known. 
Commander Peary reports a depth of 1500 fathoms with no 
bottom at 5 sea miles from the Pole (about 89 55' N.) where 
he tried to obtain a sounding. It was formerly believed 
that still greater depths existed west of Spitsbergen, in the 
so-called Swedish deep, where 2600 fathoms had been sounded, 
but the Nathorst expedition in 1898 found no greater depths 
there than about 1700 fathoms. The Norwegian Sea, 
farther south, is 2000 fathoms deep midway between Iceland and 
Norway, in about 68 N. This so-called Norwegian deep is, as 
before stated, separated from the North Atlantic Basin by the 
Wyville Thomson ridge and the Faeroe-Iceland ridge. Farther 
north there is a low transverse ridge extending eastwards from 
Jan Mayen, in about 72 N., which is about 1300 fathoms deep. 
North of this the sea is again deeper 1985 fathoms in 75 N. 
From the north-west corner of Spitsbergen a submarine ridge 
extends in a north-westerly direction, with depths of about 430 
fathoms in 81 N. and about 4 E. How far this rfdge extends 
is unknown, but there is a probability that it reaches Greenland, 
and thus separates the Swedish and the Norwegian deep from 
the deep depression of the North Polar Basin. Baffin Bay 
forms, probably, a relatively deep basin of about 1000 or 1200 
fathoms, which is separated from the West Atlantic Basin by 
the shallow submarine ridge from Greenland to Baffin Land in 
about 65 or 66 N. 

The deposit composing the bottom of the Arctic Sea contains 
in its northern part, in the North Polar Basin, extremely little 
matter of organic origin. It is formed mainly of mineral 
material, sandy clay of very fine grain, to an extent which is 
hardly found in any other part of the ocean with similar depths. 
It contains only from i to 4 % of carbonate of lime. Farther 
south, in the sea between Spitsbergen and Greenland, the 
amount of carbonate of lime gradually increases owing to the 
shells of foraminifera (especially biloculinae) ; west of Spitsbergen 
the proportion rises to above 20 or even 30%, while in the 
direction of Greenland it is considerably lower. 

The circulation of the Arctic Sea may be explained firstly by 
the vertical and horizontal distribution of temperature and 
salinity (i.e. density); secondly, by the influence of the winds, 
especially on the ice-covered surface. The currents in this sea 
may to some extent be considered as convection currents, 
caused by the cooling of the water near the surface, which 
becomes heavier, sinks, and must be replaced on the surface 
by warmer water coming from the south, which is also influenced 
by the prevailing winds. On account of the rotation of the 
earth the northward-running water on the surface, as well as 
the sinking water, will be driven in a north-easterly or easterly 
direction, while the southward-flowing water along the bottom, 
as well as the rising water, is driven south-west or westward. 
This very simple circulation, however, is to a great extent 
complicated on the one hand by the irregular configuration of the 
sea-bottom, especially the transverse submarine ridges e.g. 
the Spitsbergen ridge, the Jan Mayen ridge, and the Scotland- 
Faeroe-Iceland ridge; and on the other hand by the circumstance 
that the upper water strata of the sea are comparatively light 
in spite of their low temperature. These strata, about 100 or 
120 fathoms thick, are diluted by the addition of fresh water 
from the North European, Siberian, Canadian and Alaskan 
rivers, as well as by precipitation, while at the same time the 
evaporation from the surface of the mostly ice-covered sea is 
insignificant. The light surface strata will have a tendency to 
spread over the heavier water farther south, and thus the polar 
surface currents running southward along the east coasts of 
Greenland, Baffin Land and Labrador are formed, owing their 
westerly course to the rotation of the earth. These currents 
are certainly to a great extent helped and increased by the 
prevailing winds of the region. The winds get a firm hold on 
the rough surface of the floating ice, which, with its deep hum- 
mocks and ridges, gets a good grip of the water, transferring the 
movement of the surface immediately down to at least 5 or 
10 fathoms. 



The chief currents running into the Arctic Sea are the following: 

1. The Gulf Stream, or Atlantic drift, passing north-eastward 
over the Scotland-Faeroe-Iceland ridge, along the west coast of 
Norway, with one arm branching off eastward round the North 
Cape into the Barents Sea, and another branch running northward 
along the margin of the shelf between Norway, Bear Island and 
Spitsbergen, passing as a very narrow current along the west coast 
of the latter, over the Spitsbergen ridge (at its north-west corner), 
and into the North Polar Basin, where it flows gradually northward 
and eastward (on account of the rotation of the earth) below the 
cold but lighter layer, 100 fathoms thick, of polar water, and fills 
the whole basin below 100 or 120 fathoms to the bottom with 
Atlantic water. 

2. The Irminger Current, running north along the west coast of 
Iceland. One part branches off westward and southward again 
in Denmark Strait, following the Greenland Polar Current, whilst 
another smaller part runs northward, eastward and south-eastward 
to the north and east of Iceland. 

3. An Atlantic current runs northward along the west coast of 
Greenland, passes the ridge across Davis Strait, and flows into 
Baffin Bay, forming its deeper strata below the polar water in 
a similar way to the Gulf Stream in the North Polar Basin. There 
is a possibility that some slight portion of this current even reaches 
the latter along the bottom of the deep channel through Smith 
Sound. 

4. A small current running northward into the North Polar 
Basin through Bering Strait. 

The Arctic Sea receives also a contribution of fresh water from 
the rivers of northern Europe, Siberia and America, as well as 
from the glaciers of Greenland and the precipitation over the whole 
area of the sea itself. 

The chief currents running out of the Arctic Sea are: (i) The 
Greenland Polar Current, running southward along the east coast 
of Greenland, and dividing into two branches north of Iceland 
(a) the east Greenland branch, passing south through Denmark 
Strait and rounding Cape Farewell; (6) the east Iceland branch, 
running south-eastward between Iceland and Jan Mayen, towards 
the Faeroes. It seems as if only a small portion of this current 
actually passes the Faero- Iceland ridge and reaches the Atlantic 
Ocean. The greater part is partly mixed with the water of the 
Gulf Stream and is turned by the latter in a north-easterly direction, 
forming a kind of eddy or vortex movement in the southern 
Norwegian Sea. (2) The Labrador Polar Current, formed by the 
water running south through Smith Sound, Lancaster Sound and 
Jones Sound, as well as water from Baffin Bay, and also from the 
east Greenland current rounding Cape Farewell and crossing 
Davis Strait. (3) Along the south-east coast of Spitsbergen a 
polar current also passes jn a south-westerly or westerly direction 
past South Cape, where it meets the Gulf Stream. (4) A small 
current probably also runs out along the western side of Bering 
Strait. 

Temperature and Salinity. While the temperature is compara- 
tively uniform, with small variations, the difference in salinity 
between the upper and lower strata is greater than in most 
other parts of the ocean. In the North Polar Basin the vertical 
distribution of temperature as well as salinity is very much the 
same in all places examined. Near the surface, from o down to 
100 fathoms, the water is below the freezing point of fresh 
water with a minimum of between 28-7 ( 1-8 C.) and 28-6 
( 1-9 C.) at a depth of about 30 fathoms and is much diluted 
with fresh water (see above), the salinity gradually increasing 
downward from about 29 or 30 per mille near the surface to 
nearly 35 per mille in 100 fathoms. Below 100 fathoms the 
temperature as well as the salinity gradually increases, until 
they approach their maximum in about 160 or 200 fathoms, 
where the temperature varies between 32-5 (0-3 C.), north of 
the New Siberia Islands, and about 33-8 (i C.) north of Franz 
Josef Land; and the salinity is about 35-1 per mille. From this 
depth the temperature gradually sinks downward; 32 (o C.) 
is found at about 490 fathoms in the western part of the basin 
e.g. between about 84 N. 15 E. and 85^ N. 58 E., while it 
is found in about 400 fathoms farther east e.g. in 815 N. and 
1 23 E. In depths between 1400 and 1600 fathoms the tempera- 
ture has a second minimum between 30-6 (0-8 C.) and 30-4 
(0-9 C.), below which depth the temperature again rises 
slowly, a few tenths of a degree towards the bottom. In all 
depths below 200 fathoms the salinity of the water remains very 
much the same, about 35-1 per mille, with very slight variations. 
This comparatively warm and saline water evidently originates 
from the branch of the Gulf Stream passing north across the 
submarine ridge from north-west Spitsbergen. The vertical 
distribution of temperature and salinity is very much the same, 



POLAR REGIONS 



959 



summer and winter, throughout the North Polar Basin, except 
near the surface, which in summer is covered by a layer of fresh 
water arising from the melting of the snow-covered surface of 
the floe-ice. This fresh-water layer may attain a thickness of 
5 or 6 ft. between the floes. North of the Siberian coast the sea 
is, during summer, covered with a layer of warm water from the 
Siberian rivers, and the temperature of the surface may rise to 
several degrees above freezing-point. 

In the Norwegian and Greenland Seas there are greater varia- 
tions of temperature. Below a certain limit, which in the northern 
part (on the eastern side) is about 550 fathoms deep, and in the 
southern part between 300 and 400 fathoms deep, the whole 
basin of this sea is rilled with water which has an unusually 
uniform salinity of about 34-92 per mille, and the temperature 
of which is below zero centigrade, gradually sinking downward 
from the above-mentioned limit, where it is 32 (o C.) ; and down 
to 29-8 (1-2 C.) or 29-6 ( 1-3 C.) near the bottom in i4ooor 
1600 fathoms. This cold underlying water of such a remarkably 
uniform and comparatively low salinity is formed chiefly in a 
small area between Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, by the formation 
of ice and cooling down of the Atlantic surface water by radiation 
of heat during the winter. In this manner the surface water 
becomes heavier than the underlying water and gradually sinks 
to the bottom. This water seems to be distinctly different from 
the hitherto known water filling the deep of the North Polar 
Basin, as it has a lower salinity and lower temperature; the 
known bottom temperature of the North Polar Basin being 
between 30-7 (0-7 C.) and 30-4 (0-9 C.), and the salinity 
about 35-1 per mille. This fact seems to indicate that therfc can 
be no direct communication between the deep depression of the 
North Polar Basin and the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, which 
are probably separated by a submarine ridge running from the 
north-west corner of Spitsbergen to Greenland. 

The above-mentioned layer of uniform cold water of the 
Norwegian-Greenland Sea is, along its eastern side, covered by 
the warm and saline water of the Gulf Stream flowing northward 
along the west coast of Norway, Bear Island and Spitsbergen, and 
forming the upper strata of the sea about 300 to 500 fathoms 
deep. The maximum temperature of this water is on the surface 
about 46 (8 C.) to 50 (10 C.) west of northern Norway, and 
about 37 (.3 C.) to 39 (4 C.) west of Spitsbergen. The salinity 
is generally between 35-0 and 35-3 per mille. 

Along the western side of this sea, towards the east coast of 
Greenland, the underlying cold water is covered by the less 
saline water of the polar current, which in the upper strata of the 
sea, from the surface down to about 100 fathoms, has very much 
the same temperature and salinity as in the upper cold and less 
saline strata of the North Polar Basin. Near the east coast of 
Greenland, a layer of comparatively warm and saline water, with 
a temperature of 32-7 (0-4 C.) and a salinity of 35-2 per mille, 
has been found (by the Ryder expedition in 1891) below the cold 
and lighter polar water in a depth of 70 to 90 fathoms. This 
warmer undercurrent is a continuation of the warm Spitsbergen 
current sending off a branch westward from Spitsbergen, and 
thus forming a great vortex movement in the Spitsbergen- 
Greenland Sea similar to the one mentioned farther south in the 
Norwegian Sea. 

In Barents Sea the temperature and salinity are highest in the 
western part near Norway or between Norway and Bear Island, 
where the eastern branch of the Gulf Stream enters and where 
in summer the salinity generally is between 34-8 and 35 per mille 
from the surface down to the bottom, and the surface tempera- 
ture generally is about 41 or 43 (5 C. or 6 C.), and the bottom 
temperature is above zero centigrade. The eastern part of 
Barents Sea is filled with water of a little lower salinity, the 
deeper strata of which are very cold, with temperature even as 
low as 28-9 ( 1-7 C.), but often with salinity above 35-0 per 
mille. This cold and saline water is formed during the formation 
of ice on the sea-surface. The bottom temperature is every- 
where in the eastern part below zero centigrade and generally 
below -i C. 

The Kara Sea is covered near the surface with a layer of cold 



water much diluted by the fresh water from the Siberian rivers, 
especially the Ob and the Yenisei. The salinity varies between 
29 and 34 per mille; near the mouth of the rivers it is naturally 
much lower. 

The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity in Baffin 
Bay seems to be very similar to that of the North Polar Basin, 
with a cold but less saline upper stratum of water with a 
minimum temperature of about 28-9 ( 1-7 C.) and a warmer 
and more saline deeper stratum from 100 to 200 fathoms down- 
wards, with a maximum temperature of 33-6 (0-9 C.) in about 
200 fathoms, and the temperature slowly decreasing towards the 
bottom. 

Arctic Ice. As before mentioned, at least two-thirds of the 
Arctic Sea is constantly covered by drifting ice. This ice is 
mostly formed on the surface of the sea itself by freezing, the 
sa-called floe-ice or sea-ice. A small part is also river-ice, 
formed on the rivers, especially those of Siberia, and carried into 
the sea during the spring or summer. Another comparatively 
small part of the ice originates from the glaciers of the Arctic 
lands. These pieces of glacier-ice or icebergs are, as a rule, 
easily distinguished from the floe-ice by their size and structure. 
They occur almost exclusively in the seas round Greenland, 
where they originate from the glaciers descending into the sea 
from the inland ice of Greenland. Some small icebergs are also 
formed in Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, 
Grinnell Land, &c., but they are comparatively insignificant, and 
are not as a rule carried far from the coasts. Sea-ice or floe-ice 
is formed during the autumn, winter and spring, especially in 
the North Polar Basin, but also in the Kara Sea, the greater part 
of Barents Sea, the northernmost part of the Norwegian Sea 
(near Bear Island and towards Jan Mayen), Greenland Sea and 
Baffin Bay. The floe-ice does not, as a rule, grow thicker than 
7 or 8 ft. in one year, but when it floats in the water for some 
years it may attain a thickness of 16 ft. or more directly by 
freezing. By the constant upheaval from pressure much greater 
thicknesses are attained in the piled-up hummocks and rubble 
which may be 20 to 30 ft. high above the water when floating. 
During the summer the floe-ice decreases again by melting 
partly on the surface owing to the direct radiation of heat from 
the sun, partly on the under side owing to the higher temperature 
of the water in which it floats. The first kind of melting is that 
which prevails in the North Polar Basin, which the second occurs 
in more southern latitudes. The floe-ice is constantly more or 
less in movement, carried by winds and currents. The changing 
wind, and also to a great extent the changing tidal current, 
causes diverging movements in the ice by breaking it into larger 
or smaller floes. When the floes separate, lanes and channels are 
formed; when they meet, ice-pressures arise, and the floes are 
piled up to form hummocks or ridges, and thus the uneven polar 
ice arises. In the North Polar Basin the floe-ice is slowly carried 
by the prevailing winds and the currents in an average direction 
from Bering Strait and the New Siberia Islands, north of Franz 
Josef Land and Spitsbergen, near the North Pole, towards the 
Greenland Sea and southward along the east coast of Greenland. 
Such a drift of an ice-floe from the sea north of Bering Strait to 
the east coast of Greenland probably takes, as a rule, four or five 
years, and the floes found in this part of the sea are not, therefore, 
generally older. What the drift of the ice is on the American side 
of the North Polar Basin is still little known. But there it is 
probably more or less blocked up in its southward movement by 
the islands of the American Arctic archipelago, and the ice-floes 
may thus grow very old and thick. Commander Peary found a 
strong easterly movement of the floes in the region north of 
Grant Land in 1907. The southward distribution of the drifting 
floe-ice (the pack ice) in Barents Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea 
and Davis Strait may differ much from one year to another, and 
these variations are evidently due to more or less periodical 
variations in the currents and also in the directions of the pre- 
vailing winds. In most places the ice has its most southerly 
distribution during the late winter and spring, while the late 
summer and autumn (end of August and September) is the most 
open season. 



960 



POLAR REGIONS 



Biological Conditions. The development of organic life is 
comparatively poor in those parts of the Arctic Sea which are 
continuously covered by ice. This is, amongst other things, 
proved by the bottom deposits, which contain exceptionally 
little carbonate of lime of organic origin. The reason is evidently 
that the thick ice prevents to a great extent the*development of 
plant life on the surface of the sea by absorbing the light; and as 
the plant life forms the base for the development of animal life, 
this has also very unfavourable conditions. The result is that 
e.g. in the interior of the North Polar Basin there is exceptionally 
little plant life in the sea under the ice-covering, and the animal 
life both near the surface and in deeper strata is very poor in 
individuals, whilst it is comparatively rich in species. Near the 
outskirts of the Arctic Sea, where the sea is more or less open 
during the greater part of the year, the pelagic plant life as well as 
animal life is unusually rich, and, especially during the early 
summer, there is often here such a development of plankton (i.e. 
pelagic life) on the sea-surface as is hardly found in any other part 
of the ocean. It seems as if the polar water is specially favourable 
for the development of pelagic plant life, which makes the flora, 
and consequently also the fauna, flourish as soon as the ice- 
covering disappears and the water surface is exposed to the full 
sunlight of the long Arctic day. At the same time the tempera- 
ture of the water rises, and thus the conditions for the chemical 
changes of matter and nutritive assimilation are much improved. 
The Arctic Sea, more especially the North Polar Basin, might 
thus be considered as a lung or reservoir in the circulation of the 
ocean where the water produces very little life, and thus, as it 
were, gets time to rest and accumulate those substances necessary 
for organic life, which are everywhere present only in quite 
minimal quantities. It is also a remarkable fact of interest in 
this connexion that the greatest fisheries of the world seem to be 
limited to places where waters from the Arctic Ocean and from 
more southern seas meet e.g. Newfoundland, Iceland, Lofoten 
and Finmarken in Norway. 

The mammalian life is also exceptionally rich in individuals 
along the outskirts of the Arctic Sea. We meet in those waters, 
especially along the margin of the drifting ice, enormous quantities 
of seals of various kinds, as well as whales, which live on the 
plankton and the fishes in the water. A similar development of 
mammalian life is not met with anywhere else in the ocean, 
except perhaps in the Antarctic Ocean and Bering Sea, where, 
however, similar conditions are present. In the interior of the 
Arctic Sea or the North Polar Basin mammalian life is very 
poor, and consists mostly of some straggling polar bears which 
probably occasionally wander everywhere over the whole expanse 
of ice; some seals, especially Phoca foetida, which has been seen 
as far north as between 84 and 85 N.; and a few whales, 
especially the narwhal, which has been seen in about 85 N.' 

The bird life is also exceptionally rich on the outskirts of the 
Arctic Sea, and the coasts of most Arctic lands are every summer 
inhabited by millions of sea-birds, forming great colonies almost 
on every rock. These birds are also dependent for their living 
on the rich plankton of the surface of the sea. In the interior 
of the Arctic Sea the bird life is very poor, but straggling sea- 
birds may probably be met with occasionally everywhere, during 
summer-time, over the whole North Polar Basin. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For very full references to polar exploration see 
A. W. Greely, Handbook of Polar Discovery (4th ed., London and 
New York, 1910), and for a nearly complete bibliography of earlier 
polar literature see J. Chavanne and others, The Literature of the 
Polar Regions (Vienna, 1878). W. Scoresby, An Account of the 
Arctic Regions (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); W. E. Parry, Attempt to 
reach the North Pole (London, 1828) ; S. Osborn, The Discovery of the 
North-West Passage (London, 1857); M'Clintock, A Narrative of the 
Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin, &c. (London, 1859); 
G. S. Nares, Voyage to the Polar Sea, 1875-1876 (2 vols., London, 
1878); A. H. Markham, The Great Frozen Sea (London, 1878, &c.); 
J. Richardson, The Polar Regions (Edinburgh, 1861); A. v. Midden- 
dorff, " Der Golfstrom ostwarts vom Nordkap," Petermanns Mit- 
teilungen (Gotha, 1871); A. Petermann, " Die Erschliessung eines 
Theiles des nordlichen Eismeeres . . . im Karischen Meere, 1870," 
Petermanns Mitteilungen (1871); and numerous other papers in 
the same periodical; C. R. Markham, The Threshold of the Un- 
known Region (London, 1873); Die zweite deulsche Nordpolfahrt 



unter Fiihrung des Capt. K. Koldewey (2 vols., Leipzig, 1873-1874); 
Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland 
and the neighbouring Regions, published by the Admiralty (London, 
1875); Arctic Geology and Ethnology, published by the Royal 
Geographical Society (London, 1875); C. Weyprecht, Die Meta- 
morphosen des Polareises (Vienna, 1879); papers on the results 
of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition, 1872-1874, in Petermanns 
Mitteilungen (1875, and especially 1878); J. Payer, New Lands 
within the Arctic Circle (2 vols., London, 1876) ; E. Bessels, 
Scientific Results of the U.S. Arctic Expedition, C. F. Hall com- 
manding, vol. i. (Washington, 1874); Die amerikanische Nordpol- 
Expedition (Leipzig, 1879); The Norwegian North Atlantic Expedi- 
tion, 1876-1878, especially: H. Mohn, "The North Ocean: its 



1881); several reports on the six voyages of the " Willem Barents " 
in the summers of 1878 to 1883, published in Dutch (Amsterdam and 
Haarlem, 1879-1887); De Long, The Voyage of the " Jeannette"; 
the Ship and Ice Journals of George W. De Long (2 vols., London, 
1883) ; Otto Pettersson, " Contributions to the Hydrography of the 
Siberian Sea," in Vega-Expedilionens vetenskapliga lakttagelser, vol. ii. 
(Stockholm, 1883); Axel Hamberg, " Hydrografisk Kemiska lakt- 
tagelser under den svenka Expeditionen till Gronland, 1883," 
Bihang till k. svenska vei.-akad. Handlingar, vol. ix. No. 16 and vol. 
x. No. 13 (Stockholm, 1884 and 1885); O. Kriimmel, Handbuch der 
Ozeanographie (2 vols., Stuttgart; 2nd ed., 1907, &c.); C. Ryder, 
" Den Ostgronlandske Expedition," Meddelelser om Gronland, 
pt. xvii. (Copenhagen, 1895); Isforholdene i Nordhavet 1877- 
1892, with 10 charts (Copenhagen, 1896); O. Pettersson and G. 
Ekrnan, " Die hydrographischen Verhaltnisse der oberen Wasser- 
schichten des nordlichen Nordmeeres zwischen Spitzbergen, Gron- 
land und der norwegischen Kiiste in den Jahren 1896 und 1897," 
Bihang till der K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. handlingar, vol. xxiii. pt. ii. 
No. 4; The Danish Ingolf Expedition; see especially M. Knudsen, 
" Hydrography," in vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1899) ; F. Nansen, Farthest 
North (2 vols., London, 1897); The Norwegian North Polar Expedi- 
tion, 1893-1896: Scientific Results; see especially F. Nansen, " The 
Oceanography of the North Polar Basin," in vol. ii. No. 9; " Some 
Results of the Norwegian Arctic Expedition, 1893-1896," Geo- 
graphical Journal (London, May 1897). By V. Garde and others 
there are, since 1895, yearly reports with charts of the state of the 
ice of the Arctic seas, in the Nautical-Meteorological Annual of the 
Danish Meteorological Institute (Copenhagen). Several Russian 
papers in various Russian periodicals, e.g. N. Knipovitch, " Material 
concerning the Hydrology of the White Sea and the Murman 
Sea," Bulletin de I'academie imp. des sciences de St Petersbourg 
(October 1897); Prince B. Galitzin, " On the Extension of the Gulf 
Stream in the Arctic Ocean," ibid. (November 1898, both in 
Russian), &c. ; N. Knipovitch, " Hydrologische Untersuchungen 
im europaischen Eismeer," Ann. d. Hydr. u. marit. Meteorolog. 
(1905) ; Filip Akerblom, " Recherches oceanographiques. Expedi- 
tion de M. A. G. Nathorst en 1899," Upsala Univesitets Arsskrift 
(1903). Math, och Naturvetenskap II. (Upsala, 1904) ; Axel Hamberg, 
" Hydrpgraphische Arbeiten der von A. G. Nathorst geleiteten 
schwedischen Polarexpedition 1898," Kongl. svenska vet.-akad. 
Handlingar, vol. xli. No. i (Stockholm, 1906) ; F. Nansen, " Northern 
Waters," Videnskabs Selskabets Skrifter, vol. i. No. 3 (Christiania, 
1906) ; B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, " The Norwegian Sea," 
Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. ii. 
No. 2 (Bergen, 1909); Due d'Orleans, Croisiere oceanographique 
dans la Mer du Gronland en 190$ (Brussels, 1909), see especially 
B. Helland-Hansen and E. Koefoed, Hydrographie. 



(H. R. M.;F. N.) 



ANTARCTIC REGION 



History of Antarctic Exploration. Although the Antarctic 
region was not reached by the first explorer until the Arctic 
region had been for centuries a resort of adventurers 
in search of the route to the East, the discovery of L * na " 
the south polar region was really the more direct 
outcome of the main stream of geographical exploration. It was 
early understood by the Greek geographers that the known world 
covered only a small portion of the northern hemisphere and that 
the whole southern hemisphere awaited exploration, with its 
torrid, temperate and frigid zones repeating the climatic regions 
familiar in the northern hemisphere, the habitable land of the 
south temperate zone being separated from the known world 
by the practically impassable belt of the torrid zone. During 
the middle ages the sphericity of the earth came to be viewed as 
contrary to Scripture and was generally discredited, and it was 
not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage 
the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India 
by circumnavigating Africa that the exploration of the southern 
hemisphere began. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 



POLAR REGIONS 



961 



1487 by Bartholomew Diaz first brought explorers within touch 
of the Antarctic cold, and proved that the ocean separated Africa 
from any Antarctic land that might exist. The passage of 
Magellan's Strait in 1520 showed that America and Asia also 
were separated from the Antarctic continent, which was then 
believed to extend from Tierra del Fuego southward. .The 
doubling of Cape Horn by Drake in 1578 proved that the Tierra 
del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and that any continent 



ever died a harder death. It is not to the purpose here to describe 
in detail how Schouten and Le Maire rediscovered the southern 
extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named Cape Horn in 1615, 
how Quiros in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain of all the 
lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New 
Hebrides) and those he would discover " even to the Pole," or 
how Tasman in 1642 showed that New Holland (Australia) was 
separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. 



30 West Longitude "Q Meridian ofoGreemvich 



30* East Longitude 



iKTh* _ :j 

^. "Jfr- .,A5*~ ' -g 

/I 






I. ">.. 



60" 



A'1 



L 



K 



i / PMMflSn^fJMMMMf- 

; -/ . ^jrttoatwjo.Lwid 




SOUTH 
POLAR REGIONS 

Scale, 1:48,000,000 

English Miles 
o 200 400 600 800 1000 

Limit of Pack /ML Ln ,, >%_-- 



West 1 50 Longitude 



East 1.50 Longitude 



which lay to the south must be within the region of perpetual 
winter. Before this, however, vague reports of land to the south 
of the Malay archipelago had led European geographers to connect 
on their globes the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of 
New Guinea, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the 
vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and 
Pacific oceans, they sketched the outlines of a vast continent 
stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great 
south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in 
the i6th and the early part of the I7th centuries, and no illusion 
xxi. 31 



Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds 
and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered 
seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 
reached the Antarctic circle, or knew it, if they did. The story 
of the discovery of land in 64 S. by Dirk Gerritsz on board the 
" Blijde Boodschap " in 1599 has recently been shown to be 
the result of the mistake of a commentator, Kasper Barlaeus, in 
1622. Much controversy has arisen as to whether South Georgia 
was sighted in 1675 by La Roche, but the point is of no import- 
ance in the development of the history of exploration. It may 



962 



POLAR REGIONS 



safely be said that all the navigators who fell in with the southern 
ice up to 1750 did so by being driven off their course and not of 
set purpose. An exception may perhaps be made in favour of 
Halley's voyage in H.M.S. " Paramour " for magnetic investi- 
gations in the South Atlantic when he met the ice in 52 S. in 
January 1700; but that latitude was his farthest south. A 
determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Pierre 
Bouvet to discover the South Land described by a half legendary 
sieur de Gonneville resulted only in the discovery of Bouvet 
Island in 54 10' S., and hi the navigation of 48 degrees of longi- 
tude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55 S. in 1739. In 1771 Yves 
Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed 
south from Mauritius in search of " a very large continent." 
He lighted upon a land in 50 S. which he called South France, 
and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. 
He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new 
land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he re- 
named in disgust the Isle of Desolation, but in which posterity 
has recognized his courageous efforts by naming it Kerguelen 
Land. The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated 
in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic 
hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to com- 
mand the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769, a post 
he coveted less for its astronomical interest than for the oppor- 
tunity it would afford him of confirming the truthfulness of his 
favourite explorer Quiros. The command of the expedition was 
given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook, whose geo- 
graphical results were criticized by Dalrymple with a force and 
persistence which probably had some weight in deciding the 
admiralty to send Cook out again with explicit instructions to 
solve the problem of the southern continent. 

Sailing in 1772 with the " Resolution," a vessel of 462 tons 
under his own command and the " Adventure " of 336 tons under 
Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain 
' for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of 
longitude to the westward in latitude 58 S., and then 30 east- 
ward for the most part south of 60 S. a higher southern latitude 
than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. 
On the 1 7th of January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for 
the first time in history and the two ships reached 67 15' S. in 39 
3 5' E . , where their course was stopped by ice. There Cook turned 
northward to look for South France, of the discovery of which 
he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determi- 
nation of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned 
latitude 10 too far east and did not see it. He turned south 
again and was stopped by ice in 61 52' S. and 95 E. and con- 
tinued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60 S. to 147 E. where 
on March i6th the approaching winter drove him northward 
for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. 
In November 1773 Cook left New Zealand, having parted com- 
pany with the "Adventure," and reached 60 S. in 177 W., 
whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating 
ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on the 2oth of 
December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being 
compelled after reaching 67 31' S. to stand north again in 
I 3S W. A long detour to 47 50' S. served to show that 
there was no land connexion between New Zealand and Tierra 
del Fuego, and turning south again Cook crossed the Antarc- 
tic circle for the third time in 109 30' W., and four days later 
his progress was blocked by ice in 71 10' S., 106 54' W. This 
point, reached on the 3oth of January 1774, was the farthest 
south attained in the i8th century. With a great detour to the 
east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition 
regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774 Cook 
started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without 
sighting land between 53 and 57 S. to Tierra del Fuego, then 
passing Cape Horn on the 29th of December he discovered 
the Isle of Georgia and Sandwich Land, the only ice-clad 
land he had seen, and crossed the South Atlantic to the 
Cape of Good Hope between 55 and 60 S., thereby wiping out 
Dalrymple's continent from all the oceans and laying open the 
way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a 



habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery 
of land lay on the temperate side of the 6oth parallel, and he 
convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically 
inaccessible and of no economic value. 

Soon after Cook's return sealers set out on voyages to South 
Georgia both from England and America, but no clear accounts 
of the southern limits of their voyages before the Sealers' 
year 1819 can now be obtained. In February of that Voyages. 
year William Smith of the brig " Williams " trading between 
Monte Video and Valparaiso, rounding the Horn with a wide 
sweep to the south, saw land in 62 40' S. Repeating the voyage 
in October he saw the land distinctly, and named it New South 
Shetland. The " Williams " was chartered by the British naval 
commander on the Pacific station, and in 1820 Edward Brans- 
field, master R.N., surveyed the group and went as far as 64 30' 
among the islands. Meanwhile American sealers from Stoning- 
ton, Connecticut, had begun operations on the newly dis- 
covered land, and one of these, Nathaniel B. Palmer, discovered 
the mountainous archipelago still farther south which now 
bears his name. In 1821-1822 George Powell, apparently a 
British sealer, discovered and surveyed the South Orkney 
Islands which, though typical Antarctic lands, lie outside the 
Antarctic region. 

A voyage only second in importance to that of Cook was planned 
in Russia and sent out by the emperor Alexander I. under the 
command of Fabian von Bellingshausen in the Bd/ings- 
" Vostok," with Lieut. Lazareff in the " Mirni " bausea. 
in company , both vessels being about 500 tons. The object of 
the expedition was to supplement that of Cook by circum- 
navigating the Antarctic area, taking care to keep as far south as 
possible in those longitudes where Cook had made his northward 
detours. Bellingshausen entered on his exploring work by sight- 
ing South Georgia at the end of December 1819, discovered the 
Traverse Islands, sighted the Sandwich group and met a solid 
ice-pack in 60 S., to get round which he made a wide detour, 
sailing east to the south of Cook's track, and getting south of the 
6oth parallel in 8 W. On the 26th of January he crossed the 
Antarctic Circle in 3 W. and by February ist had reached 69 25' 
in i n' W., a latitude which has never been surpassed on that 
meridian. Being stopped by ice, Bellingshausen turned northward 
and then continued to the east well to the south of Cook's track, 
getting south again as the ice permitted and reaching 69 6' S. in 
18 E. On this occasion he was able to sail for three degrees of 
longtitude within the circle before being forced north of it by a 
succession of heavy gales. He still kept eastward south of 65 S. 
and crossed the circle once more in 41 E., where the number 
of birds seen suggested the proximity of land, and in fact 
Enderby Land was not very far off, though out of sight. A 
storm of unexampled violence drove the ships northward, but 
they still held to the east south of 60 S. as far as 87 E., having 
followed the edge of the ice through those meridians south of 
Kerguelen Land where Cook had made a great detour to the 
north. Bellingshausen now made for Sydney to rest and refit, 
arriving there on the 29th of March 1820, after 131 days under 
sail from his last port. At Sydney Bellingshausen heard of 
the discovery of the South Shetlands, and leaving early in 
November reached the sixtieth parallel a month later in longi- 
tude 143 W., and sailing eastward kept south of that parallel 
through 145 degrees of longitude during sixty-five days, never 
out of sight of the ice, keeping close along the pack edge through 
the great gap left by Cook south of New Zealand. He managed 
to cross the circle three times more, in 164 30' W., in 120 W. 
and in 92 10' W., where he reached 69 52' S., the culminating 
point of the voyage. As the cruise was supplementary to 
Cook's, no attempt was made to get south of the meridian 
where that great navigator made his highest latitude. On the 
22nd of January 1821, the day after reaching his highest latitude, 
Bellingshausen sighted the first land ever seen within the 
Antarctic Circle, the little island named after Peter I. A week 
later another and larger land, named after Alexander I., was seen 
at a distance of 40 m. and sketches made of its bold outline in 
which the black rock stood out in contrast to the snow. 



POLAR REGIONS 



963 



Bellingshausen then made for the South Shetlands, where he 
met the American sealers, and thence returned to Russia. The 
voyage was a worthy pendant to that of Cook; it was carried 
out with a faithful devotion to instructions and consummate 
seamanship, and as a result it left only half the periphery 
of the Antarctic Circle within which land could possibly project 
beyond the Frigid Zone. 

The next episode in the history of Antarctic exploration was 
the voyage of James Weddell, a retired master R.N., in 1823. 
Weddell. Weddell was in command of the " Jane," a brig of 
1 60 tons, with the cutter " Beaufoy " of 65 tons in 
company, and after cruising among the South Orkneys during 
January he started for the south oh exploration, and as he was 
well equipped with chronometers his positions may be taken as of 
a far higher degree of accuracy than those of ordinary sealers. On 
the 2oth of February he reached the highest latitude yet attained, 
74 15' S. in 34 17' W., having seen much ice but no impenetrable 
pack, and at the farthest point the sea was clear and open, but 
the lateness of the season and the length of the return voyage 
decided him to go no farther. Weddell made interesting collec- 
tions of Antarctic animals, including the type specimen of the 
seal which bears his name, and the book in which he describes 
his voyage testifies to the keenness of his observations and 
the soundness of his reasoning. The sea which he penetrated so 
far to the south he named after the reigning king, George IV., 
but it is now known as Weddell Sea. 

In 1829 Captajn Henry Foster, R.N., in H.M.S. " Chanti- 
cleer " spent some months in the South Shetlands carrying on 
pendulum and gravity observations at the most southerly 
harbour that could be found, and though he did not go south of 
63 50' S. the careful observations which were made threw 
much light on the physical conditions of the Antarctic regions. 

The firm of Enderby Brothers of London took a conspicuous 
part in the exploration of the Antarctic seas during the first 
Biscoe f ur decades of the ipth century. They encouraged 
the masters of the whaling and sealing craft which 
they sent to the southern seas to take every opportunity that 
offered for exploration and to fix the position of any land 
seen with the greatest possible accuracy. The voyage of the 
Enderbys' brig " Tula," under the command of John Biscoe, R.N., 
with the cutter " Lively " in company, is worthy to rank with 
Cook's and Bellingshausen's expeditions, for it repeated and 
advanced upon their achievements with a mere fraction of their 
resources. Biscoe, who apparently had never heard of Bellings- 
hausen's discoveries, was a keen explorer and a man given to 
thinking over and reasoning upon all that he saw, and in many 
of his conclusions he was far in advance of his time. At the 
beginning of January 1831 Biscoe, who had been hunting vainly 
for seals on the Sandwich group, started on a voyage easterly to 
look for new islands, and in trying to get south of 60 S. he had to 
coast the impenetrable ice-pack as far as 10 W., and continuing 
he got within the Antarctic Circle in i E. on a track parallel to 
that of Bellingshausen but farther east. Contrary winds delayed 
the little vessels, no seal-bearing lands were to be found, but in 
spite of difficulties, constant danger from fogs and icebergs, and 
disappointed crews he held on eastward for five weeks far to the 
south of Cook's track, and, except at one or two points, to the 
south of Bellingshausen's also. Though his highest latitude was 
only 69 S. in 10 43' E. on the 28th of January, he remained 
south of the Antarctic Circle, or within a few miles of it, for 
another month, when, in longitude 49 18' E., he was rewarded 
by the discovery of land. But just as he was entering on 
a clear lead of water running straight for a promontory 
which he named Cape Ann, a terrific storm descended on the 
vessels, damaged them seriously and drove them helpless before 
it with the driving ice. A fortnight's struggle with the wind 
and ice brought Cape Ann into sight again on the i6th of 
March, but the weather was not to be conquered, the sea 
was beginning to freeze and half the crew were helpless with 
the effects of exposure, so Biscoe was compelled to give up the 
fight and reluctantly let the land now known as Enderby 
Land drop out of sight astern. With only three men able to 



Balleay. 



stand, Biscoe brought the " Tula " into Hobart Town, Tasmania, 
and the " Lively," with only the master, one man, and a wounded 
boy alive, just escaped shipwreck in Port Philip Bay. After 
recruiting their health and completing their crews the two 
captains put to sea again and spent some time in sealing on the 
shores of New Zealand and neighbouring islands. They started 
south once more, and crossed 60 S. in 131 W. on the 28th of 
January 1832. Biscoe kept between 60 and the Antarctic 
Circle, north of Bellingshausen's route, for he dared not risk the 
lives of his second crew, but he got south to 67 S. in 72 W., 
and here, on the I4th of February, he again sighted land, 
which, in ignorance of Bellingshausen's discoveries in the 
same region, he believed was the most southerly land yet 
known. He named it Adelaide Land after the queen. A 
few days later he passed a row of low ice-covered islands the 
Biscoe Islands running from W.S.W. to E.N.E. Beyond 
these islands lay the mountains of an extensive land of which 
Biscoe took possession in the name of King William IV., and 
to which the name of Graham Land was subsequently given. 
Biscoe returned home after an arduous two months' sealing in 
the South Shetlands, and the splendid results of his relentless 
determination as an explorer won for him the gold medals of the 
young Geographical Societies of London and Paris. 

In 1833 another of Enderbys' captains named Kemp reported 
the discovery of land in 66 S. and 60 E. about 10 east of 
Enderby Land. The last of the great voyages of 
exploration due to Enderby Brothers was the cruise 
of the " Eliza Scott " under the command of John Balleny, with 
the cutter " Sabrina " in company. This voyage is interesting 
because it was the first attempted in high latitudes from east 
to west, and all those made in the opposite direction had suffered 
much from the buffetings of head winds. Balleny left Campbell 
Island south of New Zealand on the i7th of January 1839 and 
crossed the Antarctic Circle in 178 E. on the zgth. Heavy 
pack ice stopped him in 69 S., a higher latitude than had 
previously been reached in that region. On the gth of February, 
after the little vessels had been working north-westward along 
the edge of the pack ice for more than a week, land was seen 
and found to be a group of mountainous islands the Balleny 
Islands one of which rose to a height of 12,000 ft., and 
another was an active volcano. Captain Freeman of the 
" Sabrina " made a momentary landing on one of the islands 
and was nearly drowned in the attempt, but secured a few 
stones which showed the rocks to be volcanic. The vessels 
held on their way westward between latitudes 63 and 65 S., 
far south of any earlier voyager, and land, or an appear- 
ance of land, to which the name of the " Sabrina " was given, was 
reported in 121 E. In 103 40' E. an iceberg was passed with a 
rock embedded in the ice, clear proof of land existing to the south- 
ward. A few days later the " Sabrina " was lost in a gale, but 
Balleny returned in safety. 

About 1835 the importance of obtaining magnetic observations 
in the far south, and the scientific interest of the study of the 
south polar regions led to plans being put forward for 
expeditions in the United States, France and Great lyui^iiie 
Britain. The French were first in the field; an expe- 
dition, equipped in the frigates " Astrolabe " and " Zelee " under 
Jules Dumont D'Urville for ethnographical research in the Pacific 
Islands, was instructed to make an attempt to surpass Weddell's 
latitude in the South Atlantic Ocean, and this D'Urville tried to 
do with conspicuous ill-success, for he never reached the Ant- 
arctic Circle though he spent the first two months of 1838 round 
the edge of the ice-pack south of the South Shetlands and the 
South Orkneys. Some portions of the land south of the South 
Shetlands were charted and named Joinville Island and Louis 
Philippe Land; but the addition to knowledge was not great. 
Two years later, after fulfilling the main purpose of his expedition 
in the Pacific, D'Urville resolved for the glory of France to attempt 
to reach the Magnetic Pole, towards which he was aware that a 
British and an American expedition were directing their course. 
He left Hobart Town on the ist of January 1840, and on the 2oth 
he crossed the 66th parallel in 140 E. and discovered land 3000 



9 6 4 



POLAR REGIONS 



or 4000 ft. high, which he named Adelie Land and took posses- 
sion of by landing on a rocky islet off the icebound coast. Ten 
days later in 64 30' S. D'Urville cruised westward along a high 
ice-barrier, which he believed to be connected with land, from 
longitude 131 E. and he named it the Clarie Coast. A few days 
later he left the Antarctic regions for the Pacific. 

As early as 1836 the United States Congress had authorized 
an American Exploring Expedition in the programme of which 

Antarctic exploration had a leading place. Lieut. 

Charles Wilkes was appointed to command the 
expedition of five vessels in August 1838, and his instructions, 
dated in that month, required him amongst other things (i) to 
follow Weddell's route as far as possible, (2) to visit the most 
southerly point reached by Cook in the Antarctic, and (3) to 
make an " attempt to penetrate within the Antarctic region, 
south of Van Diemen's Land, and as far west as longitude 45 E., 
or to Enderby Land." The ships were in bad repair and ill- 
adapted for navigation in the ice, and many of the officers were 
not devoted to their chief; but in spite of great difficulties Wilkes 
fulfilled his programme. In following Weddell's route Wilkes 
in March 1839 fared no better than D'Urville in the previous 
year, but the " Flying Fish " of 96 tons under Lieutenant Walker 
reached 70 S. in 105 W., thus nearly reaching Cook's position 
of 1774. The third item of the Antarctic programme was made 
the subject of the most strenuous endeavour. Wilkes sailed 
from Sydney in the " Vincennes " on the 26th of December 1839, 
accompanied by the " Peacock " under Lieut. William L. 
Hudson, the " Porpoise " under Lieut. Cadwaladar Ringgold, 
and the " Flying Fish " under Lieut. Pinkney. They went 
south to the west of the Balleny Islands, which they did not see, 
and cruised westward along the ice-barrier or as near it as the 
ice-pack allowed towards Enderby Land nearly on the Antarctic 
Circle. The weather was bad with fogs, snowstorms and frequent 
gales, and although land was reported (by each of the vessels) 
at several points along the route, it was rarely seen distinctly and 
the officers were not agreed amongst themselves in some cases. 
Unfortunate controversies have arisen at intervals during sixty 
years as to the reality of Wilkes's discoveries of land, and as to 
the justice of the claim he made to the discovery of the Antarctic 
continent. Some of the land claimed at the eastern end of his 
route has been shown by later expeditions not to exist; but there 
can be no doubt that Wilkes saw land along the line where 
Adelie Land, Kemp Land and Enderby Land are known to exist, 
even if the positions he assigns are not quite accurate. No one, 
however, could establish a claim to the discovery of a continent 
from sighting a discontinuous chain of high land along its coast, 
without making a landing. It seems no more than due to a 
gallant and much-persecuted officer, who did his best in most 
difficult circumstances, to leave the name of Wilkes Land on the 
map of the region he explored. 

Unlike the other two expeditions, that equipped by the 
British government in 1839 was intended solely for Antarctic 

exploration and primarily for magnetic surveys in 

the south polar seas. There were two ships, the 
" Erebus "of 370 tons, and the "Terror "of 340, stoutly built craft 
specially strengthened for navigation in the ice. Captain James 
Clark Ross, R.N., was in command of the " Erebus " and of the 
expedition; Commander Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier of the 
" Terror." A young surgeon, Joseph Dalton Hooker, joined the 
Royal Navy in order to go on the expedition, and he lived to take 
a keen interest in every subsequent Antarctic expedition down 
to that of Captain Scott in 1910. Ross had intended to make 
straight for the meridian of the Magnetic Pole, but, finding that 
D'Urville and Wilkes had already entered on those seas he deter- 
mined to try to make a high latitude farther east, and leaving 
Hobart Town on the I2th of November 1840 he crossed the 
Antarctic Circle on the ist of January 1841 and entered 
the pack ice on the sth in 174 E. Instead of proving 
an impenetrable obstacle, the pack let the two ships work 
through in five days, and they emerged into open sea. 
Sailing towards the Magnetic Pole they found a chain of 
great mountains rising from a coast which ran due south 



from a prominent cape (Cape Adare) in 71 S. The continent 
was taken formal possession of for Queen Victoria by landing on 
Possession Island, the mainland being inaccessible, and the ships 
continued southward in sight of the coast of Victoria Land, where 
the loftiest mountain was named Mt Melbourne after the Prime 
Minister, until the twin volcanoes named Erebus and Terror 
were sighted in 78 S. on the 28th of January. From Cape Crozier, 
at the base of the mountains, a line of lofty cliffs of ice ran east- 
wards, the great ice-barrier, unlike any object in nature ever seen 
before, rising perpendicularly from the water to the height of 
200 or 300 ft. and continuing unbroken for 250 m. Along 
the barrier the highest latitude of 78 4' S. was attained, and 
the farthest point to the east was 167 W., whence Ross turned 
to look for a winter harbour in Victoria Land. Being desirous 
to winter near the South Magnetic Pole, Ross did not explore 
McMurdo Bay between Mt Erebus and the north-running coast, 
where, as we now know, a harbour could have been found, and 
as he could not reach the land elsewhere on account of ice 
extending out from it for 15 or 16 m., after sighting the 
Balleny Islands at a great distance, on the 2nd of March the 
ships returned to Hobart. This was the most remarkable 
Antarctic voyage for striking discoveries ever made. 

In November 1841 the " Erebus " and " Terror " returned to 
Antarctic waters, steering south-east from 'New Zealand and 
entering the ice-pack in about 60 S. and 146 W., the idea being 
to approach the great barrier from the eastward, but by the end 
of the year they had just struggled as far as the. Antarctic Circle 
and they, together with the pack, were several times driven far 
to the northward by heavy gales in which the ships were at the 
mercy of the floating ice. During a storm of terrible severity 
on the i8th of January the rudders of both ships were smashed, 
and not until the ist of February did they break out of 
the pack in 67 29' S., 159 W. The barrier was sighted on 
the 22nd and the ships reached 78 10' S. in 161 27' W., the 
highest latitude attained for 60 years. To the eastward the 
barrier surface rose to a mountainous height, but although 
Ross believed it to be land, he would only treat it officially 
as " an appearance of land," leaving the confirmation of its 
discovery as King Edward Land to the next . century. No 
more work was done in this quarter; the " Erebus " and 
" Terror " turned the edge of the pack to the northward and 
on getting into clear water sailed eastward to Cape Horn, 
meeting the greatest danger of the whole cruise on the way 
by colliding with each other at night while passing between 
two icebergs in a gale. 

After wintering in the Falkland Islands and making good 
the damage received, Ross made his third and last attack on 
the southern ice, and for six weeks he cruised amongst the pack 
off Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land trying in vain to 
reach the Antarctic Circle. Failing in this attempt he turned to 
follow Weddell's route and skirted the pack eastward in 65 S., 
crossing Weddell's track on the I4th of February 1843, more 
than a degree farther south than D'Urville in his attempt 
four years before, but on the edge of an equally impenetrable 
pack. Coasting it eastward to 12 W. the " Erebus " and 
" Terror " at last rounded the pack and found the way open to 
the south, crossing the circle on the ist of March. Four days 
later the pack was met with again and the ships were forced into 
it for 27 miles to latitude 71 30' S. in 14 51' W., nineteen 
degrees east of Weddell's farthest south. No sign of land was 
seen, a deep-sea sounding showed 4000 fathoms with no 
bottom, and although this was a mistake, for the real depth 
was later proved by Dr Bruce to be only 2660 fathoms, it 
showed at least that there was no land in the immediate 
neighbourhood. 

This was Ross's last piece of Antarctic work, but the magnetic 
observations of his expedition were continued by Lieut. T. E. L. 
Moore, R.N., in the hired barque " Pagoda," which left Simon's 
Bay in January 1845 and proceeded south-east, crossing the 
Antarctic Circle in 30 45' E. and reaching a farthest south of 
67 50', nine degrees farther east. An attempt to reach Enderby 
Land was frustrated by the weather, and Moore continued his 



POLAR REGIONS 



9 6 5 



voyage to Australia in a high latitude beating against contrary 
gales, a condition to which all previous experience pointed as 
likely to occur. 

No further attempt at South Polar exploration was made for 
nearly thirty years, except a short cruise by Mr Tapsell in the 
"Chailea " Brisk," one f Enderby's ships which in February 
gg^,. ' ' 1850, after passing the Balleny Islands, proceeded 

eastward to 143 E. at a higher latitude than Wilkes 
without sighting land. The first steamer to cross the Antarctic 
Circle was H.M.S. " Challenger," on the i6th of February 1874: 
she only penetrated to 66 40' S., in 78 30' E., south of Kerguelen 
Land; but she continued her course to Australia for some distance 
in a high latitude, passing within 15 m. of the position assigned to 
Wilkes's Termination Land without seeing any sign of land. Her 
dredgings and soundings yielded evidence as to the nature of the 
unknown region farther south. Sir John Murray believed that 
the soundings showed a general shoaling of the ocean towards the 
Antarctic ice, indicating the approach to a continent. By collect- 
ing and analysing all samples of deep-sea deposits which had been 
secured from the far south, he discovered a remarkable symmetry 
in the arrangement of the deposits. The globigerina ooze, or in 
deeper waters the red clay, carpeting the northern part of the 
Southern Oceans, merges on the southward into a great ring of 
diatom ooze, which gives place in turn, towards the ice, to a 
terrigenous blue mud. The fine rock particles of which the blue 
mud is composed are such as do not occur on oceanic islands, and 
the discovery of large blocks of sandstone dropped by icebergs 
proved the existence of sedimentary rocks within the Antarctic 
Circle. 

During the southern summer in which the " Challenger " 
visited Antarctic waters, a German whale-ship, the " Gronland," 
Daiim an un< ^ er Captain Dallmann, visited the western coast 

of the Antarctic land south of Tierra del Fuego, and 
modified the chart in several particulars. The chief discovery 
was a channel, named Bismarck Strait, in 65 S., which seemed to 
run between Palmer Land and Graham Land. 

When the International Circumpolar observations were set 
on foot in 1882, two scientific stations were maintained for a year 
in the southern hemisphere in order to obtain data for comparison 
with the observations at twelve stations round the North Pole. 
One of these was occupied by French observers in Tierra del 
Fuego in 55 S., the other by German observers at Royal Bay on 
South Georgia in 54 30' S. The magnetic and meteorological 
observations were of considerable importance. 

In 1892 four steamers of the Dundee whaling fleet the 
" Balaena," " Active," " Diana " and " Polar Star "went out 
to test Ross's statement that the " right whale " inhabited 
Antarctic waters. The surgeons of two of the vessels on the 
" Balaena " Dr W. S. Bruce, on the "Active" Dr C. W. Donald 
were selected for their scientific tastes, and equipped with all 
requisite instruments for observations and collecting. The 
result of the experiment was disappointing. No whales were 
obtained, and the ships devoted their attention to sealing on 
the east of Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, not going 
farther south than 65 S, (Geographical Journal, 1896, vii. 
502-521, 625-643). 

A Norwegian sealer, the " Jason," Captain Larsen, also visited 
those seas in the same season, but the captain landed and collected 

fossils at several points north of 65 S. In 1893-1894 

the " Jason," accompanied by two other Norwegian 
vessels,the " Hertha " and the " Castor," returned to the Antarctic 
and entered the ice-laden waters in November at the very begin- 
ningof summer. Captain Larsen in the " Jason " made his way as 
far south as 68 10' in 60 W. on the eastern side of Graham Land, 
but several miles from the coast, which was bordered by a high 
ice-barrier. The land beyond this barrier was named Foyn 
Land, after a famous Norwegian whaleship owner. Returning 
northwards, two small islands, Lindenberg and Christensen, were 
discovered and found to be active volcanoes. Meanwhile the 
" Hertha," Captain Evensen, had reached the South Shetlands 
on the ist of November 1893, and worked her way southward 
along the west side of Palmer Land and past the Biscoe Islands, 



reaching the Antarctic Circle on the gth of November without 
meeting ice. This was the first time the Antarctic Circle had 
been crossed since the " Challenger " did so twenty years before. 
Captain Evensen sighted Alexander Land, and without exper- 
iencing any trouble from ice-floes he leached his farthest south, 
69 10' S. in 76 12' W. (Mitleilungen der Geographischen Gesell- 
schaft, Hamburg, 1895, pp. 245-304). 

In 1894 the well-known Norwegian whaler, Svend Foyn, sent 
out one of his vessels, the " Antarctic, " Captain Christensen, to 
try his luck off the coast of Victoria Land. The 
" Antarctic " sailed from Melbourne in September, 
having on board Carstens Egeberg Borchgrevink, a 
young Norwegian resident in Australia, who, being determined to 
take part in a voyage he could join in no other way, shipped as 
an ordinary seaman. He made notes of the voyage, and published 
an account of it on his return to Europe (Report of Sixth Inter- 
national Geographical Congress, London, 1895, .pp. 169-175): 
The " Antarctic " entered the pack in 62 45' S., 171 30' E., 
on the 8th of December 1894. The Balleny Islands were sighted 
on the i4th of December, and Cape Adare on Victoria Land two 
days later. On the 22nd of January 1895 the farthest point was 
reached at Coulman Island in 74 S. ; the sea was then easily 
navigable to the south. On the 23rd of January a small party/ 
including the captain and Mr Borchgrevink, landed on the 
mainland near Cape Adare, the first people to set foot on the 
Antarctic continent. 

Efforts had been made from time to time, by Professor Georg 
von Neumayer in Germany and by Sir John Murray and others 
in Great Britain, to induce learned societies to in-i 
augurate a new era of scientific Antarctic research 
under Government or at least under national auspices. 
In 1895 Sir Clements Markham, as president of the Royal Geo- 
graphical Society and of the International Geographical Congress; 
also took the matter up, and interest in the Antarctic regions 
began to be aroused in every civilized country. Captain Adrien 
de Gerlache organized and led a Belgian expedition,' for which he 
raised the funds with difficulty. M. Georges Lecointe, captain of 
the " Belgica," and Lieut. Danco, magnetic observer, were 
Belgians; Mr Roald Amundsen, the mate, a Norwegian; M. 
Arctowski, the geologist and physicist, a Pole; M. Racovitza, the 
biologist, a Rumanian; and Dr F. A. Cook, the surgeon, an 
American. On the I4th of January 1898, already long past mid- 
summer, the " Belgica," left Staten Island for Antarctic waters. 
She sighted the South Shetlands on the 2ist and proceeded to 
Hughes Gulf, from which a. channel, Gerlache Strait, was explored 
leading south-westward between continuous land, named Danco 
Land, on the east (the northern extension of Graham Land), and 
Palmer Land on the west. Palmer Land was found to be a group 
of large islands. On the I2th of February the " Belgica " re- 
entered the open sea to the west at Cape Tuxen in 65 15' S. 
Much fog was experienced, but on the i6th Alexander Land was 
sighted in the distance. Continuing on a westerly course, the 
" Belgica " made every effort to enter the pack, which was 
successfully accomplished after a heavy storrn on the' 28th. 
By taking advantage of the leads, the expedition advanced to 
71 30' S. in 85 15' W. by the 2nd of March, but the ship was 
blocked next day by the growth of young ice soldering the pack 
into one continuous mass. For more than a year further inde- 
pendent movement was impossible; but the ship drifted with the 
ice between the limits of 80 30' W. and 102 10' W., and of 
69 40' and 71 35' S., which was the highest latitude attained 
(May 31, 1898). The sun did not rise for seventy days, and 
all on board suffered severely from depression of spirits and 
disorders of the circulation, which Dr Cook attributed to the 
darkness and to improper food. Lieut. Danco died during 
the period of darkness. On the I3th of March 1899, when a 
second winter in the ice began to seem probable, the " Belgica " 
was released in 69 50' S. and 102 10' W. The geographical 
results of this expedition were insignificant so far as the dis* 
covery of land or penetration to a high latitude is concerned. 
The ship passed several times to the south and west of Peter I. 
Island, proving that the land seen by Bellingshausen at that 



9 66 



POLAR REGIONS 



point is of very limited extent. During the drift in the ice the 
soundings were usually between 200 and 300 fathoms, which, 
compared with the great depths to the north, clearly indicated 
a continental shelf of considerable breadth, probably connected 
with land in the south. The scientific collections were of unique 
value and have been worked up and the results published at the 
expense of the Belgian government. 

The Hamburg 'America Company's steamer " Valdivia," 
chartered by the German Government for a scientific voyage 
"Vaiaivia " un( ^ er t* 16 leadership of Professor Carl Chun of Leip- 
zig, with Dr Gerhard Schott as oceanographer,.left 
Cape Town on the I3th of November 1898, and on the 2Sth was 
fortunate in rediscovering Bouvet Island (54 26' S., 3 24' E.), 
which had been searched for in vain by Cook, Ross, Moore and 
many other sailors. Steering south, the " Valdivia," although 
an unprotected steel vessel, followed the edge of the pack from 
8 E. to 58 E., reaching 64 15' S. in 54 20' E. on the i6th of 
December. At this point a depth of 2541 fathoms was found, 
so that if Enderby Land occupies its assigned position, 102 
nautical miles farther south, the sub-oceanic slope must be of 
quite unusual steepness. The rocks dredged up contained 
specimens of gneiss, granite and schist, and one great block of 
red sandstone weighing 5 cwt. was secured, confirming the theory 
of the continental nature of the land to the south. 

On his return to England in 1895 Mr Borchgrevink made 
strenuous efforts to organize an Antarctic expedition under his 
own leadership, and in August 1898 he left the 
Thames on the " Southern Cross," in charge of a 
private expedition equipped by Sir George Newnes. 
His scientific staff included Lieut. Colbeck, R.N.R.; Mr Louis 
Bernacchi, a trained magnetic observer, and Mr N. Hanson, 
biologist. About fifty dogs were taken out, the intention being 
to land at Cape Adare and advance towards the magnetic, and 
perhaps also towards the geographical pole by sledge. The 
" Southern Cross " sighted one of the Balleny Islands on the i4th 
of January 1899, and after in vain attempting to get south about 
the meridian of 164 E., the ship forced her way eastward and 
emerged from the pack (after having been beset for forty-eight 
days) in 70 S., 174 E. She reached Cape Adare, and anchored 
in Robertson Bay on the 1 7th of February. The land party, con- 
sisting of ten men, was established in a house built on the strip of 
beach at the base of the steep ascent to the mountains, and the 
ship left on the 2nd of March. Mr Borchgrevink found it impos- 
sible to make any land journey of importance and the party spent 
the first year ever passed by man on Antarctic land in making 
natural history collections and keeping up meteorological and 
magnetic observations. The " Southern Cross " returned to Cape 
Adare on the 28th of January 1900, and after taking the winter 
party on board diminished by the death of Mr Hanson set out 
for the south on the 2nd of February. Landings were made on 
several islands, on the mainland at the base of Mt Melbourne, and 
on the loth of February at the base of Mt Terror, near Cape 
Crozier. From this point the ship steamed eastward along the 
great ice-barrier to a point in 164 10' W., where an inlet in the ice 
was found and the ship reached her highest latitude, 78 34' S., 
on the 1 7th of February. The edge of the ice was found to be 
about 30 m, farther south than it had been when Ross visited it 
in 1842. Mr Borchgrevink was able to land on the ice with 
sledges and dogs, and advanced southward about 16 m., reach- 
ing 78 50' S. He discovered that plant life existed in the shape 
of mosses and lichens in some of the rocky islands, a fact not 
previously known. 

In the autumn of 1901 three well-equipped expeditions left 
Europe for Antarctic exploration. The British National Ant- 
arctic expedition was organized by a joint committee of the 
Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society, and equipped 
under the superintendence of Sir Clements Markham. Most of 
the cost was borne by the government, the rest mainly by Mr 
L. W. Longstaff, who provided 30,000, the Royal Geographical 
Society, and Mr A. C. Harmsworth (afterwards Lord Northcliffe). 
A strong wooden ship of about 700 tons register (1700 tons dis- 
placement) was built at Dundee, and named the " Discovery." 



She was made entirely non-magnetic amidships, so that magnetic 
observations might be carried on without interference 
from local attraction. The expedition sailed und 
the command of Commander R. F. Scott, R.N., with 
Lieut. Albert Armitage, R.N.R., as second in command, Lieuts. 
Royds and Barne, R.N., Lieut. Shackleton, R.N.R., and 
Engineer-Lieut. Skelton, R.N. The crew of forty men were 
almost entirely sailors of the Royal Navy. The scientific staff 
included Dr Koettlitz, who had shared with Mr Armitage 
in the Jackson-Harmsworth arctic expedition; Mr Louis 
Bernacchi, who had wintered with Mr Borchgrevink at Cape 
Adare; Dr E. A. Wilson, Mr Hodgson, biologist, and Mr 
Ferrar, geologist. The " Discovery " sailed from New 
Zealand on the 24th of December 1901, met the pack ice 
on the Antarctic circle and was through into the open sea 
in 175 E. on the 8th of January 1902. She made a quick run 
to Cape Crozier and cruised along the great ice barrier, confirming 
Borchgrevink's discovery that it lay 30 m. farther south than 
in 1842, and at the eastern end of the barrier Scott discovered 
and named King Edward Land where Ross had recorded an 
" appearance " only. The sea in the neighbourhood had 
shoaled to less than too fathoms and the ice-barrier in places was 
so low that the " Discovery " was able to lie alongside as at a 
quay. A captive balloon ascent was made from the barrier but 
nothing was seen to the south. Returning to McMurdo Bay the 
"Discovery" found that Mts Erebus and Terror were on an 
island, the " bay " being really a sound. The ship was secured 
in winter quarters in 77 49' S. 166 E., and a hut erected on 
shore. From this base land-exploration in the Antarctic was 
initiated, and the history of exploration entered on a new phase. 
Although some symptoms of scurvy appeared during the winter 
they were checked by change of diet, and with the beginning 
of spring sledge journeys with dogs were commenced and a 
quantity of provisions was laid down in depots to assist the 
great journey which Scott had planned to the south. On 
the 2nd of November 1902 Captain Scott, with Lieut. E. H. 
Shackleton and Dr E. A. Wilson, set out with dog-sledges travel- 
ling south over the surface of the barrier in sight of a range of new 
mountains running parallel to their track on the west. The 
conditions of travelling were unlike those in the Arctic region, 
the weather being more inclement and the summer temperature 
much lower than in similar latitudes in the north. There were 
no bears to menace the safety of the travellers, and no wolves 
or foxes to plunder the depots; but on the other hand there was 
no game of any sort to be met with, and all food for men and dogs 
had to be carried on the sledges. The surface of the ice was often 
rough and much crevassed, especially near the western land, snow 
blizzards frequently occurred making travelling impossible and 
the heavy sledges had at first to be brought forward by relays, 
making it necessary to march three miles for every mile of south- 
ing made. The dogs also weakened and had to be killed one by one 
to feed the rest. On the 3oth of December they were in 82 1 7' S. 
and Scott determined to try to reach the mountains to the 
west; but on approaching the land he found the ice so much 
crevassed and disturbed that the attempt had to be given up. 
Great peaks in 83 S. were named Mt Markham (15,100 ft.) and 
Mt Longstaff (9700 ft.) after the chief promoters of the expedition. 
The outward journey of 380 m. had taken 59 days, and was a 
splendid achievement, for the conditions to be encountered were 
totally unknown, and new methods had to be devised as the 
necessity arose, yet no previous polar explorer had ever advanced 
so far beyond his predecessor as Scott did. The return journey 
occupied 34 days and the ship was reached on the 3rd of February 
1903, but Shackleton had broken down on the. way and he had to 
return by the relief ship " Morning " on the 3rd of March, Lieut. 
Mulock, R.N., taking his place on the " Discovery." During the 
absence of the commander in the great southern journey Armit- 
age and Skelton had found a way to ascend by a glacier in 78 S. 
to the summit of the vast snow-covered plateau beyond the 
granite summits of the western mountains. They reached a dis- 
tance of 130 m. from the ship and an elevation of 9000 ft. Many 
shorter journeys were made; Ferrar studied the geology of the 



POLAR REGIONS 



967 



mountains and Hodgson was indefatigable in collecting marine 
fauna, while Bernacchi kept up the physical and meteorological 
observations. The second winter was lightened by the use of 
acetylene gas for the first time, and the dark months were passed 
in better spirits and better health than in the case of any previous 
polar wintering. In the spring of 1903-1904 Scott undertook 
a great journey on the western plateau, starting on the 26th of 
October without dogs. By the 3oth of November he had reached 
a point on the featureless plateau of dead-level snow, 300 m. due 
west from the ship, the position being 77 59' S., 146 33' E. and 
9000 ft. above sea-level. The ship was reached again on the 
25th of December, and on the sth of January the " Morning " 
arrived accompanied by a larger vessel, the " Terra Nova," sent 
out by the Admiralty with orders to Captain Scott to abandon 
the " Discovery " and return at once. Fortunately, although 
all the stores and collections had been transferred to the relief 
ships, the " Discovery " broke out of the ice on the i6th of 
February 1904 and Captain Scott had the satisfaction of bringing 
her home in perfect order. The relief ships had provided so 
little coal that a most promising voyage to the westward of the 
Balleny Islands had to be abandoned in 155 E.;but it showed 
that the land charted by Wilkes east of that meridian did 
not exist in the latitude assigned. 

Simultaneously with the " Discovery " expedition and in full 
co-operation with it as regards simultaneous meteorological and 
DiygaisUt magnetic observations, the German government 
"Gauss." equipped an expedition in the " Gauss " which was 
specially built for the occasion. The expedition was under the 
charge of Professor Erich von Drygalski and the scientific staff 
included Professor Vanhoffen as naturalist, Dr Emil Philippi 
as geologist and Dr Friedrich Bidlingmaier as meteorologist and 
magnetician. The ship was under the command of Captain Hans 
Ruser cf the Hamburg-American line. A supplementary expedi- 
tion set up a station for simultaneous observations on Kerguelen 
Land. The " Gauss " crossed the parallel of 60 S. in 92 E. 
early in February 1902 and got within 60 m. of the charted 
position of Wilkes's Termination Land, where a depth of 1730 
fathoms was found with no sign of land. The pack made it 
necessary to turn south-westward and land was seen to the east- 
ward on February 1902 on the Antarctic Circle in the direction 
of Termination Land. Soon afterwards the " Gauss " was 
beset and spent the winter in the ice. Land of considerable 
extent was seen to the south and was named Kaiser Wilhelm II. 
Land; the most conspicuous feature on it was a hill of bare black 
rock with an elevation of about 1000 ft., which was called the 
Gaussberg, and was situated in 67 S., 90 E. This was the only 
bare land seen, and its neighbourhood was thoroughly investi- 
gated by sledge parties, but no distant journey was undertaken. 
In February 1903 the " Gauss " was freed from the ice; but 
although Drygalski struggled for two months to thread the maze 
of floes to the eastward and south he could gain no higher latitude 
and was able to force his way only to 80 E. before seeking the 
open sea. The scientific observations and collections were most 
extensive and of great value. 

Two private expeditions organized by men of science were 
in the Antarctic region simultaneously with the British and 
Nordeosk- German national expeditions, and the synchronous 
/6/rf. meteorological and magnetic observations added 

to the value of the scientific results of all the parties. 
Dr. Otto Nordenskjold, nephew of the discoverer of the 
North-East Passage, led a Swedish party in the " Antarctic," 
with Captain C. A. Larsen in command of the ship, and 
reached the South Shetlands in January 1902, afterwards 
exploring on the east side of Joinville Island and Louis 
Philippe Land, and wintering on shore on Snow Hill Island in 
64 25' S. From this point a long journey on ski over the flat 
sea ice bordering King Oscar Land was made to the south, but 
the Antarctic Circle was not reached. Meanwhile the " Ant- 
arctic " had succeeded in penetrating the pack in the Weddell 
Sea almost to the circle in 5 W., where D'Urville and Ross 
had failed to get so far south. A second winter "was spent at 
the base on Snow Hill Island, and, the ship having been 



lost in the ice on her way to t|ke them off, the party was 
rescued by a brilliant dash of the Argentine gunboat " Uruguay," 
under Captain Irizar, before the relief ship sent from Sweden 
arrived. 

Meanwhile Dr W. S. Bruce, largely aided financially by 
Mr James Coats and Captain Andrew Coats, equipped a 
Scottish expedition in the " Scotia," with Captain Bnjce 
Thomas Robertson in command of the ship, and 
a scientific staff including Mr R. C. Mossman as meteorologist, 
Mr R. N. Rudmose Brown as naturalist, and Dr J. H. H. Pirie 
as geologist. The principal object of the expedition was the 
exploration of the Weddell Sea. The " Scotia " sighted the 
South Orkneys on the 3rd of February 1903, and after a 
short struggle with the pack she found an open sea to 
70 25' S., where she was beset on the 22nd in 18 W., 
and whence she returned by a more westerly course, re- 
crossing the Antarctic Circle in 40 W. This important 
voyage midway between the tracks of Weddell and Ross, who 
alone of all who tried had reached 70 S. in this region, prac- 
cally demonstrated the navigability of Weddell Sea in favour- 
able conditions, and the oceanographical observaticns made 
were the most valuable yet carried out in the Antarctic 
region. The following year, starting from the Sandwich 
group, Bruce crossed the Antarctic Circle about 22 W., and 
was able to make a straight run south to 74 i' S., where the 
" Scotia " was stopped by the ice in 159 fathoms of water, the 
sea having shoaled rapidly from a great depth. From the 3rd of 
March to the I3th the " Scotia " remained in shallow water, 
catching occasional glimpses of a great ice wall with snow- 
covered heights beyond it, along a line of 150 m., and 
dredging quantities of continental rocks. On this evidence the 
name Coats Land was given to the land within the barrier. 
The " Scotia " crossed the Antarctic Circle northward in 11 W., 
having in the two years explored a totally unknown sea for a 
distance of thirty degrees of longitude. A meteorological 
station was established by Mr Mossman on Laurie Island, in 
the South Orkneys (61 S.) in March 1903, and kept up by him 
for two years, when it was taken over by the Argentine govern- 
ment, and it now has the distinction of being the most 
southerly station at which continuous observations have ever 
been taken for over five years. 

In January 1904 Dr Jean B. Charcot, a man of science and 
an accomplished yachtsman, left the Fuegian archipelago for 
the Antarctic in the " Francais," in command of a cbarcot 
French exploring expedition equipped at his own 
instance. He cruised through the islands of the Palmer 
Archipelago, and wintered in a cove of Wandel Island 65 5' S. 
near the southern entrance of Gerlache Strait. On the 25th 
of December 1904 the " Francais " was free, and continued to 
cruise southward along the coast of Graham Land, to the 
south of which, on the i5th of January, when nearly in 
latitude 67, a new coast appeared, mountainous and stretch- 
ing to the south-west, but Charcot could not determine 
whether it was joined to Graham Land or to Alexander 
Land. While approaching the land the " Francais " struck 
a rock, and was so much damaged that further exploration 
was impossible, and after naming the new discovery Loubet 
Land, the expedition returned. Charcot organized a second 
expedition in 1908 on board the " Pourquoi Pas?" and, 
leaving Punta Arenas in December, returned to the Palmer 
Archipelago, and during January 1909 made a detailed examina- 
tion of the coast to the southward, finding that Loubet 
Land was practically continuous on. the north with Graham 
Land and on the south with Alexander Land, which was 
approached within a mile at one point. Adelaide Island, 
reported by Biscoe as 8 m. long, was found to be a large 
island 70 m. in length, consisting of a series of summits rising 
out of an icefield. The Biscoe Islands were found to be much 
more numerous than was formerly supposed. The expedition 
wintered at Petermann Island in 65 10' S., and attempts were 
made to reach the interior of Graham Land, though with little 
success. After coaling from the whalers' dep&t at Deception 



9 68 



POLAR REGIONS 



Island, the " Pourquoi Pas ? sailed on the 6th of January 1910 
to the south-west, and reached 70 S. on the nth, whence views 
of Alexander Land were obtained from a new position, and a 
new land discovered farther to the south-west. The highest 
latitude reached was about 70 30' S., and Charcot was able 
to steam westward nearly along this parallel crossing the 
region of the " Belgica's " drift, passing close to Peter I. Island 
across the meridian of Cook's highest latitude, where the ice 
seemed to promise an easy way south if coal had permitted, and 
on to 128 \V. through an absolutely unknown sea, from which 
point a direct course was made for Punta Arenas. Frequent 
soundings and dredgings were made, and Dr Charcot satisfied 
himself from all the appearances that along the 20 degrees of 
longitude west of Gerlache's farthest, and more than half-way 
from Graham Land to King Edward Land, land was probably 
not far distant to the south. 

After his return invalided from the " Discovery," Lieut. 
Shackleton planned a fresh expedition, which he equipped at 
Shackleton n ^ s own ex P ense i aided by his personal friends, and 
he started in the small whaler " Nimrod " from 
Lyttelton, New Zealand, on the ist of January 1908, being 
towed by a steamer to the Antarctic Circle, in order to save 
coal. The plan was to land a shore party on King Edward 
Land and return to take them off. in the following year, but 
although a strenuous effort was made to reach the land the 
floe ice was too heavy, and it would have been madness to 
establish winter-quarters on the barrier, the coast-line of 
which had altered greatly since 1902, and was obviously liable 
to break off in great ice-islands. On the 26th of January 
the " Nimrod " began to return from the extreme east of the 
barrier, and the landing of stores commenced on the 3rd of 
February at Cape Royds, at the base of Mt Erebus, 20 m. north 
of the " Discovery's " winter-quarters. The shore party in- 
duded the leader and fifteen companions, amongst them 
Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, of Sydney University; 
Lieut. Jameson Boyd Adams, R.N.R.; Sir Philip Brockle- 
hurst, Bart.; Mr James Murray, biologist; Mr Raymond E. 
Priestley, geologist; Dr Alistair Forbes Mackay; Dr Eric 
Marshall; Mr Douglas Mawson, geologist; and Ernest Joyce 
and Frank Wild of the Royal Navy, who had taken part in the 
" Discovery " expedition. No casualty occurred during the 
whole duration of the expedition, special care having been 
taken to supply the best provisions, including fresh bread 
baked daily and dried milk in unlimited quantity, while 
abundant artificial light was secured by the use of acetylene 
gas. A motor-car was taken in the hope that it might be used 
on the barrier surface, but this was found impracticable, 
although it did good work in laying depots on the sea-ice. 
Another and more successful experiment in traction was the 
use cf Manchurian ponies. Eight of these extraordinarily 
hardy creatures were taken south in the " Nimrod," but four 
died in the first month after landing. The others did good 
service. Nine dogs were also taken, but the experience on the 
" Discovery " expedition did not lead to much dependence being 
placed on them. The " Nimrod " left for the north on the 22nd 
of February- and the scientific staff at once began the observations 
and collections which were kept up to the end. The discovery of 
a considerable fresh-water fauna and of a poor but charac- 
teristic flora was one of the most unexpected results. Apart 
from* many minor excuisions and surveys, the expedition 
performed three journeys of the first importance, each of them 
surpassing any previous land work in the Antarctic regions. 
Before winter set in, Professor David, with five companions, 
made the ascent of Mt Erebus, starting from the winter 
quarters on the 5th of March, and gaining the summit at an 
altitude of 13,300 ft. on the loth; this was found to be the edge 
of an active crater, the abyss within being 900 ft. deep, 
though rarely visible on account of the steam and vapours 
which rose in a huge cloud 1000 ft. above the summit. 

The second achievement was the attainment of the South 
Magnetic Pole by Professor David, with Mr Douglas Mawson and 
Dr Mackay. They left winter-quarters on the 6th of October 



1908, dragging two sledges over the sea-ice. Proceeding along 
the coast they were able to supplement their provisions and 
fuel by seal-meat and blubber, and on the ist of December they 
reached the Drygalski ice barrier in 75 S., which proved very 
difficult to cross. Leaving this ice-tongue on the igth, they 
proceeded to ascend the plateau with one sledge, and ran great 
risks from the crevasses into which they were constantly fall- 
ing. On reaching the summit of the plateau travelling became 
easier, and on the i6th of January 1909 the magnetic dip 
was 90, and the position of the magnetic pole was deter- 
mined as 72 25' S., 155 16' E., at an altitude of 7260 ft. 
and 260 m. from the depot of provisions left at the Drygalski 
glacier. The return journey to this point was accomplished by 
forced marches on the 3rd of February, and next day the 
party was picked up by the " Nimrod," which was scouting 
for them along the coast. 

The third and greatest achievement of this remarkable ex- 
pedition was Shackleton's great southern journey. Dep6ts 
had been laid out in advance on the barrier ice, and the main 
southern party, consisting of Messrs Shackleton, Adams, Marshall 
and Wild, started from winter-quarters on the 29th of October 
1908, with the four ponies and four n-ft. sledges; a support- 
ing party of five men accompanied the main division for ten 
days. In order to avoid the disturbed and crevassed ice near 
the great south-running mountain range, Shackleton kept about 
40 m. farther to the east than Scott had done. The ponies 
enabled rapid progress to be made, but after passing the 8 ist 
parallel on the 2 ist of November, one pony broke down and 
had to be shot, the meat being left in a depot for the return 
journey. In spite of cold weather and frequent high winds, 
progress was made at the rate of 15 m. per day, and on the 
26th of November the farthest south of the " Discovery " 
expedition was passed, and Mts Markham and Longstaff 
were full in view. New mountains continued to appear 
beyond these, and the range changed its southerly to a south- 
easterly trend, so that the path to the Pole led through the 
mountains. On the 28th a second pony became used up and 
was shot, and a depdt was formed with provisions and stores 
for the return in 82 38' S., and progress was resumed with 
two sledges. The surface of the barrier ice formed great 
undulations of gentle slope. On the ist of December a third 
pony had to be shot, in 83 16' S., and horseflesh became the 
principal article of diet; the remaining pony hauled one sledge, 
the four men took the other. On the 4th of December the 
party left the barrier, passing over a zone of much disturbed 
ice, and commenced the ascent of a great glacier (the 
Beardmore glacier) which descended from the mountains 
between magnificent granite cliffs 2000 ft. high. On the 
7th, when toiling amongst a maze of crevasses on the glacier, 
2000 ft. above sea-level, the last pony fell into a crevasse 
and was lost, though the loaded sledge was saved; the pony 
was to have been shot that night as it could not work on the 
disturbed ice; but its loss meant so much less food, and as far 
as can be judged this alone made it impossible for the party 
to reach the Pole. For the next few days of laborious advance 
one or other of the party was continually falling into a crevasse, 
but the sledge harness saved them, and no serious harm resulted. 
After climbing upwards for 100 m. on the glacier, a dep6t was 
made at a height of 6100 ft. of everything that could possibly 
be left behind, including all the warm clothing, for it was found 
possible with Jaegers and wind-proof Burberrys to meet any 
weather in which exertion was possible. By Christmas Day 
the plateau surface was fairly reached at a level of 9500 ft., in 
latitude 85 55' S., and there was no more difficulty to over- 
come as regarded the ground, but merely the effort of going on 
over a nearly level surface with insufficient food in a very low 
temperature, intensified by frequent blizzards. Rations were 
reduced in the hope of being able to push on to the Pole. 
Three days later the last crevasse was passed and the sur- 
face, now 12,200 ft. above sea-level, grew smoother, allowing 
15 m. a day to be done with fair weather. At 4 a.m. on the 
9th of January 1909 the four explorers left their sledge and 



POLAR REGIONS 



969 



racing, half walking, half running, they reached 88 23' S. 
in 162 E. at 9 a.m., the height above sea being 11,600 ft. 
The utmost had been done, though more food would have 
enabled the remaining' 97 geographical miles to the South Pole 
to be accomplished. The camp was reached again at 3 p.m. 
The return journey of over 70x5 m. to the ship was one long 
nightmare of toil and suffering, but the length of the marches 
was unsurpassed in polar travel. Once and again all food 
was exhausted the day before the dep6t, on which the only 
hope of life depended, was picked up in the waste of snow. 
Snow-blindness and dysentery made life almost unendurable, 
but, despite it all, the ship was reached on the ist of March, 
and the geological specimens from the southernmost moun- 
tains, which prevented the sledges of the exhausted men being 
lightened as they went on, were safely secured. Never in 
the history of polar exploration had any traveller outdistanced 
his predecessor by so vast a step towards either Pole. 

During the return journey of the " Nimrod " Shackleton 
was able to do a little piece of exploration to the south of the 
Balleny Islands, tracing the coast of the mainland for 50 m. 
to the south-west beyond Cape North, thus indicating that the 
Antarctic continent has not a straight coast-line running 
from Cape Adare to Wilkes Land. The British government 
contributed 20,0500 to the expenses of the expedition in 
recognition of the great results obtained, and the king con- 
ferred a knighthood on the explorer, the first given for 
Antarctic exploration since the time of Sir James Clark Ross. 

Captain R. F. Scott left England in the summer of 1910 
with a new expedition in the " Terra Nova," promoted by his 
expeditions own exertions, aided by a government grant, and 
of 1910- with a carefully selected crew and a highly com- 
I9lt - petent scientific staff. He intended to arrange for 

two parties, one leaving King Edward Land, the other 
McMurdo Sound, to converge on the South Pole. A German 
expedition under Lieut. Wilhelm Filchner was announced 
to leave early in 1911 with the hope of exploring inland from 
a base in the western part of Weddell Sea, and Dr W. S. 
Bruce has announced for the same year an expedition to 
the eastern part of Weddell Sea mainly for oceanographical 
exploration. It appears that the greatest extension of know- 
ledge would now be obtained by a resolute attempt to cruise 
round the south polar area from east to west in the highest 
latitude which can be reached. This has never been attempted, 
and a modern Biscoe with steam power could not fail to 
make important discoveries on a westward circumnavigation. 

Physiography of Antarctic Region. In contrast to the Arctic 
region, the Antarctic is essentially a land area. It is almost 
certain that the South Pole lies on a great plateau, part of a 
land that must be larger and loftier than Greenland, and may 
probably be as large as Australia. This land area may be com- 
posed of two main masses, or of one continent and a great 
archipelago, but it can no longer be doubted that the whole is 
of continental character as regards its rocks, and that it is per- 
manently massed into one surface with ice and snow, which in 
some parts at least unites lands separated by hundreds of miles 
of sea. But all round the land-mass there is a ring of deep ocean 
cutting off the Antarctic region from all other land of the earth 
and setting it apart as a region by itself, more unlike the rest of 
the world than any continent or island. The expedition of the 
" Scotia " showed the great depth of the Weddell Sea area, and 
the attention paid to soundings on other expeditions notably 
that of the " Belgica " has defined the beginning of a continental 
shelf which it cannot be doubted slopes up to land not yet sighted. 
In the Arctic region large areas within the Polar Circle belong 
to climatically temperate Europe, and to habitable lands of 
Asia and America; but in the Antarctic region extensive lands 
Graham Land, Louis Philippe Land, Joinville Island and the 
Palmer archipelago outside the Polar Circle partake of the 
typically polar character of the higher latitudes, and even 
the islands on the warmer side of the sixtieth parallel are of a 
sub-Antarctic nature, akin rather to lands of the frigid than to 
those of the temperate zone. 



Geology. Definite information as to the geology of Antarctic 
land is available from three areas Graham Land and the 
archipelago to the north of it, Kaiser Wilhelm Land and 
Victoria Land. In the Graham Land region there seems to be a 
fundamental rock closely resembling the Archaean. Palaeozoic 
rocks have not been discovered so far in this region, although 
a graptolite fossil, probably of Ordovician age, shows that 
they occur in the South Orkneys. Mesozoic rocks have 
been found in various parts of the archipelago, a very rich 
Jurassic fossil flora of ferns, conifers and cycads having been 
studied by Nordenskjold, some of the genera found being 
represented also in the rocks of South America, South Africa, 
India and Australia. Cretaceous ammonites have also been 
found, and Tertiary fossils, both of land and of marine forms, 
bring the geological record down probably to Miocene times, 
the fauna including five genera of extinct penguins. Raised 
beaches show an emergence of the land in Quaternary times, 
and there is evidence of a recent glacial period when the 
inland ice on Graham Land was a thousand feet higher than 
it is now. The most prominent features of the scenery are due 
to eruptive rocks, which have been identified as belonging to 
the eruptive system of the Andes, suggesting a geologically 
recent connection between South America and the Antarctic 
lands. Volcanic activity is not yet extinct in the region. 

As regards Kaiser Wilhelm Land, the Gaussberg is a volcanic 
cone mainly composed of leucite-basalt, but its slopes are strewn 
with erratics presumably transported from the south and these 
include gneiss, mica-schist and quartzite, apparently Archaean. 

Much more is known as to the geology of Victoria Land, 
and the results are well summarized by Professor David and 
Mr Priestley of Sir Ernest Shackleton's expedition, whom we 
follow. From Cape North (71 S.) to 86 S. a grand mountain 
range runs south curving to south-eastward, where it vanishes 
into the unknown; it is built up of gneiss and granite, and of 
horizontal beds of sandstone and limestone capped with eruptive 
rock, the peaks rising to heights of 8000, 10,000 and even 
15,000 feet, the total length of the range so far as known being 
at least noo miles. This range rises abruptly from the 
sea, or from the ice of the Great Barrier, and forms a slightly 
higher edge to a vast snow plateau which has been traversed 
for several hundred miles in various directions, and may for 
aught we know extend farther for a thousand miles or more. 
The accumulated snows of this plateau discharge by the hugest 
glaciers in the world down the valleys between the mountains. 
About 78 S. a group of volcanic islands, of which Ross Island, 
with the active Mt Erebus is the largest, rise from the 
sea in front of the range, and at the northern extremity the 
volcanic peaks of the Balleny Islands match them in height. 
The composition of the volcanic rocks is similar to that of 
the volcanic rocks of the southern part of New Zealand. 
The oldest rocks of Victoria Land are apparently banded 
gneiss and gneissic granite, which may be taken as Archaean. 
Older Palaeozoic rocks are represented by greenish grey slates 
from the sides of the Beardmore glacier and by radiolarian 
cherts; but the most widespread of the sedimentary rocks 
occurring in vast beds in the mountain faces is that named 
by Ferrar the Beacon sandstones, which in the far south 
Shackleton found to be banded with seams of shale and coal 
amongst which a fossil occurred which has been identified as 
coniferous wood and suggests that the place of the formation is 
Lower Carboniferous or perhaps Upper Devonian. No Mesozoic 
strata have been discovered, but deposits of peat derived from 
fungi and moss are now being accumulated in the fresh-water 
lakes of Ross Island, and raised beaches show a recent change 
of level. The coast-line appears to be of the Atlantic, not the 
Pacific type, and may owe its position and trend to a great fault, 
or series of faults, in the line of which the range of volcanoes, 
Mt Melbourne, Mt Erebus, and Mt Discovery, stand. Boulders of 
gneiss, quartzite and sandstone have been dredged at so many 
points between the Balleny Islands and the Weddell Sea that 
there can be no doubt of the existence of similar continental land 
along the whole of that side, at least within the Antarctic Circle. 



970 



POLAR REGIONS 



Antarctic Ice-Conditions. It is difficult to decide whether 
the ice of the polar regions should be dealt with as a geologi- 
cal formation or a meteorological phenomenon; but in the 
Antarctic the ice is so characteristic a feature that it may 
well be considered by itself. So far as can be judged, the 
total annual precipitation in the Antarctic region is very 
slight, probably not more than the equivalent of 10 in. of 
rain, and perhaps less. It was formerly supposed that 
the immense accumulation of snow near the South Pole 
produced an ice-cap several miles in thickness which, creeping 
outward all round, terminated in the sea in vast ice-cliffs, such 
as those of Ross's Great Barrier, whence the huge flat-topped 
ice-islands broke off and floated away. Evidence, both in the 
Graham Land and in the Victoria Land areas, points to a 
former much greater extent of the ice-cap. Thus Shackleton 
found that the summit of Mt Hope, in 83 30' S., which 
stands 2000 feet above the ice of the surrounding glaciers, was 
strewn with erratics which must have been transported by ice 
' from the higher mountains to the south and west. In McMurdo 
Sound, as in Graham Land, evidence was found that the surface 
of the ice-sheet was once at least a thousand feet above its 
present level. These facts appear to indicate a period of 
greater snowfall in the geologically recent past i.e. a period 
of more genial climate allowing the air to carry more water 
vapour to the southern mountains. Whatever may have been 
the case in tne past the Antarctic glaciers are now greatly 
shrunken and many of them no longer reach the sea. Others 
project into the sea a tongue of hard ice, which in the case of 
the Drygalski glacier tongue is 30 m. long, and afloat probably 
for a considerable distance. Some of these glacier tongues of 
smaller size appear now to be cut off at their shoreward end 
from the parent glacier. At one time the Victoria Land glacier 
tongues may have been confluent, forming a great ice barrier 
along the coast similar to the small ice-barriers which clothe 
the lower slopes of some of the islands in Gerlache Strait. The 
Great Ice Barrier is in many ways different from these. Cap- 
tain Scott showed that it was afloat for at least 400 m. of its 
extent from west to east. Sir Ernest Shackleton followed it for 
400 m. from north to south, finding its surface in part thrown 
into long gentle undulations, but with no evidence of the sur- 
face being otherwise than level on the average. The all-but- 
forgotten experiments and cogitations of Biscoe convinced that 
shrewd observer that all Antarctic icebergs were sea-ice thick- 
ened with snow " accumulated with time." The recent expeditions 
seem to confirm this view to a great extent in the case of the 
Barrier, which, so far as the scientific men on the " Nimrod " 
could see, was formed everywhere of compressed nev6, not of 
true glacier ice. Instances have been seen of tabular bergs 
floating with half their bulk above water, showing that they 



are of very much less density than solid ice. The thrust of 
the glaciers which descend from the western mountains upon 
the Barrier throws it into shaxp crevassed folds near the point 
of contact, the disturbance extending 20 m. from the tip 
of the Beardmore glacier, and the seaward creep of the whole 
surface of the Barrier is possibly due to this impulse; the rate 
of movement at the eastern side of the Barrier was found to be 
at the rate of 500 yds. per annum for the seven years between 
Scott's and Shackleton's expeditions. 

Pack ice composed of broken-up sea-ice and fragments of 
icebergs appears to form a floating breakwater round the Ant- 
arctic area. It is penetrated by powerful steamers with ease 
or with difficulty according to the action of the wind which 
loosens the pack when it drives it towards the open sea, and 
closes it up when it drives it against a coast or a barrier of fast ice. 
At every point but one around the circumpolar area the pack, 
be it light or dense, appears to extend up to the southern per- 
manent ice or land, though, as in the Weddell Sea, the pack 
seems at times to be driven bodily away. The exceptional 
region is the opening of the Ross Sea east of Cape Adare, where 
a comparatively narrow band of pack ice has always been pene- 
trated by the resolute advance even of sailing ships and led to 
an extensive open sea to the south. No doubt the set of the 
ocean currents accounts for this, but how they act is still obscure. 
The great flat-topped ice-islands which in some years drift out 
from the Antarctic area in great numbers are usually met with 
in all parts of the Southern Ocean south of 50 S., and worn- 
down icebergs have been sighted in the Atlantic even as far 
north as 26 30' S. The greater frequency of icebergs in the 
Southern Ocean in some years is attributed to earthquakes in 
the Antarctic breaking off masses of the floating edge of the 
Barrier. 

Antarctic Climate. Although a vast mass of observations 
has recently been accumulated, it is not yet possible to treat 
of the climate of the South Polar region in the same broad way 
as in the case of the North Polar region. The following 
table shows the mean temperatures of each month and of the 
year at all the stations at which the Antarctic winter 
has been passed. The result is to show that while the 
winter is on the whole less severe at high latitudes than 
at equal latitudes in the north, the summer is very much 
colder, and has little relation to latitude. Even in the 
South Orkneys, in latitude 60, in the three warmest 
months the air scarcely rises above the freezing point as an 
average, while in Shetland (60 N.) the temperature of the 
three summer months averages 54 F. But on the other 
hand, the warmest month of the year even in 77 S. has had a 
mean temperature as high as 30. A study of the figures quoted 
in the accompanying table shows that until longer records 



Jan. 
Feb. . 
Mar. . 
Apr. . 
May . 
June . 
July . 
Aug. . 
Sep. . 
Oct. . 
Nov. . 
Dec. . 
Year . 


Belgica 
ca. 70* S. 


Cape Adare 
71 S. 


Snow Hfll 
64* 30' S. 


Gauss 

6 S - 2' S. 


Discovery 
77 SI'S. 


Cane Rovds 
773*'S. 


S. Orkneys 
60 44' S. 


Wandcl Island 
65 S. 


Pcterman Island 
65 lo' S. 


1898. 


1809. 


1899. 


1900. 
+33-0 


1902. 


1003. 


IOO2. 


I93- 


1902. 


i')".;. 


1004. 


1908. 


1909. 


1903. 


1904. 


1904. 


1905. 


1008. 


1909. 




+29-8 






+3' 




+30-6 




+26-1 


+ S2-S 




+26-1 


(+30-4) 


+32-3 




+3*'9 




+34-9) 




+30-2 


(+26-4) 






+24 '4 




+tn) 


(+IS-9) 


! 11-2 


+21-5) 




+20-4 


(+30-4) 


+32-6 


+3''2 






+34-S 


+15-6 




+17-7 




+ 14-1 


+H-O 


+ l6'9 




+ 8-0 


- 0-8 




+ 4'9 




(+30-2) 


+32-4 


+ 29-8 






+337 


+10-8 




+ 10-3 




+ 6-3 


+ 57 


+ 3'9 




- 7'l 


:6'9 




10-9 




-J-20-6 


+ 25 I 


+ 22-6 






+23-0 


+ 20' 3 




- .f" 




f I'7 
0-4 


- 1-6 


+ 6-8 




-12-5 


l6'O 




- 5'5 





+ :?'! 


+ 10-5 


+I3'3 






+ 227 


+ 4'i 




-ii-8 




- 6'8 


-f-o-s 




-16-0 


-13-8 




- 7'i 


I- -s 


+16-8 


+ II-8 






-f-'o-.i 


-10-3 




- 8-6 




-11-9 


O'2 


- 0-6 




- 8-1 


2I'I 




-17-0 




+J6-9 


+ 7'0 


- 2-6 






+197 


i 117 




-I3'4 




- 97 


+ 3'8 


- 7'4 




-i6- S 


-i6-s 




->57 




+18-8 


+127 


+ 20-5 






+ 21-8 


- 1'3 




-11-9 




+ 5-3 


+ 0-3 


+ o-i 




I2'O 


18'6 




57 




+I3'4 


+20-5 


+257 






+ 21-4 


+ 17-8 




- 1-8 




+ 8-9 


+19-0 


+ 8-6 




- 8-5 


- 6-8 




+ 4'5 




+27-0 


+ 18-4 


+ 187 






t-7'7 


+ 19-6 




+17 '8 




fi'.'S 




+19-9 




+ I2'O 


+ '5'4 




+ 17-0 




+29 '3 


+3I-I 


+31-5 






+(29-9) 


+28-0 




+3"8 




t ^ i 




+30-0 




+ 23-1 


+257 




+30-0 




+31-5 


+28-8 


+31-2 




i+33'9) 




+ U7 




+ 7'0 




+ 9'4 




+"3 




+ 0-4 




- 3' 




+ 3'4 


+22-9 


+22-4 




+ 22-2 




(+26-9) 


Mar. i 
to 
Feb. 28 




Feb. 
to 
Jan. 31 




Mar. i 
to 
Feb. 28 




Feb. 19 
to 
Feb. 18 




Feb. 9 
to 
Jan. 31 




I'i-i). i 
to 
Jan. 31 




Mar. 
to 
Feb. 








Feb. 
to 

Jan. 




Dec. 26 
to 

Nov. 26 



POLAR REGIONS 



971 



become available it is impossible to speak definitely as to the 
normal distribution of monthly temperature throughout the 
year, for even at the same station in consecutive years the 
months vary greatly. Thus at Snow Hill (65 S.) the mean 
temperature of August 1903 was 13-5 higher than that of 
August 1902, though June had been 7 colder; and at the 
"Discovery's" winter quarters July 1903 was 13 colder than 
July 1902 though June was 2 warmer, August having exactly 
the same mean temperature in each year. The mean tempera- 
ture of the year is evidently higher in the position of the 
" Belgica's" drift than in Victoria Land at the same latitude; 
but it is noticeable that on the west side of Graham Land, where 
Charcot wintered, the average mean temperature was (taking 
the average of his two winterings) 15 higher than on the east 
side, where Nordenskjfild wintered in nearly the same latitude. 
The observations, however, were not synchronous; and it may 
not be right to compare them. We may perhaps say that along 
the whole of the known Antarctic coasts the temperature in the 
two midsummer months is within a degree or two of 32 F., and 
varies little from place to place or from year to year; but in the 
winter months the temperature is lower as the latitude increases 
and is subject to great variations from place to place and from 
year to year. It seems quite possible that at no place in the 
Antarctic region do the mean monthly sea-level winter tem- 
peratures fall so low as in the Arctic poles of cold, but data re- 
garding winter temperatures in the interior are lacking. All 
the complete yearly series of temperature show that the winter 
six months from April to September have a low and nearly 
equal temperature, there being a very abrupt fall in February 
and March, and an equally abrupt rise in October and November. 
The warmest day experienced at the " Discovery's " winter- 
quarters had a mean temperature of 34-7, and the coldest -45-7, 
the extreme range of daily temperature being thus 80-4. 

The absolutely lowest temperature recorded in the Antarctic 
region was -66-8 on a journey southward from the " Discovery's " 
winter-quarters by Lieut. Barne on the i5th of September 
1903; the lowest temperature at the winter-quarters was 
-58-5 on the 28th of September 1903. On Sir Ernest Shackle- 
ton's expedition the lowest temperature was -57; but no 
other expedition met temperatures lower than -45-6 on the 
" Belgica," -43-1 at Cape Adare, and -41-4 on the " Gauss." 
Sudden rises of temperature during storms are common in 
the Antarctic region, from whichever quarter the wind blows. 

During the ascent of Mt Erebus the temperature was found 
to fall as the height increased .rom o F. at sea-level to -24 
at 5000 ft.; it remained stationary to 8600 ft., fell to -28 at 
10,650 ft., and then rose to -22 at 11,500 ft., and fell a few 
degrees at the summit. It might appear as if the " isothermal 
layer " of the upper atmosphere had been reached at a re- 
markably low elevation; but the temperature variations may 
also be explained by differences in the temperature of the strong 
air currents which were passed through. 

Pressure and Winds. The normal fall of pressure south- 
ward, which gives rise to the strong westerly winds of the 
roaring forties, appears to be arrested about 65 S., and to be 
succeeded by a rise of pressure farther south. This view is 
supported by the frequency of south-easterly winds in the 
neighbourhood of the Antarctic Circle reported by all explorers, 
and the hypothesis of a south pokr anticyclone or area of high 
pressure over the Antarctic continent has gained currency in 
advance of any observations to establish it. The complete 
data of Sir Ernest Shackleton's expedition are not available 
at the time of writing, but the yearly mean pressure as re- 
corded at the " Discovery's " winter-quarters was 29-35 in. 
for 1902, and 29-23 in. for 1903. At Cape Adare it was 
29-13 in. for 1899, in the " Belgica " 29-31 in. for 1898, and in 
the " Gauss " 29-13 in. for 1902. These figures, so far as they 
are comparable, show distinctly higher pressures in the higher 
latitudes, and the wind observations bear out the inference of 
a scuth-polaT high pressure area, as at the " Discovery's " 
winter-quarters 80 % of the winds had an easterly component, 
and only 3 % a westerly component. It is bewildering, 



however, to find that on the sledge journeys there was an 
equally marked preponderance of wind with a westerly 
component, and in discussing the result in the published 
records of the expedition Mr R. H. Curtis, of the Meteoro- 
logical Office, felt compelled to ask whether the correction 
for variation of the compass (in that region about 145) 
was possibly omitted in the case of the sledge journeys. 
The " Gauss " observations and those at Cape Adare bore out 
the frequency of easterly winds, and on the " Scotia " it was 
observed that practically all of the easterly winds met with were 
to the south of the Antarctic Circle. The " Belgica " found 
rather more westerly than easterly winds in her drift; easterly 
winds predominating in summer, westerly winds in winter. At 
Cape Royds Shackleton found easterly winds to predominate, 
the most frequent direction being south-east; but on the 
great southern journey, south-south-east winds prevailed, 
occasionally swinging round to south-south-west, and even at 
the farthest south (88 S.) the ridges into which the snow was 
blown, 10,000 ft. above the sea, showed that south-south- 
easterly winds predominated. On the journey to the Magnetic 
Pole Professor David found that along the coast the prevailing 
winds were south-westerly, with occasional blizzards from the 
south-east, but he noticed that the westerly winds were of the 
nature of a land breeze, springing up soon after midnight and 
continuing to blow fresh until about 10 a.m. Thus the balance 
of probability inclines towards the hypothesis of a south-polar 
high-pressure area. An upper current of air blowing from a 
north-westerly direction was usually indicated by the clouds 
and smoke on Mt Erebus, and on the occasion of a great erup- 
tion, when the steam column reached more than 20,000 ft. 
above the sea it entered a still higher stratum of wind blowing 
from the south-east. 

The intensity of the blizzards is worthy of remark, for the velo- 
city of the wind often reached 40 or even 60 m. an hour, and 
they were usually accompanied by a rapid rise of temperature. 

Observations of sunshine made at the " Discovery's " winter- 
quarters yielded many records of continuous sunshine extend- 
ing throughout 24 consecutive hours, and in the summer months 
about 50 % of the possible sunshine was often recorded, the 
maximum being 490 hours, or 66% of the total possible for 
December 1903. Thus, although the sun was above the horizon 
only for 246 days, it shone sufficiently to yield more than 1725 
hours of bright sunshine for the year, an amount exceeded in 
few parts of England, where the sun may shine on 365 days. 
The intensity of solar radiation in the clear weather of the 
Antarctic makes it feel exceedingly hot even when the air 
temperature is far below the freezing point. There is a great 
difference between the clear skies of 78 S. and the extremely 
frequent fogs which shroud the coast near the Antarctic Circle 
and render navigation and surveying exceedingly difficult. 
Heavy snowstorms are frequent on the coast, but inland during 
the snow blizzards it is impossible to say whether the whirling 
snow-dust is falling from the air or beirfg swept from the ground. 
Professor David is inclined to believe that the surface of the 
snow-plains is being lowered more by the action of the wind 
sweeping the snow out to sea than it is raised by precipitation, 
the total amount of which appears to be very small. 

Flora and Fauna. Recent expeditions have discovered that, 
despite the low temperature of the summer, in which no month 
has a mean temperature appreciably above the freezing point, 
there are on the exposed Antarctic land patches of ground with 
a sparse growth of cryptogamic vegetation consisting of mosses, 
lichens, fungi and fresh-water algae. The richest vegeta- 
tion discovered on the " Nimrod " expedition consisted of sheets 
of a lichen or fungoid growth, covering the bottom of the fresh- 
water lakes near Cape Royds, and visible through the clear ice 
throughout the many months when the water is frozen. No 
flowering plants occur within the Antarctic Circle or in the 
immediately adjacent lands. 

The marine fauna is very rich and abundant. All the expedi- 
tions obtained many new species, and the resemblance which 
occurs between many of the forms and those which inhabit 



972 



POLDER POLE 



the Arctic seas has given rise to the hypothesis that certain 
species have been able to pass from one frigid zone to the other. 
It is argued on the other hand that all the forms which resemble 
each other in the two polar areas are cosmopolitan, and occur 
also in the intermediate seas; but the so-called " problem of 
bipolarity " is still unsettled. Bird life on sea and land is fairly 
abundant, the most common forms being the skua gull, snow 
petrels, and the various species of penguins. The penguins are 
specially adapted for an aquatic life, and depend for their food 
entirely on marine animals. The largest species, the emperor 
penguin, inhabits the most southerly coast known on the edge 
of the Great Barrier, and there it breeds at mid-winter, very 
interesting specializations of structure and habit making this 
apparently impossible feat practicable. The social organiza- 
tion and habits of the various species of penguins have been care- 
fully studied, and show that these birds have arrived at a stage 
of what might almost be called civilization worthy of the most 
intelligent beings native to their continent. The only mam- 
malian life in the Antarctic is marine, in the form of various 
species of whales, but not the " right whale," and a few 
species of seals which live through the winter by keeping open 
blow-holes in the sea-ice. There is no trace of any land animal 
except a few species of minute wingless insects of a degenerate 
type. The fresh-water ponds teem with microscopic life, the 
tardigrada, or " water bears " and rotifers showing a remarkable 
power of resistance to low temperature, being thawed out alive 
after being frozen solid for months and perhaps for years. 

AUTHORITIES. H. R. Mill, The Siege of the South Pole, a history 
of Antarctic exploration with complete bibliography (London, 
1905); K. Fricker, Antarktis (Berlin, 1898; trans, as The Antarctic 
Regions (London, 1900) ; A. Rainaud, Le Continent austral. (Paris, 
1893, historical) ; E. S. Batch, Antarctica (New York, 1902, his- 
torical); James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round 
the World (3 vols., London, 1777); H. Gravelius, F. von Bellings- 
Jtausens Forschungsfahrten im sudlichen Eismeer 1810-1821 (Leipzig, 
1902); James Weddell, A Voyage Towards the South Pole (London, 
1825); J. S. C. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage au Pole Sud et dans 
VOceanie (29 vols., Paris, 1841-1845); Charles Wilkes, Narrative 
of the Exploring Expedition during 1838-1842 (6 vols., Philadelphia, 
1845) ; J- C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern 
and Antarctic Regions (2 vols., London, 1847) ; W. G. Burn-Murdoch, 
From Edinburgh to the Antarctic (London, 1894; an account of the 
voyage of the " Balaena," 1892-1893); H. J. Bull, The Cruise of the 
"Antarctic" to the South Polar Regions (London, 1896); the 
voyage to Victoria Land in 1894-1895); F. A. Cook, Through the 
First Antarctic Night, 1898-1890 (New York and London, 1900) ; 
the voyage of the " Belgica " ; A. de Gerlache, Quinze mois dans I Ant- 
arctique (Paris, 1902); Georges Lecointe, Au pays des Manchots 
(" Belgica," Brussels, 1904); Resultats du voyage du S.Y. " Belgica," 
Rapports scientifiques (many vols., Brussels, v.d.) ; C. E. Borch- 
grevink, First on the Antarctic Continent (London, 1901); L. Bern- 
acchi, To the South Polar Regions (London, 1901 ; the expedition 
of the " Southern Cross ") ; Report on the Collections of the " Southern 
Cross" (British Museum, London, 1902); G. Murray (editor), 
The Antarctic Manual (London, 1901); R. F. Scott, The Voyage of 
the " Discovery " (2 vols., London, 1905) ; A. B. Armitage, Two 
Years in the Antarctic (London, 1905) ; National Antarctic Expedition 
1001-1904 (scientific results published by the Royal Society, 
London, several vols., v.d.); G. von Neumayer, Auf zum Sudpol 
(Berlin, 1901) ; E. von, Drygalski, Zum Kontinent des eisigen Siidens 
(Berlin, 1904); Scientific Results of "Gauss" expedition; Otto 
Nordenskjold and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica (London, 1905); 
R. N. R. Brown, R. C. Mossman and J. H. H. Pirie, The Voyage 
of the "Scotia" (London, 1906); Report on the Scientific Results 
of the Voyage of the "Scotia" (several vols., Edinburgh, v.d.); 
J. B. Charcot, Le Francois au Pole Sud (Paris, 1906) ; E. H. Shackje- 
ton, The Heart of the Antarctic (2 vols., London, 1909) ; British 
Antarctic Ext edition 1907-1909. Reports on the Scientific Investiga- 
tions (several vols., London, v.d.). (H. R. M.) 

POLDER, the Dutch name for a piece of low-lying, marshy 
land reclaimed from the sea or other water by drainage and 
diking (see HOLLAND). 

POLE (FAMILY). The family of the Poles, earls and dukes of 
Suffolk, which, but for Richard III.'s defeat at Bosworth, might 
have given the next king to England, had its origin in a house 
of merchants at Kingston-upon-Hull. It has been said that 
these Poles were the first English peers whose fortunes had been 
founded upon riches gained in trade; but the Berkeleys, de- 
scendants of Robert fitz Harding, the rich burghers of Gloucester, 



must perhaps be reckoned before them. Their pedigree begins 
with one William atte Pole (d. c. 1329), a merchant of Ravens- 
rode who settled in Hull, where his widow became the wife of 
John Rotenhering, also a merchant. His sons, Sir Richard and 
Sir William atte Pole, were both famous for their wealth at a 
time when the Crown had great need of rich men's aid. Sir 
Pochard (d. 1345), the king's butlei in 1327, removed to London, 
and is styled a London citizen in his will. The male line of 
this, the elder branch of the Poles, failed with a grandson, John 
Pole, who by his marriage with Joan, daughter of John, Lord 
Cobham, was father of Joan, Lady of Cobham, the Kentish 
heiress whose lands brought her five knightly husbands, the 
fourth of them Sir John Oldcastle the Lollard. 

Sir William atte Pole (d. 1366), the second son of William, 
joined his brother in advancing large sums to the government 
while keeping safely apart from politics. The first mayor 
of Hull, he sat for Hull in five parliaments, and was advanced 
to be knight banneret and a baron of the exchequer. He was 
counted " second to no merchant in England," but after his 
time his descendants left the counting-house, his four sons all 
serving in the French wars. The eldest son, Michael Pole, who 
had fought under the Black Prince and John of Gaunt, was 
summoned as a baron in 1366, before the father's death, and, 
as a stout supporter of the Crown, was appointed in 1381 
governor of the person of the young king Richard II., whose 
marriage with the Lady Anne of Bohemia he had arranged 
on a visit to her brother the king of the Romans. In 1383 he 
became chancellor of England and thereafter, as the loyal 
servant and nearest counsellor of the king, he had to face the 
jealousy of the great lords and the hatred of the Commons. 
His wealth added to the envy of his enemies, for, to his inherited 
Yorkshire and Lincolnshire lands, his marriage with Catherine, 
daughter and heir of Sir John of Wingfield, added a great Suffolk 
estate, where, fortifying the manor-house of the Wingfields, 
he made his chief seat. In 1385 he was created earl of Suffolk, 
a grant from the Crown giving him the castle and honour of 
Eye with other East Anglian lands formerly held by the Ufford 
earls. In 1386 the opposition, led by Gloucester, the king's 
uncle, puL'ed him down. He was dismissed from his chancellor- 
ship, and impeached by the Commons on charges which, insuffi- 
cient upon the face of them, secured his conviction. Richard 
was forced to send his minister into ward at Windsor until 
the parliament was dissolved, when Suffolk once more appeared 
as the leader of the king's ptrly. But the opposition was 
insistent, and Suffolk, after Richard had been compelled to 
give his word that those who hid advised him ill should answer 
for it to the next parliament, fled over sea to Calais. One 
of the earliest of the many popular songs that bark against 
the Poles tells joyfully of this flight of the detested "Jake." 
Sentence of death by the gallows was passed in his absence. 
The over-zealous governor of Calais who found him at his 
gates, clad as a poor Fleming, his chin shaved, packed him back 
to England, whence he escaped again, doubtless with the king's 
aid, reaching his native town of Hull, where he saw for the last 
time his " goodly house of brick." Old friends found him a 
ship that landed him in the Low Countries, and he died an exile 
in Paris in 1389. 

The exile's son Michael, who had married Catherine, daughter 
of the earl of Stafford, was restored to the earldom in 1397, and, 
although his father's attainder was revived by the act of the 
first parliament of Henry IV., the earldom was restored once 
again in 1399, together with the castle and honour of Eye. His 
life was that of a soldier, and he was with the host before Har- 
fleur in 1415, when he died of a violent dysentery. Michael, 
the eldest son and heir, marched from his father's deathbed to 
Agincourt, where he fell, Drayton's ballad recalling how he 
plied his axe on the great day. By his wife, a daughter of the 
first duke of Norfolk, he had three daughters, but no one of 
them marrying, his lands passed with the earldom to his brother 
William. 

This William (1396-1450), the fourth earl of his name, had 
sailed with his father and elder brother to Harfleur, but had 



POLE 



973 



been sent home sick after the siege. He returned with the 
" viage " of 1417, leading thirty men-at-arms and ninety 
archers. Henry V. made him admiral of Normandy, and until 
the crowning of Henry VI. in Paris in 1431 he served in France 
without, by his own account, coming home or seeing England. 
He held the chief command before Orleans after Salisbury 
had fallen to a cannon-shot from the city, but was forced to 
surrender to Joan of Arc at Jargeau, where his brother Alexander 
was killed, another brother, John, being taken prisoner with the 
earl. A fourth brother, Thomas, a clerk, became hostage to Dunois 
until the vast ransom of the earl was paid down. After 1431 
Suffolk turned to English politics. Like his grandfather, he 
found a king's uncle, another Gloucester, the chief of his enemies. 
Defeating Gloucester's project of an Armagnac match, Suffolk 
arranged for the young king's marriage with Margaret of 
Anjou, and brought home the bride to Portsmouth in 1445. 
In the year before he had been created marquess of Suffolk, 
being the fourth Englishman to take the style of marquess. 
His party and the queen's were on the point of overthrowing 
their opponent, Gloucester, when the " good duke " died sud- 
denly in the hands of those who had arrested him. This death, 
followed by that of Cardinal Beaufort, left the field to Suffolk. 
Under a patent of 1443 Suffolk became earl of Pembroke at 
Duke Humphrey's death. His honours were capped in 1448 
with a dukedom of Suffolk, he. being then admiral of England, 
governor of Calais, constable of Dover, and warden of the 
Cinque Ports. But it seemed that long service in the foreign 
wars had not purged the offence of the name of Pole. All the 
old enmity which had driven his grandfather into exile was 
gathering against Suffolk. His peace policy had cost the 
cession of Maine and Anjou, while the blunders of his ally, 
Somerset, as lieutenant in France, lost Normandy to England. 
Early in 1450 the Commons, in spite of Suffolk's appeal to his 
years of loyal service, accused him of treason and he was sent 
to the Tower. A long indictment was reinforced by new 
accusations, and the king could do no more for his minister than 
set him free under a sentence of five years' banishment. He 
sailed from Ipswich on the May Day of 1450, but before he 
could enter the port of Calais he was cut off by a royal ship, the 
" Nicholas," whose master had him put overboard into the cock- 
boat, where his head was hacked off by an Irish knave's rusty 
sword. His body, cast headless upon Dover beach, was carried 
by the king's orders to the Poles' vault in Wingfield church, 
where his effigy may still be seen. Who sent out the " Nicholas," 
and by whose orders Suffolk died, are questions which remain 
unanswered. He was the third husband of Alice Chaucer, 
whom he married as the widow of Thomas, Earl of Salisbury, 
slain before Orleans. She was the daughter and heiress of 
Thomas Chaucer, of Ewelme, and, although direct evidence 
is wanting, the granddaughter, without doubt, of Geoffrey 
Chaucer, the poet. She lies at Ewelme, under a magnificent 
tomb. 

John Pole (1442-1491), only son of the murdered duke, should 
have succeeded to the dukedom, his father having died un- 
attainted. But the honours were apparently regarded as 
forfeited, and the dukedom was formally restored to the boy 
in 1455, the earldom of Pembroke being allowed to lapse. 
Although three generations of warrior lords lay between him 
and the Hull warehouses, the origin of his house was still fresh 
in men's memories. John Paston, writing in 1465, could tell 
every name in the duke's pedigree back to " William Pool of 
Hull," who had been " first a merchant and after a knight," 
and " what the father of the said William was " John Paston 
knew " right well." The duke's father was an upstart for the 
crowd, whose ballads pelted him with the name of " Jac 
Napes," suggested by his familiar badge of the ape's clog and 
chain. Nevertheless a wife of royal blood was found for the 
young duke, King Edward IV.'s own sister Elizabeth. The 
marriage confirmed him a partisan of the White Rose. The 
son of Margaret's faithful minister rode against her man at the 
second battle of St Albans. Before he was of age he was 
steward of England at his brother-in-law's crowning, and at 



Queen Elizabeth's crowning he bore her sceptre. Having 
held many offices under Edward IV. he was ready to bear a 
sceptre at Richard's coronation, and, after Bosworth, to swear 
fealty to the Tudor dynasty and to bear another sceptre for 
another Queen Elizabeth. He died in 1491, having safely 
kept his lands, his dukedom, and his head through perilous 
years. 

But each advance in rank had brought danger and misfor- 
tune to the Poles. Before the death of the second duke they 
had begun to pay the price of their matching with the royal 
house. In the next generation their name was blotted out. 
John Pole, eldest son of Duke John and the Lady Elizabeth, 
had been created Earl of Lincoln by his uncle, Edward IV. 
Before he followed Richard to Bosworth, the young man had 
been chosen as heir to the throne, Clarence's son Warwick 
being put aside. He survived King Richard and Henry VII. 
spared him. But he egged on Simnel's plot, joined the rebels 
in Ireland, and was killed at Stoke in 1487, leaving no issue by 
his wife, the daughter of the earl of Arundel. Edmund, his 
younger brother, (c. 1472-1513) should have succeeded in 1491 
as duke of Suffolk, but on coming of age he agreed to satisfy 
himself with the title of earl of Suffolk, the king grudgingly 
restoring some portion of the estates forfeited by his brother. 
In 1499 he suddenly left the kingdom, but was persuaded to 
return. But the death of the imprisoned earl of Warwick may 
have suggested to him that Henry's court was a dangerous 
place for those of the blood of York, and in 1 501 he found his way 
to the emperor Maximilian in Tirol with a scheme for the 
invasion of England. Although the kaiser at first promised 
him men for the adventure, nothing came of his promises. Maxi- 
milian, persuaded by a gift of English money, bound himself 
not to succour English rebels. Suffolk, who had reassumed the 
ducal style, was attainted in 1504, and in the same year was 
seized by the duke of Guelders. From the duke's hands the 
prisoner was taken by Philip, king of Castile, who surrendered 
him to England on a promise that his life should be spared. 
But in 1513, when Richard, his brother, was in arms in the 
French service, Edmund Pole was taken from his prison in the 
Tower to the block. 

Richard Pole, who in 1501 escaped from England with 
Edmund, had been received by the king of Hungary, and 
afterwards by Louis of France, who assigned him a pension. 
Commanding German Lanzknechts in the French service, he 
was the friend and companion in arms of the chevalier Bayard. 
At the death of his brother Edmund, he took the title of the 
duke of Suffolk, claiming the throne of England. In 1514 
Louis gave him the leading of 12,000 riotous German 
mercenaries to essay the conquest of England. The treaty 
of peace stayed the adventure, but Louis refused to surrender 
Richard, and allowed him to depart for the imperial city of 
Metz. Francis I. continued the payment of his allowance, 
and gave him employment. In 1522 the anonymous writer 
of a journal describes the coming to Paris of " Richard de la 
Poulle, soydisant due de Suffort et la Blanche Rose." In 
1525 the White Rose was killed by the French king's side at 
Pavia. With him died the last descendant in the male line of 
William Pole, the Hull merchant. 

By one of the strange chances of history, another family of 
the name of Pole, having no kinship with the house of Suffolk, 
owed, like the Suffolks, their advancement and their fall 
to a match with a princess of the royal house. Sir Richard 
Pole, a Buckinghamshire knight, was the son of Geoffrey Pole, 
a squire whose wife, Edith St John, was sister of the half-blood 
to the mother of Hemy VII. About 1490 or 1491 he married 
the Lady Margaret, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. He 
died in 1505, and in 1513 King Henry VIII. created the widow 
countess of Salisbury, as some amends for the judicial murder of 
her brother, the Earl of Warwick. Four years later, the barony 
of Montague was revived for her eldest son Henry. Until the 
king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, the countess of Salisbury was 
about the court as governess of her godchild, the Lady Mary. 
When her son, the famous Cardinal Pole, published his treatise, 



974 



POLE, CARDINAL 



De unitate ccdesiastica, the whole family fell under the dis- 
pleasure of the king, who resolved to make an end of them. 
The Lord Montague was the first victim, beheaded in 1539 
on a charge of treasonable conversations, evidence having 
been wrung from his unhappy brother, Sir Geoffrey Pole. 
In 1541 the aged countess, attainted with her son Montague, 
met her death at the barbarous hands of an unskilful heads- 
man. Sir Geoffrey Pole, seeing that his house was doomed, 
fled the country, and joined the cardinal in exile. He returned 
with him at Mary's accession, both dying in 1558. His sons 
Arthur and Edmund, taken in 1562 as plotters against Queen 
Elizabeth, were committed to the Tower of London, where they 
died after eight years of imprisonment. 

See T. Rymer's Feodera; C. Frost, History of Hull (1827); 
Chronicon de Melsa (Rolls Series); G. E. C., Complete Peerage; 
Testamenta Eboracensia (Surtees Soc.); Hon. and Rev. H. A. Napier, 
Swincombe and, Ewelme (1858); Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v. "Pole' : ; 
E. Foss, Judges of England (1848-1864); Chronicon Angliae (Rolls 
Series); Paston Letters, edited by J. Gairdner; Sir J. H. Ramsay, 
Lancaster and York (1892); Letters and Papers of Richard III. 
and Henry VII. (Rolls Series); Inquests post mortem, Close and 
Patent Rolls, Rolls of Parliament. (O. BA.) 

POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558), English cardinal and arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire, 
was the third son of Sir Richard Pole, Knight of the Garter, and 
Margaret, countess of Salisbury, a daughter of George, duke of 
Clarence, and therefore niece of Edward IV. He was intended 
for the church from his youth; and when seven years old was 
sent for five years to the grammar school which Colet had founded 
near the Carthusian monastery at Sheen. Here he had Linacre 
and William Latimer as teachers. In his thirteenth year he 
went to Magdalen College, Oxford, and two years after took 
his degree in arts. In 1517 Henry VIII. appointed his young 
kinsman to a prebend in Salisbury, and soon afterwards to the 
deaneries of Wimborne and Exeter. He was a friend of Sir 
Thomas More, who says that Pole was as learned as he was 
noble and as virtuous as he was learned. In 1519, at the king's 
expense, he went to Padua, the Athens of Europe, according to 
Erasmus; and there, where Colet and Cuthbert Tunstall had 
also been educated, the " nobleman of England " as he was 
called, came into contact with the choicest minds of the later 
Italian Renaissance, and formed the friendships that influenced 
his life. 

In 1525 he went to Rome for the Jubilee, and two years after 
returned to England and was initiated by Thcmas Cromwell 
into the mysteries of statesmanship, that master telling him 
that the main point consisted in discovering and following the 
will of princes, who are not bound by the ordinary code of 
honour. When the divorce question arose, Pole, like many other 
excellent men, seems at first to have been in its favour. He prob- 
ably took the same view that Wolsey had, viz. that the dispen- 
sation of Julius II. was insufficient, as of two existing diriment 
impediments only one had been dispensed. When however the 
king raised the theological argument which ended in disaster, 
Pole could not accept it; and, after the failure of Campeggio's 
mission, when the king asked him for his opinion, he excused 
himself on the score of inexperience, but went by Henry's 
order to Paris (1530) to obtain the judgment of the Sorbonne, 
making the condition that another should be joined with him 
to do the necessary business. At this time, he says, the more 
he saw into the case the less he knew how to act as he was 
desired. On his return to England he spoke strongly against 
the project to the king, who seems to have dealt gently with 
him in the hope of using him for his own ends. He offered him 
the sees of York or Winchester, and kept them vacant for ten 
months for his acceptance. There was a stormy interview at 
York Place; but Pole succeeded in mollifying the king's rage 
so far that Henry told him to put into writing his reasons against 
the divorce. This was done, and, recognizing the difficulties 
of the situation, the king gave him leave to travel abroad, and 
allowed him still to retain his revenues as dean of Exeter. In 
iS35> which saw by the deaths of Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas 
More a change in Henry's policy, Pole received orders to send 



a formal opinion on the royal supremacy, and the king 
promised to find him suitable employment in England, even 
if the opinion were an adverse one. The parting of the ways had 
been reached. Pole's reply, which took a year to write, and 
was afterwards published with additions under the title Pro 
unitate ecclesiae, was sent to England (May 25, 1536) and 
was meant for the king's eye alone. It contained a vigorous 
and severe attack upon the royal policy, and did not shrink from 
warning Henry with temporal punishment at the hands of the 
emperor and the king of France if he did not repent of his 
cruelties and return to the Church. He was again summoned 
to return to England to explain himself, but declined until 
he could do so with honour and safety; but he was on the 
point of going at all risks, when he heard from his mother and 
brother that the whole family would suffer if he remained 
obstinate. Paul III. who had prepared a bull of excommuni- 
cation and deposition against Henry, summoned Pole to Rome 
in October, and two months after created him cardinal. In 
January 1537 he received a sharp letter of rebuke from the 
king's council, together with the suggestion that the differ- 
ences might be discussed with royal deputies either in France 
or Flanders, provided that Pole would attend without being 
commissioned by any one. He replied that he was willing and 
had the pope's leave to meet any deputies anywhere. Paul III. 
in the early spring of that year named him legate a latere to 
Charles V. and Francis I., for the purpose of securing their 
assistance in enforcing the bull by helping a projected rising 
in England against Henry's tyranny. The mission failed, 
as the mutual jealousy of the sovereigns would not allow either 
to begin operations. Moreover, the fear of Henry was suffi- 
cient to make the French king refuse to allow one who was 
attainted by act of parliament to remain in the kingdom; so 
Pole passed over to Flanders, to \vait for the possible arrival of 
any royal deputies. The proposed conference never took place, 
and in August 1537 the cardinal returned to Rome. There he 
was appointed to the famous commission which Paul III. 
established for considering the reforms necessary for the church 
and Roman curia. The report Consilium delectorium car- 
dinalium is, in its plain-spoken directness, one of the most note- 
worthy documents of the history.' of the period. Towards the 
end of 1 539, after Henry had destroyed the shrine of St Thomas 
Becket, another attempt was made to launch the bull of de- 
position, and Pole again was sent to urge Charles V. to assist. 
Once more his efforts were in vain, and he retired to his friend 
Sadoleto at Carpentras. As Pole had escaped Henry's power 
the royal vengeance now fell on his mother, who was executed 
as a traitor on the 27th of May 1541. When the news came to the 
cardinal he said to his secretary Beccatelli that he had received 
good tidings: " Hitherto I have thought myself indebted to 
the divine goodness for having received my birth from one of 
the most noble and virtuous women in England; but hence- 
forth my obligation will be much greater, as I understand 
I am now the son of a martyr. We have one patron more 
added to those we already have in heaven "; and returning to 
his oratory Pole found peace in his sorrow. 

On the 2ist of August 1541 the cardinal was appointed legate 
at Viterbo, and for a few years passed a happy and congenial 
life amid the friends that gathered round him. Here he came 
into close relations with Vittoria Colonna, Contarini, Sadoleto, 
Bembo, Morone, Marco Antonio, Flaminio, and other scholars 
and leaders of thought; and many of the questions raised 
by the Reformation in Germany were eagerly discussed in 
the circle of Viterbo. The burning question of the day, 
justification by faith, was a special subject of discussion. 
The " dolce libriccino," the famous Trattato utilissimo del 
beneficio di Gesu Christo crocifisso verso i christiani, which 
was the composition of a Sicilian Benedictine and had been 
touched up by the great latinist Flaminio, just appeared 
at Mantua in 1542 under the auspices of Morone, and had a 
wide circulation (over 40,000 copies of the second edition, 
Venice 1543, were sold). Containing extracts from the 
Hundred and Ten Divine Considerations of Juan Valdes (q.v.), 



POLE, CARDINAL 



975 



it was soon regarded with the utmost horror by many. But 
at Viterbo it was in favour, and the orthodox interpreta- 
tion was regarded rather than the other which might be 
taken in the Lutheran sense. Pole's own attitude to the 
question of justification by faith is given by Vil toria Cclonna, 
to whom he said that she ought to set herself to believe as 
though she must be saved by faith alone and to act as though 
she must be saved by works alone. In the excited temper of 
the times any defender of justification by faith was looked upon 
by the old school as heretical; and Pole, with the circle at Viterbo, 
was denounced to the Inquisition, with all sorts of crimes 
imputed to him. Though the process went on from the 
pontificate of Paul III. to that of Paul IV., nothing was done 
against the cardinal until the time of the latter pope, who was 
his personal enemy. It is by no means certain that Pole ever 
knew about the process begun against him; and immediate 
subsequent events show that no credence was given to the 
charges. 1 

While at Viterbo his rule was firm but mild; and no charge of 
persecuting heretics is made against him. He regained many, 
such as his friend Flaminio, by patience and kindliness, to a 
reconsideration of their errors. During this time also he was 
still engaged in furthering a proposed armed expedition to 
Scotland to aid the papal party, and in 1545 he was again asking 
help from Charles V. But the Council of Trent (q.v.), first sum- 
moned in 1536, was at last on the point of meeting, and this 
required all his attention. In 1542 he had been appointed one 
of the presiding legates and had written in preparation his 
work De concilia; and now in 1545, after a brief visit to Rome, 
he went secretly, on account of fear of assassination by Henry's 
agents, to Trent, where he arrived on the 4th of May 1545. At 
the council he took a high spiritual line, and hi? learning and 
devout life made him a great leader in that assembly. He 
advocated that dogmatic decrees should go together with those 
on reform as affording the only stable foundation. His views 
on the subject of original sin, akin as it is to that of justification, 
were accepted and embodied in the decree. He was present 
when the latter subject was introduced, and he entreated the 
fathers to study the subject well before committing themselves 
to a decision. On the 28th of June 1 546 he left Trent on account 
of ill-health and went to Padua. While he was there frequent 
communications passed between him and the council and the 
draft of the decree on justification was sent to him. His sug- 
gestions and amendments were accepted, and the decree em- 
bodies the doctrines that Pole had always held of justification 
by a living faith which showed itself in good works. This 
effectually disproves the story that he left the Council of Trent 
so as to avoid taking part in an adverse decree. 

On the death of Henry (Jan. 28, 1547), Pole, by name, was 
left out of the general pardon; and in the subsequent rising 
in the West the insurgents demanded that he should be sent 
for and made the first on the record in the council. He wrote 
several times to England to prepare a conference, but only 
received a rude reply from Somerset, who sent him a copy 
of the Book of Common Prayer. At the conclave of 1549 
Pole received two-thirds of the votes, but by a delay, caused 
by his sense of responsibility, he lost the election and Julius III. 
succeeded. He then retired to Magazzano on the Lake of 
Garda and occupied himself by editing his book Pro imitate 
ecclesiae, with an intended dedication to Edward VT. 

The accession of Mary opens the third period of his life. On 
the sth of August 1553 he was appointed legate to the new queen 
and began his negotiations. But many difficulties were put 
in the way of return. He was still under attainder; and the 
temper of England was not yet ripe for the presence of a cardinal. 

1 See, however, Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie_ (ed. 3) 
" Pole," where it is said that " only his procrastination, and then 
his death saved him from appearing before the Inquisition." Within 
the institution of the Inquisition his name continued to be regarded 
as that of a heretic and misleader of others, as is proved by the 
mass of evidence accumulated against him in the Compendium 
inquisitorum (v. archivio della societci di storia patria, Rome, 
1880), p. 283, &c. (ED.) 



The project of the queen's marriage was also an obstacle. 
A marriage between her and Pole, who was then only a deacon, 
was proposed by some, but this did not at all meet the views 
of the emperor, who therefore hindered him the more from 
setting out for England. The marriage with Philip, of which 
Pole did not approve, having taken place (July 25, 1554), and 
Rome yielding on the practical difficulties of the lay holders 
of Church lands, a parliament favourable to the proposed re- 
union now assembled, and Pole was allowed to return to Eng- 
land as cardinal. On his landing he was informed that the 
attainder had been reversed; and he received the royal patent 
authorizing his performance of the legatine duties within the 
realm. Arriving at Whitehall, where he was received with joy 
by Mary and Philip on the 3oth of November, he proceeded to 
parliament and there absolved the kingdom and accepted in the 
pope's name the demands respecting ecclesiastical property. 
He entered wisely on his work of reformation, for which he was 
well prepared. One of the most important matters he had to 
deal with was to rectify the canonical position of those who had 
been ordained or consecrated since the breach with Rome. 
Acting according to the instructions hs had received from Rome, 
where the matter had been fully gone into, he made an investi- 
gation, and divided the clergy ordained after that period into 
two classes; one consisting of those ordained in schism, indeed, 
but according to the old Catholic rite, and the other of those 
who had been ordained by the new rite drawn up by Cranmer 
and enforced by act of parliament ist of April 1550. The 
first class, after submission, were absolved from their irregu- 
larity, and, receiving penance, were reinstated; the second 
class were simply regarded as laymen and dismissed without 
penance or absolution. At his first convocation he exhorted the 
bishops to use gentleness rather than rigour in their dealings 
with heretics; and Pole, in himself, was true to his principle. 
He was not responsible for the cruel persecution by which the 
reign was disfigured. On the 4th of November 1555 Pole 
opened, in the chapel royal at Westminster, a legatine synod, 
consisting of the united convocations of the two provinces, for 
the purpose of laying the foundations of wise and solid re- 
forms. In the Reformat Angliae which he brought out in 
1556, based on his Legatine Constitutions of 1555, he ordered 
that every cathedral church should have its seminary, and the 
very words he uses on this subject seem to have been copied 
by the Council of Trent in the twenty-third session (1563). He 
also ordered that the Catechism of Caranza, who, like him, was 
to suffer from the Inquisition for this very book, should be 
translated into English for the use of the laity. On Cranmer's 
deprivation, Pole became archbishop of Canterbury; and, having 
been ordained priest two days before, he was consecrated on the 
22nd of March 1556, the day after Cranmer suffered at Oxford. 
Soon afterwards the clouds began to gather round him. His 
personal enemy Caraffa had become pope under the name of 
Paul IV. and was biding his time. When Rome quarrelled with 
Spain, and France, on behalf of the pope, took up arms, England 
could no longer observe neutrality. To injure Spain and heed- 
less of England's need, Paul IV. deprived Pole of his power 
both as legate a latere and legatus nalus as archbishop of Can- 
terbury (June 14, 1557); he also reconstituted the process 
of the Inquisition against the cardinal and summoned him to 
Rome to answer to the crime and heresies imputed to him. No 
remonstrances on the part of the queen, of Pole or the English 
clergy could induce the pope to withdraw his sentence except 
to declare that the cardinal still held the position of legatus 
natus inherent in the primatial see. In a dignified but strong 
letter Pole says: " As you are without example in what you 
have done against me, I am also without an example how I 
ought to behave to your Holiness ": and he drew up a paper 
containing an account of the various acts of hostility he had 
experienced from the pope, but on second thoughts he burnt 
the document, saying it were not well to discover the shame of 
his father, Mary, who had been warned by her ambassador 
to the pope that prison awaited Pole, prevented the breve 
ordering the cardinal to proceed to Rome from being delivered, 



976 



POLE, R. DE LA POLE 



and so Pole remained in England. Broken down as much by 
the blow as by ill-health the cardinal died at Lambeth on the 
1 7th of November 1558, twelve hours after Mary's death and 
under the unmerited disgrace of the papacy in defence of which 
he had spent his life. He was buried at Canterbury near the 
spot where the shrine of St Thomas Becket once stood. 

The chief sources for Pole's biography are his life written in 
Italian by his secretary Beccatelli, which was translated into 
Latin by Andrew Dudith as Vita Poli cardinalis (Venice, 1563), 
and his letters (Epistolae Reginaldi Poli) edited by Girolamo Quirini 
and published in 5 volumes (Brescia, 1744-1757), a new edition 
of which is in preparation at Rome with additions from the Vatican 
Archives. See also the State Papers (foreign and domestic) of 
Henry VIII.. Edward VI. and Mary; the Spanish and Venetian 
State Papers; vol. i. of A. Theiner's Acta genuina S.S. Oecumenici 
Caecilii tridentini (1874) ; the Compendia dei processi del santo 
uffizio di Roma da Paolo III. a Paolo IV. (Societa romana di 
storia patria, Archivio, iii. 261 seq.);T. Phillipp's History of the 
Life of R. Pole (Oxford, 1764-1767); Athanasius Zimmermann, S.J., 
Kardinal Pole sein Leben und seine Schriften (Regensburg, 1893) ; 
Martin Haiiie, Life of Reginald Pole (1910) ; and F. G. Lee, Reginald 
Pole. (E. TN.) 

POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525), pretender to the English 
crown, was the fifth son of John de la Pole (1442-1491), 2nd 
duke of Suffolk, and Elizabeth, second daughter of Richard, 
duke of York and sister of Edward IV. His eldest brother 
John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln (c. 1464-1487), is said to have 
been named heir to the throne by his uncle Richard III., who 
gave him a pension and the reversion of the estates of Lady 
Margaret Beaufort. On the accession of Henry VII., however, 
Lincoln took the oath of allegiance, but in 1487 he joined the 
rebellion of Lambert Simnel, and was killed at the battle of 
Stoke. The second brother Edmund (c. 1472-1513), succeeded 
his father while still in his minority. His estates suffered 
under the attainder of his brother, and he was compelled to 
pay large sums to Henry VII. for the recovery of part of the 
forfeited lands, and also to exchange his title of duke for 
that of earl. In 1501 he sought the German King Maximilian 
in Tirol, and received from him a promise of substantial assis- 
tance in case of an attempt on the English crown. In con- 
sequence of these treasonable proceedings Henry seized his 
brother William de la Pole, with four other Yorkist noblemen. 
Two of them, Sir James Tyrell and Sir John Wyndham, were 
executed, William de la Pole was imprisoned and Suffolk out- 
lawed. Then in July 1502 Henry concluded a treaty with 
Maximilian by which the king bound himself not to countenance 
English rebels. Presently Suffolk fell into the hands of Philip, 
king of Castile, who imprisoned him at Namur, and in 1 506 sur- 
rendered him to Henry VII. on condition that his life was spared. 
He remained a prisoner until 1513, when he was beheaded at 
the time his brother Richard took up arms with the French 
king. Richard de la Pole joined Edmund abroad in 1504, and 
remained at Aix as surety for his elder brother's debts. The 
creditors threatened to surrender him to Henry VII., but, more 
fortunate than his brother, he found a safe refuge at Buda 
with King Ladislas VI. of Hungary. He was excepted from 
the general pardon proclaimed at the accession of Henry VIII., 
and when Louis XII. went to war with England in 1512 he 
recognized Pole's pretensions to the English crown, and gave him 
a command in the French army. In 1513, after the execution 
of Edmund, he assumed the title cf earl of Suffolk. In 1514 
he was given 12,000 German mercenaries ostensibly for the 
defence of Brittany, but really for an invasion of England. 
These he led to St Malo, but the conclusion of peace with Eng- 
land prevented their embarcation. Pole was required to leave 
France, and he established himself at Metz, in Lorraine, and 
built a palace at La Haute Pierre, near St Simphorien. He 
had numerous interviews with Francis I., and in 1523 he was 
permitted, in concert with John Stewart, duke of Albany, the 
Scottish regent, to arrange an invasion of England, which was 
never carried out. He was with Francis I. at Pavia and was 
killed on the field on the 24th of February 1525. 

See Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and 
Henry VII., edited by J. Gairdner (2 vols., " Rolls Series," 24, 1861) ; 



Calendar of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign 
of Henry VIII. ; and Sir William Dugdale, The Baronage of England 
(London, 1675). 

POLE, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English engineer, was born at 
Birmingham on the 22nd of April 1814. He was a man of many 
accomplishments. Having spent his earlier years in various 
engineering occupations in England, he went out to India in 
1844 as professor of engineering at Elphinstone College, Bombay, 
where he had to first organize the course of instruction for 
native students, but his health obliged him to return to England 
in 1848. For the next ten years he worked in London under 
James Simpson and J. M. Rendel, and the high reputation he 
achieved as a scientific engineer gained his appointment in 1859 
to the chair of civil engineering in University College, London. 
He obtained a considerable amount of official work from the 
government. He served on the committees which considered 
the application of armour to ships and fortifications (1861-1864), 
and the comparative advantages of Whitworth and Armstrong 
guns (1863-1865). He was secretary to the Royal Commission 
on Railways (1865-1867), the duke of Richmond's Commission 
on London Water (1867-1869), also taking part in the subsequent 
proceedings for establishing a constant supply, the Royal Com- 
mission on the Disposal of London Sewage (1882-1884), and the 
departmental committee on the science museums at South 
Kensington in 1885. In 1871 he was employed by the War 
Office to report on the Martini-Henry rifle, and in the same year 
was appointed consulting engineer in London to the Japanese 
government, a position through which he exercised considerable 
influence on the development of the Japanese railway system. 
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1861, in re- 
cognition of some investigations on colour-blindness. Music 
was also one of his chief interests. At the age of twenty-two 
he was appointed organist of St Mark's, North Audley Street, 
in open competition, the next selected candidate being Dr 
E. J. Hopkins (1818-1901), who subsequently was for fifty 
years organist of the Temple Church. He took the degree of 
Bachelor of Music at Oxford in 1860, proceeding to his doctor's 
degree in 1867, and in 1879 published his Philosophy of Music. 
He was largely concerned in the institution of musical degrees 
by the University of London in 1877, and for many years acted 
as one of the examiners. His mathematical tastes found con- 
genial occupation in the study of whist, and as an exponent 
of the scientific principles of that game he was even earlier in 
the field than " Cavendish." His literary work included treatises 
on the steam-engine and on iron construction, biographical 
studies of famous engineers, including Robert Stephenson and 
I. K. Brunei, Sir William Fairbairn and Sir W. Siemens, several 
books on musical subjects and on whist, and many papers for 
reviews and scientific periodicals. He died on the 3oth of 
December 1900. His son, William Pole (1852- ), became 
known as an actor and writer under the stage-name of William 
Poel, more especially for his studies in Shakespearian drama and 
his work in connexion with the Elizabethan Stage Society. 

POLE (i) (O. Eng. pal, cf. Ger. Pfahl, Du. paal, from Lat. palus, 
stake), a tapering cylindrical post or stake of some considerable 
length, used as a support in scaffolding, for telegraph or tele- 
phone wires, hops, &c., and as a means for taking jumps (see 
POLE- VAULTING), and also as a single shaft for a vehicle drawn 
by two or more horses. As a measure of length a " pole," 
also called " rod " or " perch," is equal to sJ yds. (i6-J ft.), as 
a measure of area it is equal Jo 30^ sq. yds. (2) (Lat. polus, 
adapted from Gr. TroXos, pivot, axis), one or other of the 
extremities of the axis of the earth; the " celestial pole " is one 
or other of the points in the heavens to which the earth's axis 
points; in the northern hemisphere this point is near the star 
Ursae minoris, better known as the Pole-star or Pclaris 
(see URSA MAJOR). For the regions lying about the north and 
south poles of the earth see POLAR REGIONS. 

In mathematics the word polo has several meanings. In spherical 
:rigonometry the " pole " of a circle on a sphere is the point where 
;he diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of the circle 
intersects the sphere. In crystallography (q.v.) the "pole" of 
a face is the intersection of a line perpendicular to the face with 



POLECAT POLE-VAULTING 



977 



the sphere of projection. The term is also applied to a point 
from which lines radiate, as, for instance, the origin in a system of 
polar co-ordinates, or the common point of a pencil of rays. In 
the geometry of conic sections the pole " of a line, termed the 
" polar " of the point, is the intersection of the tangents (either 
real or imaginary) at the points where the line meets the conic 
(see GEOMETRY: Projective). The "magnetic poles" of the 
earth are the points on the earth's surface where the dipping needle 
is vertical (see TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM) ; and the " poles " of 
a magnet are the points of the magnet where the magnetic intensity 
is greatest. In electricity, the term is applied to the elements 
of a galvanic battery (J.P.), or to the terminals of a frictional 
electrical machine. 

POLECAT, the common name given to any member of the 
Musteline genus Putorius (see CARNIVORA). The polecats form 
a small group confined to the northern hemisphere, of which 
the best known and most widely distributed is the common 
polecat of .Europe (P. foetidus or P. putorius). This animal, 
at least so far as its disposition, size and proportions are con- 
cerned, is well known in its domesticated condition as the 
ferret, which is but a tamed albino variety of the true Dole- 
cat. The colour of the latter, however, instead of the familiar 
yellowish-white of the ferret, is of a dark brown tint above 
and black below, the face being variegated with dark brown 
and white markings. .Its skull is rough, strongly ridged, and 
altogether of a far more powerful type than those of the 
stoats, weasels or martens; the skull of the female is very much 
smaller and lighter than that of the male. The fur is long, 
coarse, and of comparatively small value, and changes its colour 
very little, if at all, at the different seasons of the year. 




\ *.';TT' 

The Common Polecat. 

The polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching 
northwards into southern Sweden and in Russia to the region of 
the White Sea. It does not occur in the extreme south, but is 
common everywhere throughout central Europe. In the Alps 
it ranges far above the tree-line during the summer, but 
retreats in winter to lower ground. It is confined to the 
northern counties of England and Scotland, where it is becoming 
very rare, owing to persecutions from game-keepers, and in 
Ireland it appears to be extinct. In fine weather it lives either 
in the open air, in holes, fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under 
rocks or in wood-stacks; while in winter it seeks the pro- 
tection of deserted buildings, barns or stables. During the 
day it sleeps in its hiding place, sallying forth at night to plunder 
dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and shows far 
less activity than the marten. It feeds ordinarily on small 
mammals, such as rabbits, hamsters, rats and mice, on such 
birds as it can catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also 
on snakes, lizards, frogs, fish and eggs. Its prey is devoured 
only in its lair; but, even though it can carry away but a single 
victim, it commonly kills everything that comes in its way, 
often destroying all the inhabitants of a hen-house in order to 
gratify its passion for slaughter. The pairing time is towards 
the end of the winter, and the young, from three to eight in 
number, are born in April or May, after a period of gestation 
of about two months. The young, if taken early, may be easily 



trained, like ferrets, for rabbit-catching. The polecat is very 
tenacious of life and will bear many severe wounds before 
succumbing; it is also said to receive with impunity the bite 
of the adder. Its fetid smell has become proverbial. To this 
it is indebted for its generic name Putorius (derived, as are also 
the low Lat. putacius, Fr. putois, and Ital. puzzola, from 
puteo), as well as the designation foumart (i.e. foul marten) 
and its other English names, fitchet, fitchew. Attempts to 
account for the first syllable of the word polecat rest entirely on 
conjecture. 

The Siberian polecat (Putorius 'cversmannl) is very like the 
European in size, colour and proportions, but with head and 
back both nearly or quite white, and skull more heavily built 
and sharply constricted behind the orbits, at least in fully adult 
individuals. It inhabits the greater part of south-western 
Siberia, extending from Tibet into the steppes of south-eastern 
European Russia. 

The black-footed or American polecat (Putorius nigripes) 
is a native of the central plateau of the United States, and 
extends southwards into Texas. It is often called the prairie- 
dog hunter, as it is nearly always found in the warrens of that 
animal. The fur is cream-yellow, the legs are brown, and the 
feet and tail-tip black. 

The mottled polecat (Putorius sarmaticus) , a species occur- 
ring in southern Russia and south-western Asia, and extending 
from eastern Poland to Afghanistan, differs from other polecats 
both by its smaller size and its remarkable coloration, the whole 
of the upper-parts being marbled with large irregular reddish 
spots on a white ground, while the under-side, limbs and tail 
are deep shining black. Its habits appear to be much like 
those of the common polecat. (R. L. *) 

POLENTA, DA, the name of a castle in Romagna, from which 
came the noble and ancient Italian family of Da Polenta. The 
founder of the house is said to have been Guido, surnamed 
FAntico or the Elder, who wielded great authority in Ravenna 
in the I3th century. His grandson Guido Novello upheld the 
power of the house and was also capilano del popolo at Bologna; 
he was overthrown in 1322 and died the following year. His 
chief claim to renown h'es in the fact that in 1321 he gave hos- 
pitality to the poet Dante, who immortalized the tragic history 
of Guido's daughter Francesca, unhappily married to Malatesta, 
lord of Rimini, in an episode of the Inferno. Guido's kinsman 
Ostasio I. was lord of Cervia and Ravenna from 1322 to 1329, 
and, after being recognized as a vassal of the Holy See, again 
became independent and went over to the house of Este, whom 
he served faithfully in their struggles with the Church until his 
death in 1346. His son Bernardino, who succeeded him as lord 
of Ravenna in 1346, was deposed in 1347 by his brothers, 
Pandolfo and Lamberto II., but was reinstated a few months 
later and ruled until his death in 1359; he was famous for his 
profligacy and cruelty. His son Guido III. ruled more mildly 
and died in 1390. Then followed Ostasio II. (d. 1396), Obizzo 
(d. 1431), Pietro (d. 1404), Aldobrandino (d. 1406), all sons of 
Guido III. Ostasio III. (or V.), son of Obizzo, was at first 
allied with the Venetians; later he went over to the Milanese, 
and, although he again joined the Venetians, the latter never 
forgave his intrigue with their enemies, and in 1441 they 
deprived him of his dominions. He died in a monastery in 
1447. 

POLE-VAULTING, the art of springing over an obstacle 
with the aid of a pole or staff. It is probable that an exercise 
of the kind was a feature of Greek gymnastics, but with this 
exception there is no record of its ancient practice as a sport. 
As a practical means of passing over such natural obstacles as 
canals and brooks it has been made use of in many parts of the 
world, for instance in the marshy provinces along the North Sea 
and the great level of the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdon- 
shire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The artificial draining of 
these marshes brought into existence a network of open drains 
or canals intersecting each other at right angles. In order to 
cross these dryshod, and at the same time avoid tedious round- 
about journeys over the bridges, a stack of jumping poles was 



POLICE 



kept at every house, which were commonly used for vaulting 
over the canals. 

As a sport, pole-vaulting made its appearance in Germany 
in the first part of the ipth century, when it was added to the 
gymnastic exercises of the Turner by Johann C. F. Guts- 
Muths and Frederich L. Jahn. In Great Britain it was first 
commonly practised at the Caledonian games. It is now an 
event in the athletic championships of nearly all nations. Al- 
though stieugth and good physical condition are essential to 
efficiency in pole-vaulting, skill is a much more important 
element. Broad-jumping with the pole, though the original 
form of the sport, has never found its way into organized 
athletics, the high jump being the only form recognized. The 
object is to clear a bar or lath supported upon two uprights 
without knocking it down. The pole, of hickory or som? other 
tough wood, is from 13 to 15 ft. long and if in. thick at 
the middle, tapering to ij in. at the ends, the lower of which 
is truncated to prevent sinking into the earth and shod with a 
single spike to avoid slipping. A hole in which to place the 
end of the pole is often dug beneath the bar. In holding the 
pole the height of the cross-bar is first ascertained, and the 
right hand placed, with an undergrip, about 6 in. above this 
point, the left hand, with an over-grip, being from 14 to 30 in. 
below the right. The vaulter then runs towards the bar at 
full speed, plants the spiked end of the pole in the ground 
about 1 8 in. in front of the bar and springs inio the air, 
grasping the pole firmly as he rises. As he nears the bar he 
throws his legs forward, and, pushing with shoulders and 
arms, clears it, letting the pole fall backwards. In Great 
Britain the vaulter is allowed to climb the pole when it is at 
the perpendicular. Tom Ray, of Ulverston in Lancashire, who 
was champion of the world in 1887, was able to gam several 
feet in this manner. In the United States climbing is not 
allowed. Among the best British vaulters, using the climbing 
privilege, have been Tom Ray, E. L. Stones, R. Watson and 
R. D. Dickinson; Dickinson having cleared n ft. g in. at 
Kidderminster in 1891. The record pole-vault is 12 ft. 65 in., 
made by W. Dray of Yale in 1907. 

POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a 
police force, Gr. iroXtreta, constitution, condition of a state, 
iroXis, city, state), a term used of the enforcement of law and 
order in a state or community, of the department concerned 
with that part of the civil administration, and of the body 
or force which has to carry it into execution. The word was 
adopted in English in the i8th century and was disliked as a 
symbol of foreign oppression. The first official use appears, 
according to the New English Dictionary, in the appointment of 
" Commissioners of Police " for Scotland in 1714. A police 
system has been devised for the purpose of preventing evils 
and providing benefits. In its first meaning it protects and 
defends society from the dissidents, those who decline to be 
bound by the general standard of conduct accepted by the 
larger number of the law-abiding, and in this sense it is chiefly 
concerned with the prevention and pursuit of crime. It has 
a second and more extensive meaning as applied to the regula- 
tion of public order and enforcing good government. 

United Kingdom. The establishment of a systematic police 
force was of slow growth in England, and came into effect long 
after its creation abroad. A French king, Charles V., is said 
to have been the first to invent a police, " to increase the 
happiness and security of his people." It developed into an 
engine of horrible oppression, and as such was repugnant to the 
feelings of a free people. Yet as far back as the i3th century 
a statute, known as that of " Watch and Ward," was passed 
in the i3th year of Edward I. (1285), aimed at the maintenance 
of peace in the city of London. Two centuries later (1585) an 
act was passed for the better government of the city and 
borough of Westminster, and this act was re-enacted with 
extended powers in 1737 and soon succeeded by another 
(1777) with wider and stricter provisions. The state of London 
at that date, and indeed of the whole country at large, was 
deplorable. Crime was rampant, highwaymen terrorized the 



roads, footpads infested the streets, burglaries were of constant 
occurrence, river thieves on the Thames committed depredations 
wholesale. The watchmen appointed by parishes were useless, 
inadequate, inefficient and untrustworthy, acting cften as 
accessories in aiding and abetting crime. Year after year the 
shortcomings and defects were emphasised and some better 
means of protection were constantly advocated. At the com- 
mencement of the igth century it was computed that there was 
one criminal to every twenty-two of the population. The 
efforts made at repression were pitifully unequal. In the 
district of Kensington, covering 15 sq. m., the protection, 
afforded was dependent on three constables and three head- 
boroughs. In the parish of Tottenham nineteen attempts at 
burglary were made in six weeks, and sixteen were entirely 
successful. In Spitalfields gangs of thieves stood at the street 
corners and openly rifled all who came near. In other parishes 
there was no police whatever, no defence, no protection 
afforded to the community but the voluntary exertions of 
individuals and " the honesty of the thieves." In those days 
victims cf robberies constantly compounded with felonies and 
paid blackmail to thieves, promising not to prosecute on the 
restitution of a portion of the stolen property. 

The crying need for reform and the introduction of a proper 
police was admitted by the government in 1829, when Sir 
Robert Peel laid the foundation of a better system. Much 
opposition was offered to the scheme, which was denounced as 
an .insidious attempt to enslave the people by arbitrary and 
tyrannical methods. The police were to be employed, it was 
said, as the instruments of a new despotism, the enlisted members 
of a new standing army, under the centralized authority, riding 
roughshod over the peaceable citizens. But the guardians of 
order, under the judicious guidance of such sensible chiefs as 
Colonel Rowan and Sir Henry Maine, soon lived down the 
hostility first exhibited, and although one serious and lamentable 
collision occurred between the mob and the police in 1833, it was 
agreed two years later that the unfavourable impression at one 
time existing against the new- police was rapidly diminishing, and 
that it had fully answered the purpose for which it was formed. 
Crime had already diminished; it was calculated that the annual 
losses inflicted on the public by the depredations of the dangerous 
classes had appreciably fallen and a larger number of convictions 
had been secured. 

The formation of the metropolitan police was in due course 
followed by the extension of the principle to the provinces. 
Borough constabulary forces were established by the Municipal 
Corporation Act (1835), which entrusted their administration 
to the mayor and a watch committee, and this act was revised 
in 1882, when the general powers of this authority were defined. 
Acts of 1839 and 1840 permitted the formation by the justices 
of a paid county police force. Action in this case was optional, 
but after an interval of fifteen years the Police Act of 1856 made 
the rule compulsory, it being found that an efficient police force 
throughout England and Wales was necessary for the more 
effectual prevention and detection of crime, the suppression of 
vagrancy and the maintenance of good order. Local acts had 
already endowed Scotland with a police system, and in 1857, and 
again in 1862, counties were formed into police districts, and the 
police of towns and populous places was generally regulated. 
Ireland has two police forces; the Dublin metropolitan police 
originated in 1808, and in 1829 the provisions of Sir Robert Peel's 
act for London were embodied in the Police Law for Ireland. 

The extent to which the metropolitan police has developed 
will best be realized by contrasting its numbers on first creation 
and the nature of the duties and functions that then appertained 
to it. The first act (the Metropolitan Police Act 18-79) applied 
to the metropolis, exclusive of the city of London, and constituted 
a police area having a radius of 12 m. from Charing Cross. Two 
justices of the peace were appointed, presently named commis- 
sioners of police, to administer the act under the immediate direc- 
tion of the secretary of state for the home department. The first 
police office was located in Whitehall in Scotland Yard, from which 
it was removed in the autumn of 1890 to the new and imposing 
edifice on the Embankment, in which all branches are now con- 
centrated, known as New Scotland Yard. The first constables 



POLICE 



appointed were 3000 in number, who, when sworn in, enjoyed all 
the powers of the old constables under the common law, for pre- 
serving the peace, preventing robberies and other felonies, and 
apprehending offenders. The subdivision of the district into divi- 
sions, on much the same lines as now existing, was at once made 
for administrative convenience, and a proportion of officers was 
allotted to each in the various grades then first constituted and 
still preserved, comprising in ascending order, constables, sergeants, 
inspectors and superintendents. Some time later the grade of 
district superintendent was created, held by gentlemen of superior 
status and intelligence, to each of whom the control of a large section 
of the whole force, embracing a wide area, was entrusted. This 
grade has since been merged in that of chief constable, of whom 
there are four exercising powers of disciplinary supervision in the 
metropolitan districts, and a fifth who is assistant in the branch 
of criminal investigation. The supreme authority is vested in 
the home secretary, but the immediate command and control 
is exercised by the chief commissioner, with three assistants, re- 
placing the two commissioners provided for in 1829. 

After various parliamentary reports and some legislation by way 
of extension, an important act was passed in 1839 reciting that 
the system of police established had been found very inefficient 
and might be yet further improved (Metropolitan Police Act 1839). 
The metropolitan police district was extended to 15 m. from Charing 
Cross. The whole of the river Thames (which, in its course through 
London, so far as related to police matters, had been managed 
under distinct acts) was brought within it, and the collateral but 
not exclusive powers of the metropolitan police were extended to 
the royal palaces and 10 m. round, and to the counties adjacent 
to the district. Various summary powers for dealing with street 
and other offences were conferred. When the police was put on 
a more complete footing and the area enlarged, provision was made 
for the more effectual administration of justice by the magistrates 
of the metropolis (Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1839). The 
changes that occurred in magisterial functions are scarcely less 
remarkable than the transition from the parish constable to the 
organized policed The misdirected activity of the civil magistrate 
in the ryth century is illustrated by the familiar literature of Butler, 
Bunyan and others. The zeal of that age was succeeded by 
apathetic reaction, and it became necessary in the metropolis to 
secure the services of paid justices. At the beginning of the igth 
century, outside of the city of London (where magisterial duties 
were, as now, performed by the lord mayor and aldermen), there 
were various public offices besides the Bow Street and Thames 
police offices where magistrates attended. To the Bow Street 
office was subsequently attached the " horse patrol "; each of the 
police offices had a fixed number of constables attached to it, and 
the Thames police had an establishment of constables and sur- 
veyors. The horse patrol was in 1836, as previously intended, 
placed under the new police. It became desirable that the horse 
patrol and constables allotted to the several police offices not 
interfered with by the Act of 1828 should be incorporated with the 
metropolitan police force. This was effected, and thus magisterial 
functions were completely separated from the duties of the executive 
police; for although the jurisdiction of the two justices, afterwards 
called commissioners, as magistrates extended to ordinary duties 
(except at courts of general or quarter sessions), from the first 
they took no part in the examination or committal for trial of 
persons charged with offences. No prisoners were brought before 
them. Their functions were in practice confined to the discipline 
of the force and the prevention and detection of offences, their 
action limited to having persons arrested or summoned to be 
dealt with by the ordinary magistrates, whose courts were not 
interfered with. 

The aim and object of the police force remain the same as 
when first created, but its functions have been varied and 
extended in scope and intention. To secure obedience to the 
law is a first and principal duty; to deal with breaches of the 
rules made by authority, to detect, pursue and arrest offenders. 
Next comes the preservation of order, the protection of all 
reputable people, and the maintenance of public peace by 
checking riot and disturbance or noisy demonstration, by enforc- 
ing the observance of the thousand and one regulations laid 
down for the general good. The police have become the minis- 
ters of a social despotism resolute in its watchful care and control 
of the whole community, well-meaning and paternal, although 
when carried to extreme length the tendency is to diminish 
self-reliance and independence in the individual. The police 
are necessarily in close relation with the state; they are the direct 
representatives of the supreme government, the servants of the 
Crown and legislature. In England every constable when he 
joins the force makes a declaration and swears that he will 
serve the sovereign loyally and diligently, and so acquires the 
rights and privileges of a peace officer of and for the Crown. 



979 



The state employs -police solely in the interests of the public 
welfare. No sort of espionage is attempted, no effort made to 
penetrate privacy; no claim to pry into the secret actions of 
law-abiding persons is or would be tolerated; the agents of 
authority must not seek information by underhand or unworthy 
means. In other countries the police system has been worked 
more arbitrarily; it has been used to check free speech, to inter- 
fere with the right of public meetings, and condemn the expres- 
sion of opinion hostile to or critical of the ruling powers. An 
all-powerful police, minutely organized, has in some foreign 
states grown into a terrible engine of oppression and made daily 
life nearly intolerable. In England the people are free to 
assemble as they please, to march in procession through the 
streets, to gather in open spaces, to listen to the harangues, 
often forcibly expressed, of mob orators, provided always that 
no obstruction is caused or that no disorder or breach of the 
peace is threatened. 

The strength of the metropolitan police in 1908 was 18,167, 
comprising 32 superintendents, 572 inspectors, 2378 sergeants and 
15,185 constables. At the head is a commissioner, appointed by 
the home office; he is assisted by four assistant commissioners, 
one of whom was appointed under the Police Act 1909, in accord- 
ance with the recommendation of the Royal Commission on the 
Metropolitan Police 1906, his duty especially being to deal with 
complaints made by the public against the police. The metro- 
politan police are divided into 21 divisions, to which letters of the 
alphabet are assigned for purposes of distinction. There is in 
addition the Thames division, recruited mostly from sailors, charged 
with the patrol of the river and the guardianship of the shipping. 
To the metropolitan police also are assigned the control and 
guardianship of the various naval dockyards and arsenals. 

The city of London has its own distinct police organization under 
a commissioner and assistant commissioner, and its functions 
extend over an area of 673 statute acres containing two courts of 
justice, those of the Guildhall and Mansion House, where the 
lord mayor and the aldermen are the -magistrates. Although the 
area is comparatively small the rateable value is enormous. The 
force comprises 2 superintendents, 48 inspectors, 86 sergeants 
and 865 constables; also some 60 constables on private service 
duty. 

The total police force of England and Wales in 1908 was 30,376, 
almost equally divided between counties and boroughs; that of 
Scotland numbered 5575. In Ireland the Royal Irish Constabulary 
are a semi-military force, numbering over 10,500; they police the 
whole of Ireland, except the city of Dublin, which is under the 
Dublin metropolitan police, a particularly fine body. 

The most active and by no means the least efficient branch of 
the modern English police is that especially devoted to criminal 
investigation or the detection of crime. The detective is the 
direct descendant of the old " Bow Street runners " or " Robin 
Redbreasts " so styled from their scarlet waistcoats officers in 
attendance upon the old-fashioned police offices and despatched by 
the sitting magistrates to follow up any very serious crime in the 
interests of the public or at the urgent request of private persons. 
The " runners ' had disappeared when the police organization 
introduced by Sir Robert Peel came into force in 1829, and at first 
no part of the new force was especially attributed to the detection 
of crime. They were much missed, but fifteen years elapsed 
before Sir James Graham (then home secretary) decided to allot 
a few constables in plain clothes for that purpose as a tentative 
measure. The first " detectives " appointed numbered only a 
dozen, three inspectors and nine sergeants, to whom, however, six 
constables were shortly added as " auxiliaries," but the number 
was gradually enlarged as the manifest uses of the system became 
more and more obvious. 

OTHER COUNTRIES. British India is divided into police districts, 
the general arrangements of the system of the regular police, 
which dates from the disappearance of the East India Company, 
resembling in most respects those of the English police, but differ- 
ing in details in the different presidencies. All are in uniform, 
trained to the use of firearms and drilled, and may be called upon 
to perform military duties. The superior officers are nearly all 
Europeans and many of them are military officers. The rest are 
natives, in Bombay chiefly Mahommedans. The organization of 
the police was not dealt with by the criminal code which came into 
force in 1883, but the code is full of provisions tending to make the 
force efficient. By that code as well as by the former code the police 
have a legal sanction for doing what by practice they do in England; 
they take evidence for their own information and guidance in the 
investigation of cases and are clothed with the power to compel 
the attendance of witnesses and question them. The smallness 
of the number of European magistrates, and other circumstances, 
make the police more important and relatively far more powerful 
in India than in England (Stephen). _ The difficulties in the way 
of ascertaining the truth and investigating false statements and 



980 



POLICE 



suppressed cases are very great. As regards the rural police of 
India every village headman and the village watchman as well as 
the village police office are required by the code to communicate 
to the nearest magistrate or the officer in charge of the nearest 
police station, whichever is nearest, any information respecting 
offenders. On the whole the system is very efficient. The police, 
which has numerous duties over ana above those of the prevention 
and detection of crime, greatly aids a government so paternal as 
that of India in keeping touch with the widely extended masses 
of the population. 

France. It is a matter of history that under Louis XIV., who 
created the police of Paris, and in succeeding times, the most un- 
popular and unjustifiable use was made of police as a secret instru- 
ment for the purposes of despotic government. Napoleon availed 
himself largely of police instruments, especially through his minister 
Fouche 1 . On the restoration of constitutional government under 
Louis Philippe, police action was less dangerous, but the danger 
revived under the second empire. The ministry of police, created 
by the act of the Directory in 1796, was in 1818 suppressed as an 
independent office, and in 1852 it was united with the ministry 
of the interior. The regular police organization, which preserves 
order, checks evil-doing, and " runs in ' malefactors, falls naturally 
and broadly into two grand divisions, the administrative and the 
active, the police " in the office " and the police "out of doors." 
The first attends to the clerical business, voluminous and incessant. 
An army of clerks in the numerous bureaus, hundreds of patient 
government employe's, the ronds de cuir, as they are contemptuously 
called, because they sit for choice on round leather cushions, are 
engaged constantly writing and filling in forms for hours and hours, 
day after day. The active army of police out of doors, which con- 
stitutes the second half of the whole machine, is divided into two 
classes: that in uniform and that in plain clothes. Every visitor 
to Paris is familiar with the rather theatrical-looking policeman, 
in his short frock-coat or cape, smart kepi cocked on one side of his 
head, and with a sword by his side. The first is known by the title 
of agent, sergent de mile, gardien de la paix, and is a very useful 
public servant. He is almost invariably an old soldier, a sergent 
who has left the army with a first-class character, honesty and 
sobriety being indispensable qualifications. 

These uniformed police are not all employed in the streets and 
arrondissements, but there is a large reserve composed of the six 
central brigades, as they are called, a very smart body of old 
soldiers, well drilled, well dressed and fully equipped; armed, more- 
over, with rifles, with which they mount guard when employed 
as sentries at the doors or entrance of the prefecture. In Paris 
argot the men of these six central brigades are nicknamed " vais- 
seaux " (vessels), because they carry on their collars the badge of 
the city of Paris an ancient ship while the sergeants in the town 
districts wear only numbers, their own individual number, and that 
of the quarter in which they serve. These vaisseaux claim to be 
the elite of the force; they come in daily contact with the Gardes 
de Paris, horse and foot, a fine corps of city gendarmerie, and, as 
competing with them, take a particular pride in themselves. Their 
comrades in the quarters resent this pretension and declare that 
when in contact with the people the vaisseaux make bad blood by 
their arrogance and want of tact. The principal business of four 
at least of these central brigades is to be on call when required to 
reinforce the out-of-door police at special times. 

Of the two remaining central brigades one controls public car- 
riages, the other the Halles, the great central market by which Paris 
is provided with a large part of its food. Every cab-stand is under 
the charge of its own policeman, who knows the men, notes their 
arrival and departure, and marks their general behaviour. Other 
police officers of the central brigades superintend the street 
traffic. 

So much for the police in uniform. That in plain clothes, en 
bourgeois, as the French call it, is not so numerous, but fulfils a 
higher, or at least a more confidential mission. Its members are 
styled inspectors, not agents, and their functions fall under four 
principal heads. There is, first of all, the service of the SQret<5 
in other words, of public safety the detective department, em- 
ployed entirely in the pursuit and capture of criminals; next comes 
the police, now amalgamated with the SOrete, that watches over 
the morals of the capital and possesses arbitrary powers under 
the existing laws of France; then there is the brigade de garnis, the 
police charged with the supervision of all lodging-houses, from the 
commonest " sleep-sellers' ' shop, as it is called, to the grandest 
hotels. Last of all there is the brigade for enquiries, whose business 
it is to act as the eyes and ears of the prefecture. 

The pay of the gardiens de la paix is from 1400 to 1700 francs; 
brigadiers get 2000 francs; sous-brigadiers 1800 francs; officiers de 
paix 3000 to 6000 francs. The proportion of police to inhabitants 
is one in 352. 

Germany. Taking the Berlin force as illustrative of the police 
system in the German Empire, police duties are as various as in 
France; the system includes a political police, controlling all matters 
relating to the press, societies, clubs and public and social amuse- 
ments. Police duties are carried out under the direction of the 
royal police presidency, the executive police force comprising a 
police colonel, with, besides commissaries of criminal investigations, 



captains, lieutenants, acting-lieutenants, sergeant-majors and a 
large body of constables (schutzmanner). 

It is computed that the proportion of population to police in 
Berlin is between 550 and 400 to each officer. The pay of the police 
is principally provided from fiscal sources and varies in an ascending 
scale from 1125 marks and lodging allowance for the lowest class 
of constable. 

Austria. Taking Vienna in the same way as illustrative of the 
Austrian police, it is to be observed that there are three branches: 
(i) administration ;_ (2) public safety and judicial police; and (3) 
the government police. At the head of the police service in Vienna 
there is a president of police and at the head of each of the three- 
branches there is an Oberpolizeirath or chief commissary. The head 
of the government branch sometimes fills the office of president. 
Each of the branches is subdivided into departments, at the head 
of which are Polizeirathe. Passing over the subdivisions of the 
administrative branch, the public safety and judicial branch 
includes the following departments: the office for public safety, the 
central inquiry office and the record or Evidenzbureau. The 
government police branch comprises three departments: the govern- 
ment police office, the press office, and the Vereinsbureau or office 
for the registration of societies. The proportion of police constables 
to the inhabitants is one to 436. 

Belgium. In Belgian municipalities the burgomasters are the 
heads of the force, which is under their control. The administrator 
of public safety is, however, specially under the minister of justice, 
who sees that the laws and regulations affecting the police are 
properly carried out, and he can call on all public functionaries to 
act in furtherance of that object. The administrator of public 
safety is specially charged with the administration of the law in 
regard to aliens, and this law is applied to persons stirring up sedi- 
tion. The duty of the gendarmerie, who constitute the horse and 
foot police, is generally to maintain internal order and peace. In 
Brussels as elsewhere the burgomaster is the head, but for executive 
purposes there is a chief commissary (subject, however, to the 
orders of the burgomaster), with assistant commissaries, and com- 
missaries of divisions and other officers and central and other 
bureaus, with a body of agents (police constables) in each. 

There are two main classes of police functions recognized by 
law, the administrative and the judicial police, the former engaged 
in the daily maintenance of peace and order and so preventing 
offences, the latter in the investigation of crime and tracing offenders ; 
but the duties are necessarily performed to a great extent by the 
same agents. The two other functions of the judicial police are, 
however, limited to the same classes of officers, and they perform the 
same duties as in Paris the law in practice there being expressly 
adopted in Brussels. 

In Switzerland, which is sometimes classed with Belgium as 
among the least-policed states of Europe, the laws of the cantons 
vary. In some respects they are stricter than in Belgium or even 
in France. Thus a permis de sejour is sometimes required where 
none is in practice necessary in Paris or Brussels. 

Russia was till lately the most police-ridden country in the world ; 
not even in France in the worst days of the monarchy were the people 
so much in the hands of the police. To give some idea of the widc ; 
reaching functions of the police, the power assumed in matters 
momentous and quite insignificant, we may quote from the list 
of circulars issued by the minister of the interior to the governors 
of the various provinces during four recent years. The governors 
were directed to regulate religious instruction in secular schools, 
to prevent horse-stealing, to control subscriptions collected for the 
holy places in Palestine, to regulate the advertisements of medicines 
and the printing on cigarette papers, to examine the quality of 
quinine soap and overlook the cosmetics and other toilet articles 
such as soap, starch, brillantine, tooth-brushes and insect-powder 
provided by chemists. They were to issue regulations for the 
proper construction of houses and villages, to exercise an active 
censorship over published price-lists and printed notes of invitation 
and visiting cards, as well as seals and rubber stamps. All private 
meetings and public gatherings, with the expressions of opinion 
and the class of subjects discussed, were to be controlled by the 
police. 

The political or state police was the invention of Nicholas I. 
Alexander I. had created a ministry of the interior, but it was 
Nicholas who devised the second branch, which he designed for 
his own protection and the security of the state. After the in- 
surrection of 1865, he created a special bulwark for his defence, 
and invented that secret police which grew into the notorious 
" Third Section " of the emperor's own chancery, and while it 
lasted, was the most dreaded power in the empire. It was practic- 
ally supreme in the state, a ministry independent of all other 
ministries, placed quite above them and responsible only to the 
tsar himself. 

United States. The organization of police forces in the United 
States differs more or less in the different states of the Union. 
As a rule the force in cities is under municipal control, but to this 
rule there are numerous exceptions. In Boston, for instance, 
the three commissioners at the head of the force are appointed 
by the governor of Massachusetts. The force in New York City, 
alike from the standpoint of numbers and of the size and character 



POLICE COURTS POLISH SUCCESSION WAR 



981 



of the city, is the most important in the United States. It included 
in 1910 a commissioner appointed by the mayor and exercising a 
wide range of authority; four deputy commissioners; a chief in- 
spector, who has immediate charge of the force and through whom 
all orders are issued; he is assisted by 18 inspectors, who are in 
charge of different sections of the city, and who carry out the 
orders of the chief; 87 captains, each of whom is in direct charge 
of a precinct; 583 sergeants; and last of all, the ordinary policemen, 
or patrolmen, as they are often called from the character of their 
duties. There is a separate branch, the detective bureau, com- 
posed of picked men, charged with the investigation and, still more, 
the prevention of crime. The total number of patrol men in 1909 
was 8562. Appointments are for life, with pensions in case of 
disability and after a given number of years of service. 

LITERATURE. Patrick Colquhoun, Treatise on the Police of the 
Metropolis (1796); Pierre Clement, La Police sous Louis XIV. 
(1866); Maxime Du Camp, Paris, ses organes, ses fonctions et sa vie 
(1869-1875); Dr Norman Chevers, Indian Medical Jurisprudence 
(Calcutta, 1870); A. T. Crawford, Reminiscences of an Indian Police 
Official (1894); C. R. W. Hervey, Records of Indian Crime (1892); 
Arthur Griffiths, Mysteries of Police and Crime (1903) ; Captain W. L. 
Melville Lee, A History of Police in England (Methuen, 1901); 
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Local Government (Longmans, 
1906-1908); article by H. B. Simpson, " The Office of Constable," 
in the English Historical Review (October 1895); F. W. Maitland, 
Justice and Police (Macmillan, 1885); L. F. Fuld, Police Adminis- 
tration (New York, 1910). (A. G.) 

POLICE COURTS, courts of summary jurisdiction, held in 
London and certain large towns of the United Kingdom by 
specially appointed and salaried magistrates. They were 
originally called " public offices" (Middlesex Justices Act 1792), 
but after the establishment of the police force, in 1829, they 
came to be called " police offices," although no change had taken 
place in their nature. They are so described in a report of a 
select committee which inquired into the system in 1837 and 
1838; in the same report the magistrates who presided in the 
courts were first described as " police magistrates." Police 
offices were first officially described by their modern title in the 
Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1839. In 1839 there were 
nine police courts; since 1792 there had been three magistrates 
to each court, and the act of 1839 retained twenty-seven as 
the maximum number at any time (s. 2). In 1835 unsalaried 
justices ceased to sit in the police courts along with the paid 
magistrates. The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1840 gave 
power to map out the whole of the metropolitan police district 
into police court divisions, and to establish police courts wherever 
necessary, the artificial limit of twenty-seven magistrates being 
at the same time preserved. Additional courts have from 
time to time been established by orders in council, and in 1910 
there were in London fourteen courts with twenty-five magis- 
trates. Their divisions are regulated by orders in council of 
1903 and 1905; the nine original courts are Bow Street, West- 
minster, Marylebone, Marlborough Street, Worship Street, 
Clerkenwell, Thames, Tower Bridge and Lambeth. 

The courts are held every day from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. except 
on Sunday, Christmas Day, Good Friday or any day appointed for 
a public fast or thanksgiving or bank holiday. The Greenwich 
and Woolwich court, which comprises one division, is held at 
Greenwich in the morning and at Woolwich in the afternoon. The 
chief magistrate (sitting at Bow Street) receives a salary of 1800 
a year and the other magistrates 1500 each. The magistrates are 
appointed by the Crown; they must have been practising barristers 
for seven years or stipendiary magistrates for some place in England 
or Wales. One police magistrate has the same powers as two 
justices, but may not act in anything which has to be done at 
special or petty sessions of all the justices acting in the division 
or at quarter sessions. He can do alone when sitting in a police 
court any act which any justice or justices can do under the Indict- 
able Offences Act 1848, or under the Summary Jurisdiction Act; 
he has special powers under the Metropolitan Police Courts Act 
1839, and is also given special powers under certain other acts. 
The Bow Street court has jurisdiction in extradition. The pre- 
cedent of appointing salaried magistrates was followed for certain 
towns in the provinces by particular acts, and in 1 863 the Stipendiary 
Magistrates Act gave power to towns and boroughs of 25,000 
inhabitants and upwards to obtain a stipendiary magistrate. 

POLIGNAC, an ancient French family, which had its seat in the 
Cevennes near Puy-en-Velay (Haute Loire). Its authentic 
pedigree can be traced to the gth century, but in 1421 the male 
line became extinct. The heiress married Guillaume, sire de 



Chalancon (not to be confused with the barons of Chalancon in 
Vivarais), who assumed the name and arms of Polignac. The 
first member of the family who was of any historical importance 
was Cardinal Melchior de Polignac (1661-1742), a younger son 
of Armand XVI., marquis de Polignac, who at an early age 
achieved distinction as a diplomatist. In 1695 he was sent as 
ambassador to Poland, where he contrived to bring about the 
election of the prince of Conti as successor to John Sobieski 
(1697). The subsequent failure of this intrigue led to his tem- 
porary disgrace, but in 1702 he was restored to favour, and in 
1712 he was sent as the plenipotentiary of Louis XIV. to the 
Congress of Utrecht. During the regency he became involved 
in the Cellamare plot, and was relegated to Flanders for three 
years. From 1725 to 1732 he acted for France at the Vatican. 
In 1726 he received the archbishopric of Auch, and he died at 
Paris in 1742. He left unfinished a metrical refutation of 
Lucretius which was published after his death by the abbe de 
Rothelin (Anti-Lucretius, 1745), and had considerable vogue 
in its day. Count Jules de Polignac (d. 1817), grandnephew of 
the preceding, was created duke by Louis XVI. in 1780, and in 
1782 was made postmaster-general. His position and influence 
at court were largely due to his wife, Gabrielle de Polastron, 
the bosom friend of Marie Antoinette; the duke and duchess 
alike shared the unpopularity of the court, and were among the 
first to "emigrate" in 1789. The duchess died shortly after 
the queen, but her husband, who had received an estate from 
Catherine II. in the Ukraine, survived till 1817. Of their three 
sons the second, Prince Jules de Polignac (1780-1847), played a 
conspicuous part in the clerical and ultra-royalist reaction after 
the Revolution. Under the empire he was implicated in the 
conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru (1804), and was imprisoned 
till 1813. After the restoration of the Bourbons he held various 
offices, received from the pope his title of " prince " in 1820, and 
in 1823 was made ambassador to the English court. On the 
8th of August 1829 he was called by Charles X. to the ministry 
of foreign affairs, and in the following November he became 
president of the council. His appointment was taken as 
symbolical of the king's intention to overthrow the constitution, 
and Polignac, with the other ministers, was held responsible 
for the policy which culminated in the issue of the Four Ordi- 
nances which were the immediate cause of the revolution of 
July 1830. On the outbreak of this he fled for his life, but, after 
wandering for some time among the wilds of Normandy, was 
arrested at Granville. His trial before the chamber of peers 
resulted in his condemnation to perpetual imprisonment (at 
Ham), but he benefited by the amnesty of 1836, when the 
sentence was commuted to one of exile. During his captivity 
he wrote Considerations politiques (1832). He afterwards spent, 
some years in England, but finally was permitted to re-enter 
France on condition that he did not take up his abode in Paris. 
He died at St Germain on the 29th of March 1847. 

POLIGNY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Jura, 18 m. N. N. E. of Lons-le-Saunier 
on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 3756. The town lies 
in the valley of the Glantine at the base of a hill crowned by 
the ruins of the old castle of Grimont, once the repository of the 
archives of the county of Burgundy. The church of Monti- 
villard, its most remarkable building, dates in the oldest portions 
from the I2th century, its chief features being a Romanesque 
tower and reredos of the Renaissance period. Amongst the 
other old buildings of the town, the church of St Hippolyte, of 
the first half of the i5th century, and a convent-church serving 
as corn market are of some interest. The tribunal of first 
instance belonging to the arrondissement is at Arbois. Poligny 
has a sub-prefecture, a communal college and a school of dairy 
instruction. Under the name of Polemniacum the town seems 
to have existed at the time of the Roman occupation. 

POLISH SUCCESSION WAR (1733-1735), the name given to a 
war which arose out of the competition for the throne of Poland 
between the elector August of Saxony, son of August II. (the 
Strong), and Stanislaus Leszcynski, the king of Poland installed 
thirty years before by Charles XII. of Sweden and displaced by 



982 



POLITIAN 



August the Strong when Charles's projects collapsed. The claims 
of Stanislaus were supported by France, Spain and Sardinia, 
those of the Saxon prince by Russia and the empire, the local 
quarrel being made the pretext for the settlement of minor 
outstanding claims of the great powers amongst themselves. 
The war was therefore a typical i8th century " war with a 
limited object," in which no one but the cabinets and the pro- 
fessional armies were concerned. It was fought on two theatres, 
the Rhine and Italy. The Rhine campaigns were entirely 
unimportant, and are remembered only for the last appearance 
in the field of Prince Eugene and Marshal Berwick the latter 
was killed at the siege of Philippsburg and the baptism of fire 
of the young crown prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the 
Great. In Italy, however, there were three hard-fought 
though indecisive battles, Parma (June 29, 1734), Luzzara 
(Sept. 19, 1734) and Bitonto (May 25, 1735), the first and last 
won by the Austrians, the second by the French and their allies. 
In Poland itself, Stanislaus, elected king in September 1733, was 
soon expelled by a Russian army and was afterwards besieged in 
Danzig by the Russians and Saxons (Feb.- June 1733). 

POLITIAN (1454-1494). Angelo Ambrogini, known in 
literary annals as Angelo Poliziano or Politianus from his birth- 
place, was born at Montepulciano in Tuscany on the I4th of July 
1454. His father, Benedetto, a jurist of good family and dis- 
tinguished ability, was murdered by political antagonists for 
adopting the cause of Piero de' Medici in Montepulciano; and this 
circumstance gave his eldest son, Angelo, a claim on the family of 
Medici. At the age of ten the boy came to prosecute his studies 
at Florence, where he learned Latin under Cristoforo Landino, 
and Greek under Argyropulos and Andronicos Kallistos. From 
Marsilio Ficino he imbibed the rudiments of philosophy. The 
precocity of his genius for scholarship and poetry was early 
manifested. At thirteen years of age he began to circulate 
Latin letters; at seventeen he sent forth essays in Greek versifi- 
cation; at eighteen he published an edition of Catullus. In 1470 
he won for himself the title of H omericus juvenis by translating 
four books of the Iliad into Latin hexameters. Lorenzo de' 
Medici, who was then the autocrat of Florence and the chief 
patron of learning in Italy, took Poliziano into his household, 
made him the tutor of his children, and secured him a distin- 
guished post in the university of Florence. Before he reached 
the age of thirty, Poliziano expounded the humanities with 
almost unexampled lustre even for that epoch of brilliant 
professors. Among his pupils could be numbered the chief 
students of Europe, the men who were destined to carry to their 
homes the spolia opima of Italian culture. Not to mention 
Italians, it will suffice to record the names of the German 
Reuchlin, the English Grocyn and Linacre, and the Portuguese 
Tessiras. , 

Poliziano had few advantages of person to recommend him. 
He was ungainly in form, with eyes that squinted, and a nose of 
disproportionate length. Yet his voice was rich and capable of 
fine modulation; his eloquence, ease of utterance and copious 
stream of erudition were incomparable. It was the method of 
professors at that period to read the Greek and Latin authors 
with their class, dictating philological and critical notes, emend- 
ing corrupt passages in the received texts, offering elucidations 
of the matter, and pouring forth stores of acquired knowledge 
regarding the laws, manners, religious and philosophical opinions 
of the ancients. Poliziano covered nearly the whole ground of 
classical literature during the years of his professorship, and 
published the notes of his courses upon Ovid, Suetonius, Statius, 
the younger Pliny, Quintilian, and the writers of Augustan 
histories. He also undertook a recension of the text of the 
Pandects of Justinian, which formed the subject of one of his 
courses; and this recension, though it does not rank high in the 
scale of juristic erudition, gave an impulse to the scholarly 
criticism of the Roman code. At the same time he was busy 
as a translator from the Greek. His versions of Epictetus, 
Herodian, Hippocrates, Galen, Plutarch's Eroticus and Plato's 
Charmides delighted contemporaries by a certain limpid fluency 
of Latin style and grace of manner which distinguished him also 



as an original writer. Of these learned labours the most uni- 
versally acceptable to the public of that time were a series 
of discursive essays on philology and criticism, first published in 
1489 under the title of Miscellanea. They had an immediate, 
a lasting and a wide renown, encouraging the scholars of the next 
century and a half to throw their occasional discoveries in the 
field of scholarship into a form at once so attractive and so 
instructive. Poliziano was not, however, contented with these 
simply professorial and scholastic compositions. Nature had 
endowed him with literary and poetic gifts of the highest order. 
These he devoted to the composition of Latin and Greek verses, 
which count among the best of those produced by men of modern 
times in rivalry with ancient authors. The Manto, in which he 
pronounced a panegyric of Virgil; the Ambra, which contains a 
beautiful idyllic sketch of Tuscan landscape, and a studied 
eulogy of Homer; the Rusticus, which celebrated the pleasures 
of country life in no frigid or scholastic spirit ; and the Nutricia, 
which was intended to serve as a general introduction to the 
study of ancient and modern poetry these are the masterpieces 
of Poliziano in Latin verse, displaying an authenticity of inspira- 
tion, a sincerity of feeling, and a command of metrical resources 
which mark them out as original productions of poetic genius 
rather than as merely professorial lucubrations. Exception 
may be taken to their style, when compared with the best work 
of the Augustan or even of the Silver age. But what renders 
them always noteworthy to the student of modern humanistic 
literature is that they are in no sense imitative or conventional, 
but that they convey the genuine thoughts and emotions of a 
born poet in Latin diction and in metre moulded to suit the 
characteristics of the singer's temperament. 

Poliziano was great as a scholar, as a professor, as a critic, 
and as a Latin poet at an age when the classics were still studied 
with the passion of assimilative curiosity, and not with the scien- 
tific industry of a later period. He was the representative hero 
of that age of scholarship in which students drew their ideal of 
life from antiquity and fondly dreamed that they might so 
restore the past as to compete with the classics in production and 
bequeath a golden age of resuscitated paganism to the modern 
world. Yet he was even greater as an Italian poet. Between 
Boccaccio and Ariosto, no single poet in the mother tongue 
of Italy deserves so high a place as Poliziano. What he might 
have achieved in this department of literature had he lived at a 
period less preoccupied with humanistic studies, and had he 
found a congenial sphere for his activity, can only be guessed. 
As it is, we must reckon him as decidedly the foremost and 
indubitably the most highly gifted among the Italian poets who 
obeyed Lorenzo de' Medici's demand for a resuscitation of the 
vulgar literature. Lorenzo led the way himself, and Poliziano 
was more a follower in his path than an initiator. Yet what 
Poliziano produced, impelled by a courtly wish to satisfy his 
patron's whim, proves his own immeasurable superiority as an 
artist. His principal Italian works are the stanzas called La 
Giostra, written upon Giuliano de' Medici's victory in a tourna- 
ment; the Orfeo, a lyrical drama performed at Mantua with 
musical accompaniment; and a collection of fugitive pieces, 
reproducing various forms of Tuscan popular poetry. La 
Giostra had no plan, and remained imperfect; but it demon- 
strated the capacities of the octave stanza for rich, harmonious and 
sonorous metrical effect. The Orfeo is a slight piece of work, 
thrown off at a heat, yet abounding in unpremeditated lyrical 
beauties, and containing in itself the germ both of the pastoral 
play and of the opera. The Tuscan songs are distinguished by a 
" roseate fluency," an exquisite charm of half romantic, half 
humorous abandonment to fancy, which mark them out as 
improvisations of genius. It may be added that in all these 
departments of Italian composition Poliziano showed how the 
taste and learning of a classical scholar could be engrafted on 
the stock of the vernacular, and how the highest perfection of 
artistic form might be attained in Italian without a sacrifice of 
native spontaneity and natural flow of language. 

It is difficult to combine in one view the several aspects 
presented to us by this many-sided man of literary genius. At 



POLK, J. K. 



983 






a period when humanism took the lead in forming Italian charac- 
ter and giving tone to European culture, he climbed with 
facility to the height of achievement in all the branches of 
scholarship which were then most seriously prized in varied 
knowledge of ancient authors, in critical capacity, in rhetorical 
and poetical exuberance. This was enough at that epoch to 
direct the attention of all the learned men of Europe on Poliziano. 
At the same time, almost against his own inclination, certainly 
with very little enthusiasm on his part, he lent himself so success- 
fully to Lorenzo de' Medici's scheme for resuscitating the decayed 
literature of Tuscany that his slightest Italian effusions exercised 
a potent influence on the immediate future. He appears before 
us as the dictator of Italian culture in a double capacity as the 
man who most perfectly expressed the Italian conception of 
humanism, and brought erudition into accord with the pursuit 
of noble and harmonious form, and also as the man whose 
vernacular compositions were more significant than any others 
of the great revolution in favour of Italian poetry which culmi- 
nated in Ariosto. Beyond the sphere of pure scholarship and 
pure literature Poliziano did not venture. He was present, 
indeed, at the attack made by the Pazzi conspirators on the 
persons of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici, and wrote an 
interesting account of its partial success. He also contributed 
a curious document on the death of Lorenzo de' Medici to the 
students of Florentine history. But he was not, like many 
other humanists of his age, concerned in public affairs of state 
or diplomacy, and he held no office except that of professor at 
Florence. His private life was also uneventful. He passed it as 
a house-friend and dependant of the Medici, as the idol of the 
learned world, and as a simple man of letters for whom (with 
truly Tuscan devotion to the Saturnian country) rural pleasures 
were always acceptable. He was never married; and his morals 
incurred suspicion, to which his own Greek verses lend a certain 
amount of plausible colouring. In character Poliziano was 
decidedly inferior to the intellectual and literary eminence 
which he displayed. He died, half broken-hearted by the loss 
of his friend and patron Lorenzo de' Medici, on the 24th of 
September 1494, just before the wave of foreign invasion which 
was gathering in France swept over Italy. 

For the life and works of Politian, see F. O. Mencken (Leipzig, 
1736), a vast repertory of accumulated erudition; Jac. Mahly, 
Angelus Politianus (Leipzig, 1864); Carducci's edition of the 
Italian poems (Florence, Barbera, 1863); Del Lungo's edition of 
the Italian prose works and Latin and Greek poems (Florence, 
Barbera, 1867); the Opera omnia (Basel, 1554); Greswell's English 
Life of Politian (1805); Roscoe's Lorenzo de' Medici (loth ed., 
'851); J. Addington Symonds's Renaissance in Italy, and transla- 
tions from Poliziano's Italian poems in Symonds's Sketches and 
Studies in Italy, which include the Orfeo. (J. A. S.) 

POLK, JAMES KNOX (1795-1849), eleventh president of the 
United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, 
on the 2nd of November 1795. In 1806 he crossed the mountains 
with his parents and settled in what is now Maury couity, 
Tennessee. He graduated from the university of North Carolina 
in 1818, studied law in the office of Felix Grundy (1777-1840) at 
Nashville in 1819-1820, was admitted to the bar in 1820, and 
began to practise in Columbia, the county-seat of Maury county. 
After two years of service (1823-1825) in the state House of 
Representatives, he represented the sixth Tennessee district 
in the National House of Representatives from 1825 to 1839. 
In the party conflicts which succeeded the presidential election 
of 1824 he sided with the Jackson- Van P,aren faction, and soon 
became recognized as leader of the Democratic forces. He was 
speaker from 1835 until 1839, when he retired from Congress 
to become governor of Tennessee. His administration (1839-1841) 
was successful, but he was unable to overcome the popular Whig 
movement of that period, and WAS defeated in 1841 and again in 
1843. When the Democratic national convention met in Balti- 
more in 1844 he was mentioned as a possible candidate for the 
vice-presidency, but was suddenly brought forward as a " dark 
horse " and selected to head the ticket. Finding it impossible 
under the two-thirds nde to nominate their candidate, the 
followers of Van Buren brought forward Polk, who was popular 



in the South, in order to defeat Lewis Cass and James Buchanan. 
George Bancroft, the historian, has asserted that this suggestion 
came originally from him, and Gideon J. Pillow, Folk's intimate 
friend, did much to bring about the nomination. 

The unequivocal stand of Polk and his party in favour of the 
immediate annexation of Texas and the adoption of a vigorous 
policy in Oregon contrasted favourably with the timid vacilla- 
tions of Henry Clay and the Whigs. Polk was elected, receiving 
170 electoral votes to 105 for his opponent Clay. In forming 
his cabinet he secured the services of James Buchanan of 
Pennsylvania, as secretary of state, Robert J. Walker of Missis- 
sippi, as secretary of the treasury, Willia m L. Marcy of New York, 
as secretary of war, and George Bancroft, then of Massachusetts, 
as secretary of the navy. 1 There is no doubt that each of these 
men, and Bancroft in particular, influenced the policy of the 
administration, yet the historian James Schouler, who has made 
a careful study of the Polk papers, is doubtless correct in saying 
that the president himself was " the framer of the public policy 
which he carried into so successful execution, and that instead 
of being led (as many might have imagined) by the more famous 
statesmen of his administration and party who surrounded him, 
he in reality led and shaped his own executive course. " Ban- 
croft's opinion is that Polk was " prudent, far-sighted, bold, 
exceeding any Democrat of his day in his undeviatingly correct 
exposition of Democratic principles." 

The four chief events of President PoJk's administration were 
the final establishment of the independent treasury system, the 
reduction of the tariff by the Walker Bill of 1846, the adjustment 
of the Oregon boundary dispute with Great Britain by the treaty 
concluded on the isth of June 1846, and the war with Mexico 
and the consequent acquisition of territory in the south-west and 
west. The first three of these were recommended in his first 
annual message, and he pn 'ately announced to Bancroft his 
determination to seize California. The independent treasury 
plan originated during Van Buren's administration as a Demo- 
cratic measure; it had been repealed by the Whigs in 1841, and 
was now re-enacted. Protectionists contend that the tariff 
legislation of 1846 was in direct violation of a pledge given to 
the Democrats of Pennsylvania in a letter written by Polk 
during the campaign to John K. Kane of Philadelphia. Briefly 
summarized, chw letter approves of a tariff for revenue with 
incidental protection, whereas the annual message of the 2nd 
of December 1845 criticizes the whole theory of protection and 
urges the adoption of a revenue tariff just sufficient to meet 
the needs of the government conducted on an economical basis. 
It is difficult to determine whether this was always his idea 
of incidental protection, or whether his views were changed 
after 1844 through the influence of Walker and the example 
set by Sir Robert Peel in Great Britain, or whether he was 
simply " playing politics " to secure the protectionist vote 
in Pennsylvania. 

The one overshadowing issue of the time, however, was 
territorial expansion. Polk was an ardent expansionist, but 
the old idea that his policy was determined entirely by a desire 
to advance the interests of slavery is no longer accepted. As a 
matter of fact, he was personally in favour of insisting upon 
54 40' as the boundary in Oregon, and threw upon Congress the 
responsibility for accepting 49 as the boundary, and he approved 
the acquisition of California, Utah and New Mexico, territory 
from which slavery was excluded by geographical and climatic 
conditions. Furthermore a study of his manuscript diary now 
shows that he opposed the efforts of Walker and Buchanan in 
the Cabinet, and of Daniel S. Dickinson (1800-1866) of New 
York and Edward A. Hannegan (d. 1859) of Indiana, in the 
Senate, to retain the whole of Mexico, territory in which slavery 
might have thrived. At the close of his term (March 4, 1849) 
Polk retired to his home in Nashville, Tennessee, where he died 
on the isth of the following June. 

1 Bancroft served until September 1846, when he was appointed 
minister to England. He was succeeded as secretary of the navy 
by John J. Mason, who had previously hv-'ld the office of attorney- 
general. 



9*4 



POLK, L. POLKA 



See John S. Jenkins, James Knox Polk (Auburn and Buffalo, 
1850), and L. B. Chase, History of the Polk Administration (New 
York, 1850), both of which contain some documentary material, 
but are not discriminating in their method of treatment. George 
Bancroft contributed a good short sketch to J. G. Wilson's 
Presidents of the United States (New York, 2nd ed., 1894). He made 
copies of the Polk manuscripts and was working upon a detailed 
biography at the time of his death in 1891. These copies, now 
deposited in the Lenox Library, New York City, contain a diary 
in 24 typewritten volumes, besides some correspondence and- other 
private papers. They have been used by James Schouler in his 
Historical Briefs (New York, 1896), and by E. G. Bourne in an 
article entitled " The Proposed Absorption of Mexico in 1847- 
1848," published in the Annual Report of the American Historical 
Association for z8pp, i. 157-169 (Washington, 1900). Bourne dis- 
cusses the part which Polk took in preventing the complete absorp- 
tion of Mexico. See also the Diary of James K. Polk .... 1845 to 

1840 (Chicago, 4 vols., 1910), edited by M. M. Quaife. 

(W. R. S.*) 

POLK, LEONIDAS (1806-1864), American soldier, was born at 
Raleigh, North Carolina, on the loth of April 1806, and was a 
cousin of James Knox Polk, president of the United States. He 
was educated at West Point, but afterwards studied theology and 
took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1831. In 1838 
he became missionary bishop of the South-West, Arkansas, 
Indian Territory, Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi, and in 

1841 he was consecrated bishop of Louisiana. His work in 
the Church was largely of an educational kind, and he played a 
prominent part in movements for the establishment of higher 



educational institutions in the South. At the outbreak of the 
Civil War in 1861 he resigned his bishopric and, like many other 
clergymen and ministers of religion, entered the army which was 
raised to defend the Confederacy. His rank in the hierarchy 
and the universal respect in which he was held in the South, 
rather than his early military education, caused him to be' 
appointed to the important rank of major-general. He forti- 
fied the post of Columbus, Kentucky, the foremost line of defence 
on the Mississippi, against which Brigadier-General U. S. Grant 
directed the offensive reconnaissance of Belmont in the autumn. 
In the following spring, the first line of defence having fallen, 
Polk commanded a corps at Shiloh in the field army commanded 
by Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. In October 1862 
he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thenceforward he 
commanded one of the three corps of the army of Tennessee 
under Bragg and afterwards was in charge of the Department 
of Alabama, Mississippi and East Louisiana. He was killed in 
the fighting in front of Marietta, while reconnoitring near Pine 
Mountain, Georgia, on the i4th of June 1864. 
See Life, by his son W. M. Polk, (1893). 

POLKA (either from the Czech pulka, half, with an allusion 
to the short steps characteristic of the dance, or from the 
Polish Polka, feminine of Polak, a Pole), a lively dance of 
Bohemian origin, danced to music written in time. (See 
DANCE.) 



END OF TWENTY-FIRST VOLUME 



HILL 

REFERENCE 
TlBRARY 
JT. PAUL 



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